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diff --git a/old/65090-0.txt b/old/65090-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 63eefdd..0000000 --- a/old/65090-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,29554 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook of Report to Her Majesty's Principal Secretary -of State For the Home Department, from the Poor Law Commissioners,, by -Edwin Chadwick - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you -will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before -using this eBook. - -Title: Report to Her Majesty's Principal Secretary of State For the - Home Department, from the Poor Law Commissioners, - on an Inquiry Into the Sanitary Condition of the Labouring - Population of Great Britain; With Appendices - -Author: Edwin Chadwick - Charles Wheatstone - -Release Date: April 16, 2021 [eBook #65090] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -Produced by: Richard Tonsing and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team - at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images - generously made available by The Internet Archive) - -*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK REPORT TO HER MAJESTY'S PRINCIPAL -SECRETARY OF STATE FOR THE HOME DEPARTMENT, FROM THE POOR LAW -COMMISSIONERS, *** - - - - - REPORT - - TO - - HER MAJESTY’S PRINCIPAL SECRETARY OF STATE FOR THE HOME DEPARTMENT, - - FROM THE - POOR LAW COMMISSIONERS, - - ON AN INQUIRY INTO THE - SANITARY CONDITION - OF THE - LABOURING POPULATION OF GREAT BRITAIN; - - WITH - APPENDICES. - - - _Presented to both Houses of Parliament, by Command of Her Majesty, - July, 1842._ - - - LONDON: - - PRINTED BY W. CLOWES AND SONS, STAMFORD STREET, - FOR HER MAJESTY’S STATIONERY OFFICE. - - 1842. - - - - - TO THE - RIGHT HON. SIR JAMES GRAHAM, BART. - HER MAJESTY’S PRINCIPAL SECRETARY OF STATE FOR THE HOME DEPARTMENT. - - - _Poor Law Commission Office, Somerset House, - 9th July, 1842._ - - SIR, - -On the 14th May, 1838, the Poor Law Commissioners presented to Lord John -Russell a report “relative to certain charges which have been disallowed -by the auditors of unions in England and Wales;” together with two -supplementary reports; one a “Report on the prevalence of certain -Physical Causes of Fever in the Metropolis, which might be removed by -proper sanitary measures, by Neil Arnott, M.D., and James Phillips Kay, -M.D.;” the other a “Report on some of the Physical Causes of Sickness -and Mortality to which the Poor are peculiarly exposed, and which are -capable of removal by Sanitary Regulations exemplified in the present -condition of the Bethnal Green and Whitechapel Districts, as ascertained -on a personal inspection by Southwood Smith, M.D., Physician to the -London Fever Hospital.” (See Fourth Annual Report, App. A, No. 1.) - -On the 29th April, 1839, the Commissioners received from Dr. Southwood -Smith a “Report on the prevalence of Fever in Twenty Metropolitan Unions -or Parishes during the year ended the 20th March, 1838,” which they -appended to their Fifth Annual Report. (App. C, No. 2.) - -In August, 1839, Lord John Russell addressed the following letter to the -Commissioners:— - - _“Whitehall, August 21, 1839._ - - “GENTLEMEN, - - “The Queen having been pleased to comply with the prayer of an humble - address presented to her Majesty, in pursuance of an order of the - House of Lords, dated 19th August, 1839, that ‘Her Majesty will be - pleased to cause inquiry to be made as to the extent to which the - causes of disease stated in the Appendix A, No. 1, of the Poor Law - Commissioners’ Fourth Annual Report, and Appendix C, No. 2, of their - Fifth Annual Report, to prevail amongst the labouring classes in the - metropolis, prevail also amongst the labouring classes in other parts - of England and Wales, and that Her Majesty will be graciously pleased - to cause the results of such inquiry to be communicated to the - House’—I have to desire that you will cause inquiry to be made - accordingly, and that you will prepare a report upon the result of - such inquiry, and transmit the same to me, in order that it may be - laid before the House of Lords. - - “I am, Gentlemen, your obedient servant. - “J. RUSSELL.” - -With the view of making the inquiry directed by Lord John Russell’s -letter, we addressed, in the month of November following, an instruction -to our Assistant Commissioners to report upon such parts of the subject -as were likely to come under their observation. We likewise addressed -letters to the several Boards of Guardians of Unions in England and -Wales, and their respective medical officers, requesting them to furnish -us with information in answer to certain queries. (App. Nos. 1, 2, and -3.) - -The steps which we thus took for conducting the inquiry which we were -instructed to make have produced a large body of information, from which -we have selected for our present Report that portion which seemed to us -most important to the public, and most worthy of consideration by Her -Majesty’s Government. - -From the reports transmitted to us by our Assistant Commissioners we -subjoin a report from Mr. Gilbert on the sanitary condition of the -labouring population in Devon and Cornwall: the reports from Mr. Mott -and Mr. Power with relation to the sanitary condition of the population -of Manchester and the adjacent manufacturing districts, which will be -found to be corroborative of the reports of Dr. Baron Howard and Dr. -Duncan: one from Mr. Twisleton with relation to the sanitary condition -of the population of Norfolk and Suffolk: one from Mr. Tufnell with -relation to the sanitary condition of the labouring population of Kent -and Sussex: a report from Mr. Parker on the sanitary state of the -labouring population in the counties of Berks, Bucks, and Oxford: one -from Mr. Weale on cottage accommodation in the counties of Bedford, -Northampton, and Stafford,—a report from Mr. Senior on the sanitary -condition of the labouring population in the counties of Leicester, -Lincoln, Nottingham, and Rutland: one from Sir Edmund Head on the -dwellings of the labouring classes, and on the means of procuring better -cottage accommodation in the counties of Gloucester, Hereford, Monmouth, -Salop, Worcester, Brecknock, and Radnor; three reports from Sir John -Walsham on the condition of the dwellings of the labouring population in -Durham, Northumberland, Westmoreland, and Cumberland; and a -communication from Mr. Day on the cost of erection, repairs, and rents -of labourers’ cottages in Salop, Cheshire, and North Wales. - -We have likewise received several valuable reports upon towns and -districts in England from medical men resident upon the spot. - -We have obtained a report from Mr. Hodgson and a committee of medical -gentlemen of Birmingham on the sanitary condition of the labouring -population in that town. - -We also append a report on the sanitary condition of the dwellings of -the labouring classes, &c., in Manchester, which we have obtained from -Dr. Baron Howard, physician to the Ardwick and Ancoats Dispensary of -that town: - - Also, one on the condition of the labouring population in Liverpool, - from Dr. Duncan. - - One on the condition of the labouring population in Derby, from Dr. - Baker. - - One on the condition of the labouring population of Truro, from Dr. - Barham. - - One on the condition of the labouring population of Brighton, from Dr. - Jenks. - - One on the sanitary condition of the labouring population in the town - of Wolverhampton, by Dr. Dehane. - - One on the prevalence of fever in the parish of Breadsall, Derbyshire, - by Dr. Kennedy and Mr. Senior. - - One on the sanitary state of the town of Stafford, by Dr. Edward - Knight. - - One on an improved description of cottage tenements for the labouring - classes, by Mr. Edmund Ashworth. - - One on the sanitary condition of the town of Lancaster, Dr. de Vitrié. - - One on the sanitary condition of the town of Leeds, by Mr. Robert - Baker. - -The detailed statements which we received from the Boards of Guardians, -and the Union medical officers, were too voluminous for insertion at -length in the present Report; but we have caused them to be carefully -examined, and some of the most important results which they contained -have been extracted in the manner which we shall presently explain. - -It will be observed that the inquiry which we were directed by Lord John -Russell to make, in accordance with the address of the House of Lords, -was limited to England and Wales. Subsequently, however, we received -instructions from the Marquis of Normanby, dated 28th January, 1840, -directing us to extend our inquiries to the causes of disease and -destitution amongst the working classes in Scotland. - -On the receipt of these instructions, we caused a circular letter to the -medical practitioners to be sent to the provosts of all the Scotch -burghs, with a request that they would put us in communication with the -officers of the medical charities and establishments within their -jurisdiction. In the same letter we stated fully the objects of the -inquiry, and requested to be informed as to the general state of the -main sewers, drainage, &c., of the several towns. (Appendix, Nos. 4 and -5.) - -In Scotland, with a few exceptions, none of the medical profession are -engaged in the public service as medical officers; and we were therefore -compelled to rely on the exertions of the private medical practitioners, -from whom we received extensive, zealous, and efficient aid. The -President of the College of Surgeons of Edinburgh communicated to us a -resolution passed by that body, recommending that all members and -licentiates of the college should give every aid in their power to the -inquiry into the sanitary condition of the poor. We directed additional -queries to be issued to the members of the college, from some of whom we -received information similar to that obtained from the medical officers -in England. - -With respect to the sanitary state of towns and districts in Scotland, -we subjoin the following reports from medical gentlemen:— - - A report from Dr. Arnott upon Edinburgh and Glasgow: - - One report from Dr. Scott Alison on the sanitary condition of the - colliery population of Tranent, and the adjacent districts: - - One report on the condition of the labouring population of Musselburgh - from Mr. Stevenson, surgeon: - - One report on the condition of the labouring population of Ayr from - Dr. Sym: - - One on the condition of the labouring population, Stirling, from Mr. - W. H. Forrest, surgeon: - - One on the condition of the labouring population in Dumfries, from Dr. - M’Lellan: - - One on the sanitary condition of the poor of Aberdeen, by Drs. Kilgour - and Galen: - - One on the sanitary condition of the town of Lanark, by Mr. John - Gibson, surgeon: - - One on the sanitary condition of the city of St. Andrews, by Mr. - Adamson, surgeon: - - One on the sanitary state of the town of Greenock, by Dr. Laurie: - - One on the sanitary condition of Tain and Easter Ross, by Mr. James - Cameron, surgeon. - - We have likewise received a report on the sanitary condition of the - labouring population in Inverness, from Mr. Anderson, solicitor; and - one on the sanitary condition of the Old Town of Edinburgh, by Mr. - William Chambers. - -As our inquiries led us to believe that considerable doubt exists as to -the provisions of the existing law of Scotland upon matters concerning -the public health, and as there is not in Scotland any local -administrative machinery similar to that of the English unions which can -exercise a superintendence over the health of the working classes, we -obtained the services of Mr. J. H. Burton, advocate of Edinburgh, to -report on the legal provisions existing in that city and in other parts -of Scotland, and on the additional legislative measures which appeared, -from the reports of the medical gentlemen, to be expedient for the -improvement of the sanitary condition of the population of that part of -the empire. - -We also obtained the services of Mr. Charles R. Baird, of Glasgow, -writer to the signet, who was pointed out to our notice by the -circumstance of his having paid much attention to the condition of the -labouring population of that city to report on the powers with which the -local authorities are at present invested by law, and the additional -powers they may need for the protection of the health of the -inhabitants. - -It will be observed that the letter of Lord John Russell, in accordance -with the address of the House of Lords to Her Majesty, merely directed -us to make inquiry as to the extent to which the causes of disease, -stated in the Reports of Drs. Arnott and Kay, and of Dr. Southwood -Smith, to prevail amongst the labouring classes of the metropolis, -prevail also amongst the labouring classes in other parts of England and -Wales, and to transmit the results of that inquiry to the Secretary of -State for the Home Department. We should, therefore, have complied with -the letter of our instructions if we had merely laid before you the -information which we have collected in answer to the inquiries which we -circulated. It appeared to us, however, that so large a mass of -miscellaneous evidence would not be likely to convey a distinct view of -the subject of inquiry if we presented it in an undigested form to Her -Majesty’s Government; and we, therefore, requested our secretary, Mr. -Chadwick, to peruse the information which we had received, (including -the returns from the boards of guardians and union medical officers,) -and, by comparing the different statements with such authentic facts -bearing upon the question as he might collect from other sources, to -frame a report which should exhibit the principal results of the inquiry -which we were instructed to conduct. We subjoin the Report which Mr. -Chadwick has prepared in accordance with this request; and we present to -you this, and the other accompanying documents, in the full assurance -that, as they contain matters seriously concerning the welfare of the -community in general, and particularly of the working classes, they will -receive the attentive consideration of Her Majesty’s Government. - - We have the honour to be, - Sir, - Your very faithful and obedient Servants - GEORGE NICHOLLS, - GEORGE CORNEWALL LEWIS, - EDMUND WALKER HEAD. - - - - - APPENDIX. - - - 1.—_Circular Letter of Instructions to the Assistant Commissioners in - England._ - - Poor Law Commission Office, Somerset House, - 8th November, 1839. - -Sir,—I am directed by the Poor Law Commissioners to call your attention -to the following letter lately addressed to them by Lord John Russell. - - Whitehall, August 21st, 1839. - -“Gentlemen,—The Queen having been pleased to comply with the prayer of -an humble address presented to Her Majesty in pursuance of an Order of -the House of Lords, dated 19th of August, 1839, that ‘Her Majesty will -be pleased to cause inquiry to be made as to the extent to which the -causes of disease stated in the Appendix A., No. 1, of the Poor Law -Commissioners’ Fourth Annual Report, and Appendix C., No. 2, of their -Fifth Annual Report, to prevail amongst the labouring classes in the -metropolis, prevail also amongst the labouring classes in other parts of -England and Wales; and that Her Majesty will be graciously pleased to -cause the results of such inquiry to be communicated to the House,’ I -have to desire that you will cause inquiry to be made accordingly, and -that you will prepare a report upon the results of such inquiry, and -transmit the same to me in order that it may be laid before the House of -Lords. - - “I am, Gentlemen, - “Your obedient Servant, - “J. RUSSELL.” - -The Commissioners consider this the proper time for making arrangements -to obtain the returns and information on which they may prepare a report -to be submitted to the House of Lords in the ensuing Session of -Parliament. - -The Commissioners request your particular attention to the subject, as -one of great importance to the labouring classes, inasmuch as it may -lead to the removal of the causes of prevalent and fatal diseases, and -of consequent destitution and suffering. - -The steps which the Commissioners propose to take for obtaining the -information required by the order of the House of Lords, are:— - -1. To procure from the medical officers of unions returns of the number -of cases of contagious or infectious disease, the spread of which within -their respective districts has been promoted by the circumstances -referred to in the order of the House of Lords, with their observations -thereon; for which purpose the Commissioners will issue the necessary -circulars to the medical officers. - -2. To obtain information from the Boards of Guardians of districts in -which these diseases appear to have prevailed to a considerable extent, -and where the guardians have applied to municipal or other authorities -for the removal of circumstances promoting the prevalence of such -diseases. - -3. In large towns, to request some physician,[1] or general practitioner -of eminent reputation, to prepare a report (founded upon data obtained -from the various dispensaries, infirmaries, fever hospitals, and other -similar public establishments) respecting the circumstances promoting -the prevalence of contagious and infectious diseases in such large -towns. - -The Commissioners will be glad to receive from you the name of any -physician or general practitioner of sufficient eminence to obtain the -requisite data, and who will be willing to furnish them with such a -report in each of the towns in your district named in the margin. - -4. If the means already indicated should prove insufficient, to obtain a -report from yourself founded on personal examination, on spots where, -from the returns or from other information, such examination by yourself -or the medical officer of the district may appear necessary. - -Some of the chief considerations bearing upon the subject are set forth -in the reports referred to in the resolution of the House of Lords, and -if within your district there were any Boards of Health appointed during -the prevalence of the cholera, it is probable that their reports founded -on an examination of the condition of those classes amongst whom the -prevalence of that disease was apprehended may furnish you with useful -information. - -The Commissioners wish further to observe that the state of the -dwellings occupied by the labouring classes exercises an important -influence upon their health, and the nature and frequency of the -diseases to which they are subject, as well as indirectly upon the moral -state of themselves and their families. - -The Commissioners therefore request you to investigate the state of the -dwellings of the labouring classes in your district, both in towns and -in the country, with reference to the following observations,— - -It will be desirable generally, after informing yourself of the various -descriptions of cottage tenements in your district and the nature of the -accommodation or comforts which they contain, to observe— - -1. What is the common cost of erection, and the average cost of -repairing each description of these cottage tenements. - -2. What are the rents paid by the labourers for each description of -these cottage tenements. - -3. What is the general proportion of the rent paid by the labourer to -his total expenditure. - -You may find within your district instances where the employers of -labour (whether agricultural or manufacturing) have erected on their own -lands tenements of an improved description for the residence of the -labourers employed by them. You are requested to take notice of all such -instances which may come before you, and examine them as standards of -comparison with other tenements of an inferior kind. You will inquire as -to the comparative health and condition of the inmates, and whether the -advantage of improved dwellings has been observed to have any salutary -influence on the moral habits of the inmates;—whether the increased -comforts of his house and home have tended to withdraw the labourer from -the beer-shop, and from the habits of improvidence to which it -leads;—whether residents in separate and improved tenements are superior -in condition, as compared with the labourers who hold merely lodgings, -or who reside with other families in the same house. - -Where you meet with remarkable instances of improved tenements of this -description, you are requested to set them forth in your report, and -obtain the loan of the plans or drawings of them, together with any -information as to their cost and the probable returns in rent, and -whether on the whole (other advantages than the pecuniary return being -taken into consideration) they are deemed profitable; or what may be the -extent of pecuniary loss upon them, or how far it may be countervailed -by other considerations. - -Although the facts collected by you may not lead to the adoption of any -legislative remedies, the publication of successful examples may be -useful in stimulating to the voluntary adoption of them. - -The Commissioners wish you however to consider whether any legislative -measure in the nature of a Building Act (_i. e._ an Act prescribing -certain rules to be followed in the building of cottages) would tend to -introduce generally the improvements which may have been adopted -partially by public-spirited persons in your district. - -This may be considered:— - -1. In the case of tenements intended for the residence of the labouring -classes in towns; - -2. In the case of cottage tenements in rural districts. - -With regard to the former class of tenements, the wages of the labourers -in towns being commonly double those earned in the rural districts, they -may be well able to afford to procure such an increase of comfort in -their houses as may be obtained by means of a Building Act, even at the -cost of an additional rent. You are also requested, in your observations -on this subject, to bear in mind another question, namely, the -expediency of exempting small tenements from the payment of rates, or -wherever rents are collected weekly, of collecting the rates from the -landlord. - -It has been stated that the exemption from poor’s rate tends to -deteriorate the tenements of the labouring classes, inasmuch as many of -such tenements are, for the purpose of obtaining the exemption, built of -such quality and appearance as may bring them within the exempted class. -It has been further stated, that the benefit of the exemption goes to -the landlord, the rent for cottages built for letting in towns being -very high as compared with rents obtained for other house property, and -that such increased rents have been demanded expressly on the ground of -exemption from rating. The causes affecting the construction of cottages -are not expressly mentioned in the reports referred to in the resolution -of the House of Lords, which treat chiefly of the external and -immediately-removable causes of disease, such as stagnant pools or other -out-door nuisances with which the parochial officers had to some extent -been heretofore accustomed to interfere. But the defective construction -of the cottages themselves, and the imperfect protection they may afford -against cold or damp—the want of means for the due regulation of warmth -or of conveniences for cleanliness, may often be the causes of the -prevalence of disease; and the Commissioners consider not only that -these subjects cannot with propriety be overlooked in any report on the -sources of disease among the labouring classes, but that the beneficial -moral results which may arise from the suggestion of improvements in the -habitations of the labouring classes justify the Commissioners in taking -this occasion to direct your attention to the heads of inquiry which are -noticed in this communication. - - Signed, by Order of the Board, - E. CHADWICK, _Secretary_. - - _To_ - Assistant Poor Law Commissioner. - - -2.—_Circular Letter of Instructions to Clerks of the Boards of Guardians - in England and Wales._ - - Poor Law Commission Office, Somerset House, - 12th November, 1839. - -Sir,—I am directed by the Poor Law Commissioners to inform you that they -have, in compliance with a communication from Her Majesty’s Secretary of -State for the Home Department, directed the enclosed letters to the -medical officers of your board, together with the accompanying forms for -their answers, and I am to request that you will transmit them -accordingly. - -The medical officers will transmit to you the returns when completed, -and by you they will be forwarded when the information required is -obtained from all the medical officers to the office. In case of any -defect in the returns which cannot be remedied, you will state the -nature and extent of the same at the time of transmission. - -Before transmitting the returns, you are to read them at a meeting of -the Board of Guardians, acquaint them with the answers, and annex any -further information which they may be enabled to communicate in aid of -the inquiry. - - Signed, by Order of the Board, - EDWIN CHADWICK, _Secretary_. - - To the Clerk to the Board of Guardians. - - -3.—_Circular Letter of Inquiry to the Medical Officers of the Unions in - England and Wales, transmitted to them, with Forms of Return, through - the Clerks to the Guardians._ - - Poor Law Commission Office, Somerset House, - 12th November, 1839. - -Sir,—With the view of ascertaining the extent of the existence of -circumstances promoting the prevalence of contagious and infectious -diseases described in the reports referred to in the Order of the House -of Lords, set forth in the letter from Lord John Russell, a copy of -which is hereto annexed, you are requested to fill from the medical -relief Lists the enclosed returns, and transmit them to the clerk of the -union, with such observations as occur to you thereon. - -You will observe that the object of the Commissioners is to ascertain -the existence and extent of the visible and removable agencies promoting -the prevalence of such diseases as are commonly found connected with the -defects in the situation and structure or internal economy of the -residences of the labouring classes. - -The attention of the physicians who drew reports on the state of the -metropolis was almost exclusively directed to the causes affecting the -prevalence of various forms of _continued fever_, arranged under -distinguishing names adopted by nosological writers: but in rural -districts the prevalence of ague, and of small-pox, and scarlet fever, -may be worthy of notice when the causes promoting their prevalence -appear removable. - -You will, in your observations on the class of cases returned, note the -situation, character and quality of the tenements in which the diseases -have occurred;—whether they are situated in a neighbourhood habitually -infected with malaria;—whether there are occasional causes of malaria, -such as floods, &c.; and in such cases, whether you have any suggestions -to make as to the best means of diminishing the evil;—whether they are -drained or undrained, whether tight or otherwise;—whether there are good -means of securing ventilation with a due regard to warmth;—whether there -are accumulations of filth, and if so, whether they are ascribable to -the slovenly or indolent habits of the inmates, or to the want of proper -receptacles for refuse;—whether the occurrence of disease amidst this -part of the population is regular or otherwise, and what are the seasons -at which it appears, and its characteristics. - -The Commissioners request that you will favour them with any information -which you may have gained in the course of your medical experience, as -to the condition of the inmates of such residences;—whether there is a -need of superior cottage accommodation, or to what extent the -improvement of the residence would influence the habits beneficially; -as, for example,—whether you have witnessed any beneficial effects on -the habits of the inmates by providing cottages with a day-room, -scullery, pantry, three bed-rooms, and convenient receptacles for refuse -and for fuel;—whether within your district there are other labourers of -the like class, who occupy improved tenements in a superior situation, -and what is the general health and condition of the inmates as compared -with the general health and condition of the inmates less advantageously -situated;—whether you have seen any cottages constructed with a view to -the most economical management of fuel both in cooking and maintaining a -proper temperature in the rooms;—and further, any observations that may -occur to you on the subject of the health of the labouring classes in -connexion with what may appear to you to be available sanitary -regulations. - -The accompanying portions of the report, and the appendix referred to in -their lordships’ order, are transmitted for your information as to the -causes of disease existing in the metropolis, which it is deemed -necessary to investigate in other parts of the country. - - Signed, by Order of the Board, - EDWIN CHADWICK, _Secretary_. - - To the Medical Officer of the District. - - (COPY.) - - Whitehall, August 21, 1839. - -Gentlemen,—The Queen having been pleased to comply with the prayer of an -humble address presented to Her Majesty, in pursuance of an order of The -House of Lords, dated 19th August, 1839, “that Her Majesty will be -pleased to cause inquiry to be made as to the extent to which the causes -of disease stated in the Appendix A., No. 1, of the Poor Law -Commissioners’ Fourth Annual Report, and Appendix C., No. 2, of their -Fifth Annual Report, to prevail amongst the labouring classes in the -metropolis, prevail also amongst the labouring classes in other parts of -England and Wales; and that Her Majesty will be graciously pleased to -cause the results of such inquiry to be communicated to the House,”—I -have to desire that you will cause inquiry to be made accordingly, and -that you will prepare a report upon the results of such inquiry, and -transmit the same to me, in order that it may be laid before the House -of Lords. - - I am, Gentlemen, - Your obedient Servant, - (Signed) J. RUSSELL. - - _Form of Return transmitted with the above Letter to the Medical - Officer._ - - _For the Year ended September 29, 1829._ - - A RETURN from Mr. ________ Medical Officer of the ________ District of - the ________ Union. - - ┌───────────────┬───────────┬───────────┬─────────────────────────────┐ - │ CASES. │Occupation │ Situation │ OBSERVATIONS. │ - │ │ of │ and State │ │ - │ │Applicants.│ of │ │ - │ │ │Residence. │ │ - ├───┬───────────┼───────────┼───────────┼─────────────────────────────┤ - │No.│Nosological│ │ │(If there should not be │ - │of.│ Names of. │ │ │ sufficient space for the │ - │ │ │ │ │ requisite Observations, │ - │ │ │ │ │ space for the requisite │ - │ │ │ │ │ Observations, they may be │ - │ │ │ │ │ continued on the back of │ - │ │ │ │ │ the Return, or on a │ - │ │ │ │ │ fly-leaf, to be attached to│ - │ │ │ │ │ the Return.) │ - ├───┼───────────┼───────────┼───────────┼─────────────────────────────┤ - │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ - └───┴───────────┴───────────┴───────────┴─────────────────────────────┘ - - Signature of Medical Officer: ________ - - - 4.—_Circular Letter to the Provosts of Burghs in Scotland._ - - Poor Law Commission Office, Somerset House, - London, 1840. - -Sir,—The Poor Law Commissioners have received from Her Majesty -directions to extend to Scotland the inquiry they have, in compliance -with an address from the House of Lords, been directed to make in -England as to the causes of disease and destitution arising from the -situation and construction of the dwellings of the labouring classes, -and from other similar circumstances affecting their sanitary condition. - -The Commissioners request your aid in conducting the inquiry in the - of The Commissioners have obtained valuable -information in England from the medical practitioners who have the care -of hospitals and dispensaries, where those contagious febrile diseases -to which their attention has been specially directed come under the -observation and treatment of experienced professional men. - -The Commissioners ask of you the favour of putting them in communication -with the officers of the medical charities and establishments in the - of , whether supported by the voluntary subscriptions -of the inhabitants or by payments out of the town funds, or both. - -The Commissioners desire to ascertain, either from the officers of -such institutions or from the medical practitioners of the most -extensive practice amongst the poorer classes, or from those who visit -them in their habitations, to what extent continued fever, and other -contagious febrile diseases, are prevalent amongst the poor;—what is -the character of the streets and houses in which these maladies most -frequently arise, or spread with the greatest rapidity; the state of -the paving,—scavenging, and sewerage of such streets,—their width,—the -drainage of the houses,—their size,—their state of repair,—the number -of families living under one roof,—the number living in cellars;—and -other circumstances relating to the structure and situation of the -habitations of the poorer classes, and their habits, by which they may -be rendered more susceptible of the influence of contagion. - -The Commissioners would also be glad to obtain information whether the -main sewers of the town have been constructed in a satisfactory manner, -and kept in good repair; and to what body, and with what powers this -duty is confided;—whether there are any sanitary regulations of a local -character for the enforcement of the paving of streets, and of drainage -on the owners of houses erected within a reasonable distance of -sewers;—whether any local body has power to interfere in the removal of -any, and if so of what, nuisances injurious to health; or to cause -lodging-houses, and dwellings liable to be infected with fever, to be -cleansed and whitewashed from time to time, and by whom the expense of -such interference is sustained. - -The Commissioners are further desirous of ascertaining whether the -authority possessed by the town council, or other local body intrusted -with the paving, scavenging, sewerage, the removal of nuisances and -other causes of disease, are sufficient, or might in any respect be -increased with advantage to the sanitary condition of the town, and -especially of those parts of the town which are inhabited chiefly or -exclusively by the working classes, and which are therefore -comparatively remote from the observation, and less subject to the -interference of the middle classes. - -The Commissioners will be glad to obtain from you or from the town -council of any suggestions which you may be desirous to make on -the subject; and they trust they may have the benefit of your advice and -assistance in the inquiry with which they are charged in the of - and its suburbs. - - I have the honour to be, Sir, - Your very obedient servant, - EDWIN CHADWICK, _Secretary_. - - _To_ - The Provost of - - - 5.—_Circular Letter of Inquiry to Dispensary Surgeons and Medical - Practitioners in Scotland._ - - Poor Law Commission Office, Somerset House, - London, 19th June, 1840. - -Sir,—The Poor Law Commissioners have been directed to extend to Scotland -the inquiry which in the past year they received Her Majesty’s commands -to conduct in England, for the purpose of ascertaining what -circumstances in the condition of the poorer classes promote the spread -of continued fever and other contagious febrile diseases. - -They are desirous that this inquiry should be conducted with care in -large towns, where the sources of contagion or the circumstances which -promote its rapid diffusion among the population are more rife than in -the rural districts; they are anxious to obtain the assistance of the -medical practitioners having charge of hospitals and dispensaries in -such towns, because such institutions afford the best means of observing -under what circumstances febrile contagious diseases are disseminated; -of defining the districts of the town in which they spread; of -ascertaining the character of the streets and houses in such districts; -the comparative attention paid to the paving, sewerage, and drainage of -these districts; and whether or not they are subject to malarious -influences. - -The structure of the dwellings of the labouring classes; the nature and -extent of their internal accommodation, and of the means for securing -cleanliness, for removing filth, for promoting ventilation, and for -providing warmth with due economy, can be most easily ascertained by -medical gentlemen who devote their time to the frequently gratuitous -services of public institutions; they also are most competent to -discriminate between the direct influence of the habits of the poorer -classes, and of the external circumstances by which they are surrounded, -on their sanitary condition; while on the other hand they will not be -liable to fall into the error of supposing that these habits are -independent of arrangements which administer to domestic comfort. - -The Commissioners trust, therefore, they may rely with confidence on -your affording them your valuable assistance in the inquiry which they -are directed to pursue. They trust you will permit them to suggest that -if the cases recorded in the books of your hospital were grouped -according to the districts from which the patients were removed, you -would at once be able to define in a map those parts of your town most -subject to contagious febrile diseases, and to furnish the Commissioners -with the number of cases of each febrile disease occurring in each of -these districts, and would possess the means of ascertaining and -delineating the features of those districts in all that relates to the -sanitary condition of the inhabitants, and to medical police. Besides -the general influences alluded to in the former part of this letter, you -will probably find it useful to ascertain whether any injurious -consequences are clearly attributable to certain classes of -manufactories surrounded by the habitations of the poor, to the location -of slaughter-houses, tanneries, ancient burial grounds, &c., amidst -dense masses of the population. - -In the course of this inquiry it may be found necessary to distinguish -the extent of disease caused by physical or removable agencies, by -malaria created by defective drainage, or the bad construction of the -dwellings of the labouring classes, from disease caused by destitution -of the proper means of subsistence arising from poverty. It may be -expected of the medical practitioners from whom the Commissioners hope -to obtain reports, that they will make the distinction wherever it is -found to exist. - -The Commissioners will value any suggestions you may have to offer -respecting the removal of the injurious agencies which may fall under -your observation. You are probably well acquainted with the nature of -the powers confided to the municipal authorities or other local bodies -respecting the paving, sewerage, and drainage of the town, and -especially of those parts of it which are inhabited chiefly or solely by -the working classes. The Commissioners request you to observe whether -those powers enable the municipal or other local body to complete the -sewerage, and to enforce the paving and drainage of the streets -partially or wholly at the expense of the proprietors of these houses. - -The spread of contagious diseases is greatly facilitated in many towns -by the extreme filth of lodging-houses to which mendicants and vagrants -resort, and of the habitations of certain of the lowest portion of the -poorer class; measures of medical police have been resorted to on the -occurrence of epidemic fevers, and at the period of the invasion of -cholera, for cleansing and whitewashing these habitations at the expense -of the inhabitants. The Commissioners request you to state under what -circumstances you conceive such measures might be usefully resorted to, -and under what superintendence, and whether the expense should fall on -the owners of such habitations or on the inhabitants generally, and -whether this interference should be habitual or casual. - -Suggestions have been made to the Commissioners that the nature of the -thoroughfares, and the structure and internal arrangement of the -buildings in districts inhabited by the working classes in large towns -would be greatly improved if subject to the regulations of a Building -Act enforced by the municipal authorities, or by a local board of -health; they invite you to reflect on the provisions of such a law, and -to state under what circumstances and to what extent you conceive such -interference desirable. - -Generally the Commissioners are desirous to receive your impressions -respecting the means of improving the sanitary condition of the working -classes, especially in those parts of your town in which contagious -febrile diseases most frequently prevail. - -Copies of the forms and exemplifications of the mode of entering the -particulars of the information sought in the returns circulated in -England, and the reports on the sanitary condition of the labouring -classes in the metropolis, are herewith transmitted for your use. The -Commissioners have not asked for returns in any prescribed form from the -medical practitioners in the towns of Scotland, because they are -uninformed as to the nature of the existing records of facts relating to -medical statistics in the towns, and they wish to consult the -practitioners’ convenience, and be guided by them as to the best use to -be made of the local circumstances for obtaining information. - - I have the honour to be, Sir, - Your very obedient Servant, - EDWIN CHADWICK, _Secretary_. - - _To_ ________ - - - 6.—_Form of General Queries addressed to Medical Practitioners and - others for Information as to the Condition of the Labouring Classes in - Scotland._ - -1. Have diseases of the various forms of continued fever, and other -contagious febrile diseases, been prevalent in any, and what, parts of -your parish or district, and do such diseases recur at regular -intervals, or are they rare and occasioned only? - -2. What are the seasons at which such diseases appear amidst any part of -the population, and what their characteristics? - -3. Did the cholera at the time of its general prevalence prevail to any, -and what, extent within the district? - -4. What is the _external_ condition, in the following respects, of the -residences of the population amidst which such diseases occur? - -(_a._) As to the contiguity of vegetable or animal substances in a state -of decomposition, stagnant pools or undrained marshes, accumulations of -refuse, either thrown from houses or otherwise? - -(_b._) As to the means adopted or the means available for the _removal_ -of such substances, or the prevention of the generation of malaria; -whether there are sufficient drains or sewers, adequately well supplied -with water to dilute, and sufficiently sloping to carry off all such -refuse; whether such drains are sufficiently _closed_ to confine noxious -exhalations from them; whether there is any regularly appointed service -of scavengers or otherwise for the removal of such substances; whether -there is such ventilation around the residences of, as to dissipate the -noxious vapours apparently irremovable? - -5. Describe the _internal structure and economy_ of the residences of -the population amidst which contagious febrile diseases arise,— - -(_a._) State whether they, as well as the surrounding land, are drained -or undrained? - -(_b._) Whether they are properly supplied with water for the purposes of -cleanliness of the houses, persons, and clothing? - -(_c._) Whether there are good means of ventilation with a due regard to -warmth? - -(_d._) Whether there are proper receptacles for filth in connexion with -the cottages? - -6. As to the internal economy of such residences, describe further,— - -(_a._) Whether they are unduly crowded, and several families or persons -occupy the space which would properly suffice only for a less number? - -(_b._) Whether there are any inferior lodging-houses crowded by -mendicants or vagrants? - -(_c._) Whether there is gross want of cleanliness in the persons or -habitations of certain classes of the poor? - -(_d._) Whether there is a habit of keeping pigs, &c., in -dwelling-houses, or close to doors or windows? - -(_e._) Whether there is an indisposition to be removed to the hospitals -when infected with contagious disease? - -7. Of the diseases described in question 1, are any or what proportion -ascribable to other causes than those specified in questions 4, 5, and -6? if so, distinguish those other causes so far as you are able, and the -extent of diseases resulting from them. - -8. What is the common cost of erection and average cost of repairing -each description of the tenements or cottages inhabited by the labouring -classes? - -9. What are the rents paid by the labourers for each description of -tenements or cottages? - -10. What is the general proportion of the rent paid by the labourer to -his total expenditure? - -11. What is the common cost of the lodgings to persons of the labouring -classes? - -12. Are you of opinion that any, and what, legislative measures are -desirable or available for remedy of any of the evils existing within -your district? - -13. Have any, and what, voluntary exertions been made to improve the -external or internal economy of the residences of the labouring classes -within your district? and if so, describe their nature and effects. - - _Name of the parish or district to which the preceding answers│ - refer._ │———————— - - _Name of the medical practitioner or other person by whom the │ - answers are given._ │———————— - - NOTE.—Where the space opposite to any question does not suffice for - the full answer which it may be desirable to give, it may be written - on the blank space at the back of the sheet, or on a separate sheet, - reference being made to the number or letter of the question. - - Any general observations may be hereunder annexed. - - It is requested that the answer may be transmitted by the post to “The - Poor Law Commissioners,” according to the address on the inside of - the envelope which may be used for the purpose. - - - - - REPORT - - ON THE - - SANITARY CONDITION OF THE LABOURING POPULATION OF GREAT BRITAIN. - - BY - EDWIN CHADWICK, ESQ., -BARRISTER AT LAW, AND SECRETARY TO THE BOARD OF POOR LAW COMMISSIONERS. - - - - - CONTENTS. - - - GENERAL PREVALENCE OF EPIDEMIC, ENDEMIC, AND CONTAGIOUS DISEASES. - - PAGE - - Return of the number of deaths in 1838, in each county, from - epidemic, endemic, and other diseases, most powerfully affected - by the physical state of a district 2 - - Extent of evils which are the subject of inquiry 3 - - - I. GENERAL CONDITION OF THE RESIDENCES OF THE LABOURING - CLASSES, WHERE DISEASE IS FOUND TO BE THE MOST PREVALENT— 5 - - In Tiverton union, Cornwall 5 - - In Truro, Cornwall 6 - - In Cerne union, Dorset 8 - - In Axbridge union, Somerset 10 - - In Chippenham union, Wilts 11 - - In Bedford union, Bedford 12 - - In Woburn union, Bedford 12 - - In Ampthill union, Bedford 12 - - In Bishop Stortford union, Hertford 12 - - In Witham union, Essex 13 - - In Windsor, Berks 13 - - In Epping union, Essex 14 - - In West Ham union, Essex 14 - - In Bromley union, Kent 14 - - In Bilston, Leicester 15 - - In Stafford (town of), Stafford, 16 - - In Macclesfield union, Chester 17 - - In Heaton Norris, Stockport union, Chester 17 - - In West Derby union, Lancaster 18 - - In Wigan union, Lancaster 19 - - In Durham (city of), Durham 20 - - In Barnard Castle, Durham 20 - - In Carlisle, Cumberland 21 - - In Gateshead, Durham 21 - - Condition of the Border peasantry 22 - - In Lochmaben, Scotland 23 - - In Glasgow and Edinburgh 23 - - - II. PUBLIC ARRANGEMENTS, EXTERNAL TO THE RESIDENCES, BY WHICH - THE SANITARY CONDITION OF THE LABOURING POPULATION IS - AFFECTED— 25 - - Drainage. - - _Town drainage of streets and houses._ 26 - - Instances of the effects on the public health of the neglect - of town drainage— - - At Derby 26 - - At Stockport 28 - - Comparative mortality in two similar towns, one drained, the - other undrained— - - At Beccles and Bungay, Suffolk 28 - - State of town cleansing at Leeds 29 - - At Tamworth 30 - - At Knutton and Chesterton, Stafford, &c. 30 - - At Liverpool 30 - - At Brighton 31 - - At Birmingham 32 - - At Edinburgh 33 - - At Tranent and Ayr 33 - - At Stirling 34 - - At Clitheroe, Lancashire 35 - - _Street and road cleansing—road pavements._ 36 - - Defective from want of skill or proper combination of means 36 - - Different influence on the public health of paved and - unpaved streets, instance of, in Portsmouth 37 - - Instance of the effect on the public health of street - cleansing in Macclesfield 37 - - Instances of the neglect of street cleansing— - - In Manchester 38 - - In Leeds 39 - - Instances of the consequences on the public health of the - neglect of road cleansing in rural districts in England - and in Scotland 42 - - Discipline in respect to cleanliness of the army superior to - the civic economy of the towns 44 - - _House cleansing as connected with street cleansing and - sewerage._ - - Instances of the sanitary condition of houses in the - metropolis where the cesspools do not communicate with the - drains 45 - - Small value of refuse in London, in consequence of the - expense of cartage 46 - - Effects on the health of the accumulation of refuse near the - residences of the labouring classes: examples in - - Greenock 46 - - Leeds 47 - - Cleansing by means of water-closets applicable to the poorer - districts as being the most economical 48 - - Instance of the removal of the refuse of the city of - Edinburgh by sewerage, and of its application to - agriculture by irrigation 48 - - Objections by the citizens of Edinburgh to irrigation by - sewers in the immediate vicinity of the city 49 - - Value of the refuse of London, on the scale of value of the - refuse of Edinburgh 51 - - Modifications of the mode of sewerage of Edinburgh, to make - a system of cleansing innoxious and profitable, and extend - it to the residences of the poorer classes 52 - - Expense of street cleansing in Manchester 53 - - Defects of the prevalent mode of removing the refuse of - houses by cartage, or otherwise than by sewerage 54 - - Instances of defective construction of sewers 55 - - Evidence on the action of improved modes of sewerage 55 - - Effects of different descriptions of streets upon the public - health 59 - - Proposed mode of cleansing streets by sweeping the refuse - into the sewers 60 - - Similar mode proposed of cleansing Paris 61 - - _Supplies of water._ 63 - - Necessity of improved supplies of water for house and street - cleansing 63 - - Instances of the want of water in the houses, and of the - effect on the personal and domestic habits of the lower - classes of the population in towns 63 - - In Manchester, 64; in Truro union, 65; in Audley district of - Newcastle-under-Lyme union, 65; in Dunmow union, 65; in - Bishops Stortford union, 65; in Lexden and Winstree union, - 65; in Wootton, Bedford, 66; in Edinburgh, 66; in Glasgow, - 66; in Aberdeen, 67; in Stirling, 67; in Dundee, 67; in - Greenock, 67; in Ayr, 67; in Arbroath, 67; in Renfrew, 68; - in Dunfermline, 68; in Tain, 68; in Tranent 68 - - Inapplicability of the supplies of water to be obtained by - fetching from the public wells 69 - - The supplies of water in London by machinery and pipes, and - in Paris by cartage and hand carriage, compared 70 - - Cost of laying on water in labourers’ tenements and the - economy of supply in such a mode 71 - - Supplies of water by private companies, not applicable to - rural districts of small population 72 - - Complaints against the modes of supplies of water by private - companies 72 - - Private companies do not ensure the best practicable - supplies to the public 73 - - Instance of supplies of water obtained by the public without - private companies 74 - - Necessity of general provisions of supplies of water 77 - - Unwholesome effects of bad water 77 - - _Sanitary effect of land drainage._ 80 - - General land drainage, effects of, on the health of the - population, instances of in— - - The Isle of Ely, 80; the Newhaven union, 81; the Ongar - union, 81; the Gravesend and Milton union, 81; the Eastry - union, 81 and 82; the Dunmow union, 82; the Epping union 82 - - Instances of— - - In Scotland 83 - - Instances of the effect of land drainage upon the health of - cattle 83 - - Instance of the effects of land floods and deficient land - drainage in— - - The Langport union, 85; the Chesterfield union, 87; the Dore - union, 87; the Bicester union, 88; the Leighton Buzzard - union, 88; the Foleshill union, 89; the Malton union, 89; - Lochmaben, Scotland 90 - - Foreign illustrations of the effect of drainage upon the - health of the population 90 - - Interests opposed to the cleansing of Paris 93 - - Class similar to the Chiffoniers found in English towns 94 - - Their personal habits 95 - - Collateral benefit of more effectual cleansing of towns in - diminishing degrading employments 96 - - - III. CIRCUMSTANCES CHIEFLY IN THE INTERNAL ECONOMY AND BAD - VENTILATION OF PLACES OF WORK; WORKMEN’S LODGING-HOUSES, - DWELLINGS, AND THE DOMESTIC HABITS AFFECTING THE HEALTH OF - THE LABOURING CLASSES. 98 - - Various effects of overcrowding places of work, as shown in - the case of one class of workmen 98 - - Comparative ease and economy of measures of prevention - rather than of relief 104 - - Sanitary effects of ventilation on workpeople at Glasgow 107 - - Effects of defective ventilation on the health of milliners - and dressmakers in the metropolis 107 - - Instances of the effects of defective ventilation of - sleeping rooms of the working classes 108 - - Effects of the defective economy of lodging-houses and - places of repose exemplified in the duration of life of - one class of workmen 112 - - Instances of errors in respect to the sanitary effects of - particular occupations 113 - - Injurious effects of deficient ventilation in schools 119 - - _Bad ventilation and overcrowding private houses._ 120 - - Great apparent increase in the proportionate number of - houses according to the last census attributable to a - different mode of making the return 120 - - Instances of great overcrowding in cottages in— - - Greenock, 121; Tranent, 121; Sleaford union 122 - - _The want of separate apartments and overcrowding of private - dwellings._ 122 - - Effects of the overcrowding of private dwellings on the - morals of the population, instances of, in— - - The Ampthill union, 122; the Leighton Buzzard union, 123; - the Bicester union, 123; the Romsey union, 123; among the - border peasantry, 124; in Manchester, Liverpool, - Ashton-under-Lyne, and Hull, 124; in Leeds, 126; in - Nottingham, 126; in Clitheroe 126 - - Instances of the injurious influences of bad tenements upon - the personal condition and moral habits of the inmates 128 - - Effects of noxious agencies in preventing frugality and - promoting intemperance 129 - - In preventing the influence of education 132 - - Force of habits of intemperance in the use of spirituous - liquors against all habits of decency, or frugality, or - morality 133 - - Misconceptions as to casualties occurring among the indigent - or profligate 134 - - Intemperance the cause of fever 136 - - _Domestic mismanagement a predisposing cause of disease._ 137 - - Mismanagement of earnings obstructive to the domestic - improvement of the sanitary condition of the labouring - classes. - - Instances of in— - - Derby, 137; Birmingham, 138; Manchester, 139; Preston union, - 140; Ayr, 141; Tranent, 141; Dundee 142 - - Attacks of fever most frequent on workmen in full employment - and ordinary health 145, 147 - - Irrelevancy of controversy on the generation of fever, in - respect to practical means of prevention 148 - - Concurrence of medical opinions as to the most efficient - means of preventing fever 150 - - - IV. COMPARATIVE CHANCES OF LIFE IN DIFFERENT CLASSES OF THE - COMMUNITY. 153 - - Instances of the comparative chances of life amongst the - gentry, tradesmen, and working men— - - In Truro, 154; in Derby, 155; in Manchester, 157; in - Rutland, 157; in the Bolton union, 158; in Bethnal Green, - 159; in Leeds Borough, 159; in Liverpool, 159; in the - Whitechapel union, 160; in the Strand union, 160; in the - Kensington union, 161; in Wiltshire, 161; in the Kendal - union 161 - - Tabular views of the ages at which deaths have occurred in - different classes of society 162 - - Comparative mortality of differently circumstanced districts - of the metropolis 164 - - Comparative prevalence of fever in different districts of - Leith 167 - - High mortality not essential to towns 167 - - Comparative mortality in three classes of the community at - Bath 168 - - Corroborative experience from Paris as to the influence of - local circumstances on mortality 170 - - Improvements in the health of large towns chiefly confined - to improved districts 171 - - Instance of progressive improvement in the social condition - of the population concurrently with its increase in - numbers 175 - - Prevalence of disease no evidence of the pressure of - population on food 177 - - Variations of the proportion of deaths and births in - different districts of the same town 178 - - Proportion of births to the population greatest where there - is the greatest mortality 179 - - Proof that pestilence or excessive mortality does not - diminish population 182 - - Numbers merely not the test of strength or prosperity of a - community 185 - - Deterioration of the strength of the population by disease - without diminishing its numbers 185 - - Increase of food or production concurrently with the - increase of population 188 - - - V. PECUNIARY BURDENS CREATED BY THE NEGLECT OF SANITARY - MEASURES:— 188 - - Cost of remedies for sickness and of mortality which is - preventible 188 - - Average ages of death of the heads of families of widows and - orphans chargeable to the Manchester, Whitechapel, Bethnal - Green, Strand, Oakham and Uppingham, Alston with - Garrigill, and Bath unions 190 - - Table of the number of widows and dependent orphans - chargeable in eight unions 191 - - Table of the chief cause of death producing widowhood and - orphanage in eight unions 192 - - Detailed instances of the causes of widowhood and orphanage - in Alston with Garrigill 193 - - Examples of the sanitary effects of superior care in the - residences and the places of work of labourers—in the - Reeth union, North York, 196; in Gwennap, Illogan, and - Camborne, Cornwall, 198; in Great Bradford and Horton, - West York 199 - - Comparison of a young population under favourable and a - mature population under unfavourable circumstances 200 - - Effects of noxious physical agencies on the moral and - intellectual condition of the working classes 202 - - Jurisprudential measures for the prevention of deaths from - accidents 203 - - Cost of disease as compared with cost of prevention, - instances of in Glasgow and Dundee 206 - - - VI. EVIDENCE OF THE EFFECTS OF PREVENTIVE MEASURES IN RAISING - THE STANDARD OF HEALTH AND THE CHANCES OF LIFE:— 211 - - Former health of gaols as compared with the present state 211 - - Effects of sanitary measures of prevention on the health of - prisoners 214 - - Comparison of the experience of sickness amongst different - classes of people 216 - - Amount of sickness experienced by the labouring classes 217 - - Defects of Insurance tables 218 - - Effects of sanitary measures in the prevention of disease in - the army and navy 219 - - _Cost to tenants and owners of the public measures for - drainage, cleansing, and the supplies of water, as - compared with the cost of sickness_:— 222 - - Cost of measures of prevention as compared with the cost of - sickness and mortality 222 - - Means of payment for improved accommodation 227 - - Impolicy of exemptions of tenements from proper charges 229 - - Injurious effects of exemptions of labourers’ tenements 230 - - Inability of workmen to improve their own condition 231 - - Necessity of extrinsic aid for the improvement of the - condition of the working classes 232 - - _Employers’ influence on the health of workpeople, by means - of improved habitations_:— 233 - - Advantages to labourers of holding tenements in connexion - with their employments 233 - - Instance of a superior moral and sanitary condition enjoyed - by workers in a cotton factory 236 - - Elevation of a manufacturing population by improvements in - the condition of their dwellings 238 - - Most advantageous construction of manufactories for the - health of the workpeople 240 - - _The employers’ influence on the health of workpeople_:— 245 - - By modes of payment which do not lead to temptations to - intemperance 245 - - By the promotion of personal cleanliness 253 - - By the ventilation of the places of work and the prevention - of noxious fumes, dust, &c. 256 - - By promoting respectability in dress 261 - - Employers’ or owners’ influence in the improvement of - habitations and sanitary arrangements for the protection - of the labouring classes in the rural districts 261 - - Instances of, in the Bedford Union, 262; Stafford Union, - 263, in Norfolk and Suffolk, 264; at Harlaxton, - Lincolnshire, 266; at the Earl of Rosebery’s estate, - Scotland, 266; at Closeburn, Dumfries, 266; Turton and - Bollington, Lancashire, 267; Birmingham 267 - - Instances of the influence of the materials used in building - upon the health of the inmates in Cheshire, Lancashire, - Buckingham and Berkshire 267 - - Instances of efficient improvements in the detail of - labourers’ dwellings in Scotland 270 - - Improvements proposed for the construction of the dwellings - of the lower classes in towns 272 - - _Effects of public walks and gardens on the health and - morals of the lower classes of the population_ 275 - - - VII. RECOGNISED PRINCIPLES OF LEGISLATION AND STATE OF THE - EXISTING LAW FOR THE PROTECTION OF THE PUBLIC HEALTH:— 279 - - Necessity of legislative interference for the protection of - the health of the population 279 - - Spread of old evils in unprotected new districts by - inefficient legislation 280 - - Dangers of increased charges for inefficient sanitary - measures shifting without improving the population 282 - - Expulsion of labourers from old tenements without providing - appropriate new ones, not invariably beneficial 286 - - Advantages in the regulation of the sites of dwellings 287 - - _General state of the law for the protection of the public - health_:— 288 - - Medical police in Germany 288 - - Existing laws for the protection of the public health in - England 289 - - Early state of the law for the protection of the public - health 291 - - _State of the special authorities for reclaiming the - execution of the laws for the protection of the public - health_:— 296 - - General desuetude of the laws for the protection of the - public health 296 - - State of the administration of the laws for the protection - of the public health, by court leets and local trusts 299 - - _State of the local executive authorities for the erection - and maintenance of drains and other works for the - protection of the public health_:— 302 - - State of the obstructions to land drainage and works of - private profit redounding to the public health 302 - - Injuries to private property as well as to the public - health, occasioned by defective administration 305 - - Continuance of the causes of disease in the face of - representations of their effects on the population 307 - - Areas of jurisdiction for drainage inconsistent with - efficient operations 309 - - Prevalent misconceptions as to the objects and state of - management of existing sewerage 311 - - Objections made to the existing local administration of the - sewers’ rate 315 - - Securities requisite to obviate opposition to new - expenditure for sewerage 316 - - Necessity of the subordinate drainage of private tenements - being comprehended as part of one system 319 - - Disturbing local interests opposed to efficient management - of expenditure in new districts 322 - - Obstacles arising from defective local arrangements for - efficient expenditure in local public works 323 - - Inconveniences of legislation on details, and the want of - scientific and trustworthy direction 328 - - High rates of charges, by fees, for superintendence of - imperfect structural arrangements 329 - - Extent of waste in expenditure on local public works, and on - separate collections 333 - - Public facilities for private land drainage afforded by - consolidation 337 - - Grounds of unpopularity and distrust of new local - expenditure 339 - - _Boards of Health or public officers for the prevention of - disease_:— 340 - - Inefficiency of Boards of Health, as ordinarily constituted 340 - - Failure of Boards of Health in Ireland 342 - - Importance of the functions of medical officers in connexion - with the executive authority 343 - - Means and economy of skilled services for the prevention of - diseases 348 - - Administrative measures for the prevention of disease - amongst the labouring classes 349 - - Administrative means for promoting the extension of medical - science 352 - - - VIII. COMMON LODGING-HOUSES THE MEANS OF PROPAGATING DISEASE AND - VICE:— 356 - - State of the common lodging-houses in the Barnet union, 357; - in Birmingham, 357; in Brighton, 358; in Manchester, 358; - in the Stockport union, 360; in the Macclesfield union, - 360; in Durham, 361; in the Teesdale union, 361; in the - Tynemouth union, 361; in Newcastle-on-Tyne, 362; in - Tranent, Haddingtonshire, 362; in Tain, Ross-shire, 362; - in the borough of Warwick, 363; in Chelmsford 364 - - Grounds for subjecting common lodging-houses to the - responsibilities of public-houses and beer-shops 364 - - Practical illustration of the regulations of common - lodging-houses 366 - - - IX. RECAPITULATION OF CONCLUSIONS:— 368 - - Recapitulation of the chief conclusions deduced on the - information obtained in the course of the inquiry 369 - - Conclusions as to the available means of prevention 370 - - Grounds for uniformity of legislation 372 - - - APPENDIX. - - 1. Evidence of Mr. John Roe, civil engineer, on the practical - improvement in sewerage and drainage tried in the Holborn - and Finsbury divisions of the metropolis 373 - - 2. Evidence of Mr. John Darke, contractor for cleansing, as to - the obstacles to cleansing, and the conversion of the - refuse of the metropolis to productive uses 379 - - 3. Evidence of Mr. John Treble, contractor for cleansing, as to - the obstacles to cleansing, and the conversion of the - refuse of the metropolis to productive uses 380 - - 4. Extract from the report of Fourcroy and others, showing the - calculation of the extent of pollution of the Seine from - the discharge of the refuse of the streets of Paris 381 - - 5. Communication from Captain Vetch, of the Royal Engineers, on - the structural arrangements of new buildings, and - protection of the public health 382 - - 6. Evidence of Mr. George Gutch, district surveyor, on shifting - and building inferior tenements in the suburbs, to avoid - the provisions of the Metropolis building Act 394 - - 7. Estimate by Mr. Howell, of the cost of structural - arrangements of sewerage, drainage, water-tank, and means - of house cleansing for labourers’ tenements in the - metropolis 394 - - 8. Description of specification of Mr. Loudon’s agriculturists’ - model cottage 395 - - 9. Statement of the requisites of cottage architecture, by Mr. - Loudon 396 - - 10. Specification of the cost of erection, weekly rents, - interest on the capital invested, and the numbers of the - tenements and cottages occupied by the poor and labourers; - taken from returns made by the relieving officers of their - respective districts in 24 unions in the counties of - Chester, Stafford, Derby, and Lancaster 400 - - 11. Tables of the expense of building cottages and repairs, in - England and Scotland 401 - - 12. Examination of the Rev. Thomas Whateley, Cookham, Berks, on - cottage allotments and the keeping of pigs by cottagers 403 - - 13. Arrangement of public walks in towns: plan of the arboretum - at Derby, laid out by Mr. Loudon 405 - - 14. Boards of Health: report on the labours of the “Conseil de - Salubrité,” of Paris, from 1829 to 1839, by M. Trebuchet 409 - - 16. Qualifications of officers of public health: statement by M. - Duchâtelet 423 - - 17. Instance by MM. Duchâtelet and D’Arcet, of the erroneous - medical inferences as to the insalubrity of particular - trades 424 - - 18. On the habitations of the lower orders of Paris 426 - - 19. On the habitations and lodgings of the lower orders in Paris 428 - - 20. Extract from the report of the commission appointed by the - Central Board of Public Health, to ascertain the condition - of the dwellings of the working classes in Brussels, and - to suggest means for their improvement 429 - - 21. Principles of sanitary police in Germany: extracts from - Professor Mohl 431 - - 22. A report on the statements of Dr. Mauthner, regarding the - sanitary condition of the operatives in the new cotton - manufactures, Vienna, given at the monthly meeting on the - 2nd of November, 1841. By Herr L. M. Von Pacher 432 - - 23. Typhus fever, the vast amount of, produced amongst the poor - of Liverpool, from want of ventilation and cleanliness: - extract from Dr. Currie’s medical reports 441 - - 24. Extract from Dr. Ferriar’s “Advice to the Labouring Classes - in Manchester,” given in 1800 441 - - 25. Principles of jurisprudence and responsibility for - accidents: extract from the First Report of the - Commissioners of Inquiry into the Labour of Children in - Factories 442 - - 26. Extract from the report of Mr. John L. Kennedy, - barrister-at-law, to the Commissioners for inquiring into - the Labour of Young Persons in Mines and Manufactories 445 - - 27. Tables of Sickness in prisons 449 - - 28. Tables of Sickness in the wynds of Edinburgh 452 - - 29. Suggested form of notification to owners or occupiers, for - the distribution of the expense of permanent alterations - and the avoidance of overcharges on persons enjoying only - portions of the benefit 453 - - 30. Extracts from evidence as to the moral and physical evils - that may be created by defective arrangements for hiring - and paying workpeople 454 - - - - - LIST OF PLATES. - - - Map, exhibiting the track of fever and cholera, and the - badly-cleansed portions of the town of Leeds 160 - - Map, exhibiting the numbers and places of death from epidemic and - other diseases affected by locality, in the parish of Bethnal - Green, during one year 160 - - Linear representation of the comparative numbers and progress of - deaths from consumption, from epidemics, and other classes of - disease, in the metropolis, during the two years ended the 1st of - January, 1842 167 - - Plans and views of habitations for the labouring classes 266 - - Group of Northumberland cottages, copied from a view given by Dr. - Gilly, canon of Durham;—Group of cottages at Harlaxton, erected - by Gregory Gregory, Esq.;—Plans and elevations of cottages, - erected by the Rev. Benyon de Beauvoir, at Culford, - Suffolk;—Plans of labourers’ cottages, erected by the Earl of - Leicester, at Holkham; by the Earl of Roseberry in Scotland;—Plan - of a new form of labourers’ cottages, erected by Sir Stewart - Monteath, at Closeburn;—Plan of labourers’ cottages, erected by - Messrs. H. and E. Ashworth, at Turton; by S. Greg, Esq., at - Bollington. - - Plan, by Mr. Sydney Smirke, of lodging-houses for workmen in towns 274 - - Section of the chief forms of sewers used in the metropolis 378 - - Plan of the arrangement of the future increment of towns for the - protection of the sanitary condition and convenience of the - population, by Captain Vetch, of the Royal Engineers 384 - - General plan of house and street sewerage, and of the construction - of streets favourable to cleansing and dryness, by Captain Vetch 389 - - Isometrical view of a model agricultural labourer’s cottage, by Mr. - Loudon 396 - - Isometrical view of a mechanic’s model double cottage, by Mr. - Loudon 398 - - Furniture of cottages: plans of construction of beds and windows 399 - - Plans and elevations of labourers’ cottages erected by the Messrs. - H. and E. Ashworth;—Plans and elevations of houses in Birmingham 402 - - Plan for the arrangement of public walks in restricted space in - towns, as shown in the arrangement of the Arboretum, in Derby, by - Mr. Loudon 406 - - - - - REPORT - ON THE - SANITARY CONDITION OF THE LABOURING POPULATION, - AND ON - THE MEANS OF ITS IMPROVEMENT. - - - London, May, 1842. - - GENTLEMEN,—Since my special attention was directed to the inquiry as - to the chief removable circumstances affecting the health of the - poorer classes of the population, I have availed myself of every - opportunity to collect information respecting them. In company with - Dr. Arnott I visited Edinburgh and Glasgow, and inspected those - residences that were pointed out by the local authorities as the chief - seats of disease. I also visited Dumfries. An inspection of similar - districts in Spitalfields, Manchester, Leeds, and Macclesfield, and - inquiries formerly made under the Commission of Poor Law Inquiry, and - inspections of the condition of the residences of the poorer classes - in parts of Berkshire, Sussex, and Hertfordshire, had supplied me with - means of comparison. Abandoning any inquiries as to remedies, strictly - so called, or the treatment of diseases after their appearance, I have - directed the examinations of witnesses and the reports of medical - officers chiefly to collect information of the best means available as - preventives of the evils in question. On the documentary evidence of - the medical officers, and on the examinations of witnesses, aided by - personal inspections, I have the honour to report as follows:— - - Partial descriptions of the condition of the labouring classes, in - respect to their residences and the habits which influence their - health, afford but a faint conception of the evils which are the - subject of inquiry. If only particular instances, or some groups of - individual cases be adduced, the erroneous impression might be created - that they were cases of comparatively infrequent occurrence. But the - following tabular return made up from the registration of the causes - of death in England and Wales, which is the most complete yet - attained, will give a sufficiently correct conception of the extent of - the evils in question, when illustrated by the evidence of - eye-witnesses, the medical officers whose duty it has been to attend - on the spot and alleviate them. The table comprehends the abstract of - the returns of the deaths from the chief diseases, which the medical - officers consider to be the most powerfully influenced by the physical - circumstances under which the population is placed—as the external and - internal condition of their dwellings, drainage, and ventilation. - - _To the Poor Law Commissioners._ - - _Deaths in Counties from Diseases governed by Locality._ - - ┌───────────┬───────────────────────────────────────┐ - │ │ │ - │ │ │ - │ │ │ - │ │ │ - │ COUNTIES. │Number of Deaths during the Year ended │ - │ │ 31st December, 1838 from │ - │ │ │ - │ │ │ - │ │ │ - │ ├───────────────────────────────────────┤ - │ │ │ - │ │ │ - │ │ 1 │ - │ │ Epidemic, Endemic, and Contagious │ - │ │ Diseases. │ - │ │ │ - │ │ │ - │ ├───────────┬──────────┬────────┬───────┤ - │ │ Fever: │ │ │Hooping│ - │ │ Typhus, │Small-pox.│Measles.│Cough. │ - │ │Scarlatina.│ │ │ │ - ├───────────┼───────────┼──────────┼────────┼───────┤ - │ ENGLAND. │ │ │ │ │ - │Bedford │ 155│ 75│ 40│ 66│ - │Berks │ 204│ 288│ 21│ 86│ - │Bucks │ 256│ 85│ 61│ 27│ - │Cambridge │ 231│ 136│ 57│ 90│ - │Chester │ 592│ 279│ 178│ 87│ - │Cornwall │ 443│ 135│ 168│ 491│ - │Cumberland │ 165│ 188│ 11│ 83│ - │Derby │ 394│ 77│ 79│ 71│ - │Devon │ 615│ 460│ 287│ 312│ - │Dorset │ 137│ 255│ 80│ 58│ - │Durham │ 347│ 316│ 139│ 304│ - │Essex │ 417│ 460│ 83│ 163│ - │Gloucester │ 352│ 457│ 440│ 244│ - │Hereford │ 84│ 83│ 17│ 36│ - │Hertford │ 160│ 116│ 45│ 48│ - │Huntingdon │ 61│ 18│ 1│ 17│ - │Kent │ 955│ 510│ 169│ 214│ - │Lancaster │ 2866│ 1628│ 898│ 910│ - │Leicester │ 273│ 98│ 17│ 70│ - │Lincoln │ 370│ 138│ 29│ 88│ - │Middlesex │ 4422│ 3359│ 487│ 1749│ - │Monmouth │ 328│ 321│ 49│ 91│ - │Norfolk │ 515│ 126│ 63│ 109│ - │Northampt^n│ 348│ 148│ 36│ 36│ - │Northumb^d │ 366│ 149│ 46│ 113│ - │Nottingham │ 222│ 73│ 18│ 80│ - │Oxford │ 222│ 81│ 51│ 59│ - │Rutland │ 11│ 2│ │ 13│ - │Salop │ 213│ 154│ 112│ 138│ - │Somerset │ 560│ 710│ 401│ 46│ - │Southampt^n│ 454│ 164│ 78│ 148│ - │Stafford │ 610│ 249│ 182│ 268│ - │Suffolk │ 480│ 325│ 53│ 158│ - │Surrey │ 1348│ 814│ 177│ 565│ - │Sussex │ 391│ 80│ 159│ 88│ - │Warwick │ 454│ 415│ 153│ 164│ - │Westmorel^d│ 41│ 40│ 6│ 41│ - │Wilts │ 246│ 259│ 263│ 140│ - │Worcester │ 381│ 305│ 122│ 258│ - │York, E. R.│ 194│ 92│ 167│ 149│ - │York, N. R.│ 123│ 28│ 69│ 114│ - │York, W. R.│ 1298│ 993│ 799│ 507│ - │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ WALES. │ │ │ │ │ - │North. │ 660│ 575│ 4│ 210│ - │South. │ 1613│ 1004│ 199│ 398│ - ├───────────┼───────────┼──────────┼────────┼───────┤ - │Total, 1838│ 24,577│ 16,268│ 6514│ 9107│ - ╞═══════════╪═══════════╪══════════╪════════╪═══════╡ - │Total, 1839│ 25,991│ 9131│ 10,937│ 8165│ - └───────────┴───────────┴──────────┴────────┴───────┘ - - ┌───────────┬────────────────────────────────┐ - │ │ │ - │ │ │ - │ │ │ - │ │ │ - │ COUNTIES. │Number of Deaths during the Year│ - │ │ ended 31st December, 1838 from │ - │ │ │ - │ │ │ - │ │ │ - │ ├────────────────────────────────┤ - │ │ │ - │ │ │ - │ │ 2 │ - │ │ Diseases of Respiratory Organs │ - │ │ │ - │ │ │ - │ │ │ - │ ├────────────┬──────────┬────────┤ - │ │ │ │ All │ - │ │Consumption.│Pneumonia.│ other │ - │ │ │ │Classes.│ - ├───────────┼────────────┼──────────┼────────┤ - │ ENGLAND. │ │ │ │ - │Bedford │ 457│ 97│ 57│ - │Berks │ 739│ 231│ 162│ - │Bucks │ 575│ 131│ 61│ - │Cambridge │ 686│ 156│ 70│ - │Chester │ 1742│ 366│ 345│ - │Cornwall │ 1270│ 342│ 124│ - │Cumberland │ 562│ 75│ 142│ - │Derby │ 905│ 200│ 205│ - │Devon │ 1649│ 564│ 298│ - │Dorset │ 571│ 146│ 106│ - │Durham │ 1007│ 362│ 207│ - │Essex │ 1250│ 276│ 234│ - │Gloucester │ 1395│ 578│ 476│ - │Hereford │ 333│ 56│ 57│ - │Hertford │ 620│ 107│ 90│ - │Huntingdon │ 216│ 45│ 42│ - │Kent │ 1701│ 564│ 526│ - │Lancaster │ 8124│ 2660│ 1916│ - │Leicester │ 941│ 243│ 154│ - │Lincoln │ 874│ 248│ 242│ - │Middlesex │ 6220│ 3097│ 2334│ - │Monmouth │ 481│ 183│ 78│ - │Norfolk │ 1388│ 325│ 281│ - │Northampt^n│ 762│ 192│ 124│ - │Northumb^d │ 715│ 287│ 240│ - │Nottingham │ 911│ 225│ 201│ - │Oxford │ 655│ 108│ 152│ - │Rutland │ 64│ 14│ 8│ - │Salop │ 995│ 242│ 168│ - │Somerset │ 1446│ 426│ 373│ - │Southampt^n│ 1222│ 338│ 331│ - │Stafford │ 1809│ 539│ 419│ - │Suffolk │ 1306│ 315│ 184│ - │Surrey │ 2196│ 978│ 700│ - │Sussex │ 1047│ 222│ 181│ - │Warwick │ 1495│ 678│ 361│ - │Westmorel^d│ 248│ 33│ 44│ - │Wilts │ 869│ 268│ 212│ - │Worcester │ 990│ 353│ 235│ - │York, E. R.│ 725│ 194│ 176│ - │York, N. R.│ 550│ 102│ 135│ - │York, W. R.│ 4253│ 1202│ 848│ - │ │ │ │ │ - │ WALES. │ │ │ │ - │North. │ 1227│ 102│ 223│ - │South. │ 1834│ 129│ 277│ - ├───────────┼────────────┼──────────┼────────┤ - │Total, 1838│ 59,025│ 17,999│ 13,799│ - ╞═══════════╪════════════╪══════════╪════════╡ - │Total, 1839│ 59,559│ 18,151│ 12,855│ - └───────────┴────────────┴──────────┴────────┘ - - ┌───────────┬───────────────────────────────┬───────────┬───────────┐ - │ │ │Proportion │Proportion │ - │ │ │ of Deaths │ of Deaths │ - │ │ │ from the │ from all │ - │ │ │ preceding │ Causes of │ - │ COUNTIES. │ Number of Deaths during the │ Causes in │ Mortality │ - │ │Year ended 31st December, 1838 │every 1000 │ in every │ - │ │ from │ of the │1000 of the│ - │ │ │Population,│Population,│ - │ │ │ 1841. │ 1841. │ - │ ├─────────┬─────────┬───────────┤ │ │ - │ │ 3 │ │ │ │ │ - │ │Diseases │ 4 │ Total │ │ │ - │ │of Brain │Diseases │Deaths from│ │ │ - │ │ Nerves │ of │ the four │ │ │ - │ │ and │Digestive│ preceding │ │ │ - │ │ Senses. │ Organs │Classes of │ │ │ - │ │ │ │ Diseases. │ │ │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - ├───────────┼─────────┼─────────┼───────────┼───────────┼───────────┤ - │ ENGLAND. │ │ │ │ │ │ - │Bedford │ 304│ 131│ 1382│ 13│ 22│ - │Berks │ 467│ 201│ 2399│ 15│ 25│ - │Bucks │ 348│ 152│ 1696│ 11│ 19│ - │Cambridge │ 318│ 189│ 1933│ 12│ 21│ - │Chester │ 1442│ 421│ 5452│ 14│ 21│ - │Cornwall │ 631│ 228│ 3832│ 11│ 18│ - │Cumberland │ 278│ 169│ 1673│ 9│ 21│ - │Derby │ 777│ 268│ 2976│ 11│ 18│ - │Devon │ 1237│ 471│ 5893│ 11│ 18│ - │Dorset │ 380│ 159│ 1892│ 11│ 19│ - │Durham │ 1138│ 274│ 4094│ 13│ 21│ - │Essex │ 782│ 268│ 3933│ 11│ 19│ - │Gloucester │ 1142│ 510│ 5594│ 13│ 20│ - │Hereford │ 238│ 62│ 966│ 8│ 18│ - │Hertford │ 453│ 155│ 1794│ 11│ 20│ - │Huntingdon │ 140│ 72│ 612│ 10│ 18│ - │Kent │ 1650│ 651│ 6940│ 13│ 21│ - │Lancaster │ 7457│ 3231│ 29690│ 18│ 25│ - │Leicester │ 668│ 314│ 2778│ 13│ 21│ - │Lincoln │ 1090│ 358│ 3437│ 9│ 17│ - │Middlesex │ 6643│ 2492│ 30803│ 20│ 27│ - │Monmouth │ 550│ 100│ 2181│ 16│ 24│ - │Norfolk │ 793│ 395│ 3995│ 10│ 19│ - │Northampt^n│ 503│ 212│ 2361│ 12│ 21│ - │Northumb^d │ 709│ 388│ 3013│ 12│ 21│ - │Nottingham │ 901│ 287│ 2918│ 12│ 20│ - │Oxford │ 389│ 180│ 1897│ 12│ 21│ - │Rutland │ 56│ 28│ 196│ 9│ 17│ - │Salop │ 550│ 284│ 2856│ 12│ 21│ - │Somerset │ 982│ 473│ 5417│ 12│ 21│ - │Southampt^n│ 881│ 372│ 3988│ 17│ 19│ - │Stafford │ 1251│ 597│ 5924│ 12│ 18│ - │Suffolk │ 538│ 275│ 3634│ 12│ 20│ - │Surrey │ 2325│ 763│ 9866│ 11│ 25│ - │Sussex │ 863│ 295│ 3326│ 11│ 18│ - │Warwick │ 978│ 638│ 5336│ 13│ 20│ - │Westmorel^d│ 154│ 46│ 653│ 12│ 21│ - │Wilts │ 606│ 241│ 3104│ 12│ 20│ - │Worcester │ 645│ 446│ 3735│ 16│ 29│ - │York, E. R.│ 1009│ 251│ 2957│ 13│ 21│ - │York, N. R.│ 553│ 1861│ │ 9│ 17│ - │York, W. R.│ 4374│ 1494│ 15768│ 14│ 21│ - │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ WALES. │ │ │ │ │ │ - │North. │ 1311│ 198│ 4510│ 13│ 18│ - │South. │ 1200│ 380│ 7034│ 14│ 21│ - ├───────────┼─────────┼─────────┼───────────┼───────────┼───────────┤ - │Total, 1838│ 49,704│ 19,306│ 216,299│ 14│ 22│ - ╞═══════════╪═════════╪═════════╪═══════════╪═══════════╪═══════════╡ - │Total, 1839│ 49,215│ 20,767│ 214,771│ 14│ 21│ - └───────────┴─────────┴─────────┴───────────┴───────────┴───────────┘ - - - Extent of evils which are the subject of inquiry - -The registration of the causes of death for the year 1838 is selected, -as that was the year when the report was made on the sanitary condition -of the labouring population in the metropolis, which has served as the -foundation of the extended inquiry. - -There are no returns, and no adequate data for returns, to show the -proportion in which deaths from the several causes above specified occur -amongst the population of Scotland, but there is evidence to which -reference will subsequently be made tending to prove that the mortality -from fever is greater in Glasgow, Edinburgh, and Dundee than in the most -crowded towns in England. - -The registered mortality from all specified diseases in England and -Wales was, during the year 1838, 282,940, or 18 per thousand of the -population. These deaths are exclusive of the deaths from old age, which -amounted to 35,564, and the deaths from violence, which amounted to -12,055. The deaths from causes not specified were 11,970. The total -amount of deaths was 342,529 for that year. In the year following the -total deaths were 338,979, of which the registered deaths from old age -were 35,063, and the deaths from violence 11,980. The proportion of -deaths for the whole population was 21 per thousand. - -It appears that fever, after its ravages amongst the infant population, -falls with the greatest intensity on the adult population in the vigour -of life. The periods at which the ravages of the other diseases, -consumption, small-pox, and measles take place, are sufficiently well -known. The proportions in which the diseases have prevailed in the -several counties will be found deserving of peculiar attention. - -A conception may be formed of the aggregate effects of the several -causes of mortality from the fact, that of the deaths caused during one -year in England and Wales by epidemic, endemic, and contagious diseases, -including fever, typhus, and scarlatina, amounting to 56,461, the great -proportion of which are proved to be preventible, it may be said that -the effect is as if the whole county of Westmoreland, now containing -56,469 souls, or the whole county of Huntingdonshire, or any other -equivalent district, were entirely depopulated annually, and were only -occupied again by the growth of a new and feeble population living under -the fears of a similar visitation. The annual slaughter in England and -Wales from preventible causes of typhus which attacks persons in the -vigour of life, appears to be double the amount of what was suffered by -the Allied Armies in the battle of Waterloo. It will be shown that -diseases such as those which now prevail on land, did within the -experience of persons still living, formerly prevail to a greater extent -at sea, and have since been prevented by sanitary regulations; and that -when they did so prevail in ships of war, the deaths from them were more -than double in amount of the deaths in battle. But the number of persons -who die is to be taken also as the indication of the much greater number -of persons who fall sick, and who, although they escape, are subjected -to the suffering and loss occasioned by attacks of disease. Thus it was -found on the original inquiry in the metropolis, that the deaths from -fever amounted to 1 in 10 of the number attacked. If this proportion -held equally throughout the country, then a quarter of a million of -persons will have been subjected to loss and suffering from an attack of -fever during the year; and in so far as the proportions of attacks to -deaths is diminished, so it appears from the reports is the intensity -and suffering from the disease generally increased. It appears that the -extremes of mortality at the Small-pox Hospital, in London, amongst -those attacked, have been 15 per cent. and 42 per cent. But if, -according to other statements, the average mortality be taken at 1 in 5, -or 20 per cent., the number of persons attacked in England and Wales -during the year of the return, must amount to upwards of 16,000 persons -killed, and more than 80,000 persons subjected to the sufferings of -disease, including, in the case of the labouring classes, the loss of -labour and long-continued debility; and in respect to all classes, often -permanent disfigurement, and occasionally the loss of sight. - -In a subsequent part of this report, evidence will be adduced to show in -what proportion these causes of death fall upon the poorer classes as -compared with the other classes of society inhabiting the same towns or -districts, and in what proportions the deaths fall amongst persons of -the same class inhabiting districts differently situated. - -The first extracts present the subjects of the inquiry in their general -condition under the operation of several causes, yet almost all will be -found to point to one particular, namely, atmospheric impurity, -occasioned by means within the control of legislation, as the main cause -of the ravages of epidemic, endemic, and contagious diseases among the -community, and as aggravating most other diseases. The subsequent -extracts from the sanitary reports from different places will show that -the impurity and its evil consequences are greater or less in different -places, according as there is more or less sufficient drainage of -houses, streets, roads, and land, combined with more or less sufficient -means of cleansing and removing solid refuse and impurities, by -available supplies of water for the purpose. Then will follow the -description of the effects of overcrowding the places of work and -dwellings, including the effects of the defective ventilation of -dwelling-houses, and of places of work where there are fumes or dust -produced. To these will be added the information collected as to the -good or evil moral habits promoted by the nature of the residence. These -will form so many successive sections of the report, and will be -followed by information in respect to the means available for the -prevention of the evils described, and an exposition of the present -state of the law for the protection of the public health, and of -modifications apparently requisite to secure the desired results. - - - - - I.—GENERAL CONDITION OF THE RESIDENCES OF THE LABOURING CLASSES WHERE - DISEASE IS FOUND TO BE THE MOST PREVALENT. - - -The following extracts will serve to show, in the language chiefly of -eye-witnesses, the varied forms in which disease attendant on removable -circumstances appears from one end of the island to the other amidst the -population of rural villages, and of the smaller towns, as well as -amidst the population of the commercial cities and the most thronged of -the manufacturing districts—in which last pestilence is frequently -supposed to have its chief and almost exclusive residence. - -Commencing with the reports on the sanitary condition of the population -in Cornwall and Devon, _Mr. Gilbert_, when acting as Assistant -Commissioner for those counties, reports, that he found the open drains -and sewers the most prominent cause of malaria. He gives the following -as an instance of the common condition of the dwellings of the labouring -classes in Devon, where it will be observed that the registered deaths -from the four classes of disease amounted in one year to 5893 cases. - - “In Tiverton there is a large district, from which I find numerous - applications were made for relief to the Board of Guardians, in - consequence of illness from fever. The expense in procuring the - necessary attention and care, and the diet and comforts recommended by - the medical officer, were in each case very high, and particularly - attracted my attention. - - “I requested the medical officer to accompany me through the district, - and with him, and afterwards by myself, I visited the district, and - examined the cottages and families living there. The land is nearly on - a level with the water, the ground is marshy, and the sewers all open. - Before reaching the district, I was assailed by a most disagreeable - smell; and it was clear to the sense that the air was full of most - injurious malaria. The inhabitants, easily distinguishable from the - inhabitants of the other parts of the town, had all a sickly, - miserable appearance. The open drains in some cases ran immediately - before the doors of the houses, and some of the houses were surrounded - by wide open drains, full of all the animal and vegetable refuse not - only of the houses in that part, but of those in other parts of - Tiverton. In many of the houses, persons were confined with fever and - different diseases, and all I talked to either were ill or had been - so: and the whole community presented a melancholy spectacle of - disease and misery. - - “Attempts have been made on various occasions by the local authorities - to correct this state of things by compelling the occupants of the - houses to remove nuisances, and to have the drains covered; but they - find that in the present state of the law their powers are not - sufficient, and the evil continues and is likely so to do, unless the - legislature affords some redress in the nature of sanitary powers. - Independently of this nuisance, Tiverton would be considered a fine - healthy town, situate as it is on the slope of a hill, with a swift - river running at its foot. - - “It is not these unfortunate creatures only who choose this centre of - disease for their living-place who are affected; but the whole town is - more or less deteriorated by its vicinity to this pestilential mass, - where the generation of those elements of disease and death is - constantly going on. - - “Another cause of disease is to be found in the state of the cottages. - Many are built on the ground without flooring, or against a damp hill. - Some have neither windows nor doors sufficient to keep out the - weather, or to let in the rays of the sun, or supply the means of - ventilation; and in others the roof is so constructed or so worn as - not to be weather tight. The thatch roof frequently is saturated with - wet, rotten, and in a state of decay, giving out malaria, as other - decaying vegetable matter.” - -The report of _Dr. Barham_, on the sanitary condition of the town of -Truro, gives instances of the condition of the town population in that -part of the country. He states— - - “The perfect immunity from deaths by _febrile_ and _acute_ diseases, - enjoyed by Lemon-street during the long period of three years and a - half, is a strong testimony to the value of the breadth of its - roadway, the openness of its site, and the judicious construction of - the houses; for it has to contend with a great deficiency of sewerage. - Fairmantle and Daniell-streets are modern, and are occupied by small - traders, and by decent artisans and labourers; the _former_ lies - rather low, the _latter_ is on a considerable elevation; both are - fairly drained, and are healthy. Charles, Calenick, and Kenwyn-streets - present some of the worst specimens of defective arrangement, rendered - worse still by the recklessness of the very poor, which can be met - with in Truro. The amount of _pauper sickness_ is considerable, the - deaths not few. The two latter streets are, in the greater part of - their length, but little raised above high-water mark. Passing into - _St. Mary’s_ parish, the proportion of sickness and even of deaths in - Castle-street and Castle-hill is, to their extent and population, as - great, perhaps, as that of any part of Truro; yet their situation is - elevated and favourable. There is, however, no mystery in the - causation. Ill-constructed houses, many of them old, with decomposing - refuse close upon their doors and windows, open drains bringing the - oozings of pigsties and other filth to stagnate at the foot of a wall, - between which and the entrances to a row of small dwellings there is - only a very narrow passage; such are a few of the sources of disease - which the breeze of the hill cannot always dissipate. Similar causes - have produced like effects in the courts adjacent to Pyder-street, to - the High Cross, and to St. Clement’s-streets, and in Bodmin-street and - Good-wives’-lane, the situations being all more or less confined. The - benefits, on the other hand, derived from open rows, and cottages of a - better construction are evidenced in Boscawen and Paul’s-row, and St. - Clements’-terrace, which are well ventilated, and consequently suffer - less from the scanty provision of drains and other conveniences. - - “A detailed account of the public sewers is given in the Appendix, and - is believed to be nearly, if not quite, complete. Many of these are of - recent date, and owe their existence to the alarm excited when the - cholera was near at hand. Some of them are made to discharge - themselves into the rivers; and such of these as are swept by a stream - of water are unobjectionable in themselves. Several others stop short - of this desirable termination, and, after collecting filth from - various localities, deposit a portion in catch-pits here and there, - and finally open on the surface, frequently in some street or lane, - where a neglected deposit of a mixed animal and vegetable nature is - allowed to become a probable source of annoyance or mischief. Much of - this incompleteness may be removed (as regards the main lines of - sewerage) at no great expense; and it is said to be the intention of - the commissioners of improvement to remedy the deficiency, when they - are free from the debt with which they are now encumbered. Many of the - smaller sewers are, however, much too narrow to be effective, and some - of them are no better than covered drains. But the greatest evils in - this department are unquestionably those which spring from the - ignorance, cupidity, or negligence of landlords. It is useless to have - a good sewer carried through the centre of a street, if the houses at - the sides, and still more those situated in courts and lanes - adjoining, have no communicating drains; and it is worse than useless - to furnish these backlets with the mere semblance of drains—gutters - forming pits here and there—then as they approach the street, perhaps - slightly covered so as to produce obstruction more frequently than - protection, a concentrated solution of all sorts of decomposing refuse - being allowed to soak through and thoroughly impregnate the walls and - ground adjoining. One or more of these mischievous conditions is to be - found in connexion with a large proportion of the older houses in - Truro, excepting the better class; and in many of the courts and - backlets all these evils are in full operation. I have repeatedly - noticed in the country that the occurrence of fever has been connected - with _near proximity to even a small amount of decomposing organic - matter_; and it is certain that all measures for effecting improvement - in the sewerage of streets, the supply of water, and ventilation, may - be rendered nearly inoperative for the obviating of the causes of - disease, if a little nidus of morbific effluvia be permitted to remain - in almost every corner of the confined court; where the poor man opens - his narrow habitation in the hope of refreshing it with the breeze of - summer, but gets instead a mixture of gases from reeking dunghills, - or, what is worse, because more insidious, from a soil which has - become impregnated with organic matters imbibed long before; and now, - though, perhaps, to all appearance dry and clean, emitting the - poisonous vapour in its most pernicious state. Nothing short of the - placing in proper hands a peremptory authority for the removal of what - is hurtful, and the supply of what is defective, making the exercise - of that authority a duty, can remedy the existing evils. - - “The houses occupied by the lower orders do not often exceed two - stories in height, and it is rare to find families occupying less than - two rooms. The more recent additions to the town—I speak of residences - of the humbler class—have mainly consisted of rows of moderate - cottages, having, the majority of them, gardens in front, and usually - containing four rooms, commonly occupied by a single family. Some - instances have, however, occurred of the building of a very inferior - class of dwellings, which will be hereafter pointed out. - - “No interments now take place in the town, the present burying-ground - being at the distance of a third of a mile to the north of the church. - The slaughter-houses are all, or nearly all, situated in populous - parts, and occasionally constitute a decided nuisance. No - manufactories exist which can be looked upon as prejudicial from any - effluvia to which they give rise. The gas-works and smelting-houses - are so placed that no mischievous effects can fairly be attributed to - them.” - -The state of the dwellings of many of the agricultural labourers in -Dorset, where the deaths from the four classes of disease bear a similar -proportion to those in Devon, is described in the return of _Mr. John -Fox_, the medical officer of the Cerne union, who, remarking upon some -cases of disease among the poor whom he had attended, says,— - - “These cases (of diarrhœa and common fever) occurred in a house - (formerly a poor house) occupied by nearly 50 persons on the - ground-floor; the rooms are neither boarded nor paved, and generally - damp; some of them are occupied by two families. The up-stairs rooms - are small and low, and separated from each other by boards only. - Eleven persons slept in one room. The house stands in a valley between - two hills, very little above the level of the river, which - occasionally overflows its banks, and within a few yards of it. There - is generally an accumulation of filth of every description in a gutter - running about two feet from its front, and a large cesspool within a - few feet behind. The winter stock of potatoes was kept in some of the - day-rooms, and generally put away in a wet state. The premises had not - been white-limed during three years; in addition to this state of - things, the poor were badly fed, badly clothed, and many of them - habitually dirty, and consequently typhus, synochus, or diarrhœa, - constantly prevailed. No house-rent was paid by the occupants. Many, - under more favourable circumstances were clean and tidy, and if their - wages were sufficient to enable them to rent a decent cottage, I have - no doubt they would soon regain their lost spirit of cleanliness. In - this same parish I have often seen the springs bursting through the - _mud_ floor of some of the cottages, and little channels cut from the - centre under the doorways to carry off the water, whilst the door has - been removed from its hinges for the children to put their feet on - whilst employed in making buttons. Is it surprising that fever and - scrofula in all its forms prevail under such circumstances? - - “It is somewhat singular that seven cases of typhus occurred in one - village heretofore famed for the health and general cleanliness of its - inhabitants and cottages. The first five cases occurred in one family, - in a detached house on high and dry ground, and free from - accumulations of vegetable or animal matter. The cottage was - originally built for a school-room, and consists of one room only, - about 18 feet by 10, and 9 high. About one-third part was partitioned - off by boards reaching to within three feet of the roof, and in this - small space were three beds, in which six persons slept; had there - been two bed-rooms attached to this one day-room, these cases of - typhus would not have occurred. The fatal case of typhus occurred in a - very small village, containing about sixty inhabitants, and from its - locality it appears favourable to the production of typhus, synochus, - and acute rheumatism. It stands between two hills, with a river - running through it, and is occasionally flooded. It has extensive - water meadows both above and below, and a farm-yard in the centre, - where there is always a large quantity of vegetable matter undergoing - decomposition. Most of the cases of synochus occurred under - circumstances favourable to its production. Most of the cottages being - of the worst description, some mere mud hovels, and situated in low - and damp places with cesspools or accumulations of filth close to the - doors. The _mud floors_ of many are much below the level of the road, - and in wet seasons are little better than so much clay. The following - shocking case occurred in my practice. In a family consisting of six - persons, two had fever; the mud floor of their cottage was at least - one foot below the lane; it consisted of _one_ small room only, in the - centre of which stood a foot-ladder reaching to the edge of a platform - which extended over nearly one-half of the room, and upon which were - placed two beds, with space between them for one person only to stand, - whilst the outside of each touched the thatch. The head of one of - these beds stood within six inches of the edge of the platform, and in - this bed one of my unfortunate patients, a boy about 11 years old, was - sleeping with his mother, and in a fit of delirium jumped over the - head of his bed and fell to the ground below, a height of about seven - feet. The injury to the head and spine was so serious that he lived a - few hours only after the accident. In a cottage fit for the residence - of a human being this could not have occurred. In many of the - cottages, also, where synochus prevailed, the beds stood on the - ground-floor, which was damp three parts of the year; scarcely one had - a fire-place in the bed-room, and one had a single small pane of glass - stuck in the mud wall as its only window, with a large heap of wet and - dirty potatoes in one corner. Persons living in such cottages are - generally very poor, very dirty, and usually in rags, living almost - wholly on bread and potatoes, scarcely ever tasting animal food, and - consequently highly susceptible of disease and very unable to contend - with it. I am quite sure if such persons were placed in good, - comfortable, clean cottages, the improvement in themselves and - children would soon be visible, and the exceptions would only be found - in a few of the poorest and most wretched, who perhaps had been born - in a mud hovel, and had lived in one the first 30 years of their - lives. - - “In my district I do not think there is _one_ cottage to be found - consisting of a day-room, three bed-rooms, scullery, pantry, and - convenient receptacles for refuse and for fuel in the occupation of a - labourer, but there are many consisting of a day-room and two - bed-rooms, constructed with a due regard to ventilation and warmth, - pantry, and fuel house, with a small garden and pigsty adjoining, and - the labourers occupying such cottages, generally speaking, are far - superior to others less advantageously situated. Their persons and - cottages are always neater and cleaner, they are less disposed to - frequent the beer-houses or to engage in poaching, whilst their - children are generally sent daily to some school, in many instances - chiefly supported by the clergyman of the parish. As a corroboration - of my opinion, I need only state that I am frequently employed by the - labourers in the good cottages to attend their wives during their - confinement, and generally receive my guinea before I leave the house, - whilst the labourer less favourably situated invariably applies to his - parish for medical relief under such circumstances. I think there - cannot be a doubt if the whole of the wretched hovels were converted - into good cottages, with a strict attention to warmth, ventilation, - and drainage, and a receptacle for filth of every kind placed at a - proper distance, it would not only improve the health of the poor by - removing a most prolific source of disease, and thereby most sensibly - diminish the rates, but I am convinced it would also tend most - materially to raise the moral character of the poor man, and render - him less susceptible to the allurements of the idle and wicked.” - -The tenor of much information respecting the condition of many of the -labouring classes in Somerset, where the deaths from the four classes of -disease were still higher than in the two other counties, and amounted -during the one year to 5417, is exhibited in the sanitary report of _Mr. -James Gane_, the medical officer of the Axbridge union, who states -that,— - - “The situation of this district where the diseases herein mentioned - prevail, is a perfect flat called the South Marsh, in the main road - between Bristol and Bridgewater. There are numerous dykes or ditches - for the purpose of drainage. The cottages of the poor are mostly of a - bad description, frequently mud wall, and often situated close to the - dykes, where the water for the most part is in a state of stagnation. - Oftentimes not more than one room for the whole family; sometimes two; - one above the other; with the really poor, the latter is seldom to be - met with, (unless it should happen now and then in a parish where a - poor-house was built a short time before the formation of the Union). - A pigsty where the inmates are capable of keeping a pig is frequently - attached to the dwelling, and in the heat of summer produces a stench - quite intolerable; the want of space however prevents it being - otherwise. The regular poor-house (those mentioned above being - detached cottages) in most of the parishes in this district are of a - much worse description, several large families existing under the same - roof, occupying only one room each family, and having but one entrance - door to the dwelling; here filth and poverty go hand-in-hand without - any restriction and under no control. The accumulation of filth being - attributable to the want of proper receptacles for refuse, and the - indolent and filthy disposition of the inhabitants, in no instance - _have_ such places been provided. The floors are seldom or never - scrubbed; and the parish authorities pay so little attention to these - houses, that the walls never get white-limed from one end of the year - to the other. The windows are kept air-tight by the stuffing of some - old garments, and every article for use is kept in the same room. The - necessary is close to the building, where all have access, and - producing a most intolerable nuisance. In a locality naturally - engendering malaria, the diseases with which the poor are for the most - part afflicted are, fevers such as are stated in this report and which - sometimes run into a low typhoid state. The neighbourhood in general - is considered in as good a state of drainage as it will admit of. The - occurrence of disease among the poor population is for the most part - at spring and autumn, at those times agues and fevers prevail. - Small-pox and scarlet fever are met with at all seasons of the year, - but prevail as epidemics, the former in spring and summer, and the - latter about autumn or the beginning of winter. I attribute the - prevalence of diseases of an epidemic character, which exists so much - more among the poor than among the rich, to be, from the want of - better accommodation as residence, (their dwelling instead of being - built of solid materials are complete shells of mud on a spot of waste - land the most swampy in the parish, this is to be met with almost - everywhere in rural districts,) to the want of better clothing, being - better fed, more attention paid to the cleanliness of their dwellings, - and less congregated together. The health of persons even where a - large family is, and where superior cottage accommodation is afforded - to them, is much better generally than others less advantageously - situated. The influence over their habits will also be very - beneficial, they will be less likely to run to a beer-house with their - last penny, the comforts of a home after the toils of the day keeps - them by their own fireside; they become better contented, less liable - to disease, make better husbands, better fathers, better neighbours, - and with each other better friends. There is a subject which I wish - particularly to press on the attention of the Commissioners; the - presence throughout the country, and to be found in every parish, of - low lodging-houses, where persons of the lowest grade of society, - beggars, thieves, and such like, take up a temporary abode in passing - from one part of the kingdom to another, bringing with them the seeds - of infectious diseases and oftentimes the actual disease itself into a - neighbourhood previously in a comparative state of health. I have - observed, where persons are living in a locality habitually affected - with malaria, that when becoming convalescent from any other disease, - are often attacked with ague, more particularly among the poorer - classes. - - “There is a class of persons called the ‘second poor,’ who for the - most part are constantly employed throughout the year as farmers’ - labourers, and who are in much better circumstances than those to whom - I have above alluded; they have much better cottage accommodation, - their houses being provided with one, sometimes two day-rooms, two - bed-rooms, a pantry, and other conveniences for fuel and for refuse, - and whose general health and condition is much better than those less - advantageously situated. Therefore detached cottages for the poor, - with a moderate sized day-room, two or three bed-rooms, a pantry, - receptacles for refuse and for fuel, with casement windows or some - such contrivance for ventilation, will be a blessing to them, and very - available sanitary regulations. I know of no better method than is to - be seen in all cottages for the economical management of fuel, both in - cooking and maintaining a proper temperature of the rooms.” - -The following extract from the report of _Mr. Aaron Little_, the medical -officer of the Chippenham union, affords a specimen of the frequent -condition of rural villages which have apparently the most advantageous -sites:— - - “The parish of Colerne, which, upon a cursory view, any person - (unacquainted with its peculiarities) would pronounce to be the most - healthy village in England, is in fact the most unhealthy. From its - commanding position (being situated upon a high hill) it has an - appearance of health and cheerfulness which delight the eye of the - traveller, who commands a view of it from the Great Western road, but - this impression is immediately removed on entering at any point of the - town. The filth, the dilapidated buildings, the squalid appearance of - the majority of the lower orders, have a sickening effect upon the - stranger who first visits this place. During three years’ attendance - on the poor of this district, I have never known the small-pox, - scarlatina, or the typhus fever to be absent. The situation is damp, - and the buildings unhealthy, and the inhabitants themselves inclined - to be of dirty habits. There is also a great want of drainage.” - -_Mr. William Blower_, the surgeon of the Bedford union, to whose -evidence on the influence of moral causes on the health of the -population, we shall again have occasion to refer, states:— - - “Throughout the whole of this district, there is a great want of - ‘superior cottage accommodation.’ Most of the residences of the - labourers are thickly inhabited, and many of them are damp, low, cold, - smoky, and comfortless. These circumstances occasion the inmates to be - sickly in the winter season, but I have not observed them to generate - typhus, the prevailing form of disease being principally catarrhal; - such as colds, coughs, inflammations of the eyes, dysentery, - rheumatism, &c. However, when any contagious or epidemic malaria - occurs, the cases are generally more numerous.” - -_Mr. Weale_ reports instances of the condition of large proportions of -the agricultural population in the counties of Bedford, Northampton, and -Warwick. The medical officer of the Woburn union states, in respect to -Toddington, that— - - “In this town fever prevailed during the last year, and, from the - state of the dwellings of the persons I called on, this could not be - wondered at. Very few of the cottages were furnished with privies that - could be used, and contiguous to almost every door a dung heap was - raised on which every species of filth was accumulated, either for the - purpose of being used in the garden allotments of the cottagers, or to - be disposed of for manure. Scarcely any cottage was provided with a - pantry, and I found the provisions generally kept in the bed-rooms. In - several instances I found whole families, comprising adult and infant - children with their parents, sleeping in one room.” - -The medical officer of the Ampthill union states:— - - “Typhus fever has existed for the last three or four months in the - parish of Flitwick, and although the number of deaths has not been - considerable as compared with the progress of the disease, new cases - have occurred as those under treatment became convalescent, and - several are still suffering under this malady. The cottages in which - it first appeared (and to which it has been almost exclusively - confined), are of the most wretched description: a stagnant pond is in - the immediate vicinity, and none of the tenements have drains; rubbish - is thrown within a few yards of the dwellings, and there is no doubt - but in damp foggy weather, and also during the heat of summer, the - exhalations arising from those heaps of filth must generate disease, - and the obnoxious effluvia tends to spread contagion where it already - exists. It appears that most of the cottages alluded to were erected - for election purposes, and have since been allowed to decay; the roofs - are repaired with turf dug in the neighbourhood, and the walls - repaired with prepared clay, without the addition of lime-washing. - Contagious disease has not been remarkable within the Union in any - other spot than the one alluded to.” - -_Messrs. Smith_ and _Moore_, the medical officers of the Bishop -Stortford union, state,— - - “We have always found the smallest and most slightly-built houses the - seats of the lowest forms of disease; and although, during the last - year, no epidemic or infectious disease here prevailed, it is but just - to state that, generally speaking, the cottages of labourers in this - district are small, badly protected from both extremes of weather, - badly drained, and low in the ground.” - -_Mr. J. S. Nott_, the medical officer of the Witham union, states,— - - “As medical officer of my district, I am glad to have an opportunity - of recording my opinion of many of the causes of fever that uniformly - prevails in the autumn and spring in this neighbourhood. I must first - state that the situation of the town is exceedingly low, with two - small rivers passing through it, and numerous open sewers intersecting - the town and its environs, the effluvia of which is frequently - exceedingly offensive, and at all times prejudicial to the general - health, and calculated to create, by its malaria, the various kinds of - fevers, (typhus and remittent). Part of the town is subject to floods; - added to which, the cottages are small and crowded together. A great - number of the inhabitants accumulate filth and manure for the purpose - of sale. There are also many open slaughter-houses, where the refuse - and filth is allowed to accumulate for weeks together without removal; - and innumerable pigs are kept and fattened on the back of the premises - of a great number of the inhabitants; and altogether it would be - difficult to find any town of its size where so little regard is paid - to cleanliness and ventilation; but where we do find the exception, - roomy and well-ventilated cottages, (and they are but few,) the cases - of fever are more manageable, and recover sooner.” - -The state of Windsor affords an example that the highest neighbourhoods -in power and wealth do not at present possess securities for the -prevention of nuisances dangerous to the public health. _Mr. Parker_, in -his report on the condition of his district, states— - - “With regard to the drainage of the towns in the counties of - Buckingham, Oxford, and Berks, it may be observed that there is no - town in which great improvements might not be effected. In Reading - there are commissioners appointed under a local Act to make provision - for cleansing the town and removing nuisances; but their duties do not - appear to be performed with due regard to the importance of the trust, - for the Board of Guardians of the Reading union, by resolutions - entered in their minutes, frequently point out nuisances, and remind - the commissioners of the filthy condition of many of the courts and - back streets. But extensive as the improvements in the state of the - drainage of almost every town in these counties might be, there is no - town amongst them in which there is so wide a field for improvement as - Windsor, which, from the contiguity of the palace, the wealth of the - inhabitants, and the situation, might have been expected to be - superior in this respect to any other provincial town. Such, however, - is not the case; for of all the towns visited by me, Windsor is the - worst beyond all comparison. From the gas-works at the end of - George-street a double line of open, deep, black, and stagnant ditches - extends to Clewer-lane. From these ditches an intolerable stench is - perpetually rising, and produces fever of a severe character. I - visited a cottage in Clewer-lane in which typhus fever had existed for - some time, and learnt from a woman who had recently lost a child the - complaint was attributable to the state of these ditches. Mr. Bailey, - the relieving officer, informs me that cases of typhus fever are - frequent in the neighbourhood; and observes that there are now seven - or eight persons attacked by typhus in Charles-street and South-place. - He considers the neighbourhood of Garden-court in almost the same - condition. ‘There is a drain,’ he says, ‘running from the barracks - into the Thames across the Long Walk. That drain is almost as - offensive as the black ditches extending to Clewer-lane. The openings - to the sewers in Windsor are exceedingly offensive in hot weather. The - town is not well supplied with water, and the drainage is very - defective.’ The ditches of which I have spoken are sometimes emptied - by carts; and on the last occasion their contents were purchased for - the sum of 15_l._. by the occupier of land in the parish of Clewer, - whose meadows suffered from the extraordinary strength of the manure, - which was used without previous preparation.” - -_Mr. Harding_, medical officer of the Epping union, states,— - - “The state of some of the dwellings of the poor is most deplorable as - it regards their health, and also in a moral point of view. As it - relates to the former, many of their cottages are neither wind nor - water tight. It has often fallen to my lot to be called on to attend a - labour where the wet has been running down the walls, and light to be - distinguished through the roof, and this in the winter season, with no - fire-place in the room. As it relates to the latter, in my opinion a - great want of accommodation for bed-rooms often occurs, so that you - may frequently find the father, mother, and children all sleeping in - the same apartment, and in some instances the children having attained - the age of 16 or 17 years, and of both sexes; and if a death occurs in - the house, let the person die of the most contagious disease, they - must either sleep in the same room, or take their repose in the room - they live in, which most frequently is a stone or brick floor, which - must be detrimental to health.” - -_Mr. J. D. Browne_, medical officer of the West Ham union states that,— - - “The cases of typhus (21 cases in the parish of Walthamstow) have - occurred periodically in certain localities, arising partly from want - of personal cleanliness, and also from being situated near ditches - into which putrefactive matter was deposited, such as the privies and - pigsties emptying themselves. The medical officer called the attention - of the Board of Guardians, vicar, and parochial officers to the - subject; and though it was unanimously admitted that the evil was - great, and an anxious desire was expressed in vestry to remove the - existing evil, yet the case fell to the ground, there being no funds - to meet the exigency. The medical officer feels persuaded that a power - should be invested in the Board of Guardians or parochial officers to - meet such cases.” - -_Mr. Thomas H. Smith_, the medical officer of the Bromley union, -states,— - - “My attention was first directed to the sources of malaria in this - district and neighbourhood when cholera became epidemic. I then - partially inspected the dwellings of the poor, and have recently - completed the survey. It is almost incredible that so many sources of - malaria should exist in a rural district. A total absence of all - provision for effectual drainage around cottages is the most prominent - source of malaria; throughout the whole district there is scarcely an - attempt at it. The refuse, vegetable and animal matters, are also - thrown by the cottagers in heaps near their dwellings to decompose; - are sometimes not removed, except at very long intervals; and are - always permitted to remain sufficiently long to accumulate in some - quantity. Pigsties are generally near the dwellings, and are always - surrounded by decomposing matters. These constitute some of the many - sources of malaria, and peculiarly deserve attention as being easily - remedied, and yet, as it were, cherished. The effects of malaria are - strikingly exemplified in parts of this district. There are localities - from which fever is seldom long absent; and I find spots where the - spasmodic cholera located itself are also the chosen resorts of - continued fever.” - -Passing the metropolis and the adjacent districts, I proceed to the -evidence as to the condition of the dwellings of the poorest classes in -the midland counties. - -The report from Mr. Hodgson and the physicians of the town of Birmingham -will be considered a valuable public document, as exhibiting the effect -of drainage produced by a peculiarly fortunate situation. The houses, of -which I requested drawings, are on the whole built upon an improved -plan. This town, it will be seen, is distinguished apparently by an -immunity from fever, and the general health of the population is high, -although the occupations are such as are elsewhere deemed prejudicial to -health. - -The following extract from _Mr. Hodgkins_, the medical officer of -Bilston, in the Wolverhampton Union, describes the condition of the -population of a colliery district:— - - “Bilston, like Wolverhampton, has not been visited by fever to any - extent since the cholera in 1832. The awful destruction which then - occurred swept off many of those subjects who might afterwards have - been victims of fever; in fact Bilston was, after the cessation of - cholera, nearly free from disease of any kind for several months. - Influenza has occasionally visited us and swept off a few. Small-pox a - few years ago was prevalent, but not very fatal, although many - children from negligence on the part of the parents are not - vaccinated. Scarlet fever has appeared sometimes, but only in - straggling cases. The occupations of the poorer classes are chiefly - colliers, labourers, &c., great members of the latter being Irish. The - houses of those applying for parochial medical relief which I have - visited have been dirty and crowded, the habits of the working classes - here being generally improvident and dirty, many parties forming heaps - of filth close to their doors; and here, as in Wolverhampton, I am - afraid it would require the interference of the law to effect any - permanent good. Some years ago a large culvert was carried down the - principal street which has made a great improvement in that part, but - much yet remains undrained. I would mention a place in High-street - especially, near to a court, crowded with Irish, there is a pool of - green stagnant water or mud continually; another place called the - Berry, behind the King’s Arms Inn, and a third in a court in - Temple-street, where there appears to be a drain which has been choked - up, the stench from which is intolerable.” - -_Dr. Edward Knight_ gives the following description of the sanitary -condition of the town of Stafford:— - - “During the year ending September 29th, 1839, there have been in the - fever-wards connected with the Stafford County General Infirmary 76 - cases of fever, of which number 10 have died, and the remaining 66 - were discharged cured. The far greater part of these cases commenced - in the town of Stafford, some being brought to the infirmary in a - dying state, which gives a greater rate of mortality. Although the - fever-wards are well arranged, and every comfort and attention - provided for the patients, there is a general dislike on the part of - the poor to be removed to them from their own houses, except in cases - of actual necessity. - - “Owing to this, and the filthy state of those parts of the town - occupied exclusively by the lower classes, as the ‘Broad-eye,’ - ‘Back-walls,’ &c., we have generally more or less of infectious - diseases during the autumn and winter months in each year, and - although such diseases do not extend their ravages to the more - respectable inhabitants, the above form but a very small portion of - the cases which occur. - - “These parts of the town are without drainage, the houses, which are - private property, are built without any regard to situation or - ventilation, and constructed in a manner to ensure the greatest return - at the least possible outlay. The accommodation in them does not - extend beyond two rooms; these are small, and, for the most part, the - families work in the day-time in the same room in which they sleep, to - save fuel. - - “There is not any provision made for refuse dirt, which, as the least - trouble, is thrown down in front of the houses, and there left to - putrefy. The back entrances to the houses in the principal streets are - generally into these, the stabling and cow-houses, &c., belonging to - them, forming one side of the street, and the manure, refuse vegetable - matter, &c., carried into the street, and placed opposite to the - poorer houses; so that they are continually subjected to the malaria - arising from that, in addition to their own dirt. - - “The sedentary occupation of the working classes (shoemaking being the - staple trade of the town), their own want of cleanliness and general - intemperance, form, also, a fruitful source of disease. One-half of - the week is usually spent in the public-houses, and the other half - they work night and day to procure the necessary subsistence for their - families. There is a great want of improvement in the moral character - of the poor; they can obtain sufficient wages to support their - families respectably, but they are improvident and never make any - provision against illness. A local Act for the improvement of the town - empowers the commissioners to remove nuisances; but no notice is ever - taken. The situation of Stafford also offers every facility for an - efficient drainage; it is nearly surrounded by a large ditch, in which - there might be a running stream of water, well calculated to remove - all impurities; but it is always choked up, and in a stagnant state. - The river ‘Sow’ is also close to the town. There are not any sewers - even in the principal streets, the water being carried off by open - channels. In the Lunatic Asylum, which closely adjoins the town, and - averages 250 patients, great attention is paid to cleanliness, and we - never have any infectious diseases.” - -In the month of December, 1839, an application was made to the Board for -advice and aid to meet the emergencies created by an epidemic which had -broken out in the parish of Breadsall in the Shardlow union -(Derbyshire). Mr. Senior, the Assistant Commissioner for the district, -accompanied Dr. Kennedy to the spot where the fever was prevalent, and -that report[2] may be submitted to attention, as containing a picture of -the habits of a large proportion of the population of that part of the -country, and an exemplification in a group of individual cases of the -common causes and effects of such calamities on the labouring -population. - -The report from Dr. Baker, of Derby, and Mr. Senior’s report, comprising -the returns from the medical officers of Nottingham, Lincoln, and other -rural and town unions within his district, pourtray the sanitary -condition of a large proportion of the population included in them. - -Proceeding northward, a report from _Mr. Bland_, the medical officer of -the Macclesfield union, gives the following description of the state of -the residences occupied by many of the labourers of that town:— - - “In a part of the town called the Orchard, Watercoates, there are 34 - houses without back doors, or other complete means of ventilation; the - houses are chiefly small, damp, and dark; they are rendered worse with - respect to dampness perhaps than they would be from the habit of the - people closing their windows to keep them warm. To these houses are - three privies uncovered; here little pools of water, with all kinds of - offal, dead animal and vegetable matter are heaped together, a most - foul and putrid mass, disgusting to the sight, and offensive to the - smell; the fumes of contagion spreads periodically itself in the - neighbourhood, and produces different types of fever and disorder of - the stomach and bowels. The people inhabiting these abodes are pale - and unhealthy, and in one house in particular are pale, bloated, and - rickety.” - -_Mr. William Rayner_, the medical officer of the Heaton Norris district -of the Stockport union describes the condition of a part of the -population of that place:— - - “The localities in which fever mostly prevails in my district, are - Shepherd’s Buildings and Back Water Street, both in the township of - Heaton Norris. Shepherd’s Buildings consist of two rows of houses with - a street seven yards wide between them; each row consists of what are - styled back and front houses—that is two houses placed back to back. - There are no yards or out-conveniences; the privies are in the centre - of each row, about a yard wide; over them there is part of a - sleeping-room; there is no ventilation in the bed-rooms; each house - contains two rooms, viz., a house place and sleeping room above; each - room is about three yards wide and four long. In one of these houses - there are nine persons belonging to one family, and the mother on the - eve of her confinement. There are 44 houses in the two rows, and 22 - cellars, all of the same size. The cellars are let off as separate - dwellings; these are dark, damp, and very low, not more than six feet - between the ceiling and floor. The street between the two rows is - seven yards wide, in the centre of which is the common gutter, or more - properly sink, into which all sorts of refuse is thrown; it is a foot - in depth. Thus there is always a quantity of putrefying matter - contaminating the air. At the end of the rows is a pool of water very - shallow and stagnant, and a few yards further, a part of the town’s - gas works. In many of these dwellings there are four persons in one - bed. - - “Backwater-street, the other locality of fever, is proverbially the - most filthy street in the town, contains a number of lodging-houses - and Irish, who mostly live in dark damp cellars, in which the light - can scarcely penetrate. - - “It is not to be wondered at that such places should be the constant - foci of fevers; there is scarcely a house in Shepherd’s-buildings that - has not been affected with fever, and in some instances repeatedly: - new residents are most liable to be affected, the force of habit, or - some other protecting influence seems to render those who have lived - there some time less liable to be attacked. The same circumstance has - been noticed by others, and M. Louis, who is known throughout Europe, - having made this subject one of particular observation, states that it - is generally within the first year that new comers take fever, whilst - the old inhabitants who are equally exposed to the same exciting - causes escape.” - -The report of Dr. Baron Howard, on the condition of the population of -Manchester, and that of Dr. Duncan, on the condition of the population -of Liverpool, will make up a progressive view of the condition of the -labouring population in those parts of the country. The Report of one of -the medical officers of the West Derby union, with relation to the -condition of the labouring population connected with Liverpool, will -serve to show that the evils in question are not confined to the -labouring population of the town properly so called. - - “The locality of the residences of the labouring classes are in - respect to the surrounding atmosphere favourably situated, but their - internal structure and economy the very reverse of favourable. The - cottages are in general built more with a view to the per centage of - the landlord than to the accommodation of the poor. The joiner’s work - is ill performed; admitting by the doors, windows, and even floors, - air in abundance, which, however, in many cases, is not - disadvantageous to the inmates. The houses generally consist of three - apartments, viz., the day-room, into which the street-door opens, and - two bed-rooms, one above the other. There is likewise beneath the - day-room a cellar, let off either by the landlord or tenant of the - house, to a more improvident class of labourers; which cellar, in - almost all cases, is small and damp, and often crowded with - inhabitants to excess. These cellars are, in my opinion, the source of - many diseases, particularly catarrh, rheumatic affections, and tedious - cases of typhus mitior, which, owing to the overcrowded state of the - apartment, occasionally pass into typhus gravior. I need scarcely add - that the furniture and bedding are in keeping with the miserable - inmates. The rooms above the day-room are often let separately by the - tenant to lodgers, varying in number from one or two, to six or eight - individuals in each, their slovenly habits, indolence, and consequent - accumulation of filth go far to promote the prevalence of contagious - and infectious diseases. - - “The houses already alluded to front the street, but there are houses - in back courts still more unfavourably placed, which also have their - cellars, and their tenants of a description worse, if possible. There - is commonly only one receptacle for refuse in a court of eight, ten, - or twelve densely crowded houses. In the year 1836–7, I attended a - family of 13, twelve of whom had typhus fever, without a bed in the - _cellar_, without straw or timber shavings—frequent substitutes. They - lay on the floor, and so crowded, that I could scarcely pass between - them. In another house I attended 14 patients; there were only two - beds in the house. All the patients, as lodgers, lay on the boards, - and during their illness, never had their clothes off. I met with many - cases in similar conditions, yet amidst the greatest destitution and - want of domestic comfort, I have never heard during the course of - twelve years’ practice, a complaint of inconvenient accommodation.” - -The following extract from the report of _Mr. Pearson_, medical officer -of the Wigan union, is descriptive of the condition of large classes of -tenements in the manufacturing towns of Lancashire:— - - “From the few observations which I have been enabled to make - respecting the causes of fever during the two months which I have held - the situation of house surgeon to the Dispensary, I am inclined to - consider the filthy condition of the town as being the most prominent - source. Many of the streets are unpaved and almost covered with - stagnant water, which lodges in numerous large holes which exist upon - their surface, and into which the inhabitants throw all kinds of - rejected animal and vegetable matters, which then undergo decay and - emit the most poisonous exhalations. These matters are often allowed, - from the filthy habits of the inhabitants of these districts, many of - whom, especially the poor Irish, are utterly regardless both of - personal and domestic cleanliness, to accumulate to an immense extent, - and thus become prolific sources of malaria, rendering the atmosphere - an active poison. The streets which particularly exhibit this - condition are Ashton-street, Hanover-street, Stuart-street, - John-street, Lord-street, Duke-street, Princess-street, and the short - streets leading from Queen-street, into Faggy-lane and - Princess-street. It may be also mentioned, that in many of these - streets there are no privies, or, if there are, they are in so filthy - a condition as to be absolutely useless; the absence of these must, - necessarily, increase the quantity of filth, and thus materially add - to the extent of the nuisance. - - “In addition to the streets above mentioned, there are, besides, two - other localities, which must be considered as peculiarly fitted for - the generation of malaria—I mean the waste land in front of Bradshaw - Gate, and also that situated between Greenough’s-row and - Kerfoot’s-row; the latter is one complete pool of stagnant water, - mixed with various descriptions of putrifying animal and vegetable - matters. Many of the yards and courts in various parts of the town are - so built up as to prevent the movements of the atmosphere, and are in - a horribly filthy state, in consequence of dunghills which are - situated therein being allowed to grow to an immense size, and the - water which drains therefrom being permitted to flow over the - surface.” - -Proceeding northwards, little difference is observable in the condition -of the working classes in the ancient towns, where the habitations were -crowded for the sake of fortification, and in the manufacturing towns, -where the habitations are crowded for the sake of vicinity to the places -of work, or from ignorance and inattention, or from the high price of -land. We cite the following instances of the condition of the -habitations and population in Durham, Barnard Castle, and Carlisle:— - -_Mr. Nicholas Oliver_, Durham, states that— - - “The city of Durham, like all ancient cities and towns, is built very - irregularly, and surrounded on all sides by the river Wear, which is - frequently overflown, and much wooded. These in summer and autumn, by - the combined influences of heat, moisture, and decaying vegetable - substances, become abundant sources of malaria. The streets are very - narrow, and the houses are built so much behind each other that the - entrance to a great many of the dwellings is by a passage, lane, or - alley, either a steep ascent or descent, where, from a proper want of - receptacles and sewers, filth is allowed to accumulate, and there - necessarily is a constant emanation of fœtid effluvia. The majority of - the houses are very old and in a dilapidated state, several not being - weather proof. The great bulk of the working classes inhabit these - tenements, and they seldom occupy more than two rooms, many only one, - where all that is requisite in conducing to cleanliness and comfort - has to be performed. - - “The spirit of improvement, which is making such rapid strides in - other parts of the country, is here quite dormant. Nothing calls - louder for the attention of the constituted authorities than the - improvements which might be effected in the habitations of the - industrious classes, thereby increasing their health, comfort, and - happiness.” - -_Mr. George Brown_, of Barnard Castle, in the Teesdale union, states -that— - - “The residences of the labouring population within the Teesdale Union, - especially in Barnard Castle and the more populous villages, is mostly - in large houses let into tenements. At least four-fifths of the - weavers in Barnard Castle live in such residences, and about one half - of all the other labouring poor in the Union. The tenements which form - the residences of the weavers and other labourers in Barnard Castle - are principally situate in Thorngage, Bridgegate, and the lower parts - of the town, and in confined yards and alleys. The houses are many of - them very large. I am told somewhere there are as many as 50 or more - individuals under one roof. There is generally, perhaps, one privy to - a whole yard (or onset as they term it), embracing five or six houses. - From the crowded state of these dwelling-houses, and the filthiness of - many of their inmates, disease would undoubtedly arise more commonly - than it actually does, but the river Tees flows at the foot of each - yard, running alongside of all the houses in Bridgegate. The - impurities are thus speedily carried away, and the evils which might - otherwise be expected from the effluvia of vegetable and other bodies - in a state of decomposition are prevented; besides which, the houses - in general being large and the poorer class in the upper stories, they - are more protected against cold and damp.” - -_Mr. Brown_, in regard to Barnard Castle, further states, that— - - “A surgeon here of great intelligence and practice states that in the - town of Barnard Castle he has always found the most obstinate cases of - typhus and other epidemics, and also rheumatism, to prevail amongst - the houses on the west side of the principal street. These houses - slope towards the moat of the old castle, which is not sufficiently - drained; and the thick and high walls of the ruins of the castle - retain the damp, and prevent the accession of the western winds to the - moat and many of the houses. In the interior of the castle, now used - as a garden, there is a stagnant pond which ought to be drained off: - this pond is nearly opposite the yards, which are full of the - residences of the poorer classes, and called the Swamp. Disease is - often found to exist in these yards, and the surgeon I have referred - to attributes to it the dampness of the moat (upon or on the margin of - which the houses are built) and to the pond before mentioned. All the - houses on the west side of the street have one step, and some more, - down from the street. I am also told by the same surgeon that very - many of the cases of fever and rheumatism which he attends may be - fairly traced to the dampness of houses or want of sufficient drainage - of the ground previously to building, and their being built below the - level of the adjoining ground, by which the moisture is thrown into - them.” - -_Mr. Rowland_, of Carlisle, states— - - “Though Carlisle abounds with beautiful walks, it generally has them - accompanied with filthy putrid gutters, and there seems no mode of - compelling any one to clean them out. The city is surrounded with such - nuisances; on the south side at the foot of Botchergate, there is a - gutter, perhaps a mile long, which conducts the filth of that quarter - through the fields into the river Petteril. The stench in summer is - very great. The filth seems to accumulate from want of descent, and - probably the whole descent is in the first field next Botchergate. If - this gutter was paved and the descent made regular, I have no doubt it - would keep itself clean.” - -The following is a brief notice of the condition of the residences of -the population amidst which the cholera first made its appearance in -this country. - -_Mr. Robert Atkinson_, Gateshead, states, that— - - “It is impossible to give a proper representation of the wretched - state of many of the inhabitants of the indigent class, situated in - the confined streets called Pipewellgate and Killgate, which are kept - in a most filthy state, and to a stranger would appear inimical to the - existence of human beings, where each small, ill ventilated apartment - of the house contained a family with lodgers in number from seven to - nine, and seldom more than two beds for the whole. The want of - convenient offices in the neighbourhood is attended with many very - unpleasant circumstances, as it induces the lazy inmates to make use - of chamber utensils, which are suffered to remain in the most - offensive state for several days, and are then emptied out of the - windows. The writer had occasion a short time ago to visit a person - ill of the cholera; his lodgings were in a room of a miserable house - situated in the very filthiest part of Pipewellgate, divided into six - apartments, and occupied by different families to the number of 26 - persons in all. The room contained three wretched beds with two - persons sleeping in each: it measured about 12 feet in length and 7 in - breadth, and its greatest height would not admit of a person’s - standing erect; it received light from a small window, the sash of - which was fixed. Two of the number lay ill of the cholera, and the - rest appeared afraid of the admission of pure air, having carefully - closed up the broken panes with plugs of old linen.” - -The _Rev. Dr. Gilly_, the vicar of Norham and canon of Durham, in an -appeal in behalf of the border peasantry, describes their dwellings as -“built of rubble or unhewn stone, loosely cemented; and from age, or -from badness of the materials, the walls look as if they would scarcely -hold together.” The chinks gape in so many places as admit blasts of -wind:— - - “The chimneys have lost half their original height, and lean on the - roof with fearful gravitation. The rafters are evidently rotten and - displaced; and the thatch, yawning to admit the wind and wet in some - parts, and in all parts utterly unfit for its original purpose of - giving protection from the weather, looks more like the top of a - dunghill than of a cottage. - - “Such is the exterior; and when the hind comes to take possession, he - finds it no better than a shed. The wet, if it happens to rain, is - making a puddle on the earth floor. (This earth floor, by the bye, is - one of the causes to which Erasmus ascribed the frequent recurrence of - epidemic sickness among the cotters of England more than 300 years - ago. It is not only cold and wet, but contains the aggregate filth of - years, from the time of its first being used. The refuse and dropping - of meals, decayed animal and vegetable matter of all kinds, which has - been cast upon it from the mouth and stomach, these all mix together - and exude from it.) Window-frame there is none. There is neither oven, - nor copper, nor grate, nor shelf, nor fixture of any kind; all these - things he has to bring with him, besides his ordinary articles of - furniture. Imagine the trouble, the inconvenience, and the expense - which the poor fellow and his wife have to encounter before they can - put this shell of a hut into anything like a habitable form. This year - I saw a family of eight—husband, wife, two sons, and four - daughters—who were in utter discomfort, and in despair of putting - themselves in a decent condition, three or four weeks after they had - come into one of these hovels. In vain did they try to stop up the - crannies, and to fill up the holes in the floor, and to arrange their - furniture in tolerably decent order, and to keep out the weather. - Alas! what will they not suffer in the winter! There will be no - fireside enjoyment for them. They may huddle together for warmth, and - heap coals on the fire; but they will have chilly beds and a damp - hearth-stone; and the cold wind will sweep through the roof, and - window, and crazy door-place, in spite of all their endeavours to - exclude it. - - “The general character of the best of the old-fashioned hind’s - cottages in this neighbourhood is bad at the best. They have to bring - everything with them—partitions, window-frames, fixtures of all kinds, - grates, and a substitute for ceiling; for they are, as I have already - called them, mere sheds. They have no byre for their cows nor sties - for their pigs, no pumps or wells, nothing to promote cleanliness or - comfort. The average size of these sheds is about 24 by 16. They are - dark and unwholesome. The windows do not open; and many of them are - not larger than 20 inches by 16; and into this place are crowded 8, - 10, or even 12 persons.” - -In a selection of plans and drawings of labourers’ dwellings will be -found a sketch of a group of hinds’ cottages, such as those described by -Dr. Gilly. - -The progress of the inquiry into Scotland shows the external and -internal condition of the poorer classes of the population to be still -more deplorable. The condition of a large portion of the labouring -population of the smaller towns, and of the rural districts, is -displayed in the Report of Dr. Scott Alison, on the sanitary condition -and general economy of the population of Tranent; in the Report of Mr. -Stevenson, on the condition of the town of Musselburgh; that of Dr. Sym, -on the town of Ayr, to which further reference will subsequently be -made. - -The description given of the houses of labourers of Lochmaben, by _Mr. -Wilson_, surgeon, is one which characterizes a large class of houses -throughout Scotland:— - - “In Lochmaben, they are surrounded by low meadow lands subject to - frequent inundations, marshes and lakes, with dunghills and pools of - dirty water, in which vegetable substances are soaked for the purpose - of making manure on all sides of the dwellings. These houses, similar - to the dwellings of the generality of the labouring classes, consist - of a building 30 feet in length by 16 feet in breadth within the - walls; the floor is formed of clay; ceiling, if any, generally formed - by spars of wood laid close together, and covered with dry turf; one - front door and two front windows. This building is usually occupied by - two families, entering by the same door; the partitions are formed by - the back of the beds, which will be best understood by describing them - as wooden boxes open on one side; the windows rarely are made to open, - so that they are ventilated by the door; but having little fuel, the - door must be kept shut to maintain warmth, and the chimneys being - badly constructed, the dwelling is often full of smoke. Potatoes are - often kept under the beds. There are no proper receptacles for filth - attached to the houses.” - -The most wretched of the stationary population of which I have been able -to obtain any account, or that I have ever seen, was that which I saw in -company with _Dr. Arnott_, and others, in the wynds of Edinburgh and -Glasgow. - -I prefer citing his description of the residences we visited:— - - “In the survey which I had the opportunity of making in September, - 1840, of the state of Edinburgh and Glasgow, all appeared confirmatory - of the view of the subject of fevers submitted to the Poor Law - Commissioners by those who prepared the Report in London. - - “In Glasgow, which I first visited, it was found that the great mass - of the fever cases occurred in the low wynds and dirty narrow streets - and courts, in which, because lodging was there cheapest, the poorest - and most destitute naturally had their abodes. From one such locality, - between Argyll-street and the river, 754 of about 5000 cases of fever - which occurred in the previous year were carried to the hospitals. In - a perambulation on the morning of September 24th, with Mr. Chadwick, - Dr. Alison, Dr. Cowan (since deceased, who had laboured so - meritoriously to alleviate the misery of the poor in Glasgow), the - police magistrate, and others, we examined these wynds, and, to give - an idea of the whole vicinity, I may state as follows:— - - “We entered a dirty low passage like a house door, which led from the - street through the first house to a square court immediately behind, - which court, with the exception of a narrow path around it leading to - another long passage through a second house, was occupied entirely as - a dung receptacle of the most disgusting kind. Beyond this court the - second passage led to a second square court, occupied in the same way - by its dunghill; and from this court there was yet a third passage - leading to a third court, and third dungheap. There were no privies or - drains there, and the dungheaps received all filth which the swarm of - wretched inhabitants could give; and we learned that a considerable - part of the rent of the houses was paid by the produce of the - dungheaps. Thus, worse off than wild animals, many of which withdraw - to a distance and conceal their ordure, the dwellers in these courts - had converted their shame into a kind of money by which their lodging - was to be paid. The interiors of these houses and their inmates - corresponded with the exteriors. We saw half-dressed wretches crowding - together to be warm; and in one bed, although in the middle of the - day, several women were imprisoned under a blanket, because as many - others who had on their backs all the articles of dress that belonged - to the party were then out of doors in the streets. This picture is so - shocking that, without ocular proof, one would be disposed to doubt - the possibility of the facts; and yet there is perhaps no old town in - Europe that does not furnish parallel examples. London, before the - great fire of 1666, had few drains and had many such scenes, and the - consequence was, a pestilence occurring at intervals of about 12 - years, each destroying at an average about a fourth of the - inhabitants. - - “Who can wonder that pestilential disease should originate and spread - in such situations? And, as a contrast, it may be observed here, that - when the kelp manufacture lately ceased on the western shores of - Scotland, a vast population of the lowest class of people who had been - supported chiefly by the wages of kelp-labour remained in extreme - want, with cold, hunger, and almost despair pressing them down—yet, as - their habitations were scattered and in pure air, cases of fever did - not arise among them. - - “Edinburgh stands on a site beautifully varied by hill and hollow, and - owing to this, unusual facilities are afforded for perfect drainage; - but the old part of the town was built long before the importance of - drainage was understood in Britain, and in the unchanged parts there - is none but by the open channels in the streets, wynds, and closes or - courts. To remedy the want of covered drains, there is in many - neighbourhoods a very active service of scavengers to remove - everything which open drains cannot be allowed to carry; but this does - not prevent the air from being much more contaminated by the frequent - stirring and sweeping of impurities than if the transport were - effected under ground; and there are here and there enclosed spaces - between houses too small to be used for any good purpose but not - neglected for bad, and to which the scavengers have not access. - - “Another defect in some parts of Edinburgh is the great size and - height of the houses (some of them exceeding ten stories), with common - stairs, sometimes as filthy as the streets or wynds to which they - open. By this construction the chance of cleanliness is lessened, the - labour of carrying up necessaries, and particularly water for the - purposes of purifying is increased; and if any malaria or contagion - exist in the house, the probability of its passing from dwelling to - dwelling on the same stair is much greater than if there were no - communication but through the open air. Illustrating how malaria may - be produced, I may state that in making a round of observation with - Mr. Chadwick, attended by the Police Superintendent, and others, we - visited a house at the back of the Canongate, which in former days had - been the chief inn of the city, but now, with its internal court-yard - of steep ascent, is occupied by families of the labouring classes. In - the court-yard a widow of respectable appearance, who answered some of - our questions, occupied a room which appeared on the ground-floor, as - seen from the court, but was above a stable, now used as a pigsty, - opening to the lower level of the external street. A little while - before, on the occasion of the dungheap being removed from the pigsty, - two children who lived with her, a daughter and a niece, were made ill - by the effluvia from below, and both died within a few days. - - “The facts here referred to go far to explain why fatal fever has been - more common in Edinburgh than from other circumstances would have been - anticipated.” - -It might admit of dispute, but, on the whole, it appeared to us that -both the structural arrangements and the condition of the population in -Glasgow was the worst of any we had seen in any part of Great Britain. - - - - -II.—PUBLIC ARRANGEMENTS EXTERNAL TO THE RESIDENCES BY WHICH THE SANITARY - CONDITION OF THE LABOURING POPULATION IS AFFECTED. - - -I now propose to bring under consideration those parts of the various -local reports and communications which most prominently set forth -special defects that apparently admit of specific remedies. - -The defects which are the most important, and which come most -immediately within practical legislative and administrative control, are -those chiefly _external_ to the dwellings of the population, and -principally arise from the neglect of drainage. The remedies include the -means for drainage simply, _i. e._, the means for the removal of an -excess of moisture; and - -The means for the removal of the noxious refuse of houses, streets, and -roads, by sewerage, by supplies of water, and by the service of -scavengers and sweepers. - - - _Town Drainage of Streets and Houses._ - -The sanitary effects obtainable by an efficient town drainage, -independently of all other measures, is exhibited in various parts of -the country by such particular instances as the following:— - -_Dr. Baker_, in his report on the sanitary condition of Derby states:— - - “At the back of the whole row (on the north side of the street) there - runs a series of little gardens, each house possessing one, in width - equal to the frontage of the house it belongs to, and in length 56 - feet. To every five houses there is a pump; and at the bottom of each - garden a double privy, answering for two houses, the cesspool shallow, - and open to the air; and to this nuisance many have added a pigsty, - and dung or rubbish heap. The inhabitants of this street are poor - people, chiefly silk-weavers, and what are here called - frame-work-knitters or stockingers. - - “There are on this (the north) side of the street 54 houses, and - between October, 1837, and the latter part of March, 1838, the - families inhabiting six adjoining houses in the middle of the row were - grievously afflicted with typhus fever, whilst those who dwelt in the - remaining 48 houses were comparatively healthy. - - “The following list will give at one view the details of this - visitation. - - “The houses are numbered from the bottom of the hill towards the top. - - ┌──────┬───────────┬───────┬──────────────────────────────────────────┐ - │Number│Name of the│Number │ REMARKS. │ - │of the│ Family. │ of │ │ - │House.│ │Persons│ │ - │ │ │ ill │ │ - │ │ │ with │ │ - │ │ │Fever. │ │ - ├──────┼───────────┼───────┼──────────────────────────────────────────┤ - │No. 25│Langton. │ 3 │Children, all of whom recovered. │ - │No. 26│Dearu. │ 4 │Man and wife, the former died. │ - │No. 27│Bailey. │ 1 │Man, who recovered. │ - │No. 28│Nettleship.│ 4 │Three children, and subsequently their │ - │ │ │ │ mother. The children, after many weeks, │ - │ │ │ │ recovered, but the poor mother (who was │ - │ │ │ │ pregnant), being much weakened by the │ - │ │ │ │ fever, and long attendance upon her │ - │ │ │ │ children, died soon afterwards in │ - │ │ │ │ child-bed. │ - │No. 29│Curzon. │ 5 │First a lodger, named Elizabeth Sherwin, │ - │ │ │ │ (recently confined) and her infant, both│ - │ │ │ │ died. Then three of Curzon’s children, │ - │ │ │ │ who recovered. │ - │No. 30│Hatfield. │ 1 │A girl, who recovered. │ - └──────┴───────────┴───────┴──────────────────────────────────────────┘ - - “In all 16 persons attacked with typhus fever, of whom five died. - - “Here then we have a very interesting subject for investigation; - namely, how was it that in a row of 54 houses, uniform in situation, - size, and construction, tenanted by the same description of persons, - the inhabitants of the six centre houses should have been attacked by - a malignant fever, from which those who lived in the 24 houses above - and 24 below them altogether escaped? - - “By a careful inspection of the whole row I obtained the following - information and facts:—That before this street was built, the natural - moisture of the land, and any sudden rush of water caused by rain, was - carried away by a ditch running down the whole length of the hill, - where the present gardens terminate. Also, that in the gardens of the - upper 21 or 22 houses this ditch had been filled up; and sinks and - drains, communicating with the main sewer, that passes down the middle - of the street, had been placed between each garden and the - dwelling-house. At this point too there is a brick wall, carried down - to the bottom of the garden, and dividing this property from the - adjoining, and it is very probable that this wall assisted in checking - the spread of the fever from the six infected houses, at which part of - the row we have now arrived. - - “The state of the premises belonging to these ill-fated houses was as - follows:—The ditch already alluded to as passing at the bottom of the - gardens was here not filled up; there were not any sinks and drains, - and the cesspools were overflowing into the ditch, which, here and - there obstructed, formed a succession of foul and stinking pools, from - four to six feet wide; whilst the earth of the gardens was perpetually - saturated with the offensive moisture exuding from them. - - “The want of drains, or their faulty construction, may render any - situation unhealthy; nor must it be supposed that because high lands - in the open country seldom require draining, that it is therefore - little needed in elevated portions of a town, for in the latter there - are always dirt and slops that require carrying away from the houses - that produce them. And inasmuch as drains in high situations never get - such a thorough washing out by rain and natural moisture as those do - which, from being in lower grounds, receive a swollen and accumulated - stream, the former require the greater attention to keep them from - becoming foul and obstructed: and it is not a little remarkable that - three elevated parts of the town of Derby are hardly ever exempt from - fever. They are the Burton-road (district No. 2 in the table), - Litchurch-street (district No. 3), and Parker’s Flats (district No. - 12). - - “In the latter end of the year 1837 and beginning of 1838, - Litchurch-street afforded a striking instance of a situation which - promised exemption from malaria and disease, being heavily visited by - typhus fever, caused, as I shall show, by the most wilful inattention - to drainage. - - “Litchurch-street is situated in the southern suburb of Derby, from - which indeed, although forming a part of the Derby union, it is - separated by intervening fields and nursery-grounds belonging to the - General Infirmary. Its course is nearly east and west, running down - the side of a gentle declivity. The houses in Litchurch-street have - not been built many years; are rather small, but are double houses, - having a front and back room on the ground floor, and over these a - front and back bed-room. - - “Descending the hill to the remaining 24 houses (below those - infected), and which, from their standing upon lower ground, might - reasonably be expected to have fared worse, I soon discovered from - whence their protection came. The land adjoining the Litchurch-street - gardens belongs, as I have already stated, to the General Infirmary, - and the governors of that institution had eight years before built a - wall in the former course of the ditch, before spoken of, which wall - extended from the foot of the hill as far up as the house No. 24; at - the same time they had filled up the ditch, carrying its contents by a - drain away from the gardens below and into the nearest public sewer: - now reference to the list detailing the amount and progress of the - fever on this occasion will show that No. 25 was the first house - affected. The connexion therefore between the facts here furnished and - the tragedy of the six houses is too obvious to require further - comment. - - “I shall conclude this part of my subject by adding, that from motives - of both humanity and economy, the Board of Guardians and the governors - of the infirmary jointly exerted themselves to get rid of so serious a - nuisance, that the latter, at an expense of more than 50_l._, extended - the wall of separation between Litchurch-street and their own lands, - but that, in all other respects, the evil remains now (two years - since) as it was then; nor was there found any law that would compel - its removal, the place complained of being private property. - - “My friend Mr. Harwood, surgeon of the Derby union, informs me that in - Canal-street (district 5 of table 1) five sisters in one family were - successively attacked with typhus fever, caused by the escape of foul - air from a drain. - - “It appears that a drain, coming from some neighbouring privies, had - been carried so near to the house in which they resided as to form - part of the boundary wall of the cellar, which had for some time - previous become too offensive to be used. - - “Four months elapsed before this family became free from disease; no - return of which, however, has taken place since the removal of the - drain, which now passes at a greater distance. - - “Taken altogether, I think that in large towns (and villages also) - there is hardly any source of disease more powerful as to its - pernicious influence, or more general as to extent, than defective - drainage.” - -_Mr. John Rayner_, the medical officer of the Stockport union, states in -his report on the condition of that town:— - - “There is a street of about 200 yards in length, the houses of which - are of excellent construction, with very few exceptions, and without - those unhealthy places, viz., cellar dwellings. The upper third of it - is unpaved and without sewerage. It is 10 yards wide, and the - inhabitants are generally very clean, as respects both their persons - and dwellings; and notwithstanding they are, without exception, well - fed and clad, fever has gradually prevailed, _but only on the north - side_ of the street. The situation is not a confined one, neither do - the houses differ either as to convenience or cleanliness on this side - of it. - - “In the 10 houses at the upper end of this street (three of which are - untenanted) there has been 21 cases of continued fever. Every house, - with three exceptions, has had several cases, in some of them as many - as four in number. In one, five cases have occurred. - - “Seeing this fact, I examined the adjoining yard and gardens, and - found a stagnant pool of water and an open ditch about two feet wide, - into which the refuse water from the houses, and from two pigsties, - was allowed to accumulate. It is about 15 or 20 yards in length. - Adjoining the gable end of one of the untenanted houses were found - heaps of ordure and other refuse matters undergoing the process of - decay. - - “The west end of this street opens into some gardens, where free - ventilation may easily take place, and, I have no doubt, has prevented - the spread of infection to the south side of it.” - -The following is the comparison of the different mortality in a drained -and an undrained district, made by _Mr. Crowfoot_, surgeon, of Beccles, -one of the most eminent of the medical practitioners in Suffolk. In a -letter to Mr. Twisleton, the Assistant Commissioner, he states— - - “You are aware that these two towns of nearly equal population are - nearly alike as to natural advantages of situation, &c., except that - Bungay, having a larger proportion of rural population inhabiting the - district called Bungay Uplands, ought to be more healthy than Beccles, - which has nearly its whole population confined to the town. About 30 - years since, Beccles began a system of drainage, which it has - continued to improve, till at the present time every part of the town - is well drained, and I am not aware of a single open drain in the - place. Bungay, on the contrary, with equally convenient opportunities - for drainage, has neglected its advantages in that respect, has one or - two large reservoirs for filth in the town itself, and some of its - principal drains are open ones. The result you will see is, that - Bungay, with a smaller proportion of town inhabitants, has become of - late years less healthy than Beccles. I have carefully taken the - number of burials from the parish registers of each town for the last - 30 years, and dividing them into decennial periods, I have calculated - the proportion which the deaths bore to the mean population, between - one census and the other, during each 10 years; the only possible - source of fallacy is the want of the census for 1841; but in its - absence I have supposed the same rate of increase as took place - between that of 1821 and that of 1831 for each place. Sinking - fractions, the following has been the proportion of deaths to the - population in the two towns:— - - Beccles. Bungay. - Between the years 1811 and 1821 1 in 67 1 in 69 - Between the years 1821 and 1831 1 in 72 1 in 67 - Between the years 1831 and 1841 1 in 71 1 in 59 - - You will therefore see that the rate of mortality has gradually - diminished in Beccles since it has been drained, whilst in Bungay, - notwithstanding its larger proportion of rural population, it has - considerably increased. - - “The Ditchingham Factory may have given a greater increase of - population to Bungay than I have allowed for, but, on the other hand, - the Roman Catholics and the Independents bury many of their dead in - their own ground, which I have not calculated upon. Since writing the - above, I have been over to Bungay, to examine more particularly the - state of its drainage, which is much worse than I had any idea of. If - their population should much increase, their mortality will increase - much faster.” - -A frightful picture of a considerable proportion of the labouring -population of Leeds in respect to sewerage and drainage is afforded by -the report of _Mr. Baker_, who gives the following instance of -amendment:— - - “In one of the streets of Leeds where stagnant water used frequently - to accumulate after rain, and where there was perpetually occurring - cases of fever of a malignant character, a deputation of females - waited upon me in my capacity of town counsellor to ask if any remedy - could be applied to this nuisance, which they declared was not only - offensive but deadly. I directed them to communicate with the owner of - the property, and to say that if the grievance was not remedied I - should take further steps to enforce it. Never hearing again from the - deputation, I presumed that the remedy had been applied, and had - forgotten the circumstance until the house surgeon of the fever - hospital in 1840, in noticing the localities from whence fever cases - were most frequently brought to the institution, remarked that - ‘formerly many cases of malignant fever were brought in from —— - street, but for two or three years there had been none or not more - than one or two.’” - -_Mr. John Wright_, the relieving officer of the Tamworth union, states, -that the following extracts exhibit the condition in which large masses -of the population are kept by the neglect of the proper means of town -drainage, and of the house cleansing, practicable by means of drains:— - - “Some of the houses in the back streets and courts of Tamworth, - particularly those comprised in Class No. 1, are in a wretched state - with respect to the common conveniences of life, being adjacent to - stagnant ditches and pools of water, and having only one privy, common - to many houses, and hemmed in with piggeries, &c., most of these - houses having no back doors, the consequence of which is, that fevers - and other disorders, generated by filth and malaria, are very - prevalent, particularly in humid weather.” - -_Mr. Elias Barlow_, the relieving officer of the Wolstanton and Burslem -union, states that— - - “The townships of Knutton and Chesterton have been visited with fever - for several months; and it still continues its raging influence, - particularly in Knutton, the reason of which appears to me to be want - of drainage, owing to the houses having been built upon low marshy - ground; and also want of ventilation, owing to the houses being too - small and having no back doors; it first made its appearance in the - lowest class of houses, but has since extended to others.” - -The condition of the labouring population of Liverpool, in respect to -drainage, is thus described in the report of _Dr. Duncan_:— - - “The sewerage of Liverpool was so very imperfect, that about 10 years - ago a local Act was procured, appointing commissioners with power to - levy a rate on the parish for the construction of sewers. Under this - Act, which expires next year, about 100,000_l._. have been expended in - the formation of sewers along the main streets, but many of these are - still unsewered; and with regard to the streets inhabited by the - working classes, I believe that the great majority are without sewers, - and that where they do exist they are of a very imperfect kind unless - where the ground has a natural inclination, therefore the surface - water and fluid refuse of every kind stagnate in the street, and add, - especially in hot weather, their pestilential influence to that of the - more solid filth already mentioned. With regard to the courts, I doubt - whether there is a single court in Liverpool which communicates with - the street by an underground drain, the only means afforded for - carrying off the fluid dirt being a narrow, open, shallow gutter, - which sometimes exists, but even this is very generally choked up with - stagnant filth. - - “There can be no doubt that the emanations from this pestilential - surface, in connexion with other causes, are a frequent source of - fever among the inhabitants of these undrained localities. I may - mention two instances in corroboration of this assertion:—In - consequence of finding that not less than 63 cases of fever had - occurred in one year in Union-court Banastre-street, (containing 12 - houses,) I visited the court in order to ascertain, if possible, their - origin, and I found the whole court inundated with fluid filth which - had oozed through the walls from two adjoining ash-pits or cesspools, - and which had no means of escape in consequence of the court being - below the level of the street, and having no drain. The court was - owned by two different landlords, one of whom had offered to construct - a drain provided the other would join him in the expense; but this - offer having been refused, the court had remained for two or three - years in the state in which I saw it; and I was informed by one of the - inhabitants that the fever was constantly occurring there. The house - nearest the ash-pit had been untenanted for nearly three years in - consequence of the filthy matter oozing up through the floor, and the - occupiers of the adjoining houses were unable to take their meals - without previously closing the doors and windows. Another court in - North-street, consisting of only four small houses I found in a - somewhat similar condition, the air being contaminated by the - emanations from two filthy ruinous privies, a large open ash-pit and a - stratum of semi-fluid abomination covering the whole surface of the - court. - - “From the absence of drains and sewers, there are of course few - cellars entirely free from damp; many of those in low situations are - literally inundated after a fall of rain. To remedy the evil, the - inhabitants frequently make little holes or wells at the foot of the - cellar steps or in the floor itself; and notwithstanding these - contrivances, it has been necessary in some cases to take the door off - its hinges and lay it on the floor supported by bricks, in order to - protect the inhabitants from the wet. Nor is this the full extent of - the evil; the fluid matter of the court privies sometimes oozes - through into the adjoining cellars, rendering them uninhabitable by - any one whose olfactories retain the slightest sensibility. In one - cellar in Lace-street I was told that the filthy water thus collected - measured not less than two feet in depth; and in another cellar, a - well, four feet deep, into which this stinking fluid was allowed to - drain, was discovered below the bed where the family slept!” - -He also states,— - - “There are upwards of 8,000 inhabited cellars in Liverpool, and I - estimate their occupants at from 35,000 to 40,000.” - -He adds that— - - “In a Report lately made by the Surveyors, appointed by the Town - Council to examine the condition of the court and cellar residences - within the borough, it is stated that of 2,398 _courts_ examined, - 1,705 were closed at one end, so as to prevent thorough ventilation. - Of 6,571 _cellars_, whose condition is reported on, 2,988 are stated - to be either wet or damp, and nearly one-third of the whole number are - from 5 to 6 feet below the level of the street.” - -_Dr. Jenks_, in his report on the condition of the town of Brighton, -states,— - - “Owing to the imperfect and insufficient drainage of the town, the - inhabitants are compelled to have recourse to numerous cesspools as - receptacles for superabundant water, and refuse of all kinds; and to - save the inconvenience of frequently emptying them, they dig below the - hard coombe rock till they come to the shingles, where all the liquid - filth drains away. The consequence is inevitable; the springs in the - lower part of the town must be contaminated.” - -But even in Birmingham, which, as will be seen, enjoys almost an -immunity from fever in consequence of the fortunate position of the town -conferring advantages in respect to drainage, and the good construction -of the houses, it appears from the report made by the physicians and -surgeons, that the drainage is in many places extremely defective. - - “The great sewers of the town open into the Rea, or into the rivulets - which discharge their contents into that stream. In some places these - rivulets are now covered over and constitute sewers. The present - sewers, which are numerous and large, appear to be sufficient to carry - off any storms or floods to which the town is liable, and no part of - the town is subject to inundations. The principal streets are well - drained, but this is far from the case with respect to many of the - inferior streets, and to many, or rather most, of the courts, which, - especially in the old parts of the town, are dirty and neglected, with - water stagnating in them. These require immediate attention, and care - ought to be taken that the depth of the main drains is sufficient to - drain the cellars of the adjoining premises, which is not the case in - some parts of the town. It is also important that a system of proper - drainage should be enforced at the commencement of the building of any - new streets or houses. The want of some regulations in this respect - often causes the accumulation of putrid water in ditches and pools in - the immediate vicinity of newly-erected buildings. In some parts of - the borough, as at Edgbaston, there are but few public underground - sewers, and the water from the houses is discharged into the ditches - or gutters by the sides of the roads, where it stagnates. In the - courts the drains are often above ground, and not covered in, and - discharge their contents into the gutters or kennels in the streets. - We do not think that much advantage is derived from having small - underground drains in the courts if the gutters are laid upon a proper - slope and are kept in proper repair, for the weirs or grates of small - underground drains are very apt to be out of order, or to become - choked, in which case accumulations of filthy fluids take place above - them.” - -The inquiry into the sanitary condition of the towns in Scotland shows -that similar defects stand equally in need of remedy in that part of the -empire. _Mr. Burton_, in his report on the provisions of the Police Act -for the city of Edinburgh, observes:— - - “Until very lately the Cowgate, a long street running along the lowest - level of a narrow valley, had only surface drains. The various alleys - from the High-street and other elevated ground open into this street. - In rainy weather they carried with them each its respective stream of - filth, and thus the Cowgate bore the aspect of a gigantic sewer - receiving its tributary drains. A committee of private gentlemen had - the merit of making a spacious sewer 830 yards long in this street at - a cost of 2000_l._ collected by subscription. The utmost extent to - which they received assistance from the police, consisted in being - vested with the authority of the Act as a protection from the - interruption of private parties. During the operation they were - nevertheless harassed by claims of damage for obstructing the - causeway, and their minutes, with a perusal of which I have been - favoured, show that they experienced a series of interruptions from - the neighbouring occupants, likely to discourage others from following - their example.” - -In a communication from _Mr. William Chambers_, he observes— - - “Within these few years, the practice of introducing water-closets - into houses has become pretty general, wherever it is practicable; but - in the greater part of the old town nothing of the kind can be - accomplished from the want of drains. There are drains in the leading - thoroughfares, but few closes possess these conveniences, and water is - also sparingly introduced into these confined situations. You will - therefore understand that a want of tributary drains and water is a - fundamental cause of the uncleanly condition of the town. Of water of - the finest kind there is indeed a plenteous supply, but unfortunately - this is a monopoly in the hands of a joint-stock company, and - excepting at two or three wells, all the water introduced into the - town has to be specially paid for, in the form of a tax upon the - rental, by those who use it.” - -As in England, the ignorance or neglect upon this matter is not confined -to the labouring population of the capital. _Dr. Scott Alison_, in his -report on the condition of Tranent and the adjacent districts, observes -that— - - “There is nothing like an efficient system of drainage in Tranent and - the other villages in the district. There is a piece of drain here and - there, but it is very inefficient. There is not even a sufficient - water-course in the main streets of Tranent; and it frequently - happens, during and after a heavy fall of rain, that the carriage-road - is covered with water, and that some of the lower class of houses are - inundated. In a few parts of the town the water-course is covered with - stones or flags. These occasionally fall in, and openings are made. - These openings are generally left unrepaired, and are not filled up. - People frequently get hurt by stepping into them when it is dark. I - have myself met with an accident; and serious mischief would very - frequently occur did people not pay particular attention to avoid - them.” - -_Dr. Sym_, in his report on the sanitary condition of the town of Ayr, -states that— - - “A good covered sewer traverses the principal streets of the new part - of Ayr; but the old part of the burgh, and both Newton and Wallacetown - have merely shallow open gutters along the sides of the causeway. - These gutters receive all the liquid refuse from the closes and alleys - which communicate with the street, and which are generally causewayed - in such a way that one side is considerably higher than the other, so - as to permit water to find its way to the opposite edge. This sort of - drainage might suffice for all useful purposes in our dry sandy soil - if we had an adequate establishment of scavengers; but the gutters in - many of the streets, and in all the closes inhabited by the poor are - so much neglected, that they are never free from the stinking residuum - of foul water. In Newton and Wallacetown, the drainage is exceedingly - imperfect; indeed, in most streets of the latter it may be said - scarcely to exist, and as the surface is very flat, almost the whole - of the liquid putrescence and filth which are thrown out from the - houses is allowed to filter through the sand, or evaporate in the sun, - leaving a most offensive paste at the sides of the streets, and in the - passages through the houses. This is the more to be regretted, that - the beautiful state of cleanliness of the new part of Ayr, shows with - how little labour it might be obviated with the aid of our absorbent - soil and free atmosphere. There are some streets, the main street of - Newton in particular, which have such inequalities in the causewayed - footpaths, and such want of escape by the gutters, that it is - impossible to find one’s way through them in a dark night, without - many a plunge into the filth. There is everywhere sufficient slope - toward the river to render drainage perfectly effectual, if properly - executed.” - -_Mr. Forrest_, the surgeon, in his account of Stirling, states that— - - “The drains or sewers, called in Stirling ‘_sivers_,’ are all open and - sloping. On the public streets they are, in general, well constructed, - but in the closes their construction is so very bad that scarcely any - of them run well. The only supply of water, so far as I know, which - they receive, is from the heavens. The inhabitants of Stirling, during - many months of the year, do not obtain water sufficient for their - domestic wants, and they cannot, therefore, have any to spare for - their sewers. There is a regularly appointed service of scavengers, - but it is inefficient. A few old men sweep the public streets from - time to time, and the sweepings thus collected are removed in a cart, - without any apparent attention to time or order. Sometimes the - sweepings remain on the streets for many days. To show how matters of - medical police are neglected, I shall state a few facts which are - known to every person in Stirling. 1st. The filth of the gaol, - containing on an average 65 prisoners, is floated down the public - streets every second or third day, and emits, during the whole of its - progress down Broad-street, Bow, Baker-street, and King-street, the - principal streets in the town, the most offensive and disgusting - odour. 2nd. The slaughter-house is situated near the top of the town, - and the blood from it is allowed to flow down the public streets. 3rd. - The lower part of a dwelling-house, not more than three or four yards - from the town-house and gaol, is used as a ‘midding,’ and pigsty, the - filth being thrown into it by the window and door. 4th. There are no - public necessaries; and the common stairs and closes, and even the - public streets, are used habitually as such, by certain classes of the - community. 5th. Two drains from the castle, convey the whole filth of - it into an open field, where it spreads itself over the surface, and - pollutes the atmosphere to a very great extent. 6th. A dwelling-house - in the Castle-hill, the greater part of which is inhabited, is used by - a butcher as a slaughter-house; and some of the butchers kill sheep - and lambs in their back shops, situated under dwelling-houses. 7th. - The closes where the poor dwell, and where accumulations of filth most - abound, are, I may safely say, utterly neglected by the scavengers. In - some situations, the ventilation around the residences is good, but in - many others, and especially in the closes, it is very bad, and in my - opinion, quite irremediable.” - -Before quitting this class of instances, it may here be necessary to -guard against the conclusion that neglect of drainage is confined to -towns, or to numerous and crowded habitations. Similar instances may be -presented, even of single and isolated houses, and of small groups of -rural cottages, in almost every district. Of this last class of cases I -give only one instance, supplied by the evidence of _Mr. J. Thomson_, of -Clitheroe:— - - “Have you not had amongst your own people an instance of pestilence - occasioned by the neglect of removable causes of disease?—In the - summer of 1839 some remarkable cases of fever occurred in my immediate - neighbourhood amongst the inhabitants in my employment, of a small - cluster of houses called Littlemoor. The situation of this little spot - has always been considered, and justly, as remarkably healthy and - agreeable, the soil around it being dry, and not marshy, as the name - would seem to imply. It is situated on gently sloping ground, about a - mile from the town of Clitheroe, and freely exposed on all sides to - the wind. It contained six houses and 21 inhabitants at the time of - the fever. The houses are built in three distinct groups, round an - irregular area of from 50 to 60 feet square. A single, inadequate, and - half-choked-up drain, originally constructed more than 40 years ago, - for the only cottager, then existing on the spot, was the only - underground outlet for the filth, and sink, and surplus water of these - habitations; the rest was carried off by a deep and open ditch filled - with grass and weeds; this ditch spread out, about 100 yards to the - north, into a shallow stagnant pool, in summer green and fœtid; from - which was conveyed all the water that could flow during that season - past and amongst the cottages at Littlemoor. Into the centre of the - open area or yard was poured all the filth of the houses in open - channels, and thence, by the above-mentioned underground drain, - conveyed away. This state of things was bad enough, but was rendered - still worse by the erection recently of a pigsty, the litter and filth - of which not only obstructed the drain, but occasioned a pool of - abomination of the most perilous and disgusting nature. At the time I - saw it—the commencement of the fever—it was overflowing into the - foundation of the principal habitation, and had infected the whole - house with its stench, and was making its way by innumerable black and - fœtid streams through a small shrubbery, the area of which it wholly - covered, into the deep and open ditch. Believing this to be the source - of the pestilence, I had the sty instantly pulled down, the filth - removed, and a large drain brought up to the centre of the yard, - terminating in small covered troughs to each habitation. This was in - the middle of August, and from the hour of the removal of the filth no - fresh case of fever occurred. The first case was on the 12th of May, - and was followed by another in the same house on the 27th. In June - there were three cases; and in July six; in August four; in all, 15; - of which nine were the resident inhabitants, in a population of 21; - and the remaining six, nurses and attendants on the sick, obtained - from the immediate neighbourhood. No fever prevailed at the time in - Clitheroe. One case was fatal, and the health of a most valuable - member of that small community was so seriously affected by the fever - as to cause his death in a short time. A visitor and attendant on the - funeral of the person deceased at Littlemoor, and who took the fever, - died also. This spot has remained, and I doubt not will continue, - healthy ever since. - - “The medical gentleman, Mr. Garstang, of Clitheroe, who attended the - preceding case, has communicated to me the equally striking and - instructive statement I subjoin:—At Chatburn, a village to the north - of Clitheroe, he was called to attend a patient in fever, in the month - of May of the same year 1839. The first object that struck his eye on - approaching the house was a long pole, with a bunch at the end, black - and filthy from its recent use in forcing a choked-up and inaccessible - drain, which passed between and under the gable-ends of two closely - contiguous houses, only a few inches apart, one of which contained his - patient. From this single case and house Mr. G. ascertained that 11 - cases arose, by which means the fever was spread through the country, - where it prevailed with great severity, and terminated, in many - instances, fatally. There was no fever but what could be traced to - this, and no other discoverable source.” - - - _Street and Road Cleansing: Road Pavements._ - -The local arrangements for the cleansing and drainage of towns, &c., -generally present only instances of varieties of grievous defects from -incompleteness and from the want of science or combination of means for -the attainment of the requisite ends. Thus the local reports abound with -instances of expensive main-drains, which from ignorant construction as -to the levels, do not perform their office, and do accumulate -pestilential refuse; others, which have proper levels, but from the want -of proper supplies of water do not act; others, which act only partially -or by surface drainage, in consequence of the neglect of communication -from the houses to the drains; others, where there are drains -communicating from the houses, but where the house-drains do not act, or -only act in spreading the surface of the matter from cesspools, and -increasing the fœtid exhalations from it in consequence of the want of -supplies of water; others again, as in some of the best quarters of the -metropolis, where the supplies of water are adequate, and where the -drains act in the removal of refuse from the house, but where from want -of moderate scientific knowledge or care in their construction, each -drain acts like the neck of a large retort, and serves to introduce into -the house the subtle gas which spreads disease from the accumulations in -the sewers.[3] Other districts there are where their structural -arrangements may be completed, and water supplied, and the under -drainage in action, and yet pestilential accumulations be found spread -before the doors of the population in consequence of the defective -construction, and the neglect of the surface-cleansing of the streets -and roads. Recently a remonstrance was made to an able and active member -of a Commission of Sewers, for taking no steps to extend the drainage in -a wretched district of the metropolis. The reply was, a statement, that -a drain had been cut through a portion of it, but that it had done no -good; and the remonstrant was invited to inspect the district himself, -and judge whether, with streets that were unpaved and uncleansed, wet -and miry, with deep holes full of refuse, it were possible by any under -drainage to remove the evil complained of. Other districts there are in -which the Road Commissioners or the Paving Board appears to have done -their duty; but the benefit is prevented, and the road is kept -continually out of repair by the neglect of the service of scavengers. - -All these local defects again are referred back to the defective -construction of the Acts of Parliament,—which generally either presume -that no science, no skill is requisite for the attainment of the -objects, or presume both to be universal,—which in some instances -actually prohibit the only effectual mode of drainage, namely, that from -the houses into the main-drains; and in others, prescribe cleansing by -house-drains without supplies of water; or prescribe the construction of -roads independently of drains, and direct the execution of only part of -the necessary means, leaving other essential parts to the discretion of -individuals. - -Between a town population similarly situated in general condition, one -part inhabiting streets which are unpaved, and another inhabiting -streets that are paved, a general difference of health is observed. The -town of Portsmouth is built upon a low portion of the marshy island of -Portsea. It was formerly subjected to intermittent fever, but since the -town was paved, in 1769, it was noticed by Sir Gilbert Blane, that this -disorder no longer prevailed; whilst Kilsea and the other parts of the -island retained the aguish disposition until 1793, when a drainage was -made which subdued its force. - -Such strongly marked effects on the health of the population have -followed in many places the complete cleansing of the streets, as are -stated by _Mr. Bland_, medical officer of the Macclesfield Union:— - - “To show the value of police regulations in removing any improper - accumulations of foul, and putrid matter, where a deadly poison is - generated, I have a distinct recollection that, when the cholera - appeared in Macclesfield, not only was that fatal disease arrested - somewhat in its progress by the active vigilance exercised by the - gentlemen in seeing that in their several districts all offending - deposits were removed, and all pest-houses cleansed, that for several - months after the town had undergone this salutary inspection, and the - people made alive to the pernicious effects of the dunghill, fever of - the worst or contagious form scarcely appeared in the usual - localities, although it was at the autumnal season of the year. I - likewise noticed in spring-time following, when the filth had begun to - accumulate on the surface in certain parts of the town, a severe - return of contagious diseases, fever in all its stages, and a very - fatal epidemic small-pox.” - -Similar cases were frequently noticed in the reports from Scotland; but -when the alarm passed away, the habitual neglect of this description of -cleanliness returned. - -In the consideration of the evidence about to be submitted as to the -condition of the streets on the external condition of the residences of -the labouring classes, it should be borne in mind that the external -condition of the dwelling powerfully and immediately affects its -internal cleanliness and general economy. - -The description of a large proportion of the streets inhabited by the -working classes in Manchester by Dr. Baron Howard, and those of Leeds by -Mr. Baker, those of Liverpool by Dr. Duncan, might be extended to -Glasgow and other places. _Dr. Howard_ states:— - - “That the filthy and disgraceful state of many of the streets in these - densely populated and neglected parts of the town where the indigent - poor chiefly reside cannot fail to exercise a most baneful influence - over their health is an inference which experience has fully proved to - be well founded; and no fact is better established than that a large - proportion of the causes of fever which occur in Manchester originate - in these situations. Of the 182 patients admitted into the temporary - fever hospital in Balloon-street, 135 at least came from unpaved or - otherwise filthy streets, or from confined and dirty courts and - alleys. Many of the streets in which cases of fever are common are so - deep in mire, or so full of hollows and heaps of refuse that the - vehicle used for conveying the patients to the House of Recovery often - cannot be driven along them, and the patients are obliged to be - carried to it from considerable distances. Whole streets in these - quarters are unpaved and without drains or main-sewers, are worn into - deep ruts and holes, in which water constantly stagnates, and are so - covered with refuse and excrementitious matter as to be almost - impassable from depth of mud, and intolerable from stench. In the - narrow lanes, confined courts and alleys, leading from these, similar - nuisances exist, if possible, to a still greater extent; and as - ventilation is here more obstructed, their effects are still more - pernicious. In many of these places are to be seen privies in the most - disgusting state of filth, open cesspools, obstructed drains, ditches - full of stagnant water, dunghills, pigsties, &c., from which the most - abominable odours are emitted. But dwellings perhaps are still more - insalubrious in those cottages situated at the backs of the houses - fronting the street, the only entrance to which is through some - nameless narrow passage, converted generally, as if by common consent, - into a receptacle for ordure and the most offensive kinds of filth. - The doors of these hovels very commonly open upon the uncovered - cesspool, which receives the contents of the privy belonging to the - front house, and all the refuse cast out from it, as if it had been - designedly contrived to render them as loathsome and unhealthy as - possible. Surrounded on all sides by high walls, no current of air can - gain access to disperse or dilute the noxious effluvia, or disturb the - reeking atmosphere of these areas. Where there happens to be less - crowding, and any ground remains unbuilt upon, it is generally - undrained, contains pools of stagnant water, and is made a depôt for - dunghills and all kinds of filth.” - -Of 687 streets, inspected by a voluntary association in that town, 248 -were reported as being unpaved, 112 ill ventilated, 352 as containing -stagnant pools, heaps of refuse, ordure, &c. - - “The state of some of the streets and courts examined was found by - tile inspectors abominable beyond description, and exhibited a - melancholy picture of the filthy condition and unwholesome atmosphere - in which a large portion of our poor are doomed to live. - - “As an example I will extract the description given of Little Ireland - from the proceedings of the Special Board of Health, which I have been - permitted to examine through the kindness of the borough-reeve, John - Brooks, Esq.:— - - “‘The undersigned having been deputed by the Special Board of Health - to inquire into the state of Little Ireland, begs to report that, in - some of the streets and courts abutting, the sewers are all in a most - wretched state, and quite inadequate to carry off the surface water, - not to mention the slops thrown down by the inhabitants in about 200 - houses. The privies are in a most disgraceful state, inaccessible from - filth, and too few for the accommodation of the number of people, the - average number being two to 250 people. The upper rooms are, with few - exceptions, very dirty, and the cellars much worse, all damp, and some - occasionally overflowed. The cellars consist of two rooms on a floor, - each nine or ten feet square, some inhabited by ten persons, others by - more; in many the people have no beds, and keep each other warm by - close stowage on shavings, straw, &c.; a change of linen or clothes is - an exception to the common practice. Many of the back-rooms, where - they sleep, have no other means of ventilation than from the front - rooms. Some of the cellars on the lower ground were once filled up as - uninhabitable, but one is now occupied by a weaver, and he has stopped - up the drain with clay to prevent the water flowing from it into his - cellar, and mops up the water every morning.’ - - “The above description represents as faithfully the present state of - this place as it did its condition eight years ago. In addition to the - circumstances here mentioned, the unhealthiness of this spot is - further increased by its low and damp situation, in a deep hollow, - bounded on one side by a filthy and stinking brook, which readily - overflows after rain; on another, by a very steep embankment; and on - another, by a high wall, which separates it from the gas-works, and - surrounded moreover by numerous high factories. * * * - - “In the open space in the centre, which was formerly uncovered, - numerous pigsties are now erected, which add, if possible, to its - insalubrity. All the streets on the west side of the square are - blocked up at the end by a high wall, so that each forms a - _cul-de-sac_, a mode of construction which precludes the possibility - of effectual ventilation. Close to this wall, at the upper end of - these streets, are placed filthy and dilapidated privies, with large - open cesspools, which are frequently full to overflowing. The present - condition of those in Bent and James Leigh-streets are disgusting and - offensive beyond description.” - -_Mr. Baker_ in his report on the sanitary condition of the residences of -the labouring classes in Leeds, thus describes their external -condition:— - - “The river Aire, which courses about a mile and a half through the - town, is liable suddenly to overflow from violent or continued rains, - or from the sudden thawing of heavy falls of snow. The lower parts and - dwellings, both in its vicinity and in that of the becks, are not - unfrequently therefore inundated; and as the depth of the cellars is - below the means of drainage, the water has to be pumped out by - hand-pumps on to the surface of the streets. In those parts of the - town, and particularly where the humbler classes reside, during these - inundations, and where there are small sewers, the water rises through - them into the cellars, creating miasmatic exhalations, and leaving - offensive refuse, exceedingly prejudicial to the health as well as to - the comfort of the inhabitants. It was stated, on the authority of one - of the registrars, that during a season remarkable for an - unprecedented continuation of hot weather, that in one of these - localities, the deaths were as three to two, while in other parts of - the town, at the same period, they were as two to three. The condition - of the Timble Bridge beck is doubtless much worse for drainage - purposes than formerly, for the bottom has been raised by continual - deposits, until the oldest water-wheel upon it has had to be removed - as useless and inoperative; and stepping-stones, once the means of - passage over it, are at this moment said to be buried under the - accumulation of years, as much as one or two feet in depth. It is - quite clear, therefore, that that which was once the main receptacle - for the drainage of an entire district is, in its present state, no - longer capable of fulfilling that purpose; and that though a - considerable amount of drainage might still be effected by it, yet, - unless emptied of its superfluous matter, it cannot now be made - available for the wants of the entire population on its course. - - “In an inundation about the period of 1838 or 1839, which happened in - the night, this beck overflowed its boundaries so greatly, and - regurgitated so powerfully into petty drains communicating with houses - 100 yards distant from its line, that many of the inhabitants were - floated in their beds, and fever to a large amount occurred from the - damp and exhalations which it occasioned. Of the 586 streets of Leeds, - 68 only are paved by the town, _i. e._, by the local authorities; the - remainder are either paved by owners, or are partly paved, or are - totally unpaved, with the surfaces broken in every direction, and - ashes and filth of every description accumulated upon many of them. In - the manufacturing towns of England, most of which have enlarged with - great rapidity, the additions have been made without regard to either - the personal comfort of the inhabitants or the necessities which - congregation requires. To build the largest number of cottages on the - smallest allowable space seems to have been the original view of the - speculators, and the having the houses up and tenanted, the _ne plus - ultra_ of their desires. Thus neighbourhoods have arisen in which - there is neither water nor out-offices, nor any conveniences for the - absolute domestic wants of the occupiers. But more than this, the land - has been disposed of in so many small lots, to petty proprietors, who - have subsequently built at pleasure, both as to outward form and - inward ideas, that the streets present all sorts of incongruities in - the architecture; causeways dangerous on account of steps, cellar - windows without protection, here and there posts and rails, and - everywhere clothes-lines intersecting them, by which repeated - accidents have been occasioned. During the collection of the - statistical information by the Town Council, many cases of broken legs - by these unprotected cellars, and of horsemen dismounted by neglected - clothes-lines hanging across the streets, were recorded. - - “It might be imagined that at least the streets over which the town - surveyors have a legal right to exercise control would be sewered. But - this is not the case; of the 68 streets which they superintend, 19 are - not sewered at all, and 10 are only partly so; nay, it is only within - the three or four years past that a sewer has been completed through - the main street for two of the most populous wards of the town, - embracing together a population of 30,540 persons, by which to carry - off the surface and drainage water of an elevation of 150 feet, where, - indeed, there could be no excuse for want of sufficient fall. I have - seen, in the neighbourhood to which I now refer, an attempt made to - drain the cottage houses into a small drain passing under the - causeway, and which afterwards had to be continued through a small - sewer, and through private property, by a circuitous route, in order - to reach its natural outlet, and the water from the surveyors’ drain - regurgitate into the cutting from the dwellings. It only needs to be - pointed out that the sewer which has subsequently been made, and is - most effective, is an evidence of the previous practicability of a - work so essential to the welfare of the people; but, I may add, that - many of the inhabitants of districts a little further distant from the - town, where fever is always rife, are yet obliged to use cesspools - which are constructed under their very doors, for the want of the - continuation of this desirable measure. - - “Along the line of these two wards, and down the street which divides - them, and where this sewer has been recently made, numbers of streets - have been formed and houses erected without pavement, and hence - without surface drainage—without sewers—or if under drainage can be - called sewers, then with such as, becoming choked in a few months, are - even worse than if they were altogether without. The surface of these - streets is considerably elevated by accumulated ashes and filth, - untouched by any scavenger; they form nuclei of disease exhaled from a - thousand sources. Here and there stagnant water, and channels so - offensive that they have been declared to be unbearable, lie under the - doorways of the uncomplaining poor; and privies so laden with ashes - and excrementitious matter as to be unuseable prevail, till the - streets themselves become offensive from deposits of this description; - in short, there is generally pervading these localities a want of the - common conveniences of life. - - “The courts and _culs-de-sac_ exist everywhere. The building of houses - back to back occasions this in a great measure. It is in fact part of - the economy of buildings that are to pay a good per centage. In one - _cul-de-sac_, in the town of Leeds, there are 34 houses, and in - ordinary times, there dwell in these houses 340 persons, or ten to - every house; but as these houses are many of them receiving houses for - itinerant labourers, during the periods of hay-time and harvest and - the fairs, at least twice that number are then here congregated. The - name of this place is the Boot and Shoe-yard, in Kirkgate, a location - from whence the Commissioners removed, in the days of the cholera, 75 - cart-loads of manure, which had been untouched for years, and where - there now exists a surface of human excrement of very considerable - extent, to which these impure and unventilated dwellings are - additionally exposed. This property is said to pay the best annual - interest of any cottage property in the borough.” - -_Mr. Shaw_, the medical officer of the Hindley district of the Wigan -union, after giving a similar description of the streets of that town, -adds:— - - “The greater number of cases of fever in Tuce is in a great degree to - be accounted for from the extremely filthy state of those places where - it has been worst. Some of the cases were much worse than others, - several being of the malignant kind of typhus. Most of the cases - happened in Broom-street, in Tuce, a very uncleanly place, whole pools - of stagnant water, decayed animal and vegetable matter, and many other - nuisances of alike description lying in heaps from one end of the - street to the other. It is extremely probable a little attention to - these matters would save the inhabitants from many of the diseases - with which they are now continually affected.” - -_Dr. Waite_, in his report on the condition of the population at Lynn, -states:— - - “I have seen typhus fever rage in families, where the refuse of a - market-gardener was suffered to accumulate in a hole, immediately - before three or four houses, whilst families at fifty yards distant - from it were perfectly free.” - -The report by _Mr. Anderson_, solicitor, on the sanitary condition of -Inverness, exhibits the external features of the condition in which -large proportions of the town population in Scotland are still allowed -to remain in respect to all these defects:— - - “From the very open or porous character of the subsoil, the grounds in - and around Inverness are seldom retentive of surface-water; and as - there is also a considerable inclination of the plain towards the - river, a good _drainage_ could be easily procured from almost every - part of the town. With the exception, however, of the principal - streets or thoroughfares, in which the best houses and shops are - situated, there are but few covered common sewers; and in the suburbs - generally, and from all the side alleys and closes, rain-water and - other accumulations pass away only by means of surface or open drains. - Hence among the dwellings of the poorer classes _stagnant pools_ very - frequently occur, and the drainage in these places, naturally bad - enough, is often purposely obstructed by the people, for the purpose - of adding to their _dunghill_ heaps or middens, which, as manure for - their potatoe-grounds, form the chief treasures of the poorer - cottagers and labourers. A gas and water company, established some - years ago, has afforded a great increase of comfort and cleanliness to - the buildings along the main thoroughfares; but to the back closes and - suburbs such _luxuries_ have not yet been extended, and hence the want - of order, decency, and comfort are painfully observable among them. - _Water-closets_ and _public privies_ are both rare, the consequences - of which, morally as well as physically, may be easily imagined, and - no doubt much infectious disease, if not occasioned, is harboured and - perpetuated by the want of them. The disgusting state of all the - bye-lanes and roads about Inverness proves what the people must suffer - on this account. - - “As already stated, the dwellings of the humbler classes are in - general only _one_ story high, that is, they consist of a ground-floor - divided into two or three small apartments, with two or three - garret-rooms in the roof above, which is covered externally with turf - or straw thatch. Such buildings are often intermixed with houses of a - better description, and from being but seldom painted or whitewashed, - they have not a cheerful nor cleanly aspect. Most of them are provided - with small back courts or gardens, in which a few common vegetables - are grown; but their principal value is as stances for _pig-houses_ - and dunghills, which in many instances are improperly allowed to rest - upon or touch the dwelling-houses; while it is not to be disguised - that cases exist where the _pig_, the _horse_, and the _cow_ all live - under the same roof with their owners, and the manure allowed to - accumulate there also. It is very common for a labourer’s _family_ to - have only a single apartment, or a room and a closet, while one room - is the usual accommodation rented by single persons, and that - frequently without a particle of ground attached. - - “Amidst such a combination of unwholesome circumstances, it is rather - wonderful that malignant fever does not very greatly prevail in this - town. It is scarcely ever entirely free of it, and occasionally it - breaks out in some of its most contagious and dangerous forms, such as - measles, scarlet and typhus fever, and sometimes even small-pox, - spreading upwards among all classes of the community. The writer is - strongly inclined to believe that the comparative healthiness of - Inverness, notwithstanding its low and undrained position, is owing - chiefly to the salubrity of its climate, as influenced by its - situation, and the natural porousness of the soil.” - -_The Provost of Inverness_, at the time the report was made, gives the -following description of the town:— - - “Inverness is a nice town, situated in a most beautiful country, and - with every facility for cleanliness and comfort. The people are, - generally speaking, a nice people, but their sufferance of nastiness - is past endurance. Contagious fever is seldom or ever absent; but for - many years it has seldom been rife in its pestiferous influence. The - people owe this more to the kindness of Almighty God than to any means - taken or observed for its prevention. There are very few houses in - town which can boast of either water-closet or privy, and only two or - three public privies in the better part of the place exist for the - great bulk of the inhabitants. Hence there is not a street, lane, or - approach to it that is not disgustingly defiled at all times, so much - so as to render the whole place an absolute nuisance. The _midden_ is - the chief object of the humble, and though enough of water for - purposes of cleanliness may be had by little trouble, still as the - ablutions are seldom, MUCH filth in-doors and out of doors _must_ be - their portion. When cholera prevailed in Inverness, it was more fatal - than in almost any other town of its population in Britain.” - -Such is the absence of civic economy in some of our towns that their -condition in respect to cleanliness is almost as bad as that of an -encamped horde, or an undisciplined soldiery. Mr. Baker applies to Leeds -the observations made by Sir John Pringle in his Treatise on the -Diseases of the Army, but they are equally applicable to the districts -occupied by the labouring classes wherever this inquiry has been -carried:— - - “‘The chief cause of dysentery appears to be the foul straw and the - privies; for as soon as we had left that ground on which we had been - long encamped the sickness visibly abated.’ And again he says, ‘The - greatest source of dysenteric affections appears to be the privies.’ - And again, speaking of bad air as producing epidemics, he systematizes - the mediate agent thus; ‘1st, Marsh effluvia; 2ndly, Encampment near - trees; 3rdly, The privies and foul straw of a camp; and 4thly, A pent, - corrupt, and vitiated atmosphere.’” - -The discipline of the army has advanced beyond the civic economy of the -towns. In the standing orders given and enforced by the late General -Crauford there are the following from Article 2, on the interior -regimental arrangements on arriving in camp or quarters:— - - “It must be explained to the men, as a standing order, that when no - regular necessaries are made, nor any particular spot pointed out for - easing themselves, they are to go to the rear, at least 200 yards, - beyond the sentries of the rear guard; all men disobeying this order - must be punished. - - “The captain of the day and the quarter-master under the commanding - officers, are particularly responsible for the cleanliness of the camp - of each regiment; and the field officer of the inlying piquet, who is - charged with the superintendence of the police, and cleanliness of the - camp or quarters of the brigade, will give such orders upon the - subject as may be necessary to the captain of the day.” - -The towns whose population never change their encampment, have no such -care, and whilst the houses, streets, courts, lanes, and streams, are -polluted and rendered pestilential, the civic officers have generally -contented themselves with the most barbarous expedients, or sit still -amidst the pollution, with the resignation of Turkish fatalists, under -the supposed destiny of the prevalent ignorance, sloth, and filth. - -Whilst such neglects are visited by the scourge of a regularly recurring -pestilence and ravages of death more severe than a war, it may be -confidently stated that the exercise of attention, care, and industry, -directed by science in their removal, will not only be attended by -exemptions from the pains of the visitation, but with exemptions from -pecuniary burdens, and with promise even of the profits of increased -production to the community. - -This will appear from an examination of the present mode of removing the -refuse from towns, and contrasting it with improved methods; and first -with relation to the refuse of the houses:— - -It is proved that the present mode of retaining refuse in the house in -cesspools and privies is injurious to the health and often extremely -dangerous. The process of emptying them by hand labour, and removing the -contents by cartage, is very offensive, and often the occasion of -serious accidents. But the expense of this mode operates, as the reports -from the large towns show, as a complete barrier to all cleanliness in -this respect in the dwellings or streets occupied by the labouring -classes. The usual cost of cleansing cesspools of a tenement in London -is about 1_l._ each time. With a population generally in debt at the end -of the week, and whose rents are collected weekly, such an outlay may be -considered as practically impossible, and the inferior landlords delay -incurring the expense until the nuisance becomes unbearable. In London -the expense and annoyance of the cleansing of such places is avoided for -years, until they are in the condition described by _Mr. Howell_, one of -the council of the Society of Civil Engineers, who has acted extensively -as a surveyor in the metropolis:— - - “I would,” he states, “instance a recent case in my own parish, where - I was called to survey two houses about to undergo extensive repairs. - It was necessary that my survey should extend from the garrets to the - cellars: upon visiting the latter, I found the whole area of the - cellars of both houses were full of night-soil, to the depth of three - feet, which had been permitted for years to accumulate from the - overflow of the cesspools; upon being moved, the stench was - intolerable, and no doubt the neighbourhood must have been more or - less infected by it. I should mention, that these houses are letting - at from 30_l._ to 40_l._ a-year each, and are situated in a - considerable public thoroughfare. - - “I would mention another case, amongst many more in St. Giles’s - parish: I was requested to survey the dilapidations to several houses - in the immediate neighbourhood of High-street, upon passing through - the passage of the first house, I found the yard covered with - night-soil, from the overflowing of the privy, to the depth of nearly - six inches, and bricks were placed to enable the inmates to get across - dry shod; in addition to this, there was an accumulation of filth - piled up against the walls, of the most objectionable nature; the - interior of the house partook something of the same character, and - discovering, upon examination, that the other houses were nearly - similar; I found a detailed survey impracticable, and was obliged to - content myself with making general observations. My duties, as one of - the surveyors to a fire-office, call me to all parts of the town, and - I am constantly shocked almost beyond endurance at the filth and - misery in which a large part of our population are permitted to drag - on a diseased and miserable existence. I consider a large portion, if - not the whole, of this accumulation of dirt and filth is caused by the - bad and inefficient sewerage of the metropolis. I am acquainted with - numberless houses in Westminster where the cellars are constantly - flooded, and having no drainage, the occupiers are obliged to pump out - the water, which, from being stagnant, is foul and offensive. If in - the performance of this necessary duty the matter becomes known, they - are summoned to the public office and fined 5_l._; however much, - therefore, the evil is felt in permitting the continuance of stagnant - water, the alternative of the fine for pumping out is worse; they - submit therefore to the lesser evil, and leave the water in the - cellars. * * * - - “I am quite sure, from much observation, that the occupiers of houses - in all neighbourhoods are much influenced in their habits of - cleanliness by the facilities afforded for draining, and by the want - of carriage and foot-paving in the streets; and it is equally certain - that both health and life are frequently sacrificed by the constant - damps and unwholesome smell, occasioned entirely by the absence of all - means to carry off the impurities, which, in densely populated - neighbourhoods, increase with such fearful rapidity.” - -It might have been expected, from the value of the refuse as manure (one -of the most powerful known), that the great demand for it would have -afforded a price which might have returned, in some degree, the expense -and charge of cleansing. But this appears not to be the case in the -metropolis. It is stated that at present, with the exception of -coal-ashes, which are indispensable for making bricks, some description -of lees, and a few other inconsiderable exceptions, no refuse in London -pays half the expense of removal by cartage. The cost of removal, or of -the labour and cartage, limits the general use or deposit of the refuse -within a radius which does not exceed three miles beyond the line of the -district-post of the metropolis, that is, about six miles. It is stated -that, partly from the nature of the holdings, and from other -circumstances within this limited district, agricultural improvements -are not so great as might be expected where the facilities are so easy -for obtaining any quantity of manure. Some idea may be formed of the -loss of value of this manure from the metropolis, occasioned by the -expense of its collection and removal, from the evidence of a -considerable contractor for scavengering, &c., who states, with respect -to the most productive manure,—“I have given away thousands of loads of -night-soil: we knew not what to do with it.”[4] - -In the parts of some towns adjacent to the rural districts the cesspools -are emptied gratuitously for the sake of the manure; but they only do -this when there is a considerable accumulation, and any accumulation of -any decomposing material which offends the smell is injurious to the -health, especially in a town where all miasma is less diluted with fresh -air, and where the population is less robust. For the saving of cartage, -as well as the convenience of use, accumulations of refuse are -frequently allowed to remain and decompose and dry amidst the -habitations of the poorer classes. _Dr. Laurie_ in his report on the -sanitary condition of Greenock, furnishes an example. He says,— - - “The first question I generally put when a new case of fever is - admitted, is as to their locality. I was struck with the number of - admissions from Market-street; most of the cases coming from that - locality became quickly typhoid, and made slow recoveries. This is a - narrow back street; it is almost overhung by a steep hill, rising - immediately behind it; it contains the lowest description of houses, - built closely together, the access to the dwellings being through - filthy closes. The front entrance is generally the only outlet. - Numerous food for the production of miasma lies concealed in this - street. I think I could point out one in each close. - - “In one part of the street there is a dunghill,—yet it is too large to - be called a dunghill. I do not misstate its size when I say it - contains a hundred cubic yards of impure filth, collected from all - parts of the town. It is never removed; it is the stock-in-trade of a - person who deals in dung; he retails it by cartfuls. To please his - customers, he always keeps a nucleus, as the older the filth is the - higher is the price. The proprietor has an extensive privy attached to - the concern. This collection is fronting the public street; it is - enclosed in front by a wall; the height of the wall is about 12 feet, - and the dung overtops it; the malarious moisture oozes through the - wall, and runs over the pavement. The effluvia all round about this - place in summer is horrible. There is a land of houses adjoining, four - stories in height, and in the summer each house swarms with myriads of - flies; every article of food and drink must be covered, otherwise, if - left exposed for a minute, the flies immediately attack it, and it is - rendered unfit for use, from the strong taste of the dunghill left by - the flies. But there is a still more extensive dunghill in this - street; at least, if not so high, it covers double the extent of - surface. What the depth is I cannot say. It is attached to the - slaughter-house, and belongs, I believe, to the town authorities. It - is not only the receptacle for the dung and offal from the - slaughter-house, but the sweepings of the streets are also conveyed - and deposited there; it has likewise a public privy attached. In the - slaughter-house itself, which is adjoining the street, the blood and - offal is allowed to lie a long time, and the smell in summer is highly - offensive. In two of the narrow closes opposite the market, there is - in each a small space not built upon, and that space, being the only - spare ground in the close, is occupied by a dunghill; these two closes - are notorious as nurseries for fever. I believe it to be a rare - occurrence when fever is not to be found in them during any time of - the year. Market-street is certainly one of the most filthy and - unhealthy streets in Greenock; it is needless to say that many places - here and there throughout the town are as bad, indeed, I may state - that from the best to the worst locality in the town there is not a - street but requires to be subjected to some rigid system for removing - away regularly the rubbish and impurities which are constantly - exhaling forth so much, and which is indirectly the cause of the - yearly increase of so much destitution.” - -_Mr. Baker_, in his report, gives another instance of the ignorance and -carelessness under which the health of the population suffers. - - “The contractor for the street sweepings, who is the treator with the - Commissioners of Public Nuisances in Leeds, last year rented a plot of - vacant land in the centre of the North-east ward, the largest ward in - point of population in the township of Leeds, and containing the - greatest number of poor, and this year rents, in the East ward, - another plot of land, as a depôt for the sweepings from the streets - and markets, both vegetable and general, for the purpose of - exsiccating and accumulating till they could be sold as manure and - carried away. So noisome were these exhalations, that the inhabitants - complained of their utter inability to ventilate their sleeping-rooms - during the day time, and of the insufferable stench to which both by - night and day they were thus subjected.” - -The comparatively recent mode of cleansing adopted in the wealthy and -newly-built districts by the use of water-closets, and the discharge of -all refuse at once from the house through the drain into the sewers, -saves the delay and the previous accumulation, and it also saves the -expense of the old means of removal. It is most applicable to the poorer -districts, because really the most economical, when they are properly -sewered and supplied with water. The cost of cheap and appropriate -apparatus, and of water for cleansing, it will be proved is a reduction -of the mere cost of cleansing in the old method, independently of the -cost incurred by the decay of woodwork and deterioration of the tenement -which commonly takes place on premises in the condition of those -described by Mr. Howell. The chief objection to the extension of this -system is the pollution of the water of the river into which the sewers -are discharged. Admitting the expediency of avoiding the pollution, it -is nevertheless proved to be an evil of almost inappreciable magnitude -in comparison with the ill health occasioned by the constant retention -of several hundred thousand accumulations of pollution in the most -densely-peopled districts. - -There is much evidence, however, to prove that it is possible to remove -the refuse in such a mode as to avoid the pollution of the river, and at -the same time avoid the culpable waste of the most important manure. - -A practical example of the money value which lies in the refuse of a -town, when removed in the cheapest manner, and applied in the form best -adapted to production, viz., by a system of cleansing by water, is -afforded in connexion with the city of Edinburgh. In the course of the -sanitary inquiry in that city the particular attention of Dr. Arnott and -myself was directed to the effects of some offensive irrigation of the -land which had taken place in the immediate vicinity of that city. It -appears that the contents of a large proportion of the sinks, drains, -and privies of that city are conveyed in covered sewers to the eastern -suburb of the town, where they are emptied into a stream called the Foul -Burn, which passes ultimately into the sea. The stream is thus made into -a large uncovered sewer or drain. Several years ago some of the -occupiers of the land in the immediate vicinity of this stream diverted -parts of it, and collected the soil which it contained in tanks for use -as manure. After this practice had been adopted for a long period, the -farmers in the vicinity gradually found that the most beneficial mode of -applying the manure was in the liquid form, and they conducted the -stream over their meadows by irrigation. Others, perceiving the -extraordinary fertility thus obtained, followed the example, and by -degrees about 300 acres of meadow, chiefly in the eastern parts of that -city, but all in its immediate vicinity, and the greater part of it in -the neighbourhood of the palace of Holyrood, have been systematically -irrigated with the contents of this common sewer. From some of this land -so irrigated, four or five crops a-year have been obtained; land once -worth from 40_s._ to 50_s._ per acre now lets for very high sums. It is -stated by a writer cited as an authority, on behalf of the parties -interested,— - - “That the rent for which some of these meadows are let in small - portions to cow-feeders varies on an average from 20_l._ to 30_l._ per - acre. Some of the richest meadows were let in 1835 at 38_l._ per acre; - and in that season of scarce forage, 1826, 57_l._ per acre were - obtained for the same meadows. * * * The waste land called Figget - Whins, containing 30 acres, and 10 acres of poor sandy soil adjoining - them, were formed into water meadows in 1821, at an expense of - 1000_l._ The pasture of the Figget Whins used to be let for 40_l._ - a-year, and that of the 10 acres at 60_l._ Now the same ground as - meadows lets for 15_l._ or 20_l._ an acre a-year, and will probably - let for more, as the land becomes more and more enriched.” - -This use of irrigation followed so gradually, that the time of its -commencement seems not accurately ascertained, but is known to have been -usual near the beginning of the present century. The tanks are still to -a certain extent used. The irrigation proceeds from the beginning of -April to the middle of September, and, it is supposed that the deposits -in the tanks are in the interval increased by the quantity of soil not -employed in irrigations. - -The practice is strongly objected to by the inhabitants as an offensive -and injurious nuisance. To Dr. Arnott, who surveyed the district, the -process appeared to be, like most offensive processes, unfitted for the -vicinity of a town. The miasma from the preparation of the large -accumulations of manure in open receptacles near places of public resort -or crowded habitations would probably affect the public health -injuriously to a greater or less degree. In particular states of the -weather it could scarcely fail to engender disease. In the decomposition -of substances for manure, deleterious gasses will be evolved, which in -particular states of the atmosphere will act with powerful effects on -animal life within their reach. But it is at the same time stated, the -process of applying manure by irrigation, that is, separated and diluted -with water, is considered to be productive of less deleterious gas, of -less injurious effects, than by spreading it over fields in a solid -form, and allowing it to remain until it is decomposed and separated by -the atmosphere and conveyed into the soil by rain. Liebig, the greatest -living authority on agricultural chemistry, states that night-soil loses -in drying half its valuable products, that is, half its “nitrogen,” for -the “ammonia” escapes into the atmosphere. By irrigation, by the -diffusion and conveyance of the manure to the plant in the medium of -water the escape of the valuable substance as a noxious and injurious -gas is diminished.[5] Whatever extent of loss there is from manures by -decomposition when placed on the land in a solid form, and when exposed -to the action of the atmosphere, it is stated that there is -proportionate gain by holding the material in suspension in water. The -simple offensiveness, it may be assumed, is a sufficient ground of -exclusion of any process from amidst the habitations of a town -population. But at a reasonable distance the use of dung or any other -manure would not be forbidden; and the process which is the least -injurious, the irrigative, is entitled therefore to a preference. -Effective drainage must make way for the conveyance of diluted manures, -and consequently for effective irrigation. - -The continuance of the practice in Edinburgh of the use of the common -sewer for irrigation is defended by the occupiers and owners, on the -ground that from the time of its commencement, when it was unopposed, -and, as it appears to us, escaped any notice, a legal right has been -acquired by them in the manure of the city contained in the Burn, and -the present claimants of the right contend that they are entitled to -compensation under the Scotch law for any diversion of the stream or of -the manure which it contains. The irrigation which has surrounded the -palace of Holyrood having, as it is considered, rendered it prejudicial -to health, Her Majesty’s government, for the protection of this palace -as a royal residence, have directed legal process for the trial of the -right claimed to the irrigation. The defendants vindicate the measure on -the ground of its utility as an agricultural operation, and treat the -proposal to divert the contents of the sewers as being in fact a -proposal to deprive the city of the milk and butter yielded by more than -3000 milch cows, and the markets of the meat from their carcases; that, -in fact, “the grass, which in virtue of irrigation these meadows -produce, supports in Edinburgh 3300 cows, and in Leith 600 cows, during -the season.”[6] We were informed that the parties interested in the -lands estimate the compensation that would induce them to discontinue -the practice at 150,000_l._; and a pamphlet written at their instance, -in 1840, states this as the sum which the proprietors of the meadows to -the west of the city would be legally entitled to (independently of the -claims of those in the east) were the practice abolished by legislative -authority. The proprietors have had, on several occasions, sufficient -influence to frustrate the efforts of the city authorities, to obtain -legislative sanction for the removal of the nuisance, and for a more -salubrious disposal of it for the advantage of the inhabitants -themselves. - -The public refuse of cities by the usual course of legislation in local -Acts, and by custom, and on all principles which govern the application -of the proceeds of such produce belongs to the public, and it may be -submitted that, whatever may be the decision in the case of Edinburgh, -means should be taken to prevent for the future the acquisition of new -rights at the expense of the health and of the conveniences of such -large classes of the population. And it may here be observed that it -will probably be found, under the circumstances of the increasing -population of the towns, and the increasing necessity of keeping open -spaces within and around the towns, and of exercising a general control -for the beneficial arrangement of new buildings for the public health -and convenience, and of securing convenient public walks and places of -temperate and healthful recreation for the population—that it is most -desirable for all these objects that means should be taken to redeem to -the crown the fee, or otherwise obtain as early as practicable, and on -the terms of proper compensation, lands within and in the immediate -vicinity of towns for public use. - -If then, in Edinburgh, the contents of the cesspools were carried by -adequate supplies of water in drains from the houses into covered -sewers, and thence in covered instead of open sewers to the lands at -proper distances where it might be distributed as manure by irrigation, -it would be a mode of irrigation considered by Mr. Smith of Deanston, -and other authorities on drainage and irrigation, whom I consulted, the -best that is now apparently practicable, _i. e._, the best means for -removing quickly, and constantly, and the least injuriously, the matters -which can only remain for removal by any other process at the expense of -the public health; they concur in opinion that it would also be the most -productive mode of distributing the manure. - -On the scale of the value set upon that portion of the refuse of -Edinburgh that has been appropriated for irrigation by the occupiers of -the land in the vicinity of the city, the value of the whole of the soil -of the city (not one-third of which finds its way into the irrigated -meadows), if it were made completely available by an appropriate system -of town drainage, would be double or treble the amount, producing an -income of 15,000_l._ to 20,000_l._ per annum for public purposes. On the -same scale of value it would appear that, in the metropolis, refuse to -the value of nearly double what is now paid for the water of the -metropolis is thrown away, partly from the districts which are sewered -into the Thames, and partly from the poor districts which are unsewered, -where it accumulates and remains a nuisance until it is removed at a -great expense. It is allowed by Captain Vetch, an experienced engineer, -and by other authorities, to be the most eligible plan in respect to -economy as well as efficiency, wherever the levels were not convenient, -or it were desirable to send the refuse over heights for distribution, -that the contents of the sewers should be lifted by steam power, as -water is lifted in the drainage of the fens, and that it might be sent -for distribution, wherever it is required for use, in iron pipes, in the -same mode as that in which water is conveyed into towns by the water -companies. The estimated expense of this mode of cleansing and removal -is about the same as the conveyance of water into towns, _i. e._, not a -tithe of the expense of cartage, as will subsequently be shown. - -The comparative economy of conveyance of fluid in pipes has been but -little observed, and has only recently perhaps been applied for the -purpose of cleansing. The following is an instance of the application of -the principle:—A contract was about to be entered into by the West -Middlesex Water Company for hauling out from their reservoir at -Kensington the deposit of eight or ten years’ silt, which had -accumulated to the depth of three or four feet. The contractor offered -to remove this quantity, which covered nearly an acre of surface, for -the sum of 400_l._, in three or four weeks. The reservoir was emptied in -order to be inspected by the engineer and directors before the contract -was accepted. It occurred to one of the officers that the cleansing -might be accomplished more readily by merely stirring up the silt, to -mix it with the water; and then if a cut or outlet were made in the -main-pipe used for conveying the water to London, that it might be -washed out. He accordingly got thirty or forty men to work in stirring -up the deposit, and accomplished the work at the cost of 40_l._ or -50_l._ and three or four days’ labour, instead of so many weeks; when -the directors went to see the basin, to decide upon the contract, the -reservoir was as free from any deposit as a house-floor. Since the -discovery thus made, the silt has been regularly cleansed out into the -common sewers. It is to be observed, in respect to the relative -cheapness of the two modes, that the contractor would only have removed -the silt to the nearest convenient place of deposit in the immediate -vicinity of the reservoir, whereas, in the fluid state, it might be -carried at the actual cost of conveying water, as far as it is at -present conveyed, and sold with a profit, 12 or 14 miles, and raised to -heights of 150 feet, at 2½_d._ per ton. - -By the application of capital and machinery, the cost of conveyance of -substances in suspension in a fluid, even at the water companies’ -prices, may be rendered thirty and even more than forty times as cheap -as collection by hand labour and removal by cartage. In the metropolis, -where the persons who water the roads may obtain water gratuitously from -pumps, the water supplied by stand-pipes by some of the water companies -at 1_l._ per 100 tons, is found to be twice as cheap as the mere labour -of pumping the water into the cart. By proper hydraulic arrangements -heavy solid substances may be swept away through the iron pipes. - -These means which science gives of cheapening the cost of the conveyance -of refuse from houses, will be available also in extending and -completing the cleansing of the towns, of removing the filth which -oppresses the poorer districts, and rendering the whole of it available, -in the best form, for future use as manure. - -The expense of cleansing the streets of the _township_ of Manchester is -5,000_l._ per annum. For this sum the first class of streets, namely, -the most opulent and the large thoroughfares, are cleansed once a-week, -the second class once a-fortnight, and the third class once a-month. But -this provision leaves untouched, or leaves in the condition described in -Dr. Baron Howard’s report, the courts, alleys, and places where the -poorest classes live, and where the cleansing should be daily. There are -abundance of recommendations to the effect, “Let it be ordered that the -streets be properly cleansed;” but in this instance the cost of -cleansing the whole of what is properly the same town, Salford, and the -out-townships, would be 8,000_l._ or 10,000_l._ per annum; and such a -recommendation, under the existing modes of management, is equivalent to -saying, let 20,000_l._ or 30,000_l._ of additional rates be expended, -and 40,000 or 60,000 additional loads of refuse be removed. In other -large towns, the service and the expense is on a similar scale. At the -rate of expense of one large parish, the present cost of cleansing in -the metropolis may be estimated at about 40,000_l._ per annum. This -expense, however, is generally repaid by the sale of the coal-ashes, -which are used in the manufacture of bricks. - -Though the refuse of the poorer districts is often taken and sold, the -immediate objection to the extension of the services of the scavenger to -them is the increase of the immediate expense, which it is practically -necessary to consider in detail, although if there were no compensation -by the sale of any coal-ashes or house refuse, and if the occupants were -required to pay for the cleansing at the rate of one of the opulent -parishes in the metropolis, that is at the rate of 4_s._ per house per -annum, which would be less than a penny per tenement for the weekly -street cleansing; or in the poorer districts, where there are mostly two -families to a tenement, a charge of less than one halfpenny per week for -cleansing, would be found to be good economy, as one means of -diminishing the existing heavy charge of sickness, not to speak of the -wear and tear of clothes. - -Two-thirds of the usual expense of street cleansing is the expense of -cartage, which, with a proper adaptation of the sewers, is wholly -unnecessary. The exclusive use of hand-labour in street-sweeping is -pronounced by competent judges to be a mere barbarism, and several -machines have been invented which demonstrate that by mechanical power, -moved by horses, the cleansing may be effected in a far shorter time. -Some of these scrape the mud in ridges to the sides, where it remains -until it can be lifted and carted away. But this is objected to as -inconvenient by the shopkeepers, and the scavengers object that it is no -convenience to them, inasmuch as raking it in heaps prevents the -evaporation of the liquid, and increases the cartage; and, moreover, -that the process of sweeping by hand is as quick as the carts can return -for its removal. A machine has been used at Manchester which rapidly and -cleanly sweeps the level surfaces of the streets into a cart; but there -is still the encumberance of the labour, and cost and delay of carting -the refuse to a place of deposit, which may be several miles distant, -and returning to reload. The value of a process of street-cleansing is -proportioned to the rapidity with which it is performed, but at present -it is usually delayed until the sun or the air has done a large portion -of the work by the evaporation of the moisture, commonly however to the -deterioration of the air of the town and the health, and also to the -deterioration of the value of the refuse. - -On examining these obstructions to the cleanliness and salubrity of our -towns, it became apparent that the expensive and slow process of the -removal of the surface refuse of the streets by cartage might be -dispensed with, and the whole at once carried away by the mode which is -proved, in the case of the refuse of houses, to be the most rapid, -cheap, and convenient, namely, by sweeping it at once into the sewers, -and discharging it by water. - -The sewerage of the metropolis, though it is a frequent subject of boast -to those who have not examined its operations or effects, will be found -to be a vast monument of defective administration, of lavish -expenditure, and extremely defective execution. The general defect of -these works is, that they are so constructed as to accumulate deposits -within them; that the accumulations remain for years, and are at last -only removed at a great expense, and in an offensive manner, by -hand-labour and cartage. The effect is to generate and retain in large -quantities before the houses the gases which it is the object of -cleansing to remove. In the course of the present inquiry instances have -been frequently presented of fevers and deaths occasioned by the escapes -of gas from the sewers into the streets and houses. In the evidence -given before the Committee of the House of Commons, which received -evidence on the subject in 1834, one medical witness stated, that of all -cases of severe typhus that he had seen, eight-tenths were either in -houses of which the drains from the sewers were untrapped, or which, -being trapped, were situated opposite gully-holes; and he mentioned -instances where servants sleeping in the lower rooms of houses were -invariably attacked with fever. It was proposed as a remedy to prevent -the escape of the noxious effluvia by trapping them, but this was -refused on the ground of the danger to the men, who must enter the -sewers to clean them, from the confined gas. In one of the circulars the -reason assigned for allowing the escape of the gas into the streets is -that if it were confined in the sewers it might impede the flow of the -water. It was then proposed to allow the escape of the noxious gases -through chimneys constructed at certain distances. But this was decided -to be an experiment, and the Committee did not feel themselves -authorized to make experiments. Instances were adduced where it had been -found necessary either to trap or to remove gully-holes in the vicinity -of butchers’ shops, to avoid the injurious effects of the effluvium upon -the meat. Similarly mischievous effects of the defective construction -and management of the sewers are commonly displayed in the medical -reports from the provincial towns, and they have been incidentally -noticed in the passages already cited. - -It may be mentioned as another instance of the absence of appropriate -knowledge that has governed these structural arrangements, that a large -proportion of the most expensive sewers are constructed with flat -bottoms. In proportion as the water is spread the flow is impeded, and -the deposit of matter it may hold in suspension increased. Mr. Roe, a -civil engineer, who, much to the honour of the Holborn and Finsbury -district of sewers, has been appointed to the care of their sewers, and -is perhaps the only officer having the experience and qualifications of -a civil engineer, states, that as compared with sewers or drains with -bottoms of a semicircular form, those with flat bottoms invariably -occasion a larger amount of deposit; and with the same flow of water, -the difference of construction occasions a difference of more than -one-half in the deposit which is left. By the common and most expensive -form, the drains are apt to be choked up with noxious accumulations; by -being built with flat sides (instead of with curved sides, which give -the strength of an arch) they are apt in clayey and slippery ground to -be forced in. The expense of the improved form is nearly one-fourth less -than those in general use. _Mr. Roe_, whose evidence, which is -corroborated by the evidence of other engineers, is given in the -Appendix, was asked,— - - In respect to the levels, how have you found the sewers?—They appear - to have been entirely constructed with reference to the locality, to - drain to the nearest outlet, and not on an extended view for the whole - district, or with any view to sewerage on a large scale. In the - Holborn and Finsbury divisions the Commissioners now adopt a series of - levels suited from the lowest outlets to the surrounding districts. - - Have you heard of any alterations made in the surrounding districts on - the same principle?—I have heard of none as adopted generally. The - City have lowered several of their outlets; and the chairman of the - Westminster Commission has had the subject under consideration for - some time. - - What are the chief effects of the piecemeal town drainage without - reference to extended levels?—Chiefly that when new lines of houses - are built and require new sewers, either the old sewers must be taken - up and re-constructed at a great expense, to adjust them to a new and - effective sewerage, or the new sewers, if they are adjusted to the old - ones, are deficient in fall, and they have greater deposits. - - Does the existing form or system of sewerage answer fully and at the - least expense the chief objects of sewerage in house and street - cleansing, and the removal of noxious substances?—No, it does not, - except where the outlets have been lowered, and the sewers continued - at a proper level; great accumulations of deposit are occasioned in - the sewers, and from their containing the refuse that was at one time - deposited in the cesspools, the deposit is more noxious than formerly; - the gas is more considerable, it escapes more extensively into streets - and into the houses, where the drains are not well trapped. My opinion - is that the general health of the men who work and have been - accustomed to the sewers, has become still worse; they are more pale - and thin, and lower in general health than formerly. The effect of the - noxious gases upon men working in these places is to lower the general - health. Since I have had the superintendence of the sewers, the men - have encountered about half a dozen accidents by explosions of gas. - - But is the health of these men who work in the sewers to be taken as a - criterion of the health of persons who are not accustomed to such - places?—I have had no means of forming a comparison, though I am of - opinion that gases which they encounter without any immediate injury - would be very injurious to the health of susceptible persons, or of - any persons not habituated to it. - - The first prejudicial effect of the defective system, then, is to - occasion these noxious accumulations; how are they removed?—Formerly, - in the Holborn and Finsbury sewers, and at present, I believe, in all - other sewers, the streets were opened at a great expense and - obstruction (they are so now, I believe, elsewhere); men descend, - scoop up the deposit into pails, which are raised by a windlass to the - surface, and laid there until the carts come; it is laid there until - it is carted away, sometimes for several hours, to the public - annoyance and prejudice. The contract price for removal from the old - sewers without man-holes was 11_s._ per cubic yard of slop removed; - where they have man-holes it was 6_s._ 10_d._ per cubic yard. This - practice also involves injury and expense as respects the pavement; a - street may be well paved when it is broken up for the cleansing of the - sewers, but the portions of pavements so disturbed are never so well - put down again; neither can accidents be effectually guarded against. - - By what means may these effects be obviated?—In the Holborn and - Finsbury divisions I suggested a plan of flushing the sewers, and of - carrying off all the refuse by water. This plan has been adopted, and - it is now in operation. The breaking up of the streets is avoided by - the formation of side entrances; cast-iron flushing gates are fixed in - the sewers; the ordinary flow of water in the sewers accumulates at - these gates; the gates are opened, and the force of the water is - sufficient to sweep off the deposit; and the system may be further - extended. - - What is the comparative difference in the expense of construction?—The - cost of side entrances and flood-gates, as compared with the cost of - man-holes, is from 6_d._ to 1_s._ less per foot lineal of the length - of new sewers. - - What other expense is attendant on this improved practice?—The main - expense is the attendance of a man to shut and open the flood-gates. - - The structural expense being lower, is the ultimate expense of - cleansing lower also?—Yes; the expense of cleansing the sewers is - about 50 per cent. less than the prevalent mode. Our expense of - cleansing the sewers was about 1,200_l._ per annum; we save 600_l._ of - that, and expect to save more; but to this must be added the saving to - the public of the cleansing of the private drains, formerly choked by - the accumulations in the sewers. This saving, on a moderate - calculation, is found to be upwards of 300_l._ per annum. There is - also the diminution of the escapes of gas from the old and continued - accumulations. - - During what intervals are deposits allowed to remain on the old - mode?—The average is in one set of sewers about five years, and in - another about ten years. - - During which time the public are subjected to all the escapes of gas - from the decomposing accumulation?—Exactly so. It could not, however - go on so long but for heavy falls of rain or snow, which occasion - partial clearances. - - What is the effect of these accumulations upon the private - drainage?—That the drains to the private houses are stopped: the first - intimation of the foul state of the main sewer arises from complaints - of individuals whose drains are affected; the accumulations in the - private drains also occasions an expense to the individuals and much - annoyance. By flushing the sewers this expense might be, and in - Holborn and Finsbury division it is, avoided. - - Are there any other defects you have, as an engineer, noticed in the - prevalent mode of constructing the sewers?—Yes, the prevalent practice - is to join sewers at angles, frequently at right angles; this - occasions eddies and deposits of sediment that would otherwise pass - off with the water; it injures the capacity of the main sewers by - obstructing the current of water along them: I ascertained by - experiment that the time occupied in the passage of an equal quantity - of water, along similar lengths of sewer with equal falls, was— - - Seconds. - Along a straight line 90 - With a true curve 100 - With a turn at right angles 140 - - The Commissioners of the Holborn and Finsbury divisions agreed to - require that the curves in sewers, passing from one street to another, - shall be formed with a radius of not less than 20 feet; it is also - required that the inclination or fall shall be increased at the - junction, in order to preserve an equal capacity for the passage of - water, and of effect in sweeping away the deposit. - - When by heavy falls of snow or otherwise the refuse of the streets is - carried into such sewers, is there any difficulty in sweeping it - away?—None whatsoever. - - In what number of years would the saving in cleansing sewers by - flushing repay the expense of applying the apparatus to the existing - sewers in the Holborn and Finsbury divisions?—In seven years. - - Have you any doubt of the practicability of carrying all the surface - cleansing of the streets into the sewers, and removing it by - conveyance in water, instead of by hand labour and cartage?—I - entertain no doubt whatever that it might be done, where there is a - good sewer and proper gully-holes and shoots; with a good supply of - water these would carry away rapidly all the surface refuse; the - experience of the sewerage in the Holborn and Finsbury divisions prove - it. - - How does it prove it?—At every opportunity the street-sweepers sweep - all they can into the gully-holes, and it is swept away without - inconvenience. - - One practical witness states that the expense of the cartage alone of - the refuse from a Macadamised street of half a mile, in the winter - time in the metropolis, is 5_l._ weekly. What would be the comparative - expense of carrying it away by the sewers?—It would save the whole - expense of the cartage; it would be less than the present expense of - sweeping and filling into the carts, and if there were a sufficient - supply of water on the surface, the work might be conducted with great - rapidity. - - You are aware that one inconvenience of the existing mode of street - cleansing, independently of the great expense, is the length of time - during which the wet refuse remains to the public annoyance on the - surface, until removed by the slow process of sweeping and - cartage?—Yes; and the men would appear to delay for the purpose of the - dirt being removed, by being washed by rain into the sewers. - - Do you conceive that all the business of street cleansing and house - draining might be consolidated advantageously to the public?—Yes, - clearly so, and with great economy. - -In the evidence of Mr. Oldfield, an experienced builder in the wealthy -districts of the metropolis, will be found exemplifications of the -mischiefs resulting from the defective modes of opening sub-drains or -communications, even from houses of the first class, into the main -drains.[7] The state of sewerage and drainage in the larger towns, as -described in the medical reports, in its effects of frequent disease and -death,—is much worse in the provincial towns. But every step in -improvement is an advance in reduction of existing burdens; drainage, -_per se_, will be found to be a reduction of an existing charge for the -expenses of sickness and mortality; _science_, applied to the -improvement of drainage, not only gives it efficiency, but reduces -greatly the expense. - -The streets in the larger towns commonly display, from the want of -science in their construction, similar waste, and equally admit of an -improved and scientific arrangement, which will conduce to economy and -to improved public health. - -The bad condition of the streets in many of the towns is very generally -ascribable to pavement being commonly regarded as requisite solely for -cart or carriage conveyance, and not as a means of cleanliness. The -pavement has therefore been usually confined to the chief streets in -which the carriage traffic is considerable. Some of the principal -streets even in the metropolis almost justify the description of being -“streams of mud and filth in winter,” and “seas of dust” in summer. But -attention has of late been directed to the cleansing of the road as a -means of removing damp and dirt or dust, which are each found to be -injurious. So far as various experiments have yet proceeded in the -metropolis, they are stated to be highly favourable to the use of wood -as a substance for paving the streets, though perhaps in forms different -from those at present in use, with improvements which further experience -will suggest. Wood, when pinned together and laid on a firm substratum, -appears to be less retentive of wet than most forms of stone pavement, -and to possess very considerable advantages over the Macadamised roads -for crowded thoroughfares. If it be brought into general use it will -have an advantage in removing the granite dust, which medical -authorities believe to be much more prejudicial to health, in exciting -or aggravating lung diseases, than the public have been aware of. Where -there is much dust in the working of close quarries, the effects of it -are almost as destructive to the lungs of the operatives as the -knife-grinding to the operatives of Sheffield who do not guard against -the steel-dust. “It is scarcely conceivable,” Dr. Arnott states, “that -the immense quantities of granite-dust pounded by one or two hundred -thousand pairs of wheels working on Macadamised streets, should not -greatly injure the public health. In houses bordering such streets or -roads, it is found that, notwithstanding the practice of watering, the -furniture is often covered with dust even more than once in the day, so -that writing on it with the finger becomes legible, and the lungs and -air-tubes of the inhabitants, with a moist lining to detain the dust, -are constantly pumping the same atmosphere. The passengers by a -stage-coach in dry weather, when the wind is moving with them so as to -keep them enveloped in the cloud of dust raised by the horses’ feet and -the wheels of the coach, have their clothes soon saturated to whiteness -with the dust, and their lungs of course are charged in a corresponding -degree. A gentleman who rode only 20 miles in this way, had afterwards -to cough and expectorate for 10 days to clear his chest again.” The -imperfection of road cleansing in paved streets at the same time -deteriorates the salubrity of the towns, the value of the refuse for -production, and the streets themselves. The farmers find that the refuse -of the streets, of which horse-dung and other excrementitious substances -form so important a part, is valuable in proportion as it is “fresh.” On -a proposition to sweep the streets of a town district oftener, it was -stated by some farmers that they would, in that case, give more for the -refuse. It is with this description of refuse, as stated with respect to -the night-soil, in proportion as it is allowed to remain in the streets -to dry, it loses the gas which gives it value; and the gas which is lost -frequently gives to streets the offensive smell perceptible to strangers -who have not been familiarised to it, and makes a deleterious addition -to the compounds by which the health of the town population is injured. -The complete and rapid cleansing of the roads has also its effects on -the draught. It is proved experimentally that, “calling the draught on a -broken-stone road 5, that on the same road covered with dust is 8, and -that on the same road wet and muddy is 10.”[8] A road should be cleansed -“from time to time, so as never to have half an inch of mud upon it. -This is particularly necessary to be attended to where the materials are -weak, for if the surface is not kept clean, so as to admit of its -becoming dry in the intervals between showers of rain, it will be -rapidly worn away.” With the even surface obtainable from the use of -wood as a pavement, it is stated that the streets which are now kept wet -and dirty whilst the process of cleansing is slowly carried on by the -hand, may be rapidly and cheaply swept by sweeping-machines drawn by -horses. With the advantage of such a system of sewerage as that -described by Mr. Roe, the surface refuse, which continues exposed during -a whole week, may be removed every morning before the hours of traffic -from all the principal thoroughfares. In the main streets of the towns -of considerable traffic, a smooth and firm surface for the carriage-way -would ensure the advantages of a railroad, in addition to those to the -public health from cleanliness. The experience on several portions of -smooth road shows that single horses with lighter and less expensive -vehicles would suffice where two horses are now required on the common -roads; where strong stone pavements are required to resist the shock of -heavy vehicles, and heavy vehicles propelled with double power to resist -the battering of strong pavements, and the grinding and wear and tear of -heavy and dirty roads. - -_Captain Vetch_, the engineer, who is extensively acquainted with the -structural economy of towns, observes in a communication on the subject, -that— - - “The other mode of avoiding the formation of mud is the substitution - of wooden pavements; of the success of these I have little doubt, - though for the present many failures have occurred, either from the - foundation not having been truly and firmly laid, or from the blocks - of wood not being massive enough. The greatest objection to wood - pavements at present is the slipping of the horses, but this I believe - might be obviated. The question, however, at present is to get rid of - the street dirt, such as it is; and for that purpose I concur in - opinion it would only be necessary in wet weather during rains that - the street-cleaner should sweep the dirt into the kennels, and aid the - water by stirring the mud, to carry off the material in a state of - diffusion; in dry weather, the opening of pipes with hose attached - would serve the same purpose as the rains, and at the same time aid - the sewerage at the time most required. After a short but heavy fall - of rain, the cleansing effect of the water is fully perceived: and if - any means could be devised of saving the rain-water that falls on the - houses and in the streets, so as to apply it in considerable - quantities at intervals, it is probable that the rain-water would be - amply sufficient for all the purposes in question.” - -Mr. Roe states, that arrangements were made with the water companies for -supplies of water for the cleansing of the sewers in the Holborn and -Finsbury district, but it was found that the ordinary supplies to the -sewers sufficed, and those from the company were not used. - -The cleansing of the streets and the removal of the impurities from the -habitations appears to have been the subject of considerable attention -at Paris of late years. An individual proposed to the administration of -that city a mode of cleansing the streets and pavement, by sweeping all -the refuse into the sewers which are discharged into the Seine, that had -hitherto been daily gathered into heaps and carted away beyond the -precincts. The minister of police thought it advisable to take the -opinion of the Institute on the proposal. The superiority of the -proposed mode of street cleansing was admitted, but the members of the -Institute, to whom the subject was referred, having ascertained the -quantity of rubbish which was daily collected in Paris, and also the -quantity of water which flowed in the Seine during the summer-time, they -found that this volume of water was 9600 times greater than the greatest -quantity of filth and rubbish collected in the same length of time from -the streets of Paris; and they reported as their conclusion, “that the -quantity of dirt which would be thrown into the Seine, compared with the -volume of water in the river, would be found to be so extremely small as -to be absolutely inappreciable; that it was not from the consideration -therefore of insalubrity that the project for cleaning the streets as -proposed should be negatived, but solely because by that means there -would be lost a quantity of most valuable manure, which was quite -indispensable to the agriculture around Paris, and consequently to Paris -itself.”[9] - -Mr. Roe has furnished me with a calculation made from the flow of water -in the Thames, at a neap tide: taking the ebb, and comparing it with the -quantity of deposit in the water running from the sewers from the whole -of the metropolis (assuming that the sewerage bears the same proportion -as the Holborn and Finsbury division), that the proportion of impurities -to the volume of water of the Thames is as 1 to 10,100. If the surface -cleansing of the streets were added to the ordinary mass of impurity, he -calculates that the proportion held in suspension would then be about 1 -to 5069. To this must be added the impurities from land-floods, and -those from vessels in the river. The amount of impurity discharged from -the sewers was calculated from the amount of deposit known to have been -formed in several of them. The amount of impurity in the Thames would -therefore be, at the least, double the amount of that calculated for the -Seine.[10] - -If the evils of the pollution of such a stream were much greater, they -would still be found inconsiderable as compared with the perpetual -pollution of the air by the retention of ordures and refuse amidst large -masses of the population. What has been stated as to the practicability -of extending threefold the cleansing of towns, by dispensing with -cartage, and using the sewers for the removal of the refuse of the -streets, is stated as an advantage, even on the supposition that no use -is made of the refuse, and that it is entirely thrown away. But it were -a reproach to stop at the advance to this far lesser evil, and to add to -the pollution of the streams of the towns, which throughout the country -form the chief common sewers, by throwing into them everything that is -vile in the towns, i. e. everything that is most valuable for increasing -the surrounding fertility. - -On a full examination of the evidence adduced and of the evidence -indicated, it will, I trust, be found to be satisfactorily established; -that the houses of towns may be constantly and rapidly cleansed of -noxious refuse by adaptation of drains and public sewers; and that with -such an adaptation, for one street or one district cleansed at the -present expense three may be cleansed by the proposed mode; that the -natural streams flowing near towns may be preserved from the pollution -caused by the influx of the contents of the public sewers, by the -conveyance of all refuse through covered pipes, and that the existing -cost of conveyance, by which its use for production is restricted, may -be reduced to less than one-fortieth or fiftieth of the present expense -of removal by hand labour and cartage;[11] that these bounties on -cleanliness and salubrity on the one hand, and beneficial production on -the other, are dependent on skilful and appropriate administrative -arrangements. But for the attainment of these objects, and the relief of -the worst-conditioned districts, another provision appears to be -requisite, namely, appropriate - - - _Supplies of Water._ - -Besides those reports from towns in which a large proportion of their -salubrity is attributed to a natural drainage, from the porosity of the -soil, or from the undulations of the surface being favourable to the -discharge of moisture, as at Birmingham, other reports ascribe a large -proportion of the comparative health of the population to advantageous -circumstances, in respect to the supplies of water. From such -information as that already cited, it will be manifest that for an -efficient system of house cleansing and sewerage, it is indispensable -that proper supplies of pure water should be provided, and be laid on in -the houses in towns of every size, and, it might be added, in all -considerable rural villages. No previous investigations had led me to -conceive the great extent to which the labouring classes are subjected -to privations, not only of water for the purpose of ablution, house -cleansing, and sewerage, but of wholesome water for drinking, and -culinary purposes. - -_Mr. John Liddle_, one of the medical officers of the Whitechapel union, -after describing the deplorable condition of the dwellings of the -labouring population in that part of London, states, that— - - “In connexion with this state of things is the deficiency of water - which is not laid on in any of their houses. - - “How do they get such water as they use?—They get it for the most part - from a plug in the courts. I cannot say whether it is the actual - scarcity of water, or their reluctance to fetch it, but the effect is - a scarcity of water. When I have occasion to visit their rooms, I find - they have only a very scanty supply of water in their tubs. When they - are washing, the smell of the dirt mixed with the soap is the most - offensive of all the smells I have to encounter. They merely pass - dirty linen through very dirty water. The smell of the linen itself, - when so washed, is very offensive, and must have an injurious effect - on the health of the occupants. The filth of their dwellings is - excessive, so is their personal filth. When they attend my surgery, I - am always obliged to have the door open. When I am coming down stairs - from the parlour, I know at the distance of a flight of stairs whether - there are any poor patients in the surgery. Any one who attends on the - relief days of the out-door relief may satisfy himself as to the - personal condition of these parties. - - “Are the courts in which the labouring classes reside, in your - district, paved or cleansed?—They are not flagged, they have a sort of - pebbles; they are always wet and dirty. The people, having no - convenience in their houses for getting rid of waste water, throw it - down at the doors. If I cast my eye over the whole district at this - moment, I do not think that one house for the working classes will be - found in which there is such a thing as a sink for getting rid of the - water. - - “Then there is not such a thing as a house with the water laid on?—Not - one in the poorer places. There is also the want of cesspools; there - is only one or two places for a whole court, and soil lies about the - places which are in a most offensive condition. - - “What is the number of cases which you visit for the administration of - medical relief during the year?—During the last year the number of - cases was 1560, all of them out-patients. - - “Has not a large sewer been recently formed through your - district?—Yes, through Rosemary-lane. - - “What has been its effect?—Very little as respects the inhabitants of - the courts; the landlords are not compelled, and do not go to the - expense of making any communication from the courts to the sewer; the - courts are in as wet and dirty and in as bad a condition as ever. - - “What are the rents paid for these descriptions of tenements?—I am - informed, very high rents. I am informed that this description of - property pays a better per centage than any other description of - property.—My impression is that it pays as much as 20 per cent. in - many instances.” - -This evidence exhibits the common condition of large masses of -habitations, even in the metropolis, where there are so many competing -companies. - -_Mr. Mott_ states that, in Manchester,— - - “There are numerous pumps and a plentiful supply of water within a few - feet of the surface, to say nothing of the various tanks and cisterns - in factories and private dwellings, which in this proverbially rainy - district are always abundantly supplied; but, from the nature of the - atmosphere, the rain-water is frequently like ink. The Irwell and - Medlock rivers run through the town of Manchester; but being - receptacles for all kinds of filth and refuse, the water is too impure - for general use. In the suburbs of Manchester the water is generally - procured through the medium of rain-water cisterns, or from very - shallow wells by pumps. In the better class of houses it is generally - filtered, but the poorer classes use it without any preparation. The - custom is for owners of small cottage property to erect a pump for the - use of a given number of houses; this pump is frequently rented by one - of the tenants, who keeps it locked, and each of the other tenants are - taxed a certain sum per month for the use of it. One poor woman told - me she paid 1_s._ per month. The water company give a plentiful supply - to small houses at 6_s._ per year, or about half what this woman paid - for a precarious supply from the subscription pump. The Stockport - Local Act empowers the commissioners of that town to _compel_ the - cottage owners to provide a good supply of water to their tenants.” - -_Mr. John Moyle_, medical officer of the Truro union, states— - - “But few houses are properly supplied with water. In very dry seasons, - they have to fetch water from a distance varying from a quarter to 1½ - mile.” - -This is at present the condition of a large proportion of the houses in -Hampstead, Highgate, and Hendon, where water is purchased by the -pailful. - -_Mr. Daniel Antrobus_, medical officer of the Audley district, Newcastle -union, Staffordshire, says— - - “They have seldom a good supply of water, are without _pumps_, and the - occupants are obliged to obtain it from stagnant reservoirs or impure - springs, situate often at a considerable distance.” - -_Mr. Henry Cribb_, the medical officer of the Dunmow union reports, as a -circumstance which is highly injurious to the health,— - - “The want of good and wholesome spring-water: there being scarcely any - pumps for the use of the poor, they are compelled to use water - collected from ditches; and I have known it frequently to be not only - very impure, but almost in a putrid state.” - -The medical officer of the Bishop’s Stortford union, states— - - “I am of opinion that, in this and most of the rural parishes, - complaints often arise from the want of good and wholesome - spring-water, there being very few pumps, or even wells, and the poor - being compelled to use water collected from ditches and other impure - sources; this circumstance, connected with the very imperfect - drainage, I think requires strict investigation.” - -_Mr. Whilpels_, the medical officer of the Lexden and Winstree union, -states— - - “There is a point I deem most worthy of notice, I allude to the - deficiency of spring-water. The inhabitants of Salcot Virley and Great - Wigborough are compelled to drink pond-water, which is impure, - brackish, and most injurious to the constitution. The few who have the - means, send for water a distance of four miles; to obviate this evil - would be a blessing conferred upon the great mass of the population - residing in these parishes.” - -_Mr. William Blower_, surgeon of Bedford, states,— - - “At Wootton (near Bedford) the labourers are very numerous, and before - the passing the Poor Law Amendment Act the greater part of them were - dependent for support upon the poor-rates. The land was enclosed and - undrained, employment was scanty, and wages were very low; the water - was very bad, the inhabitants being principally supplied from pits dug - near their houses, and filled by rain in the winter, which in the - summer, and particularly in dry seasons, were almost emptied by use - and evaporation, leaving only a muddy fluid covered with a green scum, - and loaded with aquatic animals and plants. Sporadic typhus prevailed - extensively in the summer and autumn, and ague in the winter and - spring. - - “Since the introduction of the New Poor Law and the enclosure of the - land, considerable draining has been effected, employment has been - more plentiful, and the wages higher, and many of the labourers have - allotments of ground. Typhus has been rapidly diminishing, and this - year (1839) there was no case until November, and then only two. This - must principally be attributed to the improved state of the parish, - and partly, perhaps, this year, to the wetness of the season, by which - the water-pits have been kept nearly full, so that the conditions - favourable to the generation of malaria have not existed. - - “A few wells have been dug lately, and good water has been obtained, - and there is every probability if the water-pits were filled up, and - more wells dug, and the draining completed, that sporadic typhus and - ague, which have so long infested this village, and occasioned so much - distress and expense, might be entirely eradicated. A respectable - farmer informed me that, in the neighbouring parish of Houghton, a few - years ago, his was the only family that used well-water, and almost - the only one that escaped ague.” - -The state of the supplies of water to the labouring classes in Scotland -appears to be similar to that prevalent in the towns and the rural -districts of England. - -_Mr. William Tait_, surgeon, of Edinburgh, states, in regard to the -houses in the High-street, Cowgate, and Canongate:— - - “The dwellings of the poor are remarkable for their generally - uncomfortable appearance, and I attribute this in most instances to a - deficient supply of water, necessaries, and such like conveniences. - There are no receptacles for filth of any description, and it is - either accumulated in the stairs or dwellings themselves, and the - stairs are scarcely ever washed. And how can it be otherwise, seeing - that the poor have to travel for a considerable distance for water, - and afterwards carry it up five, six, or seven stories?” - -The Return from Glasgow states that the— - - “Sewers or drains are left uncovered, and with no diluting water - except the refuse of families and rain-water.” - -That— - - “There is no scarcity of water if carried into the poorer houses.” - -_Dr. Alexander Cuddie_, of Aberdeen, states that the— - - “Water is plentiful; but it would be proper to bring it into the - houses of the poor as well as the rich.” - -_Mr. Forrest_, in his report on the sanitary condition of the population -of Stirling, states that in that town— - - “The supply of water is often very deficient. There is no - water-company, and the water is not conveyed into the houses even of - the wealthy inhabitants. In times of scarcity it is no uncommon - occurrence to see from 80 to 100 persons waiting at each public well - for water; and the scarcity of it is often made an excuse by servants - for the neglect of domestic duties. I may therefore with propriety - say, that the poor of Stirling are often not properly supplied with - water for the purposes stated in the query.” - -The _Rev. George Lewis_, the minister of St. David’s parish, Dundee, in -speaking of drainage, says that— - - “Everything in this way is done very imperfectly; drains and sewers - are insufficient, and run into the mill-pond.” - -That there is— - - “No water, except what is purchased or taken out of the filthy - mill-pond.” - -Another informant states— - - “The west and south-west suburbs are destitute of water, and have no - sewers; the north and east suburbs are also badly supplied with water, - and have no drains. Indeed there are only two drains in the town that - I know of, and I should think them rather hurtful than otherwise, as - there is not water enough to scour them out.” - -In answer to the question, whether the residences of the population -amidst which contagious febrile diseases arise are properly supplied -with water for the purposes of cleanliness of the houses, person, and -clothing? _Dr. John Macintyre_, of Greenock, states that— - - “Their proprietors or landlords, with a few exceptions, have not - properly supplied them with water, although an ample supply of that - necessary aid to cleanliness can be cheaply obtained by means of pipes - from the Shaws’ Water Company.” - -_Dr. James Sym_ states that— - - “There are few wells of good water in Ayr. The water in general is - strongly impregnated with lime, and the supply is defective. Strangers - find it unpleasant, and I believe horses which have not been used with - it are apt to suffer when it is given them to drink.” - -_Mr. A. Cochrane_ and _Mr. W. J. Thomson_, surgeons, of Arbroath, state— - - “That the town is well supplied with _hard_ water, but that an - abundant supply of soft water might be brought into the town with very - little expense from a spring in the neighbourhood.” - -The Return from Renfrew states that— - - “A plentiful supply of water may be had from the street wells, and - also from a burn which runs close to the town.” - -_Dr. Henry Douglas_, of Dunfermline, says— - - “They are _very inadequately_ supplied with water for these purposes.” - -The return from Kirkwall, states— - - “That water is supplied at public wells: there is no scarcity of - water, but it is somewhat hard.” - -_Dr. W. B. Ross_, of Tain, in reply to the question whether the town is -properly supplied with water? says— - - “By no means; the water is very hard, and unfit for most domestic - purposes.” - -_Dr. S. Scott Alison_, in his Report on the sanatory condition of the -town of Tranent, furnishes an exemplification of the condition of many -of the smaller towns:— - - “I do not believe there is a house in Tranent into which water is - conducted by pipes. There existed great difficulty on many occasions - in getting water at all. During the seven years I lived there, the - village was, on the whole, extremely ill supplied with water: it was - usual for it to be occasionally absent from Tranent altogether. Last - summer the supply of water was stopped for several months. The - inhabitants suffered the greatest inconvenience from this cause; they - could not get sufficient water to maintain cleanliness of person and - clothes; it was even difficult for labouring people to get enough to - cook their victuals; and I know that many of the poor were, in - consequence, reduced to the practice of using impure and unwholesome - water. On these occasions water was carried from a considerable - distance from the village. Some went the distance of a mile; some used - barrels drawn on carriages; some employed children to bring it in - small vessels; and, I doubt not, many went without it, when it was - highly necessary, from inability or infirmity to go themselves, and - from want of funds to employ another for the purpose. Since the above - was written I have learned from a lady, previously resident in - Tranent, that, when cholera prevailed in that district, some of the - patients suffered very much indeed from want of water, and that so - great was the privation, that on that calamitous occasion people went - into the ploughed fields and gathered the rain water which collected - in depressions in the ground, and actually in the prints made by - horses’ feet. Tranent was formerly well supplied with water of - excellent quality by a spring above the village, which flows through a - sand-bed. The water flows into Tranent at its head, or highest - quarter, and is received into about 10 wells, distributed throughout - the village. The people supply themselves at these wells when they - contain water. When the supply is small, the water pours in a very - small stream only; and it happens, in consequence, that on these - occasions of scarcity great crowds of women and children assemble at - these places, waiting their ‘turn,’ as it is termed. I have seen women - fighting for water. The wells are sometimes frequented throughout the - whole night. It was generally believed by the population that this - stoppage of the water was owing to its stream being diverted into a - coal-pit which was sunk in the sand-bed above Tranent. That pit has - been lined with sheets of iron, and the water has lately returned to - Tranent in great abundance.” - -The observations made by _Mr. Burton_, in his Report, appear to be -deserving of attentive consideration. He states— - - “I have reason to believe that in many parts of Scotland the want of a - good supply of water is one of the most material impediments to the - furtherance of cleanly habits among the working people. Besides the - immediate evils of a narrow supply, much time is wasted, and many bad - habits are acquired by those who have to wait their turn at the wells - in a time of drought. Dundee, Stirling, Dunfermline, Lanark, and - Arbroath, are all, I believe, imperfectly supplied. The community of - Dundee have spent about 30,000_l._ in a contest between the supporters - of two contending water-bills; and I understand that an Act which was - passed about three years ago has been found incapable of being put in - operation. The evil is rendered more serious by the demand for cooling - water for the numerous steam-engines, and the article is so precious - that it is for these purposes repeatedly re-cooled by exposure and - evaporation after it has been heated. I believe that in many of the - colliery and manufacturing districts there is inconvenience, amounting - to suffering, from want of water. Where there is a positive deficiency - of the element on the spot, the means of procuring a supply from - another place are so various and so dependent on local circumstances, - that nothing but some arbitrary authority, possessed of sufficient - funds, could ensure its being obtained in every instance.” - -On these and various reports from the medical officers and others in -England, as well as from Scotland, in which it is stated in terms -similar to the return from Renfrew, “that a plentiful supply of water -_may_ be had from the street wells, and also from a burn which runs -close to the town,” it is to be observed, that the economy of a town, or -of any considerable collection of habitations, appears to be essentially -defective, insofar as it leaves a large proportion of the inhabitants -dependent on such a mode of supply. - -Supplies of water obtained from wells by the labour of fetching and -carrying it in buckets or vessels do not answer the purpose of regular -supplies of water brought into the house without such labour, and kept -ready in cisterns for the various purposes of cleanliness. The -interposition of the labour of going out and bringing home water from a -distance acts as an obstacle to the formation of better habits; and I -deem it an important principle to be borne in mind, that in the actual -condition of the lower classes, conveniences of this description must -precede and form the habits. It is in vain to expect of the great -majority of them that the disposition, still less the habits, will -precede or anticipate and create the conveniences. Even with persons of -a higher condition, the habits are greatly dependent on the -conveniences, and it is observed, that when the supplies of water into -the houses of persons of the middle class are cut off by the pipes being -frozen, and when it is necessary to send for water to a distance, the -house-cleansings and washings are diminished by the inconvenience; and -every presumption is afforded that if it were at all times requisite for -them to send to a distance for water, and in all weathers, their habits -of household cleanliness would be deteriorated. In Paris and other towns -where the middle classes have not the advantage of supplies of water -brought into the houses, the general habits of household and personal -cleanliness are inferior to those of the inhabitants of towns who do -enjoy the advantage. The whole family of the labouring man in the -manufacturing towns rise early, before daylight in winter time, to go to -their work; they toil hard, and they return to their homes late at -night. It is a serious inconvenience, as well as discomfort to them to -have to fetch water at a distance out of doors from the pump or the -river on every occasion that it may be wanted, whether it may be in -cold, in rain, or in snow. The minor comforts of cleanliness are of -course forgone, to avoid the immediate and greater discomforts of having -to fetch the water. In general it has appeared in the course of the -present inquiry that the state of the conveniences gives, at the same -time, a very fair indication of the state of the habits of the -population, in respect to household, and even personal cleanliness. The -_Rev. Whitwell Elwin_, the chaplain of the Bath union, gives the -following illustration of the habits of many of the working population -even in that city, which is well supplied with water:— - - “A man had to fetch water from one of the public pumps in Bath, the - distance from his house being about a quarter of a mile,—‘It is as - valuable,’ he said, ‘as strong beer. We can’t use it for cooking, or - anything of that sort, but only for drinking and tea.’ ‘Then where do - you get water for cooking and washing?’—‘Why, from the river. But it - is muddy, and often stinks bad, because all the filth is carried - there.’ ‘Do you then prefer to cook your victuals in water which is - muddy and stinks to walking a quarter of a mile to fetch it from the - pump?’—‘We can’t help ourselves, you know. We could not go all that - way for it.’ There are many gentlemen’s houses in the same district in - which the water is not fit for cooking; and I know that much privation - and inconvenience is undergone to avoid the expense of water-carriage. - I have often wondered to see the shifts which have been endured rather - than be at the cost of an extra pail of water, of which the price was - three halfpence. With the poor, far less obstacles are an absolute - barrier, because no privation is felt by them so little as that of - cleanliness. The propensity to dirt is so strong, the steps so few and - easy, that nothing but the utmost facilities for water can act as a - counterpoise; and such is the love of uncleanliness, when once - contracted, that no habit, not even drunkenness, is so difficult to - eradicate.” - -In most towns, and certainly in the larger manufacturing towns, those -members of a family who are of strength to fetch water are usually of -strength to be employed in profitable industry, and the mere value of -their time expended in the labour of fetching water, is almost always -much higher than the cost of regular supplies of water even at the -charge made by the water companies. In Glasgow the charge for supplying -a labourer’s tenement is 5_s._ per annum; in Manchester 6s. In London -the usual charge is 10_s._ for a tenement containing two families, for -which sum two tons and a half of water per week may be obtained if -needed. For 5_s._ per annum, then, as a water-rate (on which from 10 to -20 per cent. is paid to the owner for collection), each labourer’s -family may be supplied in the metropolis with one ton and a quarter of -water weekly, if they find it necessary to use so much. The ton is 216 -gallons, equal to 108 pails full, at two gallons the pail. Thus for less -than one penny farthing, 135 pails full of water are taken into the -house without the labour of fetching, without spilling or disturbance, -and placed in constant readiness for use. Under any circumstances, if -the labourer or his wife or child would otherwise be employed, even in -the lowest-paid labour or in knitting stockings, the cost of fetching -water by hand is extravagantly high as compared with the highest cost of -water lifted by steam and conducted through iron pipes at a large -expenditure of capital (the lowest in London is about 200,000_l._) and -by an expensive management. In illustration of the difference in economy -of the two modes of conveyance, I may mention that the usual cost of -filtered water carried into the houses at Paris by the water-carriers, -is two sous the pailful, being at the rate of 9_s._ per ton; whilst the -highest charge of any of the companies in London for sending the same -quantity of water to any place within the range of their pipes, and -delivering it at an average level of 100 feet, at the highest charge, is -6_d._ per ton. - -At the highest of the water companies’ charges it would be good economy -for the health of the labourer’s family to pay for water being laid on -in the house, to reduce the expense of medicines and loss of work in the -family, as indicated by any of the tables of sickness. The cost of -laying on the water in a labourer’s tenement, and providing a butt or -receptacle to hold it, may be stated to be on an average 40_s._, which -will last twenty years. - -The experience of the water companies tends to show that the -distribution of water directly into the houses where it is wanted, would -be good economy of the water. When the supply of water into the houses -is stopped by frost, and cocks are, on that occasion, opened in the -streets, the supply of water required is one-third greater than usual; -as great, indeed, as it is in the heat of summer, when there is a large -additional consumption for watering gardens and roads. I would here -suggest that it is essential that the water should be charged on the -owners of all the smaller weekly tenements, because, where the owner -finds it necessary to collect the rent weekly, the smaller collection of -rates for longer periods would often be impracticable, and the expense -of the collection alone of such small rates weekly (1¼_d._ per week) -would be more than the amount collected. - -The mode of supplying water by private companies for the sake of a -profit is not however available for the supply of a population, where -the numbers are too small to defray the expense of obtaining a private -Act of parliament, or the expense of management by a board of directors, -or to produce profits to shareholders; it is, therefore, a mode not -available to the population of the country who do not reside in the -chief towns. The Poor Law Commissioners have been urgently requested to -allow the expense for procuring supplies for villages to be defrayed out -of the poor’s rates in England, but they could only express their regret -that the law gave them no power to allow such a mode of obtaining the -benefit sought. The mode of supply by private companies is, however, the -subject of complaint in the populous towns, where it is the only mode. - -Although there is little probability that regular supplies of water -would ever have been obtained without the inducement of salaries to the -managers and of returns of interest to the capitalists; although the -cost of most of the supplies at the highest is much lower than the -labour of fetching water from a pump close to the house, and no valid -objection appears against compulsory provisions for water being laid on -(_i. e._ for existing charges of labour being reduced) in the tenements -of the labouring classes in towns, at the common charge of the water -companies: still the appearance of a profit and of dividends on the -supply of a natural commodity does, in the new districts at least, -furnish pretexts for the objection of the poorer owners and ignorant -occupiers to the supposed expense of the improvement which consists in -an immediate outlay. Apart from such objections, however, it is a mode -of obtaining supplies attended with great inconveniences, which it is -desirable to have considered with respect to new improvements. The -payment of a dividend for an improved supply of such a commodity will be -found as imperfect a measure, even of its pecuniary value, as it would -be of the pecuniary value of a good and abundant supply of air and of -the light of day. There are numerous indirect effects of the use of such -a commodity, of which a pecuniary estimate cannot conveniently be made, -as against an immediate outlay. For example, there is little ground left -for doubt that the effect of street and house cleansing by means of the -supplies of water needed in the worst districts, would occasion -considerable reductions in the pecuniary charge of sickness on the -poor’s rates, but it would be extremely difficult to obtain these -results in money to make up, with any pretence to accuracy, a profit and -loss account as an undertaking for the outlay. The evidence afforded by -the creation and success of a private company proves only that a certain -class of persons so far appreciate the advantages of the supply as to be -willing to incur such an immediate expense as will cover the cost, and -yield a profit to the undertakers; it proves nothing as to the intrinsic -value of the service or the commodity, which may be immense to the bulk -of the community, and yet not one be found ready to volunteer to defray -a portion of the expense. But the expense of the machinery of water -companies, as already stated, is disproportioned to the means of the -smaller towns and to a large part of the country; and generations may -pass away amidst filth and pestilence before the scientific means and -the economy of prevention can be appreciated by them. And there are -further objections made in towns to the mode of supply itself. One is, -that it creates strong interest against all improvements in the quality -or the supplies of water; for every considerable improvement creates -expense, which is felt, in diminution of the dividends of the private -shareholders; and so long as a majority of the ratepayers are content -with bad water, or deem it hopeless to seek to obtain water of a -superior quality, so long as any public clamour will not endanger the -dividends, it appears that no amendment entailing considerable expense -can be expected. Even where there are convenient unappropriated streams, -and a wide field is afforded for competition by a very populous -district, the competition of different companies does not necessarily -furnish to the individual consumer any choice or amendment of the -supplies. - -The competition frequently absorbs the profit on the funds that might be -available to the competing parties (supposing them disposed to carry out -any plans other than those which have for their object the cheapest -supply that can be procured), and does not reduce the charge of the -supply of water to the public. At one time there were three sets of -water-pipes belonging to three different companies passing through the -same streets of a large proportion of the metropolis. This wasteful -competition of three immense capitals sunk in the supply of one -district, for which the expenditure of one capital and one establishment -would have sufficed, ended in an agreement between the competing -companies to confine themselves to particular districts. The dividends -at present obtained by the shareholders of the chief companies in the -metropolis on the capital now employed, appears, however, to be only 4, -5, or 6 per cent., but this is on several expensive establishments and -sets of officers, which appear to admit of consolidation. The committee -of the House of Commons which investigated the subject of the supplies -of water in 1821, concluded by recommending a consolidation of the -several trusts, but excepting that the competition between them has -abated, the expense and waste of separate establishments is still -continued, and beyond this the expense of the fixed capital and -establishment, charged upon perhaps one-third the proper supply of -water. - -The private companies are also complained of as being practically -irresponsible and arbitrary, and unaccommodating towards individuals. It -is a further subject of complaint, as respects supplies by such -companies, that they are directed almost exclusively to the supplies of -such private houses as can pay water-rates; that they are not arranged -for the important objects of cleansing of the streets or drains, or of -supplying of water in case of fire. I have not been able to observe the -extent of foundation for these complaints. Whilst no strong motive for -aggressive proceedings by the companies against individuals appears, the -existing force of the following statement made by the Committee referred -to, which sat in 1821, will be admitted:— - - “The public is at present without any protection, even against a - further indefinite extension of demand. In cases of dispute, there is - no tribunal but the boards of the companies themselves to which - individuals can appeal; there are no regulations but such as the - companies may have voluntarily imposed upon themselves, and may - therefore revoke at any time, for the continuance of the supply in its - present state, or for defining the cases in which it may be withdrawn - from the householder. All these points, and others of the same nature, - indispensably require legislative regulation, where the subject matter - is an article of the first necessity, and the supply has, from - peculiar circumstances, got into such a course that it is not under - the operation of those principles which govern supply and demand in - other cases.” - -Since the period of that report, there has been no legislation on the -subject other than that in new Acts, or on the renewal of old ones, -clauses have been introduced empowering any individual rate-payer to -demand a supply of water. - -In some instances legislative permissions have been given to the local -authorities to obtain supplies for the use of towns, but the permissions -have not been accompanied with the requisite powers to make them -available. - -Bath, however, is supplied with water under the authority of the local -Act of the 6 Geo. III. (c. 70), for paving, &c. which, after reciting -that there was a scarcity of water within the city and precincts, and -that there were in the neighbourhood of the said city several springs of -water belonging to the corporation, enacts that the corporation shall -have full power to cause water to be conveyed to the said city from such -springs, and gives them authority to enter upon and break up the soil of -any public highway, or common, or waste ground, and the soil of any -private grounds within two miles of the city, and the soil or pavement -of any street within the city, in order to drain and collect the water -of the springs, and to make reservoirs sufficient for keeping such -water, and to erect conduits, water-houses, and engines necessary for -distributing it, and to lay under ground aqueducts and pipes most -convenient for the same purpose. The Act vests the right and property of -all water-courses leading from the said springs to the city, and also of -all reservoirs, conduits, water-houses, and engines, erected or used for -the purpose, in the mayor, aldermen, and citizens of Bath. The following -extract from a communication from the _Rev. Whitwell Elwin_, who has -closely investigated the economy of the poorest classes in that city, -thus describes the present state of the supply:— - - “Bath is surrounded by hills which pour down a vast quantity of water - into reservoirs. Pipes are laid from these reservoirs to every part of - Bath, and as the springs from which the water originally rises are as - high up on the hills as the roofs of the houses, water can be carried - into the attics without the application of a forcing pump: thus no - machinery is employed. The only water-works are the pipes which convey - the water. - - “These reservoirs are the property of different persons, and there are - five distinct parties by which particular districts in Bath are - supplied. They are the Bath Corporation, the Freemen’s Company, the - Circus Company, the Duke of Cleveland, and Captain Gunning. There can - scarcely be said to be any competition, because the possession of a - spring in a particular locality gives a monopoly of the surrounding - neighbourhood. But wherever there is room for selection, the supply of - the corporation is always preferred. It is often resorted to even - where the distance is much greater than to other springs; the supply - being more regular, more abundant, and cheaper than the rest, with the - exception of that of the Duke of Cleveland, who only provides his own - tenants. The corporation supplies more than three parts of the town. - There are at present 2184 persons paying water-rates, but the number - of houses furnished with water is considerably greater, because courts - and rows of cottages have frequently a common cistern. Where this is - the case each cottage making use of the cistern pays a rent of 10_s._ - a-year, and where the house has a cistern of its own, 20_s._ a-year. - The charge for the water is in proportion to the rent of the house. - The quantity of water supplied is about a hogshead a-day. In summer, - when the springs are low, the quantity is not so great. The laying - down and repair of the feather, that is the pipe which branches from - the main pipe, is at the cost of the tenant. - - “In addition to these private supplies the corporation provides five - public pumps, which are open to all the inhabitants free of expense. - - “The greater part of the cottages in the town itself, but not in the - suburbs, make use of the water-works. There is generally a pump in - addition, which yields water too hard and bad for domestic purposes. - - “The water rents of the corporation for the last year were 3,233_l._ - 2_s._, the expenses (including salaries, rent for springs, repairs of - pipes) 449_l._ 3_s._ 3_d._, thus leaving a profit of 2,783_l._ 18_s._ - 9_d._ This sum is applied to the reduction of the borough rate. - - “The advantages of this system over private companies appear to me - great and incontestable. Here are no expenses for solicitors, or - litigation between rival concerns; no collusion between coalescing - companies to raise the charges to the utmost amount that the - inhabitants will bear; no exorbitant salaries to the variety of - officers, which every separate establishment demands. A few watermen, - whose united salaries are only 114_l._ 8_s._ per annum, is the sole - addition to the ordinary corporation machinery. When to this we add - that all the profits are for the benefit of the town and not for - individuals—that the sum paid in water-rate is thus pretty nearly - deducted from the borough rate—we can hardly hesitate to strike the - balance. The corporation management, here at least, gives unlimited - satisfaction. They are under the direct control of the ratepayers, - properly desirous to conciliate their opinion, and are sure to hear of - any incivility, which, as they have no interest in protecting it, they - are always ready to redress.” - -In this instance, however, it is to be observed that the real cost of -the water to the corporation is not more than one-seventh their charge -to the consumer; consequently, the charge for a supply out of the house -may be said to be less than 1_s._ 6_d._ per annum; and it will admit of -little doubt that if the water were lifted by steam power and carried -into every tenement, as it might be, the actual expense need not be -doubled; six-sevenths then of the charge, which is about the same as the -ordinary charges of water companies, is to be considered as a borough -rate, levied in the shape of a water rate, applied doubtless to some -other proper public services. - -An example is presented in Manchester of the practicability of obtaining -supplies for the common benefit of a town without the agency of private -companies. In that town gas has for some years past been supplied from -works erected and conducted not by the municipality but by a body -appointed under a local Act by an elected committee of the ratepayers. -This mode of supplying the town was, it appears, violently opposed by -private interests; but I am informed that the supplies of gas are of as -good or even of a better quality, and cheaper than those obtained from -private companies in adjacent towns; that improvements in the -manufacture of the gas are more speedily adopted than in private -associations, and the profits are reserved as a public fund for the -improvement of the town. Out of this fund a fine Town Hall has been -erected, whole streets have been widened, and various large improvements -have been made; and the income now available for the further improvement -of the town exceeds 10,000_l._ per annum, after providing for the -expense of management and the interest of the sinking fund on the money -borrowed. There are now in the same districts in the metropolis no less -than three immense capitals sunk in competition,—three sets of gas-pipes -passing through the same streets, three expensive sets of principal and -subordinate officers where one would suffice, comparatively high charges -for gas to the consumers, and low dividends to the shareholders of the -companies in competition. Where a scientific and trustworthy agency can -be obtained for the public, manifest opportunities present themselves -for considerable economy on such modes of obtaining supplies. A proposal -was made in Manchester to obtain supplies of water for the town in the -same manner as the supplies of gas, but the owners of the private pumps, -who, it is stated, have the monopoly of the convenient springs, and -exact double the charge for which even private companies are ready to -convey supplies into the houses, made a compact and effectual opposition -to the proposal, contending that the supplies of rain-water (which are -sometimes absolutely black with the soot held in suspension), together -with that from the springs was sufficient, and the proposal was -defeated. These petty interests could not, however, avail against the -more powerful interest of a joint-stock company, which was established -to procure supplies for the middle and wealthier classes of the town. - -There appears to be no reason to doubt that the mode of supplying water -to Bath and gas to the town of Manchester might be generally adopted in -supplying water to the population. Powers would be required to enter -into the lands adjacent to the towns on a reasonable compensation to the -owners to obtain supplies of water; and, as the management of -water-works requires appropriate skill, it would be necessary to appoint -an officer with special qualifications for their superintendence. -Ordinary service may be obtained for the public, if recourse be had to -the ordinary motives by which such service is engaged in private -companies. It is not mentioned invidiously, but as a matter of fact, -that the majority, not to say the whole, of such undertakings by joint -stock companies, are, in the first instance, moved by a solicitor, or -engineer, or other person, for the sake of the office of manager of the -works, and that the directors and shareholders, and the inducement of -profit to them, through the benefit undoubtedly to the public, are only -the machinery to the attainment of the object for which the undertaking -is primarily moved. If competent officers be appointed and adequately -remunerated for the service, there can be little doubt that the public -may, as at Bath and Manchester, be saved the expense of the management -by the occasional attendance of unskilled directors, and that they may -save the expense of dividends, or apply the profits to public -improvements, as at Manchester, and moreover avoid the inconveniences -and obstructions undoubtedly belonging to the supply of a commodity so -essential to the public health, comfort, and economy, by a private -monopoly. Bad supplies of water would, I apprehend, generally be less -tolerated by the influential inhabitants of all parties from a public -municipal agency than from a private company. - -Another ground for the recommendation that supplies of water for the -labouring classes should be brought under some public authority, is that -some care may be taken to prevent the use of unwholesome supplies. - -The queries transmitted to the medical officers were directed to -ascertain the sufficiency of the supplies for the purpose of cleansing, -but the returns frequently advert to the bad effect of inferior supplies -upon the health of the population; and it is scarcely conceivable to -what filthy water custom reconciles the people. Yet water containing -animal matter, which is the most feared, appears to be less frequently -injurious than that which is the clearest, namely, spring-water, from -the latter being oftener impregnated with mineral substances; but there -are instances of ill health produced by both descriptions of water. The -beneficial effects derived from care as to the qualities of the water is -now proved in the navy, where fatal dysentery formerly prevailed to an -immense extent, in consequence of the impure and putrid state of the -supplies; and care is now generally exercised on the subject by the -medical officers of the army. In the Dublin Hospital Reports, for -example, we have the following statement, which is still more important, -as showing the extent to which the nature of the water influences -health:— - - “Dr. M. Barry affirms that the troops were frequently liable to - dysentery, while they occupied the old barracks at Cork; but he has - heard that it has been of rare occurrence in the new barracks. Several - years ago, when the disease raged violently in the old barracks, (now - the depôt for convicts,) the care of the sick was, in the absence of - the regimental surgeon, entrusted to the late Mr. Bell, surgeon, in - Cork. At the period in question the troops were supplied with water - from the river Lee, which, in passing through the city, is rendered - unfit for drinking by the influx of the contents of the sewers from - the houses, and likewise is brackish from the tide, which ascends into - their channels. Mr. Bell, suspecting that the water might have caused - the dysentery, upon assuming the care of the sick, had a number of - water-carts engaged to bring water for the troops from a spring called - the Lady’s Well, at the same time that they were no longer permitted - to drink the water from the river. From this simple, but judicious - arrangement, the dysentery very shortly disappeared among the - troops.”—_Dublin Hospital Reports_, vol. iii. 11. Paper by Dr. Cheyne - “On Dysentery.” - -_Parent du Chatelet_, the most industrious and able of modern -investigators into questions of public health, gives the following -instance, which in like manner demonstrates the amount of disease -generated solely by the use of bad water, as well as the difficulty of -detecting the specific effects produced by it:— - - “When I visited last year the prisons of Paris with my friend - Villermé, who was interested in prisons generally, I was extremely - surprised at the proportion of sick in the hospital of St. Lazarus, - relatively to the whole population of the prisons. The prison, uniting - all the conditions necessary to health as regards its position, - construction, the dress and food of the prisoners, who were constantly - kept at work, how explain the much greater proportion of sick to what - we remark in other prisons of a bad condition, and in which are found - united all the apparent causes of unhealthiness?—This, I must confess, - has baffled all calculation, and has driven every one to say that - there must be a cause for the peculiarity, but that it could not he - discovered. I do not despair to have hit upon that cause, and I - believe it is to be recognised in the nature of the water drunk by the - prisoners. Having tasted it in the wooden reservoir behind the house, - which was in bad order, and full of plants of the genus confervæ, I - found it had a detestable and truly repulsive taste, a circumstance - which does not appear to have been hitherto remarked. Might not the - cause, then, he detected in the chemical nature of the water of - Belleville and of the neighbourhood of St. Gervais, of which the - prisoners drink exclusively? What proves it is the striking - resemblance which exists in this respect between the water of - Belleville and that in the wells of the entrance-court of the hospital - of the Salpêtriere, which both contain a very great proportion of - sulphate of lime, and other purgative salts. Now the venerable - Professor Pinel and his pupil Schwilgué have remarked for more than 20 - years the influence that the water of the wells of which I speak has - upon the portion of the population of the hospital who make use of it, - and they believe that certain affections connected evidently with - locality cannot be attributed to any other cause, and particularly the - disposition to chronic diarrhœa which is so often observed in this - hospital. It turns out upon examination _that the greater part of the - sick who fill the infirmary of the prison of St. Lazarus are brought - there for illnesses of the same identical nature_. In the prison they - are obliged to have recourse to the water of the Seine to cook the - vegetables and other food, an evident proof of the truth, or at least - the probability, of all I have just advanced.” - -In the metropolis the public owes the analysis of the supplies of water -and some improvement of supplies not in their nature essentially bad, -chiefly to the stirring of speculators in rival companies. But the -population of the rural districts, and of the smaller towns, afford no -means for the payment of companies, still less any field for pecuniary -competition. As in the cases cited, it is to be feared that the -knowledge gained for the safety of the health of the soldiers and the -prisoners was not proclaimed for the protection of the bulk of the -poorest population, who, under existing arrangements, only receive care -in the shape of alleviations, when the suffering from disease is -attended by the destitution which establishes the claim to relief. The -middle classes are exposed to the like inconveniences, and put up with -very inferior water, whilst supplies of a salubrious quality might be -obtained by extended public arrangements for the common benefit. - -It will not be deemed necessary to attempt to develope all the -considerations applicable to the subject; and I confine myself to the -representation of the fact,—That there is wide foundation for the -complaint that proper supplies of water to large portions of the -community are extensively wanting—that those obtained are frequently of -inferior quality—that they are commonly obtained at the greatest expense -when obtained by hand labour—that the supplies by private companies, -though cheaper and better, are defective, and chiefly restricted to the -use of the higher and middle classes, unless in such inconvenient modes -(_i. e._ by cocks in courts), as seriously to impede the growth of -habits of cleanliness amongst the working classes. To which I venture to -add, as the expression of an opinion founded on communications from all -parts of the kingdom, that as a highly important sanitary measure -connected with any general building regulations, whether for villages or -for any class of towns, arrangements should be made for all houses to be -supplied with good water, and should be prescribed as being as essential -to cleanliness and health as the possession of a roof or of due space; -that for this purpose, and in places where the supplies are not at -present satisfactory, power should be vested in the most eligible local -administrative body, which will generally be found to be that having -charge of cleansing and structural arrangements, to procure proper -supplies for the cleansing of the streets, for sewerage, for protection -against fires, as well as for domestic use. - - - _Sanitary Effect of Land Drainage._ - -In considering the circumstances external to the residence which affect -the sanitary condition of the population, the importance of a general -land drainage is developed by the inquiries as to the causes of the -prevalent diseases, to be of a magnitude of which no conception had been -formed at the commencement of the investigation: its importance is -manifested by the severe consequences of its neglect in every part of -the country, as well as by its advantages in the increasing salubrity -and productiveness wherever the drainage has been skilful and effectual. -The following instance is presented in a report from _Mr. John Marshall, -Jun._, the clerk to the union in the Isle of Ely:— - - “It has been shown that the Isle of Ely was at one period in a - desolate state, being frequently inundated by the upland waters, and - destitute of adequate means of drainage; the lower parts became a - wilderness of stagnant pools, the exhalations from which loaded the - air with pestiferous vapours and fogs; now, by the improvements which - have from time to time been made, and particularly within the last - fifty years, an alteration has taken place which may appear to be the - effect of magic. By the labour, industry, and spirit of the - inhabitants, a forlorn waste has been converted into pleasant and - fertile pastures, and they themselves have been rewarded by bounteous - harvests. Drainage, embankments, engines, and enclosures have given - stability to the soil (which in its nature is as rich as the Delta of - Egypt) as well as salubrity to the air. These very considerable - improvements, though carried on at a great expense, have at last - turned to a double account, both in reclaiming much ground and - improving the rest, and in contributing to the healthiness of the - inhabitants. Works of modern refinement have given a totally different - face and character to this once neglected spot; much has been - performed, much yet remains to be accomplished by the rising - generation. The demand for labour produced by drainage is - incalculable, but when it is stated that where sedge and rushes but a - few years since we now have fields of waving oats and even wheat, it - must be evident that it is very great. - - “On reference to a very perfect account of the baptisms, marriages, - and burials, in Wisbech, from 1558 to 1826, I find that in the - decennial periods, of which 1801, 1811, and 1821, were the middle - years, the baptisms and burials were as under:— - - Baptisms. Burials. Population in 1801. - 1796 to 1805 1,627 1,535 4,710 - 1806 to 1815 1,654 1,313 5,209 - 1816 to 1825 2,165 1,390 6,515 - - “In the first of the three periods the mortality was 1 in 31; in the - second, 1 in 40; in the third, 1 in 47; the latter being less than the - exact mean mortality of the kingdom for the last two years. (_See - Registrar-general’s Second Report, p. 4, folio edition._) These - figures clearly show that the mortality has wonderfully diminished in - the last half century, and who can doubt but that the increased - salubrity of the fens produced by drainage is a chief cause of the - improvement.” - -_Mr. R. Turner_, medical officer of the Newhaven union, states,— - - “The district which has been under my care comprises five parishes, - three of which, viz., Kingston, Iford, and Rodmell, are (more - especially the two latter) situate in close proximity to marshes, - which were formerly for a considerable portion of the year inundated; - of late very extensive improvements have taken place in the drainage - of these levels, and in consequence of that change, the diseases - constantly engendered by marsh miasmata, viz., typhus and intermittent - fevers, are not more common than in other districts which present to - the eye a fairer prospect of health.” - -_Mr. G. R. Rowe_, medical officer of the Ongar union, observes,— - - “It is worthy of remark, that in the districts surrounding Chigwell no - malignant, infectious, or contagious disease has appeared during my - experience of thirty years’ occasional residence, and even during the - prevalence of cholera not one case occurred. The land is well drained, - the situation elevated, and the cleanly habits of the poor, with the - benevolence of its residents, have tended much to the prevention of - disease, and its amelioration when occurring.” - -_Mr. W. Sanders_, medical officer of the Gravesend and Milton union, -states,— - - “I beg leave to suggest how extreme are the beneficial effects of a - proper drainage, which shall prevent stagnant water, and its - deleterious consequences, accumulating in crowded neighbourhoods. This - is exemplified in this town, and also in Tilbury Fort opposite, which - is built on a marsh, and where, during the cholera period, then under - my care, not a single case occurred.” - -_Mr. Emerson_, one of the medical officers of the Eastry union, states,— - - “There is, I believe, no locality which has been for some years so - exempt from fevers of a malignant and contagious character as the - eastern coast of Kent. Accordingly, idiopathic fever, under the form - of synochus and typhus, very rarely occurs, and when it does appear, - is generally of an isolated kind. Intermittents, also, which fifteen - or twenty years since were so generally prevalent in this district, - have become comparatively of rare occurrence, and indeed have almost - disappeared from the catalogue of our local endemics. This exemption - from ague and other febrile epidemics of an infectious nature may be - justly imputed to the total absence of malaria, and of all those - causes which usually generate an unwholesome and contaminating - atmosphere, viz., from the whole district being secured from - inundations by the most complete and effectual system of drainage and - sewerage. Also, from the exposed state of the country favouring a free - and rapid evaporation from the surface of the soil.” - -_Mr. George Elgar_, another of the medical officers of the Eastry union, -observes that,— - - “The parishes forming the fifth district of the Eastry union, are, - with one or two exceptions, close to marshes separating the Isle of - Thanet from this portion of East Kent, and consequently, during the - spring and autumn, the inhabitants are exposed to the malaria - therefrom; but for these last few years, owing to the excellent plan - of draining, very few diseases have occurred (in my opinion) that can - be said to be produced by malaria. There is very little ague, scarcely - any continued fevers; and a case of typhus, I believe, has not been - known along the borders of the marshes for these last three or four - years. Some years back, a great portion of the parishes adjoining - these marshes was under water from the end of autumn to the early part - of the following spring; then, agues and fevers of all characters - prevailed to a very great extent. Although the malaria does not - produce diseases of any _decided character_, yet, during a wet spring - or autumn, there are always cases of inflammation of the lungs or - bowels, and rheumatism, both in acute and chronic forms. The houses in - general are good, well drained and well ventilated, having one or two - sitting-rooms, as many bed-rooms, sometimes more, scullery, &c., and - convenient receptacles for refuse and fuel. The cottages generally are - _extremely cleanly_; of course there must be some exceptions, where - the occupiers would not be clean and careful under any circumstances.” - -_Mr. Spurgin_, the medical officer of the Dunmow union, states— - - “In this district great attention is paid to the cultivation of land, - under drainage being much attended to, on which account partly we are - not exposed to malaria, neither does ague prevail to any extent. A few - cases have occurred, and when they have it has been for the most part - in individuals whose systems have been impaired by irregular habits, - and consequently the more readily affected by external impressions, as - atmospheric vicissitudes.” - -_Mr. D. R. M’Nab_, the medical officer of the Epping union, states that— - - “The health of the inhabitants of these two parishes is on the whole - highly satisfactory, as will appear by this return, but I would - observe that the sanitary condition of two localities would be greatly - improved by a little attention on the part of the public surveyors and - others to the drains and ditches immediately abutting on the dwellings - of the poor inhabitants. I refer more especially to that part of - Epping which is denominated the Back-street, and the greater part of - which is in the parish of Coopersall. In very wet weather the drains - and ditches are flooded; in very dry, on the contrary, they are by the - evaporation of the fluids rendered very offensive, and thus almost all - our cases of malignant fever are situated amongst those dwellings; if - the neighbourhood had been crowded with inhabitants the mischief would - have been much greater; and even as it now is, it has been the cause - of much fatality among the able-bodied men and women. The same - observations are applicable to Duck-lane in the parish of Weald, and - also at the Gullett, but in the latter case it is principally owing to - the carelessness and filth of one or two families, who have thrown all - sorts of excrementitious substances around their dwellings, and in the - course of putrefaction it has occasionally become pestiferous. - - “I may also venture to add the following observation, after twenty-six - years’ practice in this neighbourhood, that I have scarcely ever had a - case of typhus fever in a malignant form without discovering some - stagnant drain or overcharged cesspool, or some other manifest cause - of malaria in the immediate residence of the patient.” - -In the reports given from the parish ministers in the statistical -accounts of Scotland, the effects of drainage upon the general health of -the population are strongly marked in almost every county, expressed in -notes made from an examination of the returns. Sutherland—parish of -_Rogart_, “healthy, and a good deal of draining.” _Farr_, “subject to no -particular disease; a deal of draining.” Ross and Cromarty—_Alness_, dry -and healthy, “climate improved by drainage.” It is to be understood that -drainage appears to form the essential part of agricultural improvement, -which is connected with the improvement of health. Thus the notes from -another parish in the same county, _Kilmuir_, _Wester_ and _Suddy_, -states it as “healthy; great improvement; scarcely an acre in its -original state.” _Rosemarkie_, “healthy; agriculture much improved.” -Elgin—_New Spynie_, “healthy, much waste reclaimed, much draining.” -_Alves_, “dry and healthy, well cultivated, wood sometimes used for -drains.” Banff—_Deckford_, “healthy, and people long lived, much -draining.” Kincardine—_Fordoun_, “so much draining that now no swamps: -formerly, agues common, now quite unknown.” Angus—_Carmylie_, “health -improved from draining.” Kinross—_Kinross_, “agues prevalent sixty years -ago in consequence of marshes, now never met with.” _Oswell_, “ague -prevailed formerly, but not since the land was drained.” -Perth—_Methven_, “the north much improved by draining.” _Redgorton_, -“healthy; no prevailing disease; ague was frequent formerly, but not -since the land has been drained and planted.” _Moneydie_, “healthy; an -immense improvement by draining.” _Abernyte_, “since the land was -drained, scrofula rare and ague unknown.” _Monzie_, “healthy; a good -deal of land reclaimed.” _Auchterarder_, “much draining, and waste land -reclaimed—climate good.” _Muckhart_, “great improvement in agriculture; -ague formerly prevalent—not so now.” _Muthill_, “healthy, much draining -and cultivation extended.” And similar statements are made from the -rural districts in all parts of the country. - -In the course of inquiries as to what have been the effects of land -drainage upon health, one frequent piece of information received has -been that the rural population had not observed the effects on their own -health, but they had marked the effects of drainage on the health and -improvement of the stock. Thus the less frequent losses of stock from -epidemics are beginning to be perceived as accompanying the benefits of -drainage in addition to those of increased vegetable production. - -_Dr. Edward Harrison_, in a paper in which he points out the connexion -between the rot in sheep and other animals, and some important disorders -in the human constitution, observes:— - - “The connexion between humidity and the rot is universally admitted by - experienced graziers; and it is a matter of observation, that since - the brooks and rivulets in the county of Lincoln have been better - managed, and the system of laying ground dry, by open ditches and - under-draining, has been more judiciously practised, the rot is become - far less prevalent. Sir John Pringle informs us, that persons have - maintained themselves in good health, during sickly seasons, by - inhabiting the upper stories of their houses; and I have reason to - believe that, merely by confining sheep on high grounds through the - night, they have escaped the rot.” - -_Dr. Harrison_ makes some observations on the effects of imperfect -drainage in aggravating the evils intended to be remedied, of which -frequent instances are presented in the course of this inquiry:— - - “A grazier of my acquaintance has, for many years, occupied a large - portion of an unenclosed fen, in which was a shallow piece of water - that covered about an acre and a half of land. To recover it for - pasturage, he cut in it several open ditches to let off the water, and - obtained an imperfect drainage. His sheep immediately afterwards - became liable to the rot, and in most years he lost some of them. In - 1792 the drains failed so entirely, from the wetness of the season, - that he got another pond of living water, and sustained, in that - season, no loss of his flock. For a few succeeding years, he was - generally visited with the rot; but having satisfied himself by - experience, that whenever the pit was, from the weather, either - completely dry or completely under water, his flock was free from the - disorder, he attempted a more perfect drainage, and succeeded in - making the land dry at all times. Since that period he has lost no - sheep from the rot, though, till within the last two years, he - continued to occupy the fen. * * * - - “Mr. Harrison, of Fisherton, near Lincoln, has by judicious management - laid the greatest part of his farm completely dry, and is now little - troubled with the rot, unless when he wishes to give it to some - particular animals. His neighbours, who have been less provident, are - still severe sufferers by it, nor are their misfortunes confined to - sheep alone. Pigs, cows, asses, horses, poultry, hares, and rabbits, - become rotten in this lordship, and have flukes in their - livers. * * * * - - “The late Mr. Bakewell was of opinion, that after May-Day, he could - communicate the rot at pleasure, by flooding, and afterwards stocking - his closes, while they were drenched and saturated with moisture. In - summer, rivers and brooks are often suddenly swollen by - thunder-storms, so as to pass over their banks, and cover the adjacent - low lands. In this state, no injury is sustained during the - inundation; but when the water returns to its former channel, copious - exhalations are produced from the swamps and low lands, which are - exceedingly dangerous to the human constitution, and to several other - animals, as well as sheep. * * - - “A medical gentleman of great experience at Boston, in Lincolnshire, - and who is considerably advanced in life, has frequently observed to - me, that intermittents are so much diminished in his circuit, that an - ounce of the cinchona goes further at this time in the treatment of - agues than a pound of it did within his own recollection. During his - father’s practice at Boston, they were still more obstinate and - severe. For my own part, I have declared, for several years, in - various companies, that marsh miasmata are the cause of both agues and - the rot. And as miasmata are admitted, by the concurring testimonies - of medical practitioners in every part of the globe, to be produced by - the action of the sun upon low, swampy grounds, I hope this - interesting subject will be fully investigated, and effectual plans - carried into execution, for the preservation of man, and of the - animals which are so useful to him.” - -I may here mention a circumstance which occurred at the Poor Law -Commission Office, and which with succeeding information tended to -direct our attention to the subject of sanitary measures of prevention -for the protection of the rates. A medical officer of one of the Unions -who came to town for the transaction of some business before the Board, -begged to be favoured by the immediate despatch of his business, -inasmuch as, from a change of weather which had taken place since his -departure, he was certain that he should have a number of cases waiting -for him. On being asked to explain the circumstances from which he -inferred the occurrence of disease with so much certainty, he stated -that within his district there was a reservoir to feed a canal: that -they had let out the water as they were accustomed to do in spring time -for the purpose of cleansing it; and that whenever such weather occurred -as then prevailed during the process, he was sure to have a great number -of fever cases amongst the labourers in the village which immediately -adjoined the reservoir. It appeared to be, in fact, a case in which the -rot was propagated amongst the labourers in the village under -circumstances similar to those before cited in which it was propagated -amongst the sheep. - -The following portions of evidence afford instances of the condition in -which a larger proportion of the country remains, from the neglect of -general land drainage, than would be conceived from any _à priori_ -estimate of the amount of prevalent intelligence and enterprize. - -_Mr. R. W. Martyr_, one of the medical officers of the Langport union, -thus describes the condition of a large proportion of his district:— - - “The parishes of Kingsbury and Long Sutton being the district No. 1 B - of the Langford union, the population of which amounts to above 3,000; - Kingsbury, containing 2,000; and Long Sutton 1,000, or thereabouts. - Both these parishes are partly surrounded by low meadow land, and are - liable to frequent inundations, often covering many thousand acres, - and sometimes to a great depth; the level of much of this land being - below the bed of the main river or drains, makes it very difficult - (when once inundated) in very wet seasons to drain or carry off the - immense body of water they often contain. - - “These inundations are caused by the banks of the main rivers not - being sufficiently strong or elevated, and from the bridges not being - capacious enough to carry the immense body of water brought down from - the neighbouring hills and country higher up, which, in heavy rains, - sometimes takes place so rapidly as to completely overflow the banks - in twenty-four hours; but besides the casual or accidental giving way - of the banks of the rivers, it is sometimes done by interested persons - for the purpose of warding off the mischief from themselves by - throwing it on their neighbours. - - “When these floods occur in the winter season, and there is but little - herbage, or early in the spring, and are followed by dry weather, the - surface of the ground becomes dry and healthy, and they are then - highly beneficial to the land, and but little prejudicial to the - health of the surrounding inhabitants; but when, as is sometimes the - case, these floods take place late in April, May and June, and cover - hundreds of acres of hay, some cut and some uncut, and which must of - course rot on the ground, the effluvia and stench is then often - unbearable, and highly prejudicial to the health of the neighbouring - villages, and it is sometimes years before the land recovers its - healthy state, producing nothing but rank herbage, and causing agues, - fevers, dysentery, and numerous other diseases. Many of these evils - may, I think, be remedied if the owners of large estates in this - neighbourhood would interest themselves in the matter: I am persuaded - the increased value of their property would amply repay the outlay - necessary for the purpose. When the land is in this unhealthy state, - it appears to be equally prejudicial to the animal as the human - subject, producing numerous diseases among cattle, particularly among - sheep, many farmers losing the whole of their flocks. - - “Although much remains to be done to remedy the mischief complained - of, yet a considerable improvement has taken place within the last - twenty years by enclosing many of the large commons, and by that means - partially draining them; and also by enlarging the back drains which - carry the water to a lower level into the main river, by which means - it is carried off much sooner, and less mischief is done, than if it - remained longer on the surface of the land. - - “It is stated in a very old history of Somerset, that about 300 years - ago, nearly the whole of the inhabitants of Kingsbury, Muchelney, and - Long Load, were carried off by a pestilence (without doubt meaning a - malignant fever); and that for many years afterwards it was considered - so unhealthy that it was inhabited solely by outlaws, and persons of - the worst character, a clear proof the country is in a much healthier - state now than it was in former times. - - “In addition to the more general causes of disease arising from the - flat state of the country, and its liability to inundations, are many - others of a more local character, and much easier of removal, in the - village of Kingsbury; and in many others there are numerous pits or - ponds in the winter season filled with muddy water, and, in summer, - mud alone: these are often situated in the front or at the back of the - cottages, and are receptacles for all manner of filth, and in certain - seasons are productive of very serious diseases, and at all times - highly injurious to health. Besides the mud pits above mentioned, - there is scarcely a cottage that is not surrounded with all manner of - filth, oftentimes close to the doors of the inhabitants, very few of - the cottages being provided with privies, or if there be any, they - only add to the general nuisance from being open and without drains.” - -_Mr. Oldham_, the medical officer of the Chesterfield union, gives the -following account of his district:— - - “Wessington is situated upon an elevation, but the houses are arranged - around a green or unenclosed common, upon the surface of which are a - great number of small pools, which, for the most part, are stagnant. - In the winter season they overflow, and at this season the - neighbourhood appears less infected with fever. In the summer months, - and greater part of the spring and autumn, they are stagnant, and - undoubtedly a fruitful source of malaria; indeed the neighbourhood of - Wessington is scarcely ever free from fever at these seasons of the - year. - - “It perhaps may not be amiss to mention, I have attended a number of - persons in the neighbourhood of this common who have been attacked - with fever, who were at the same time well fed, and lived in - comfortable and tolerably well-ventilated houses.” - -He then adduces instances, and proceeds— - - “From the facts before mentioned, I am led to conclude that the - decomposition constantly going on in these small pools is the source - of the malaria, and that the malaria so engendered propagates fever. - 1st. Because there are cases of fever in this locality nearly all the - year. 2d. Because paupers, and persons who are better fed, and live in - more comfortable and better ventilated houses in the neighbourhood of - this green or common, are attacked with the disease, and, I may say, - almost indiscriminately. 3d. Because during the years I have attended - the paupers of the district, there has scarcely been a case of fever - in the winter season when the pools are overflowed, and the atmosphere - is colder, and consequently unfavourable to fermentation and - decomposition. In my opinion the only method to remedy this evil would - be to drain the common, which is small, and its situation being - elevated, would greatly facilitate its drainage. The condition of a - few of the smaller and more confined of the tenements might be greatly - improved.” - -_Mr. L. Reynolds_, one of the medical officers of the Dore union, thus -describes in his report the district where some fever cases occurred:— - - “Of those cases the six first have occurred on Colston Common, a small - marshy spot, never drained, and containing several pools extremely - unhealthy, from decaying vegetables that never are removed. This year - the same families have been again attacked, and shall be so every year - till that nuisance be removed. In a medical point of view, such - commons are injurious, and they are extremely expensive to the unions, - for they cause fever, asthma, and rheumatism, from their incipient - moisture, thus injuring the labouring classes, and heavily taxing the - parish. - - “The four next have occurred at a place called Toad Ditch: it well - deserves the name; it is a collection of badly-built houses, rendered - unhealthy from the large ditch, into which every kind of refuse is - poured; the removal of that nuisance is imperatively called for. All - these houses have one privy in common, but the ditch is the place - generally used. - - “This district would be much served by enclosing and draining Colston - Commons, by keeping the sewers at Kingston clean, and by draining the - ditch at Toad Ditch. These are the only removable nuisances of which I - have any knowledge.” - -_Mr. Blick_, medical officer of the Bicester union, describes the -prevalence of typhus:— - - “This disease has been very prevalent in this district during the past - year, indeed we are never free from it. I think its origin may be - traced, in most instances, to a constant exposure to an atmosphere - loaded with malaria, and propagated, in the second place, by - contagion, so little attention being paid to prevent its diffusion. - - “The malaria alluded to arises from the decomposition of vegetable - matter left upon Otmoor (a marsh of about 4000 acres), by the previous - winter’s flood, and acted upon by the sun, &c., during the summer.” - -_Mr. J. Holt_, the medical officer of the Leighton Buzzard union, -reports:— - - “I have had only 34 cases of remittent and intermittent fevers during - the last year, which is a small number in comparison to the amount - usually occurring in hot summers. The great prevalence of these fevers - at such times is attributable principally to the number of stagnant - ponds and ditches which are situated in the very midst of many of the - towns and villages of this union, and which, in hot weather, become - quite putrid and offensive from the quantity of decaying animal and - vegetable matter. I have generally observed that the greater number of - these fevers occur in houses situated in the immediate vicinity of - these ponds, and have no doubt is the chief cause of nearly all the - fevers of this description. The villages to which I more particularly - refer are Egginton, Eddlesbon, Cheddington, &c.” - -The sanitary effects of road cleansing, to which house drainage and road -drainage is auxiliary, it appears is not confined to the streets in -towns and the roads in villages, but extends over the roads at a -distance from habitations on which there is traffic. Dr. Harrison, whose -testimony has been cited on the subject of the analogy of the diseases -of animals to those which affect the human constitution, in treating of -the prevention of fever or the rot amongst sheep, warns the shepherd -that, if after providing drained pasture and avoiding “rotting-places” -in the fields, all his care may be frustrated if he do not avoid, with -equal care, leading the sheep over wet and miry roads with stagnant -ditches, which are as pernicious as the places in the fields designated -as “rotting-places.” He is solicitous to impress the fact that the rot, -_i. e._ the typhus fever, has been contracted in ten minutes, that sheep -can at “any time be tainted in a quarter of an hour, while the land -retains its moisture and the weather is hot and sultry.” He gives the -following instance, amongst others, of the danger of traversing badly -drained roads. “A gentleman removed 90 sheep from a considerable -distance to his own residence. On coming near to a bridge, which is -thrown over the Barling’s river, one of the drove fell into a ditch and -fractured its leg. The shepherd immediately took it in his arms to a -neighbouring house, and set the limb. During this time, which did not -occupy more than one hour, the remainder were left to graze in the -ditches and lane. The flock were then driven home, and a month -afterwards the other sheep joined its companions. The shepherd soon -discovered that all had contracted the rot, except the lame sheep; and -as they were never separated on any other occasion, it is reasonable to -conclude that the disorder was acquired by feeding in the road and ditch -bottoms.” The precautions applicable to the sheep and cattle will be -deemed equally applicable to the labouring population who traverse such -roads. - -Such instances as the following, on the prejudicial effects of undrained -and neglected roads, might be multiplied. _Mr. E. P. Turner_, the -medical officer of Foleshill union, in accounting for some cases of -fever, states:— - - “These cases of typhus all occurred in the same neighbourhood, where - the road is bad and a dirty ditch of stagnant water on each side of - it; the road is generally overflowed in the winter. The disease broke - out in the month of October; other cases occurred in the same - neighbourhood at the time.” - -The nature of the more common impediments which stand in the way of the -removal of the causes of disease and obstacles to production described -in the preceding, are noticed in the instances following. Others will be -adduced when the subject of the legislative means of prevention are -stated. - -_Dr. Traves_, on the sanitary condition of the poor in the Malton union, -states,— - - “The whole of the low district above alluded to, and extending into - the Pickering union, (known by the name of the Marishes, or Marshes,) - has at different times within the last few years been the seat of - typhus and other fevers. - - “Attempts were made by some of the landed proprietors a few years ago - to effect a system of drainage and embankments likely to prevent the - inundations of these rivers in wet seasons, but the attempt was - abandoned in consequence of the reluctance of certain townships to - bear their portion of the necessary outlay, and any partial system of - embankment is positively injurious, inasmuch as the water that is let - in upon the land at a higher point of the river is prevented returning - into the stream again by an embankment at a lower point, so that this - water, containing vegetable matters in a state of decomposition, must - remain stagnant until evaporated by the sun’s rays, or dissipated by - the wind; cases of fever occurring under these circumstances have - repeatedly come under my observation, as well as that of other medical - men familiar with the district, and this fruitful source of disease - (in seasons like 1839 more especially) will probably now remain in - full force until an Act of the legislature shall effect a change.” - -_Mr. Thomas Marjoribanks_, the minister of Lochmaben,— - - “No means of any consequence, so far as I am aware, have yet been - tried to remedy the evil, the removal of such substances as generate - malaria. There are no scavengers appointed for the removal of - nuisances. One great mean of preventing the generation of malaria (in - my opinion) would be the lowering of the bed of the river Annan, which - would to a great extent free the surrounding lands of stagnant water, - give greater facilities for draining, improve the system of farming, - lessen the risk of damage, and increase the quantity as well as - improve the quality of the food which the low lands produce, and in - every way conduce to the comfort and cleanliness of the inhabitants. - It is computed that in consequence of the flooding of the Annan, - damage during the last four years has been done to the amount of - 6,000_l._, and this along only about three miles of its course. The - property is very much subdivided, and, in consequence, poverty and - want has increased to a great extent among the small proprietors.” - -In closing this exposition of the state of the chief external evils that -affect the sanitary condition of the labouring population, it may be -observed that the experience, on which the conclusions rest as to the -principles of prevention is neither recent nor confined to this country. -That which is new, is the advantages we possess beyond other times, and -perhaps beyond all other countries, in capital and practical science for -its application. The experience of the advantage of public sewers to the -health of a town population is nearly as old as Rome itself. I may refer -with M. Du Châtelet to the experience of that city, to illustrate the -consequences of neglects, such as are manifest amidst large masses of -the community throughout the country, and are partially displayed in the -mortuary registers first cited. He gives the details from the treatise -_De Adventitiis Romani Cœli Qualitatibus_, by the celebrated Italian -physician Lancisi, who deeply studied the sanitary condition of Rome, -and wrote several admirable works on the subject, which had the happy -effect of inducing the pope to cleanse and drain the city:— - - “The barbarians of every tribe having several times pillaged and - sacked the city of Rome, the aqueducts were destroyed, and the water, - spreading into the surrounding plains, formed marshes, which - contributed greatly to render uninhabitable the surrounding country. - - “The aqueducts existing no longer, the sewers and privies were alike - neglected, and produced serious and frequent sicknesses, which were - more effectual in destroying the population than the arms of the - barbarians. All the historians of these remote times, and particularly - St. Gregory, in his Homilies, and the deacon John, in the Life of that - saint, give a frightful picture of the city of Rome. The air became so - vitiated that plagues and fevers of a malignant character continually - carried on their ravages to such a point that Peter Damien, writing in - the eleventh century to Pope Nicholas II., to intreat him to accept - his resignation, alleged as the pretext the danger he ran every - instant of losing his life by remaining in the town. - - “It was principally during the abode of the popes at Avignon that all - which regards health was neglected at Rome, and some historians have - not hesitated to attribute to this negligence the depopulation of the - town, which was reduced in a little time to 30,000 inhabitants. - - “Things remained in this state to the end of the fourteenth century, - an epoch at which the popes, resuming the ancient labours, restored - things to their proper condition; a new title to glory of Leo X., who - of all the popes was the one who occupied himself with this important - object in the most especial manner. - - “It is, in part, to these precautions that we are to attribute the - rapid increase of the population of Rome, which, from 30,000 souls, - reached in a short time to 80,000; and it is a thing worthy of our - attention that after the death of this pontiff the population quickly - fell to the number of 32,000, because, according to the contemporary - authors, everything having been neglected, the first calamities were - renewed. - - “Happily for Rome this state of things did not continue long, because - all successive popes, instructed, it appears, by the experience of - ancient times, having carried on immense labours, and constructed - fresh sewers, have given to the air of this city the necessary - purity.” - -Italy presents instances, though comparatively modern, of the removal of -disease by land drainage:— - - “At Vareggio,” observes M. Villermé, “in the principality of Lucca, - the inhabitants, few in number, barbarous, and miserable, were - annually, from time immemorial, attacked about the same period with - agues; but in 1741 flood-gates were constructed, which permitted the - escape into the sea of the waters from the marshes, preventing at the - same time the ingress of the ocean to these marshes both from tides - and storms. This contrivance, which permanently suppressed the marsh, - also expelled the fevers. In short, the canton of Vareggio is at the - present day one of the healthiest, most industrious, and richest on - the coast of Tuscany; and a part of those families whose boorish - ancestors sunk under the epidemics of the _aria cativa_, without - knowledge to protect themselves, enjoy a health, a vigour, a - longevity, and a moral character unknown to their ancestors.” - -The histories of other cities, and particularly of Paris, afford -illustrations of the effects of the neglect of public cleansing, which -begin in the ignorance and carelessness of the superior officers, and -continue in the predominance of ignorance and obscure interests of a -multitude in the present day:— - - “For several years the suppression of an enormous cesspool at Paris - near the Barrière des Fourneaux was implored by the inhabitants. - Placed under the predominant winds, it was a permanent cause of - annoyance to the quarters of St. Germain and St. Jacques. But all - petitions were in vain. A singular occurrence brought about the event - for which the people had prayed more than 50 years. In a hunting - party, the Prince of Conde was carried by a fiery horse towards this - same cesspool; finding it impossible to turn the animal, the prince - had the presence of mind to throw himself on the ground, but the horse - darted forward into the cesspool and disappeared. The next day an - order was issued from Versailles, enjoining M. Lenoir, the lieutenant - of police, to fill up the cesspool, which was accordingly done.” - -A particular evil had attracted the attention of an able minister, who -had recourse to the expedient which we have seen recently re-discovered -and introduced into practice into one section of the sewerage of -London:— - - “The great sewer of Montmartre being uncovered, and the fall - exceedingly small, it was easily choked, and spread infection through - all the neighbourhood. Turgot thought that the best method to obtain a - ready flow for the muddy waters it received was to wash it by frequent - currents. A vast reservoir, capable of containing about 22,000 - measures of water, was in consequence established at the opening of - the sewer, opposite the Rue des Filles-du-Calvaire. The waters of - Belleville were conducted there, together with those of two wells dug - in the vicinity. This volume of water was, on certain days, let into - the main sewer by means of flood-gates, which could be opened at - pleasure. The scouring of the sewer by a current of living water - attracted the public attention, and produced the most happy results. - Shortly the people could dwell on the confines of this ancient ditch - without fear of dangerous exhalations. The quarters of the Faubourg - Montmartre, of the Chaussée-d’Antin, of the Ville-l’Evêque, and of the - Faubourg St. Honoré, became populated. At length the land was so - valuable in these different quarters that the possessors of the banks - of the sewer demanded and obtained the permission to cover it over at - their own expense.” - -The mode of cleansing had, however, been before proposed by another -minister:— - - “In the conferences which were held in 1666 and 1667 at the house of - the Chancellor Seguier respecting the grand police of the kingdom, a - thorough examination was made of the sewers of Paris, which began to - multiply. The minutes of these sittings still exist. We see there the - opinions given on the subject by each of the members of the - commission, and particularly by Colbert, who in the sitting of the - 13th of January, proposed, as the best method of cleansing the sewers, - to establish several fountains in the quarters where they were - necessary, and at the side of each of them a reservoir of 15 measures, - which should be let out all at once. Nothing, assuredly, could be - better than this proposition. But one thing was wanting to the - minister—the water could not be procured.” - -But the water, though abundant in the vicinity of Paris, is still -wanted, and the cause of the want is thus noticed by M. Du Châtelet:— - - “Paris possesses an immense mass of water, which can be distributed - into every quarter and every house. Does the demand multiply with the - pipes? Assuredly not, and one might well be surprised to see the - negligence and apathy of proprietors in this respect. Some persons - adduce the fact to prove that seven litres[12] of water are sufficient - for the inhabitants of Paris, whilst sixty are necessary for London, - and still more for Edinburgh. But if we look closer to the conduct of - the proprietors, we shall find that it proceeds from calculations well - understood. It is the certainty that they will have sooner to empty - the cesspools which scares them. This operation, and the expense it - often brings with it, influences the venal propensities of the - proprietors. Is it likely that they will pay for water of which the - inevitable result will be to multiply the number of operations they - dread the most, and which increase the expense in an enormous - proportion? Thus the actual state of our cesspools, and the mode of - emptying them now in use, are, in our opinion, the principal causes - which prevent individuals from taking the water, and which retard the - period in which the city will receive the interest of the enormous - sums that it has devoted, and still devotes daily, to the supply of - water.” - -It is to be hoped, however, that the legislature will give the powers -and direct the means requisite in this country, to furnish to every city -in Europe a practical demonstration that by the art of the engineer, the -obstacle to improvement, formed by the great expense and annoyance of -removing the refuse of houses and streets may be rendered -inconsiderable. In Paris the interests of turbulent bodies of men, the -water-carriers, and another class of men called the chiffonniers, who -live by raking for what they can find amongst the refuse cast into the -streets, are opposed to any change which will reduce the charge of -imperfect cleansing, and the disease promoted by filth. The general -practice in that metropolis is to cast all the rubbish of the house into -the street on the overnight, or before seven o’clock in the morning, -when men attend with carts to sweep it up and remove it. In the -nighttime, however, the chiffonnier comes with a lantern and rakes -amongst the refuse, and picks from it bones, rags, or whatever may have -been thrown away by accident, or the carelessness of the servants. The -offensive filth of their persons and their occupation, makes them -outcasts from other classes of workmen; they sleep amidst their -collections of refuse, and they are idle during the day; they are like -all men who live under such circumstances, prone to indulgence in ardent -spirits; being degraded and savage, they are ready to throw away their -wretched lives on every occasion. There are nearly 2000 of the -chiffonniers alone in Paris, and they and the water-carriers were -conspicuous actors in the revolution of 1830. During the administration -of Casimir Perrier the householders had complained of the inconvenient -mode of cleansing the streets by large heavy carts drawn by three -horses, which, during their slow progress throughout the day, obstruct -the public thoroughfares and occasion great inconveniences, especially -in the narrow streets. - -In the beginning of the year 1834, when the cholera broke out, the -attention of the authorities was directed to sanitary measures, and the -municipality decided that the cleansing of the streets should be done by -contract, by a quick relay of carts of a smaller and more convenient -shape, drawn by single horses; and in order to diminish the -inconvenience of the presence of these improved vehicles, the contractor -was allowed to collect one load for each of his carts on the overnight, -which would have led to a practice similar to that of London, where the -dust-carts take the refuse direct from the house without any deposit in -the streets. But in this arrangement an important interest had been -overlooked; the chiffonniers, who were said to have been aided and -directed by the owners and men belonging to the superseded vehicles, -rose in revolt, attacked and drove away the conductors, broke to pieces -the new carts, threw the fragments into the river, or made bonfires with -them. Unfortunately at that time the cholera had broken out at Paris. -The mobs of chiffonniers which collected on the following day were -swollen by other crowds of ignorant, terrified, and savage people, who -were persuaded that the deaths from the strange plague were occasioned -by poison. “My agents,” says the then prefet of police, in an account of -this revolt, “could not be at all points at once, to oppose the fury of -those crowds of men with naked arms and haggard figures, and sinister -looks, who are never seen in ordinary times, and who seemed on this day -to have arisen out of the earth. Wishing to judge myself of the -foundation for the alarming reports that were brought to me, I went out -alone and on foot. I had great difficulty in getting through these dense -masses, scarcely covered with filthy rags; no description could convey -their hideous aspect, or the sensation of terror which the hoarse and -ferocious cries created. Although I am not easily moved, I at one time -feared for the safety of Paris—of honest people and their property.” In -fact the riot was one of the most dangerous that had been witnessed in -that city, and it was not suppressed without great exertions and some -loss of life. The anxieties which it occasioned to the minister, Casimir -Perrier, and his disgust at the political use made of it, were -considered to have contributed to his death. He was himself attacked -with the cholera, and died a few days after. Shortly before his death, -when expressing his disgust, he said to the prefet, “My friend, we are -harnessed to a vile carriage.” “Truly so,” replied the prefet, “and the -ways are dreadfully dirty.” The material ways of the city continued as -they were, the prefet seeing that the introduction of the new carts -became “a motive to discontent and collision,” took upon himself to set -aside the contract with the contractor, who, he states, received no -other compensation for his losses than a permission which he could not -use to collect the refuse during the day, and the chiffonniers continue -to the present time in the exercise of their wretched vocation at the -expense of the public health and cleanliness. - -The course of the present inquiry shows how strongly circumstances that -are governable govern the habits of the population, and in some -instances appear almost to breed the species of the population. -Conceiving it probable that the amount of filth left by defective -cleansing had its corresponding description of persons, I made inquiries -of the Commissioners of Metropolitan Police. From returns which they -obtained from their superintendents, it appears that of the class of -bone-pickers, mud-rakers, people living on the produce of dungheaps in -mews, courts, yards, and bye lanes insufficient cleansed, 598 are known -to the police. From an observation of the proportion of filthy children -and adults who appear amidst refuse whenever there are new buildings and -an unusual quantity of rubbish, and from other circumstances, I believe -that, were the refuse of houses daily cast into the streets in London in -the same manner as at Paris, London would soon have as large and as -dangerous a population of the chiffonnier class. I am informed by Sir -Charles Shaw, the chief commissioner of police at Manchester, that there -are 302 of them known within the police jurisdiction of that town also. -He complains that they have heretofore been licensed in their -occupation; that, the children are pilferers, and occupy the attention -of the police, and furnish a large quota to the stock of juvenile -delinquents and the population of the prisons. I am informed that in -Bath there are about 100 of them known; and in other towns and places I -have little doubt that they would be found in like proportions, which -approach the proportions of the stated numbers of chiffonniers to the -population of Paris. These degraded creatures are also found amongst the -inmates of the workhouses, and the close identity of their habits with -those of the chiffonniers of Paris afford a striking proof of the -similarity of the population produced by similarity of circumstances. -They are thus described to me by an eye-witness:— - - “The bone-pickers are the dirtiest of all the inmates of our - workhouse; I have seen them take a bone from a dungheap, and gnaw it - while reeking hot with the fermentation of decay. Bones, from which - the meat had been cut raw, and which had still thin strips of flesh - adhering to them, they scraped carefully with their knives, and put - the bits, no matter how befouled with dirt, into a wallet or pocket - appropriated to the purpose. They have told me, that whether in broth - or grilled, they were the most savoury dish that could be imagined. I - have not observed that these creatures were savage, but they were - thoroughly debased. Often hardly human in appearance, they had neither - human tastes nor sympathies, nor even human sensations, for they - revelled in the filth which is grateful to dogs, and other lower - animals, and which to our apprehension is redolent only of nausea and - abomination.” - -The following report from one of the superintendents to the -Commissioners of the Metropolitan Police describes the manner in which -they appear to the police, their moral character, and the efficacy of -the means of prevention:— - - “With reference to the question of the Commissioners as to the means - of subsistence of that portion of the population which at present - exists by picking bones in the bye-lanes, &c., in the event of those - places being properly cleansed, I am of opinion that they would be - compelled to adopt some more laborious and useful means of obtaining a - livelihood, such as field labour, &c. They are at present an idle, - dissolute class, prowling about the stables, yards, backs of premises, - and lanes, willing to commit petty felony wherever opportunity - presents itself. While it would remove them, on the other hand, the - instant removal of filth from the metropolis must prove beneficial to - the health of the inhabitants.” - -It will then be found to be an ultimately beneficial effect of the -removal of the circumstances by the adoption of such modes of cleansing -as diminish the prevalent amount of filth or filthy processes, that it -will force a change to other occupations of a less degrading character, -and diminish the number of persons “brought up” to them. Any provision -of the nature of a poor law may be said to be badly constructed which -does not allow the exercise of a discretionary authority to alleviate -any severe inconveniences to the poorest classes from such changes. For -the sake of preventing the growth of the like misery, it would probably -be found a good civic economy to maintain the whole of the existing -class in idleness, if idleness were not in itself a curse to them. I -mention this, because the parish officers frequently oppose improved -modes of paving and efficient cleansing, (as they generally opposed the -new police on the ground that it diminished the means of subsistence of -decrepit old men as watchmen,) for the avowed reason that it is -expedient to keep the streets in their present state of filth in order -to keep up the means of employing indigent persons as street-sweepers -and sweepers of crossings in removing it. - -It is found in the metropolis to be a beneficial result of the increase -of the practice of removing night-soil by the self-acting process of -water-closets communicating with the sewers, that it prevents the -increase of the number of nightmen formerly requisite for the -performance of that offensive and dangerous labour, and is in the -metropolis diminishing the number. - -Yet it should be borne in mind, that until more complete measures are -adopted, even the services of such agents are an improvement, and in -crowded cities are only neglected at the expense of the degradation of -the whole mass of the labouring population. An example is to be found in -the state of some districts mentioned by _Dr. Speer_, who in his account -of the diseases of the lower orders in Dublin, given in the Dublin -Hospital Reports, noticed the fact that the fever cases always came from -the filthy districts; and he observes, - - “We cannot wonder at the rapidity with which contagion often spreads. - Both in and out of doors, it seems facilitated in every way; within - doors every article of furniture and wearing apparel is disfigured - with filth; every spot seems encrusted with its layers, and the - foulest odours abound everywhere. Out of doors, at least in warm - seasons, our churchyards, slaughter-houses, and the masses of filth - and offal with which our streets and lanes are disgraced, contribute - no less to the propagation of contagion. In the larger and better - streets, the cleansing is very well attended to, but in the narrow and - crowded ones, where the necessity of its removal is infinitely - greater, the heaps of filth are truly disgraceful. In some of my - visits I have been obliged to wade through masses of filth enough to - sicken the stoutest and strongest—masses which have remained - undisturbed for months, perhaps for years, and thus generating the - most putrid effluvia. We know that vegetables are very dear in our - markets. Why? Because our gardens are not sufficiently manured; this - manure lies in our lanes and alleys, and only wants collecting; but - what would this be compared with the benefits from the purification of - our atmosphere which its removal would produce?” - -The condition of large rural districts in the immediate vicinity of the -towns, and of the poorest districts of the towns themselves, presents a -singular contrast in the nature of the agencies by which the health of -the inhabitants is impaired. Within the towns we find the houses and -streets filthy, the air fœtid, disease, typhus, and other epidemics rife -amongst the population, bringing, in the train, destitution and the need -of pecuniary as well as medical relief; all mainly arising from the -presence of the richest materials of production, the complete absence of -which would, in a great measure, restore health, avert the recurrence of -disease, and, if properly applied, would promote abundance, cheapen -food, and increase the demand for beneficial labour. Outside the -afflicted districts, and at a short distance from them, as in the -adjacent rural districts, we find the aspect of the country poor and -thinly clad with vegetation, except rushes and plants favoured by a -superabundance of moisture, the crops meagre, the labouring agricultural -population few, and afflicted with rheumatism and other maladies, -arising from damp and an excess of water, which, if removed, would -relieve them from a cause of disease, the land from an impediment to -production, and if conveyed for the use of the town population, would -give that population the element of which they stand in peculiar need, -as a means to relieve them from that which is their own cause of -depression, and return it for use on the land as a means of the highest -fertility. The fact of the existence of these evils, and that they are -removable is not more certain than that their removal would be attended -by reductions of existing burdens, and might be rendered productive of -general advantage, if due means, guided by science, and applied by -properly qualified officers, be resorted to. The impediments arising -from the existing state of the law and of its local administration, form -a subject for separate representation. - -Before stating the cost in life and money attributable to the noxious -causes external to the dwelling, it is desirable to notice other noxious -causes, within the recognised province of legislative interference, that -appear to be similarly under control, namely, the overcrowding of places -where large numbers are assembled together, such as the overcrowding of -places of work. - - - - - III.—CIRCUMSTANCES CHIEFLY IN THE INTERNAL ECONOMY AND BAD VENTILATION -OF PLACES OF WORK; WORKMEN’S LODGING-HOUSES, DWELLINGS, AND THE DOMESTIC - HABITS AFFECTING THE HEALTH OF THE LABOURING CLASSES. - - -The evils arising from the bad ventilation of places of work will -probably be most distinctly brought to view, by the consideration of the -evidence as to its effects on one particular class of workpeople. - -The frequency of cases of early deaths, and orphanage, and widowhood -amongst one class of labourers, the journeymen tailors, led me to make -some inquiries as to the causes affecting them; and I submit the -following evidence for peculiar consideration, as an illustration of the -operation of one predominant cause;—bad ventilation or overcrowding, and -the consequences on the moral habits, the loss of healthful existence -and happiness to the labourer, the loss of profit to the employer, and -of produce to the community, and the loss in expenditure for the relief -of the destitution, which original cause (the bad ventilation) we have -high scientific authority for stating to be easily and economically -controllable. - -_Mr. Thomas Brownlow_, tailor, aged 52:— - - “It is stated that you have been a journeyman tailor, and now work for - yourself. At what description of places have you worked?—I have always - worked at the largest places in London; one part of my time I worked - at Messrs Allen’s, of Old Bond-street, where I worked eight years; at - another part of my time I worked at Messrs. Stultze’s, in - Clifford-street, where I worked four years. At Messrs. Allen’s they - had then from 80 to 100 men at work; at Messrs. Stultze’s they had, - when I worked there, about 250 men. - - “Will you describe the places of work, and the effects manifested in - the health of the workmen?—The place in which we used to work at - Messrs. Allen’s was a room where 80 men worked together. It was a room - about 16 or 18 yards long, and 7 or 8 yards wide, lighted with - skylights; the men were close together, nearly knee to knee. In summer - time the heat of the men and the heat of the irons made the room 20 or - 30 degrees higher than the heat outside; the heat was then most - suffocating, especially after the candles were lighted. I have known - young men, tailors from the country, faint away in the shop from the - excessive heat and closeness; persons, working-men, coming into the - shop to see some of the men, used to complain of the heat, and also of - the smell as intolerable; the smell occasioned by the heat of the - irons and the various breaths of the men really was at times - intolerable. The men sat as loosely as they possibly could, and the - perspiration ran from them from the heat and the closeness. It is of - frequent occurrence in such workshops that light suits of clothes are - spoiled from the perspiration of the hand, and the dust and flue which - arises darkening the work. I have seen 40_l._ or 50_l._ worth of work - spoiled in the course of the summer season from this cause. - - “In what condition are these work-places in winter?—They are more - unhealthy in winter, as the heat from the candles and the closeness is - much greater. Any cold currents of air which come in give annoyance to - those who are sitting near the draught. There is continued squabbling - as to the windows being opened; those who are near the windows, and - who do not feel the heat so much as the men near the stoves, objecting - to their being opened. The oldest, who had been inured to the heat, - did not like the cold, and generally prevailed in keeping out the cold - or the fresh air. Such has been the state of the atmosphere, that in - the very coldest nights large thick tallow candles (quarter of a pound - candles) have melted and fallen over from the heat. - - “What was the effect of this state of the work-places upon the habits - of the workmen?—It had a very depressing effect on the energies; that - was the general complaint of those who came into it. Many could not - stay out the hours, and went away earlier. Those who were not - accustomed to the places generally lost appetite. The natural effect - of the depression was, that we had recourse to drink as a stimulant. - We went into the shop at six o’clock in the morning; but at seven - o’clock when orders for the breakfast were called for, gin was brought - in, and the common allowance was half-a-quartern. The younger hands - did not begin with gin. - - “Was gin the first thing taken before any solid food was taken?—Yes, - and the breakfast was very light; those who took gin generally took - only half-a-pint of tea and half a twopenny loaf as breakfast. - - “When again was liquor brought in?—At eleven o’clock. - - “What was taken then?—Some took beer, some took gin again. In a - general way, they took a pint of porter at eleven o’clock. It was - seldom the men took more than the half-quartern of gin. - - “When again was liquor brought in?—At three o’clock, when some took - beer and some gin, just the same as in the morning. At five o’clock - the beer and gin came in again, and was usually taken in the same - quantities. At seven o’clock the shop was closed. - - “After work was there any drinking?—Yes; nearly all the young men went - to the public-house, and some of the others. - - “What were the wages they received?—Sixpence per hour, which, at the - full work, made 6s. a-day, or 36s. a-week. - - “Did they make any reserves from this amount of wages?—No; very few - had anything for themselves at the end of the week. - - “How much of the habit of drinking was produced by the state of the - work-place?—I should say the greater part of it; because when men work - by themselves, or only two or three together, in cooler and less close - places, there is scarcely any drinking between times. Nearly all this - drinking proceeds from the large shops, where the men are crowded - together in close rooms: it is the same in the shops in the country, - as well as those in the town. In a rural place, the tailor, where he - works by himself, or with only two or three together, takes very - little of the fermented liquor or spirits which the men feel - themselves under a sort of necessity for doing in towns. The closer - the ventilation of the place of work, the worse are the habits of the - men working in them. - - “You referred to the practice of one large shop where you worked some - time since; was that the general practice, and has there been no - alteration?—It was and is now the general practice. Of late, since - coffee has become cheaper, somewhat more of coffee and less of beer - has been bought in; but there is as much gin now brought in between - times, and sometimes more. - - “What would be the effect of an alteration of the place of work—a - ventilation which would give them a better atmosphere?—It would, - without doubt, have an immediately beneficial effect on the habits. It - might not cure those who have got into the habit of drinking; but the - men would certainly drink less, and the younger ones would not be led - into the habit so forcibly as they are. - - “What is the general effect of this state of things upon the health of - the men exposed to them?—Great numbers of them die of consumption. “A - decline” is the general disease of which they die. By their own rules, - a man at 50 years of age is superannuated, and is thought not to be - fit to do a full day’s work. - - “What was the average of the ages of the men at work at such shops as - those you have worked at?—Thirty-two, or thereabouts. - - “In such shops were there many superannuated men, or men above 50 - years of age?—Very few. Amongst the tailors employed in the shops, I - should say there were not 10 men in the hundred above 50 years of age. - - “When they die, what becomes of their widows and children, as they - seldom make any reserve of wages?—No provision is made for the - families; nothing is heard of them, and, if they cannot provide for - themselves, they must go upon the parish. - - “Are these habits created by the closeness of the rooms, attended by - carelessness as to their mode of living elsewhere?—I think not as to - their lodgings. The English and Scotch tailors are more careful as to - their places of lodging, and prefer sleeping in an open place. The - men, however, who take their pint of porter and their pipe of tobacco - in a public-house after their hours of work, take it at a place which - is sometimes as crowded as a shop. Here the single men will stay until - bedtime. - - “Are gin and beer the only stimulants which you conceive are taken in - consequence of the want of ventilation and the state of the place of - work when crowded?—No: snuff is very much taken as a stimulant; the - men think snuff has a beneficial effect on the eyes. After going into - these close shops from the open air, the first sensation experienced - is frequently a sensation of drowsiness, then a sort of itching or - uneasiness at the eye, then a dimness of the sight. Some men of the - strongest sight will complain of this dimness; all eyes are affected - much in a similar manner. Snuff is much used as a stimulant to awaken - them up; smoking in the shops is not approved of, though it is much - attempted; and the journeymen tailors of the large shops are in - general great smokers at the public-houses. - - “Do the tailors from villages take snuff or smoke as well as drink so - much as the tailors in the large shops in the towns?—They neither take - so much snuff nor tobacco, nor so much of any of the stimulants, as - are taken by the workmen in the crowded shops of the towns. - - “Do their eyes fail them as soon?—No, certainly not. - - “With the tailors, is it the eye that fails first?—Yes; after long - hours of work the first thing complained of by the tailors is that the - eyes fail; the sight becomes dim, and a sort of mist comes between - them and their work. - - “Judging from your own practical experience, how long do you conceive - that a man would work in a well-ventilated or uncrowded room, as - compared with a close, crowded, ill-ventilated room?—I think it would - make a difference of two hours in the day to a man. He would, for - example, be able, in an uncrowded or well-ventilated room, to do his - twelve hours’ work in the twelve hours; whereas in the close-crowded - room he would not do more than ten hours’ work in the twelve. - - “Of two men beginning at 20 years of age, what would be the difference - in extent of labour performed by them in town shops or in the - country?—A man who had begun at 20 in these crowded shops would not be - so good a man at 40 as a man working to 50 in a country village; of - the two, the country tailor would be in the best condition in health - and strength: in point of fact he is so. The difference may be set - down as a gain of 10 years’ good labour. There are very few who can - stand such work as the town shops 20 years. - - “The eyes then become permanently injured, as well as fail during the - day, in these crowded shops?—Yes, they do. After 45 years of age, the - eyes begin to fail, and he cannot do a full day’s work. - - “Supposing a workman to work in a well-ventilated room, and to be - freed from the nervous exhaustion consequent on the state of the - place, might he not save at least all that he drinks in the times - between his meals, or be enabled to apply it better, if he were so - disposed; and, perhaps, the value of the two hours’ extra work in the - 12, when he is working piece-work?—Yes, certainly he might. - - “Taking your account of the average loss by nervous exhaustion and bad - habits to be two hours’ work for 20 years, and 12 hours daily work for - 10 years in addition, supposing him to be employed full time, it would - be a loss of the value of 50,000 hours of productive labour (of the - value at 6_d._ per hour, 1,250_l._); or, if he were only in work half - a-year, at a loss of 25,000 hours; so that if he were employed the - half time at the full wages, or full time at the half wages, such - workmen will have lost the means of putting by a sum of not less than - 600_l._ to maintain him in comfort when he is no longer able to - work?—Yes, I think that would be found to be correct. Very few do - save; but I have known some save considerable sums. I knew one man, of - the name of John Hale, who saved about 600_l._ He was not one of the - most sober men, but he was in constant employment, sometimes at - Allen’s and sometimes at Weston’s, and he was very careful; but he - died when he was about 45. I knew another man, whose name was Philip - Gray, who used to prefer the smaller shops. He was a man of a very - good constitution, and he lived until he was about 70. He was a - journeyman all his life, and he had, when he died, more than - 1,500_l._, all saved by London journey work. He used to live in a - baker’s shop in Silver-street, Golden-square. - - “Was he of a penurious disposition?—He associated less with the men - than others, and they knew little about him. He was dressed much the - same as the rest, but he was much more clean in his person: he was - remarkable for his cleanliness, and he was very neat in his person. - Both he and Hale were single men. - - “Can you doubt that, under favourable sanitary circumstances, such - instances would become frequent?—It cannot be doubted. I have known - other instances of saving, but those were not of men working on the - board: they were mostly of men who had situations in the - cutting-rooms.” - -_Mr. John Fowler_:— - - “You are a tailor, are you not?—I have been all my life a journeyman - tailor, and worked in the metropolis; but I have long been - superannuated, and now act as collector to the Benevolent Institution - for the Relief of Aged and Infirm Tailors. - - “That is supported by the masters, is it not?—Yes; the journeymen - tailors subscribe, but it is principally supported by masters, who - subscribe to it most liberally. Mr. Stultze, for example, has - subscribed 795_l._ in money, and is a yearly subscriber of 25 guineas. - He has made a present to the institution of the ground for the - erection of almshouses, worth about 1000_l._, and has undertaken to - build six houses at his own expense, for the reception of 20 poor - pensioners. The funds are about 11,000_l._, principally subscribed by - the masters. - - “Have you belonged to any other society?—I was clerk to a trade - society, consisting of upwards of 500 men. - - “Have you worked in the more crowded shops?—I have worked at Mr. - Allen’s, and Mr. William’s, of Conduit-street, which was a shop - containing about as many men as Mr. Allen’s. I have worked at other - shops, not so large as Mr. Allen’s. - - “Have you read Mr. Brownlow’s evidence?—Yes, I have. - - “How far do the facts generally coincide with your own - observations?—Generally they do. I agree with him as to the effects of - work in close workshops, and as to the time a man would last as a - workman, under the most favourable circumstances, in a well-ventilated - place. I do not think the drinking of gin was general, to the extent - he mentions; and I think the improvement as to drinking beer, as well - as spirits, is now very great; particularly in spirits, since tea and - coffee have been so much drank. Of late, as far as my knowledge - extends, there is very little beer-drinking in the afternoon. I knew - the individuals he mentions as having saved money, and I have known - many others do so too. Some of them have become opulent and - respectable masters, who were fellow-shopmen with me. I conceive that - the establishment of coffee-shops has been of great benefit to the - health and morals of the men: it has taken them from the public-house. - I have known a very large proportion of men carried off young, and in - middle life, by consumption; but, in general, irregular habits were - mixed up with the effects of the work in close places. The crowding of - the large shops must be considered as occurring only in the season.” - -The following is the examination of a tailor in Marlborough, taken by -Mr. Grainger:— - -_Charles Dobson_, 58 years old,— - - “Has been a tailor since he was 16 years old. Has always lived in the - country. Has two sons journeymen tailors, who have been employed in - London, one seven and the other five years. Formerly employed seven or - eight men, who worked with witness in a shop which was very close, so - that if there were nine men they could scarcely sit on the board. - Although there was very little drinking, they were so much oppressed - in the summer, and at other seasons when the candles were lighted, - that he has seen the men reel after getting off the board. Used - himself, when it was very warm, to feel faint. Attributes these - effects to the heat of the shop, arising from the closeness, the - stove, and the hot irons; also to the smell of the cloth and the - breath of the men. Latterly has worked with lower hands and in a more - open shop; finds his health better, and that he is not oppressed by - the work. Has often noticed in this town, where there are a few shops - containing, in the summer, 14 or 15 journeymen, that when men go into - them who have previously worked in the neighbouring villages, they - became pale and unhealthy-looking: attributes this to the heat. His - sons have complained to him that their health suffers from working in - large shops in London. Has seen many who have gone to London return - ‘looking far worse than when they went.’ From his experience, thinks - that a man may enjoy his health in this business, if he works moderate - hours and in an airy shop, where the number is small. Should consider - 12 hours, allowing out of them one hour for dinner, moderate: these - are the common hours in this part of the country. Has known many men - who have worked in the neighbouring villages; they are generally quite - as healthy as other people, ‘does not see any difference.’ They are - more strong and not so chilly as those who work in shops. Has known - many upwards of 50, who were quite able to go on with the work; they - are only obliged to give it up from failure of sight as they advance - in age: ‘from nothing else.’ Knew one man in this town who went on - till he was 77. Has himself good health.” - -I have collected the evidence of several master tailors on the effects -of work in crowded or bad ventilated rooms. Some are inclined to ascribe -more of the ill health to the habits of the journeymen in drinking at -public-houses, and to the state of their private dwellings, but in the -main results the loss of daily power—_i. e._, the loss of at least -one-third the industrial capabilities enjoyed by men working under -advantageous circumstances—the nervous exhaustion attendant on work in -crowds, and the consequent temptation to resort continually to -stimulants, which in their turn increase the exhaustion, are fully -proved, and indeed generally admitted. I have caused the mortuary -registers to be examined, but find that they do not distinguish the -masters from the journeymen, and that there are no ready means of -distinguishing those of the deceased who have been employed in the -larger shops. It is also stated that many who come to work in town and -become diseased, return and die in the villages. But in the registered -causes of death of 233 persons entered during the year 1839 in the -eastern and western Unions of the metropolis, under the general head -“tailor,” no less than 123 are registered as having died of disease of -the respiratory organs, of whom 92 died of consumption;[13] 16 of -diseases of the nervous system, of whom 8 died of apoplexy; 16 of -epidemic or contagious diseases, of whom 11 died of typhus; 23 are -registered as having died of diseases of “uncertain seat,” of whom 13 -fell victims of dropsy; 8 died of diseases of the digestive organs, and -six of “heart disease;” and of the whole number of 233 only 29 of old -age; and of these, if they could be traced, we may pronounce confidently -that the greater proportion of them would be found to be not journeymen, -of whom not two or three per cent. attain old age, but masters. On -comparing the mortuary registers in the metropolis with the registers in -north-western and the south-western parts of England, where we may -expect a larger proportion of men working separately, I find that whilst -53 per cent. of the men die of diseases of the respiratory organs in the -metropolis, only 39 per cent. die of these diseases in the remote -districts; that whilst five per cent. die. of typhus in London, only one -per cent. fall victims to it in the country; that whilst in London only -12 in the hundred attain old age, 25 in the hundred are registered as -having attained it in the remote districts. - -It is due to Messrs. Stultze, the employers mentioned by the first -witness, to state, that since he worked with them they have made -considerable alterations with the view to increase the ventilation of -their workshops, and have expressed their desire to adopt whatever -improvements may be pointed out to them. - -I have been informed, that some tailors’ workshops at Glasgow have been -carefully ventilated, and that the immediate results are as satisfactory -as were anticipated, but the change has been too recent to permit any -estimate of the effects on the general habits of the workmen. - -The preceding case may serve as a general instance of the practical -difference of the effects in the saving of suffering as well as of -expense, by active benevolence exerted with foresight in measures of -prevention, as compared with benevolence exerted in measures of -alleviation of disease after it has occurred. - -The subscriptions to the benevolent institution for the relief of the -aged and infirm tailors, by individual masters in the metropolis, appear -to be large and liberal, and amount to upwards of 11,000_l._; yet it is -to be observed, that if they or the men had been aware of the effects of -vitiated atmospheres on the constitution and general strength, and of -the means of ventilation, the practicable gain of money from the gain of -labour by that sanitary measure could not have been less in one large -shop, employing 200 men, than 100,000_l._ Independently of subscriptions -of the whole trade, it would, during their working period of life, have -been sufficient, with the enjoyment of greater health and comfort by -every workman during the time of work, to have purchased him an annuity -of 1_l._ per week for comfortable and respectable self-support during a -period of superannuation, commencing soon after _fifty_ years of age. - -Of that which in these instances appear to be the main cause of -premature disease and death, defective ventilation, it is to be remarked -that until very lately little had been observed or understood, even by -professional men or men of science; and that it is only when the public -health is made a matter of public care by a responsible public agency -that, what is understood can be expected to be generally and effectually -applied for the public protection. Vitiated air not being seen, and air -which is pure in winter being cold, the cold is felt and the air is -excluded by the workmen. The great desideratum hitherto has been to -obtain a circulation of air which was _warm_, as well as fresh. This -desideratum has been attained, after much trial, in the House of -Commons; but there is reason to believe that, by various means, at an -expense within the reach certainly of large places of work, a -ventilation equally good might be secured with mutual advantage. - -The effects of bad ventilation, it need not be pointed out, are chiefly -manifested in consumption, the disease by which the greatest slaughter -is committed. The causes of fever are comparatively few and prominent, -but they appear to have a concurrent effect in producing consumption. -The investigation of the whole of the contributary causes to the -production of the immense mass of mortality occasioned by that disease, -would be beyond the time or means allowed for the present inquiry; but -defective ventilation and defective management in respect to changes of -temperature, are causes everywhere apparent amongst the labouring -classes. The effects of good ventilation, as a single cause of the -prevention or alleviation of disease, are nowhere so clearly manifest as -in their effects on hospital treatment. What Dr. Bisset Hawkins states -in respect to the sanitary measures necessary to ensure successful -treatment in hospitals, may be stated in respect to common dwellings as -well as places of work. - - “Next to the influence of national causes, the mortality of hospitals - is most affected by position and internal economy. These circumstances - appear more powerful than even the various merits of practice; and, - happily for mankind, they are advantages of a definite nature, easily - comprehended, and, of late years, generally demanded. The case was - formerly very different, when a singular prejudice or indifference - existed in respect to ventilation. At the Leeds hospital no case of - compound fracture, nor of trepan, survived. At the Hôtel Dieu, of - Paris, compound fractures were also almost always fatal, and few - survived amputation. The system which will bear improper air with - impunity during health becomes keenly susceptible of its mischief when - diseased, and a change of air will often restore where the strictest - diet has failed. Mortality is seldom to be assigned to the influence - of bad practice, which, probably, does not often destroy life. An - accomplished friend made particular notes on the comparative mortality - under three physicians in the same hospital; one was expectant, one - tonic, and the other eclectic. The mortality was the same, but the - length of the disorder, the character of the convalescence, and the - chances of relapse were very different. - - “The earliest statement which we possess of the mortality of our - hospitals is in Sir William Petty’s work on Political Arithmetic, from - which it appears, that in the year 1685 the proportion of the deaths - to the cures in St. Bartholomew’s and St. Thomas’s hospitals was about - 1 to 7. The annual printed report of St. Thomas’s hospital for 1689 is - still preserved: the mortality was then about 1 in 10. During the ten - years from 1773 to 1783, the mortality at St Thomas’s became still - smaller, it was 1 in 14. About the year 1783, some improvements were - made with respect to cleanliness and ventilation, and during the ten - subsequent years the annual deaths were accordingly still fewer than - before, less than 1 in 15. During the ten years intervening between - 1803 and 1813 the improvement continued, and the proportion fell to - only 1 in 16. The average during the 50 years from 1764 to 1813 was - remarkably small, only 1 in 15.” - -_Parent Du Chátelet_ notices in the following terms the diminution in -the mortality of the Hôtel Dieu from better ventilation:— - - “The mortality has diminished in the Hôtel Dieu in remarkable - proportions. Without saying anything of the enlargement of the - windows, of the warm clothing, of a better system of heating the - apartments, are we to count for nothing the destruction of all the - high houses which surrounded the Hôtel Dieu on every side? In our - opinion the pure and dry air which circulates now in every part, the - sun which penetrates there, the stoves which have been erected, have - as much contributed to its healthiness as the suppression of the - amphitheatres of anatomy which were in its neighbourhood.” - -The reports of other hospitals present similar and generally -corroborative experience. In the space of four years, ending in 1784, in -a badly-ventilated house, the Lying-in Hospital in Dublin, there died -2,944 children out of 7,650; but after freer ventilation, the deaths in -the same period of time, and in a like number of children, amounted only -to 279. - -One effect of the attention given to the condition of the workers in the -factories has been, that ventilation has been extensively introduced, -and with marked effects, on the condition of the workpeople. When I was -at Glasgow a striking instance was pointed out to me of the beneficial -effects of ventilation when applied to the dwellings of the working -classes connected with such establishments. I was informed there was in -that city an assemblage of dwellings for their workpeople, called, from -its mode of construction and the crowd collected in it, the Barracks. -This building contained 500 persons; every room contained one family. -The consequences of this crowding of the apartments, which were badly -ventilated, and the filth were, that fever was scarcely ever absent from -the building. There were sometimes as many as seven cases in one day, -and in the last two months of 1831 there were 57 cases in the building. -All attempts to induce the inmates to ventilate their rooms were -ineffectual, and the proprietors of the work, on the recommendation of -Mr. Fleming, a surgeon of the district, fixed a simple tin tube of two -inches in diameter, into the ceiling of each room, and these tubes led -into one general tube, the extremity of which was inserted into the -chimney of the factory furnace. By the perpetual draught thus produced -upon the atmosphere of each room the inmates were compelled, whether -they would or not, to breathe pure air. The effect was that, during the -ensuing eight years, fever was scarcely known in the place. The process -was apparently defective only in not providing for the appropriate -warmth of the air introduced. The cost of remedies previously applied in -the public hospitals to the fever cases, continually produced as -described in the barracks, were stated by Dr. Cowan to have afforded a -striking contrast to the cost of the means of prevention. - -Similar defective ventilation and overcrowding in rooms of work, with -the addition of the deterioration of the air by the use of candles or -gas-lamps at night-work, produce similar effects on the milliners and -dressmakers employed at the larger workshops of the metropolis. In a -return of the causes of death to the milliners and dressmakers who died -during the year 1839, in the unions of the metropolis, in which we have -no means of distinguishing those who worked separately or in small -numbers, the results were as follows:— - - TABULAR STATEMENT of DEATHS from Disease of Milliners and - Dressmakers, in the Metropolitan Unions during the year 1839, as - shown by the Mortuary Registers. - - ┌───────────┬───────┬───────┬────────────┬───────┬─────────┬───────┐ - │ Age. │Number │Average│ Number of │Average│Number of│Average│ - │ │ of │ Age. │Deaths from │ Age. │ Deaths │ Age. │ - │ │Deaths.│ │Consumption.│ │ from │ │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ other │ │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ Lung │ │ - │ │ │ │ │ │Diseases.│ │ - ├───────────┼───────┼───────┼────────────┼───────┼─────────┼───────┤ - │ Under 20│ 6│ 17│ 4│ 18│ │ │ - │20 Under 30│ 24│ 24│ 17│ 23│ 1│ 23│ - │30 Under 40│ 11│ 34│ 6│ 34│ 1│ 33│ - │40 Under 50│ 2│ 45│ │ │ 1│ 40│ - │50 Under 60│ 4│ 54│ 1│ 58│ 2│ 55│ - │60 Under 70│ 5│ 64│ │ │ │ │ - ├───────────┼───────┼───────┼────────────┼───────┼─────────┼───────┤ - │ Total│ 52│ 32│ 28│ 26│ 5│ 41│ - └───────────┴───────┴───────┴────────────┴───────┴─────────┴───────┘ - - Out of 52 deaths in the year, 41 of the deceased attained an age of - 25. The average age of the 33 who died of lung diseases was 28. - -It is not doubted by medical witnesses that in this class of cases, as -in the case of the tailors, one-third at least of the healthful duration -of adult life will be found to have been destroyed by the ignorance of -the want of ventilation. - -Unhappily, this fatal ignorance as to the requisites of the places of -work is as frequently manifested in the overcrowded places of repose. I -take an illustration from the answers of _Mr. Isaac Gilchrist_, surgeon -of Aberdeen, to the question as to the causes of fever:— - - “In answering this query, the circumstance that calls for most remark - in reference to this district is the overcrowded state of dwelling - apartments. Six, eight, and even ten occupying one room is anything - but uncommon; and these, too, it frequently happens, are lone women, - all employed at the manufactories during the day and huddled together - during the night. Fever finding its way into any of these apartments, - seldom quits it until every member has been attacked. In some - instances of families of eight or ten members, not one individual has - escaped the disease. I believe also that deficient cleanliness (to a - certain extent the result of poverty) and bad ventilation co-operate - with the overcrowded state of the apartments in propagating fever.” - -Similar information is frequent from the metropolis and other districts. -It is understood, and it may confidently be expected, that the -Commissioners and Assistant Commissioners appointed to investigate the -employment of young persons employed in large numbers in other -manufactures than those now included in the provisions of the Factory -Act will investigate more closely than has hitherto been done the -sanitary condition of the labourers employed in the mines as well as in -other branches of industry. I take the following evidence respecting the -condition of the lodging-shops, obtained by _Dr. Mitchell_, one of the -Assistant Commissioners, in the course of his inquiries into the -condition of the labouring population engaged in working the mines in -Durham and Northumberland. He gives the following description of their -sleeping places:— - - “Many of the miners, including young persons and boys, will go three - miles and upwards from their own homes in the morning to work in the - mines, or to wash the ore, and return again after their work at night. - Some miners, who are too far off to be able to go and come in this - way, find lodgings for the four nights in the week, and the washers - for five nights, at some houses not too far from the mines. The usual - price is 6_d._ a-week each, for which sum there is a bed between two - of them, leave to make their ‘crowdy’ on the fire in the morning, and - they have their potatoes boiled for them in the evening. They bring - their provisions in a wallet on the Monday mornings: the miners go - back on the Friday, and the washers of ore on the Saturday. But there - are many mines, and some of them very large, in remote situations in - the Fells, far away from all dwelling-houses, where lodgings might be - had, and the proprietors have erected for their miners and washers - buildings called ‘lodging-shops,’ which I now am about to describe:— - - “The first one of them which I visited was about nine miles across the - Fell, south from Stanhope. It was a plain building, constructed of - sandstone, covered with a coarse slate; and all very substantial. - There was no opening or window at either end, nor at the back, nor on - the roof. On the front or south side was a door towards the west end, - and two windows, one a little above the other. On entering the door, - it was seen that the lower part was one room, lighted by one of the - windows, and had a great fire burning at the east end. By pacing the - floor the length was ascertained to be about 18 feet, and the breadth - about 15 feet. Along the one side, that next the window, was a deal - table, extending the whole length of the room, and alongside of it was - a form, and there were two other forms in the room. All along the - other side on the wall were little cupboards, 48 in number, in four - tiers above each other; six of the cupboards with the doors off, but - the most of the rest carefully locked with padlocks, and in which the - several miners had deposited their wallets with their provisions for - five days. Throughout the room, more particularly at the end furthest - from the fire, were hung from hooks and nails in the joists, miners’ - trousers and jackets to be put on in case of the owners returning wet - from their work. - - “In addition to the articles already named were the following:— - - “One earthen pitcher to fetch water; one tea-kettle; one pan for - boiling potatoes; two pans for frying bacon; iron fender, a poker, and - shovel; a besom. - - “There was a large box in the room secured by a padlock, said to - contain the clothes which the masters put on when they come to see the - mines. - - “On ascending to the upper room by a ladder, it was seen to be a - sleeping-room. The dimensions of the floor were of course the same as - of the room below. There was no fire-place, which indeed was not - wanted, but neither was there any opening into a chimney to produce - circulation of air. Along one side of the room were three beds, each - six feet long by about four feet and a-half wide, the three beds - extending the length of the room; then there were three other beds on - the other side, and at the furthest end was a seventh bed extending - from the one line of beds to the other. Immediately over these seven - beds, and supported on posts, were seven other beds placed exactly in - the same way. Of course the person who slept in each of the six beds - of the upper tier next the wall could raise his head only a very - little way on account of the roof. Each of these 14 beds was intended - for two persons, when only few men were employed at the mines, but - they might be made to receive three men each, and, in case of need, a - boy might lie across at their feet. There was no opening of any sort - to let out the foul air, yet from 39 to 40 persons might have slept - there, the men perspiring from their work and inhaling the small dust - from their clothes floating in clouds. The beds were stuffed with - chaff. There were blankets but no sheets. The furniture of the - lodging-shops is supplied by the masters. The beds and blankets are - supplied by the miners themselves. They are taken home sometimes to be - washed. On Friday, when the miners leave, the beds are rolled up to - prevent damp. I visited the lodging-shop on Monday morning. The beds - had not been slept in for Friday, Saturday, and Sunday nights - preceding, yet was the smell most noxious. There was one excellent - thing connected with this lodging-shop: there was a small but - beautiful stream of water which was conducted across the Fell to this - spot, and came through an iron pipe near the door, so that the men had - an abundant supply of the pure element. I next went to see another - lodging-shop on a larger scale. On the ground-floor were five rooms. - The first is a blacksmith’s shop. Next to it is the cooking and - eating-room of the washers of ore; from 20 to 30 men and boys, if so - many, were employed. It was locked up, and I did not see it. The upper - room, extended over the blacksmith’s shop and the cooking room, is the - sleeping-room of the washers, men and boys. The next room on the - ground-floor is a cooking and eating-room of the miners, exactly like - the room of the lodging-shop already described. Adjoining to it is a - room in which they hang up their wet clothes. At the end is a stable - for the horses which are employed to draw the waggons with ore from - the pits. By a ladder close to the wall between the cooking-room and - drying-room is an ascent to a room exactly like that in the - lodging-house already described, with the same number of beds. One - little pipe of about two inches diameter was the only communication - with the exterior air. Through the partition wall is an opening into a - bed-room, extending over the drying-room and the stable. Across this - room extended two beds, leaving a space for passing. Above these two - was a tier of other two beds: then at a short interval was a second - set of beds, four in number; and further on, a third set similarly - arranged, four in number. Thus in the space above the cooking-room, - drying-room, and stable, were 26 beds, each intended for two or three - men, as it might be, and perhaps more; and the same beds for sets of - miners in their turns, as one set came from their work and another - went off. - - “Though the beds had not been occupied for the three preceding nights, - the smell was to me utterly intolerable. What the place must be in the - summer nights is, happily for those who have never felt it, utterly - inconceivable. The medical men are best able to give a judgment on - these matters, but for my own part I cannot but believe that these - lodging-houses are more destructive than the air of the mines. I - should think it no hardship to have to remain 24 hours in a mine, but - I should be terrified at being ordered to be shut up a quarter of an - hour in the bed-room of a lodging-shop. - - “Many miners speak of the horrors of lodging-shops of former days; but - the only difference I could learn was, that at many mines there were - not now so many men and boys at work, and consequently the - lodging-shops were not so crowded. Some mines are not now wrought - which formerly had large lodging-shops; for example, Mannergill, of - which a miner stated to me that he was one of 120 who lodged in a - suite of rooms there; and he declared that the nuisance was much - aggravated by the great number. - - “In such a dense accumulation of bodies, one man who might be ill was - a disturbance to all the rest. The coughing of a few interrupted the - sleep of others. Men coming from the mine at 12 o’clock at night, and - frying their bacon at the fire below, sent up an odour which added to - the already too suffocating smell of the sleeping-room above. The - great number was an aggravation of what is intolerable at best. - - “The miners showed me a tank through which running water passed, in - which they had placed their bottles of milk which they had brought - with them for their coffee. - - “There was an excellent supply of running water of the best quality, - and it was the only beverage which the men had; for they stated that - there was no public-house or beer-shop nearer than seven miles, and if - there were one, they durst not go into it for fear of being - discharged. - - “The men all said that their lodging-shop was a fair sample of all the - lodging-shops in the country, the only difference being the greater or - less number of men lodging in them, which would depend entirely on the - state of the mine. I have, however, since seen one refinement of which - these men did not seem to be aware, and that was a lodging-shop in - which were not only the beds in tiers all round the room, but there - also was a bed suspended or swung from the top of the room, which - economically filled up a space which otherwise would have been - vacant.” - -The following is the account given by a miner himself of the -lodging-places:— - -_William Eddy_, one of the miners, states;— - - “I went to work in Greenside four years. Our lodging-rooms were such - as not to be fit for a swine to live in. In one house there was 16 - bedsteads in the room up stairs, and 50 occupied these beds at the - same time. We could not always get all in together, but we got in when - we could. Often three at a time in the bed, and one at the foot. I - have several times had to get out of bed, and sit up all night to make - room for my little brothers, who were there as washers. There was not - a single flag or board on the lower floor, and there were pools of - water 12 inches deep. You might have taken a coal-rake and raked off - the dirt and potatoe peelings six inches deep. At one time we had not - a single coal. After I had been there two years, rules were laid down, - and two men were appointed by the master to clean the house up stairs - twice a-week. The lower apartment was to be cleaned twice a-day. Then - the shop floor was boarded, and two tables were placed in the shop. - After that two more shops were fitted up, but the increase of workmen - more than kept up with the increased accommodation. The breathing at - night when all were in bed was dreadful. The workmen received more - harm from the sleeping-places than from the work. There was one pane - of glass which we could open, but it was close to a bed-head. - - “The mines at Greenside were well ventilated, and in that respect - there was nothing to complain of. - - “In the winter time the icicles came through the roof, and within 12 - inches of the people sleeping in bed. During a thaw, water dropped - plentifully into the beds. In the upper beds the person sleeping next - to the wall cannot raise his head or change his shirt.” - -_Joseph Eddy_, another workman, states:— - - “I consider the lodging-shops more injurious to the health of the - miners than their work itself. So many sleeping in the same room, so - many breaths, so much stour arising from their working-clothes, so - much perspiration from the men themselves, it is impossible to be - comfortable. Two miners occupy one bed, sometimes three. The beds are - shaken once a-week on the Monday morning, when the miners come. Some - miners make their beds every night. The rooms are in general very - dirty, being never washed, and very seldom swept, not over once - a-month. There is no ventilation, so that the air is very close at - night.” - -It is observed of this particular class of men that they are worn out -soon after forty; but a large share of this result may also be ascribed -to their places of work. The following is a return of the ages of all -the miners who died during one year, including those who slept at their -own homes, with those who had been accustomed to sleep at the -lodging-shops. - - STATEMENT of Deaths from Disease - and Accidents of Miners, - Colliers, and Pitmen, in the - Unions of Cumberland and - Westmoreland, and parts of the - Counties of Lancaster and - Northumberland (Population - Census of 1831, 338,273), during - the Year ended 31st December, - 1839, as shown by the Mortuary - Registers. - - ┌──────────────┬───────┬───────┐ - │ Periods of │Number │Average│ - │ Age. │ of │ Age. │ - │ │Deaths.│ │ - ├──────────────┼───────┼───────┤ - │ Under 20│ 37│ 15│ - │ 20 Under 30│ 39│ 23│ - │ 30 Under 40│ 27│ 33│ - │ 40 Under 50│ 27│ 44│ - │ 50 Under 60│ 23│ 55│ - │ 60 Under 70│ 32│ 64│ - │ 70 Under 80│ 17│ 75│ - │80 and upwards│ 10│ 86│ - ├──────────────┼───────┼───────┤ - │ Total deaths │ 212│ 42│ - └──────────────┴───────┴───────┘ - -The following is a summary view of the causes of death, from which it -will be seen that out of 212 deaths 69 fell from diseases of the -respiratory organs, and of these 52 died from consumption, whose average -age of death was no more than 36½, and that no less than 58 were -destroyed by accidents. - - STATEMENT of the Causes of Death amongst Miners in the Unions of - Cumberland and Westmoreland and parts of the Counties of Lancaster and - Northumberland, during the Year ended 31st December, 1839, as shown by - the Mortuary Registers. - - ┌──────────────────────────────────────────────────────┬──────────────┐ - │ Cause of Death. │No. of Deaths.│ - ├──────────────────────────────────────────────────────┼──────────────┤ - │Disease of Respiratory Organs:— │ │ - │ Consumption │ 52│ - │ Other Diseases │ 17│ - │Epidemic and Contagious Disease │ 20│ - │Accidents:— │ │ - │ In Mine │ 37│ - │ Not stated to be in Mine│ 21│ - │Diseases of the Brain and Nerves │ 12│ - │Diseases of the Digestive Organs │ 10│ - │Disease of the Heart │ 2│ - │Other Causes of Disease │ 22│ - │Natural Decay and Old Age │ 19│ - ├──────────────────────────────────────────────────────┼──────────────┤ - │ Total Deaths │ 212│ - └──────────────────────────────────────────────────────┴──────────────┘ - -In a subsequent portion of this report I shall advert to the state of -the health of the miners in Cornwall, as compared by Dr. Barham with the -state of the agricultural labourers in the immediate vicinity of the -mines. - -I would here request attention to a suggestion which appears to me to -arise from a consideration of the evils above displayed, (and that will -receive further corroboration in the course of this report,) that if -there were a regular system of periodical inspection of the places of -work or places of large assemblage, it would be attended with great -advantage to the lower orders of the community, in which the other -classes could not fail to participate. - -One most important result of such investigations would be to disabuse -the popular mind of much prejudice against particular branches of -industry arising from the belief that causes of ill health really -_accidental_ and removable, and sometimes unconnected, are _essentials_ -to the employment itself. By pointing out the real causes, warning will -be given for their avoidance, and indications extended for the -application of more certain remedies. Medical men who see only a few -patients of the same occupation at distant intervals; who see them in -their own dispensaries or in the hospitals, and who have no -opportunities of observing such patients under the varied circumstances -in which the disease may have been contracted, are left to mere guesses -as to its cause. A working person of any of the classes whose condition -I have described, presenting himself with the symptoms of a consumption, -the medical man has no means of detecting _the_ one of many causes by -which it may have been occasioned, and the individual patient himself is -more likely to mislead than to inform him. Unless his attention were -accidentally directed to it, or unless the medical investigator had -himself the means of observing the different personal condition of the -different sets of persons following the same occupation in town and in -country, it is highly probable that the evidence that the disease is not -essential to the occupation would escape him. Thus, between different -sets of workmen who work at the same descriptions of work during the -same hours, and in the same town, but in well or in ill-ventilated -factories a marked difference in the personal condition and general -health of the workpeople has been perceived. Great differences are -perceptible in the general personal condition of persons working during -the same hours in cotton-mills in town, and in cotton-mills in rural -districts, where they have not only a purer atmosphere, but commonly -larger and more commodious places of abode. The factory superintendents -generally state that the workers in the country mills are -distinguishable at sight by their more healthy appearance, and by the -increased proportions amongst them who have florid complexions. Very -lately the attention of the Austrian government was called to the labour -of the persons working in the cotton-factories in the neighbourhood of -Vienna.[14] One half, perhaps, of the mills are of the ordinary -construction of the cotton-mills in England of from thirty to forty -years’ date, and they work on the average as much as fifteen hours per -diem. But it appears that the houses in which the workers live belong to -the capitalists who own the mills, many of whom have displayed a desire -to ensure, as far as the state of the private residences can ensure, the -comfort of those whom they employ, and they have accordingly built for -them a superior description of tenements. It is stated that the result -of the inquiry conducted by the government physicians was, that the -average health enjoyed by the workers in those mills is greater than -that of any other class of workpeople in the neighbourhood where the -mills are situate, and where the general condition of the population is -deemed good; the difference in the general health of the two classes -(indicated by the proportions of death—of 1 in 27 of the general -population, and 1 in 31 of the manufacturing population), was ascribed -to the difference of the residences. My colleagues and myself of the -central board of the Factory Commission of Inquiry were fully sensible -that the effect of one cause on the health of the working population -could not fairly be judged of unless its operation was observed under -various circumstances, and unless amongst them the influence of the -domestic circumstances, as well as the nature of the work and the place -of work, were duly examined. We could not but deem it important that the -state of the dwellings of the workpeople, who were the subject of -inquiry, should also be investigated; and we gave instructions with that -view to the district medical commissioners; but the limited time allowed -by Parliament for the investigation, prevented its being made as we -desired, a circumstance that, for the sake of the workpeople, is much to -be regretted, as great injury is done to them by attention being -diverted, as it commonly has been, from the real means of -prevention.[15] - -M. Parent Du Châtelet and M. d’Arcet having presented to the Board of -Health of Paris a report on an investigation with a view to discover the -physical or medical means by which particular sorts of work might be -ameliorated, observe— - - “Perhaps it will be said that the task has been already performed, and - that several celebrated men, whose works are in the hands of all the - world, have preceded us in this career, without leaving to their - successors the hope to add anything to what they have published. - - “We are assured beforehand that this objection will not be made by our - colleagues, who have penetrated into manufactures and have studied - their influence with a mind free from prejudice. It is because we have - studied the works which treat of the maladies of artisans, and have - seen a great number of these workmen in their shops; it is because we - have compared books with actual observation; it is, finally, because - we have not believed authors on their word, and have subjected them - all to a severe verification, that we have seen the insufficiency, nay - more, the inaccuracy of the greater part of their assertions. - - “This method of proceeding has demonstrated to us that the works of - which we speak, far from being the fruit of long observation, have - been composed in the silence of the cabinet by men who have only had a - casual view of artisans and manufactures; and who, generalizing a few - facts presented to them by accident, have singularly exaggerated the - inconveniencies of some professions, and attributed to others - influences which they are far from exercising.”—_Mémoire sur les - Véritables Influences du Tabac sur la Santé des Ouvriers._ Par M. - Parent Du Châtelet. - -They give, as an illustration, the exaggerated accounts of the -manufacture of tobacco, of which the supposed evils are proved to be -entirely fictitious, or at best an erroneous application to the -manufacture,—of effects which, though incidentally met with in the -workmen, were equally common to others of their station. In an abstract -of their paper, inserted in the Appendix, there is even an enumeration, -by eminent physicians, of specific cases of death from the fancied -agency of tobacco, but they only show the extent of error produced in -this and kindred instances by the previous conviction of the noxious -influence of particular circumstances, and by referring all existing -maladies to these without further inquiry. If I might add my testimony -on this point, derived from my own observations on two of the -commissions of inquiry on which I have had the honour to serve, it would -be entirely in corroboration of the above statement. On comparing the -actual condition of workmen with the medical descriptions of these -diseases, and the causes, we commonly found that the results of a -cluster of causes are commonly ascribed to one; and in respect to -several classes of workmen the real cause, the invariable antecedent, -such as defective ventilation, is unnoticed. No persons were frequently -more surprised than the intelligent workmen, by the frequent exaggerated -accounts of the operations of particular causes upon them, and the -erroneous association of effects to causes with which they were known to -have no real connexion. For example, in the work of M. Patissier, one -which is the chief work, and of European authority, on the diseases of -artisans, he adverts to the diseases of tailors. His description was -read to _Mr. Brownlow_, the tailor, examined upon the subject of the -overcrowding of places of work, and the observations of that witness on -the statement of M. Patissier are given in answer:— - - _M. Patissier._ “The employment of tailor is one of the most - sedentary: seated constantly on a board, his legs crossed, his body - stooping forward, this class of labourers exercises not part of the - body but the arms, and that only the right one.” - - _Witness._ “That is not so: there is a good deal of action with the - left arm in holding and sewing: in using the iron also there is a good - deal of action with the arms and knees, and with the rest of the body. - Journeymen tailors are remarked as being full breasted, as compared - with other workmen; they carry themselves higher, and the chest is - more fully developed; so that the labour has, as compared with much - other labour, the effect of opening the chest.” - - _M. Patissier._ “Their position is particularly injurious to the - functions of the viscera of the abdomen and chest. It produces - difficulty of digestion, injures the gastric juices, brings on - constipation, hemorrhoides, chronic catarrhs of the bladder, and - obstructions of the bowels.” - - _Witness._ “I have never heard complaints beginning with the bowels. - The stomach may be out of order; they eat very little solid food, and - of course the action of the bowels will not be very good; but as to - the effect of the tailors’ work on the chest, we do not consider it at - all injurious.” - - _M. Patissier._ “I attended a tailor who every time that he applied - himself diligently to his work, was attacked with nausea, colic, - jaundice, and symptoms that denoted irritation of the liver. I have - known, says Stoll, a great number of tailors who have suffered more - particularly from diseases of the lungs.” - - _Witness._ “The only complaints I have ever heard are those arising - from the foul air, perhaps the dust arising from cloth is injurious. I - have already said that men coming from the country to a town shop will - faint, and be obliged to leave it in the afternoon.” - - _M. Patissier._ “As they are almost constantly in a sitting posture, - the body bent, with the head stooping forward, the blood is unequally - distributed, and too large a quantity accumulates in the lungs, either - because the bowels of the abdomen, compressed by the position of the - body, admit of less blood, and which is therefore forced back into the - vessels situated above, or because the short respirations of those who - are sedentary, prevents the blood which enters the lungs from passing - out with sufficient rapidity, by which local plethora in the heart and - lungs is produced. In short, tailors are very liable to pulmonary - phthisis, hydro-thorax, and hæmoptysis, which often accompanies them - to a very advanced age. M. Corvisart has observed that diseases of the - heart and of the larger vessels are not less frequent amongst this - class of artisans. As the posture of the tailor causes the blood to - flow into the upper part of the body, the circulation in the lower - members is consequently much less active, which explains the - emaciation and feebleness of the legs and thighs of this class of - artisans, and the peculiar walk which distinguishes them.” - - _Witness._ “As to the circulation of the blood, I should say that it - was more free than amongst persons sitting at a desk; as soon as the - journeyman tailor begins to feel warm and swell, he loosens everything - that he has on; his coat is off, and his shirt neck is open; if he - wears a handkerchief it is very loose; a tailor wears no garters, - nothing that can stop the circulation of the blood: the only - confinement that arises is from the position, which is certainly - sedentary, but he frequently changes it, and puts one leg over the - other when they are tired; they also stretch their legs out. Their - breathing even in the close shops is not noticed as short.” - - _M. Patissier._ “Ramazzini says they are very subject to numbness of - the thighs, neuralgic sciatica, and lameness.” - - _Witness._ “The tailors are frequently subject to rheumatism, but that - is from going from a hot to the cold open air in the way described. - Men who are generally emaciated will have their legs emaciated too: - the whole frame goes together, but I have never heard young men or - tailors in the middle of life being remarked as deficient in that part - of bodily capability. Those whom I have known to be emaciated have - been spirit drinkers; the emaciation has been more from - spirit-drinking than from the heat of the shop, though one brings on - the other. Some years ago there used to be much racing at about five - o’clock in the morning in the parks, sometimes amongst the tailors - themselves, and sometimes with other runners who had celebrity. The - tailors were generally good competitors and more active than other - workmen in London. There was one of the country tailors at Faversham - who some years ago was considered the first runner in England for a - hundred yards. The tailors have certainly a peculiar walk, but all - whom I have known to be lame were lame originally. When a lad has - anything the matter with him, which occasions him not to be strong - enough for anything working on his feet, it is a common thing to say, - ‘Then we must make him a tailor.’ It is a very frequent thing to send - weakly children to be tailors, though it is a bad choice, for the lad - has little chance of recovering himself in the town shops, and a more - open trade would be better for him. Many tailors go for sailors and - soldiers, and they are always thought to be good men. I should think - there are many tailors in the guards.” - - _M. Patissier._ “There is sometimes to be observed on the surface of - their skin a psoriform eruption, which by some writers is ascribed to - the irritation of the woollen cloth which these artisans are - continually handling. Guldner, however, considers that this eruption - is produced by their mode of living.” - - _Witness._ “I never saw or heard of any peculiar eruption on the skin - of the tailors, though they perhaps do not attend sufficiently to - personal cleanliness. The dye of cloth is sometimes bad, but I never - observed any effects from it.” - - _M. Patissier._ “Tailors are apt to prick themselves with their - needles, and these wounds often bring on festerings.” - - _Witness._ “That is certainly the case; the needle may carry with it - some of the dye, and the festering may also be occasioned by the bad - state of the body.” - - _M. Patissier._ “They almost all have decayed teeth, which are - destroyed by the habit of biting their thread with them. It is very - rare to see a tailor of advanced age with any front teeth.” - - _Witness._ “That is certainly so: they have many of them bad teeth, - but I have not noticed any deficiency of the front teeth.” - - _M. Patissier._ “Their sight is soon enfeebled by the fine work which - they have to execute, often at night by the light of candles. When - they work in the evening at open windows, they are liable to be - affected by earache, tooth-ache, cold in the head, and sore eyes.” - - _Witness._ “That is very correct with respect to the tailors in town, - but it is not noticed so much with tailors in the country.” - - _M. Patissier._ “The sedentary life which they lead produces heavy, - soft flesh, that has no firmness; they generally are thin in body, - legs are spare and feeble, and their complexion rather jaundiced.” - - _Witness._ “Almost all this will be found to be the effect of habits - that have nothing to do with the trade.” - - _M. Patissier._ “Tailors ought to walk in the open air every evening - when their work will admit of it, rub their limbs well with flannel, - abstain from all food difficult of digestion, avoid all excesses, and - generally every kind of debauchery.” - - _Witness._ “The men when they leave their shop-boards do not begin - rubbing their legs, and do not appear to feel the least want of it. - The appetites of men working in shops being bad, they do commonly take - food that is easy of digestion, as they cannot do with the coarser - food. When a tailor comes from the country he will eat a twopenny loaf - and take a pint of coffee for breakfast; but after three or four - months working in the close shop getting exhausted, then taking beer - and then spirits, his appetite fails him, and I have seen him eat only - a small slice of bread and butter, and take half a pint of coffee for - breakfast, and his appetite generally fails him. The young men on - going back to their work in the country, generally recover their - appetites unless disease has taken such root that they cannot - recover.” - -The evidence of Mr. Brownlow was read to Dr. Weber, who has had under -his care between 200 and 300 cases of journeymen tailors who were -treated by him, as physician to the St. George’s Dispensary, which is -much resorted to by those of that class of workmen who reside at the -west end of the metropolis. Dr. Weber confirms the general tenor of the -evidence as to the medical facts, and especially the general conclusion -that the greatest proportion of the diseases to which they are subject -arise from circumstances separable from their occupation. The evidence -as to the personal condition and habits of the workmen is generally -corroborated by several master tailors, who state that the journeyman -tailor in the rural district who works singly, or in a well-ventilated -apartment, is in person commonly the opposite of the one described by M. -Patissier; he is described as being a hard worker, but at times a man -who is in most village foot races, and not unfrequently the foremost -runner, and in games of foot-ball not the last. The journeymen tailors -are found amongst the best men in the life guards. In consequence of a -strike of tailors, one dragoon regiment had a troop chiefly enlisted -from them, and military men state that they greatly distinguished -themselves. - -If we thus find the crowding of unventilated places of work injurious—in -which persons rarely pass more than 12 out of the 24 hours, being free -during the remaining time to breathe what air they please—how much worse -should we expect the consequences to be of the same fault in workhouses, -hospitals, schools, and prisons, in which individuals often pass both -day and night in the same apartments, or if in different apartments, -still in the same crowd. Accordingly, since the attention of medical men -has been sufficiently directed to the subject, the explanation has -become complete of many deplorable cases of general ill health and -mortality in such places, attributed at first to deficiency or bad -quality of food, or to any cause but the true one,—want of ventilation. -A striking illustration of this was afforded in the case of a large -school for children during the years 1836 and 1837, as recorded in the -second volume of the Poor Law Reports. Such general failure of health -and such mortality had occurred among the children as to attract public -notice and the animadversions of many medical men and others who visited -the schools; but by most the evil was attributed chiefly to faulty -nourishment; and it was only after the more complete examination, made -by direction of the board, and of which the report is published, as -above stated, that the diet was found to be unusually good, but the -ventilation very imperfect. Suitable changes were then made; and now, in -the same space where 700 children were by illness awakening extensive -sympathy, 1100 now enjoy excellent health. The defective state of -information on the subject of ventilation is frequently shown in reports -which assume that apartments containing given cubic feet of space are -all that is requisite for life and health, whereas if a spacious -drawing-room be completely closed against the admission of air, an -inhabitant confined to it would in time be stifled, whilst, by active -ventilation or change of air, men working in connexion with -diving-machines live in the space of a helmet, which merely confines the -head. - -In the majority of instances of the defective ventilation of schools, -the pallid countenance and delicate health of the schoolboy, which is -commonly laid to the account of over-application to his book, is due -simply to the defective construction of the school-room. In the dame -schools, and the schools for the labouring classes, the defective -ventilation is the most frequent and mischievous. - -_Mr. Riddall Wood_, an agent of the Manchester Statistical Society, thus -describes some of the crowded schools found in the course of -examinations, from house to house, of the condition of the town -population in Manchester, Liverpool, Leeds, Hull, and York:— - - “I may mention that in one school where the average attendance was, I - think, 36, not above eight children were present. Upon my inquiring of - the mistress as to the reason, she stated that the remainder of her - scholars had been taken with the measles. I perceived a bed in the - school-room, upon which lay a child much disfigured by that complaint. - Another child of the mistress had died of the measles. I had reason to - believe that the contagion had been communicated originally from that - child, because the cases of the scholars all occurred subsequently. In - a school in Liverpool, having above 40 scholars in average attendance, - I found the number diminished to somewhere about 10. On inquiring into - this case, I ascertained that it arose from the prevalence of scarlet - fever, and the master made this remark: ‘It is a very strange thing - how this fever should have attacked almost all the children coming to - my school, whilst none of my neighbours have got it.’ I attributed - that to the very crowded state of the school. The room was very low. - When the whole of his scholars were in attendance, it must have been - excessively crowded. There was no thorough ventilation. - - “I found that in many of the schools there were from 20 to (in some - cases) nearly 100 scholars crammed into a dirty house or cellar, - without air or ventilation, the effluvia from whose breath and clothes - was exceedingly offensive, and must, I am sure, be very injurious to - the children’s health. In most of these places, too, I have found that - the ordinary household occupations have been carried on by the old - women.” - -Another inquirer states, that in the neighbourhood of Bolton he saw 70 -scholars cooped up in a badly ventilated room not 12 feet square. - - - _Bad ventilation and overcrowding of private houses._ - -The reports from the great majority of the new unions present evidence -of the severe overcrowding of the cottages in the rural districts, and -the tenements occupied by the working classes in towns. - -From the returns as laid before the public from the commissioners -appointed to take the last census, it would appear, however, that the -number of houses has more than kept pace with the increase of the -population. - -From these returns it would appear that the increase of houses even in -Scotland has more than kept pace with the increase of population. But -this result was so much at variance with the reports and communications -from all parts of the country relating to the dwellings of the labouring -classes, that if any increase of the proportions of houses to the -population had taken place, it must have been in the houses of the -middle and higher classes of the community. I learn, however, the fact -to be, that whilst in obtaining the previous census, merely the heading -was given without any instruction for the officer to fill up the “number -of houses” on the occasion of taking the last census, the commissioners -ordered each separate occupation under the same roof to be returned as a -house. In the Scotch towns, and in many of the English towns where it is -the custom to let off as separate tenements the flats or floors under -the same roof, there will, unless it be explained, appear to have been, -as compared with the numbers in the last census, when the buildings and -not its subdivisions were returned, an increase of accommodation, when, -in reality, there may only have been an increased subdivision of -tenements in consequence of an increased pressure of population. The -evidence received from every part of the country, from rural districts -as well as from towns, attest that the dwellings of large numbers of the -labouring population are overcrowded, and from many districts that the -overcrowding has increased. - -For example, the report of _Dr. Laurie_ from Greenock states, that such -is the crowding of the population in the town that— - - “Toward the east or old part of the town the amount of population - crowded into a small space can hardly be credited, the rapid increase - of the population has so far overstepped the means of accommodation - that not the meanest outhouse remains without its tenants.” - -_Dr. Walker_, one of the senior surgeons to the Greenock Infirmary, also -states that,— - - “The rooms are in most instances small, and frequently far too much - crowded. It is not unusual to see ten or twelve human beings occupying - a room not as many feet square. The lower classes in these districts - are grossly filthy in their persons and dwellings; and even many of - our operatives who receive good wages are extremely inattentive to - cleanliness, both in person and dwelling.” - -In a paper on the causes of destitution in Scotland, by _Professor -Alison_, read before the Statistical Society of London, it is stated -that— - - “From a report on the late census, made to the Lord Provost of Glasgow - by Mr. Strang, Chamberlain, (19th July, 1841,) it appears that in the - most densely peopled part of the town, (Blackfriars’ parish,) the - population since 1831 has increased 40 per cent., while the number of - inhabited houses has not increased at all; and again, in the Gorbals, - ‘there is an increase in the population of 20 per cent, since 1831,’ - though no new buildings have been erected, and where the great - majority of the houses are of the smallest class.”—(Watt’s Report, p. - 11.) - -_Dr. Scott Alison_ in his report on Tranent, states,— - - “In many houses in and around Tranent, fowls roost on the rafters and - on the tops of the bedsteads. The effluvia in these houses are - offensive, and must prove very unwholesome. It is scarcely necessary - to say that these houses are very filthy. They swarm likewise with - fleas. Dogs live in the interior of the lowest houses, and must, of - course, be opposed to cleanliness. I have seen horses in two houses in - Tranent inhabiting the same apartment with numerous families. One was - in Dow’s Bounds. Several of the family were ill of typhus fever, and I - remember the horse stood at the back of the bed. In this case the - stench was dreadful. In addition to the horse there were fowls, and I - think the family was not under ten souls. The father died of typhus on - this occasion. The families of most of the labouring people are - crowded, in consequence of the smallness of the apartment. Where there - are many children, it is common for 10 or 12 people to inhabit one - apartment, and for four children to lie in one bed, both in health and - sickness. When a collier has few or no children, he sometimes takes - single men and women as lodgers.” - -_Dr. Keith_ says the— - - “Crowding is fearful. I have seen six or eight sleeping in one - apartment, with every crevice stopped, and have more than once been - nearly suffocated by entering the apartment even after several of them - were up and out.” - -As the information sought from the medical officers and witnesses in the -course of this inquiry was chiefly as to the sanitary condition of the -population, they might, naturally be expected only to notice the -overcrowding as one of the causes of ill health; and they do frequently -notice the fact in that sense; but the overcrowding is also frequently -noticed as a cause of extreme demoralization and recklessness, and -recklessness, again, as a cause of disease. The following may be given -as examples of the statements in respect to overcrowding in the rural -districts in England. - -_Mr. T. P. J. Grantham_, medical officer of the Sleaford union, in -reference to the typhus fever in the family of an agricultural labourer, -gives the following instance of the overcrowding which is frequent in -the rural districts:— - - “The domestic economy in this house was deplorable; eight persons - slept in one small ill-ventilated apartment, with scarcely any - bed-clothing; the smell arising from want of cleanliness, and the - dirty clothes of the children being allowed to accumulate, was most - intolerable. Considering the situation of the house, its filthy state, - and the vitiated air which must have been respired over and over - again, by eight individuals sleeping in one confined apartment, it is - not surprising that this family should have been afflicted with fever, - and that of a very malignant type; the mother and one child fell - victims to it in a very short time.” - - - _The want of separate apartments, and overcrowding of private - dwellings._ - -The following extract from a communication from the clerk to the -Ampthill union, pourtrays the effects of this overcrowding on the morals -of the population. - - “A large proportion of the cottages in the Union are very miserable - places, small and inconvenient, in which it is impossible to keep up - even the common decencies of life. I will refer to one instance with - which I am well acquainted:—A man, his wife, and family, consisting in - all of 11 individuals, resided in a cottage containing only two rooms. - The man, his wife, and four children, sometimes five, slept in one of - the rooms, and in one bed, some at the foot, others at the top, one a - girl above 14, another a boy above 12, the rest younger. The other - part of the family slept in one bed in the keeping-room, that is, the - room in which their cooking, washing, and eating were performed. How - could it be otherwise with this family than that they should be sunk - into a most deplorable state of degradation and depravity? This, it - may be said, is an extreme case, but there are many similar, and a - very great number that make near approaches to it. To pursue a further - account of this family: the man is reported to be a good labourer, the - cottage he held was recently pulled down, and being unable to procure - another, he was forced to come into the workhouse. After being in a - short time, they left to try again to get a home, but again failed. - The man then absconded, and the family returned to the workhouse. The - eldest, a female, has had a bastard child, and another, younger, also - a female but grown up, has recently been sentenced to transportation - for stealing in a dwelling house. The family, when they came in, were - observed to be of grossly filthy habits and of disgusting behaviour; I - am glad to say, however, that their general conduct and appearance is - very much improved since they have become inmates of the workhouse. I - without scruple express my opinion that their degraded moral state is - mainly attributable to the wretched way in which they have lived and - herded together as previously described. I have been thus particular - in my account of this family, knowing it to be a type of many others, - and intending it to apply to that part of your letter inquiring - respecting the comparative character of the female inmates and - children of the two descriptions of cottages in question.” - -The _relieving officer_ of the Leighton Buzzard union states that, in -Leighton,— - - “There are a number of cottages without sleeping-rooms separate from - the day-rooms, and frequently three or four families are found - occupying the same bed-room, and young men and women promiscuously - sleeping in the same apartment.” - -_Mr. Blick_, the medical officer of the Bicester union, states that:— - - “The residences of the poor in that part of the district are most - wretched, the majority consisting of only one room below and one - above, in which a family of eight or ten (upon an average, I should - say five), live and sleep. In one of these rooms I have witnessed a - father, mother, three grown-up sons, a daughter, and a child, lying at - the same time with typhus fever: but few of the adjacent residents - escaped the infection.” - -Mr. _L. O. Fox_, the medical officer of the Romsey union, states:— - - “There is not only a great want of cottages, but also of room in those - which now stand. In the parish of Mottisfont I have known 14 - individuals of one family together in a small room, the mother being - in labour at the time, and in the adjoining room seven other persons - sleeping, making 21 persons, in a space which should be occupied by - six persons only at most. Here are the young woman and young man of 18 - or 20 years of age lying alongside of the father and mother, and the - latter actually in labour. It will be asked what is the condition of - the inmates?—Just such as might be expected.” - -_Dr. Gilly_, the canon of Durham, whose appeal on behalf of the border -peasantry, and description of the sheds into which they are placed have -been cited, observes, upon the crowding of these small places, 24 feet -by 16, with 8, 10, or even 12 persons:— - - “How they lie down to rest, how they sleep, how they can preserve - common decency, how unutterable horrors are avoided, is beyond all - conception. The case is aggravated when there is a young woman to be - lodged in this confined space who is not a member of the family, but - is hired to do the field-work, for which every hind is bound to - provide a female. It shocks every feeling of propriety to think that - in a room, and within such a space as I have been describing, - civilized beings should be herding together without a decent - separation of age and sex. So long as the agricultural system in this - district requires the hind to find room for a fellow-servant of the - other sex in his cabin, the least that morality and decency can demand - is that he should have a second apartment where the unmarried female - and those of a tender age should sleep apart from him and his wife. - Last Whitsuntide, when the annual lettings were taking place, a hind, - who had lived one year in the hovel he was about to quit, called to - say farewell, and to thank me for some trifling kindness I had been - able to show him. He was a fine tall man of about 45, a fair specimen - of the frank, sensible, well-spoken, well-informed Northumbrian - peasantry—of that peasantry of which a militia regiment was composed, - which so amazed the Londoners (when it was garrisoned in the capital - many years ago) by the size, the noble deportment, the soldier-like - bearing, and the good conduct of the men. I thought this a good - opportunity of asking some questions. Where was he going? and how - would he dispose of his large family (eleven in number)? He told me - they were to inhabit one of these hind’s cottages, whose narrow - dimensions were less than 24 feet by 15, and that the eleven would - have only three beds to sleep on; that he himself, his wife, a - daughter of 6, and a boy of 4 years old, would sleep in one bed; that - a daughter of 18, a son of 12, a son of 10, and a daughter of 8 would - have a second bed; and a third would receive his three sons of the age - of 20, 16, and 14. ‘Pray,’ said I, ‘do you not think that this is a - very improper way of disposing of your family?’ ‘Yes, certainly,’ was - the answer; ‘it is very improper in a Christian point of view; but - what can we do until they build us better houses.’” - -_Mr. Riddall Wood_ was examined as to the effects of overcrowded -tenements on the moral habits observed in the course of his visits from -house to house in the various towns he was engaged to examine:— - - “In what towns did you find instances of the greatest crowding of the - habitations?—In Manchester, Liverpool, Ashton-under-Lyne, and - Pendleton. In a cellar in Pendleton, I recollect there were three beds - in the two apartments of which the habitation consisted, but having no - door between them, in one of which a man and his wife slept; in - another, a man, his wife and child; and in a third two unmarried - females. In Hull I have met with cases somewhat similar. A mother - about 50 years of age, and her son I should think 25, at all events - above 21, sleeping in the same bed, and a lodger in the same room. I - have two or three instances in Hull in which a mother was sleeping - with her grown up son, and in most cases there were other persons - sleeping in the same room, in another bed. In a cellar in Liverpool, I - found a mother and her grown-up daughters sleeping on a bed of chaff - on the ground in one corner of the cellar, and in the other corner - three sailors had their bed. I have met with upwards of 40 persons - sleeping in the same room, married and single, including, of course, - children and several young adult persons of either sex. In Manchester - I could enumerate a variety of instances in which I found such - promiscuous mixture of the sexes in sleeping-rooms. I may mention one; - a man, his wife and child sleeping in one bed; in another bed, two - grown up females; and in the same room two young men, unmarried. I - have met with instances of a man, his wife, and his wife’s sister, - sleeping in the same bed together. I have known at least half-a-dozen - cases in Manchester in which that has been regularly practised, the - unmarried sister being an adult. - - “In the course of your own inquiry, how many instances, if you were to - look over your Notes, of persons of different sexes sleeping - promiscuously, do you think you met with?—I think I am speaking within - bounds when I say I have amongst my memoranda above 100 cases, - including, of course, cases of persons of different sexes sleeping in - the same room. - - “Was it so common as to be in nowise deemed extraordinary or culpable - amongst that class of persons?—It seemed not to be thought of. As a - proof of this I may mention one circumstance which just occurs to - me:—Early in my visitation of Pendleton, I called at the dwelling of a - person whose sons worked with himself in a colliery. It was in the - afternoon, when a young man, one of the sons, came down stairs in his - shirt and stood before the fire where a very decently-dressed young - female was sitting. The son asked his mother for a clean shirt, and on - its being given to him, very deliberately threw off the shirt he had - on, and after warming the clean one, put it on. In another dwelling in - Pendleton, a young girl 18 years of age, sat by the fire in her - chemise during the whole time of my visit. Both these were houses of - working people (colliers), and not by any means of ill-fame. - - “During your inquiries were you able to observe any further - demoralization attendant upon these circumstances?—I have frequently - met with instances in which the parties themselves have traced their - own depravity to these circumstances. As, for example, while I was - following out my inquiries in Hull, I found in one room a prostitute, - with whom I remonstrated on her course of life, and asked her whether - she would not be in a better condition if she were an honest servant - instead of living in vice and wretchedness. She admitted she should, - and on asking the cause of her being brought to her present condition, - she stated that she had lodged with a married sister, and slept in the - same bed with her and her husband; that hence improper intercourse - took place, and from that she gradually became more and more depraved; - and at length was thrown upon the town, because, having lost her - character, the town was her only resource. Another female of this - description admitted that her first false step was in consequence of - her sleeping in the same room with a married couple. In the instance I - have mentioned of the two single women sleeping in the same room with - the married people, I have good authority for believing that they were - common to the men. In the case which I have mentioned of the two - daughters and the woman where I found the sailors, I learned, from the - mother’s admission, that they were common to the lodgers. In all of - these cases the sense of decency was obliterated.” - -_Mr. Baker_, in his report on the condition of the labouring classes in -Leeds corroborates this statement:— - - “In the houses of the working classes, brothers and sisters, and - lodgers of both sexes, are found occupying the same sleeping-room with - the parents, and consequences occur which humanity shudders to - contemplate. It is but three or four years ago since a father and - daughter stood at the bar of the Leeds Sessions as criminals, the one - in concealing, and the other in being an accessary to concealing, the - birth of an illegitimate child, born on the body of the daughter by - the father; and now, in November, 1841, one of the Registrars of Leeds - has recorded the birth of an illegitimate child born on the body of a - young girl, only 16 years of age, who lived with her mother, who - cohabited with her lodger, the father of this child, of which the girl - had been pregnant five months, when the mother died.” - -The overcrowding of the tenements of the labouring classes is productive -of demoralization in a mode pointed out by _Mr. Barnett_, the clerk to -the Nottingham Union, who states— - - “That the houses are generally too small to afford a comfortable - reception to the family, and the consequence is that the junior - members are generally in the streets. Girls and youths destitute of - adequate house-room, and freed from parental control, are accustomed - to gross immoralities.” - -Hereafter, when considering the pecuniary means of defraying the expense -of sanitary measures, it will be shown how much less of such -consequences in most districts than may be supposed is ascribable to -absolute poverty or real inability to pay for better accommodation. To -obviate even immediate impressions of this description, I might adduce -much evidence of the character of the following testimony of _Mr. J. -Thomson_, of Clitheroe:— - - “What is the number of persons whom you have in your employment?—Men, - women, and children, between 900 and 1000. - - “Are you the owner of any of the tenements where they reside?—Very - few; not more than 12 or 15. - - “What description of tenements are they?—Houses with two rooms above, - two rooms below, and a yard; and letting at a rent of from 7_l._ to - 8_l._ per annum. These are occupied by foremen in various departments, - and the better description of artisans. - - “What wages do this description of persons earn?—Various, from 30_s._ - to 3_l._ weekly; averaging, perhaps, 2_l._ weekly; out of which they - pay 3_s._ per week for rent. - - “What is your experience in respect to the habits of the workpeople in - these tenements?—The remark which I have to make is on the very low - state of feeling prevalent amongst even a high class of workmen as to - decency or propriety. The tenements sufficed for them when they were - young, but when the female children become young women, and the boys - advance to puberty, and decency requires them to have separate rooms, - the usual practice of the parents is to take the young women into - their own sleeping-rooms. I have one highly respectable foreman who - has one daughter aged 20, and another aged 22, sleeping on each side - of the bed in which himself and his wife sleep. The next bed-room is - filled with the younger children of both sexes, boys and girls, up to - 16 years of age. The earnings of this family must have been 50_s._ per - week. The rent they paid was 3_s._ weekly, which was little more than - the interest on the money invested. I have remonstrated on the - indecency of such habits, and on their bad effects, but the expense of - the extra shilling a-week for a house with another bed-room was - considered a sufficient answer to my remonstrance. In my own tenements - I have built the additional room, and notwithstanding the - remonstrances, I have required the additional rent. When they have - remonstrated, I have told them of the fact, that the cost of the - additional room would only be a beneficial deduction from the money - spent in liquor.” - -It would require much time and various opportunities of observation to -attempt to make an exact analysis of the combined causes, and an -estimate of the effect of each separate cause which operate to produce -the masses of moral and physical wretchedness met with in the -investigation of the condition of the lowest population. But it became -evident, in the progress of the inquiry, that several separate -circumstances had each its separate moral as well as physical influence. -Thus tenements of inferior construction had manifestly an injurious -operation on the moral as well as on the sanitary condition, -independently of any overcrowding. For example, it appears to be matter -of common observation, in the instance of migrant families of workpeople -who are obliged to occupy inferior tenements, that their habits soon -become “of a piece” with the dwelling. A gentleman who has observed -closely the condition of the workpeople in the south of Cheshire and the -north of Lancashire, men of similar race and education, working at the -same description of work, namely, as cotton-spinners, mill hands, and -earning nearly the same amount of wages, states that the workmen of the -north of Lancashire are obviously inferior to those in the south of -Cheshire, in health and habits of personal cleanliness and general -condition. The difference is traced mainly to the circumstance, that the -labourers in the north of Lancashire inhabit stone houses of a -description that absorb moisture, the dampness of which affects the -health, and causes personal uncleanliness, induced by the difficulty of -keeping a clean house. The operation of the same deteriorating -influences were also observable in Scotland, and it may be illustrated -by several instances which I have met with in the course of my own -personal inquiries. - -One of the circumstances most favourable to the improvement of the -condition of an artisan or an agricultural labourer, is his obtaining as -a wife a female who has had a good industrial training in the well -regulated household of persons of a higher condition. The following -instance of the effect of the dwelling itself on the condition of a -female servant when married, was brought to my notice by a member of the -family in which they had been brought up. One was of a young woman who -had been taught the habits of neatness, order, and cleanliness most -thoroughly as regards household work. - - “Her attention to personal neatness,” says a lady who is my informant, - “was very great; her face seemed always as if it were just washed, and - with her bright hair neatly combed underneath her snowwhite cap, a - smooth white apron, and her gown and handkerchief carefully put on, - she used to look very comely. After a year or two, she married the - serving man, who, as he was retained in his situation, was obliged to - take a house as near his place as possible. The cottages in the - neighbourhood were of the most wretched kind, mere hovels built of - rough stones and covered with ragged thatch; there were few even of - these, so there was no choice, and they were obliged to be content - with the first that was vacant, which was in the most retired - situation. After they had been married about two years, I happened to - be walking past one of these miserable cottages, and as the door was - open, I had the curiosity to enter. I found it was the home of the - servant I have been describing. But what a change had come over her! - Her face was dirty, and her tangled hair hung over her eyes. Her cap, - though of good materials, was ill washed and slovenly put on. Her - whole dress, though apparently good and serviceable, was very untidy, - and looked dirty and slatternly; everything indeed about her seemed - wretched and neglected, (except her little child,) and she appeared - very discontented. She seemed aware of the change there must be in her - appearance since I had last seen her, for she immediately began to - complain of her house. The wet came in at the door of the _only room_, - and when it rained, through every part of the roof also, except just - over the hearth-stone; large drops fell upon her as she lay in bed, or - as she was working at the window: in short, she had found it - impossible to keep things in order, so had gradually ceased to make - any exertions. Her condition had been borne down by the condition of - the house. Then her husband was dissatisfied with his home and with - her; his visits became less frequent, and if he had been a day - labourer, and there had been a beer-shop or a public-house, the - preference of that to his home would have been inevitable, and in the - one instance would have presented an example of a multitude of cases. - - “She was afterwards, however, removed to a new cottage, which was - water-tight, and had some conveniences, and was built close to the - road, which her former mistress and all her friends must constantly - pass along. She soon resumed, in a great degree, her former good - habits, but still there was a little of the _dawdle_ left about her; - the remains of the dispiritedness caused by her former very - unfavourable circumstances.” - -I visited some other dwellings not far from the one above described, and -met with another instance of a female who had been brought up as a -servant in a well-ordered house, and who, for her station, had received -a very excellent religious and moral education. Before her marriage she -had been distinguished by the refinement with which she sung national -airs, and for her knowledge of the Bible and of the doctrines of her -church. Her personal condition had become of “a piece” with the wretched -stone undrained hovel, with a pigsty before it, in which she had been -taken. We found her with rings of dirt about her neck, and turning over -with dirty hands Brown’s Dictionary, to see whether the newly-elected -minister was “sound” in his doctrine. In this case no moral lapse was -apparent, but the children were apparently brought up under great -disadvantages. - -There, however, as in most cases, the internal economy of the houses -were primarily affected by the defective internal and surrounding -drainage that produced the damp and wet, and thence the dirt against -which the inmates had ceased to contend. On inquiry of the male -labourers in the district, it appeared that almost every third man was -subjected to rheumatism; and with them, it was evident that the -prevalence of damp and marsh miasma from the want of drainage, if it did -not necessitate, formed a strong temptation to, the use of ardent -spirits. With them as with the females, the wretched condition of the -tenement formed a strong barrier against personal cleanliness and the -use of decent clothes. - -In the rural districts the very defects of the cottages which let in the -fresh air, in spite of all the efforts of the inmates to exclude it, -often obviate the effects of the overcrowding and defective ventilation. -It has been observed, that while the labouring population of several -districts have had no shelter but huts, similar to those described by -Dr. Gilly, as the habitations of the border peasantry, which afforded a -free passage for currents of air, they were not subject to fevers, -though they were to rheumatism; but when, through the good intentions of -the proprietors, such habitations were provided as were deemed more -comfortable from excluding the weather effectually, but which, from the -neglect of ventilation afforded recesses for stagnating air, and -impurities which they had not the means or had not a sufficient love of -cleanliness to remove; though rheumatism was excluded, febrile infection -was generated. In the towns the access of the wind is impeded by the -closeness of the surrounding habitations, and the internal construction -of the dwellings tends to exclude the air still more effectually. Were -the closed windows opened, it would frequently be only to admit a worse -compound, the air from neglected privies, and the miasma from the wet -and undrained court or street. - -The close pent up air in these abodes has, undoubtedly, a depressing -effect on the nervous energies, and this again, with the uneducated, and -indeed with many of the educated workpeople, has an effect on the moral -habits by acting as a strong and often irresistible provocative to the -use of fermented liquors and ardent spirits. Much may be due to the -incitement of association of greater numbers of people, but it is a -common fact that, the same workpeople indulge more in drink when living -in the close courts and lanes of the town than when living in the -country, and that the residence in the different places is attended with -a difference of effects similar to those described in respect to the -tailors working in crowded rooms in towns and the tailors working -separately or in the country. The workpeople who have fallen into habits -of drinking, strenuously allege the impossibility of avoiding the -practice in such places; they do, however, drink in greater quantities -in such places, and give increased effect to the noxious miasma by which -they are surrounded. - -Some inquiries from _Mr. Liddle_, the medical officer of the Whitechapel -union, as to the condition of the workpeople he visited in such places -as he has described, brought to notice another indirect effect of the -external as well as the internal condition of the dwelling on their -domestic economy and general condition. - -It appeared that the persons whom he visited for the purpose of -administering medical relief, were men earning, when in work, from -16_s._ to 20_s._ per week, the women earning proportionably. Yet -whenever they were subjected to the frequent attacks of sickness which -prevailed amongst them, they were in the most, wretched destitution: the -house was bare of everything; they had no provisions and no credit, and -their need for relief was most imminent. In answer to the inquiry how -this was to be accounted for, inasmuch as with agricultural labourers -who earned little more than half that sum, and paid nearly as much for -their food, in visiting their cottages with their ministers, I had -commonly observed some store of provisions; Mr. Liddle stated that in -such places as those in his district, in such atmospheres, a store of -provisions would not keep: everything decayed rapidly, and the -workpeople consequently lived “from hand to mouth.” On inquiring as to -this fact from a respectable butcher, accustomed to sell meat to persons -living in such situations, he stated that— - - “Meat sold on a Saturday night, in hot weather, to poor people, who - have only one close room, in which they sleep, and live, and cook, - will certainly turn before the Sunday morning; when, if it were kept - in the butcher’s shop, or in a well-ventilated place, it would be in - as good a condition on the Monday morning. There is a great deal of - loss of meat in consequence of the want of ventilation and bad - condition of the dwellings of the poorer classes. The butter kept in - such places sooner becomes rancid, and the bread dry and - disagreeable.” - -Here, then, we have from the one agent, a close and polluted atmosphere, -two different sets of effects; the one set here noticed engendering -improvidence, expense, and waste,—the other, the depressing effects of -external and internal miasma on the nervous system, tending to incite -the habitual use of ardent spirits; both tending to precipitate this -population into disease and misery. - -The familiarity with the sickness and death constantly present in the -crowded and unwholesome districts, appears to re-act as another -concurrent, cause in aggravation of the wretchedness and vice in which -they are plunged. Seeing the apparent uncertainty of the morrow, the -inhabitants really take no heed of it, and abandon themselves with the -recklessness and avidity of common soldiers in a war to whatever gross -enjoyment comes within their reach. All the districts I visited, where -the rate of sickness and mortality was high, presented, as might be -expected, a proportionate amount of severe cases of destitute orphanage -and widowhood; and the same places were marked by excessive recklessness -of the labouring population. In Dumfries, for example, it is estimated, -that the cholera, swept away one-eleventh part of the population. Until -recently, the town had not recovered the severe effects of the -visitation, and the condition of the orphans was most deplorable. -Amongst young artisans who were earning from 16_s._ to 18_s._ a-week, I -was informed that there were very few who made any reserves against the -casualties of sickness. I was led to ask the provost what number of -bakers’ shops there were? “Twelve,” was his answer. And what number of -whiskey-shops may the town possess? “Seventy-nine” was the reply. If we -might rely on the inquiries made of working-men when Dr. Arnott and I -went through the wynds of Edinburgh, their consumption of spirits bore -almost the like proportion to the consumption of wholesome food. We -observed to Captain Stuart, the superintendent of the police at -Edinburgh, in our inspection of the wynds, that life appeared to be of -little value, and was likely to be held cheap in such spots. He stated, -in answer, that a short time ago a man had been executed for the murder -of his wife in a fit of passion in the very room we had accidentally -entered, and where we were led to make the observation. At a short -distance from that spot, and amidst others of this class of habitation, -were those which had been the scenes of the murders by Burke and Hare. -Yet amidst these were the residences of working men engaged in regular -industry. The indiscriminate mixture of workpeople and their children in -the immediate vicinity, and often in the same rooms with persons whose -character was denoted by the question and answer more than once -exchanged, “When were you last washed?” “When I was last in prison,” was -only one mark of the entire degradation to which they had been brought. -The working-classes living in these districts were equally marked by the -abandonment, of every civil or social regulation. Asking some children -in one of the rooms of the wynds in which they swarmed in Glasgow what -were their names, they hesitated to answer, when one of the inmates -said, they called them ——, mentioning some nicknames. “The fact is,” -observed Captain Miller, the superintendent of the police, “they really -have no names. Within this range of buildings I have no doubt I should -be able to find a thousand children who have no names whatever, or only -nicknames, like dogs.” There were found amidst the occupants, labourers -earning wages undoubtedly sufficient to have paid for comfortable -tenements, men and women who were intelligent, and so far as could be -ascertained, had received the ordinary education which should have given -better tastes and led to better habits. My own observations have been -confirmed by the statement of Mr. Sheriff Alison, of Glasgow, that in -the great manufacturing towns of Scotland, “in the contest with whiskey, -in their crowded population, education has been entirely overthrown.” -The ministers, it will be seen, make similar reports from the rural -districts. On the observation of other districts, and the comparison of -the habits of the same workmen in town and country, it will be seen that -I consider that the use of the whiskey and the prostration of the -education and moral habits for which the Scottish labourers have been -distinguished is, to a considerable extent, attributable to the -surrounding physical circumstances, including the effects of the bad -ventilation. The labourers presented to our notice in the condition -described, in the crowded districts, were almost all Scotch. It is -common to ascribe the extreme of misery and vice wholly to the Irish -portion of the population of the towns in Scotland. A short inspection -on the spot would correct this error. Mr. Baird, in his report on the -sanitary condition of the poor of Glasgow, observes that “the bad name -of the poor Irish had been too long attached to them.” Dr. Cowan, of -Glasgow, stated that “From ample opportunities of observation, they -appeared to him to exhibit much less of that squalid misery and -addiction to the use of ardent spirits than the Scotch of the same -grade.” Instances were indeed stated to us, where the Irish were -preferred for employment from their superior steadiness and docility; -and Mr. Stuart, the Factory Inspector for Scotland, states, that -“instances are now occurring of a preference being given to them as -workers in the flax factories on account of their regular habits, and -that very significant hints have been given by extensive factory owners, -that Irish workmen will be selected unless the natives of the place, and -other persons employed by them, relinquish the prevailing habits of -intemperance.” Dr. Scott Alison, in his report on Tranent, has described -the population in receipt of high wages, but living under similar -influences, as prone to passionate excitement, and as apt instruments -for political discontents; their moral perceptions appeared to have been -obliterated, and they might be said to be characterised by a “ferocious -indocility which makes them prompt to wrong and violence, destroys their -social nature, and transforms them into something little better than -wild beasts.” - -It is to be regretted that the coincidence of pestilence and moral -disorder is not confined to one part of the island, nor to any one race -of the population. The overcrowding and the removal of what may be -termed the architectural barriers or protections of decency and -propriety, and the causes of physical deterioration in connexion with -the moral deterioration, are also fearfully manifest in the districts in -England, which, at the time to which the evidence refers, were in a -state of prosperity. - -_Mr. Baker_, in his report on the condition of the population, after -giving an instance of the contrast presented by the working people -living in better dwellings, situated in better cleansed neighbourhoods -(to which I shall advert when submitting the evidence in respect to -preventive measures), describes the population living in houses— - - “With broken panes in every window-frame, and filth and vermin in - every nook. With the walls unwhitewashed for years, black with the - smoke of foul chimneys, without water, with corded bed-stocks for - beds, and sacking for bed-clothing, with floors unwashed from year to - year, without out-offices, * * * * while without, there are streets, - elevated a foot, sometimes two, above the level of the causeway, by - the accumulation of years, and stagnant puddles here and there, with - their fœtid exhalations, causeways broken and dangerous, ash-places - choked up with filth, and excrementitious deposits on all sides as a - consequence, undrained, unpaved, unventilated, uncared-for by any - authority but the landlord, who weekly collects his miserable rents - from his miserable tenants. - - “Can we wonder that such places are the hot-beds of disease, or that - it obtains, upon constitutions thus liberally predisposed to receive - it, and forms the mortality which Leeds exhibits. Adult life, exposed - to such miasmata, gives way. How much more then infant life, when - ushered into, and attempted to be reared in, such obnoxious - atmospheres. On the moral habits similar effects are produced. An - inattention on the part of the local authorities to the state of the - streets diminishes year by year the respectability of their occupiers. - None dwell in such localities but to whom propinquity to employment is - absolutely essential. Those who might advocate a better state of - things, depart; and of those who remain, the one-half, by repeated - exhibitions of indecency and vulgarity, and indeed by the mere fact of - neighbourship, sink into the moral degradation which is natural to the - other, and vicious habits and criminal propensities precede the death - which these combinations prepare.” - -No education as yet commonly given appears to have availed against such -demoralizing circumstances as those described; but the cases of moral -improvement of a population, by cleansing, draining, and the improvement -of the internal and external conditions of the dwellings, of which -instances will be presented, are more numerous and decided, though there -still occur instances of persons in whom the love of ardent spirits has -gained such entire possession as to have withstood all such means of -retrieving them. The most experienced public officers acquainted with -the condition of the inferior population of the towns would agree in -giving the first place in efficiency and importance to the removal of -what may be termed the physical barriers to improvement, and that as -against such barriers moral agencies have but a remote chance of -success. - -A gentleman who has had considerable experience in the management of -large numbers of the manufacturing population stated to me that in every -case of personal and moral improvement the successful step was made by -the removal of the party from the ill-conditioned neighbourhood in which -he had been brought up. When a young workman married, he interfered to -get him a better residence apart from the rest; and when this was done -important alterations followed; but if he took up his abode in the old -neighbourhood, the condition of the wife was soon brought down to the -common level, and the marriage became a source of wretchedness. - -Benevolent persons, viewing the bare aspect of some of the most -afflicted neighbourhoods, have raised subscriptions for the purchase of -furniture, bedding, and blankets, for the relief of the inmates, but by -this pecuniary aid they have only added fuel to the flame; that is, they -have enabled the inmates to purchase more ardent spirits. The force of -the habit, which is aggravated by misdirected charity, is indicated in -the following instances, of which one was mentioned to me by the _Rev. -Whitwell Elwin_:— - - “I was lately informed by a master tailor of Bath that one of his men, - who had earned 3_l._ a-week at piece-work for years, had never within - his knowledge possessed table, chairs, or bedding. I found the - statement on examination to be strictly true. Some straw on which he - slept, a square block of wood, a low three-legged stool, and an old - tea-caddy, are the complete inventory of the articles of a room, the - occupier of which, with only himself and his wife to maintain, was - wealthier than many in the station of gentlemen. He had frequently - excited lively compassion in benevolent individuals, who, supposing - that he was struggling for very existence, furnished him with a - variety of household goods, which were regularly pawned before a week - was out, and afforded to the superficial observer fresh evidence of - the extremity of his distress. The cause of all this is quickly told: - the wife was to be seen going to and fro several times a-day with a - cream-jug of gin, and to gratify this appetite, they had voluntarily - reduced themselves to the condition of savages. I could add numerous - instances of a similar kind. Indeed, were a stranger to go through the - town, and judge only from the appearance of things, I am convinced - that he would select his examples of greatest privation not from the - really poor, but from men who were in the receipt of more than 30_s._ - a-week. Charity, which when prompted by pure motives, always blesses - him that gives, does not always bless him that takes. I am afraid that - the indiscriminate adoption of dirt and rags as a test of poverty, - especially in a town like Bath, where private charity prevails on an - extensive scale, operates as a premium upon ill habits, and as a - discouragement to cleanliness, and leads many to affect a vice which - was not habitual to them.” - -As an instance of that state of voluntary wretchedness which renders all -such charity or assistance worse than useless, I may give an incident -mentioned to me by _Sir Charles Shaw_, the chief commissioner of the new -police force in Manchester:— - - “A week since,” says Sir Charles, “I sent an inspector of police to - examine a lodging-house. He came back to state that he had never - witnessed such a sight. He found in one room, totally destitute of - furniture, three men and two women lying on the bare floor, without - straw, and with bricks only for their pillows. I observed, that I - supposed they were drunk. ‘Yes,’ said the inspector; ‘they were, and I - found the lodging-house keeper himself in a tolerable bed, and in - another room I found bundles of fine fresh straw. I blamed the man for - not giving that straw to his lodgers.’ He answered, ‘I keep that straw - for the people who prefer purchasing it to gin: those above stairs - preferred the gin.’ It is, I find, a common thing here for - lodging-house keepers to have straw for sale.” - -In the course of an examination which I took, under the Poor Law -Commission of Inquiry, from the late _Mr. Walker_, the stipendiary -magistrate of the Thames Police Office, he observed, in respect to cases -of apparent destitution:— - - “Casualties occurring among the indigent or profligate are at all - times liable to be represented as cases resulting from the neglect of - the proper authorities. Some time ago, in going round the parish of - Whitechapel with the churchwardens, during service-time, we entered an - old building in Rosemary-lane, for which there was then no owner, the - stairs were so dark and ruinous that though it was mid-day we were - obliged to have a candle, to enable us to go up to them: the - first-floor was the receptacle of every description of filth. We - entered one room, in which we found two half-naked dirty children; - their mother lay in one corner on some dirty straw, covered only with - a sack. There was no furniture nor other articles in the place, except - a fagot of wood and a few broken plates, a basket of skate, and some - sprats strewed on the floor. This woman was a fish-hawker, a business - by which, in all probability, she gained enough to have made her - extremely comfortable, but she preferred an alternation of great - privation and profligate enjoyment. Had she accidentally died in this - state, here would have been a scene of misery, and a case of - excitement for the philanthropists! In our district there are other - premises under similar circumstances, all of which are tenanted by - persons of the very lowest grade; and it is surprising, considering - the state in which they live, that unaccountable deaths, having the - semblance of starvation, do not take place amongst them. From what I - have observed of these places, I am fully convinced that if shambles - were built on any spot, and all who choose were allowed to occupy - them, they would soon be occupied by a race lower than any yet known. - I have often said that if empty casks were placed along the streets of - Whitechapel, in a few days each of them would have a tenant, and these - tenants would keep up their kind, and prey upon the rest of the - community. I am sure that if such facilities were offered, there is no - conceivable degradation to which portions of the species might not be - reduced. Allow these tub-men no education, and you would have so many - savages living in the midst of civilization. Wherever there are empty - houses which are not secured, they are soon tenanted by wretched - objects, and these tenants continue so long as there is a harbour for - them. Parish officers and others come to me to aid them in clearing - such places. I tell the police and the parish that there is no use in - their watching these places, that they must board them up if they - would get rid of the occupants. If they will give the accommodation - they will get the occupants. If you will have marshes and stagnant - waters you will there have suitable animals, and the only way of - getting rid of them is by draining the marshes.” - -The _Reverend Whitwell Elwin_ observes upon this subject that— - - “Those who think that labourers will work for themselves a reform in - their habitations very much underrate the effects of habit. A person - accustomed to fresh air, and all the comforts of civilized life, goes - into a miserable room, dirty, bare, and, above all, sickening from the - smell. Judging from his own sensations, he conceives that nothing but - the most abject poverty could have produced this state of things, and - he can imagine nothing necessary to a cure but a way for escape. A - very simple experiment will correct these erroneous impressions. Let - him remain a short time in the room, and the perception of closeness - will so entirely vanish that he will almost fancy that the atmosphere - has been purified since his entrance. There are few who are not - familiar with this fact; and if such are the effects of an hour in - blunting our refined sensations, and rendering them insensible to - noxious exhalations, what must be the influence of years on the - coarser perceptions of the working-man? - - “All who know the lower classes will testify that the last want felt - by the dirty is cleanliness, that their last expenditure is on the - comforts of their home. Two winters ago I found a painter whose bed - was without blankets, whose room was without furniture, who was - destitute even of the ordinary utensils of civilized life, whose floor - was covered with worse filth than that of the streets—I found this man - at dinner with a roast loin of pork stuffed with onions, a Yorkshire - pudding, a large jug of ale, cheese, and a salad. I will undertake to - say that half the gentlemen in Bath did not sit down on that Sunday to - so good a dinner.” - -A number of communications simply assign “intemperance” as the cause of -fever, and of the prevalent mortality. Of most of these communications, -which it were unnecessary to recite, it may be observed, that when -intemperance is mentioned as the cause of disease, as being the -immediate antecedent, on carrying investigation a little further back, -discomfort is found to be the immediate antecedent to the intemperance; -and where the external causes of positive discomfort do not prevail in -the towns, the workpeople are generally found to have few or no rival -pleasures to wean them from habits of intemperance, and to have come -from districts subject to the discomforts likely to engender them. In -one of the returns from Scotland it is observed that with the people, -whether for a fever, a cold, or consumption, or a pleurisy, whiskey is -the universal antidote. The popular belief that fermented liquor or -ardent spirits are proper antidotes to the effects of damp or cold has -been universal, and has not wanted even medical sanction. Out-door -allowances of beer have been prescribed by some medical officers in -marshy and undrained districts as the proper preservatives against ague -or rheumatism. The Board will now be in a position to urge the -importance of facilitating drainage as a means for the protection of the -population by the prevention of disease and the inducement to pernicious -habits, as well as a source of profitable industry. It is now beginning -to be observed in several dangerous occupations that temperance is the -best means of withstanding the effects of the noxious agencies which -they have to encounter. Amongst the painters, for example, the men who -are temperate and cleanly suffer little from the occupation, but if any -one of them become intemperate, the noxious causes take effect with a -certainty and rapidity proportioned to the relaxed domestic habits. The -Inquiry presents many instances of the beneficial effects of the changes -of the popular habit of having recourse to fermented liquors or to -spirits as necessary protective stimulants. In several of the mining -districts, for example, it is an extensive practice to provide for the -accommodation of the miners out of the hot mines a room in which they -may drink beer as a preservative against the effects of the change to -the cold and damp air to which they are about to expose themselves. _Dr. -Barham_, in his Report to the Commissioners appointed to inquire into -the Employment of Young Persons in Mines and Manufactories, notices an -admirable example within the province of voluntary exertion, and the -beneficial effects produced by it at the Dolcoath copper and tin mine, -Camborne, Cornwall. There the proprietors, besides establishing other -easy and economical preventive arrangements, provide a warm room for the -miners to change their dresses and take hot meat-soup, which is cheaper, -probably, than beer. “And the men” (says a witness) “say they never feel -cold when they take it. We conceive that there have been much fewer -cases of consumption on the club since this practice has been adopted.” - -The effects of the noxious physical agencies on the moral condition of -the population will receive more full illustration in connexion with the -statistical evidence as to their effects, with the evidence on the -practical operation of the means of prevention. - - - _Domestic mismanagement, a predisposing cause of disease._ - -The subsequent examples relate chiefly to the effects of general -domestic mismanagement as a concurrent cause of disease. - - -_Dr. Baker_, in his report on the sanitary condition of the population -of Derby, states that— - - “There is also another cause of sickness to be found in their houses, - and which, like the former, _i. e._, the external circumstances, is in - constant operation: I mean the want of domestic comforts, a want which - the wages they earn would, in many instances, enable them to remove if - their means were not, as too often happens, expended viciously or - improvidently. It is with regret that I speak unfavourably of the - poor, whilst my whole aim, in this communication, has been to awaken a - sympathy towards those sufferings of which I have been so often a - witness. But several years’ experience of the habits of the poor, - derived from my situation as an hospital physician, and backed by the - additional evidence I have obtained by acting for three years as a - guardian of the poor in this large town, has, I am sorry to say, - served but to confirm me in the opinion I have just now expressed; and - in support of which I shall instance the family of the Slaters - mentioned at No. 12, in Short-street. - - “The earnings of four members of this family were as follows:— - - _s._ _d._ - The father 14 0 per week, at gardening, &c. - The eldest son, aged 20 12 0 per week, at a brewery. - Daughter {Twins, } 6 0 per week, at a factory. - Son {aged 18} 9 0 per week, at the same factory. - —— —— — - £2 1 0 per week. - - “The mother of this family, it appears, is left disengaged from all - but her household duties and the care of the younger children; the - house, nevertheless, is nearly destitute of furniture, and presents a - picture of disorder and want. On the other hand, at No. 15, (Briggs) - although the husband has for some years past been a weak and ailing - man, the family is well ordered and cleanly; and to this fact I mainly - attribute the milder and modified form of fever which affected the - children.” - -The Committee of Physicians and Surgeons at Birmingham, in their report, -indicate the powerful operation of depraved domestic habits as a -predisposing cause to disease:— - - “It cannot,” they say, “be doubted that whilst the arts and - manufactures of the place prove in some instances injurious to health, - and in a few possibly destructive to life, these evil consequences, as - well as hereditary predisposition to disease, are promoted by - intemperance, not that intemperance is an infinitely more frequent - cause of disease and death amongst the artisans than all the various - employments of all the manufactories combined. - - “In the expenditure of their weekly earnings, improvidence and - thoughtless extravagance prevail to a lamentable degree. The - observations upon which this opinion is formed are made upon the - habits of the people themselves, confirmed by extensive and recent - inquiries among the shopkeepers with whom they deal. Tea, coffee, - sugar, butter, cheese, bacon, (of which a great deal is consumed in - this town,) and other articles, the working people purchase in small - quantities from the hucksters, who charge an enormous profit upon - them, being, as they state, compelled to do so to cover the losses - which they frequently sustain by bad debts. Huckster dealing is a most - extravagant mode of dealing; there were in this town, in 1834, 717 of - these shops, and the number has greatly increased since that time. - Meat is purchased in the same improvident manner; the working men - generally contrive to have a good joint of meat upon the Sunday; the - dinner on the other days of the week is made from steaks or chops, - which is the most extravagant mode either of purchasing or cooking - meat. - - “The improvidence of this class of persons arises in many instances - from the indulgence of vicious propensities. Drunkenness, with all its - attendant miseries, prevails to a great extent, though it is by no - means to be regarded as a characteristic feature of the mechanic of - this town in particular. It most generally prevails among that class - of workmen who obtain the highest wages, but who are often found in - the most deplorable and abject condition. The improvidence of which we - are speaking is to be traced in very many instances to extreme - ignorance on the part of the wives of these people. The females are - from necessity bred up from their youth in the workshops, as the - earnings of the younger members contribute to the support of the - family. The minds and morals of the girls become debased, and they - marry totally ignorant of all those habits of domestic economy which - tend to render a husband’s home comfortable and happy; and this is - very often the cause of the man being driven to the alehouse to seek - that comfort after his day of toil which he looks for in vain by his - own fireside. The habit of a manufacturing life being once established - in a woman, she continues it, and leaves her home and children to the - care of a neighbour or of a hired child, sometimes only a few years - older than her own children, whose services cost her probably as much - as she obtains for her labour. To this neglect on the part of their - parents is to be traced the death of many children; they are left in - the house with a fire before they are old enough to know the danger to - which they are exposed, and are often dreadfully burnt.” - -_Mr. Mott’s_ report on the sanitary condition of the population of his -district presents parallel instances of the different economy prevalent -amongst these classes:— - - - _Contrast in the Economy of Families._ - - 1. 1. - - Cellar in Wellington-court, In a dwelling-house in Chorlton - Chorlton-upon-Medlock; a man, his Union, containing one sitting-room - wife and seven children; income per and two bed-rooms; a man, his wife - week, 1_l._ 11_s._; rent 1_s._ and three children; rent 2_s._ - 6_d._ per week; three beds for 6_d._ per week; income per week - seven, in a dark, unventilated back 12_s._ 6_d._, being an average of - room, bed-covering of the meanest 2_s._ 6_d._ per week for each - and scantiest kind—the man and wife person. Here, with a sickly man, - occupying the front room as a the house presented an appearance - sleeping-room for themselves, in of comfort in every part, as also - which the whole family take their the bedding was in good order. - food and spend their leisure time; - here the family, in a filthy - destitute state, with an income - averaging 3_s._ 5¼_d._ each per - week, four being children under 11 - years of age. - - 2. 2. - - Cellar in York-street, In a dwelling-house, Stove-street, - Chorlton-upon-Medlock; a man—a one sitting-room, one kitchen and - hand-loom weaver—his wife and two bed-rooms, rent 4_s._ per week. - family (one daughter married, with A poor widow, with a daughter also - her husband forms part of the a widow, with ten children, making - family), comprising altogether together 13 in family; 1_l._ 6_s._ - seven persons; income 2_l._ 7_s._, per week, averaging 2_s._ per head - or 6_s._ 8½_d._ per head; rent per week. Here there is every - 2_s._ Here, with the largest amount appearance of cleanliness and - of income, the family occupy two comfort. - filthy, damp, unwholesome cellars, - one of which is a back place - without pavement or flooring of any - kind, occupied by the loom of the - family, and used as a sleeping-room - for the married couple and single - daughter. - - 3. 3. - - John Salt, of Carr Bank (labourer), George Hall, of Carr Bank - wages 12_s._ per week; a wife, and (labourer), wages 10_s._ per week; - one child aged 15: he is a drunken, has reared ten children; he is in - disorderly fellow, and very much in comfortable circumstances. - debt. - - 4. 4. - - William Haynes, of Oakamoore John Hammonds, of Woodhead - (wire-drawer), wages 1_l._ per (collier), wages 18_s._ per week; - week; he has a wife and five has six children to support; he is - children; he is in debt, and his a steady man and saving money. - family is shamefully neglected. - - 5. 5. - - George Locket, of Kingsley George Mosley, of Kingsley - (boatman), wages 18_s._ per week, (collier), wages 18_s._ per week; - with a wife and seven children; his he has a wife and seven children; - family are in a miserable he is saving money. - condition. - - 6. 6. - - John Banks, of Cheadle (collier), William Faulkner, of Tean - wages 18_s._ per week; wife and (tape-weaver), wages 18_s._ per - three children; his house is in a week; supports his wife and seven - filthy state, and the furniture not children without assistance. - worth 10_s._ - - 7. 7. - - William Weaver, of Kingsley Charles Rushton, of - (boatman), wages 18_s._ per week; Lightwoodfields, wages 14_s._ per - wife and three children; he is a week; he supports his wife and five - drunken, disorderly fellow, and his children in credit. - family entirely destitute. - - 8. 8. - - Richard Barlow, of Cheadle William Sargeant, of - (labourer), wages 12_s._ per week; Lightwoodfields (labourer), wages - wife and five children, in 13_s._ a-week; he has a wife and - miserable circumstance, not a bed six children, whom he supports - to lie on. comfortably. - - 9. 9. - - Thomas Bartlem, of Tean (labourer), William Box, of Tean (tape-weaver), - wages 14_s._ per week; his wife wages 18_s._ or 20_s._ per week; - earns 7_s._ per week; five supports his wife in bad health, - children; he is very much in debt; and five children. - home neglected. - - 10. 10. - - Thomas Johnson, of Tean Ralph Faulkner, of Tean - (blacksmith), wages 18_s._ per (tape-weaver), wages 18_s._ or - week; his wife earns 7_s._ per 20_s._ per week; supports a wife - week; three children; he is very and five children, three of them - much in debt, and his family are deaf and dumb. - grossly neglected. - -_Mr. Harrison_, the medical officer of the Preston union, observes that— - - “I have known many families whose income has exceeded 100_l._ a-year, - who in times of sickness have been in great distress, and even some - who have been obliged to have recourse to the parish for assistance. - And I am acquainted with several families now of the best paid class - of workpeople, whose total weekly earnings will average 2_l._, and in - some cases 3_l._ a-week, who, should sickness overtake the head of the - family, and some of the principal workers among the children, would be - thrown upon the parish. I have been convinced from extensive - observation, that the masters of these people have it in their power - to improve the condition and happiness of their workpeople beyond what - can be effected by any other agency.” - -These descriptions are not confined to the English towns. Mr. Jupp and -others cite instances from the rural districts. They are similarly -prevalent in Scotland. As an example I would refer to the description -given by Dr. Scott Alison, of the condition of the highly-paid collier -population of Tranent. Take another instance of the condition of the -same class, the colliers at Ayr, given by _Dr. Sym_, in his report on -the sanitary condition of the population of that town:— - - “Although the colliers have large wages, they are, from their want of - economy and their dissolute habits, uniformly in poverty; and their - families, though well fed, are miserably clothed, ill lodged, - uneducated, and less industrious than the families of the weavers; the - females of which work with great constancy at hand-sewing. The modes - of living of these two classes are very different. The weaver is not - intemperate, because he cannot afford to purchase ardent spirits, and - the nature of his employment prevents him from having those hours of - idleness during the day which the collier is so apt to consume in - dissipation. He lives on very innutritious food, seldom eats butchers’ - meat, and the most indigent, who are generally Irishmen, subsist - chiefly on potatoes. The collier, on the other hand, indulges to - excess in ardent spirits, and both he and his family partake of animal - food every day. In short, the colliers live better than any of the - other labouring classes in Ayr.” - -_Dr. Scott Alison_, speaking of the colliers of Tranent, states that -they obtain very high wages. “A man, his wife, and perhaps two children -may earn perhaps 40_s._ a-week, if industriously employed during that -time.” On the subject of appearances of destitution, on which medical -men sometimes report, he observes— - - “I have had occasion to know that medical men, judging from internal - appearances of the dwellings of the labouring classes, are liable to - be led into erroneous inferences as to the extent of destitution. The - appearance of the place or of the person is no test of the want of - means or of the highness or lowness of wages. Filth is more frequently - evidence of depravity than of destitution; indeed, in places where the - wages or means are really scanty, there is very frequently - considerable cleanliness. If a stranger went into the house of a - collier, he might exclaim, ‘What extreme wretchedness and - destitution!’ when, in fact, on the Saturday they had received 30_s._, - which before the Tuesday had all been squandered. I think medical men, - who are not intimately acquainted with the character of people, are - often drawn into mistakes.” - -The domestic condition of this population admits of a contrast with the -condition of individuals of their own description of employment, or with -the condition of other classes of miners who receive no higher wages, -but whose condition is highly superior, to show that the depraved habits -and condition are not the necessary result of the employment. He -contrasts the condition of the colliery population of Tranent with the -condition of the agricultural labourers in the immediate vicinity of the -town:— - - “With very few exceptions, the condition of the interior of the houses - of the hind population is excellent, most pleasing to the eye, and - comfortable. These respectable people, in spite of the defective - construction of their cottages, manage to throw an air of comfort, - plenty, neatness, and order around their homes. I have often been - delighted to observe these characteristics, and not less so to mark - the co-existence of pure, moral, and religious principles in the - inmates, the presence of practical religion and practical morals. When - the floor wears away, it is repaired; when the walls lose their - whiteness, they are whitewashed; and every few days the whole wooden - furniture in the house is subjected to thorough cleansing with sand - and warm water. The various articles of furniture, and the different - household utensils, are kept in places allotted to them; and the - earthenware and china well cleaned, are neatly arranged, and made to - serve as ornaments to the apartment. The metal spoons, candlesticks, - and pitchers for containing milk and water, are well burnished. The - milk taken from the cow may be seen set apart in vessels kept in the - nicest order; and beside them lie the churning-barrel and strainer. A - fire sheds its cheerful influence over the scene; the kettle never - wants hot water; and the honest, frugal housewife is ever discharging - some household duty in a spirit of placid contentment, attending to - her partner when present, or preparing his meals against his return - from the fields. - - “The external economy of the houses of the hinds is on the whole very - good. The ground in front of the cottages is kept clean and free of - impurities. The little garden, which is almost invariably connected - with the cottage, is kept in good order, and is in general well - cultivated.” - -The like contrast, derived from an intimate knowledge of the population -of another class, is presented in the following portions of a report -from _Mr. Wood_, of Dundee:— - - “There are many families among the working classes who are in the - receipt of from 15_s._ to 22_s._ per week, who are insufficiently - clothed, and irregularly and poorly fed, and whose houses as well as - their persons appear filthy, disorderly, and uncomfortable. There are - other families among them, containing the same number of persons, - whose incomes average from 10_s._ to 14_s._ a-week, who are neatly, - cleanly, and sufficiently clothed, regularly and suitably fed, and - whose houses appear orderly and comfortable. The former class care - little for the physical comfort, and far less for the intellectual, - moral, and religious education of their children; in many cases, - indeed, they neglect the education of their offspring when it is - offered to them gratuitously, and in place of sending them to school, - where they might be fitted for the duties and disappointments of life, - they send them at a very early age to some employment, where they will - earn the poor pittance of 1_s._ 6_d._ to 3_s._ a-week. The latter - class, on the contrary, are most anxious to give their children a good - education: they study to obtain it for them by every means in their - power, and they pay for it most cheerfully. The former class again - grasp at every benefit which the charitable institutions of the place - have provided for the poor. When, for example, medical attendance is - given them gratuitously, they not unfrequently despise and refuse it, - unless medicines are given them gratuitously also. Whereas the latter - description of families are not only ready and willing to pay for - medicines when prescribed to them, but they generally manifest much - gratitude, and very often present their medical attendant with a small - fee. - - “Now it is among the former class of families where generally there - appears to me to be a deficiency of wholesome food and of warm - clothing; where contagious, febrile diseases are most commonly found; - and from whence they are most extensively propagated. Fever is no - doubt found among the latter, more frugal, and therefore better - conditioned families, but seldom of that malignant, contagious - character which it invariably assumes among the other class of - families. Here, then, we have on the one hand, filth, destitution, and - disease, associated with good wages; and on the other, cleanliness, - comfort, and comparative good health, in connexion with wages which - are much lower. The difference in the amount of their incomes does not - account for the difference in the amount of comfort which is found - existing among the working classes. The statements just made make - known the fact, that above a certain amount, say 12_s._ or 14_s._ of - weekly income, wages _alone_, without intelligence and good habits, - contributes nothing towards the comfort, health, and independence of - the working population. * * * Were I asked how I would propose to - relieve such a family, I would say, show them how they may live - comfortably within their incomes; let them be taught and trained to - habits of industry, frugality, sobriety, cleanliness, &c., and with - this 12_s._ or 14_s._ they may live in health and happiness as others - in similar circumstances have lived and are now living. The man who - maintains himself and his family in comfort on 12_s._ or 14_s._ of - weekly income, possesses what he well deserves, happiness at home, and - he stands forth in his neighbourhood a noble example of honest - independence. I am persuaded that the filth, fever, and destitution in - many families is occasioned, not by their small incomes, but by a - misapplication or a prodigal waste of a part, in some cases a great - part, of their otherwise sufficient wages. Frequently cases are found - where, with a want of skill and economy, there is combined the - intemperate use of intoxicating liquors, and here the misery may be - said to be complete. - - “Such is the explanation which I have to offer regarding much of the - misery now prevalent, and it is the explanation invariably given by - the economical working classes themselves when questioned on the - subject. Heads of families, having three or four children, whose - incomes average from 14_s._ to 18_s._ per week, have assured me that a - man with a wife and three or four children can live comfortably on - 12_s._ or 14_s._ a-week; and they generally account for the misery and - destitution existing among families by saying, that many who have good - wages reduce themselves to poverty and deprive themselves of - sufficient food and clothing by their mismanagement, want of - frugality, and drinking practices. Cases of waste and dissipation have - been related to me, where the husband having gone to the - tippling-house to enjoy his glass and his friend, the wife, knowing - this, sent for her bottle and her friend, and enjoyed herself at home. - A single visit to one of these spendthrift families, who are in the - receipt of good wages, would convince any one that their persons and - houses might be far more orderly, clean, and comfortable, were they - but half trained to the tastes and habits of household industry, - sobriety, and economy.” - -The more closely the investigation as to the causes of epidemic disease -is carried the more have the grounds been narrowed on which any -presumption can be raised that it is generally occasioned by extreme -indigence, or that it could be made generally to disappear simply by -grants of money. - -In the great mass of cases in every part of the country, in the rural -districts and in the places of commercial pressure, the attacks of -disease are upon those in full employment, the attack of fever precedes -the destitution, not the destitution the disease. There is strong -evidence of the existence of a large class of persons in severe penury -in some places, as in Glasgow, being subject to fever, but the fever -patients did not, as a class, present evidence of being in destitution -in any of the places we examined. _Dr. William Davidson_, the senior -physician of the Glasgow Royal Infirmary, who has written a Treatise on -the Sources and Propagation of Continued Fevers, for which the prize -instituted by Dr. Thackeray, of Chester, was unanimously awarded at the -annual meeting of the Provincial Medical and Surgical Association, -states in that treatise, when speaking of the influence of delicacy of -constitution as a predisposing cause of fever,— - - “We have kept a record of the physical habit of the patients admitted - into the Glasgow Fever Hospital from May 1st to November 1st, 1839, - and the following were the divisions adopted:— - - “1. Moderate, by which is meant a person having an ordinary quantity - of muscle and cellular substance. - - “2. Full or plethoric, having an extra quantity of adipose texture or - of blood. - - “3. Muscular. - - “4. Spare. - - “5. Emaciated or unhealthy in appearance. - - ┌──────────────────────┬────────┬────────┬────────┐ - │ │ Males. │Females.│ Total. │ - ├──────────────────────┼────────┼────────┼────────┤ - │Moderate │ 116│ 93│ 209│ - │Full or Plethoric │ 28│ 73│ 101│ - │Muscular │ 44│ │ 44│ - │Spare │ 24│ 41│ 65│ - │Unhealthy or Emaciated│ 2│ 8│ 10│ - │ │ │ │ ———│ - │ │ │ │ 429│ - └──────────────────────┴────────┴────────┴────────┘ - - “The whole of these 429 cases were characterized by the typhoid - eruption, and will therefore be considered as decided cases of typhus. - It appears from this table that there were only 10 cases in an - emaciated or unhealthy condition; and almost all of them, as far as - could be ascertained, were engaged in their ordinary occupations at - the time of their seizure. The spare and unhealthy, when added - together, only form about 17 per cent. of the whole number.” - -He gives two tables of the proportionate numbers of persons admitted, -during the year 1839, into the Glasgow Fever Hospital, whose persons -were clean or filthy:— - - “These two tables show that, among 611 cases admitted as continued - fever, there were 340 filthy and 271 clean, or about 55 per cent. - filthy; that among 395 cases of eruptive typhus, there were 245 filthy - and 150 clean, or about 62 per cent. filthy; and that among 48 cases - of febricula there were 14 filthy and 34 clean, or about 29 per cent. - filthy.” - -Amongst the fever patients are found a larger proportion of the highly -intemperate than appear to be usually found amongst the labouring -classes. - -_Dr. Davidson_, in remarking on the influence of intemperance on fever, -adduces the following table to show the proportion of temperate and -intemperate individuals who were admitted into the Glasgow Fever -Hospital from November 1st, 1838, to November 1st, 1839, whose habits -could be ascertained with more or less certainty. He states that the -eruptive cases only are included:— - - Temperate. A little Intemperate. Intemperate. - Typhus (MALES) 125 51 73 - Typhus (FEMALES) 76 8 30 - -I have been informed that those were classed as “temperate” who never -indulged in strong liquors to the extent of inebriety; those a “little -intemperate” who now and again, perhaps at long intervals, drank to -intoxication; and those as “intemperate” who were habitually so—who -drank whenever they could get ardent spirits. - -He adds,— - - “In the Glasgow Fever Hospital there occurred 81 deaths from eruptive - typhus in individuals whose habits were ascertained, and 34 of these - were reported as intemperate, 19 a little intemperate, and 28 - temperate. In Dr. Craigie’s table of the deaths in 31 fever cases that - occurred in the Edinburgh Royal Infirmary, there were 15 stated to be - irregular or dissipated; only two regular; the habits of the remainder - are not stated. - - “It is also a singular fact, which has been noticed by several - writers, that fever is more fatal among the higher than among the - lower classes. Dr. Braken states, in reference to the fever which - prevailed at Waterford during the years 1817–18–19, that ‘it would be - difficult to adjust the rates of mortality in the upper classes, but - it seems probable that one-fourth, or perhaps one-third of all those - persons who were attacked with fever fell victims to its power.’ - - “Drs. Barker and Cheyne, in their historical account of the Irish - epidemic, state that, ‘in every part of the country, fever was - reported to have been much more fatal amongst the upper than the lower - classes.’ To what is this difference of mortality, so generally - remarked by experienced hospital physicians, to be attributed, and - which in Ireland seemed to be very remarkable, namely, in the lower - classes about one in twenty-three cases, and in the upper classes one - in three or four generally, but in other places about one in seven? - Can the difference in the mode of living account for this anomaly? as - the first live very much on potatoes, while the others use a larger or - smaller proportion of animal food; and the lower classes almost - everywhere in this country use less animal food and stimulating dishes - than those who are more wealthy and in a higher sphere of society.” - -In remarking on the supposed influence of fear and the depressing -passions in producing fever, _Dr. Davidson_, however, remarks:— - - “The influence of fear and the depressing passions has also been - considered as very powerful in predisposing persons to be affected - with typhus contagion. There can be no doubt that fear has a tendency - to produce a temporary depression of the physical powers; but, as has - been already shown, there is no proof that persons of a naturally - spare or weak habit of body, who are generally very sensitive, are - more liable to fever than those of an ordinary constitution; this - opinion must also be considered hypothetical. Indeed the facts, as far - as our inquiries have enabled us to judge, seem to prove that the - apprehension of fever, more particularly when it is not epidemic, is - very rarely felt until the person is actually seized with the disease; - for some cannot recollect of a single circumstance by which they could - be exposed to contagion; and a considerable number of those who had - undoubtedly been exposed to it were only made aware of the fact when - it had been elicited by cross-examination. We are quite aware that - cases may be brought forward of sensitive individuals who have been - seized with fever soon after visiting a person labouring under the - disease; but as this fact can be opposed with at least an equal number - of persons who were destitute of fear, and yet caught it after an - exposure to contagion, no conclusion whatever can be drawn from them. - It must be observed, however, that though there is no proof that - persons who are naturally weak in body or of a sensitive disposition - are more susceptible of fever than those who are naturally vigorous - and robust, yet that, during famine or commercial distress, poverty, - by depressing the mind and lowering the physical status from - insufficient aliment, does powerfully predispose a community to become - affected with fever. This has been already shown in a former part of - the essay, and has been again alluded to in order that the distinction - might be made between an individual of naturally weak mental and - physical stamina, and one who has been reduced to that state by - deficient nutriment.” - -There appears to be little evidence on one side or the other in support -of this last hypothesis, other than such as that cited from Dr. Davidson -himself; but it is to be observed that the wet or bad seasons, which -suspend agricultural industry and much labour in the towns, is usually -of a character of itself to predispose to disease, if not to produce it; -and that it does propagate it amongst all classes, high and low, in -proportion to their exposure to it. It appears to be highly probable -that the privation attendant on the stoppage of work, by diminishing the -means for the purchase of fuel, of soap, &c., and in various ways by -inducing lax habits of life, may increase the amount of exposure to and -loss from the all-pervading cause. - -The preponderant evidence given on this subject by the great majority of -the medical officers in England who are accustomed to visit the -labouring classes in their own dwellings, is however of the tenor of the -following from the medical officer of the Whitechapel union acting in -Spitalfields parish. - -_Mr. Byles_, the medical officer of the Whitechapel union:— - - “What is the number of cases you have had to visit during the year - 1841 as a medical officer?—I think the number of cases I have had to - visit during each year since the commencement of the Union has been - upwards of 2,000 cases of various disease, of which 1,400 were cases - out of the workhouse. - - “Has the present winter been unhealthy?—I do not think it has; there - has been an increase of fever cases during the last month. The number - of cases is, however, still below the average of 1838. - - “Is there not, however, unusual distress in your district, - comprehending Spitalfields and a portion of Whitechapel?—Yes, there - is: I believe that more than half the looms are out of work. - - “Do you not find that fever attacks in greatest number those who are - out of work?—On the contrary, the greatest number of the cases of - fever we have are those who fall ill during the time they are in - employment. I think they are more attacked when in work, when the - windows are closed, and there is no ventilation. Many of them are - obliged to work with closed windows, to keep out the moist air, and - prevent the dust blowing upon their work. When they are out of work, - they are more out of doors looking after work, more in the open air, - and that very exercise may be the means of keeping them in health. - This observation applies to the weavers. I find that they have - generally less fever when they are out of work. The reverse, I think, - holds as respects out-door labourers, such as those who work at the - docks. When they are out of work, they stand about waiting in the - cold, and when cold, they generally take cheap gin, and no food: they - catch cold, and on going to their close filthy habitations, their cold - is apt to generate fever. - - “There was an unusual amount of fever prevalent in Spitalfields and - Whitechapel, was there not, in the year 1838?—Yes, there was; in the - proportion, perhaps, of more than two to one of the present amount. My - last account for the year ending Lady-day, 1842, was about 250 fever - cases; it has been as high as 800. - - “Did it prevail proportionately amongst the weavers?—Yes, I believe it - did. - - “Was there any marked or unusual distress at that period?—Not that I - remember. - - “Do you find in the course of your experience that the diminution of - food is followed by fever?—Not as a general cause, I should say. If - these two persons, casually exposed to the contagion of fever, the one - in full vigour, and with a full stomach, the other with an empty - stomach, the person with the empty stomach would be the most obnoxious - to its influence. In my experience, however, intemperance is a much - more frequent antecedent to fever than destitution or want of food. - - “Have you ever observed that habits of intemperance are created by - distress of mind?—Such cases may occur, but I have not observed them, - and I think it does not operate as a general cause. - - “What are the chief remedies which your experience in this district - would lead you to recommend for the prevention of fever and contagious - diseases?—The promotion of cleanly habits amongst the poor; the - promotion of sewerage and drainage; having proper supplies of water - laid on in the houses; the removal of privies from improper - situations. I could point out in our neighbourhood many houses, and - some courts, that ought to be pulled down as wholly unfit for human - habitation. - - “What is the personal state of the labouring classes in your - district?—Generally extremely filthy. I have said that I could almost - smell from what street a man came who came to my surgery: I do not - think the poor themselves are conscious of it, but the smell to other - persons must be extremely offensive. I certainly think that the want - of personal cleanliness, and of cleanliness in their rooms, and the - prevalence of fever, stand in the relation of cause and effect. - - “Your colleague has pointed out that the want of proper and convenient - supplies of water is an antecedent to the filth and the fever. Does - your experience enable you to concur with him?—My experience entirely - agrees with his on that point.” - -The late _Dr. Cowan_, of Glasgow, and the great majority of the medical -officers, assign the foremost place to these physical agencies as -antecedents to fever. - -The medical controversy as to the causes of fever; as to whether it is -caused by filth and vitiated atmosphere, or whether the state of the -atmosphere is a predisposing cause to the reception of the fever, or the -means of propagating that disease, which has really some other superior, -independent, or specific cause, does not appear to be one that for -practical purposes need be considered, except that its effect is -prejudicial in diverting attention from the practical means of -prevention. - -_Dr. Bancroft_, one of the controversialists cited by Dr. Davidson, -observes,— - - “That fever often exists in them” (gaols) “cannot be denied; but this - circumstance can afford no evidence of its being generated therein, - any more than the multiplication of vermin in such places could - demonstrate the spontaneous generation of these and other insects by - the nastiness which favours the deposition and hatching of their - eggs.” - -Taking the controversy at this point, and admitting the force of this -statement, the decision upon it will not alter the practical value of -cleanliness, or of its protective effects in prevention, whether it -remove an original or only a predisposing cause. - -Yet it cannot but be regretted that the enlightened force of the -professional opinion should sustain any diminution from an apparent want -of unanimity on so important a question as the necessity of removing -these causes, whether original or predisposing: that, for example, -whilst the fleets were ravaged by fever and disease, men of high -standing should have occupied the attention of the public with -speculations on contagion, and infection from the gaols as the original -cause, and diverted attention from the means of prevention, cleansing -and ventilation, the means by which, as will hereafter be shown, the -pestilence was ultimately banished. The main error of those who have -ascribed fever to destitution, appears to have been in adopting too -hastily as evidence of the fact of destitution, such _primâ facie_ -appearances as are noticed by Dr. Scott Alison, an error which -non-professional experience may correct. In more than one instance -where, in a district in which the demand for labour was still great, and -the wages high, benevolent gentlemen have propounded similar doctrines, -which, being at variance with the known state of the labour-market, I -have requested that the names of these fever cases might be given, that -their antecedent circumstances might be examined, and the accuracy of -the conclusions tested, by officers of experience in such -investigations; but I think it right to state the names or means of -inquiry have never been forthcoming. In general, medical practitioners -and benevolent individuals are extremely liable to deceive themselves -and to deceive others, by what they call the evidence of their own eyes. -The occurrence of severe destitution is denied as a general cause of -fever, not as a consequence. The evidence shows that the best means of -preventing the consequent destitution are those which prevent the -attacks of fever and other epidemics upon all classes of the community. - -By an extract from a report of the late Dr. Currie, of Liverpool, given -in the Appendix, it will be seen that at the time he wrote, 1797, when -only 9500 of the population are reported to have lived in cellars, the -proportion of fever cases was nearly the same as at present, when the -cellar population has risen to 40,000; the disease has been almost as -constant as the surrounding physical circumstances of bad ventilation, -filth, and damp then pointed out as removable, and the disease has -continued in every period of the prosperity of the town in its progress -from a population of 77,000 to 223,000 in 1841. So the late Dr. Ferriar, -of Manchester, when writing between 30 and 40 years ago, of the state of -the population in periods of great prosperity, especially for hand-loom -weaving, described the effect of the bad economy of the habitations much -as they were described in the year 1829 by Dr. Kay, and as they are -described in 1840 by Dr. Baron Howard. _Dr. Ferriar_, when he wrote to -warn the labouring classes as to the choice of their dwellings, stated -that— - - “The custom of inhabiting cellars also tends to promote both the - origin and preservation of febrile infection. But even in them the - action of filth and confined air is always apparent when fevers arise. - I have often observed that the cellar of a fever patient was to be - known by a shattered pane, patched with paper or stuffed with rags, - and by every external sign of complete dirtiness.” - -The false opinions as to destitution being the general cause of fever, -and as to its propagation, have had extensively the disastrous effect of -preventing efforts being made for the removal of the circumstances which -are proved to be followed by a diminution of the pestilence. - -The opinion of the majority of the medical officers of the unions in -England on this topic, acting in districts in every condition, might be -expressed in the terms used by _Dr. Davidson_:— - - “It has already been shown that filth and deficient ventilation tend - much to spread the contagion of typhus, being almost constant - concomitants; and that while it generally affects the whole members, - or the large proportion of a family among the lower orders, it rarely - spreads in this manner among the better classes of society, who attend - more to cleanliness and ventilation. It is quite obvious that an - amelioration of the physical condition of the lower orders, in these - particulars, would, in proportion as this was effected, diminish their - chances of catching the contagion, which would not only operate in - lessening directly its diffusion, but by reducing the number of its - sources, must tend to lessen the actual quantity of this principle - that might be generated in a given time. - - “But can this amelioration be effected to any appreciable extent; or, - if effected, could it be maintained for any length of time? We fear - that little permanent amelioration could be effected without a - legislative enactment; for though our philanthropists are very active - in their charities during the prevalence of an epidemic, it no sooner - subsides than they relapse into a comparative quiescence, and our - working population into their former habits of filth and intemperance. - And the evil will continue to assail us so long as our cities contain - so many narrow and filthy lanes, so long as the houses situated there - are little better than dens or hovels, so long as dunghills and other - nuisances are allowed to accumulate in their vicinity, so long as - these hovels are crowded with inmates, and so long as there is so much - poverty and destitution. Why, then, should we not have a legislative - enactment that would level these hovels to the ground—that would - regulate the width of every street—that would regulate the ventilation - of every dwelling-house—that would prevent the lodging-houses of the - poor from being crowded with human beings, and that would provide for - their destitution? It may be said that this would interfere too much - with the liberty of the subject, and no doubt it would be vehemently - opposed by many interested persons. In place, however, of being an - infringement on the liberty of the subject, it might rather be - designated an attempt to prevent the improper liberties of the - subject; for what right, moral or constitutional, has any man to form - streets, construct houses, and crowd them with human beings, so as to - deteriorate health and shorten life, because he finds it profitable to - do so? As well ought the law to tolerate the sale of unwholesome food - because it might be profitable to the retailer of it.” - -But the professional experience and weight of professional testimony on -this subject is not confined to this country. In a report prepared under -the superintendence of a commission of the Royal Academy of Medicine at -Paris,[16] appointed to investigate the epidemics prevalent in France, -similar general conclusions are announced upon similar evidence adduced, -of which we select the following instance:— - - “If an example,” says the report, “be necessary to justify this - placing of circumstances as cause and effect, we shall find one in the - terrible epidemic which desolated the commune of Prades, in the - department of Ariège, at the end of the year 1838. Out of 750 healthy - and vigorous inhabitants of this commune 310 were attacked with the - disease, and 95 died, thus the deaths were 1 in every 3¼ cases. The - cause of this epidemic, violent and sudden in its nature, and which - broke out in all points at once, is not less evident. It proceeded - from a sewer, the receptacle of all the water from the neighbourhood, - and of the filth which the water brought with it, and of the dead - animals of the district. The hot, damp weather which preceded it no - doubt augmented the activity of this focus of infection. The first - persons attacked were the women employed in washing linen in this - pestiferous pool, and the labourers working in the neighbourhood of - it. This terrible epidemic recurred three times, which the invalids in - their simplicity attributed to the influence of the moon, but which - mainly depended upon the wind at certain periods passing over the - infected pool, and bringing the miasma in the direction of their - dwellings. If for want of sufficient description it is not possible to - prove completely the similarity of the epidemic at Prades with the - typhus fever, yet it may be inferred from the symptoms, viz. that when - the skin was broken deep sores were formed, and that serous abscesses - showed themselves in the lymphatic ganglions, that this disease was - very similar to the ancient putrid and malignant fevers formerly - described by authors, and which are entirely replaced in our - _nosology_ by the typhoid affection. The physicians of Ariège, in - order to prove that the disease was not _contagious_, and to re-assure - the inhabitants, lay in the beds from which the invalids had been - removed.” - -Adverting to the local reports they have received, the Commissioners -state—“These reports have awakened in us the sad conviction that many -localities are quite devoid of even the most simple ideas on public -health; the inhabitants live surrounded by marshes, drains, stagnant -pools, manure heaps, without having the slightest idea of the dangers -they are incurring. Indeed, many of them blindly speculate in these -heaps of infection, increasing the manure which is to enrich their -fields at the expense of their health, and often of their lives.” - -The Commissioners observe,—“Most of the improvements in public health -have been brought about through the experience and science united in our -large cities; so much so that now epidemics often come to us from the -rural districts. These epidemics are generally much less fatal than -formerly, but are still very prevalent even in the wealthiest and the -most civilized departments. It would be an important problem to solve, -what are the causes which produce these epidemics in the agricultural as -well as in the manufacturing counties, as in ancient Normandy and -Picardy. One cause is certainly the unhealthiness of the houses. The -inhabitants of these districts are, in general, well fed, well clothed, -but ill lodged. We are surprised to find in the midst of a fertile plain -wide districts covered with luxuriant vegetation, villages buried in the -ground, _smothered_ with large trees, and cottages constructed without -any art or plan, and almost entirely without windows.” The Commissioners -state, further,—“If you wish to have a robust and healthy people, you -must have a care for their physical education, their houses, and their -modes of living. Do not allow generation after generation to be -depressed under the evil effects of recurring epidemics, which must -eventually ruin the strongest constitutions, as is seen to be the case -in marshy and ill-drained districts, where fevers, _goitres_, and -scrofulas constantly prevail.” - -In another report made on the proceedings of the Conseil de Salubrité, -the diseases prevalent amongst the population in the towns is adverted -to:—“We must be like the men so well painted by the Psalmist, to reject -such evidence—_eyes have they, and see not_. How shall we explain, or -rather to what shall we attribute the difference that is remarked -between the mortality of one quarter and that of another quarter of the -same town; of one street and that of another street of the same quarter -or of the same village; or, lastly, the difference that is observed in -this respect between the houses of the same street and those houses -which are completely isolated? Misery, it is replied to us, is the -cause. Yes, without doubt, misery is a powerful cause; but it is so -especially when it is driven back into the most insalubrious quarters, -streets, and houses; when it lives habitually in the midst of filth and -dirt, that is to say, in the midst of an infected atmosphere; and when -there is no misery, or when it exists in the same degree in the -quarters, in the villages, in the streets, and in the houses with which -the comparison is made; and, stronger still, when poverty is met with -precisely there where there is the least mortality; in what is to be -found the cause of this difference, if it is not in the insalubrity of -the dwelling-places?” - -The report on the local epidemics concludes by earnestly recommending to -the government—“That sanitary measures be adopted by means of which the -constitution of the people may be renewed, and their longevity -increased. If this recommendation be fulfilled, we may then hope to see -the condition of some of the departments ameliorated, in which now the -population is so degenerated that the men seem to diminish in size each -time they are measured for the conscriptions.” - -Evidence on the mismanagement of expenditure in respect to supplies of -food, on mismanagement also in respect to clothing and fuel by the -labouring classes, might be added to complete the view of the principal -causes of disease prevalent amongst them, but these do not come within -the immediate scope of the present inquiry, which has been directed -chiefly to the investigation of the evils affecting their sanitary -condition, that come within the recognized provinces of legislation or -local administration. - -The information on the means for the prevention of epidemic disease -arising in the common lodging-houses maintained for the accommodation of -trampers and vagrants, might also have been considered in connexion with -the subject of the effects of overcrowding and filth which they strongly -exemplify; but it appeared most convenient to consider them apart, from -the exposition of what may be termed the indigenous evils that afflict -the settled inhabitants of the labouring class. - -I would now submit for consideration, 1st, the total expense of the -present state of things, so far as a proximate view of it can be -obtained, on the health, strength, and life of the lower classes of the -population. 2d, a proximate view of the pecuniary expense of such -partial remedies as are at present applied or applicable to alleviate -the consequences of these preventable diseases. - - - - - IV.—COMPARATIVE CHANCES OF LIFE IN DIFFERENT CLASSES OF THE COMMUNITY. - - -Very dangerous errors arise from statistical returns and insurance -tables of the mean chances of life made up from gross returns of the -mortality prevalent amongst large classes, who differ widely in their -circumstances. Thus we find, on inquiry into the sanitary condition of -the population of different districts, that the average chances of life -of the people of one class in one street will be 15 years, and of -another class in a street immediately adjacent, 60 years. In one -district of the same town I find, on the examination of the registries, -the mortality only 1 out of every 57 of the population; and in another -district 1 out of every 28 dies annually. A return of the average or the -mean of the chances of life, or the proportions of death in either -instance, would and does lead to very dangerous errors, and amongst -others to serious misapprehensions as to the condition of the inferior -districts, and to false inferences as to the proper rates of insurance. -With the view of arriving at some estimate of the comparative extent of -the operation of the chief causes of sickness and mortality proved to be -prevalent, amidst the different classes of society, in the towns where -the sanitary inquiries have been made; I have obtained the following -returns from the clerks of the several unions acting as superintendent -registrars. These returns have, as far as practicable, been corrected by -particular local inquiry, and are submitted as the best approximations -that can readily be obtained. In all districts, and especially in the -manufacturing districts, there is some migration of labourers which -would, for the obtainment of perfect accuracy as to the chances of life -in particular localities, have rendered necessary an examination of -every individual case enumerated. This extent of labour has been -considered unnecessary. In the returns from single towns, the numbers of -deaths of persons of the first class are too small not to be affected by -accidental disturbances, but when large numbers of the like class are -taken, the uniform operation of the like circumstances are shown in the -like results. It is at present a general defect of the important head of -information, “the occupation of the deceased,” that the deaths of -masters are not carefully distinguished from the deaths of journeymen. -So far as this error prevails, it will tend to raise the apparent -chances of life amongst the labouring classes. In some instances the -occupations of the deceased, or of the parents of the deceased, in the -case of children, are not described in the registries. With these and -possibly with other defects that may have escaped notice, these returns -will be received as corroborative of the reports of the medical officers -and physicians who have attended and observed many of the individual -cases themselves, though not enumerated by them. Had the mortality -prevalent amongst workpeople of particular trades and their families -been taken, instead of the mean chances of persons of all occupations -deriving subsistence from weekly wages, the case of classes with still -lower chances would have been presented; but these would have appeared -to suggest particular remedies. Such returns of the effects of common -evils were therefore taken as appeared applicable to the consideration -of common or general means of prevention. - - -One of the first returns obtained is from _Dr. Barham_, as to the -different rates of mortality in Truro:— - - “The information derived from the registers of deaths and sickness has - been arranged in a series of tables.[17] The first gives a return of - the condition in life, average ages, and the causes of death, with - respect to all who died in Truro from July 1st, 1837, to December - 31st, 1840. The occupation of the deceased not being stated in the - register, except in the case of adult males, the condition of others - has been inferred in the majority of cases from that of the parent or - husband, in many from my own knowledge of the parties, and in others - from the place of abode or other collateral evidence. Altogether I am - confident that the statement is not materially erroneous.” - -The sum of these several returns was as follows:— - - No. of TRURO. Average - Deaths. Age of - Deceased. - - 33 Professional persons or gentry, and their families 40 years. - - 138 Persons engaged in trade, or similarly circumstanced, - and their families 33 - - 447 Labourers, artisans, and others similarly - circumstanced, and their families 28 - -In Derby the proportions appear to be as exhibited in the following -table:— - - No. of DERBY. Average - Deaths. Age of - Deceased. - - 10 Professional persons or gentry 49 years. - - 125 Tradesmen 38 - - 752 Labourers and artisans 21 - -To compare the chances of life between a crowded manufacturing -population and a less crowded rural population, I selected the county of -Rutland, because it had been selected as an average agricultural -district for a comparison as to its general condition by the members of -the Statistical Society of Manchester, and they deputed their agent, -_Mr. J. R. Wood_, to make inquiries on an examination from house to -house. The following are portions of his examination:— - - “Amidst what population have you inquired from house to house?—Amidst - a portion of the population of Manchester, viz. Pendleton, having a - population of about 10,000; I visited every house. In like manner I - went through Branstoun, Engleton, and Hambleton, in Rutlandshire, - being a rural population of upwards of 1,000, and Hull, having a - population of nearly 40,000, exclusive of Sculcoates, Ashton, and - Dukinfield. I also went over for the purpose of checking an inquiry - into the state of the population of those towns, which had been - previously made by another party. In Liverpool I did not go from house - to house; I went into a considerable number of the houses amidst the - poorer districts. In certain districts of Manchester, though not for - the Statistical Society, I did the same. In Birmingham I made many - memoranda, and, as far as my limited time would permit, I visited a - portion of the population. In York, containing a population of 26,000, - I went into every street and court, visiting occasionally, to obtain a - general idea of the condition of the inhabitants. York included 23 - parishes of small extent, all which I visited. - - “What did you find to be the condition of the tenements in the rural - districts as compared with the towns you examined?—In Branstoun, - Egleton, and Hambleton, being in a rural district, the houses are low, - never exceeding two stories; many of them are thatched, and nearly all - are built of stone. To each a garden is attached, which is generally - of sufficient dimensions to supply the family with vegetables. As - there are no cellars, most of the houses have a small dairy or - store-room attached, which, however, has not been counted in reckoning - the number of rooms in each house. Forty-one per cent. of the - dwellings in Branstoun, and 51 per cent. in Egleton and Hambleton I - found to be “_well furnished_.” In Manchester and Salford 52 per - cent., and in the Dukinfield district 61 per cent., had that - character. The proportion reported to be _comfortable_ in each - district were:— - - “In Branstoun 50 per cent. - Egleton and Hambleton 65 per cent. - Manchester, &c. 72 per cent. - Dukinfield 95 per cent. - - “The word ‘_comfortable_’ must always be a vague and varying epithet, - nor is it possible to attach any precise definition to it. In filling - up this column I was guided by observing the condition of the - dwelling, apart from any consideration of order, cleanliness, and - furniture. If I considered it capable of being made comfortable for - the tenant, I set it down accordingly; if it were damp, the flooring - bad, and the walls ill-conditioned, I reported it uncomfortable. The - general appearance of the interior of the houses (in Rutlandshire) - indicated thrifty poverty, and instances of the squalid misery so - frequent in large towns were here extremely rare. In comparing the - physical condition of the people in the three parishes, Egleton and - Hambleton appeared to have some slight advantage over Branstoun, while - 31 per cent. of the houses in the former parishes contained four rooms - only; 17 per cent. in the latter had this advantage. In its amount of - sleeping accommodation, also Branstoun is inferior to the neighbouring - parishes. - - “From a comparison of the tables with those in a former Report, it - appeared that in Egleton, &c., 14 per cent. of the families have more - than three persons to a bed; Branstoun, 19 ditto; Dukinfield, 33 - ditto; and Bury, 35 ditto. - - “The rents of the houses in Rutlandshire would appear to be very low - compared with those in large manufacturing towns. Not only is the - average cost of the former less than half of the latter, but for that - diminished cost the dimensions of the houses are double those in large - towns, with comforts and conveniences which the latter never can - possess. - - £. _s._ _d._ - “Egleton, &c., average yearly rent 2 17 3 - Branstoun 3 0 0 - Dukinfield, &c. 6 14 0 - Manchester, &c. 7 11 8” - -But moral causes, inducing habits of sobriety, appear from the report of -the Manchester Society to contribute to the general result of the -superior condition of the Rutland population, in which the duration of -life amongst the lowest classes appears to be nearly as high as amongst -the highest classes in Manchester. Wages in Lancashire, it must be -premised, were then (in 1837), and, as I am well informed from the -payers of several thousand labourers, are now at least double what they -are in Rutlandshire. The Society state in their report that it appears— - - “That the people do nearly as much for themselves in Rutlandshire as - they do in Manchester, notwithstanding the more extensive endowment of - their schools. - - “In a separate examination of three parishes in Rutlandshire, carried - on from house to house, the larger attendance of children at school in - that county was confirmed, and it also appeared that the average time - of their remaining at day schools was greater than in Lancashire. In - Pendleton, near Manchester, one third only of the children appeared to - remain at school above five years, and one third remained less than - three years; while, in the three parishes of Rutlandshire which were - visited, it was found that, of the children who had left school, one - half had remained there above five years. - - “The teachers generally bear irreproachable characters, which has - doubtless much influence on the character and deportment of the - population, whose manners appeared exceedingly orderly and respectful. - - “In the dame schools it was very gratifying to observe the marked - difference in general appearance and order, as compared with schools - of a similar class in large towns. The mistresses are almost - invariably persons of good moral character, of quiet orderly habits, - cleanly in their habitations, decent in their personal appearance, and - of respectful deportment. The scholars, too, except in one or two - instances, were found clean and tidy, however mean their attire, and - generally remained orderly and quiet during the visit. The rod or cane - is much less in use than in the towns formerly examined, though it - usually forms part of the furniture of the school. The girls were - generally found sewing or knitting, and in many schools the boys learn - to knit. - - “A society for the promotion of industry, supported by subscriptions, - exist in the county; and prizes are given to those children, who, - according to their age, have performed the most work during the year. - This excites a great competition as to which village shall produce the - queen of the knitters, or the queen of the sewers, and many ladies in - the county consider the Society to have great influence in inducing - habits of diligence and order. The moral effect is no doubt good, and - a greater interest in the lower class of schools is also thereby - created amongst the gentry. - - “In conclusion, we may observe that the visitation of the houses of - the labouring poor in Rutlandshire, and the observation of their - language, manners, and habits, leave a favourable impression with - regard to their moral condition. Swearing and drunkenness are far from - common, and the general conduct of the people is marked by sobriety, - frugality, and industry.” - -Mr. Wood was asked— - - “You have seen the following returns of the average ages of death - amongst the different classes of people in Manchester and - Rutlandshire:— - - Average Age of Death. - - In Manchester. In Rutlandshire. - Years. Years. - - “Professional persons and gentry, and - their families 38 52 - - Tradesmen and their families, (in - Rutlandshire, farmers and graziers - are included with shopkeepers) 20 41 - - Mechanics, labourers, and their - families 17 38 - - Bearing in mind the fact that wages are nearly double in Manchester to - the average of wages in Rutlandshire, though rents are higher in - Manchester: are the different chances of life amongst each class of - the population to the extent they are indicated by the returns, - conformable to what you would have anticipated from your personal - examinations of the houses and observation of the condition of the - inhabitants?—They are decidedly conformable to my anticipation in the - general results. I apprehend, however, that some allowance must - perhaps be made for the very high average age in Rutlandshire, from - the circumstance that many of the children or young people migrate - from thence to manufacturing neighbourhoods for employment. These - would certainly have passed the age at which the greatest mortality - takes place amongst children; but we may expect that their migration, - as it is a constant migration, might to some extent increase the - average age of death or apparent duration of life in Rutlandshire, - though not very materially. On the other hand, there is, perhaps, a - larger proportion of children in Manchester. The results certainly - correspond with my own impressions as to the relative condition of the - different classes in the different neighbourhoods.” - -In the union comprehending the adjacent manufacturing district of -Bolton, the proportions of deaths in the several classes as returned by -the superintendent-registrar were as follows in the year 1839:— - - No. of BOLTON UNION. Average - Deaths. Age of - Deceased. - - 103 Gentlemen and persons engaged in professions, and - their families 34 years. - - 381 Tradesmen and their families 23 - - 2,232 Mechanics, servants, labourers, and their families 18 - -It is proper to observe, that so far as I was informed upon the evidence -received in the Factory Inquiry, and more recently on the cases of -children of migrant families, that opinion is erroneous which ascribes -greater sickness and mortality to the children employed in factories -than amongst the children who remain in such homes as these towns afford -to the labouring classes. However defective the ventilation of many of -the factories may yet be, they are all of them drier and more equably -warm than the residence of the parent; and we had proof that weakly -children have been put into the better-managed factories as healthier -places for them than their own homes. It is an appalling fact that, of -all who are born of the labouring classes in Manchester, more than 57 -per cent. die before they attain five years of age; that is, before they -can be engaged in factory labour, or in any other labour whatsoever. - -Of 4,629 deaths of persons of the labouring classes who died in the year -1840 in Manchester, the numbers who died were at the several periods as -follows:— - - Under 5 years of age 2,649 or 1 in 1‑7/10 - Above 5 and under 10 215 or 1 in 22 - Above 10 and under 15 107 or 1 in 43 - Above 15 and under 20 135 or 1 in 34 - -At seven, eight, or nine years of age the children of the working -classes begin to enter into employment in the cotton and other -factories. It appears that, at the period between 5 and 10 years of age -the proportions of deaths which occur amongst the labouring classes, as -indicated by these returns, are not so great as the proportions of -deaths which occur amongst the children of the middle classes who are -not so engaged. Allowing for the circumstance that some of the weakest -of the labourers’ children will have been swept away in the first stage, -the effect of employment is not shown to be injurious in any increase of -the proportion who die in the second stage. - -In a return obtained from a district differently situated (Bethnal -Green, where the manufactory is chiefly domestic) it appears that of -1,268 deaths amongst the labouring classes in the year 1839, no less -than 782, or 1 in 1‑4/7, died at their own residences under 5 years of -age. One in 15 of the deaths occurred between 5 and 10, the age when -employment commences. The proportion of deaths which occurred between 10 -and 15, the period at which full employment usually takes place, is 1 in -60 only. - -In that district the average age of deaths in the year 1839 was as -follows, in the several classes, from a population of 62,018:— - - No. of BETHNAL GREEN. Average - Deaths. Age of - Deceased. - - 101 Gentlemen and persons engaged in professions, and - their families 45 years. - - 273 Tradesmen and their families 26 - - 1,258 Mechanics, servants, and labourers, and their - families 16 - -The mean chances of life amongst the several classes in Leeds appear -from the returns to the Registrar-general generally to correspond with -the anticipations raised by the descriptions given of the condition of -the labouring population. - - No. of LEEDS BOROUGH. Average - Deaths. Age of - Deceased. - - 79 Gentlemen and persons engaged in professions, and - their families 44 years. - - 824 Tradesmen, farmers, and their families 27 - - 3,395 Operatives, labourers, and their families 19 - -But in Liverpool (which is a commercial and not a manufacturing town) -where, however, the condition of the dwellings are reported to be the -worst, where, according to the report of Dr. Duncan, 40,000 of the -population live in cellars, where 1 in 25 of the population are annually -attacked with fever,—there the mean chances of life appear from the -returns to the Registrar-general to be still lower than in Manchester, -Leeds, or amongst the silk weavers in Bethnal Green. During the year -1840, the deaths, distinguishable in classes, were as follows:— - - No. of LIVERPOOL, 1840. Average - Deaths. Age of - Deceased. - - 137 Gentry and professional persons, &c. 35 years. - - 1,738 Tradesmen and their families 22 - - 5,597 Labourers, mechanics, and servants, &c. 15 - -Of the deaths which occurred amongst the labouring classes, it appears -that no less than 62 per cent. of the total number were deaths under -five years of age. Even amongst those entered as shopkeepers and -tradesmen, no less than 50 per cent. died before they attained that -period. The proportion of mortality for Birmingham, where there are many -insalubrious manufactories, but where the drainage of the town and the -general condition of the inhabitants is comparatively good, was, in -1838, 1 in 40; whilst in Liverpool it was 1 in 31. - -I have appended the copy of a map of Bethnal Green, made with the view -of showing the proportions in which the mortality from epidemic diseases -and diseases affected by localities, fell on different classes of -tenements during the same year. The localities in which the marks of -death (×) are most crowded are the poorest and the worst of the -district; where the marks are few and widely spread, the houses and -streets, and the whole condition of the population, is better. By the -inspection of a map of Leeds, which Mr. Baker has prepared at my -request, to show the localities of epidemic diseases, it will be -perceived that they similarly fall on the uncleansed and close streets -and wards occupied by the labouring classes; and that the track of the -cholera is nearly identical with the tract of fever. It will also be -observed that in the badly cleansed and badly drained wards to the right -of the map, the proportional mortality is nearly double that which -prevails in the better conditioned districts to the left. - -To obtain the means of judging of the references to the localities in -the sanitary returns from Aberdeen, the reporters were requested to mark -on a map the places where the disease fell, and to distinguish with a -deeper tint those places on which it fell with the greatest intensity. -They were also requested to distinguish by different colours the streets -inhabited by the higher, middle, and lower classes of society. They -returned a map so marked as to disease, but stated that it had been -thought unnecessary to distinguish the streets inhabited by the -different orders of society, as that was done with sufficient accuracy -by the different tints representing the degrees of intensity of the -prevalence of fever. - -In the Whitechapel union, in which the special investigation which led -to the inquiry into the sanitary condition of the metropolis was first -directed, the numbers were as follows in the year 1838:— - - No. of WHITECHAPEL UNION. Average - Deaths. Age of - Deceased. - - 37 Gentlemen and persons engaged in professions, and - their families 45 years. - - 387 Tradesmen and their families 27 - - 1,762 Mechanics, servants, and labourers, and their - families 22 - -To judge of the comparative mortality amongst the average of a town -population, I obtained the following returns; the one from the clerk of -the Strand union, the other from the clerk of the Kensington union:— - - No. of STRAND UNION. Average - Deaths. Age of - Deceased. - - 86 Gentry and persons engaged in professions and their - families 43 years. - - 221 Tradesmen and their families 33 - - 674 Mechanics, labourers, servants, and their families 24 - -[Illustration: SANITARY MAP of the Town OF LEEDS.] - -[Illustration: _Sanitary Report P.L.C._ Map of BETHNAL GREEN PARISH, -_Shewing the Mortality from four classes of Disease in certain -localities during the year, ended 31st. Dec’r., 1838, distinguishing the -Houses occupied by Weavers & Labourers & Tradesmen_.] - - No. of KENSINGTON UNION. Average - Deaths. Age of - Deceased. - - 331 Gentlemen and persons engaged in professions, and - families 44 years. - - 348 Tradesmen and their families 29 - - 1,258 Labourers, artisans, and others similarly - circumstanced, and their families 26 - -The remarkable result obtained from the examination of the mortuary -registries of the county of Rutland induced me to have them examined for -different periods. They have accordingly been examined for three -complete years, 1838, 1839, and 1840, and it is found that the same -general law of mortality obtains with little variation for each period. - -As the climate or soil of that county might possess some peculiarities, -I caused an examination to be made of the average periods of death -amongst the agricultural population of all the unions in the county of -Wilts during 1840. In this examination the registries of deaths in the -towns were excluded, and only those of persons included who were -described as agricultural labourers, or as farmers and graziers, or as -gentry and professional persons resident in the rural districts. The -results of this examination are as follow:— - - No. of UNIONS IN THE COUNTY OF WILTS. Average - Deaths. Age of - Deceased. - - 119 Gentlemen and persons engaged in professions, and - their families 50 years. - - 218 Farmers and their families 48 - - 2,061 Agricultural labourers and their families 33 - -The following table exhibits the mortality prevalent amongst the -different classes, partly mining and manufacturing, and partly -agricultural, returned by the clerk of the Kendal union:— - - No. of KENDAL UNION. Average - Deaths. Age of - Deceased. - - 52 Gentlemen and persons engaged in professions, and - their families 45 years. - - 138 Tradesmen and their families 39 - - 413 Operatives, labourers, servants, and their families 34 - -The following tables exhibit the results of such returns of mortality as -have been made for quinquennial and decennial periods, from an -examination of upwards of 25,000 cases for this inquiry. They show in -the mean ratios for large numbers of the like class the steady influence -of the different circumstances under which each class is placed. The -labouring classes, it is generally known, become old the soonest, and -the effects of the unfavourable influences in the adolescent and adult -stages is shown in the smaller proportions who attain extreme old age, -and also in the periods of the deaths of heads of families of this -class, by which widowhood is produced. These last will be shown in -subsequent tables. - - _Tabular Views of the Ages at which Deaths have occurred in Different - Classes of Society._[18] - - ┌───────────────────────────┬──────┬───────────────────────┬──────────┐ - │ CLASSES. │Total │ │ │ - │ │No. of│ │ │ - │ │Deaths│ │Proportion│ - │ │under │ │of Deaths │ - │ │ 20 │ Proportion of Deaths │ under 20 │ - │ │Years │ which occurred at the │ Years to │ - │ │ of │under-mentioned periods│ Total │ - │ │ Age. │ of Age. │ Deaths. │ - ├───────────────────────────┼──────┼───────┬───────┬───────┼──────────┤ - │ │ │Between│Between│Between│ │ - │ │ │ 0–5 │ 5–10 │ 10–20 │ │ - ├───────────────────────────┼──────┼───────┼───────┼───────┼──────────┤ - │ _Gentry and Professional │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ Persons, Children of._ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │Manchester │ 21│1 in 3│1 in 24│1 in 54│ 1 in 3 │ - │Leeds │ 20│1 in 5│1 in 26│1 in 40│ 1 in 4 │ - │Liverpool │ 61│1 in 3│1 in 11│1 in 23│ 1 in 2½ │ - │Bath │ 32│1 in 11│1 in 12│1 in 31│ 1 in 4½ │ - │Bethnal Green │ 33│1 in 5│1 in 20│1 in 13│ 1 in 3 │ - │Strand Union │ 21│1 in 6│1 in 29│1 in 29│ 1 in 4 │ - │Kendal Union │ 15│1 in 7│1 in 26│1 in 9│ 1 in 3 │ - │County of Wilts (Unions of)│ 25│1 in 9│1 in 40│1 in 13│ 1 in 5 │ - │County of Rutland (Unions │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ of) │ 4│1 in 4│ │ │ 1 in 7 │ - ├───────────────────────────┼──────┼───────┼───────┼───────┼──────────┤ - │ Total │ 232│1 in 5│1 in 19│1 in 19│ 1 in 3½ │ - ├───────────────────────────┼──────┼───────┼───────┼───────┼──────────┤ - │ _Farmers, Tradesmen, and │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ Persons similarly │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ circumstanced, Children │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ of._ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │Manchester │ 444│1 in 2│1 in 18│1 in 27│ 1 in 2 │ - │Leeds │ 425│1 in 2│1 in 18│1 in 18│ 1 in 2 │ - │Liverpool │ 1,033│1 in 2│1 in 19│1 in 33│ 1 in 1¾ │ - │Bath │ 78│1 in 4│1 in 24│1 in 30│ 1 in 3 │ - │Bethnal Green │ 142│1 in 2│1 in 20│1 in 28│ 1 in 2 │ - │Strand Union │ 99│1 in 3│1 in 20│1 in 25│ 1 in 2 │ - │Kendal Union │ 47│1 in 4│1 in 35│1 in 14│ 1 in 3 │ - │County of Wilts (Unions of)│ 54│1 in 7│1 in 27│1 in 15│ 1 in 4 │ - │County of Rutland (Unions │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ of) │ 174│1 in 3│1 in 30│1 in 17│ 1 in 3 │ - ├───────────────────────────┼──────┼───────┼───────┼───────┼──────────┤ - │ Total │ 2,496│1 in 2¼│1 in 20│1 in 23│ 1 in 2 │ - ├───────────────────────────┼──────┼───────┼───────┼───────┼──────────┤ - │ _Agricultural and other │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ Labourers, Artisans, and │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ Servants, Children of._ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │Manchester │ 3,106│1 in 2 │1 in 22│1 in 19│ 1 in 1½ │ - │Leeds │ 2,245│1 in 2 │1 in 14│1 in 14│ 1 in 1½ │ - │Liverpool │ 4,004│1 in 1½│1 in 15│1 in 33│ 1 in 1¼ │ - │Bath │ 508│1 in 2 │1 in 19│1 in 18│ 1 in 1¾ │ - │Bethnal Green │ 908│1 in 2 │1 in 15│1 in 30│ 1 in 1½ │ - │Strand Union │ 367│1 in 2 │1 in 14│1 in 23│ 1 in 2 │ - │Kendal Union │ 186│1 in 3 │1 in 19│1 in 11│ 1 in 2 │ - │County of Wilts (Unions of)│ 954│1 in 3 │1 in 21│1 in 14│ 1 in 2 │ - │County of Rutland (Unions │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ of) │ 293│1 in 3 │1 in 18│1 in 18│ 1 in 2¼ │ - ├───────────────────────────┼──────┼───────┼───────┼───────┼──────────┤ - │ Total │12,571│1 in 2 │1 in 17│1 in 20│ 1 in 1½ │ - └───────────────────────────┴──────┴───────┴───────┴───────┴──────────┘ - - ┌──────────────┬────────┬──────────────────────────────────┬──────────┐ - │ CLASSES. │ │ │Proportion│ - │ │ Total │ │of Deaths │ - │ │ No. of │ │ from 20 │ - │ │ Deaths │ │ Years to │ - │ │between │ Proportion of Deaths which │ 60 to │ - │ │ 20 and │ occurred at the under-mentioned │ Total │ - │ │ 60. │ periods of Age. │ Deaths. │ - ├──────────────┼────────┼───────┬───────┬────────┬─────────┼──────────┤ - │ │ │Between│Between│Between │ Between │ │ - │ │ │ 20–30 │ 30–40 │ 40–50 │ 50–60 │ │ - ├──────────────┼────────┼───────┼───────┼────────┼─────────┼──────────┤ - │ _Gentry and │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ Professional │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ Persons and │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ their │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ Families._ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │Manchester │ 13│1 in 18│1 in 14│1 in 18 │ 1 in 18 │ 1 in 4 │ - │Leeds │ 28│1 in 11│1 in 10│1 in 16 │ 1 in 10 │ 1 in 3 │ - │Liverpool │ 34│1 in 46│1 in 15│1 in 23 │ 1 in 9 │ 1 in 4 │ - │Bath │ 29│1 in 29│1 in 24│1 in 24 │ 1 in 12 │ 1 in 5 │ - │Bethnal Green │ 21│1 in 25│1 in 17│1 in 25 │ 1 in 14 │ 1 in 5 │ - │Strand Union │ 37│1 in 9│1 in 9│1 in 10 │ 1 in 11 │ 1 in 2¼ │ - │Kendal Union │ 18│1 in 13│1 in 13│1 in 7 │ 1 in 17 │ 1 in 3 │ - │County of │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ Wilts │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ (Unions of) │ 32│1 in 15│1 in 15│1 in 17 │ 1 in 13 │ 1 in 4 │ - │County of │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ Rutland │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ (Unions of) │ 7│1 in 14│1 in 14│1 in 14 │ 1 in 28 │ 1 in 4 │ - ├──────────────┼────────┼───────┼───────┼────────┼─────────┼──────────┤ - │ Total │ 219│1 in 17│1 in 14│1 in 16 │ 1 in 12 │ 1 in 4 │ - ├──────────────┼────────┼───────┼───────┼────────┼─────────┼──────────┤ - │ _Tradesmen, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │Farmers, &c._ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │Manchester │ 220│1 in 14│1 in 11│1 in 13 │ 1 in 18 │ 1 in 3¼ │ - │Leeds │ 238│1 in 12│1 in 14│1 in 14 │ 1 in 19 │ 1 in 3½ │ - │Liverpool │ 481│1 in 22│1 in 13│1 in 14 │ 1 in 13 │ 1 in 3½ │ - │Bath │ 109│1 in 11│1 in 7│1 in 9 │ 1 in 9 │ 1 in 2¼ │ - │Bethnal Green │ 92│1 in 15│1 in 11│1 in 12 │ 1 in 11 │ 1 in 3 │ - │Strand Union │ 71│1 in 16│1 in 22│1 in 10 │ 1 in 9 │ 1 in 3 │ - │Kendal Union │ 43│1 in 8│1 in 14│1 in 17 │ 1 in 17 │ 1 in 3 │ - │County of │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ Wilts │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ (Unions of) │ 65│1 in 22│1 in 14│1 in 10 │ 1 in 12 │ 1 in 3½ │ - │County of │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ Rutland │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ (Unions of) │ 108│1 in 15│1 in 16│1 in 19 │ 1 in 19 │ 1 in 4 │ - ├──────────────┼────────┼───────┼───────┼────────┼─────────┼──────────┤ - │ Total │ 1,427│1 in 15│1 in 12│1 in 13 │ 1 in 14 │ 1 in 3½ │ - ├──────────────┼────────┼───────┼───────┼────────┼─────────┼──────────┤ - │_Agricultural │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ Labourers, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ Operatives, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │Servants, &c._│ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │Manchester │ 1,149│1 in 16│1 in 14│1 in 18 │ 1 in 17 │ 1 in 4 │ - │Leeds │ 773│1 in 14│1 in 16│1 in 20 │ 1 in 22 │ 1 in 4½ │ - │Liverpool │ 1,205│1 in 17│1 in 18│1 in 17 │ 1 in 24 │ 1 in 4¼ │ - │Bath │ 258│1 in 12│1 in 14│1 in 13 │ 1 in 17 │ 1 in 3 │ - │Bethnal Green │ 228│1 in 18│1 in 23│1 in 21 │ 1 in 31 │ 1 in 5½ │ - │Strand Union │ 212│1 in 13│1 in 12│1 in 13 │ 1 in 13 │ 1 in 3 │ - │Kendal Union │ 113│1 in 13│1 in 14│1 in 18 │ 1 in 14 │ 1 in 3¾ │ - │County of │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ Wilts │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ (Unions of) │ 492│1 in 13│1 in 18│1 in 18 │ 1 in 19 │ 1 in 4 │ - │County of │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ Rutland │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ (Unions of) │ 157│1 in 12│1 in 18│1 in 18 │ 1 in 27 │ 1 in 4 │ - ├──────────────┼────────┼───────┼───────┼────────┼─────────┼──────────┤ - │ Total │ 4,587│1 in 15│1 in 17│1 in 18 │ 1 in 20 │ 1 in 4 │ - └──────────────┴────────┴───────┴───────┴────────┴─────────┴──────────┘ - - ┌──────────────┬────────┬──────────────────────────────────┬──────────┐ - │ CLASSES. │ Total │ │ │ - │ │ No. of │ │ │ - │ │ Deaths │ │Proportion│ - │ │ which │ │of Deaths │ - │ │occurred│ Proportion of Deaths which │ above 60 │ - │ │ above │ occurred at the under-mentioned │ to Total │ - │ │ 60. │ periods of Age. │ Deaths. │ - ├──────────────┼────────┼───────┬───────┬────────┬─────────┼──────────┤ - │ │ │Between│Between│Between │ 90 and │ │ - │ │ │ 60–70 │ 70–80 │ 80–90 │ upwards │ │ - ├──────────────┼────────┼───────┼───────┼────────┼─────────┼──────────┤ - │ _Gentry and │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ Professional │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ Persons and │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ their │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ Families._ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │Manchester │ 20│1 in 6│1 in 8│1 in 14│ │ 1 in 2¾ │ - │Leeds │ 31│1 in 7│1 in 7│1 in 13│1 in 79│ 1 in 2½ │ - │Liverpool │ 42│1 in 7│1 in 7│1 in 34│ │ 1 in 3¼ │ - │Bath │ 85│1 in 5│1 in 6│1 in 5│1 in 146│ 1 in 1¾ │ - │Bethnal Green │ 47│1 in 6│1 in 5│1 in 9│1 in 101│ 1 in 2 │ - │Strand Union │ 28│1 in 7│1 in 9│1 in 22│1 in 86│ 1 in 3 │ - │Kendal Union │ 19│1 in 17│1 in 7│1 in 6│1 in 52│ 1 in 2¾ │ - │County of │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ Wilts │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ (Unions of) │ 62│1 in 5│1 in 4│1 in 12│1 in 119│ 1 in 2¼ │ - │County of │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ Rutland │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ (Unions of) │ 17│1 in 9│1 in 4│1 in 6│1 in 28│ 1 in 1¾ │ - ├──────────────┼────────┼───────┼───────┼────────┼─────────┼──────────┤ - │ Total │ 351│1 in 6│1 in 6│1 in 10│1 in 115│ 1 in 2¼ │ - ├──────────────┼────────┼───────┼───────┼────────┼─────────┼──────────┤ - │ _Farmers and │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │Tradesmen, and│ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ Families._ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │Manchester │ 61│1 in 21│1 in 38│1 in 145│1 in 242│ 1 in 12 │ - │Leeds │ 161│1 in 13│1 in 12│1 in 34│1 in 824│ 1 in 5 │ - │Liverpool │ 224│1 in 16│1 in 22│1 in 51│1 in 869│ 1 in 8 │ - │Bath │ 57│1 in 9│1 in 12│1 in 40│1 in 122│ 1 in 4¼ │ - │Bethnal Green │ 44│1 in 13│1 in 15│1 in 93│1 in 278│ 1 in 6¼ │ - │Strand Union │ 51│1 in 9│1 in 13│1 in 22│ │ 1 in 4¼ │ - │Kendal Union │ 48│1 in 6│1 in 10│1 in 13│ │ 1 in 3 │ - │County of │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ Wilts │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ (Unions of) │ 99│1 in 7│1 in 6│1 in 10│1 in 31│ 1 in 2¼ │ - │County of │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ Rutland │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ (Unions of) │ 168│1 in 8│1 in 7│1 in 9│1 in 90│ 1 in 2¾ │ - ├──────────────┼────────┼───────┼───────┼────────┼─────────┼──────────┤ - │ Total │ 913│1 in 12│1 in 14│1 in 29│1 in 122│ 1 in 5 │ - ├──────────────┼────────┼───────┼───────┼────────┼─────────┼──────────┤ - │_Agricultural │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ Labourers, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ Operatives, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │Servants, &c._│ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │Manchester │ 374│1 in 20│1 in 43│1 in 149│1 in 772│ 1 in 12⅓ │ - │Leeds │ 377│1 in 20│1 in 23│1 in 62│1 in 485│ 1 in 9 │ - │Liverpool │ 385│1 in 27│1 in 47│1 in 102│1 in 1865│ 1 in 15 │ - │Bath │ 130│1 in 16│1 in 19│1 in 45│1 in 149│ 1 in 6¾ │ - │Bethnal Green │ 122│1 in 21│1 in 28│1 in 97│1 in 419│ 1 in 10¼ │ - │Strand Union │ 95│1 in 12│1 in 23│1 in 84│1 in 225│ 1 in 7 │ - │Kendal Union │ 114│1 in 11│1 in 9│1 in 15│1 in 207│ 1 in 3¾ │ - │County of │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ Wilts │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ (Unions of) │ 615│1 in 11│1 in 9│1 in 11│1 in 108│ 1 in 3½ │ - │County of │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ Rutland │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ (Unions of) │ 227│1 in 10│1 in 8│1 in 10│1 in 75│ 1 in 3 │ - ├──────────────┼────────┼───────┼───────┼────────┼─────────┼──────────┤ - │ Total │ 2,439│1 in 18│1 in 23│1 in 43│1 in 338│ 1 in 8 │ - └──────────────┴────────┴───────┴───────┴────────┴─────────┴──────────┘ - -On comparing the proportion of deaths amongst all classes between one -district and another, as well as between class and class, the general -influence of the locality becomes strikingly apparent. The difference of -mortality between one large district of the metropolis and another is -shown in the following tabular view, made up by Mr. Alexander Finlaison, -from the superintendent-registrar’s weekly returns of the mortality -prevalent in the chief registration districts of the metropolis during -the different seasons of the year. But the extremes of difference are -more strikingly exhibited in smaller districts:— - - Table of the Comparative Mortality of the Five following Divisions of - the Metropolis:— - - ┌────────┬──────┬─────────┬─────────┬─────────┬─────────┬─────────┐ - │Seasons.│Weeks.│ West │ North │ Central │ East │ South │ - │ │ │District.│District.│District.│District.│District.│ - │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - ├────────┼──────┼─────────┼─────────┼─────────┼─────────┼─────────┤ - │Winter │ 13 │ 2,127│ 2,588│ 3,064│ 3,227│ 3,542│ - │Spring │ 13 │ 1,611│ 2,066│ 2,264│ 2,264│ 2,682│ - │Summer │ 13 │ 1,486│ 1,817│ 2,064│ 2,220│ 2,458│ - │Autumn │ 13 │ 1,518│ 1,959│ 2,144│ 2,476│ 2,655│ - ├────────┼──────┼─────────┼─────────┼─────────┼─────────┼─────────┤ - │ Totals │ 52 │ 6,742│ 8,430│ 9,536│ 10,187│ 11,337│ - ├────────┴──────┼─────────┼─────────┼─────────┼─────────┼─────────┤ - │Population │ 300,705│ 365,660│ 373,806│ 392,496│ 438,060│ - │ enumerated, │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ 1841. │ │ │ │ │ │ - ├───────────────┼─────────┼─────────┼─────────┼─────────┼─────────┤ - │Deaths out of │ 224│ 231│ 255│ 260│ 259│ - │ 10,000 │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ inhabitants │ │ │ │ │ │ - │No. of │ 44·60│ 43·38│ 39·20│ 38·53│ 38·64│ - │ Inhabitants │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ out of which │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ 1 death │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ happened │ │ │ │ │ │ - └───────────────┴─────────┴─────────┴─────────┴─────────┴─────────┘ - - ┌────────┬──────┬───────────┬────────┐ - │Seasons.│Weeks.│ Whole │ Deaths │ - │ │ │Metropolis.│ in the │ - │ │ │ │ Four │ - │ │ │ │Seasons │ - │ │ │ │ out of │ - │ │ │ │ 10,000 │ - │ │ │ │Persons.│ - ├────────┼──────┼───────────┼────────┤ - │Winter │ 13 │ 14,548│ 78│ - │Spring │ 13 │ 10,887│ 58│ - │Summer │ 13 │ 10,045│ 54│ - │Autumn │ 13 │ 10,752│ 57│ - ├────────┼──────┼───────────┼────────┤ - │ Totals │ 52 │ 46,232│ 247│ - ├────────┴──────┼───────────┼────────┤ - │Population │ 1,870,727│ │ - │ enumerated, │ │ │ - │ 1841. │ │ │ - ├───────────────┼───────────┼────────┤ - │Deaths out of │ 247│ │ - │ 10,000 │ │ │ - │ inhabitants │ │ │ - │No. of │ 40,464│ │ - │ Inhabitants │ │ │ - │ out of which │ │ │ - │ 1 death │ │ │ - │ happened │ │ │ - └───────────────┴───────────┴────────┘ - - The West District comprises Kensington, St. George, Hanover Square, - Westminster, St. - Martin-in-the-Fields, St. James. - - The North District comprises St. Marylebone, St. Pancras, Islington - and Hackney. - - The Central District comprises St. Giles and St. George, Strand, - Holborn, Clerkenwell, St. Luke, East - London, West Loudon, City of London. - - The East District comprises Shoreditch, Bethnal Green, Whitechapel, - St. George-in-the-East, Stepney, - Poplar. - - The South District comprises St. Saviour’s, St. Olave, Bermondsey, - St. George, Southwark, Newington, - Lambeth, Camberwell, Rotherhithe, - Greenwich. - -The female is most in the house; she is the most regular and temperate -in her habits; the male is subject to the influence of his place of -occupation—the operative to his workshop, the clerk to the -counting-house, and the merchant to crowded places of business. In the -following returns made up by _Mr. Farr_, and in others that will -hereafter be cited, the mortality prevalent amongst the females is given -separately, as probably indicating most correctly the operation of the -noxious influences connected with the place of residence:— - -Mean Annual Mortality of Females in the following Metropolitan districts -in the two Years and a half ending 31st December, 1839:— - - Districts. Annual Deaths. - 1 in - Hackney 57·87 - St. George, Hanover Square 57·05 - Camberwell 55·34 - Islington 50·03 - Rotherhithe 38·58 - Clerkenwell 38·54 - St. Luke 38·49 - Greenwich 38·42 - St. George, Southwark 33·77 - East and West London 33·50 - St. Giles and St. George 33·46 - Whitechapel 28·15 - -Yet it is to be observed that the best and the worst districts present -striking instances of extremes of condition in the residences and the -inhabitants. In the Bethnal Green and the Whitechapel unions, in which -are found some of the worst conditioned masses of population in the -metropolis, we also find good mansions, well drained and protected, -inhabited by persons in the most favourable circumstances. Immediately -behind rows of the best-constructed houses in the fashionable districts -of London are some of the worst dwellings, into which the working -classes are crowded; and these dwellings, by the noxious influences -described, are the foci of disease. These returns are all from large -parishes, containing the mean results from all classes. If it had been -practicable to give correctly the average rate of mortality prevalent in -different classes of streets, the variation of results, it is to be -presumed, from the variations of circumstances, would have been much -greater. Since the character of the residences of many of the labouring -classes, and the condition of their places of work and their habits are -known, it is to be considered that where the occupations are duly -registered, returns, on the principle of those we have first given of -the average age of death amongst particular classes will afford the most -close approximation to accuracy, or the best indications of the extent -of the operation of the noxious circumstances under which each of those -classes is placed.[19] - - A LINEAR REPRESENTATION - _of the number of Deaths in the Metropolis, from Epidemic, Endemic and - Contagious disease; Diseases of the Brain, Nerves & Senses; diseases of - Respiratory Organs and diseases of the Heart & Blood Vessels: also the - number of Deaths from Small Pox, Scarlet Fever, Measles; Typhus Fever, - Hooping Cough, and, all other Epidemic diseases, during each Four Weeks - of the Two Years, ended the 1st January, 1842._ - (_Population of 1841.—1,870,727._) - -[Illustration: - - _Sanitary Report P.L.C._ -] - -The annexed linear view of the numbers of deaths from the chief diseases -during every month of two years in the metropolis will be of interest as -showing the influence of the seasons, and especially of the winter, when -there is the most cold, wet, and crowding. - -In Scotland we have not the advantage of systematized registries of -mortality or of the causes of mortality, and we are therefore unable to -make the same comparisons as in England; yet so far as the records of -the dispensaries serve, they are confirmatory of the returns with -respect to the different rates of mortality in differently conditioned -districts in England. Thus, in a report from Leith, it is stated that— - - “Contagious febrile diseases of all kinds are met with in Leith, - particularly typhus, which in certain seasons is prevalent to a great - extent. The parts of the town in which it seems to prevail chiefly (so - far as can be deduced from the records of the Leith Dispensary for the - last five years) are the central and most crowded districts in which - the number of cases amongst the poor during the last five years have - been in the proportion of 1 to 6 of the whole population, while in - other districts not so central in situation, but inhabited by persons - of nearly the same class, the proportion has been not above 1 to 13 - within these districts. One locality containing a population of 1579, - has produced 433 cases of contagious fevers in general (of which 306 - were of typhus) in dispensary practice, within five years, being in - the ratio of 1 to 3⅖ of fevers in general, and 1 to 5⅙ of typhus to - the gross population; of these 433 cases, 130 of all fevers, and 96 of - typhus, occurred in the two narrow streets (St. Andrew’s-street and - Giles’s-street) which bound the district to the north and south, the - remainder in the narrow lanes and closes communicating with them. - These may be regarded as the most unhealthy parts of the town.” - -An impression is often prevalent that a heavy mortality is an -unavoidable condition of all large towns, and of a town population in -general. It has, however, been shown that, groups of cottages on a high -hill, exposed to the most, salubrious breezes when cleanliness is -neglected, are often the nests of fever and disease, as intense as the -most crowded districts. The mortuary returns of particular districts (in -the essentials of drainage, cleansing, and ventilation, to which it is -practicable to make other districts approximate, and that too with -reductions of existing charges), prove that a high degree of mortality -does not invariably belong to the population of all towns, and probably -not necessarily to any, even where the population is engaged in -manufactures. The proportion of deaths appears in some of the suburbs of -the metropolis (as at Hackney), and of Manchester and Leeds, to be lower -than amongst the highest classes in two of the agricultural counties. - -It appears from the report of Dr. d’Espine, one of the members of the -Council of Health of Geneva, who has examined the records of the -mortality prevalent amongst the population _extra muros_, as well as -that in the city (which will hereafter be submitted to special notice), -that the deaths were in the rural districts 1 in 39·3; whilst in the -city they were 1 in 44·7 of the whole of the population in the year -1838. In the poorest and worst conditioned of the rural districts the -proportions of the deaths were the greatest. In the year 1837 the deaths -were in the poorest of the rural districts 1 in 38·6; in the -intermediate district, 1 in 40·8; in the richest district, 1 in 53·2. - -In comparison with the very high state of the chances of life in the -county of Wilts, the city of Bath presents an example confirmatory of -this view. The _Rev. Whitwell Elwin_ has supplied the following return -of the chances of life amongst the different classes in that city. Out -of 616 cases of death in 1840, the results were as follow:— - - No. of Average - Deaths. Age of - Deceased. - - 146 Gentlemen, professional persons, and their families 55 years. - - 244 Tradesmen and their families 37 - - 896 Mechanics, labourers, and their families 25 - -The very high average chances of life amongst the middle classes, which -is nearly the same as that of the farmers, &c. of the agricultural -districts, is the fact adduced as most strongly proving the salubrity of -the place. - - “In making these returns,” says Mr. Elwin, “I have thrown out all - visitors and occasional residents, and my knowledge of the locality, - with the assistance of the clerk of the union, has enabled me to - attain complete accuracy with respect to the gentry, and a close - approximation to it in the remaining cases. The difference in the ages - of these several classes presents to my mind a tolerably exact scale - of the difference of their abodes. The large houses, the broad - streets, looking almost invariably on one side or other upon parks or - gardens or open country, the spacious squares, the crescents built - upon the brows of the hills without a single obstruction to the pure - air of heaven, give the gentry of Bath that superiority over other - grades and other cities which their longevity indicates. And herein, - it appears to me, consists the value of the return. It shows that the - congregation of men is not of necessity unhealthy; nay, that towns, - possessing as they do superior medical skill and readier access to - advice, may, under favourable circumstances, have an advantage over - the country. The situation of the tradesmen of Bath, inferior as it is - to that of the gentry, is better than that of their own station in - other places. The streets they chiefly inhabit, though with many - exceptions, are wide, and swept by free currents of air, with houses - large and well ventilated. The condition of the poor is worse than - would be anticipated from the other portions of the town. They are - chiefly located in low districts at the bottom of the valley, and - narrow alleys and confined courts are very numerous. Yet even here we - have an unquestionable advantage over most large towns. It was only - yesterday that I was expressing my horror to a medical gentleman at - some portions of the habitations of the poor, when he replied, that it - excited little attention, because they were so much better than what - was to be seen in other parts of the kingdom. - - “Whatever influence occupation and other circumstances may have upon - mortality, no one can inspect the registers without being struck by - the deteriorated value of life in inferior localities, even where the - inhabitants were the same in condition with those who lived longer in - better situations. The average age of death among the gentlemen was as - high as 60, till I came, at the conclusion, to a small but damp - district, in which numerous cases of fever brought down the average to - 54. So again with the shopkeepers, the average was reduced two by the - returns from streets which, though inhabited by respectable men, were - narrow in front and shut in at the back. The average among the - labourers was greatly diminished by the returns from some notorious - courts, and raised again in a still higher proportion by districts - which appertained rather to the country than the town. Of three cases - of centenarians, one of whom had attained the vast age of 106, two - belonged to this favoured situation. Not but that great ages were to - be found in the worst parts as in the best, or that particular streets - did not in a measure run counter to the rule. Still, wherever I - brought into opposition districts of considerable extent, I found the - law more or less to obtain. Bath is a favourable town to institute the - comparison, from presenting such marked contrasts in its houses, and - the inquiry being little complicated by the presence of noxious - trades, which in some towns would necessarily disturb every - calculation of the kind. Even here a colony of shoemakers would bring - down the average of its healthiest spot to the age of childhood. My - attention was called to this circumstance by the clerk incidentally - remarking that more shoemakers were married at his office, and were - uniformly more dirty and ill-dressed, than any other class of persons. - The proneness to marriage or concubinage in proportion to the - degradation of the parties is notorious, and I anticipated from the - fact an abundant offspring, afterwards to be carried off by premature - disease. Accordingly I went with this view through several of the - registers, and the result was, that while the average of death amongst - the families of labourers and artisans in general was 24 and 25, that - of shoemakers was only 14. Had the shoemakers been excluded from the - former average, as for the purpose of this comparison they should have - been, the disproportion would be some years greater. - - “The deaths from fever and contagious diseases I found to be almost - exclusively confined to the worst parts of the town. An epidemic - small-pox raged at the end of the year 1837, and carried off upwards - of 300 persons; yet of all this number I do not think there was a - single gentleman, and not above two or three tradesmen. The residences - of the labouring classes were pretty equally visited, disease showing - here and there a predilection for particular spots, and settling with - full virulence in Avon-street and its offsets. I went through the - registers from the commencement, and observed that, whatever - contagious or epidemic diseases prevailed,—fever, small-pox, - influenza,—this was the scene of its principal ravages; and it is the - very place of which every person acquainted with Bath would have - predicted this result. Everything vile and offensive is congregated - there. All the scum of Bath—its low prostitutes, its thieves, its - beggars—are piled up in the dens rather than houses of which the - street consists. Its population is the most disproportioned to the - accommodation of any I have ever heard; and to aggravate the mischief, - the refuse is commonly thrown under the staircase; and water more - scarce than in any quarter of the town. It would hardly be an - hyperbole to say that there is less water consumed than beer; and - altogether it would be more difficult to exaggerate the description of - this dreadful spot than to convey an adequate notion to those who have - never seen it. A prominent feature in the midst of this mass of - physical and moral evils is the extraordinary number of illegitimate - children; the offspring of persons who in all respects live together - as man and wife. Without the slightest objection to the legal - obligation, the moral degradation is such that marriage is accounted a - superfluous ceremony, not worth the payment of the necessary fees; and - on one occasion, when it was given out that these would be dispensed - with, upwards of 50 persons from Avon-street, who had lived together - for years, voluntarily came forward to enter into a union. And thus it - invariably happens in crowded haunts of sin and filth, where principle - is obliterated, and where public opinion, which so often operates in - the place of principle, is never heard; where, to say truth, virtue is - treated with the scorn which in better society is accorded to vice. I - have been rendered familiar with these places by holding a curacy in - the midst of them for upwards of a year, and my duty as chaplain to - the union, in visiting the friends of paupers or discharged paupers - themselves, keep up the knowledge I then contracted. - - “I think these facts supply us with important conclusions. Whether we - compare one part of Bath with another or Bath with other towns, we - find health rising in proportion to the improvement of the residences; - we find morality, in at least a great measure, following the same law, - and both these inestimable blessings within the reach of the - legislature to secure. When viewed in this light, these - investigations, so often distressing and disgusting, acquire dignity - and importance.” - -The suffering and expense of life prevalent in differently situated -districts observed in this country, are consistent with the experience -of the continent. - -In a report prepared by M. Villermé, as the reporter of a committee of -the Royal Academy of Medicine at Paris, appointed to investigate some -statistical data on the mortality prevalent in that city, and the -department of the Seine, several tables are given to show the -proportions of deaths that occur in each of the several arrondissements. -In the table on which the most reliance appears to be placed, the -mortality in each arrondissement is exhibited as it occurs in the -private residences. In the following table the arrondissements are -arranged in the order of the proportions in which the houses are -exempted from taxation, on the ground of the poverty of the inhabitants, -beginning with the arrondissements where the exemptions are the fewest, -where the houses are the largest and most valuable, and proceeding to -those where the exemptions are most numerous, and the houses the least -in size, as indicated by the value. The average of exempted houses, with -slight exceptions, he considers a fair indication of the average -condition of each arrondissement as compared with the other -arrondissements. In this table I have included a column showing the -deaths of persons from each arrondissement who die in the public -hospitals and other places appropriated to the care of the sick. These -tables perhaps comprise the whole of the mortality that occurs in that -capital. I have added the proportions of deaths from cholera in each -arrondissement, which followed in the highest and the lowest -arrondissements the general law of mortality, with some irregularities -in the intermediate arrondissements which I have not seen accounted -for:— - - ┌──────────────────┬──────────┬─────────┬─────────────┬─────────────┬────────┐ - │ ARRONDISSEMENTS. │Proportion│ Annual │ Deaths in │ Total of │Cholera.│ - │ │ of │ Average │ Private │Deaths in the│ │ - │ │Tenements │Value of │ Houses. │House and at │ │ - │ │ exempted │Tenement.│ │ the │ │ - │ │ from │ │ │ Hospitals. │ │ - │ │Taxation. │ │ │ │ │ - ├──────────────────┼──────────┼─────────┼──────┬──────┼──────┬──────┼────────┤ - │ │ │ │Period│Period│Period│Period│ │ - │ │ │ │ from │ from │ from │ from │ │ - │ │ │ │ 1817 │ 1822 │ 1817 │ 1822 │ │ - │ │ │ │ to │ to │ to │ to │ │ - │ │ │ │1821. │1826. │1821. │1826. │ │ - ├──────────────────┼──────────┼─────────┼──────┼──────┼──────┼──────┼────────┤ - │ │ │ fr. │ 1 in │ 1 in │ 1 in │ 1 in │ 1 in │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ 3. Montmartre │ 0·07│ 425│ 62│ 71│ 38│ 43│ 90│ - │ 2. Chaussée │ 0·11│ 604│ 60│ 67│ 43│ 48│ 107│ - │ d’Antin │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ 1. Roule, │ 0·11│ 497│ 58│ 66│ 45│ 52│ 82│ - │ Tuileries │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ 4. St. Honoré, │ 0·15│ 328│ 58│ 62│ 33│ 34│ 54│ - │ Louvre │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │11. Luxembourg, │ 0·19│ 257│ 51│ 61│ 33│ 39│ 17│ - │ &c. │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ 6. Porte St. │ 0·21│ 242│ 54│ 58│ 35│ 38│ 62│ - │ Denis, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ Temple │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ 5. Faubourg St. │ 0·22│ 225│ 53│ 64│ 34│ 42│ 67│ - │ Denis │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ 7. St. Avoie │ 0·22│ 217│ 52│ 59│ 35│ 41│ 34│ - │10. Monnaie, │ 0·23│ 285│ 50│ 49│ 36│ 36│ 34│ - │ Invalides │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ 9. Ile St. Louis │ 0·31│ 172│ 44│ 50│ 25│ 30│ 22│ - │ 8. St. Antoine │ 0·32│ 172│ 43│ 46│ 25│ 28│ 36│ - │12. Jardin du Roi │ 0·38│ 147│ 43│ 44│ 24│ 26│ 35│ - │ │ ——│ ——│ │ - │ In all Paris │ 32│ 36│ │ - └─────────────────────────────────────────────────────┴──────┴──────┴────────┘ - -It will be observed that in each table the mortality is the lowest in -the three richest arrondissements (1, 2, and 3), and is the highest in -the three arrondissements, which are positively the poorest, namely, the -8th, 9th, and 12th. Similar results were deduced from comparisons of the -mortality prevalent in streets inhabited by different classes; and from -comparisons of the different rates of mortality prevalent amongst -persons of the same condition as to income, but residing in houses of -favourable or unfavourable construction and situation. - -If we could ascertain the rates of mortality formerly prevalent in the -separate districts of each large town, it is probable we should find -that the improvement in the average chances of life of the whole town -has been raised principally by the improved chances in the districts -where the streets have been widened, paved, and cleansed, and the houses -enlarged and drained; and that the amount of sickness and chances of -life in the inferior districts are as little altered as their general -physical condition. The present condition of those parts of London where -the average mortality is 1 in 28 annually, appears to be not dissimilar -to the general condition of the whole metropolis about a century ago, -which was said to be about 1 in 20, a rate still to be found in some of -the most neglected streets. - -_Dr. Heberden_, in an able paper which he wrote at the beginning of the -present century, on the disappearance of several diseases in London, -ascribes the fact, and the advance of the public health, to the -improvements that have gradually taken place in the widening, paving, -and cleansing the streets since the great conflagration. He observes -that “the annual pestilential fever of Constantinople very much -resembles that of our gaols and crowded hospitals,” and “is only called -plague when attended with buboes and carbuncles.” He ascribes the -exemption to “our change of manners, our love of cleanliness and -ventilation, which have produced amongst us, I do not say an -incapability, but a great inaptness any longer to receive it.” The -examination of the disease prevalent, in the poorer districts, however, -raises the question whether they have not, in the “pestilential fever by -which they are ravaged,” any other than a type of the malady from which -it is supposed the country is exempted. The fever itself is almost as -severe in particular neighbourhoods and in unfavourable states of the -weather, as it is stated to be in the bad quarters of Constantinople. - -The like improvement in the public health that has followed the slow -structural improvements in the best districts of the metropolis has been -displayed in Paris, where some of the worst districts which remain in a -condition not dissimilar to that in which the whole of Paris is -described to have been, in closeness and filth, and where the chances of -life have remained nearly in the same low condition. M. De Villermé, in -proof of an improvement commensurate with the improvements that have -been made in the condition of the streets and houses, and the habits of -the inhabitants, cites a curious document of the date of the fourteenth -century, namely, the register of a tax levied upon all assessable -persons of Paris, when Philip-le-Bel knighted his eldest son, who -afterwards succeeded him under the name of Louis the Xth. The persons -assessed were housekeepers, manufacturers, merchants, masters of the -different handicrafts, master jewellers, master masons, master -upholsterers, haberdashers, confectioners, butchers, brewers, wine, -corn, and cloth merchants, the heads of houses, amongst whom mortality -in the present times would be slight compared with that prevalent -amongst the lower classes. From the number of this class who are named -and registered street by street by the parish priests, as having died -between the date of the assessment and the date when the tax was levied, -it appears that 232 out of 6042 died in thirteen months and a half, -during a time which was not remarked for any extraordinary sickness. -From hence it is inferred that the general annual mortality in Paris -could not be less at the commencement of the 14th century than -one-twentieth or a twenty-second part of the whole population; whereas -in later times the general mortality has not been known to exceed one -thirty-second part. The general mortality, therefore, or rather the -mortality of a high and select class, was worse in the 14th century than -the mortality in the worst districts in the 19th, where it was 1 in 24. - - “But it will be said,” observes M. Villermé, “how can so dreadful a - mortality be admitted to have taken place in a climate so salubrious - as that of Paris? I confess that if, in order to justify that - statement, I had nothing but the book of assessment of the year 1313, - I should not have allowed myself at this distance of time to have made - any use of the facts which are found recorded in the book of which I - am speaking; but the accounts of the time inform us how much public - _hygiène_ was then neglected, and that in Paris particularly, the - horrible filth of the streets was insupportable, so much were they - encumbered with dirt of every kind. - - “Some idea may be formed of the dirtiness of the streets of Paris, - towards the end of the fourteenth century, from the words of an - ordinance of Charles VI. issued in 1388, ‘And whereas the pavements of - Paris are much injured and fallen into decay, so that in many places - no horse or carriage can go without very great danger and - inconvenience, and whereas this town has long been, and still is, full - of dirt, rubbish, and ordure, which each person has left at his own - door, so that it is a great horror, and a great displeasure to all - persons of respectability and honour, and a great scandal and shame to - this city, and a great grief and prejudice to the human beings - dwelling in and frequenting the said city, who by the infection of the - stinking mass of filth have fallen in times past into great illness - and infirmities of body, and great mortality.’ - - “It must be borne in mind (many other facts prove it),” observes M. - Villermé, “that the humble citizens of the present day, artisans for - example, are for the most part much better off, as regards air, and - those conveniencies which preserve life than persons of much greater - wealth were in former times in this capital.” From a passage in - Ulpien, it is estimated that the chances of life is in ancient Rome as - deduced from the experience of a select class was 30 years. - -He states, that the first agent to improvement is changing the infected -air that they inspired in Paris for air that is pure. In the recent -progress of the same change it has been observed there, as in this -country, that parts of streets better paved and cleansed are marked by -the comparative infrequency of disease. - -Yet how much remains to be done is shown by the fact that in Paris, with -a drier and more salubrious climate, the mortality is still greater than -in London; and that the advantages of which M. Villermé justly speaks so -highly, are distributed with extreme inequality, is apparent from his -tables, which show that in one district the mortality has diminished to -1 in 52; whilst in another it remains as great as 1 in 26 annually. So -we have seen that in London it ranges from 1 in 28 to 1 in 57; and it -will be seen that in the township of Manchester, a population of nearly -80,000, one twenty-eighth are swept away annually, whilst, in a favoured -suburban district, no more than one sixty-third part die. - -I have been favoured by M. Ducpetiaux, the Inspector-general of prisons -in Belgium, with the copy of a report on an inquiry similar to the -present, into the condition of the labouring population in Brussels. I -have submitted an extract from it in the Appendix, descriptive of the -general condition in which their residences were found. When the -proportion which the well-conditioned houses of that city bear to the -great mass is considered, it will not excite surprise to those who have -traversed the poorer districts to find that the average mortality -amongst the whole population was, in the year 1840, 1 in 24. In 1829, it -appears to have been 1 in 21. - -In illustration of the moral and social effects to be anticipated from -measures for the removal of the causes of pestilence amongst the -labouring classes, and for the increase of their duration of life, -concurrently with an increase of the population, I refer to the effects -experienced in Geneva from the like improvements effected during the -lapse of centuries. That city is, so far as I am aware, the only one in -Europe in which there is an early and complete set of registers of -marriages, births, and deaths. These registries were established in the -year 1549, and are viewed as pre-appointed evidences to civil rights, -and are kept with great care. This registration includes the name of the -disease which has caused the death, entered by a district physician who -is charged by the State with the inspection of every person who dies -within his district. A second table is made up from certificates setting -forth the nature of the disease, with a specification of the symptoms, -and observations required to be made by the private physician who may -have had the care of the deceased. These registries have been the -subject of frequent careful examinations. It appears from them that the -progress of the population _intra muros_ of that city has been as -follows:— - - In the Year Inhabitants. Proportionate rate of - Increase as compared - with 1589. - - 1589 13,000 100 - - 1693 16,111 124, or 24 per cent. - - 1698 16,934 130, or 30 per cent. - - 1711 18,500 142, or 42 per cent. - - 1721 20,781 160, or 60 per cent. - - 1755 21,816 168, or 68 per cent. - - 1781 24,810 191, or 91 per cent. - - 1785 25,500 196, or 96 per cent. - - 1789 26,140 201, or 101 per cent. - - 1805 22,300 171, or 71 per cent. - - 1812 24,158 186, or 86 per cent. - - 1822 24,886 191, or 91 per cent. - - 1828 26,121 201, or 101 per cent. - - 1834 27,177 209, or 109 per cent. - -It is proved in a report by _M. Edward Mallet_, one of the most able -that have been made from these registries, that this increase of the -population has been followed by an increase in the probable duration of -life in that city:— - - - │ Proportionate rate of - │Years. Months. Days. Increase as compared - │ with the end of 16th - │ Century. - - Towards the end of │ - the 16th century │ - the probabilities│ 8 7 26 100 - of life were, to │ - every individual │ - born ... │ - - In the 17th century│ 13 3 16 153, or 53 per cent. - - 1701–1750 │ 27 9 13 321, or 221 per cent. - - 1751–1800 │ 31 3 5 361, or 261 per cent. - - 1801–1813 │ 40 8 0 470, or 370 per cent. - - 1814–1833 │ 45 0 29 521, or 421 per cent. - -The progression of the population and the increased duration of life had -been attended by a progression in happiness: as prosperity advanced -marriages became fewer and later;[20] the proportion of births were -reduced, but greater numbers of the infants born were preserved;[21] and -the proportion of the population in manhood became greater. In the early -and barbarous periods, the excessive mortality was accompanied by a -prodigious fecundity. In the ten last years of the 17th century, a -marriage still produced five children and more; the probable duration of -life attained was not 20 years, and Geneva had scarcely 17,000 -inhabitants. Towards the end of the 18th century there was scarcely -three children to a marriage, and the probabilities of life exceeded 32 -years. At the present time a marriage only produces 2¾ children; the -probability of life is 45[22] years, and Geneva, which exceeds 27,000 in -population, has arrived at a high degree of civilization and of -“_prospérité matérielle_.” In 1836 the population appeared to have -attained its summit; the births barely replaced the deaths. - -M. Mallet observes, that it is difficult, if not impossible, to -distinguish the different causes, and the different degrees of intensity -of each of the causes that have tended to produce this result. It is, -however, attributed generally to the advance in the condition of all -classes; to the medical science of the public health being better -understood and applied; to larger and better and cleaner dwellings; more -abundant and healthy food; the cessation of the great epidemics which, -from time to time, decimated the population; the precautions taken -against famine; and better regulated public and private life. As an -instance of the effects of regimen in the preservation of life, he -mentions that, in an establishment for the care of female orphans taken -from the poorest classes, out of 86 reared in 24 years, one only had -died These orphans were taken from the poor. The average mortality on -the whole population would have been six times as great.[23] - -An impression of an undefined optimism is frequently entertained by -persons who are aware of the wretched condition of a large portion of -the labouring population; and this impression is more frequently -entertained than expressed, as the ground of inaction for the relief of -the prevalent misery from disease, that its ravages form the natural or -positive check, or, as Dr. Short terms it, a “terrible corrective” to -the pressure of population on the means of subsistence. - -In the most crowded districts, which have been the subject of the -present inquiry, the facts do not justify this impression; they show -that the theory is inapplicable to the present circumstances of the -population. How erroneous the inferences are in their unrestrained -generality, which assume that the poverty or the privation which is -sometimes the consequence,—is always the cause, of the disease, will -have been seen from such evidence as that adduced from Glasgow and -Spitalfields, proving that the greater proportion of those attacked by -disease are in full work at the time; and the evidence from the fever -hospitals, that the greatest proportion of the patients are received in -high bodily condition. If wages be taken as the test of the means of -subsistence, it may be asked how are such facts to be reconciled as -these, that at a time when wages in Manchester were 10s. per head weekly -on all employed in the manufactories, including children or young -persons in the average, so that if three or four members of a family -were employed, the wages of a family would be 30_s._ or 40_s._ weekly, -the average chances of life to all of the labouring classes were only 17 -years; whilst in the whole of Rutlandshire, where the wages were -certainly not one half that amount, we find the mean chances of life to -every individual of the lowest class were 37 years? Or, to take another -instance, that whilst in Leeds, where, according to Mr. Baker’s report, -the wages of the families of the worst-conditioned workers were upwards -of 1_l._ 1_s._ per week, and the chances of life amongst the whole -labouring population of the borough were only 19 years; whilst in the -county of Wilts, where the labourer’s family would not receive much more -than half that amount of wages in money, and perhaps not two-thirds of -money’s worth in money and produce together, we find the average chances -of life to the labouring classes 32 years? - -If, in the most crowded districts, the inference is found to be -erroneous, that the extent of sickness and mortality is indicative of -the pressure of population on the means of subsistence, so is the -inference that the ravages act to the extent supposed, as a positive -check to the increase of the numbers of the population. In such -districts the fact is observable, that where the mortality is the -highest, the number of births are more than sufficient to replace the -deaths, however numerous they may be. - -This fact is shown in the following returns from the eight townships -which comprehend Manchester and its suburbs, made by the Statistical -Society of that town. But I believe the results would be more strongly -manifest if the registration of the births and of the residences of the -mothers were complete. I have reason to believe that in the lower -districts many births, and especially illegitimate births, escape -registration, and that many take place in hospitals and workhouses out -of the township; whilst in the better conditioned districts the -registration is comparatively accurate. I have caused attempts to be -made in several of the worst neighbourhoods in Bath and other places, to -ascertain with greater precision the actual number of births; but from -the migratory character of the population and other circumstances, the -efforts failed to do more than to confirm the impression that many had -hitherto escaped registration. - -The proportion of mortality in the several townships denotes with little -variation the state of the streets and houses, and the condition of the -inhabitants. The township of Broughton is inhabited almost exclusively -by the upper classes, who are connected with Manchester. The houses are -new, spacious, and well built; the site is elevated, and offers great -facilities for drainage. The township of Cheetham and Crumpsall is also -inhabited for the most part by the upper classes, who live in peculiarly -good houses, with a superior natural drainage. There is a proportion of -the working population resident in this district whose houses are well -built, and also favourably situated for drainage. The condition of the -habitations of a large proportion of the labouring population in -Manchester has already been described. - -It will be observed also that the moral as well as the sanitary -influences have a coincidence in the larger proportion of the -illegitimate births in the worst conditioned districts. In the best -conditioned districts the great majority of illegitimate births belong -almost exclusively to the more dissipated of the labouring classes who -inhabit them. - - ┌───────────┬────────────────┬───────────────┬────────┬───────────┬──────────┐ - │Localities.│ Population. │ Deaths. │ Total │Proportion │Proportion│ - │ │ │ │ Deaths │ of Births │of Illegi-│ - │ │ │ │of Males│ to │ timate │ - │ │ │ │ & │Population.│Births to │ - │ │ │ │Females.│ │ Total │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ Births. │ - ├───────────┼───────┬────────┼──────┬────────┼────────┼───────────┼──────────┤ - │ │Males. │Females.│Males.│Females.│ │ │ │ - ├───────────┼───────┼────────┼──────┼────────┼────────┼───────────┼──────────┤ - │ │ │ │ 1 in │ 1 in │ 1 in │ 1 in │ 1 in │ - │Broughton │ 1,554│ 2,239│ 44·40│ 89·56│ 63·21│ 36·82│ 51·50│ - │Cheetham │ 3,963│ 4,862│ 45·03│ 63·14│ 53·48│ 34·74│ 50·80│ - │ and │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ Crumpsall│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │Pendleton │ 5,109│ 5,796│ 40·22│ 49·96│ 44·87│ 25·47│ 12·58│ - │Chorlton- │ 12,551│ 15,771│ 30·91│ 47·79│ 38·48│ 26·05│ 32·93│ - │ upon- │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ Medlock │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │Hulme │ 12,850│ 13,969│ 37·24│ 38·48│ 37·87│ 23·17│ 24·10│ - │Ardwick │ 4,586│ 5,320│ 35·55│ 34·54│ 35·00│ 24·27│ 34·00│ - │Salford │ 24,762│ 26,760│ 27·30│ 36·60│ 31·42│ 22·83│ 21·90│ - │Manchester │ 79,061│ 84,606│ 26·61│ 30·15│ 28·33│ 26·79│ 19·20│ - ├───────────┼───────┼────────┼──────┼────────┼────────┼───────────┼──────────┤ - │ Total │141,436│ 159,323│ 28·84│ 34·62│ 31·60│ 25·74│ 21·26│ - └───────────┴───────┴────────┴──────┴────────┴────────┴───────────┴──────────┘ - -In the ten registration districts of Leeds the mortality prevalent in -them varies coincidently with their physical condition, and the -recklessness and immorality as shown in the proportion of illegitimate -births, increases in a greater proportion than the mortality; and in -this instance also, as in most others, if the registration were more -accurate, the proportion of both legitimate and illegitimate births -would be still closer to the deaths in the worst conditioned districts. - - ┌────────────────────┬───────────┬───────────┬───────────┬────────────┐ - │ Registration │Population.│ Ratio of │ Ratio of │ Ratio of │ - │ Districts. │ │ Deaths to │ Births to │Illegitimate│ - │ │ │ the whole │ the whole │ Births to │ - │ │ │Population.│Population.│ Total │ - │ │ │ │ │ Births. │ - ├────────────────────┼───────────┼───────────┼───────────┼────────────┤ - │ │ │ 1 in │ 1 in │ 1 in │ - │Chapeltown │ 4,538│ 57·7│ 30·6│ 74·0│ - │Whitkirk │ 3,194│ 56·0│ 29·0│ 36·7│ - │Kirkstall │ 17,816│ 45·6│ 24·8│ 23·1│ - │Rothwell │ 5,557│ 45·1│ 28·2│ 24·6│ - │Wortley │ 16,185│ 44·4│ 24·9│ 26·0│ - │Holbeck │ 16,668│ 41·9│ 25·4│ 24·3│ - │Leeds, West │ 32,286│ 40·4│ 28·4│ 19·2│ - │Hunslet │ 15,784│ 35·5│ 24·2│ 21·7│ - │Leeds, North │ 30,465│ 30·9│ 23·9│ 14·3│ - │East District │ 24,862│ 28·8│ 24·3│ 20·0│ - │ (Kirkgate) │ │ │ │ │ - ├────────────────────┼───────────┼───────────┼───────────┼────────────┤ - │Total of Leeds │ 167,355│ 37·3│ 25·5│ 20·1│ - └────────────────────┴───────────┴───────────┴───────────┴────────────┘ - -We have seen that in the lowest districts of Manchester of 1000 children -born, more than 570 will have died before they attain the fifth year of -their age. In the lowest districts of Leeds the infant mortality is -similar. This proportion of mortality M. Mallet designates as the case -of a population but little advanced in civilization, ravaged by -epidemics—a population in which the “influences on the lower ages are -murderous, but where the great mortality in infancy is compensated by a -high degree of fecundity. It is the case of the population in many large -towns, especially in past ages.” But whilst in Manchester, where one -twenty-eighth of the whole population is annually swept away, the births -registered amount to 1 in 26 of the population; in the county of -Rutland, where the proportion of deaths is 1 in 52 of the population, -the proportion of births, as shown by an average of three years, (by a -registration which I apprehend is more complete than in the lower -districts of Manchester,) is only 1 to 33 of the population. - -The increase of births after a pestilence has been long observed; the -coincidence of an increase of births in a proportion to the high rate of -mortality in the worst districts has frequently been noted on the -continent. M. Quetelet has observed the fact in several countries and -gives instances from which the following are selected:— - - ┌─────────────────────┬───────────────────────────────────────────────┐ - │ Countries. │ Inhabitant. │ - ├─────────────────────┼──────────────┬─────────────────┬──────────────┤ - │ │For one Death.│For one Marriage.│For one Birth.│ - ├─────────────────────┼──────────────┼─────────────────┼──────────────┤ - │Department of Orne │ 52·4│ 147·5│ 44·8│ - │Department of │ 30·4│ 113·9│ 26·0│ - │ Finisterre │ │ │ │ - │Namur │ 51·8│ 141·0│ 30·1│ - │Province of Zealand │ 28·5│ 113·2│ 21·9│ - └─────────────────────┴──────────────┴─────────────────┴──────────────┘ - -He states that he had often been tempted to attribute these -discrepancies to a faulty census of the population; but more attentive -researches had induced him to believe that this state of things is -dependent on local causes. - -M. Bossi, in the Statisque du Department le l’Ain, gives a striking -example of the effect of the locality. With a view to study the -influences of locality, he divided the department into four portions; -and from documents collected during the years 1812, 1813, and 1814, he -obtained the following results:— - - Inhabitants. - - ———————————— ———————————— ———————————— - - To 1 Death To 1 To 1 Birth - annually. Marriage annually. - annually. - - In mountain parishes 38·3 179 34·8 - - On the seaside 26·6 145 28·8 - - In corn districts 24·6 135 27·5 - - In stagnant and marshy districts 20·8 107 26·1 - -Notwithstanding the depression of many districts, and the decrease of -health amongst the classes in the manufacturing towns from which a large -proportion of conscripts are taken, the annual proportions of deaths -appear to have decreased. - - In 1784, from researches taken in France under - Necker’s directions, it appeared that there was one - birth for every 25·56 inhabitants - - In 1784, from researches taken in France under - Necker’s directions, it appeared that there was one - death for every 30·02 inhabitants - - From 1816 to 1831 there was one birth only for every 32 inhabitants - - One death 39·8 inhabitants - -M. Quetelet’s returns show that so far as the present state of -information can be relied upon, the same law is observed in general -action, not only in provinces but in whole countries throughout Europe. -It is confirmed by extensive experience occurring in the new world. The -trustworthiness of the registration of births and deaths in Mexico are -attested by the examination and use of them by Humboldt, and have been -the subject of legislative proceedings. The ratios of births and deaths -in the province of Guanaxuato have been referred to by Sir F. -d’Ivernois, in illustration of the position that pestilence does not -check the progress of population. A large proportion of the inferior -Mexican population are reported to “have converted the gifts of heaven -to the sustenance of disgusting misery.” It is reported of this populace -that it is “half clothed, idle, stained all over with vices; in a word, -hideous and known under the name of _leperos_, lepers, on account of the -malady to which their filth and bad diet subjects them. Nothing can -exceed the state of brutality and superstition to which they have been -subjected.”[24] - -The fecundity of this population, sunk in the lowest vice and misery -amidst the means of the highest abundance, was greater than amidst any -other whole population in Christendom;[25] they stood thus in 1825 and -1826:— - - 1 in - Deaths 19·70 - Births 16·08 - -They are much mistaken who imagine that a similarly conditioned -population is not to be found in this country; it is found in parts of -the population of every large town; the description of the Mexican -populace will recall features characteristic of the wretched population -in the worst parts of Glasgow, Edinburgh, London, and Bath, and the -lodging-houses throughout the country. - -Seeing that the banana (with the plantain or maize) is the chief food of -the inferior Mexican populace, their degraded condition has been -ascribed to the fertility of that plant, as the degradation of a large -proportion of our population has been ascribed to the use of the -potatoe, whereas a closer examination would have shown the fact of large -classes living industriously and virtuously chiefly on simple food, and -preferring saving money to better living; and that, if a high and -various meat diet were the cause of health, industry, and morality, -those virtues should stand highest amongst the population of the -lodging-houses, for more meat and varied food is consumed in those -abodes of pestilence than amongst the industrious population of the -village. In Manchester, where we have seen that the chances of life are -only 17 years, the proportions and varieties of meat consumed by the -labouring classes, are as their greater amount of wages compared with -the meat consumed by the labouring classes in Rutlandshire, whose mean -chances of life are 38 years.[26] But I apprehend that the superior -health in Rutlandshire is as little ascribable to their simpler food as -the greater amount of disease amidst the town population is ascribable -to the greater proportion of meat which is there consumed. It is -probable indeed that the standard of vitality in Rutlandshire might be -raised still higher by improvements in the quality of their food. There -are abundant reasons to render it desirable that the food of the -population should be varied, but it is shown that banishing the potatoe -or discouraging its use, or introducing any other food, will not banish -disease. - -By means of the last census and the last year’s completed registration -of deaths and births in England, I am enabled to show that there has -been an increase of the population from births alone in those parts of -the country where the proportionate mortality is the greatest. - -Taking the 42 counties as I find them arranged in Mr. Porter’s paper on -the census; dividing them into three parts, viz., the 14 counties where -there has been the least proportionate mortality, the 14 counties where -the proportion of mortality has been the greatest, and the 14 counties -where the proportion of mortality has been intermediate, I find the -results as to the proportionate increase of births to the increase of -deaths to be as follows:— - - ┌────────────────┬──────────────┬─────────────────┬──────────┬────────┐ - │ │ The annual │ │Proportion│ Excess │ - │ │ average Rate │ Proportion of │of Births │in every│ - │ │of Increase of│Births and Deaths│and Deaths│ 10,000 │ - │ │Population has│to Population in │ to every │Persons │ - │ │ been per │ the Year ended │ 10,000 │ of │ - │ │10,000 persons│ June 30, 1840. │Persons in│ Births │ - │ │ between 1831 │ │ same │ above │ - │ │ and 1841. │ │ period. │Deaths. │ - ├────────────────┼──────────────┼─────────────────┼──────────┼────────┤ - │_a._ The 14 │ │ │ │ │ - │ counties where│ │deaths (1 in 54),│deaths 184│ │ - │ the mortality │ 112 │deaths (1 in 34),│births 297│ 113│ - │ has been _the │ │ │ │ │ - │ least_ │ │ │ │ │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ - │_b._ The 14 │ │ │ │ │ - │ counties where│ 121 │deaths (1 in 48),│deaths 208│ 94│ - │ it has been │ │births (1 in 33),│births 302│ │ - │ _intermediate_│ │ │ │ │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ - │_c._ The 14 │ │ │ │ │ - │ counties where│ 183 │deaths (1 in 39),│deaths 259│ 89│ - │ it has been │ │births (1 in 29),│births 348│ │ - │ the _greatest_│ │ │ │ │ - └────────────────┴──────────────┴─────────────────┴──────────┴────────┘ - -The following are the proportions of births and deaths to the population -in 1840, and the total rate of increase of population between the years -1831 and 1841:— - - Deaths per An. Births per An. Pop. Incr. - 1 to 1 to per Cent. - - Hereford 64 45 2·9 - - Dorset 61 34 9·7 - - Cornwall 59 30 13·4 - - Devon 58 36 7·8 - - Sussex 55 34 10·0 - - Southampton 55 37 12·9 - - Essex 53 35 8·6 - - Wilts 53 35 8·2 - - York, N. R. 53 38 7·2 - - Rutland 53 30 10·0 - - Suffolk 53 32 6·3 - - Bucks 52 33 6·4 - - Lincoln 52 31 14·2 - - Stafford 51 31 24·2 - - Norfolk 51 34 5·7 - - Cumberland 51 35 4·8 - - Gloucester 51 37 11·4 - - Salop 50 37 7·2 - - Oxford 50 32 6·1 - - Hertford 49 29 9·6 - - Kent 48 35 14·4 - - Somerset 48 33 7·8 - - Derby 47 35 14·7 - - Northampton 47 29 10·9 - - Warwick 47 31 19·4 - - Hunts 46 28 10·3 - - Cambridge 45 28 14·2 - - Surrey 45 33 19·7 - - Bedford 44 26 13·0 - - Northumbd. 44 29 12·2 - - Westmoreld. 43 35 2·5 - - York, E. R. 43 34 14·6 - - Durham 43 28 27·7 - - York, W. R. 43 27 18·2 - - Chester 43 34 18·5 - - Berks 42 28 10·2 - - Middlesex 42 35 16·0 - - Leicester 40 29 9·5 - - Monmouth 38 26 36·9 - - Nottingham 36 28 10·8 - - Worcester 33 20 10·4 - - Lancaster 32 26 24·7 - -We here find that in the 14 counties where proportionate mortality has -been the least, the 184 deaths in 10,000 persons are made up by the 297 -births; hence 113, or more than 1 per cent., is added by new births to -the existing population. In the 14 intermediate counties where the -deaths on every 10,000 persons increase to 208, there the deaths are -again made up by 302 births, and 94, or close upon 1 per cent., are -again added to the population. In the 14 counties where the increase of -the population is the greatest, the deaths in every 10,000 persons are -increased to 259, but here also we find that the births are again -sufficient to make up for the deaths; they are 348, and increase the -population by 89, or less than 1 per cent. - -Hence, if the number of births in each 10,000 persons of the 14 counties -where the mortality has been the greatest had taken place amongst every -10,000 persons of the counties where the mortality has been the least, -then the increase of population in these latter by births, instead of -being 113, would have been 164.[27] - -I must again observe that the registration of births in the most -populous town districts, where the mortality is greatest, is the least -perfect. The excess of births over deaths may really be taken to be -greater than shown in the returns from the districts where the mortality -is the greatest. - -The estimated increase of population in England in the year 1840, as -compared with 1839, is 190,460. In the same period it appears that the -births exceeded the deaths by 143,178. The difference between these two -amounts, or 47,282, may be considered as the extent of emigration to -England, together with the cases of births not registered. To whatever -extent emigration takes place from England, there must of course have -been a proportionate immigration from other places to make up the -increase of population beyond the apparent increase from births. - -It is observed in some of the worst conditioned of the town districts -that the positive numbers of the natives of the aboriginal stock -continually diminishes, and that the vacancy as well as the increase is -made up by immigration from the healthier district. In a late -enumeration of the settled inhabitants of the labouring classes in the -lower parts of Westminster, it appeared that not more than one-third of -them were natives of London. If inquiry had been made as to whether -their parents were natives, it would probably have been found that still -fewer had inhabited the district for more than one generation. - -Simple enumerations of the numbers of a population are of themselves but -imperfect means for judging of its progression in strength. That is best -shown in the increased proportions of the adults, who are of the age and -strength and skill for productive industry, in the extended period -during which each adult labourer occupies his post. - -M. Mallet bears testimony that the experience of Geneva is confirmatory -of the important rule, that the strength of a people does not depend on -the absolute number of its population, but on the relative number of -those who are of the age and strength for labour. It is proved that the -real and productive value of the population has there increased in a -much greater proportion than the increase in the absolute number of the -population. The absolute number of the population has only doubled, in -the instance of Geneva, during three centuries; but the value of the -population has more than doubled upon the purely numerical increase of -the population. In other words, a population of 27,000, in which the -probability of life is 40 years for each individual, is more than twice -as strong for the purposes of production as a population of 27,000 in -which the probability or value of life is only 20 years for each -individual. - -The important general fact of the proportion of adult physical strength -to the increased duration of life, or improved sanitary condition of the -individuals, is verified by the examinations of the individuals of -different classes. M. Villermé states that, the difference of strength -between classes such as those in which we have seen that the value of -life differs, is well known to the officers engaged in recruiting the -army, but no one had collected the facts to determine the precise -difference. The time allowed to M. Villermé only enabled him to do so at -Amiens. The result was, that the men of from 20 to 21 years of age were -found the more frequently unfit for the trade of arms from their -stature, constitution, and health, as they belonged to the poorer -classes of the manufacturing labourers. In order to obtain 100 men fit -for military service, it was necessary to have as many as 343 men of the -poorer classes; whilst 193 conscripts sufficed of the classes in better -circumstances. Analogous facts were observed in the greater part of the -towns in France in which he conducted his official investigations.[28] - -In the evidence of recruiting officers, collected under the Factory -Commission of Inquiry, it was shown that fewer recruits of the proper -strength and stature for military service are obtainable now than -heretofore from Manchester. I have been informed that of those labourers -now employed in the most important manufactories, whether natives or -migrants to that town, the sons who are employed at the same work are -generally inferior in stature to their parents. Sir James M’Grigor, the -Director-general of the Army Medical Board, stated to me the fact, that -“A corps levied from the agricultural districts in Wales, or the -northern counties of England, will last longer than one recruited from -the manufacturing towns from Birmingham, Manchester, or near the -metropolis.” Indeed, so great and permanent is the deterioration, that -out of 613 men enlisted, almost all of whom came from Birmingham and -five other neighbouring towns, only 238 were approved for service. - -The chances of life of the labouring classes of Spitalfields are amongst -the lowest that I have met with, and there it is observed of weavers, -though not originally a large race, that they have become still more -diminutive under the noxious influences to which they are subject. Dr. -Mitchell, in his report on the condition of the hand-loom weavers, -adduces evidence on this point. One witness well acquainted with the -class states, “They are decayed in their bodies; the whole race of them -is rapidly descending to the size of Liliputians. You could not raise a -grenadier company amongst them all. The old men have better complexions -than the young.” Another witness who says there were once men as well -made in the weaver trade as any other, “recollects the Bethnal Green and -Spitalfields regiment of volunteers during the war as good-looking -bodies of men, but doubts if such could be raised now.” Mr. Duce concurs -in the fact of the deterioration of their size and appearance within the -last 30 years, and attributes it to bad air, bad lodging, bad food, -“which causes the children to grow up an enfeebled and diminutive race -of men.” (_Vide_ Evidence of the Medical Officers of the District, -_ante_.) - -This depressing effect of adverse sanitary circumstances on the -labouring strength of the population, and on its duration, is to be -viewed with the greatest concern, as it is a depressing effect on that -which most distinguishes the British people, and which it were a truism -to say constitutes the chief strength of the nation—the bodily strength -of the individuals of the labouring class. The greater portion of the -wealth of the nation is derived from the labour obtained by the -application of this strength, and it is only those who have had -practically the means of comparing it with that of the population of -other countries who are aware how far the labouring population of this -country is naturally distinguished above others. There is much practical -evidence to show that this is not a mere illusion of national vanity, -and in proof of this I might adduce the testimony of some of the most -eminent employers of large numbers of labourers, whose conclusions are -founded on experience in directing the work of labourers from the chief -countries in Europe, _e. g._, Mr. William Lindley, the civil engineer, -engaged in the superintendence of the formation of the new railway -between Hamburgh and Berlin, found it expedient to import as the -foremost labourers for the execution of that work a number of the class -of English labourers called navigators. These were recently employed in -pile-driving at wages of 5_s._ per diem, or more than double the amount -of wages paid to the German labourers. The German directors were -surprised, and remonstrated at the enormously high wages paid to the -English labourers; when the engineer directed their attention to the -quantity of work performed within a given time, and showed that the -wages produced more than amongst the native labourers. English labourers -of the same class have been imported to take the foremost labour in the -execution of the railways in progress from Havre to Paris, their work at -very high wages being found cheaper than the work even of the Norman -labourers. Skill and personal strength are combined in an unusually high -degree in this class of workmen, but the most eminent employers of -labour agree that it is strength of body, combined with strength of -will, that gives steadiness and value to the artisan and common English -labourer. - -Nor is such experience confined to one branch of industry. In the -heaviest works of the manufactories on the continent the strength and -energy of the English artisan puts him in advance of all others. - -_Mr. J. Thomson_, of Clitheroe, in treating of a question affecting the -branch of industry, cotton-printing, in England, observes:— - - “This limited production, in proportion to the hands employed,” in - France, “has a deeper source than in styles which may be varied, and - simplified, and changed at pleasure. It is to be found in the - character and habits of the people, which cannot be changed or moulded - at the will of a task-master; nor can an English day’s work be had in - France for an English day’s wages. In 1814, I saw France before she - had time to profit by the industrial skill and improvements of - England; again in 1817, and in 1824, when I examined with anxious - care, during a prolonged stay, the grounds of the prevailing - apprehension, that our manufacturing greatness was declining, and that - the cheap labour of France would more than compensate her many - disadvantages. I returned home with the conviction, since, and now - again confirmed, that the labour of Alsace, the best and cheapest in - France, is dearer than the labour of Lancashire. I would not aver that - an English workman would perform twice the work of a workman of the - same class in France, but of this I feel assured, from frequent - personal observation of their habits, and from long and confidential - intercourse with their intelligent and enlightened manufacturers, that - the advantage is _more than twofold_ on the side of England, and that - the true result is not to be obtained by comparisons between - individuals, or even classes of workmen, but in the comparative - aggregate industry of large establishments, or a whole population. - - “Of this difference the intelligent witnesses, who gave evidence in - 1835, before the French Commission of Inquiry into their prohibitory - system, were fully aware, and with some allowances for that natural, - excusable, and perhaps commendable nationality on such a subject, they - did justice to the superior persevering energy of the English workman, - whose enduring, untiring, savage industry, surpasses that of every - other manufacturing country I have visited, Belgium, Germany, and - Switzerland not excepted.” - -The noxious agencies not only impair the strength of the labouring -community, but, as will be further shown, they tend also to shorten the -period of its exercise. This effect will be more apparent when -considering merely the pecuniary burdens of the excess of orphanage and -premature widowhood, apart from the loss of protection and the misery -which it causes. I shall here only observe, as to the depressing effects -assumed from the admitted tendencies of an increase of population, that -the fact is, that hitherto, in England, wages, or the means of obtaining -the necessaries of life for the whole mass of the labouring community, -have advanced, and the comforts within the reach of the labouring -classes have increased with the late increase of population. This may be -verified by reference to various evidence, and amongst others to that -contained in Sir F. Eden’s examinations of the wages and modes of -subsistence of the agricultural labourers in his day, and we have -evidence of this advance even in many of the manufacturing districts now -in a state of severe depression. For example, an eminent manufacturer in -Lancashire, stated to me in November ultimo—“That the same yarn which -cost my father 12_d._ per lb. to make in 1792, all by machinery, now -costs only 2_d._ per lb.; paying _then_ only 4_s._ 4_d._ per hand wages -weekly, _now_ 8_s._ 8_d._ or more; yet those wages amounted _then_ to -5½_d._ per lb., and notwithstanding the higher wages, _now_, to only -1_d._ per lb.” - -The prices of provisions were, during the first period, as high as now, -and the cost of clothing 30 or 40 per cent. higher. - - - - - V.—PECUNIARY BURDENS CREATED BY THE NEGLECT OF SANITARY MEASURES. - - -The more closely the subject of the evils affecting the sanitary -condition of the labouring population is investigated the more widely do -their effects appear to be ramified. The pecuniary cost of noxious -agencies is measured by data within the province of the actuary, by the -charges attendant on the reduced duration of life, and the reduction of -the periods of working ability or production by sickness; the cost would -include also much of the public charge of attendant vice and crime which -come within the province of the police, as well as the destitution which -comes within the province of the administrators of relief. Of the -pecuniary effects, including the cost of maintenance during the -preventible sickness, any estimate approximating to exactness could only -be obtained by very great labour, which does not appear to be necessary. - -To whatever extent the probable duration of the life of the working-man -is diminished by noxious agencies, I repeat a truism in stating that to -some extent so much productive power is lost; and in the case of -destitute widowhood and orphanage, burdens are created and cast either -on the industrious survivors belonging to the family, or on the -contributors to the poor’s rates during the whole of the period of the -failure of such ability. With the view to judge of the extent to which -such burdens are at present cast upon the poor’s rates, I have -endeavoured to ascertain the average age at which death befell the heads -of those families of children who with the mothers have been relieved on -the ground of destitution, in eight of the unions where the average age -of the mortality prevalent amongst the several classes of the community -has been ascertained. - -The workmen who belong to sick-clubs and benefit-societies generally fix -the period of their own superannuation allowances at from 60 to 65 years -of age. I see no reason to doubt that by the removal of noxious agencies -not essential to their trades; by sanitary measures affecting their -dwellings, combined with improvements in their own habits, the period of -ability for productive labour might be extended to the whole of the -labouring class. - -The actual duration of the ability for labour will vary with the nature -of the work, though there can be little doubt that the variations under -proper precautions would be much less than those which now take place. -From the information received in respect to the employment of tailors in -large numbers, it is evident that the average period of the working -ability of that class might be extended at least ten years by -improvements as to the places of work alone. The experience which might -serve to indicate the extent of practicable improvement is at present -narrow and scattered. The chief English insurance tables, such as the -Northampton and Carlisle tables, are made up apparently from the -experience of a population, subject probably to a greater or less extent -to the noxious influences which are shown to be removable. By the -Carlisle table, however, the probability of life to every person who has -attained the age of twenty-one—the age for marriage—would be 40 years, -or 40·75. By the Swedish tables, which are frequently applied to the -insurance of the labouring classes, it would be 38·0. The observations -that have been made on the subject, show that marriage improves rather -than diminishes the probability of life. Where the duration of life is -reduced by the nature of the employment below the usual average, by so -much the widowhood may be considered as increased, as also the orphanage -of their children. As labouring men generally marry early in life, their -wives have ceased to bear children before they have reached fifty, so -that the great mass of orphanage may be assigned to the consequence of -premature death. The following table shows the average ages at which the -deaths occurred of the fathers of the widows’ orphan children who are in -receipt of relief in the following unions. The average includes the -cases of all who died at whatever ages, whether above or below sixty:— - - ┌─────────────────────┬────────┬───────┬────────┬───────┬───────┬───────┐ - │ Unions. │ Number │ │ Number │ │ │ │ - │ │ of │ │ of │ │ │ │ - │ │Husbands│ │Husbands│ │ │ │ - │ │ dying │Average│ dying │Average│ │ │ - │ │ under │Age at │ above │Age at │ Total │Average│ - │ │ 60. │Death. │ 60. │Death. │Deaths.│ Age. │ - ├─────────────────────┼────────┼───────┼────────┼───────┼───────┼───────┤ - │Manchester │ 718│ 42│ 432│ 69│ 1150│ 52│ - │Whitechapel │ 351│ 44│ 239│ 69│ 590│ 54│ - │Bethnal Green │ 250│ 44│ 195│ 69│ 445│ 55│ - │Strand │ 157│ 42│ 63│ 66│ 220│ 49│ - │Oakham & Uppingham │ 136│ 45│ 118│ 71│ 257│ 57│ - │Alston-with-Garrigill│ 69│ 45│ 20│ 66│ 89│ 50│ - │Bath │ 66│ 38│ 1│ 60│ 67│ 39│ - └─────────────────────┴────────┴───────┴────────┴───────┴───────┴───────┘ - -This premature widowhood and orphanage is the source of the most painful -descriptions of pauperism—the most difficult to deal with; it is the -source of a constant influx of the independent into the pauperised and -permanently dependent classes. The widow, where there are children, -generally remains a permanent charge; re-marriages amongst those who -have children are very rare; in some unions they do not exceed one case -in twenty or thirty. By the time the children are fit for labour and -cease to require the parents’ attention, the mothers frequently become -unfit for earning their own livelihood, or habituated to dependence, and -without care to emerge from it. Even where the children are by good -training and education fitted for productive industry, when they marry, -the early familiarity with the parochial relief makes them improvident, -and they fall back upon the poor’s rates on the lying-in of their wives, -on their sickness, and for aid on every emergency. In every district the -poor’s rolls form the pedigrees of generations of families thus -pauperized. The total number of orphan children on account of whose -destitution relief was given from the poor’s rates in the year ended -Lady-day, 1840, was 112,000. - -The numbers of widows chargeable to the poor’s rates was in those unions -at that period 43,000. The following abstract of the returns from the -eight unions selected exhibit the proportions who become chargeable at -different periods of the head of the family. - - _Premature Deaths: Age of Widowhood in various Unions._ - - ┌───────────┬─────────────────╥─────────────────╥─────────────────┐ - │ Ages. │Manchester Union.║ Whitechapel ║ Bethnal Green. │ - │ │ ║ Union. ║ │ - ├───────────┼────────┬────────╫────────┬────────╫────────┬────────┤ - │ │ No. of │ No. of ║ No. of │ No. of ║ No. of │ No. of │ - │ │Husbands│ Orphan ║Husbands│ Orphan ║Husbands│ Orphan │ - │ │ who │Children║ who │Children║ who │Children│ - │ │ Died. │ ║ Died. │ ║ Died. │ │ - ├───────────┼────────┼────────╫────────┼────────╫────────┼────────┤ - │ │ │ ║ │ ║ │ │ - │ 20–25 │ 11│ 20║ 7│ 12║ 2│ 3│ - │ │ │ ║ │ ║ │ │ - │ 25–30 │ 56│ 126║ 17│ 40║ 9│ 19│ - │ │ │ ║ │ ║ │ │ - │ 30–35 │ 108│ 317║ 31│ 85║ 25│ 89│ - │ │ │ ║ │ ║ │ │ - │ 35–40 │ 108│ 333║ 42│ 114║ 40│ 137│ - │ │ │ ║ │ ║ │ │ - │ 40–45 │ 126│ 361║ 63│ 201║ 40│ 153│ - │ │ │ ║ │ ║ │ │ - │ 45–50 │ 112│ 302║ 61│ 178║ 44│ 105│ - │ │ │ ║ │ ║ │ │ - │ 50–55 │ 100│ 183║ 78│ 137║ 45│ 107│ - │ │ │ ║ │ ║ │ │ - │ 55–60 │ 97│ 138║ 51│ 37║ 45│ 54│ - │ │ │ ║ │ ║ │ │ - │ │ │ ║ │ ║ │ │ - │ 60–65 │ 147│ 148║ 87│ 46║ 53│ 35│ - │ │ │ ║ │ ║ │ │ - │ 65–70 │ 96│ 60║ 48│ 18║ 52│ 17│ - │ │ │ ║ │ ║ │ │ - │ 70–75 │ 87│ 55║ 54│ 8║ 57│ 7│ - │ │ │ ║ │ ║ │ │ - │ 75–80 │ 60│ 22║ 25│ 4║ 24│ 8│ - │ │ │ ║ │ ║ │ │ - │ 80–85 │ 35│ 4║ 17│ 2║ 7│ │ - │ │ │ ║ │ ║ │ │ - │ 85–90 │ 5│ ║ 7│ 3║ 2│ │ - │ │ │ ║ │ ║ │ │ - │ 90–95 │ 1│ ║ 2│ ║ │ │ - │ │ │ ║ │ ║ │ │ - │ 95–100 │ │ ║ │ ║ │ │ - │ │ │ ║ │ ║ │ │ - │ 100–105 │ 1│ ║ │ ║ │ │ - ├───────────┼────────┼────────╫────────┼────────╫────────┼────────┤ - │ Totals │ 1150│ 2069║ 590│ 885║ 445│ 734│ - ├───────────┼────────┼────────╫────────┼────────╫────────┼────────┤ - │No. │ │ ║ │ ║ │ │ - │ receiving│ │ ║ │ ║ │ │ - │ Relief │ │ ║ │ ║ │ │ - │ previous │ 199│ ║ 80│ ║ │ │ - │ to │ │ ║ │ ║ │ │ - │ husband’s│ │ ║ │ ║ │ │ - │ death │ │ ║ │ ║ │ │ - └───────────┴────────┴────────╨────────┴────────╨────────┴────────┘ - - ┌───────────┬─────────────────╥─────────────────╥─────────────────┐ - │ Ages. │ Strand Union. ║ Oakham & ║ Alston with │ - │ │ ║Uppingham Unions.║ Garrigill. │ - ├───────────┼────────┬────────╫────────┬────────╫────────┬────────┤ - │ │ No. of │ No. of ║ No. of │ No. of ║ No. of │ No. of │ - │ │Husbands│ Orphan ║Husbands│ Orphan ║Husbands│ Orphan │ - │ │ who │Children║ who │Children║ who │Children│ - │ │ Died. │ ║ Died. │ ║ Died. │ │ - ├───────────┼────────┼────────╫────────┼────────╫────────┼────────┤ - │ │ │ ║ │ ║ │ │ - │ 20–25 │ 1│ 4║ │ ║ 1│ 2│ - │ │ │ ║ │ ║ │ │ - │ 25–30 │ 11│ 19║ 12│ 25║ 5│ 12│ - │ │ │ ║ │ ║ │ │ - │ 30–35 │ 23│ 70║ 8│ 36║ 4│ 16│ - │ │ │ ║ │ ║ │ │ - │ 35–40 │ 20│ 69║ 19│ 71║ 6│ 24│ - │ │ │ ║ │ ║ │ │ - │ 40–45 │ 35│ 81║ 24│ 68║ 12│ 58│ - │ │ │ ║ │ ║ │ │ - │ 45–50 │ 23│ 58║ 19│ 50║ 18│ 84│ - │ │ │ ║ │ ║ │ │ - │ 50–55 │ 24│ 34║ 30│ 60║ 9│ 30│ - │ │ │ ║ │ ║ │ │ - │ 55–60 │ 20│ 17║ 24│ 36║ 14│ 11│ - │ │ │ ║ │ ║ │ │ - │ │ │ ║ │ ║ │ │ - │ 60–65 │ 25│ 17║ 26│ 15║ 13│ 4│ - │ │ │ ║ │ ║ │ │ - │ 65–70 │ 15│ 13║ 26│ 13║ 1│ │ - │ │ │ ║ │ ║ │ │ - │ 70–75 │ 13│ ║ 32│ 10║ 4│ │ - │ │ │ ║ │ ║ │ │ - │ 75–80 │ 5│ 2║ 22│ 4║ 1│ │ - │ │ │ ║ │ ║ │ │ - │ 80–85 │ 5│ ║ 11│ 6║ 1│ │ - │ │ │ ║ │ ║ │ │ - │ 85–90 │ │ ║ │ ║ │ │ - │ │ │ ║ │ ║ │ │ - │ 90–95 │ │ ║ 1│ ║ │ │ - │ │ │ ║ │ ║ │ │ - │ 95–100 │ │ ║ │ ║ │ │ - │ │ │ ║ │ ║ │ │ - │ 100–105 │ │ ║ │ ║ │ │ - ├───────────┼────────┼────────╫────────┼────────╫────────┼────────┤ - │ Totals │ 220│ 384║ 254│ 394║ 89│ 241│ - ├───────────┼────────┼────────╫────────┼────────╫────────┼────────┤ - │No. │ │ ║ │ ║ │ │ - │ receiving│ │ ║ │ ║ │ │ - │ Relief │ │ ║ │ ║ │ │ - │ previous │ 37│ ║ 11│ ║ 27│ │ - │ to │ │ ║ │ ║ │ │ - │ husband’s│ │ ║ │ ║ │ │ - │ death │ │ ║ │ ║ │ │ - └───────────┴────────┴────────╨────────┴────────╨────────┴────────┘ - - ┌───────────┬─────────────────╥─────────────────┐ - │ Ages. │ Bath Union. ║ Total. │ - │ │ ║ │ - ├───────────┼────────┬────────╫────────┬────────┤ - │ │ No. of │ No. of ║ No. of │ No. of │ - │ │Husbands│ Orphan ║Husbands│ Orphan │ - │ │ who │Children║ who │Children│ - │ │ Died. │ ║ Died. │ │ - ├───────────┼────────┼────────╫────────┼────────┤ - │ │ │ ║ │ │ - │ 20–25 │ │ ║ 22│ 41│ - │ │ │ ║ │ │ - │ 25–30 │ 9│ 28║ 119│ 269│ - │ │ │ ║ │ │ - │ 30–35 │ 13│ 52║ 212│ 665│ - │ │ │ ║ │ │ - │ 35–40 │ 12│ 52║ 247│ 800│ - │ │ │ ║ │ │ - │ 40–45 │ 18│ 84║ 318│ 1006│ - │ │ │ ║ │ │ - │ 45–50 │ 9│ 37║ 286│ 814│ - │ │ │ ║ │ │ - │ 50–55 │ 4│ 15║ 290│ 566│ - │ │ │ ║ │ │ - │ 55–60 │ 1│ 6║ 252│ 299│ - │ │ │ ║ │ │ - │ │ │ ║ │ │ - │ 60–65 │ 1│ 4║ 352│ 269│ - │ │ │ ║ │ │ - │ 65–70 │ │ ║ 238│ 121│ - │ │ │ ║ │ │ - │ 70–75 │ │ ║ 247│ 80│ - │ │ │ ║ │ │ - │ 75–80 │ │ ║ 137│ 40│ - │ │ │ ║ │ │ - │ 80–85 │ │ ║ 76│ 12│ - │ │ │ ║ │ │ - │ 85–90 │ │ ║ 14│ 3│ - │ │ │ ║ │ │ - │ 90–95 │ │ ║ 4│ │ - │ │ │ ║ │ │ - │ 95–100 │ │ ║ │ │ - │ │ │ ║ │ │ - │ 100–105 │ │ ║ 1│ │ - ├───────────┼────────┼────────╫────────┼────────┤ - │ Totals │ 67│ 278║ 2815│ 4985│ - ├───────────┼────────┼────────╫────────┼────────┤ - │No. │ │ ║ │ │ - │ receiving│ │ ║ │ │ - │ Relief │ │ ║ │ │ - │ previous │ │ ║ │ │ - │ to │ │ ║ │ │ - │ husband’s│ │ ║ │ │ - │ death │ │ ║ │ │ - └───────────┴────────┴────────╨────────┴────────┘ - - Total Deaths below 60 years of age ... 1746 - -Of the whole number it appears that upwards of 1764 became chargeable by -premature deaths. If the same rule obtains in the other unions, which -could only be ascertained by a very long and expensive inquiry, then -nearly 27,000 cases of premature widowhood, and more than 100,000 cases -of orphanage may be ascribed to removable causes. The chief effects or -the chief of the diseases which appear as consequents to the -circumstances under which the labouring population of the several -districts have been described as living, and under which the fathers of -the orphan children above enumerated have died, are set forth in the -following table:— - - Table of the Chief Causes of Death producing Widowhood and Orphanage in - the under-mentioned Unions and Parishes. - - ┌──────────────┬──────────┬───────────┬───────┬───────┬─────────┐ - │ │ │ │Bethnal│ │ Oakham │ - │DISEASES, &c. │Manchester│Whitechapel│ Green │Strand │ and │ - │ │ Union. │ Union. │Parish.│Union. │Uppingham│ - │ │ │ │ │ │ Unions. │ - ├──────────────┼──────────┼───────────┼───────┼───────┼─────────┤ - │ │ No of │ No of │ No of │ No of │ No of │ - │ │ Deaths. │ Deaths. │Deaths.│Deaths.│ Deaths. │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - ├──────────────┼──────────┼───────────┼───────┼───────┼─────────┤ - │Respiratory │ 500│ 212│ 147│ 95│ 69│ - │ Organs │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │Epidemic, │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ Endemic and │ 146│ 65│ 73│ 28│ 34│ - │ Contagious │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │Digestive │ 60│ 16│ 10│ 10│ 14│ - │ Organs │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │Nervous │ 74│ 41│ 38│ 17│ 25│ - │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │Violent Deaths│ 94│ 44│ 20│ 16│ 23│ - │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │Old Age │ 84│ 104│ 46│ 13│ 47│ - │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │Other │ 129│ 68│ 104│ 32│ 36│ - │ Diseases[29]│ │ │ │ │ │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │Undescribed │ 63│ 40│ 7│ 9│ 6│ - ├──────────────┼──────────┼───────────┼───────┼───────┼─────────┤ - │ Total │ 1150│ 590│ 445│ 220│ 254│ - └──────────────┴──────────┴───────────┴───────┴───────┴─────────┘ - - ┌──────────────┬─────────┬───────┬─────────────────────────┐ - │ │ Alston │ │ │ - │DISEASES, &c. │ with │ Bath │ Total. │ - │ │Garrigill│Union. │ │ - │ │ Parish. │ │ │ - ├──────────────┼─────────┼───────┼───────┬────────┬────────┤ - │ │ No of │ No of │ No of │Average │ No. of │ - │ │ Deaths. │Deaths.│Deaths.│ Age of │Orphans.│ - │ │ │ │ │Decease.│ │ - ├──────────────┼─────────┼───────┼───────┼────────┼────────┤ - │Respiratory │ 47│ 40│ 1110│ 51│ 2218│ - │ Organs │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │Epidemic, │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ Endemic and │ 9│ 4│ 359│ 46│ 862│ - │ Contagious │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │Digestive │ 5│ 3│ 118│ 54│ 180│ - │ Organs │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │Nervous │ 3│ 5│ 203│ 55│ 296│ - │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │Violent Deaths│ 13│ 5│ 215│ 46│ 508│ - │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │Old Age │ 5│ │ 299│ 74│ 56│ - │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │Other │ 7│ 8│ 384│ 54│ 694│ - │ Diseases[29]│ │ │ │ │ │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │Undescribed │ │ 2│ 127│ 47│ 171│ - ├──────────────┼─────────┼───────┼───────┼────────┼────────┤ - │ Total │ 89│ 67│ 2815│ 53│ 4985│ - └──────────────┴─────────┴───────┴───────┴────────┴────────┘ - -As an example of the mode in which the causes of premature deaths fall, -and of the burdens they entail in many districts, I submit a return of -the whole of the cases of widowhood on the pauper rolls of the parish of -Alston and Garrigill, Cumberland, the parish in which are situate the -lodging-houses described in the evidence collected by _Dr. Mitchell_. - - ALSTON WITH GARRIGILL PARISH. - - Number of Widows, and Children dependent upon them, in receipt of - Relief in the above Parish; Age of Husband at Death; and the alleged - Cause of Death. - - ┌───────┬─────────┬───────────────┬──────┬─────────┬──────────────────┐ - │Initals│Number of│ Occupation of │Age at│ Years’ │Assigned Cause of │ - │ of │Children │ deceased │Death.│ loss by │ Death. │ - │Widows.│dependent│ Husband. │ │premature│ │ - │ │ at the │ │ │ Death. │ │ - │ │ time of │ │ │ │ │ - │ │Husband’s│ │ │ │ │ - │ │ Death. │ │ │ │ │ - ├───────┼─────────┼───────────────┼──────┼─────────┼──────────────────┤ - │ R. W. │ │Miner │ 83 │ │Decay of nature. │ - │ M. S. │ │Tailor │ 78 │ │Natural decay. │ - │ M. B. │ │Miner │ 73 │ │Not stated. │ - │ M. R. │ │Miner │ 72 │ │Decay of nature. │ - │ S. M. │ │Miner │ 72 │ │Decay of nature. │ - │ M. T. │ │Mason │ 72 │ │Asthma produced │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ from age. │ - │ A. V. │ │Miner │ 67 │ │Asthma produced │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ from working in │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ mines. │ - │ M. L. │ │Miner │ 64 │ │Influenza. │ - │ A. M. │ │Miner │ 63 │ │Asthma produced │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ from working in │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ the lead-mines. │ - │ M. S. │ │Miner │ 63 │ │Natural decline. │ - │ J. P. │ │Labourer │ 62 │ │Consumption. │ - │ H. T. │ 2 │Mason │ 62 │ │Asthma. │ - │ S. H. │ 2 │Miner │ 60 │ │Rupture of │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ blood-vessel. │ - │ J. R. │ │Miner │ 60 │ │Asthma produced │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ from working in │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ the mines. │ - │ H. L. │ │Miner │ 60 │ │Asthma. │ - │ J. P. │ │Miner │ 60 │ │Consumption. │ - │ M. T. │ 2 │Miner │ 60 │ │Bursting │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ blood-vessel. │ - │ A. C. │ │Joiner │ 60 │ │Jaundice. │ - │ E. K. │ │Miner │ 60 │ │Asthma produced │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ from working in │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ the mines. │ - │ E. H. │ │Miner │ 60 │ │Cholera. │ - │ D. J. │ │Glazier │ 59 │ 1 │Affection of the │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ liver. │ - │ N. D. │ 4 │Butcher │ 59 │ 1 │Apoplexy. │ - │ M. T. │ │Miner │ 59 │ 1 │Inflammation of │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ the lungs. │ - │ H. A. │ │Miner │ 59 │ 1 │Asthma produced │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ from working in │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ the lead-mines, │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ which terminated│ - │ │ │ │ │ │ in consumption. │ - │ J. B. │ │Miner │ 59 │ 1 │Asthma │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ ditto. │ - │ E. T. │ │Labourer │ 58 │ 2 │Accident by a │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ coal-waggon. │ - │ M. P. │ │Miner │ 58 │ 2 │Asthma produced │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ from working in │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ the lead-mines, │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ which terminated│ - │ │ │ │ │ │ in consumption. │ - │ H. T. │ │Miner │ 57 │ 3 │Consumption │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ accelerated by │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ working in the │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ lead-mines. │ - │ M. P. │ 1 │Turner │ 57 │ 3 │Consumption. │ - │ H. S. │ 3 │Miner │ 57 │ 3 │Influenza, │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ terminating in │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ dropsy. │ - │ M. J. │ 3 │Blacksmith │ 55 │ 5 │Asthma. │ - │ S. M. │ │Miner │ 55 │ 5 │Inflammation of │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ lungs from cold.│ - │ R. W. │ │Miner │ 55 │ 5 │Asthma produced │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ from working in │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ lead-mines. │ - │ M. R. │ │Miner │ 55 │ 5 │Asthma from │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ working in the │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ mines │ - │ J. W. │ 2 │Miner │ 51 │ 6 │Pleurisy. │ - │ A. F. │ │Miner │ 54 │ 6 │Asthma and rupture│ - │ │ │ │ │ │ of blood-vessel.│ - │ J. L. │ 2 │Miner │ 53 │ 7 │Chronic disease of│ - │ │ │ │ │ │ rheumatism. │ - │ N. H. │ 2 │Miner │ 53 │ 7 │Asthma produced │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ from working in │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ the lead-mines. │ - │ A. S. │ │Miner │ 52 │ 8 │Asthma and │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ bursting │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ blood-vessel. │ - │ M. W. │ 6 │Miner │ 52 │ 8 │Asthma produced │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ from working in │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ the mines. │ - │ E. W. │ 5 │Miner │ 52 │ 8 │Asthma produced │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ from working in │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ the mines, which│ - │ │ │ │ │ │ terminated in │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ consumption. │ - │ J. S. │ 6 │Miner │ 51 │ 9 │Paralysis. │ - │ H. P. │ 9 │Quarryman │ 49 │ 11 │Asthma by working │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ in the │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ lead-mines. │ - │ H. P. │ 5 │Miner │ 48 │ 12 │Typhus fever. │ - │ E. H. │ 6 │Miner │ 48 │ 12 │Killed in │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ lead-mines. │ - │ M. A. │ 7 │Miner │ 48 │ 12 │Consumption by bad│ - │ │ │ │ │ │ air in the pit. │ - │ J. C. │ 8 │Miner │ 47 │ 13 │Asthma produced by│ - │ │ │ │ │ │ working in the │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ lead-mines. │ - │ S. E. │ 6 │Miner │ 47 │ 13 │Consumption │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ produced from a │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ continuance of │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ influenza. │ - │ M. T. │ 8 │Miner │ 47 │ 13 │Consumption and │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ asthma. │ - │ E. B. │ 3 │Miner │ 47 │ 13 │Affection of the │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ head, caused │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ from an accident│ - │ │ │ │ │ │ received in the │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ mine. │ - │ D. R. │ │Miner │ 46 │ 14 │Asthma produced │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ from working in │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ the lead-mines. │ - │ E. B. │ 5 │Miner │ 46 │ 14 │Rheumatic fever, │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ which produced │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ inflammation of │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ the brain. │ - │ M. S. │ 5 │Miner │ 46 │ 14 │Killed in │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ lead-mine. │ - │ M. R. │ 1 │Joiner │ 46 │ 14 │Dropsy. │ - │ M. F. │ 7 │Coal Miner │ 46 │ 14 │Explosion of │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ fire-damp in a │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ coal-mine. │ - │ L. T. │ 3 │Miner │ 45 │ 15 │Asthma, which │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ terminated with │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ dropsy. │ - │ H. P. │ 3 │Miner │ 45 │ 15 │Scarlet fever. │ - │ H. Y. │ 5 │Miner │ 45 │ 15 │Consumption, │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ accelerated by │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ working in the │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ lead-mines. │ - │ M. S. │ 2 │Miner │ 45 │ 15 │Inflammation of │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ bowels. │ - │ M. S. │ 5 │Joiner │ 45 │ 15 │Consumption. │ - │ A. S. │ 6 │Miner │ 44 │ 16 │Dropsy. │ - │ A. B. │ 6 │Miner │ 44 │ 16 │Asthma from │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ working in │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ lead-mines. │ - │ F. C. │ 5 │Miner │ 43 │ 17 │Asthma produced │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ from working in │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ the lead-mines. │ - │ M. D. │ 4 │Miner │ 43 │ 17 │Consumption │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ produced from │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ asthma, caused │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ by working in │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ the mines. │ - │ H. M. │ 7 │Miner │ 43 │ 17 │Asthma, which │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ terminated in │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ consumption. │ - │ A. P. │ 7 │Superintendent.│ 43 │ 17 │A fall from the │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ “horse” in the │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ engine-shaft. │ - │ P. W. │ 4 │Miner │ 43 │ 17 │Pleurisy. │ - │ E. W. │ 8 │Miner │ 42 │ 18 │Consumption and │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ asthma produced │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ from working in │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ the lead-mines. │ - │ J. H. │ 4 │Miner │ 42 │ 18 │Consumption. │ - │ J. J. │ 5 │Miner │ 42 │ 18 │Pleurisy. │ - │ A. J. │ 2 │Miller │ 42 │ 18 │Found drowned. │ - │ M. R. │ │Shoemaker │ 40 │ 20 │Injury from fall │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ of a cart. │ - │ E. R. │ 7 │Joiner │ 38 │ 22 │Affection of the │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ liver. │ - │ J. B. │ 5 │Miner │ 38 │ 22 │Consumption. │ - │ A. P. │ 7 │Miner │ 37 │ 21 │Asthma. │ - │ E. W. │ 3 │Miner │ 36 │ 24 │Accident in mine, │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ which terminated│ - │ │ │ │ │ │ in consumption. │ - │ E. H. │ 3 │Miner │ 35 │ 25 │Killed in │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ coal-pit. │ - │ M. L. │ 2 │Miner │ 35 │ 25 │Water of the head.│ - │ A. S. │ 4 │Miner │ 35 │ 25 │Income on leg. │ - │ S. H. │ 7 │Miner │ 34 │ 26 │Accident in │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ coal-mine. │ - │ J. H. │ 4 │Cordwainer │ 30 │ 30 │Typhus fever. │ - │ S. H. │ 3 │Cartman │ 30 │ 30 │Accidental. │ - │ E. A. │ 2 │Miner │ 30 │ 30 │Consumption. │ - │ M. J. │ 3 │Teacher │ 29 │ 31 │Consumption. │ - │ M. R. │ 3 │Miner │ 29 │ 31 │Affection of │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ urinary organs. │ - │ A. W. │ 2 │Miner │ 28 │ 32 │Cholera. │ - │ M. W. │ 3 │Miner │ 27 │ 33 │Inflammation of │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ bowels. │ - │ A. H. │ 1 │Pitman │ 25 │ 35 │Accident at │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ colliery. │ - │ J. M. │ 2 │Miner │ 21 │ 39 │Small-pox. │ - ├───────┼─────────┼───────────────┼──────┼─────────┼──────────────────┤ - │ 89 │ 242 │ │ 4418 │ │ │ - ├───────┼─────────┼───────────────┼──────┼─────────┼──────────────────┤ - │ │ │Average age at │ 45 │ │Total No. of │ - │ │ │death of each │ │ │ orphans by death│ - │ │ │below 60 years │ │ │ caused below 60 │ - │ │ │of age. │ │ │ years of age. } │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ 236 │ - └───────┴─────────┴───────────────┴──────┴─────────┴──────────────────┘ - -A complete analysis of the whole of the causes contributory to the -premature mortality displayed in this group of cases would be a work of -much labour, and would in nowise affect the soundness of the conclusions -derivable from other sources, that a large amount, and probably the -great mass of it, is preventible. - -It would, for instance, be difficult to decide the precise term of years -of life cut short by the effects of the lodging-houses, in producing or -aggravating other tendencies to consumption; but the information -possessed by persons who have made themselves acquainted with the -effects of impure air enables them to pronounce with certainty that the -habitual exposure of a body of men to such noxious influences must be -attended by a diminution of several years of the definite standard of -life. Of the 31 deaths of miners below 60 years of age, from diseases of -the respiratory organs, enumerated in the above return, a part of the -causes may be attributable to their occupation, a part to the external -circumstances of residence and connected habits. Now we have examples of -the separate advantages attendant on the removal of both causes of -disease I adduce the following information, obtained through Sir John -Walsham, with relation to the effects of an improvement in the external -circumstances of the workmen as to residences. - -_Captain Harland_, the chairman of the Reeth union, York (North Riding), -in a communication to Sir John Walsham, states, that he has been anxious -to ascertain as correctly as possible, first, the average duration of -life among the mining population of the respective parishes in that -district, and how far it appeared to be affected by their general habits -as well as by the state of their domiciles; and he gives the following -results:— - - “By a careful examination of the parish registers, I find that in the - last seven years there have died in— - - The parish of Marrick 15 miners; average age, 47⅗ years. - - The parish of Arkendale 70 miners; average age, 45‑19/35 years. - - The chapelry of Muker, in the 39 miners; average age, 45‑29/39 years. - parish of Grinton - - The remainder of the parish of 40 miners; average age, 54‑39/40 years. - Grinton, _viz._ Grinton Reeth - and Meblecks - - Total, 164; general average, 48‑13/164 years. - - “The prevailing diseases throughout the whole district are bronchial - affections and rheumatism, which may generally be attributed to - exposure to cold and rain after leaving the close, warm atmosphere of - the mine. - - “The miners’ dwellings in Marrick are small thatched cottages, - situated very near their work; they are consequently less exposed to - wet and cold on their way home, but (although dry and kept tolerably - clean) from the want of room and proper ventilation, the inmates are - more liable to contagious disorders than the more comfortably lodged - miners in the parish of Grinton. In Arkendale the houses are of a - somewhat better description, but the drainage is imperfect; the habits - of the people filthy and intemperate; cutaneous disorders very common; - and they are frequently the victims of typhus and other malignant - fevers. - - “In the parish of Grinton the houses are of a decidedly superior - description. Forty years ago they were mostly thatched with ling or - heath; a thatched house is now rarely seen. The miners are all - comfortably lodged, generally well clothed, clean, and orderly in - their habits; and I have no doubt to these causes may be attributed - the great difference between the mortality in this parish and that of - Arkendale in the same period. - - “In Muker the mortality, in proportion to its population, has been - nearly the same as in Arkendale; but many of the miners work - occasionally in coal-mines, are more exposed to storms, by reason of - their work being at a greater distance from their dwellings; and those - dwellings are also of a description inferior to those of the other - townships in the parish of Grinton. From these circumstances I infer - that the average duration of a lead-miner’s life, and his greater - freedom from disease, have increased in proportion to the increased - airiness and increased convenience of his dwelling.” - -I have already referred to the example cited by Dr. Barham of the health -of the miners in one mine, the Dolcoath mine, in the parish of Camborne, -in Cornwall, where great attention is paid to obviate agencies injurious -to the miners. Care is there taken in respect to ventilation in the -mines. “The ventilation in Dolcoath is particularly good, and the men -are healthier than in most other mines; there are more old miners.” Care -is taken for the prevention of accidents. “Our ladders,” says one of the -witnesses examined by Dr. Barham, “are about two fathoms and a half in -length, generally with staves one foot apart. We use oak staves; old -ship oak we find the best. We formerly used the hafts of the picks and -other tools, but found these unsafe, the wood being sleepy and flawed, -and sometimes breaking off in a moment, without having shown any outward -sign of unsoundness. Iron staves, besides being at times very slippery, -are apt to be corroded, so as to cut the hand. We have had no accidents -on our footways for a long time.” They have introduced the safety fuse, -and the witness says:—“Very few accidents now arise from explosions;” -“they used to happen frequently formerly.” Care is taken of the miners -on quitting the mines; hence, instead of issuing on the bleak hill side, -and receiving beer in a shed, to prevent chill and exhaustion, they -issue from their underground labour into a warm room, where well-dried -clothes are ready for them, and warm water, and even baths are supplied -from the steam furnace, and, in the instance of this mine, a provision -of hot beef-soup instead of beer is ready for them in another room. The -honour of having made this change is stated to be due to the Right Hon. -Lady Basset, on the suggestion of Dr. Carlyon. “Hence in this mine,” -says Dr. Barham, “we may fairly attribute to the combination of -beneficial arrangements just noticed that in Dolcoath, where 451 -individuals are employed underground, only two have died within the last -three years of miners’ consumption, a statement which could not, I -believe, be made with truth nor be nearly approached in respect of an -equal number of miners during the same term in any other Cornish -district.” The sick-club of the mine “is comparatively rich, having a -fund of 1500_l._” - -When “care” is mentioned as taken for sanitary measures, it is to be -remembered that it is care only at the outset, and that when in habitual -action the care required is really less, and the measures should be -characterized as means for avoiding care and trouble and diminishing -pecuniary loss. - -The effect of sanitary care in the mines of Camborne is, so far as it -has been carried, marked in the following table, made up by Mr. Blee, a -medical practitioner in the neighbourhood, from the mortuary registers, -showing the average age of death of the population as compared with the -average of death in two other adjacent parishes of Illogan and Gwennap, -in both of which some beneficent alterations have been made, especially -in Illogan, but the works are stated to be new, and the circumstances -not so favourable as at Camborne:— - - TABLE showing the average Ages of Persons dying above 30, and - registered, in three years in the Parish of Camborne, in two years in - Gwennap, and in one year in Illogan. - - ┌────────┬───────────────┬────────┬───────────────────────────────────┐ - │ │ Males. │Females.│ Proportion per cent. of Miners’ │ - │ │ │ │ Deaths by Mine Accidents. │ - ├────────┼───────┬───────┼────────┼───────────────────────────────────┤ - │ │Miners.│ Not │ │ │ - │ │ │Miners.│ │ │ - ├────────┼───────┼───────┼────────┼───────────────────────────────────┤ - │Gwennap │ 45│ 60│ 64│ 16│ - │Illogan │ 49│ 68│ 64│ 32│ - │Camborne│ 54│ 60│ 63│ 5│ - └────────┴───────┴───────┴────────┴───────────────────────────────────┘ - -The improvement in Camborne had not reached the residences, where the -miners kept pigs, in sties close behind the house, and a dungheap is -carefully fostered in a catch-pit adjacent. Dr. Barham, and the medical -men practising in the vicinity, attribute to the decomposition of -vegetable matter in the “soaked soil from the receptacles near the -dwellings a form of fever which has been hanging about Camborne, and has -often passed into the typhoid condition, and has been attended with -great prostration of strength.”[30] - -I have obtained through Mr. Baker, of Leeds, who, as superintendent of -factories, has had good means of making an accurate comparison, the -following contrast of the results as shown in the state of mortality -amidst the population of two contiguous manufacturing districts employed -in similar proportions in the same description of work, and differing -only in the state of the atmosphere in which they lived. The districts -are the townships of Great Bradford and Horton, in Yorkshire, both in -the parish of Bradford, and contiguous, differing only in elevation and -atmospheric influence. - - “The town of Bradford lies in a hollow formed by the high land of the - surrounding country, a part of which forms the township of Horton, and - both populations, in about an equal ratio, are employed in - worsted-mills, built about the same period of time, in the same kind - of architecture, with the same appliances for ventilation and - purification in every respect, differing only in comparison as to - numbers both of population and mills. - - Population. Births. Deaths. - Bradford 34,560 1 in 25·8 1 in 37·3 - Horton 17,618 1 in 28·0 1 in 47·0 - - “The difference between the two localities will at once be seen, and - can only be accounted for by the difference in atmospheric influences, - the former population being resident in ill-conditioned dwellings, - without sufficient ventilation; the latter residing in localities - which, though undrained in many instances, are yet open to pure air - and breezes which never reach the town without the most perfect - contamination.” - -Dr. Barham mentions, as an example of the benevolent foresight which -economizes the strength and life of workmen, and perceives that there is -a profit as well as humanity in so doing, that at Tresavean, a great -copper mine in Gwennap, as a substitute for the ladders, before -universal, machinery has been erected for the raising and lowering of -the miners. This, he states, will be effected at the cost of 2000_l._ at -the least, but this sum, it is calculated, will soon be repaid by the -saving of the time and fatigue of the men. - -Such evidence as that above given, and as will be submitted in other -instances, will leave little doubt that, by a combination of practicable -sanitary regulations comprehending the economy of the residence as well -as the place of work, the enormous suffering and waste of life which at -present depresses large masses of the working population may be rendered -comparatively inconsiderable. The amount of such depression on the -mining population, in making it consist of young persons and more -transient, is marked in a return prepared by Mr. R. Lanyon, the medical -practitioner acquainted with the locality, and which was read at the -Polytechnic Society in Cornwall. - -On examining the ages of 2145 _men_ engaged in mining, it was found that -their average age was 30 years, and that the average period they had -been engaged in work was 15 years. On examining the condition of 1033 -_men_, artisans, agricultural labourers, living and working in the -vicinity, it was found that their average age was 40 years, and that -their average period of work then completed was 25 years. Of the mining -population one-third only had reached 50 years of age, whilst of the -non-mining population one-third had attained 70 years of age. - -I might submit these two examples, the one as a young and comparatively -weak population, the other as a comparatively mature and strong -population. The adult mining population of 30 years of age is not, I -apprehend, a population advancing to a further stage of maturity, but -one kept down by noxious agencies and premature mortality to that limit -of age, with no chance for them or for other generations to pass beyond -it whilst in this employment, except through the operation of sanitary -measures in removing the causes of depression. - -The difference in the proportions of ages between a depressed and -unhealthy and a comparatively long-lived and strong population, is shown -in the following comparative view of the ages of the miners and of the -1033 non-mining labourers who were living and working:— - - ┌──────────────┬───────┬─────┬──────┬─────┬──────┬─────┬─────┬────────┐ - │ │ 30 │ 40 │ 45 │ 50 │ 55 │ 60 │ 70 │80 Years│ - │ │ Years │Years│Years │Years│Years │Years│Years│ and │ - │ │of Age │ and │ and │ and │ and │ and │ and │upwards.│ - │ │ and │under│under │under│under │under│under│ │ - │ │ under │ 45. │ 50. │ 55. │ 60. │ 70. │ 80. │ │ - │ │ 40. │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - ├──────────────┼───────┼─────┼──────┼─────┼──────┼─────┼─────┼────────┤ - │Miners 1651│ 772│ 377│ 239│ 125│ 56│ 29│ 1│ │ - │Labourers 1033│ 695│ 422│ Not │ 284│ Not │ 144│ 48│ 7│ - │ │ │ │given.│ │given.│ │ │ │ - │ │ Per │ Per │ Per │ Per │ Per │ Per │ Per │ Per │ - │ │ cent. │cent.│cent. │cent.│cent. │cent.│cent.│ cent. │ - │Miners │ 47│ 23│ 14│ 7½│ 3½│ 1½│ │ │ - │Labourers │ 67│ 41│ │ 27│ │ 14│ 4½│ ½│ - └──────────────┴───────┴─────┴──────┴─────┴──────┴─────┴─────┴────────┘ - -So that whilst in every 100 men of the younger population of workpeople -there would not be 2 men of the experience beyond sixty years of age, -not 8 above fifty, or not a fourth passed forty; in the older population -there would be 14 beyond sixty, 27 beyond fifty, or a clear majority of -mature age, and, it may be presumed, of the comparatively staid habits -given by age. Dr. Scott Allison found that the average age of the living -male heads of families of the _collier_ population at Tranent whose -condition he has contrasted with that of the agricultural population, -and whose ages he could ascertain, was 34 years; whilst the average age -of the living male heads of the agricultural families was 51 years and -10 months. He considers that the like proportions would be found to be -more extensively prevalent, and would serve as fair indications of the -relative condition of the different populations. - -Whenever the adult population of a physically depressed district, such -as Manchester, is brought out on any public occasion, the preponderance -of youth in the crowd and the small proportion of aged, or even of the -middle aged, amongst them is apt to strike those who have seen -assemblages of the working population of other districts more favourably -situated. - -In the course of some inquiries under the Constabulary Force Commission -as to the proportions of a paid force that would apparently be requisite -for the protection of the peace in the manufacturing districts, -reference was made to the meetings held by torchlight in the -neighbourhood of Manchester. It was reported to us, on close observation -by peace-officers, that the bulk of the assemblages consisted of mere -boys, and that there were scarcely any men of mature age to be seen -amongst them. Those of mature age and experience, it was stated, -generally disapproved of the proceedings of the meetings as injurious to -the working classes themselves. These older men, we were assured by -their employers, were intelligent, and perceived that capital, and large -capital, was not the means of their depression, but of their steady and -abundant support. They were generally described as being above the -influence of the anarchical fallacies which appeared to sway those wild -and really dangerous assemblages. The inquiry which arose upon such -statements was how it happened that the men of mature age, feeling their -own best interests injured by the proceedings of the younger portion of -the working classes, how they, the elders, did not exercise a -restraining influence upon their less experienced fellow-workmen? On -inquiring of the owner of some extensive manufacturing property, on -which between 1000 and 2000 persons were maintained at wages yielding -40_s._ per week per family, whether he could rely on the aid of the men -of mature age for the protection of the capital which furnished them the -means of subsistence? he stated he could rely on them confidently. But -on ascertaining the numbers qualified for service as special constables, -the gloomy fact became apparent, that the proportion of men of strength -and of mature age for such service were but as a small group against a -large crowd, and that for any social influence they were equally weak. -The disappearance by premature deaths of the heads of families and the -older workmen at such ages as those recorded in the returns of dependent -widowhood and orphanage, must to some extent practically involve the -necessity of supplying the lapse of staid influence amidst a young -population by one description or other of precautionary force. - -On expostulating on other occasions with middle-aged and experienced -workmen on the folly as well as the injustice of their trade unions, by -which the public peace was compromised by the violences of strike after -strike, without regard to the experiences of the suffering from the -continued failures of their exertions for objects the attainment of -which would have been most injurious to themselves, the workmen of the -class remonstrated with, invariably disclaimed connexion with the -proceedings, and showed that they abstained from attendance at the -meetings. The common expression was, they would not attend to be borne -down by “mere boys,” who were furious, and knew not what they were -about. The predominance of a young and violent majority was general. - -In the metropolis the experience is similar. The mobs against which the -police have to guard come from the most depressed districts; and the -constant report of the superintendents is, that scarcely any old men are -to be seen amongst them. In general they appear to consist of persons -between 16 to 25 years of age. The mobs from such districts as Bethnal -Green are proportionately conspicuous for a deficiency of bodily -strength, without, however, being from that cause proportionately the -less dangerously mischievous. I was informed by peace officers that the -great havoc at Bristol was committed by mere boys. - -The experience of the metropolitan police is also similar as to the -comparatively small proportion of force available for public service -from such depressed districts. It is corroborative also of the evidence -as to the physical deterioration of their population, as well as the -disproportion in respect to age. Two out of every three of the -candidates for admission to the police force itself are found defective -in the physical qualifications. It is rare that any one of the -candidates from Spitalfields, Whitechapel, or the districts where the -mean duration of life is low, is found to possess the requisite physical -qualifications for the force, which is chiefly recruited from the open -districts at the outskirts of the town, or from Norfolk and Suffolk, and -other agricultural counties. - -In general the juvenile delinquents, who come from the inferior -districts of the towns, are conspicuously under size. In a recent -examination of juvenile delinquents at Parkhurst by Mr. Kay -Shuttleworth, the great majority were found to be deficient in physical -organization. An impression is often prevalent that the criminal -population consists of persons of the greatest physical strength. -Instances of criminals of great strength certainly do occur; but -speaking from observation of the adult prisoners from the towns and the -convicts in the hulks, they are in general below the average standard of -height. - -Reverting to the observations as to the influence of adverse physical -circumstances on the morals of the population, I must here include in -the observation the younger portion of the population. - -I might adduce the evidence of the teachers of the pauper children at -Norwood to show that a deteriorated physical condition does in fact -greatly increase the difficulty of moral and intellectual cultivation. -The intellects of the children of such inferior physical organization -are torpid; it is comparatively difficult to gain their attention or to -sustain it; it requires much labour to irradiate the countenance with -intelligence, and the irradiation is apt to be transient. As a class -they are comparatively irritable and bad tempered. The most experienced -and zealous teachers are gladdened by the sight of well-grown healthy -children, which presents to them better promise that their labours will -be less difficult and more lasting and successful. On one occasion a -comparison was made between the progress of two sets of children in -Glasgow, the one set taken from the wynds and placed under the care of -one of the most skilful and successful infant schoolmasters, the other a -set of children from a more healthy town district and of a better -physical condition, placed under the care of a pupil of the master who -had charge of the children from the wynds. After a trial for a -sufficient time, the more experienced master acknowledged the -comparative inferiority of his pupils, and his inability to keep them up -to the pace of the better bodily conditioned children. - -The facts indicated will suffice to show the importance of the moral and -political considerations, viz., that the noxious physical agencies -depress the health and bodily condition of the population, and act as -obstacles to education and to moral culture; that in abridging the -duration of the adult life of the working classes they check the growth -of productive skill, and abridge the amount of social experience and -steady moral habits in the community: that they substitute for a -population that accumulates and preserves instruction and is steadily -progressive, a population that is young, inexperienced, ignorant, -credulous, irritable, passionate, and dangerous, having a perpetual -tendency to moral as well as physical deterioration. - -The group of cases of the mining population from Alston and Garrigill, -it appears to me, will, when considered, afford an example of the -powerful nature of the physical elements of deterioration. In that -district the employers and persons of the higher classes have paid great -attention to maintain the means of moral improvement. They have only not -been made aware of the practicability or of the importance of sustaining -the physical condition of the workpeople, as exemplified in respect to -the same description of labourers at Camborne. - -The duration of life amongst the mining population of the lead-miners at -Alston and Garrigill, and the adjacent district, is about 14 years less -than that given by the Swedish tables. Their physical condition was -depressed. “The young men appeared very healthy, but exceedingly few of -them,” says Dr. Mitchell, “were of a large size; and in general it may -be said they are of a small size.” He states that in moral condition -they are most exemplary:— - - “The means of education in Alston parish are extensive: there is the - grammar-school, the master of which must be acquainted with Latin, but - he gives a general education; there is a charity-school, and a school - kept by a master on his own account; there is the school of the London - Lead Company at Nenthead, at which other children besides those of - their own workpeople are allowed to attend. There is a school at - Garrigill Gate, and one at Tynehead, and another at Leadgate; there - are also many dame schools and 10 Sunday schools. * * * I procured the - catalogues of several libraries, and the books are such as to convey - valuable information, and are far superior to most of the works which - are found in the catalogues of the institutions called literary and - scientific in and about the metropolis. * * * As to the intellectual - condition of the people, it is decidedly superior to that of any - district of England of which I have any knowledge. The witnesses - uniformly manifested a clearness of comprehension of the inquiries - made of them, and gave distinct replies, and added of themselves other - information hearing on the subject. Almost all of them could sign - their evidence, and most of them wrote exceedingly well. * * * The - evidence of the employers and the parochial authorities, as well as of - the men themselves, fully proves that there is a very general - sobriety, and that the contrary practice is exceedingly rare. * * * - Offences against property are very rare. It may be doubted whether we - may consider it a proof of the honesty of the people, that pigs of - lead may be seen lying by the road sides and in the fells as much - exposed as so many stones. There is no magistrate nearer to Alston - than a distance of 14 miles. Offences against the law are very rare.” - -Instances have been frequently presented in the course of this inquiry -of the moral degradation of the children of workpeople, and of the -workpeople themselves, who have once been what those miners now are in -moral condition; but the cases taken from the pauper roll of the union -will serve to show that even a good education will not, of itself, -sustain such a body of workmen against the physical causes of -depression. The group of cases of widowhood, when considered, will serve -to show that the causes in question create the evils of which they are -supposed to be natural correctives. - -With such an educated class of workmen, the obtainment of a place and -the wages of an adult must be the necessary preliminary to a marriage, -and unless such place or wages were obtained, the young workman would -either remain single or seek employment further a-field. But we will -suppose, for illustration, that a casualty occurs, such as the last -death on the list, J. M., where a young miner who has married and has a -wife and two children is prematurely swept away by an epidemic at 21 -years of age, leaving a widow and two destitute orphan children -dependent on poor relations, or on the ratepayers. The first mentioned, -say S. H., then takes the vacant place of work, marries, and is killed -at 34 years of age by “an accident in the mine,” leaving a widow and -seven orphan children. This third vacancy in the place of work is -occupied by another miner H. Y., who marries and works until he is 45, -when he is killed by “consumption,” leaving a widow and five children. - -Such casualties do not of course actually so fall on any one place of -work, but the vacancies so created in different places at the younger -periods of life must be and are supplied by new hands coming into the -employment, and marrying as a consequence of that employment, and the -succession will fairly represent 1 he mode in which the vacancies -created by the various causes of death displayed in the last table and -in the other tables of the causes of premature widowhood and orphanage -occur. - -In works where the average period of working ability is extended to the -natural period of superannuation, which the evidence shows that a -combination of internal and external sanitary measures maybe expected to -give, namely an average of full 60 years, the account for one place -would be one superannuated workman and one widow, and a family of four -or five well-grown children, who, having received parental care during -that period, will probably all have obtained, before its termination, -the means of independent self-support. Whereas with a population of only -15 or 20 years of working ability, the same place of work may during the -same period have been filled by two generations and one-fourth of -workpeople, not one of which has brought all the children dependent on -it to maturity or a condition for self-support; and the account of -widowhood and orphanage will frequently for the same place of work stand -thus:— - - Workmen prematurely Dead. Orphan Children. Years’ loss of Support. - J. M. 1 widow 2 39 - S. H. 1 widow 7 26 - H. Y. 1 widow 5 15 - -That is to say, three widows instead of one, and three sets of stunted -and unhealthy children dependent for such various periods, as those -above specified, and competing for employment at the same place, instead -of one set of healthy children arrived at the age of working ability for -self-support. The occupation of the places of work by a comparatively -young and procreative population, brought forward by the premature -removal of the middle aged and the aged workers, by the various causes -of premature deaths—the acceleration of births by premature deaths in -infancy as stated in a preceding note—will, I apprehend, sufficiently -clearly account for the generally increased proportions of births in -those districts where the rate of mortality is high; and it will -scarcely be necessary to give further illustrations of the dreadful -fallacy which tends to an acquiescence in the continuance of the causes -of pestilence and premature mortality as correctives of the pressure of -population.” - -Though the deaths from accidents bear only a small proportion to the -deaths from disease, yet registries show that the scattered deaths from -various descriptions of violence amount to an average of about 12,000 -yearly, in England and Wales alone, or more than aroused the national -attention in the late massacre of the troops of the empire during the -war in India. The position which this class of causes occupy, in the -production of destitute orphanage and widowhood, is shown in the -previous tables; but these do not comprehend the whole of the effects; -another class of which appear on examining the causes of pauperism: -namely, the injuries which occasion permanent disablement. In an -analysis of the causes of pauperism, by _Mr. Simkiss_, the auditor of -the Wolverhampton union, the cases of which the subjoined is a list were -apparent on the pauper-roll. - - ┌──────┬──────────────┬──────────────────┬────────────────────────────┐ - │No. of│ Previous │ Nature of │ Respective Ages. │ - │Cases.│Occupations of│ Accident. │ │ - │ │ the Paupers. │ │ │ - ├──────┼──────────────┼──────────────────┼────────────────────────────┤ - │ 18│Miners │Hurt in mines │21, 23, 27, 30, 34, 34, 40, │ - │ │ │ │ 40, 43, 44, 47, 49, 50, │ - │ │ │ │ 50, 51, 53, 60, 60. │ - │ 2│Ditto │Burnt in mines │40, 60. │ - │ 1│Locksmith │Lamed by accident │30. │ - │ 1│Wheelwright │Accident by waggon│69. │ - │ 1│Single woman │Lost her arm by │23. │ - │ │ │ accident. │ │ - └──────┴──────────────┴──────────────────┴────────────────────────────┘ - -On examining the individual cases of deaths that are classed as incident -to the pursuit of the chief branches of mining or manufacturing -industry, or in transport whether by land or water, it has always been -satisfactory to find that for the future, by care, the greater -proportion of them are preventible. In the case of the mining accidents, -one part of them appear preventible by care of the superior managers of -the mines—in arrangements over which the individual workman has no -control; the other portion, by intelligence and care on the part of the -workmen; and this last class of cases again reverts back to the power, -and therefore to the means of imposing responsibility on the employers -in the selection of educated and intelligent workmen—of habits of -sobriety, and care to qualify them for works of danger. But at present -they are, in a great measure, relieved from responsibility by the charge -incurred by the want of care being thrown on other funds raised from -persons who have as yet no practicable means of protection or -prevention. When continued and dreadful losses of life take place, in -the face of examples of successful prevention such as might be collected -from every part of the country, it is impossible to avoid the conclusion -that if the branch of industry were charged with the pecuniary -consequences of the losses assumed to be necessarily incident to it, -generations would not be allowed to pass away in fear, recklessness, and -misery without the early adoption of those means of prevention which -self-interest would then stimulate. A frequent suggestion made upon the -view of such casualties is that government inspectors should be -appointed to inspect and direct and regulate machinery. - -This subject was brought under consideration in the course of the -proceedings of the Factory Commission of Inquiry, and it was then agreed -that such a measure as that of inspection would only give an imperfect -security, and would occasion vexatious interruptions, and that the least -objectionable mode of interference, as well as the most efficient and -just as a means of prevention, would be to charge a portion at least of -the cost of such casualties upon the branch of industry. Subsequent -observation, especially of the causes of pauperism, have strengthened my -convictions of the soundness of the principle of prevention as stated in -our Report, a passage from which I have submitted in the Appendix.[31] - -In illustration of the pecuniary cost of disease, as shown in the cost -of remedies in Scotland, there are several documents. The late _Dr. -Cowan_, the professor of Forensic medicine at Glasgow, gives one in -which he states— - - “If any arguments were wanting to arouse the community to the - investigation of this important subject, they might be drawn from the - heavy pecuniary tax which fever entails on the benevolent of our city, - from the poverty, misery, and crime which this disease engenders. It - is not possible, from the data before me, to give anything like an - accurate calculation of the sums spent for the treatment of fever in - Glasgow during the last twenty years. The following calculation - intentionally falls considerably under the amount, to prevent every - suspicion of exaggeration:— - - £. _s._ _d._ - - 1. Cost of the fever hospital 8,566 7 9 - - 2. Temporary hospitals, and maintenance of patients 5,000 0 0 - in them - - 3. 21,691 patients at 1_l._ 10_s._ treated at the 32,536 10 0 - expense of the infirmary - - ——————— —— — - - £46,102 17 9 - - ======= == = - - To this amount fall to be added the expense of treating the poor in - their own houses under the district surgeons of the burgh, and any - sums expended by the heritors or the gorbals and barony parishes for - similar purposes. But this sum must have been greatly increased by the - demands of pauperism produced by fever, on our poor’s-rates, and on - the private benevolence of our citizens; for the duration of the - disease, and the period of convalescence which must elapse before an - individual can resume his work will average rather more than six - weeks, and when to this is added the difficulty of again finding - immediate employment, we may safely assume that the 12,895 individuals - treated in the fever hospitals during the last seven years, all, with - few exceptions, depending on their daily labour and extending the - benefit of that labour to others, were out of employment for a period - of at least six weeks.” - -The _Rev. G. Lewis_, the minister of St. David’s parish, Dundee, who has -answered the queries issued by the Board, and very powerfully addressed -the inhabitants on this subject, in the course of one of his addresses, -observes that— - - “Apart altogether from the waste of human life, and the indescribable - suffering and sorrow which annually fall upon the working classes of - Dundee from this periodical scourge, and viewed only as a mere matter - of profit and loss to the mercantile and monied interest of Dundee, it - were easy to demonstrate, that the expenditure of several thousand - pounds per annum, in providing the means of cleanliness to this town, - in the better cleansing of its streets, but, above all, of its back - closes, courts, and lanes, and the clearing away of those pestilential - masses of building which lie concealed from view behind the front - lines of some of our principal streets, would have been rewarded by a - saving to the community of a vast sum, which the ravages of disease - and death have been, for the last few years, compelling Dundee to pay - in a way its inhabitants think not of. That this may appear, I have - brought into one table the number of cases of fever during the last - seven years. - - “CASES of Fever in - Dundee during the - last seven years, - from 1833 to 1839, - inclusive, - calculated from the - Bills of Mortality - according to the - proportion of nine - cases to each - death:— - - Year. Cases. Deaths. - 1833 1,188 132 - 1834 1,521 169 - 1835 1,179 131 - 1836 2,673 297 - 1837 1,881 209 - 1838 1,773 197 - 1839 1,593 177 - —————— ————— - 11,808 1,312 - —————— ————— - - “Thus, in seven years, fever has fallen on much more than a tithe of - the inhabitants,—choosing its victims here, as elsewhere, in the - manhood of life, and compelling the citizens of Dundee to pay a tax - frightful in the amount of personal sufferings and family - bereavements. - - “But it were a mistake to imagine that the sufferings and death of so - many citizens are the only _tithes_ which fever has compelled us to - pay during the last seven years. Put wholly aside the details of - domestic woe and personal suffering which 11,808 cases of fever have - introduced into the families of Dundee in these seven years—omit all - reckoning of the watching, want, and wretchedness, wrapped up in so - many cases of acute disease, and the family bereavements implied in - these 1,312 death—and let us view for a moment our fellow-creatures - but as so many machines suspended from work by the derangement or - destruction of the human machinery, that we may learn something of the - probable money loss incurred by fever in these seven years. - - “From Dr. Southwood Smith, the highest authority on these subjects, we - learn that fully one-half of the cases of fever occur in the prime of - life, when men are most useful either to their families or to society. - Deducting then the 1,312 deaths from the whole number of cases, there - will remain 10,496 cases of fever, the one-half of whom, at least, - were adults,—that is, 5,248 persons in the prime of life, very many of - them heads of families, had fever in these seven years. Now, the - average period fever detains a patient from work, according to the - same authority, is six weeks. Let us take the earnings in health of - these adults at the average of 8_s._ weekly; and the loss of wages to - these 5,248 adults, by six weeks’ fever, amounts to 12,595_l._; and - this, after excluding all under age, and all the deaths. But these - cases, whether treated at home or at the infirmary, must be also - loaded with the expense of medical treatment, which is estimated in - our infirmary reports at 1_l._ to each case, that is, 5,248_l._ must - he added to the loss by wages. But 5,248 cases of those under age - remain to be accounted for; and, as fever rarely attacks mere - children, but chiefly those either in manhood or approaching manhood, - we may estimate the loss of their labour at the one-half of the - adults, or 6,297_l._ 12_s._, and the expense of attendance and - recovery at one-half also, or 2,624_l._ - - “But how shall we estimate the pecuniary loss of 1,312 deaths? It - seems a strange thing to go about estimating the money value of that - which money did not give, and cannot restore when taken away; yet as - there are those who understand better a profit and loss account than - the arguments of religion and humanity, we shall attempt to estimate - the money loss of these 1,312 deaths by fever. - - “At least one-half, or 656 of these deaths, were deaths of adults, and - very many of them heads of families, of which the 337 widows in St. - David’s parish afford melancholy evidence.” - -He then refers to an estimate made by _Mr. M’Culloch_, who, viewing a -human being as a productive machine, reared to last a certain time, and -to return so much more than he costs, estimates a full-grown workman -just, arrived at maturity as having 300_l._ of capital invested in him. -At the actual cost of maintaining and training a pauper child in England -at the school in Norwood, 4_s._ 6_d._ per week, he will have had -expended upon him at 21 years of age, 245_l._, or at 30 years, 350_l._; -but he supposes— - - “The money value of these male and female adults to be just the - one-half of this, or 150_l._, which makes the loss, by the premature - death of these 656 adults, to be 98,400_l._; and, if the remaining 656 - under the age of maturity, yet approaching it, be taken at the half of - the adults, or 75_l._ each, we have a loss of 49,200_l._ more; to - which, if we add 1_l._ a-piece, or 1,312_l._ in all, for attendance - and medical expenses, the Fever Bill of Dundee, during the last seven - years, will stand as follows:— - - Fever Bill of Dundee from 1833 to 1839. - - £. _s._ _d._ - - Loss of labour for six weeks of 5,248 adults at 12,595 0 0 - 8_s._ a-week - - Attendance, medicine at home or infirmary, at 1_l._ 5,248 0 0 - each - - Loss of labour for six weeks of 5,248 under age, at 6,297 12 0 - 4_s._ a-week - - Expense of treatment of the above at infirmary or 2,624 0 0 - home, at 10_s._ a-piece - - Loss by death of 656 adults, at 150_l._ each. 98,400 0 0 - - Loss by 656 deaths under age, at 75_l._ a-piece 49,200 0 0 - - Treatment of 1,312 cases, at 1_l._ each 1,312 0 0 - - ———————— —— — - - £175,676 12 0 - - Or 25,096_l._ 13_s._ per annum. - - “The poor, we are told, we shall always have with us, and so with - disease and death. Yet the evils, both of poverty and disease, come in - very different measures to different communities. As there is a - poverty that is self-inflicted, and may be self-removed, so there is a - certain amount of disease and annual mortality in every city that is - self-inflicted; and the community that does not strive, by every - available means, to reduce its disease and mortality bills to the - lowest sum of human suffering, and the lowest rate of annual - mortality, is as guilty of suicide as the individual who, Judas like, - takes with his own hands the life God has given, and hurries unbidden - into the presence of his Judge. The fever bills of the Scottish towns, - contrasted with those of the English commercial towns, declare too - plainly that man has not yet done his part in Dundee to avert this - scourge of society; and, while fever is undoubtedly to be regarded as - the visitation of God, it is also to be regarded as the visitation of - God for the sin of neglecting a population fallen in character and - habits. - - In the following table are given the deaths in Dundee in seven years, - and the rate to the population,—supposing the inhabitants in 1831 to - have been 45,355 souls, and to have increased about 2000 annually, - until 1839, when from bad trade the increase was checked:— - - Years. Deaths. Population. Proportion of Deaths to the Population. - 1833 1,482 49,355 1 in 33·3 - 1834 1,650 51,355 1 in 31·1 - 1835 1,673 53,355 1 in 31·9 - 1836 1,923 55,355 1 in 28·8 - 1837 1,963 57,355 1 in 29·2 - 1839 1,511 59,355 1 in 39·3 - 1839 1,763 59,355 1 in 33·7 - —————— ——————— ————————— - 11,965 385,485 1 in 32·2 - —————— ——————— ————————— - - Thus, the average mortality in Dundee, during the last seven years, - was 1 in 32 annually. * * * Here, then, in Dundee, the deaths annually - are at least one-fourth more than over the rest of Scotland, Glasgow - excepted, which seems to surpass Dundee in the waste of human life. If - the deaths are a fourth greater, those diseases which are its - harbingers must be many times greater than the deaths; and to this - extent, at least, it was in the power of human means to have provided - a remedy,—to have abated by one-fourth the physical suffering and - mortality of Dundee, saved 2,952 persons from fever, and 328 persons - from premature death, and reduced by a fourth part the pecuniary loss - incurred during the last seven years,—in other words, to have saved - 43,919_l._, or 6,274_l._ annually, to the profit and loss account of - this city in the single item of fever. - - “The statistics of small-pox in Dundee might be added to this bill of - charges. It is sufficient, however, to allude to it. Last year, the - deaths by small-pox were 77. In 1838, they were also 77; and in 1837, - they amounted to 126. The number of cases, of course, must have been - many times the deaths; by far the greater number under age and - unvaccinated,—a neglect no longer confined to the Irish population. - - * * * * * - - “Though I am no medical authority, yet I am sure that I have every - medical authority with me when I connect, as foremost amongst the - causes of the enormous Fever Bill of Dundee that monstrous Tavern - Bill, which last lecture I showed you was the worm in the bud of the - happiness and well-being of its working classes. That Tavern Bill, - according to the mean of three different estimates, amounts to - 21,234_l._ a-year in my parish alone, and to 180,000_l._ a-year to all - Dundee. In vain we cry out against the taxation of Government. While - the words of complaint are on our lips, here is a vice of continual - tasting and tippling in strong drink,—a private self-imposed tax, but - heavier far than any public tax. It is this besetting sin that has - been not only devouring the substance of the poor, but every year - sowing the seeds of that enormous Fever Bill which for the last seven - years has been taxing us, not only in purse but in person,—compelling - every tenth man in Dundee during that period to pay the wages of six - weeks’ labour, and to suffer all the langour, sickness, and oppression - of six weeks’ fever, besides the bereaved widows and orphans, and the - fatherless and motherless children it has left in Dundee.” - -I now proceed to submit the reasons for believing that the immediate -expenditure of so much money as would be incurred by the adoption of -such of the remedial measures as appear to be available by the agency of -any public administration would be sound measures of immediate economy, -and of ultimate public gain: and also the grounds for believing that the -same conclusion is applicable to the cost of those measures of -prevention which, though directly or indirectly controllable by -legislative authority, are within the province of private individuals to -execute, such as the construction of the dwellings of the labouring -classes. - - - - - VI.—EVIDENCE OF THE EFFECTS OF PREVENTIVE MEASURES IN RAISING THE - STANDARD OF HEALTH AND THE CHANCES OF LIFE. - - -On viewing the evidence, which shows that, in most situations higher -chances of life belong to the middle and higher classes of the -population, an impression may be created that the higher standards of -health are essentially connected with expensive modes of living. The -highest medical authorities agree, however, that the more important -means for the protection and advance of the health of those classes must -be in still further reductions than those which it is the present -tendency in the higher classes of society to make of the use of highly -stimulating food. The evidence already adduced with respect to the -labouring classes in the rural districts and those living on high wages -in towns, will have gone some way to remove the erroneous impression -with respect to them, and it admits of proof that a higher standard of -health and comfort is attainable for them even at a less expense than -that in which they now live in disease and misery. The experience of the -effect of sanitary measures in the royal navy may be adduced as evidence -of the practicable standards of health consistent with great labour and -exposure to weather obtained at a cost not higher than that within the -wages of ordinary labourers. The experience of the effects of sanitary -measures in banishing spontaneous disease from crowded prisons, offers -further evidence of the health obtainable by simple means, under -circumstances still more unfavourable. - -The prisons were formerly distinguished for their filth, and their bad -ventilation; but the descriptions given by Howard of the worst prisons -he visited in England (which he states were amongst the worst he had -seen in Europe) were exceeded in every wynd in Edinburgh and Glasgow, -inspected by Dr. Arnott and myself, in company with the municipal -officers of those cities. More filth, worse physical suffering and moral -disorder than Howard describes as affecting the prisoners, are to be -found amongst the cellar population of the working people of Liverpool, -Manchester, or Leeds, and in large portions of the metropolis. As a -standard of the progress made in ameliorating the condition of -prisoners, I refer to his general statement of the condition in which he -found the prisons when he inspected them in England. - - “_Water._—Many prisons have _no water_. This defect is frequent in - bridewells and town gaols. In the felons’ courts of some county gaols - there is no water: in some places where there is water, prisoners are - always locked up within doors, and have no more than the keeper or his - servants think fit to bring them. - - “_Air._—And as to air, which is no less necessary than the two - preceding articles, and given us by Providence quite gratis, without - any care or labour of our own; yet, as if the bounteous goodness of - heaven excited our envy, methods are contrived to rob prisoners of - this genuine cordial of life, as Dr. Hales very properly calls it; I - mean by preventing that circulation and change of the fluid without - which animals cannot live and thrive. It is well known that air which - has performed its office in the lungs is feculent and noxious. Writers - upon this subject show that a hogshead of air will last a man only an - hour: but those who do not choose to consult philosophers may judge - from a notorious fact. In 1756, at Calcutta, in Bengal, out of 170 - persons who were confined in a hole there one night, 154 were taken - out dead. The few survivors ascribed the mortality to their want of - fresh air; and called the place, Hell in Miniature. - - “From hence any one may judge of the probability there is against - health and life of prisoners crowded in their rooms, cells, and - subterraneous dungeons, for 14 or 15 hours out of the 24. In some of - those caverns the floor is very damp; in some there is sometimes an - inch or two of water; and the straw or bedding is laid on such floors, - seldom on barrack bedsteads. Where prisoners are not kept in - underground cells, they are often confined in their rooms, because - there is no court belonging to the prisons; which is the case in many - city and town gaols; because the walls round the yard are ruinous, or - are too low[32] for safety; or because the gaoler has the ground for - his own use. Prisoners confined in this manner are generally - unhealthy. - - “In Baker’s Chronicle, p. 353, that historian, mentioning the assize - held in Oxford Castle, 1577 (called, from its fatal consequences, the - Black Assize), informs us, ‘that all who were present died within - forty hours; the lord chief baron, the sheriff, and about 300 more.’ - Lord Chancellor Bacon ascribes this to a disease brought into court by - the prisoners; and Dr. Mead is of the same opinion. - - “The first of these two authors, Lord Bacon, observes, that ‘the most - pernicious infection, next the plague, is the smell of a jail, when - the prisoners have been long close and nastily kept; whereof we have - had, in our time, experience twice or thrice; when both the judges - that sat upon the jail, and numbers of those who attended the - business, or were present, sickened and died.’ - - “Sir John Pringle observes that ‘gaols have often been the cause of - malignant fevers;’ and he informs us that in the late Rebellion in - Scotland, above 200 men of one regiment were infected with the gaol - fever by some deserters brought from prisons in England. - - “Dr. Lind, physician to the royal hospital at Haslar, near Portsmouth, - showed me, in one of the wards, a number of sailors ill of the gaol - fever, brought on board their ship by a man who had been discharged - from a prison in London. The ship was laid up on the occasion. That - gentleman, in his ‘Essay on the Health of Seamen,’ asserts that ‘the - source of infection to our armies and fleets are undoubtedly the - gaols; we can often trace the importers of it directly from them. It - often proves fatal in impressing men on the hasty equipment of a - fleet. The first English fleet sent last war to America lost by it - above 2000 men. In another place he assures us that the seeds of - infection were carried from the guard-ships into our squadrons; and - the mortality thus occasioned was greater than by all other diseases - or means of death put together.’ - - “It were easy to multiply instances of this mischief; but those I have - mentioned are, I presume, sufficient to show, even if no mercy were - due to prisoners, that the gaol distemper is a ‘national concern’ of - no small importance.” - - “_Sewers._—Some gaols have no sewers or vaults; and in those that - have, if they be not properly attended to, they are, even to a - visitant, offensive beyond description; how noxious, then, to people - confined constantly in those prisons! - - “One cause why the rooms in some prisons are so close is the - window-tax, which the gaolers have to pay; this tempts them to stop - the windows and stifle their prisoners. - - “_Bedding._—In many gaols, and in most bridewells, there is no - allowance of _bedding_ or straw for prisoners to sleep on; and if by - any means they get a little, it is not changed for months together, so - that it is offensive and almost worn to dust. Some lie upon rags, - others upon bare floors. When I have complained of this to the - keepers, their justification has been: ‘the county allows no straw; - the prisoners have none but at my cost.’” - -Since Howard succeeded in gaining national attention to the condition of -prisoners, the evils of prison management have been removed. A large -proportion of the prison population is taken from the worst regulated -and most confined neighbourhoods, which have been the subject of -examination; and, with the view to judge what might be effected by -sanitary regulations, I have made frequent inquiries as to the effects -of sanitary measures on the worst class of persons, the larger -proportion of whom are taken from the worst neighbourhoods, that is, as -to the effects of living in the same atmosphere, on a less expensive -diet than that of the general labouring population, but provided with -clean and tolerably well-ventilated places of work and sleeping-rooms, -and where they are required to be cleanly in their persons. - -I have obtained through Mr. Hill, the prison inspector of Scotland, an -accurate return of the number of days which the prisoners had been -absent from labour on the ground of ill health in the celebrated prison -at Glasgow, where the separate system of confinement has been tried -(Return No. 1); a similar return from the Edinburgh prison, (No. 2). I -also obtained a careful examination of the amount of sickness prevalent -amongst the prisoners at Salford prison, (No. 3). The average cost of -the diets, (principally vegetable,) at Salford, varied from 1_s._ 4_d._ -to 1_s._ 6_d._ per week; at Edinburgh, 1_s._ 9_d._ per week; and at -Glasgow, 1_s._ 7_d._ per week. _Vide_ Appendix. - -The medical practitioners, who are well acquainted with the general -state of health of the population surrounding the prisons concur in -vouching to the fact, upon their own knowledge, that the health of the -prisoners is in general much higher than the health almost of any part -of the surrounding population; that the prisoners, as a class, are below -the average of health when they enter the prisons; that they come from -the worst neighbourhoods; that many of them come from the -lodging-houses, which, in those towns, as will be shown, are the -constant seats of disease; that they are mostly persons of intemperate -habits; that many of them come in in a state of disease from -intemperance and bad habits; and notwithstanding the depressing -influence of imprisonment, the effect of cleanliness, dryness, better -ventilation, temperance, and simple food, is almost sufficient to -prevent disease arising within the prison, and to put the prisoners in a -better working condition at the termination than at the commencement of -their imprisonment. At the Glasgow bridewell, the prisoners are weighed -on their entrance and at their discharge, and it is found that, on the -average, they gained in weight by their imprisonment.[33] At Edinburgh, -there were instances of poor persons in a state of disease committed -from motives of humanity to the prison, that they might be taken care of -and cured. The tables are to be taken as showing imperfectly the -comparative effects of the different circumstances; because, when a -labourer is obliged to leave work he loses wages; and it is known of -large classes of them, that they often work improvidently and -injuriously to their chances of recovery by continuing at work in -impaired health too long; the prisoner, on the contrary, by absence on -the sick list, gains ease and exemption from slave labour; and the -officers have constantly to contend against feigned sickness to avoid -task-work and punishment. It should also be noted that a large -proportion of the sickness of the prisoners is of a character that is -excluded from all tables of insurance, from the benefit societies as -being specially excluded from their benefits. The numbers imprisoned at -the lower ages, or above 36 years of age, were too few to form any -comparison:— - - ┌────────┬─────────────────────────────┬──────────────────────────────────┐ - │ │ Average Annual Sickness of │ │ - │ │ Male Prisoners in the │ Labourers and Operatives. │ - ├────────┼─────────┬─────────┬─────────┼───────────┬───────────┬──────────┤ - │ │ │ │ │ │ No. 5. │ │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ Average │ │ - │ │ │ │ │ │duration of│ │ - │ │ │ │ │ No. 4. │ Sickness │ No. 6. │ - │ │ No. 1. │ No. 2. │ No. 3. │Employed in│ per annum │ Males of │ - │ │ Glasgow │Edinburgh│ Salford │East-India │ of every │ Families │ - │ │ Prison. │ Prison. │ Prison. │ Company’s │ person │ in Wynds │ - │ │ │ │ │Warehouses.│employed in│ of │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ Cotton │Edinburgh.│ - │ │ │ │ │ │ Factories │ │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ of │ │ - │ │ │ │ │ │Lancashire.│ │ - ├────────┼─────────┼─────────┼─────────┼───────────┼───────────┼──────────┤ - │ AGE. │ Days & │ Days & │ Days & │ Days & │ Days & │ Days & │ - │ │Decimals.│Decimals.│Decimals.│ Decimals. │ Decimals. │Decimals. │ - │Under 16│ │ │ │ │ │ 3·5│ - │ Years │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │16 to 21│ 3·05│ 4·01│ 3·10│ 4·02│ 4·42│ 2·3│ - │21 to 26│ 1·83│ 2·04│ 1·64│ 5·40│ 4·91│ 5·1│ - │26 to 31│ 2·65│ 2·33│ 2·72│ 4·49│ 6·88│ 11·0│ - │31 to 36│ 2·83│ 3·10│ 2·63│ 4·55│ 3·85│ 8·3│ - │36 to 41│ 9·00│ 5·10│ ·85│ 5·57│ 4·13│ 4·1│ - │41 to 46│ ·49│ 2·75│ ·51│ 5·18│ 5·69│ 15·1│ - │46 to 51│ │ │ │ 5·43│ 7·18│ 30·0│ - │51 to 56│ │ │ │ 6·80│ 3·47│ 16·2│ - │56 to 61│ │ │ │ 7·21│ 12·68│ 30·4│ - │61 to 66│ │ │ │ 10·24│ │ 42·7│ - │66 to 71│ │ │ │ 9·93│ │ 64·2│ - │71 to 76│ │ │ │ 10·60│ │ 41·0│ - │76 to 81│ │ │ │ 12·67│ │ 83·6│ - └────────┴─────────┴─────────┴─────────┴───────────┴───────────┴──────────┘ - - ┌────────┬─────────┬─────────┬──────────┐ - │ │ │ │ No. 8. │ - │ │ │ │ Average │ - │ │ │ │ Annual │ - │ │ │ No. 7. │ Sickness │ - │ │ │ Average │ of │ - │ │ │ Annual │provident │ - │ │ │Sickness │portion of│ - │ │ │ of │ Working │ - │ │ │ Members │ Classes │ - │ │ │ of │throughout│ - │ │ │ Benefit │ Great │ - │ │ │Societies│ Britain, │ - │ │ │ in │according │ - │ │ │Scotland.│ to the │ - │ │ │ │experience│ - │ │ │ │ of Mr. │ - │ │ │ │Finlaison.│ - ├────────┼─────────┼─────────┼──────────┤ - │ AGE. │Years of │ Days & │ Days & │ - │ │ Age. │Decimals.│Decimals. │ - │Under 16│ │ │ │ - │ Years │ │ │ │ - │16 to 21│ 18│ 2·5│ 5·18│ - │21 to 26│ 23│ 3·8│ 6·75│ - │26 to 31│ 28│ 4·6│ 6·78│ - │31 to 36│ 33│ 5·6│ 6·33│ - │36 to 41│ 38│ 6·2│ 7·86│ - │41 to 46│ 43│ 8·8│ 9·02│ - │46 to 51│ 48│ 9·1│ 11·76│ - │51 to 56│ 53│ 14·8│ 16·77│ - │56 to 61│ 58│ 17·8│ 23·57│ - │61 to 66│ 63│ 20·0│ 33·22│ - │66 to 71│ 68│ 36·0│ 61·22│ - │71 to 76│ 73│ 38·6│ 101·44│ - │76 to 81│ 78│ 70·9│ 164·72│ - └────────┴─────────┴─────────┴──────────┘ - -The total number of male prisoners in the three prisons from which the -returns were compiled was 7,328; of which number, in the Glasgow prison -there were 1,796, in the Edinburgh prison 1,256, and in the Salford -prison 4,276 prisoners. The columns inserted in the above table from the -prisons give only the amount of sickness prevalent amongst the males. -The returns which are given in full in the Appendix contain the amount -of sickness prevalent among the female prisoners also. - -The information as to the actual amount of sickness prevalent amongst -the labouring classes is at present extremely defective for the purposes -of insurance. One of the most authentic tables is that compiled by Dr. -Mitchell, from returns we obtained under the Factory Commission of -Inquiry, of the experience of sickness amongst the labourers employed by -the East India Company in their warehouses in London. The experience was -from 2461 workmen employed during ten years. (Return No. 4.) - -This is a highly favourable table, inasmuch as the men were, in the -first instance, select, nearly as much so as recruits in the army; care -was also taken to give men who became infirm such labour as they could -perform without exertion; but, above all, they had the benefit of -medical advice without any expense, and being thereby induced to make -early application, disease was cut short at once on its first -appearance. Moreover, they were not allowed to return to work until they -had a medical certificate of their cure. - -Another table (No. 5) given is one of the amount of sickness experienced -by the male operatives in the cotton mills in England, also deduced from -the returns directed to be made under the Factory Commission of Inquiry. -But these returns do not include the experience of the mills in -Manchester, which was not collected by the district commissioners. - -The table (No. 6) is that made up by Mr. Tait, surgeon, from his -inquiries of the experience of sickness in the wynds of Edinburgh. - -The next table (No. 7) is made up from the experience of benefit -societies in Scotland, subsequent to the experience tables which were -compiled by the Highland Society; but this is the experience of a select -class, which appears to me to be too favourable for general use in -Scotland. - -The next table (No. 8) is one in use by Mr. Finlaison, the actuary at -the National Debt Office, prepared from various sources of information. -It has been tried by the experience of a large benefit society in -Bethnal Green, and the allowance for sickness was found to be low as -compared with the sickness occurring amongst the labouring classes in -that district. - -The account given by Mr. Tait, of his investigation of the sickness -which had prevailed amongst 335 persons in 180 families, exhibited in -column No. 5, is as follows:— - - “The parts visited may be considered a fair specimen of the Edinburgh - wynds and closes. They consist of Gillon’s and Gibb’s Closes, - Canongate, Blackfriars’ Wynd, Bremot’s and Skinner’s Closes, High - Street, and Meal-market Stairs, Cowgate. The drainage of all these - places is bad; the sewers are without exception open, and those in - Gillon’s and Gibb’s Closes being nearly on a dead level, keep these - places constantly in a filthy condition. The poverty of the - inhabitants who reside in Gibb’s Close, especially, is also extreme, - five out of seven families living in apartments without furniture. The - ventilation in general is also bad: several apartments are so close - that it is difficult for a person when he first enters them to - breathe. In several instances I had to retreat to the door to write - down my notes, as I found the stench and close atmosphere produce a - sickening sensation which, on one occasion, terminated in vomiting. - Although some of the apartments visited were tidy and clean, in - general they were the reverse. It is impossible to conceive or - describe the filthy condition of some of them. Many of them were very - small, and others rather capacious, considering the quantity of - furniture they contained. The diseases mentioned were such as to throw - the persons affected out of employment. There were many cases of - slight and continued ailment of which no notice was taken. No case of - rheumatism was taken down unless so severe as to lay the person - entirely off work. - - “About 180 families were visited, but only 117 of them had been one - year and upwards in their present dwelling: all the cases of sickness - occurred between Martinmas, 1840, and Martinmas, 1841, and none of the - patients,” _i. e._ of whom any account was taken, “were under ten - years of age,” those under that age being intentionally excluded. - -Mr. Hill states, that he has no doubt the results, which will be -apparent from the examination of the several tables which are placed in -juxta-position, would be corroborated by similar returns obtained from -other well-regulated prisons in Scotland. The returns from the prisons -in England up to the year 1834–5 (which do not, however, give the days -of sickness, but only the number of prisoners attacked with sickness -during the period for which the return was made) further corroborate -these results. Even in the Milbank Penitentiary, the situation of which -is insalubrious, the average annual amount of sickness to the prisoners -who are confined two years and a half is only about eight days to each -person, which, for the average ages, is little above the standard -obtained from the experience of the East India Company’s labourers. The -sickness amongst the metropolitan police is about 10½ days per annum for -each of the force, 2¾ per cent. being constantly on the sick-list. The -sickness in the army is on the average 14½ days each soldier. Mr. -Finlaison informs me he can venture to state, that were any benefit -society to use scales of premiums founded on the prison experience, they -would inevitably be insolvent in less than three years. - -M. Villermé has shown the diminution of mortality that has taken place -in the prisons of France, chiefly from stricter attention to -cleanliness, ventilation, and diet, to be equally striking. At Lyons, -from 1800 to 1806, the annual mortality in the prisons was 1 in 19; from -1806 to 1812, it was 1 in 31; from 1812 to 1819, it was 1 in 34; and -from 1820 to 1826, 1 in 43: a similar amelioration has also been -remarked in the prisons of Rouen, and some other large towns in that -kingdom. - -The following is a summary return of the diseases of the duration of -each, amongst the population of the wynds, examined by Mr. Tait:— - - ┌───────────────────────────┬──────┬────────┬───────┬────────┬────────┐ - │ NATURE OF DISEASE. │No. of│Average │No. of │ No. of │ No. of │ - │ │Cases.│duration│Deaths.│Families│Persons │ - │ │ │ of │ │visited.│visited.│ - │ │ │Disease.│ │ │ │ - ├───────────────────────────┼──────┼────────┼───────┼────────┼────────┤ - │ │ │ Weeks. │ │ │ │ - │Disease of Lungs │ 23│ 5½│ 1│ 117│ 335│ - │Rheumatism │ 9│ 9│ │ │ │ - │Accidents │ 9│ 4½│ │ │ │ - │Erysipelas │ 3│ 8│ │ │ │ - │Inflammation of Throat │ 3│ 5│ │ │ │ - │Fever │ 15│ 5¼│ 1│ │ │ - │Palsy │ 4│ │ 1│ │ │ - │Dropsy │ 1│ 7│ │ │ │ - │Disease of Liver │ 1│ │ │ │ │ - │Jaundice │ 1│ 4│ │ │ │ - │Carbuncle │ 1│ 5│ │ │ │ - │Affection of Urinary Organs│ 1│ 17│ │ │ │ - │Acute affection of Brain │ 2│ 3│ 1│ │ │ - │Small-pox │ 2│ 5│ 1│ │ │ - │Opthalmia │ 1│ 6│ │ │ │ - │Whitlow │ 1│ 3│ │ │ │ - │Lumbago │ 2│ 7│ │ │ │ - │Eruptive disease │ 1│ 9│ │ │ │ - │Inflammation of Stomach │ 1│ │ │ │ │ - │Ague │ 1│ 4│ │ │ │ - │Abscess of Loins │ 1│ 5│ │ │ │ - ├───────────────────────────┼──────┼────────┼───────┼────────┼────────┤ - │ Total │ 83│ │ 5│ 117│ 335│ - └───────────────────────────┴──────┴────────┴───────┴────────┴────────┘ - -It may be safely pronounced that if such an amount of sickness were -known to prevail in a prison containing between 300 and 400 prisoners, -the circumstance would excite public alarm and attention. - -Any of the preceding tables of the lower amounts of sickness may be -taken as practicable standards of the extent to which it were possible, -by the removal of the causes of disease, to bring the health of the -labouring population. - -I may here observe, that the tables of sickness above referred to -exhibit the very unsatisfactory footing on which the means of insurance -against sickness and mortality within the reach of the labouring classes -are now placed. An artisan of the condition of the East India Company’s -labourers who insures for an allowance for sickness between the age of -61 and 66 years, which, according to the experience of his own class, -would be a period of 10 days, would have to pay for 20 days, or 10 days -in excess if he insured on the tables of the experience of benefit -societies in Scotland, or 23 days in excess if he insured on tables -founded on the experience collected by Mr. Finlaison. On the other hand, -were a benefit society composed of members living under depressed -circumstances, as in close courts or ill-drained districts, to adopt the -table of the experience of the East India Company’s labourers, and to -take members, living under the circumstances indicated by the Highland -societies or Mr. Finlaison’s tables, the allowance on such a rate of -insurance would be fraught with certain and speedy loss of the funds of -the contributors. Having received contributions for an allowance on the -chances of 10 days’ sickness, they would, upon insurances from the wynds -of Edinburgh, have to pay for 40 days. The range of variation in the -chances of life in different districts, such as have been shown in the -returns from the different towns, exhibiting the mortality amongst the -different classes, all present instances of the ruin to which benefit -societies are exposed in acting upon tables calculated only for select -classes, or on the mean experience of large classes, or of many classes -differing widely in their circumstances. The probabilities of life at -infancy for the whole population of Liverpool, as deduced from the -actual ages of deaths of the whole population, would be 17 years; but on -the Northampton tables of probability, payment would be required for the -insurance of 25 years at infancy; for 38 years according to the Carlisle -table; and if a male, for 37 years, according to the Swedish table. Yet -such are the data and their applications on which large masses of -savings and property are frequently invested and made dependent in -various forms of insurance in benefit societies. The ruin of such -societies is, I lament to say, by no means an unfrequent occurrence. The -most painful spectacle that is presented in a painful and difficult -service is that of a hardworking, industrious labourer, who has lived -frugally and saved rigidly, who in his old age is stripped of his -savings and reduced to destitution. One such example is enough to -destroy the frugality of a whole village, and of all the labourers to -whom it is presented. The necessity of a revision of all the tables -which govern the subscriptions to friendly societies and the allowances -from them, is strongly suggested by the evidence. It is to be lamented -that, before giving tables of sickness or mortality to the members of -benefit societies, many of the actuaries who have advised them have made -no inquiries as to the condition of the neighbourhoods where the members -reside or as to their general circumstances. The best advice to the -labourers for the future will, however, be proved to be, that the most -safe, economical, and efficient outlay as an insurance, will be in their -own contributions, in rates or extra rent where needful for the -execution of sanitary measures. - -The further example adverted to as to the efficiency of preventive -measures, is furnished by the naval medical service. - -So dreadful was once the condition of the navy that, in the year 1726, -when Admiral Hosier sailed with seven ships of the line to the West -Indies, he buried his ships’ companies twice, and died himself of a -broken heart. Amongst the pictures then presented, as in Anson’s -Voyages, 1740–44, were those of deaths to the amount of eight or ten -a-day in a moderate ship’s company; bodies sewn up in hammocks and -washing about the decks, for want of strength and spirit on the part of -the miserable survivors to cast them overboard. Dr. Johnson, in the year -1778, thus describes a sea life:—“As to the sailor, when you look down -from the quarter-deck to the space below, you see the utmost extremity -of human misery; such crowding, such filth, such stench!” “A ship is a -prison, with the chance of being drowned,—it is worse, worse in every -respect; worse air, worse food, worse company.” - -_Dr. Wilson_, in his preface to the Medical Returns, observes that, -within the limits of the South American command, the Centurion, exactly -a century ago, lost in a few weeks 200 out of 400 men by scurvy. During -the years from 1830 to 1836, the British _squadron_ employed in South -America, lost by diseases of every description only 115 out of 17,254 -men. He observes— - - “There is no reason to doubt that instead of every second man - perishing miserably within a few weeks, the rate of mortality might - have been as low as that exhibited in the South American Report, viz., - one death annually by disease out of 150 men. Now there was nothing - new nor mysterious in the pestilence either as to its origin or its - essence: it was not a sudden climatorial influence which could not be - resisted nor understood; it was a well-known affection presenting all - the signs of utter prostration and pointing to pure debility as its - source, the effects principally of scanty, unwholesome, unvarying diet - and bad water—partly of inadequate attention to cleanliness, order, - and ventilation, and the nearly total neglect of systematic attention - to measures for amusing, cheering, and improving the mind with which - resulting despondency often cooperated. The remedy therefore would - appear to have been self-evident and at hand, not to the commanders of - ships and fleets, but to the administration. Information on many - points in the animal economy was certainly less exact than it is now, - and vague unfounded notions prevailed of necessary relations existing - between a sea-life and scurvy. Hence it may be concluded that - ignorance rather than inhumanity was the reason why effectual measures - were not long before adopted for the prevention of such terrible - calamities.” - -He observes further that— - -In 1779 the proportion dying was 1 in 8 of the employed. - -In 1811 the proportion dying was 1 in 32 of the employed. - - From 1830 to 1836 the average number dying annually was 1 in 72 of the - employed. - -But— - - “In this calculation, the deaths from all sources are included from - wounds, drowning, and all other external causes as well as from - disease. From the latter source the deaths were in the proportion of 1 - to 85 of the number employed annually. When it is considered that the - ratio applies to the whole service, and therefore includes the most - unhealthy sections, the Coast of Africa and the West Indies, it will - be admitted, even without reference to former periods, to be very - low.”[34] - -The scurvy, once so fatal in the navy, is now almost unknown in -men-of-war, whilst it still prevails often to a most serious extent in -the mercantile navy where the same care is not taken. It was a popular -opinion in the navy, that the use of lemon juice in the grog was a -specific against scurvy; but it is stated that the health of seamen has -in some instances been advanced by the discontinuance of the grog -itself, and the substitution of coffee. _Dr. Nisbett_ says, “I may state -generally, that this substance (lemon juice) in the quantities usually -issued (one ounce per diem) does not prevent the appearance of scurvy -under circumstances favourable to its production; that in increased -quantities it appears to have some power of arresting, at least for a -time, this disease in its earlier stages, and is thus of great value; -but that it is not to be considered an antidote, and that the only cure -for this disease is a full diet of fresh meat and vegetables;” the -preventives being, general and personal cleanliness, ventilation, and -liberal supplies of good water, in addition to supplies of wholesome -food. - -The mortality of the home force ships employed chiefly in harbour duty, -&c. (where of course they were not cut off from communication or means -of infection from the shore,) in Great Britain and Ireland, gives the -rate of mortality obtainable by sanitary means, even now confessedly -imperfect especially in ventilation, amongst a male population ranging -from 15 to 50 years of age, and may be taken as illustrative of the -amount of health attainable on shore. - -In 1830 the deaths in the navy from disease independently of external -causes were— - - Disease, per 1000. All Causes, per 1000. - 1830 6·0 8·7 - 1831 11·5 3·4 - 1832 11·9 14·0 - 1833 6·3 7·9 - 1834 4·9 6·7 - 1835 5·9 7·2 - 1836 7·5 9·5 - -Mr. Finlaison has lately calculated that the deaths _on shore_ out of -1000 of the population of 29 years of age may be estimated at about 12 -per annum. Mr. Rickman calculated that the deaths at that age in Essex -and Rutland would be about 12½ persons per 1000 per annum: for the -metropolis it would be about 15½ deaths. Out of 1000 workmen in the -Government dock-yards, the number of deaths were 15; and hitherto in the -metropolitan police force, which is more select than the navy, the -number of deaths appear to be about 9 per annum; but about the same -number of men is annually invalided from the force. The proportion of -deaths amongst the troops appears to be, amongst the household cavalry, -14·5, amongst the dragoons 15·3, amongst the infantry in depôt, 18·5, -and amongst the foot guards 21·6. Since the Guards have been in Canada -the rate of mortality has been reduced to that of other regiments. - -The health of the foot guards is believed to be affected by peculiar -circumstances. - -I may add, as respects soldiers, that by proper care such epidemics as -typhus, scarlet fever, are now scarcely known as affecting large groups -in the army, and that such an occurrence would denote to the chiefs of -the army medical board the existence of some great neglect into which it -would be necessary to make inquiry. - - - _Cost to tenants and owners of the public measures for drainage, - cleansing, and the supplies of water, as compared with the cost of - sickness._ - -Persons well acquainted with the inferior descriptions of tenements in -Manchester state that a large proportion of them change owners in ten -years, and that few remain in the same hands more than twenty years; and -it is observed in other populous districts that this description of -property most frequently changes hands. The chief obstacle to the -execution of legislative measures for public improvements of tenements -of the class in question in such districts has been, that large -immediate outlays of capital have been required to be made in an -inconvenient manner for permanent improvements, by persons possessing -only short or transient interests, to whom no means are given for -spreading the charge over longer periods of years to make it coincident -with the benefits. - -In reference to the structural arrangements which come within the public -authority, the majority of professional persons the best acquainted with -the description of tenements occupied by the poorer classes, and the -importance of getting the work done, agree that it would, on the whole, -be the most advantageous course to execute them, by loans paying -interest on the security of the rates, and spread the charge over 30 -years during which the original outlay should be repaid. This would -allow of the annual instalment being charged in fair proportions to the -tenant, and to the holders of short interests. - -The outlay for the execution of measures which come within the public -authority are those, 1, for bringing water on the premises; 2, for -applying it to remove refuse by a cheap apparatus; 3, a drain for -conveyance of the refuse to the (4) main drains or common sewer. - -In the rural districts all these purposes of cleansing may, it is -considered, be accomplished by means of a proper use of the rain-water; -and that which is here given may be considered as a maximum estimate for -_towns_, if the work be properly done by public contract on a large -scale. - - ┌───────────────────────────┬──────────┬────────────┬──────────┐ - │ │ │ │ Weekly │ - │ │ │ │Charge to │ - │ │ │ │ the │ - │ │ │ Annual │Tenant, or│ - │ │ Annual │ interest, │increased │ - │ │Instalment│commuted at │ Rent, │ - │First Outlay per Tenement. │ for │5 per cent. │being the │ - │ │Repayment │ on Outlay │ 1/54th │ - │ │in Thirty │ charged as │ part of │ - │ │ Years. │ Rent on │the sum of│ - │ │ │ Tenant. │the annual│ - │ │ │ │instalment│ - │ │ │ │and annual│ - │ │ │ │interest. │ - ├──────────────┬────────────┼──────────┼────────────┼──────────┤ - │ │£. _s._ _d._│_s._ _d._│£. _s._ _d._│ _d._ │ - │Water-tank[35]│ │ │ │ │ - │ and │10 8 6│ 6 11│ 0 6 8│ 3 │ - │ apparatus │ │ │ │ │ - │Sewer │ 5 12 0│ 3 9│ 0 3 6│ 1½ │ - │Water │ │ │ 0 5 0│ 1 │ - ├──────────────┴────────────┼──────────┼────────────┼──────────┤ - │ Total │ 10 8│ 0 15 2│ 5½ │ - └───────────────────────────┴──────────┴────────────┴──────────┘ - - ┌───────────────────────────┬──────────────────────────────┐ - │ │ Total Outlay on One-third │ - │First Outlay per Tenement. │ (1,148,282 inhabited houses) │ - │ │ of the existing Tenements in │ - │ │ England, Wales and Scotland. │ - ├───────────────────────────┼──────────┬──────────┬────────┤ - │ │ │ │ Annual │ - │ │ │ │Interest│ - │ │ │ Annual │commuted│ - │ │ │Instalment│at 5 per│ - │ │ First │ for │cent. on│ - │ │ Outlay. │Repayment │ Outlay │ - │ │ │in Thirty │charged │ - │ │ │ Years. │as Rent │ - │ │ │ │ on │ - │ │ │ │Tenant. │ - ├──────────────┬────────────┼──────────┼──────────┼────────┤ - │ │£. _s._ _d._│ £. │ £. │ £. │ - │Water-tank[35]│ │ │ │ │ - │ and │10 8 6│11,970,840│ 399,028│ 379,687│ - │ apparatus │ │ │ │ │ - │Sewer │ 5 12 0│ 6,430,379│ 214,346│ 203,957│ - │Water │ │ │ │ │ - ├──────────────┴────────────┼──────────┼──────────┼────────┤ - │ Total │18,401,219│ 613,374│ 583,644│ - └───────────────────────────┴──────────┴──────────┴────────┘ - -The above is a maximum estimate, and if the work be executed -systematically by contract for districts, the charge may be so far -reduced that it may be taken to include repairs, but if it were executed -by each occupier or each owner separately, 15 per cent. must be added to -the charge; and if, in addition to the separate charge incurred by -neglect of legislative or administrative arrangements there be also -incurred the ordinary fees of new surveyors of sewers, and new surveyors -of buildings, paid by the ordinary fees, the charge for these structural -improvements will be still further increased. - -But the supplies of water for all the household purposes at the highest -water company’s charges, which is 138 pailsful for less than 1¼_d._, is, -in fact, to be considered a reduction of an existing expenditure of -labour of fetching water. - -The cost of cleansing privies is estimated as an existing charge in the -metropolis and many towns of not less than 10_s._ per tenement annually. -If the duty were duly performed the cost would perhaps be double that -amount, and be equivalent to the whole of the proposed new expenditure; -and taking the new expenditure as being less that charge, there only -remains the cost of the new sewerage,—1½_d._ weekly, or 6_s._ 6_d._ -annually. Supposing this charge of 1½_d._ weekly imposed upon the -landlord, he will have to set against it the preservation of the -tenement from dilapidation by drainage, which of itself would frequently -repay the whole outlay. He has also the circumstance to consider that he -may get better tenants by the improvement of his houses, and that with -such tenants he will have more regular payments of rent. Protracted -sickness and protracted losses of employment, and the frequent mortality -caused by neglect of cleansing, occasion heavy losses to the owners, and -occasion a greater diminution of the returns for such tenements than is -commonly apparent. - -One obstruction to any amendment by cleansing is occasioned by the -circumstance that the laying on the water is considered a tenant’s -charge, and the lower the class the more fluctuating the tenantry and -the greater the reluctance of the tenant, and the less indeed are the -means to make any immediate outlay for permanent purposes. To cast any -immediate outlay on occupiers of this class, who have scarcely -self-control to make reserves of the weekly rents, practically amounts -to a prohibition of the work being done. That which will in extensive -districts really be a new charge, _i. e._, sewerage, will fall only at -the rate of the 1½_d._ per week per tenement, and as most tenements are -now occupied in the more crowded districts, this will be a charge to be -divided between two families. If it were properly distributed, it is an -amount not to be spoken of as serious in the weekly charge.[36] - -New charges, for improved house accommodation, as well as for sewerage -and house cleansing, may all be submitted as means for the reduction of -the existing heavy charges of sickness, and of the loss of work and loss -of wages consequent upon sickness. To judge of the extent of the -immediate charge of sickness in money and _time_, which is independent -of the charge of insurance against premature death, we may select the -case of an ordinary family, say of a man at 40, a wife at 30, and two -children, who may be represented as equivalent to one child aged 15, the -lowest age estimated in the insurance tables, which for an average -family is an under estimate. Now to insure these a payment of 10_s._ per -week each during sickness, the charges would be as follows, according to -the insurance tables computed by Mr. Finlaison for the guidance of -benefit societies. - - ┌───────────────────────────────┬───────────────────────────────────┐ - │ Age │ For an allowance of 10_s._ per │ - │ │week, during sickness, according to│ - │ │ the Table constructed by Mr. │ - │ │ Finlaison, the Actuary of the │ - │ │ National Debt Office. │ - ├───────────────────────────────┼─────────────────┬─────────────────┤ - │ │Monthly Payment. │ Single Payment. │ - ├───────────────────────────────┼─────────────────┼─────────────────┤ - │ │ £. _s._ _d._│ £. _s._ _d._│ - │Man, 40 │ 0 2 11│ 27 5 2│ - │Woman, 30 │ 0 1 11½│ 21 0 6│ - │Child, 15 │ 0 1 3¼│ 14 18 1│ - ├───────────────────────────────┼─────────────────┼─────────────────┤ - │Total per family │ 0 6 1¾│ 63 3 9│ - ├───────────────────────────────┼─────────────────┼─────────────────┤ - │Total annual charge │ 3 13 9│ │ - ├───────────────────────────────┼─────────────────┼─────────────────┤ - │Total weekly charge per family │ 0 1 5│ │ - └───────────────────────────────┴─────────────────┴─────────────────┘ - -In the course of the Factory Commission of Inquiry in 1834, we -ascertained that the wages of upwards of 40,000 employed in the cotton -mills, of whom two-thirds were below the adolescent stage, amounted, on -the average, to 10_s._ 5_d._ per week. Up to the beginning of the -present year the wages of those in work were not lower. Mr. Finlaison’s -table, therefore, will best represent the existing pecuniary charge of -sickness from the loss of wages to a family in such a district in -ordinary seasons of employment. The actual charge of sickness in _time_ -lost every year, as represented by the experience of the sickness tables -before cited, would be as follows:— - - ┌─────────────┬─────────────┬─────────────┬─────────────┬─────────────┐ - │ Age. │Experience of│Experience of│ Mr. │ Experience │ - │ │the Wynds of │ Benefit │ Finlaison. │ under │ - │ │ Edinburgh. │Societies in │ │ Sanitary │ - │ │ │ Scotland. │ │ Measures. │ - ├─────────────┼─────────────┼─────────────┼─────────────┼─────────────┤ - │ │ Days, &c. │ Days, &c. │ Days, &c. │ Days, &c. │ - │Man, 40 │ 15·1│ 6·9│ 9·2│ 2·75│ - │Woman, 30 │ 11·0│ 4·2│ 6·33│ 2·10│ - │Child, 15 │ 3·5│ 0·2│ 5·18│ 0·17│ - ├─────────────┼─────────────┼─────────────┼─────────────┼─────────────┤ - │Total per │ 29·6│ 11·3│ 20·71│ 5·02│ - │ family │ │ │ │ │ - └─────────────┴─────────────┴─────────────┴─────────────┴─────────────┘ - -The experience of the effect of sanitary measures proves the possibility -of the reduction of sickness in the worst districts to at least -one-third of the existing amount. Amidst classes somewhat better -situated, it were possible to reduce the sickness to less than -one-third; it were an under estimate to take the probable reduction at -one-half. Taking it, however, at one-half, by the new payment of 1½_d._, -or say 2_d._, weekly for drainage, the occupants of the tenements will -save 7½_d._ of the weekly contribution for an allowance of 10_s._ per -week each during sickness. But the allowance insured to be paid during -sickness only replaces the earnings: the sickness, besides its own -misery, entails the expense of medical attendance, which, at the usual -rate of insurance in medical clubs, would be 5_s._ or 6_s._ per annum -for such a family. This would also be reduced one-half, making the total -family saving at the least 9_d._ weekly. But the single payment for -structural alterations is to be regarded as general, and as a means of -affecting the whole of the objects for the whole of the population. For -this 2_d._ each tenement, or 1_d._ each family, then, they will not only -save double the weekly amount, but they will save, in the wear and tear -of shoes and clothes, from having a well-drained and well-cleansed -instead of a wet and miry district to traverse; they will also save the -sickness itself, and each individual will gain a proportionate extension -of a more healthy life. In a district where the wages are not one-half -the amount above stated, the expenditure for efficient means of -prevention would still leave a surplus of gain to the labourer. - -These are the chief gains on the side of the labourer; but in general -every labourer over and above what he consumes himself, produces enough -to repay the interest on capital and cost of superintendence or the -profits of the employer. The loss of this extra production is the loss -of the community during the whole time the services of the labourer are -abridged by sickness or death. To this loss is to be added, where the -labourer has made no reserve, the loss of the cost of his unproductive -maintenance as a pauper, and of medical attendance during sickness. - -The existing insurance charge, then, represents the existing charge on -the labouring classes from the loss of wages consequent on sickness; to -which charge might be added the existing additional charge denoted by -the insurance on account of the abridged duration of life and more -frequent deaths. The aggregate charge for structural improvements, -though amounting to so many millions as a first outlay, is still, for -the reasons above stated, only a means of obtaining an incalculably -greater gain. But it will be shown that the attainment of that gain is -dependent on securities for the application of science to the efficient -execution of the combined structural means of prevention. If these were -to be no better than those in use in the greater part of the metropolis -and the towns throughout the country, and the outlay for drainage were -to be an outlay for receptacles to serve as the means of accumulating -decomposing deposits, and as latent magazines of pestilential gases, to -be themselves cleansed from time to time of the accumulations at a great -expense, or to be discharged to pollute the natural streams of the -country, then the aggregate expenditure would, to the amount of the -inefficiency, be an aggregate of so many millions of money spent in -waste. - -The _immediate_ cost of sickness and loss of employment falls -differently in different parts of the country, but on whatsoever fund it -does fall, it will be a gain to apply to the means of prevention that -fund which is and must needs otherwise continue to be more largely -applied to meet the charge of maintenance and remedies. Admitting, -however, as a fact the misconception intended to be obviated, that the -necessary expense of structural arrangements will be an immediate charge -instead of an immediate means of relief to the labouring classes;—in -proof that they have, in ordinary times, not only the means of defraying -increased public rates but increased rents, I refer to the fact that the -amount expended in ardent spirits (exclusive of wines), tobacco, snuff, -beer, &c., consumed chiefly by them, cannot be much less than from -45,000,000_l._ to 50,000,000_l._ per annum in the United Kingdom. By an -estimate which I obtained from an eminent spirit merchant, of the cost -to the consumer of the British spirits on which duty is paid, the annual -expenditure on them alone, chiefly by the labouring classes, cannot be -less than 24,000,000_l._ per annum. If visible evidence of the means of -payment were needed I would point to every gin-palace in the metropolis, -or to similar places throughout the country, which are chiefly supported -from the expenditure of the class of persons who are overcrowded and -lodge most wretchedly, and its duty-paying building materials represents -a portion of the money available as rent for abodes of comparative -comfort. The cost of one dram per week would nearly defray the expense -of the structural arrangements of drainage, &c., by which some of the -strongest provocatives to the habit of drunkenness would be removed. In -illustration of the extent of the means of defraying such expenses, even -in some of the poorer districts, I would cite the following statement of -the minister of the parish of Stevenston, in Ayrshire, given in the last -statistical account from that parish:— - - “When the survey by the present incumbent was completed in 1836, the - population stood as follows:— - - Number of families 833 - Number of population 3681.” - -The report further states— - - “There are in the parish no less than 33 inns, and public-houses, and - whisky-shops. A few inns are needed for the accommodation of - travellers, and for the transaction of business; but the rest serve as - so many decoys to lure and destroy the thoughtless in their - neighbourhood. The sale of spirits in grocers’ shops has had a most - pernicious influence, especially on the female part of the community, - who, when there is no danger of detection, are tempted to add a dram - to the other commodities purchased. But the most pernicious practice - is that of several families clubbing that they may drink together - cheaply in one of their own houses; for in this way husbands, wives, - and children all share in the debauch, and drunken habits are - perpetuated from generation to generation. - - “We are grieved and ashamed to mention the sum annually expended in - this parish for ardent spirits. We have learned from the - excise-officer of the district the quantity sold in it last year; and - without taking into account what is bought at a distance for the use - of private families, and exclusive also of all that is expended for - wine, and ale, and porter, and beer, and calculating at a rate greatly - below the retail price the quantity of ardent spirits sold in the - parish, it amounts to the enormous sum of 4125_l._” - -This is nearly at the rate of 5_l._ a-year per family for ardent spirits -alone. To give another example:— - -In the town of Bury, with an estimated population of 25,000, the -expenditure in beer and spirits is estimated at 54,190_l._, annually, or -2_l._ 3_s._ 4_d._ for each man, woman, and child, a sum that would pay -the rent and taxes for upwards of 6770 new cottages at 8_l._ per annum -each. But on an inquiry made from house to house by the agency of the -Manchester Statistical Society into the condition of the labouring -population of this town, with such an expenditure on one source of -dissipation and ill-health, it appeared that of 2755 of their dwellings -examined, only 1668 were decidedly comfortable; that a smaller number -were well furnished; that the number of families in which there were -less than two persons sleeping in one bed were only 413; that the number -in which on the average there were more than two persons to a bed was -1512; that the number of families who had not less than _three_ persons -in a bed and less than four, was 773; that the number of families in -which there were “at least four persons, but less than five persons to -one bed,” was 207. There were 63 families where there were at least five -persons to one bed; and there were some in which even six were packed in -one bed, lying at the top and bottom—children and adults. Similar -results as to misapplied means and numbers crowded together would be -ascertained from similar inquiries into the state of the population in -other districts. - -Any measures must commend themselves to public support that would effect -in the application of the immense fund expended in ardent spirits alone, -a change for assured physical comforts and undoubted moral advantages of -the highest order. Admitting the validity of statements often made and -seldom proved in ordinary times, but which nevertheless may occur, of -classes of labourers reduced to the minimum of subsistence, that their -wages will not admit of any change of application, then another set of -considerations would arise, namely, whether the increased charges for -new tenements, or for improvement of the existing tenements, will not -compel an advance of wages, and thence be charged in the cost of the -commodity produced? And whether if the trade will not allow such -advanced wages, the amount of misery of the labouring classes is not -really increased by exemptions or legislative facilities, which allow -the trade to be carried on only at the expense of the health, the -morality and the comfort of the labourers engaged in it, and also at the -expense of the ratepayers in providing against the casualties of -sickness and mortality? - -These, however, are questions that appear to be less likely to occur -practically to any important extent than may be supposed. The general -difficulty would apparently be with the habits of the adults, who will, -to use the illustration presented in a portion of evidence previously -cited, “prefer the gin” to the best accommodation that can be offered to -them.[37] - -Whilst there is such evidence as that above cited to show that there is -in ordinary times no real need, there is much evidence to show the -impolicy of any exemptions from the payment of properly distributed -charges for the requisite public improvement. In general labourers have -been losers by exemptions from charges on their tenements, and scarcely -in any instance have gained even by exemptions from the payment of their -contributions to the poor’s rates. - -The effect of administrative proceedings on the condition of the -dwellings of large portions of the labouring classes, and thence on the -condition of the labourers, is, under varied circumstances, adverted to -in the local reports on their sanitary condition, and it is shown that -the former parochial administration has operated mischievously in -degrading the habitations of the labouring classes, or in checking -tendencies to improvement. - -The mode by which the condition of the dwellings of the labouring -classes has been most extensively deteriorated in England, has been by -the facility afforded to owners of cottage tenements, usually when -acting as administrators of the Poor Law, to get their own tenants -excused from the payment of rates. The legal ground for exemption was, -not the value of the tenement, but the destitution or inability of the -tenant to pay; but inasmuch as the occupation of a well-conditioned -tenement, or of a tenement in advance of others, would be popularly -considered _primâ facie_ evidence of ability to pay rates, the cottage -speculator would not be at the expense to present evidence against the -exemption by which he would gain. The general tenor of the evidence is, -that the exempted tenements are of a very inferior order, and that the -rents collected for them are exorbitant, and such as ought to ensure -tenements of a higher quality. - -Such residences appear to come in competition very rarely, and, viewed -with reference to the place of work, the habitations of the labouring -classes in the manufacturing towns extensively partake of the nature of -monopolies, and hence the landlord is enabled to exact a price for -position, independently of the character or quality of the building, or -of the extent of outlay upon it. Where there is any choice, the -labouring classes are generally attracted to these tenements by the -promise of exemption from the payment of poor’s rates, and are deluded -into the payment of a proportionately higher rent. (See the evidence on -this subject taken before the House of Commons’ Committee on the Rating -of Cottage Tenements in 1838; Questions 1103; 1106; 1222; 1377; 1403; -1504–7; 1637–8; 1594; 2269; 2271; 3124; 2234–5; 2240; 2279; 3106; -3723–4; 3920; 4054; 4071.) - -The depressing effect of such exemptions is illustrated by the effect of -their withdrawal, in cases where the inmates were not only excused from -the payment of rates, but from the payment of rents, as in the instance -of the parish cottages. The sales of cottage tenements held by the -parish have formed a part of the business of this Commission since its -commencement. The effects of the removal of the exemption from the -payment of rent consequent upon the sale are generally described as -beneficial. The tenor of the evidence on this subject is conveyed in a -communication from the _Rev. Charles Turner_, the chairman of the -Tenbury union, quoted in Sir Edmund Head’s report:— - - “Mr. Turner also says, ‘When the parish property has been sold, a vast - improvement in the external appearance of the cottages has taken - place, and consequently a higher rent is demanded, and frequently - obtained.’ We thus see one proof, among many, that the sales of parish - property which have taken place under the orders of the Commissioners - have been beneficial to the public at large; a vast mass of small - buildings (amounting, for instance, in the Bromyard union only, to no - less than the net worth of 3643_l._) has been withdrawn from a state - of dilapidation and decay and thrown into the market. Money has been - expended on it; it has been put into tenantable and proper repair, and - all parties have found their interest in the change. To the parish it - formerly yielded nothing. The pauper lived on in filth and - wretchedness, in a hovel of which he did not dare to complain, because - he held it by sufferance; and the community at large were deprived of - an opportunity for a profitable outlay of capital on tenements thus - kept in mortmain of the worst kind. Such an outlay would not have - taken place unless it promised a return, that is to say, unless the - class for whose reception the cottages are fitted could in all - probability pay for the improved accommodation. With regard to parties - living in their own houses, Mr. Turner says, ‘There are many poor - persons living in their own cottages, which are of a very inferior - description, wretchedly comfortless, and have only one floor. They are - decidedly worse than those which are rented, both as to accommodation - and state of repairs; but these, for the most part, have been built on - the waste and unenclosed land.’” - -The mischievous effect of exemptions from rating on the ground of -poverty, in bringing down buildings to the exempted scale, and in -preventing advances beyond it, is strikingly displayed in Ireland, where -all houses not exceeding the value of 5_l._ are exempted from -contribution to the county cess. The general consequence is that, the -farmers’ residences throughout the country are kept down to the level of -mere cottages or inconvenient hovels, to avoid passing the line of -contribution, and only pass it by indulgent or evasive valuations. But -the supposed exemption (which, if it be not often made up by increased -rent, is a circumstance peculiar to the smaller holdings in that -country)—an exemption which no doubt was procured as a boon, was -productive of further ill effects to the parties intended to be -benefited.[38] Being kept by the immediate expense and the fear of their -share of the tax to thatched roofs, these thatched roofs afforded -facilities to incendiarism, since any one might put a cinder in the -thatch, and run away without detection; hence it has placed the inmates -so far under continued terror in disturbed times, that it would -frequently have been worth the expense of putting on a slate roof as a -measure of preventive police. The depression of the tenement is -practically a depression of the habits and condition of the inhabitants. - -I may assume that it has been proved that the labouring classes do -possess the means of purchasing the comforts of superior dwellings, and -also that they are not benefited by exemptions from the immediate -charges wherever requisite to defray the expense of those superior -comforts. - -I shall now show how little it is in the power of these classes -voluntarily to obtain these improvements,—setting aside entirely the -consideration of the obstacles arising from depraved habits already -formed. - -The workman’s “location,” as it is termed, is generally governed by his -work, near which he must reside. The sort of house, and often the -particular house, may be said to be, and usually is, a monopoly. On -arriving at manhood in a crowded neighbourhood, if he wishes to have a -house, he must avail himself of the first vacancy that presents itself; -if there happen to be more houses vacant than one, the houses being -usually of the same class, little range of choice is thereby presented -to him. In particular neighbourhoods near Manchester, and in other parts -of the county of Lancaster, in some other manufacturing and in some -rural districts, instances occur of the erection of improved ranges of -larger and better constructed houses for the labouring classes; and, -making deduction for the occasional misuse of the increased space by -subdividing them and overcrowding them with lodgers, the extent to which -these improved tenements are sought, and the manner in which an improved -rent is paid, afford gratifying evidence of an increasing disposition -prevalent amongst artisans to avail themselves of such improvements. -These opportunities, however, are comparatively few, and occur in -districts where multitudes continue in the most depressed condition, -apparently without any power of emerging from it. - -The individual labourer has little or no power over the internal -structure and economy of the dwelling which has fallen to his lot. If -the water be not laid on in the other houses in the street, or if it be -unprovided with proper receptacles for refuse, it is not in the power of -any individual workman who may perceive the advantages of such -accommodations to procure them. He has as little control over the -external economy of his residence as of the structure of the street -before it, whether it shall be paved or unpaved, drained, or undrained. -It may be said that he might cleanse the street before his own door. By -some local acts the obligation to do so is imposed on the individual -inhabitants. By those inhabitants who have servants this duty may be and -is performed, but the labourer has no servant; all of his family who are -capable of labour are out a-field, or in the manufactory or the -workshop, at daybreak, and return only at nightfall, and this regulation -therefore is unavoidably neglected. - -Under the slavery of the existing habits of labourers, it is found that -the faculty of perceiving the advantage of a change is so obliterated as -to render them incapable of using, or indifferent to the use of, the -means of improvement which may happen to come within their reach. The -sense of smell, for instance, which generally gives certain warning of -the presence of malaria or gases noxious to the health, appears often to -be obliterated in the labourer by his employment. He appears to be -insensible to anything but changes of temperature, and there is scarcely -any stench which is not endured to avoid slight cold. - -It would have been matter of sincere congratulation to have met with -more extensive evidence of spontaneous improvement amongst the classes -in receipt, of high wages, but nearly all the beneficial changes found -in progress throughout the country are changes that have arisen from the -efforts of persons of the superior classes. Inquiries have been made for -plans of improved tenements, but none have been found which can be -presented as improvements originating with the class intended to be -accommodated. In the rural districts, the worst of the new cottages are -those erected on the borders of commons by the labourers themselves. In -the manufacturing districts, the tenements erected by building clubs and -by speculating builders of the class of workmen, are frequently the -subject of complaint, as being the least substantial and the most -destitute of proper accommodation. The only conspicuous instances of -improved residences of the labouring classes found in the rural -districts are those which have been erected by opulent and benevolent -landlords for the accommodation of the labourers on their own estates; -and in the manufacturing districts, those erected by wealthy -manufacturers for the accommodation of their own workpeople. - -As in England so in Scotland, the most important improvements have been -effected through enlightened landlords. The members of the Highland -Society, who have made the best exertions for improving the condition of -the labouring population in the rural districts, and have offered prizes -for the best-constructed cottages and the best plans, competition being -open to all parties, got nothing from the lower classes, and only -succeeded in exciting the interest of the most intelligent proprietors, -and getting improvements effected through their exertions. Mr. Loudon, -in an appeal on behalf of the agricultural labourers, lays it down as a -primary position that, “In general, proprietors ought not to entrust the -erection of labourers’ cottages on their estates to the farmers, as it -is chiefly owing to this practice that so many wretched hovels exist in -the best cultivated districts of Scotland and Northumberland.” - - - _Employers’ influence on the Health of Workpeople by means of improved - Habitations._ - -Preparatory to the exposition of the means of protection of the public -health provided by the existing law, and of the modifications that -appear to be requisite for the attainment of the object in question, I -would submit for consideration practical examples of its partial -attainment by means of improved dwellings; combined with examples of -other improvements effected in the moral condition of the labouring -classes, by the judicious exercise of the influence possessed by their -superiors in condition. - -Throughout the country examples are found of a desire, on the part of -persons of the higher class, to improve the condition of the poorer -classes by the erection of dwellings of a superior order for their -accommodation. These, however, are generally at a cost beyond any return -to be expected in the present state of the habits of the people in the -shape of rent, or any return in money for an outlay on an ordinary -investment of capital. But the instances about to be noticed, though -generally originating in benevolence, and without the expectation of a -return, do, in the results, prove that in money and money’s worth, the -erection of good tenements affords the inducement of a fair remuneration -to the employers of labour to provide improved accommodation for their -own labourers. - -Wherever it has been brought under observation, the connexion of the -labourer’s residence with his employment as part of the farm, or of the -estate, or of the manufactory on which he is employed, and as part of -the inducement to service, appears to be mutually advantageous to the -employer and the employed. The first advantages are to the person -employed. - -We everywhere find (in contradiction to statements frequently made in -popular declamations) that the labourer gains by his connexion with -large capital: in the instances presented in the course of this inquiry, -of residences held from the employer, we find that the labourer gains by -the expenditure for the external appearance of that which is known to be -part of the property,—an expenditure that is generally accompanied by -corresponding internal comforts; he gains by all the surrounding -advantages of good roads and drainage, and by more sustained and -powerful care to maintain them; he gains by the closer proximity to his -work attendant on such an arrangement, and he thus avoids all the -attacks of disease, occasioned by exposure to wet and cold, and the -additional fatigue in traversing long distances to and from his home to -the place of work, in the damp of early morning or of nightfall. The -exposure to weather, after leaving the place of work, is one prolific -cause of disease, especially to the young. When the home is near to the -place of work, the labourer is enabled to take his dinner with his -family instead of at the beer-shop. - -The wife and family generally gain, by proximity to the employer or the -employer’s family, in motives to neatness and cleanliness by their being -known and being under observation; as a general rule, the whole economy -of the cottages in bye-lanes and out-of-the-way places appears to be -below those exposed to observation. In connexion with property or large -capital, the labourer gains in the stability of employment, and the -regularity of income incidental to operations on a large scale; there is -a mutual benefit also in the wages for service being given in the shape -of buildings or permanent and assured comforts; that is, in what would -be the best application of wages, rather than wholly in money wages. - -In the manufacturing districts there is a mutual and large gain by the -diminution of the labour of the collection of rents, the avoidance of -the risks of non-payment, and also in the power of control for the -prevention of disturbances, and the removal of tenants of bad character -and conduct. - -Surprise is frequently expressed at the enormous rents ranging up to and -beyond 20 per cent. on the outlay, exacted by the building speculators -in the towns. But when the experience of these descriptions of tenements -is examined, it is found that the labour of collecting the rents, and -the labour of protecting the property itself against waste from -unprincipled tenants, is such as to prove that accommodation given to -the disorderly and vicious is scarcely remunerative at any price. The -tenants are loosely attached, and large numbers migratory, partly from -the nature of their work; and having little or no goods or furniture, -they have no obstacles to removal; they frequently, before absconding, -commit every description of waste; they often burn shelves and -cupboard-doors, and the door itself, and all timber that can be got at -for the purpose.[39] An objection frequently made against laying on the -water in houses inhabited by a population addicted to drinking is, that -they would sell the receptacles and destroy the pipe, and let the water -run to waste, for the sake of the lead. The expense and delay of legal -remedies precludes redress for such injuries. - -In some of the worst neighbourhoods in Manchester, the whole population -of a street have risen to resist the service of legal process by the -civil officers. In the course of the Constabulary Inquiry I was informed -by the superintendent of the old police of that town, that one of the -most dangerous services for a small force was attending to enforce -ejectments. This they had often to do, cutlass in hand, and were -frequently driven off by showers of bricks from the mobs. The collection -of the rents weekly in such neighbourhoods is always a disagreeable -service, requiring high payment. This, and the frequent running away of -the tenant, and the waste, greatly reduce the apparently enormous rent -obtainable from this poorer class of tenants. For all these vices, -risks, and defaults of others, the frugal and well-conducted workman who -has no choice of habitation, is compelled to pay in the shape of an -increased rent; he is most largely taxed in the increased rent, -necessary as an insurance for the risks and losses occasioned by the -defective state of legal remedies. - -All these risks the employer is enabled to diminish or avoid, by -selecting his own tenants, and he has the best means of doing so; by -reservations of rent on the payment of wages, he saves the labour and -risks of collection; nor will the vicious workman so readily commit -waste in the house belonging to his employer as in one belonging to a -poorer and unconnected owner. The employer has, moreover, the most -direct interest in the health and strength of his workpeople. - -It is not supposed that these are arrangements which can be universal, -or readily made the subject of legislation. At the commencement of some -manufactures, the additional outlay may not be practicable. But those -manufactures have generally had the greatest success where good -accommodation for the workpeople was comprehended in the first -arrangements. When, however, a manufactory has been once established and -brought into systematic operation, when the first uncertainties have -been overcome and the employer has time to look about him, there appears -to be no position from which so extensive and certain a beneficial -influence may be exercised as that of the capitalist who stands in the -double relation of landlord and employer. He will find that whilst an -unhealthy and vicious population is an expensive as well as a dangerous -one, all improvements in the condition of the population have their -compensation. In one instance, of a large outlay on improved tenements, -and in provision for the moral improvement of the rising generation of -workpeople, by an expensive provision for schools, the proprietor -acknowledged to me that although he made the improvements from motives -of a desire to improve the condition of his workpeople, or what might be -termed the satisfaction derived from the improvements as a “hobby,” he -was surprised by a pecuniary gain found in the superior order and -efficiency of his establishment, in the regularity and trustworthiness -of his workpeople, which gave even pecuniary compensation for the outlay -of capital and labour bestowed upon them. He stated that he would not, -for 7000_l._, change the entire set of workpeople on whom care had been -bestowed for the promiscuous assemblage of workpeople engaged in the -same description of manufactures. - -I would now submit for consideration, with the view to promulgation for -voluntary adoption, instances of the arrangements which have been found -most beneficial in their operation on the condition of the manufacturing -population. - -The most prominent of these instances was pointed out to our attention -in the course of the Factory Inquiry, in the habitations connected with -the mills superintended by the late Mr. Archibald Buchanan, at Catrine, -in Ayrshire. Nearly 1000 persons are employed in these mills, the places -of work are well ventilated and carefully kept; the village where the -workpeople live is advantageously situated, and the houses are well -built. They are thus described by his son in answer to my inquiries:— - - “The system that has been pursued here, and which was adopted by my - father for the purpose of giving the workers a greater interest in the - place, at the same time that it gave them an object to be careful and - saving, while it raised them in point of standing and respectability, - has been different from that generally acted upon at country works. - Instead of our company continuing the proprietors of the - dwelling-houses and letting them to the workpeople, my father gave the - workers every encouragement to save money, so that they might - themselves become the proprietors of a house and small garden, either - by making a purchase from the company or fencing ground and building a - house for themselves. This plan has been very successful, and many of - our people are proprietors of excellent houses with gardens attached, - which afford them employment and amusement in their spare hours; and - among themselves they have a horticultural society and an annual - competition. Though many houses have been sold in this way, a - considerable part of the village is still the property of our company, - and those that have been built by other parties are in accordance with - a plan of streets laid down; and I should say are about equal to the - others in comfort and conveniences, it being the interest of the - person investing his money to get the best return he can for it; and - that he may get his house let and a fair rent for it, he must build as - good a house as the tenant can get for the same rent from another. The - houses are substantially built of stone and lime, and slated, and are - generally of two stories, containing four families, occupying two - rooms each. They have generally small plots of garden-ground behind, - in which are dungsteads and necessaries, with a space between them and - the houses. The village is well supplied with water by spring-wells - and pumps in various parts of it; and some of the streets have water - conveyed to them in pipes from the aqueduct to the water-wheels that - give motion to the works. I cannot, however, very well give any - distinct plan or drawing of the dwellings of the workpeople, our - houses being a good deal mixed with those belonging to others. - - “The population of the village, per census taken 30th December last, - is 2699, and the number of families 566, so that the proportion of - individuals to each family is 4‑435/566, and the number employed in - the works is 936. The proprietors of houses appoint annually a - committee of their number to attend to the repairs of the streets, and - the keeping of them clean; and they have a man constantly in their - employment for this purpose, the expense being defrayed by the feuers - assessing themselves according to the rental of their properties.” - -These mills were pointed out to our attention during the Factory -Inquiry, by Mr. Stuart, the commissioner, who observed that the -workpeople, “more especially the females, are not only apparently in the -possession of good health, but many of them (quite as large a proportion -as we have seen in any of the extensive well-regulated similar -establishments in country districts) are blooming—as unlike as possible -to the pale, languid-looking females too frequently to be found in -similar works in great cities.” - -_Mr. Hill_, the prison inspector for Scotland, stated that the -procurator fiscal, or public prosecutor, reported to him that he had -nothing to do in that village; and in his Third Report he thus mentions -it:— - - “There is little crime here, and very few offences of any kind, and it - is reported that there is not a single person in the village who is of - a bad character. Indeed no person of bad character, or who is in the - habit of drunkenness, is allowed to remain in the mills, on which - nearly the whole population of the village is directly or indirectly - dependent. The few offences which are committed are almost all by - vagrants. The inhabitants of Catrine appear to be in the enjoyment of - an unusual amount of comfort; they are well clad, live in neat houses, - many of them their own property, and look healthy and cheerful; indeed - the only person in the village who has reason to be downcast is the - medical man, who complains that he has nothing to do.” - -Similar effects are manifested in the mills at New Lanark, at the -flax-mills near Cupar. These instances would suffice to establish the -fact of the very little sickness that is _essential_ to the occupation -itself. _Mr. Hill_ who, by his office, is led to appreciate highly -instances of exemption from crime and disorder, exclaims, upon the sight -of such establishments,—“Notwithstanding what has been said on the -subject of factories, I have no hesitation in declaring that I believe -that the workpeople at Catrine, New Lanark, and other similar -establishments, form some of the healthiest, happiest, and most moral -communities in the world.” - -From other examples it appears to be by no means essential to such -improvements that the labourers should become proprietors of their -occupations. _Mr. Buchanan, jun._, expresses his concurrence in the -general conclusions to which I have arrived of the advantages derived by -the labourer from his connexion with his place of work, and says,— - - “I perfectly agree that a labouring man will generally be found in a - state of greater comfort, holding a tenement from his employer, than - when left to provide a dwelling of whatever kind he chooses for - himself. In our case the proprietors, in the first place, furnished - the house, in which the workmen formed habits of cleanliness and - comfort, and when by care and economy he had saved as much as enabled - him to purchase it, he was advanced a step higher by becoming himself - the proprietor, continuing to occupy part of the house himself, and - letting the other parts to his fellow-workmen. - - “I believe that our people enjoy as good health, and have as many - comforts as any of the same class either in the same or any other - employment, as their appearance will testify; and the generally - different appearance of the manufacturing population in towns is to be - attributed to the habits of the people themselves, and the way in - which they are crowded together, and not to anything in the nature of - the employment.”[40] - -The following account which I have received in answer to inquiries from -_Mr. Henry Ashworth_, of Turton, near Bolton, with relation to the -manufacturing population of that place, is so far characteristic of the -progress of a population of more extensive districts, and of the means -of their improvement, that I submit it at full length:— - - “On the early introduction of the cotton manufacture, the parties who - entered into it were men of limited capital, and anxious to invest the - whole of it in mills and machinery, and therefore too much absorbed - with the doubtful success of their own affairs to look after the - necessities of their workpeople. - - “Families were attracted from all parts for the benefit of employment, - and obliged, as a temporary resort, to crowd together into such - dwellings as the neighbourhood afforded: often two families into one - house; others into cellars or very small dwellings: eventually, as the - works became established, either the proprietor or some neighbour - would probably see it advantageous to build a few cottages; these were - often of the worst description; in such case the prevailing - consideration was not how to promote the health and comfort of the - occupants, but how many cottages could be built upon the smallest - space of ground and at the least possible cost. We find many built - back to back, a most objectionable form, as precluding the possibility - of any outlet behind. - - “People brought together as these were for a living, had no - alternative but to occupy such dwellings. Whatever the weekly income, - the wife could never make such a house comfortable; she had only one - room in which to do all her work; it may be readily supposed the - husband would not always find the comfort he wished in such a home. - The public-house would then be his only resort. But here the evil does - not end; the children brought up in such dwellings knew no better - accommodation than such afforded, nor had they any opportunities of - seeing better domestic management. Few of the parents in these parts - have ever lived as domestic servants, so that it becomes no matter of - surprise that the major part should have so little knowledge of - improving their social condition even when the pecuniary means are - within their reach. It must be allowed that the introduction of - manufactures is not justly chargeable with producing the whole of this - evil. About this time the old Poor Law was exercising a very - pernicious influence upon the labouring classes, by means of inducing - both the landowners and farmers to discourage cottage property for - fear the inmates should gain parish settlements. - - “Cottages were forbidden to be built; some pulled down when empty, and - others fell to decay for want of repair; poor people were banished as - much as possible from the agricultural districts on account of the - burden of parish settlements; even in this county I saw the ruins of - two cottages, which I was informed were the two last cottages in the - parish. - - “Under such depressing causes it is not to be wondered at that we - frequently received families into our employ who did not know how to - conduct (with propriety) a decent cottage in such a manner as to - conduce either to the health or comfort of the inmates. - - “About twelve years ago we had occasion to introduce a considerable - number of families into some new houses; in the course of a few months - a most malignant fever broke out amongst them, and went from house to - house, till we became seriously alarmed for the safety of the whole - establishment. We instituted an inquiry into the state of the houses - where the fever first appeared, and found that from the low habits of - the occupants, and the ignorance of the proper decencies of life, the - cottages were in so filthy a state that it was apparent we should not - long be free from a recurrence of the same evil unless we took some - active means to effect a change in the habits of these people. - - “Although we felt very unwilling to do anything which appeared to - interfere with the domestic management of our workpeople, still the - urgency of the case at the time seemed to warrant such a step. We - therefore ordered an examination of every cottage in our possession, - both as regarded cleanliness and ventilation, as well as bedding and - furniture. - - “The striking difference exhibited in the state of these cottages, the - neatness and cleanness of some, the gross neglect of others, appearing - to have no relation to the amount of income, convinced us that an - occasional repetition of these visits would be essential in order to - effect any permanent improvement amongst them. - - “These periodical visits have now been continued through a series of - years; and as no invidious distinction or selection was ever made, do - not appear to have been viewed in the light of an intrusion; a week or - two of notice being mostly given, a laudable degree of emulation has - been excited as to whose house bedding and furniture should be found - in the best order; my brother or myself have occasionally joined in - these visits. By these means we were made acquainted with the wants - and necessities of the various families in our employ. Having had such - opportunity of observing the great inconvenience arising from small - dwellings where the families were large, both as regards bed-rooms and - living-rooms, few cottages having more than two bed-rooms; and where - there were children or young persons of both sexes, the indelicacy of - this arrangement was apparent; we therefore concluded to build larger - cottages, and make them with three bed-rooms in each. These houses - were sought after with the greatest avidity, and families allowed to - remove to them as an especial favour; the increase rent of 1_s._ to - 1_s._ 6_d._ per week was a small consideration in regard to the - additional comfort afforded to a family where the income was from - 24_s._ to 50_s._ or 60_s._ per week, as is frequently the case with - families employed in manufactories.” - -But I am enabled to adduce evidence showing that by structural -improvements of the places of work as well as of abode which present the -bounty on and security for future adoption, constituted by experience of -pecuniary saving, the health of the manufacturing workpeople, now -amongst the lowest, may be advanced to the average of health enjoyed by -any other class. - -On my return from Glasgow, I proceeded to visit and examine the cotton -manufactory and machine-making works erected and carried on under the -directions of Mr. James Smith, of Deanston, near Stirling, the inventor -of the subsoil plough, to whose valuable opinion on the subject of -drainage I have already made reference. - -The principle of the improvement of places of work, which constituted -the chief object of attention at Deanston, was the erection of -manufactories in one large flat or ground floor, instead of story piled -upon story as in the old mode. - -Mr. Smith had constructed a new department of the cottonmill in one room -or flat, which covered about half an acre of ground. The roof was -composed of groined arches in divisional squares of 33 feet 6 inches, -supported on cast-iron columns, which were hollow, and through which the -drainage of the roof was effected. In order to render the roof of the -building water-tight, the outer superficies of the arches were covered -with a coat of common plaster, over which, when dried, was laid a -coating of coal-tar, boiled to a pitchy consistence, and mixed with -sand, laid on to a thickness of three-quarters of an inch. Over this was -laid a surface of from 12 to 16 inches of garden-soil, which prevents -the injurious effects on the pitch of the frost in winter, and the sun -in summer. - -The height of this large room was 12 feet from the floor to the spring -of the arches, and six feet rise, giving a height to the room in which -the operatives were engaged of 18 feet. The height of the ordinary rooms -in which the workpeople in manufactories are engaged is not more than -from 9 to 11 feet. This restricted space arises from various points of -economy (now considered to be mistaken) in the old modes of constructing -manufactories, which were first erected in towns where land was dear, -and in times when the immediate economy of capital was of more pressing -importance. The adverse consequences to the operatives are the -restriction of space for air; that the heat and effluvia of the lower -rooms are communicated to the rooms above; and that the difficulty of -ventilating them is exceedingly great, especially in the wide rooms, -where it is found to be practically extremely difficult to get a current -of fresh air to pass through the centre. The like difficulties have been -heretofore experienced in respect to the ventilation of large ships. -There is also in the mills of the old construction the additional -fatigue of ascending and descending to the higher rooms, and carrying -material. To avoid this, in some instances, machinery is resorted to. - -The ventilation through the side windows of large rooms is generally -found to be imperfect and inconvenient in many of the processes, and -annoying to the workpeople from the influx of the air in strong -currents. The arrangements for ventilation through the roof of this room -appeared to be highly advantageous. The light was brought in from above, -through openings eight feet in diameter at the top of each groin, -surmounted by domes or cones of glass, at the apex of which there were -openings of about 16 inches in diameter, with covers that could be -opened or shut at pleasure, to admit of ventilation. The better -distribution of the light for the work from these openings was one -advantage they appeared to possess over the ordinary mode of getting -light from side windows. - -The chief arrangements from below for ventilation were made by tunnels -10 feet distance from each other, carried across and underneath the -floor of the building, and terminating in the open air on either side. -The covers of these tunnels were perforated with holes of about an inch -in diameter and 12 inches apart, disposed through the floor so as to -occasion a wide and uniform distribution of fresh air throughout the -whole building, on the same principle as that adopted for the admission -of fresh air through the floor of the House of Commons. In winter time -the fresh air admitted was warmed on the same principle, by pipes of hot -water, to prevent the inconvenience of the admission of currents of cold -air. The whole building was, from its size and arrangements, kept at a -steady temperature, and appeared to be less susceptible than other -buildings to atmospheric influence. The shaftings for the conveyance of -the power were carried through the tunnels, and straps or belts from the -shafts rise through the cover of the tunnels, and, by their motion, aid -in promoting the circulation of the air. The possibility of fatal -accidents from the persons being caught by the straps and wound round -the shafts, was by this arrangement entirely prevented. The tunnelling -under this arrangement constituted a boxing off of the whole of the -shafting. Another advantage from the removal of the driving-straps from -above was that the view over the whole room was entirely unimpeded. - -Another structural improvement was in the use of a thin flooring of wood -over the solid base of stone floors. The floor so arranged affords the -solidity of the stone floor, and inconsiderable danger of combustion, -whilst the advantages of the wooden surface to the workers were a -diminution of swelled ancles and rheumatic affections of the joints, -often produced by working bare-footed on stone floors. - -There were no entries made from which I could obtain for comparison an -account of the amount of sickness experienced by the workpeople in this -new room, but it was obvious that the improvement must be considerable, -and it was attested by the rosy and fresh countenances of the females -and of the workpeople generally. A considerable improvement was manifest -in the health of those workpeople who had previously worked in the older -and less spacious rooms. - -The improvement of the place of work was combined with improvements in -the residences of the workpeople. About one-half of the hands employed -in the mills resided in houses near the works, which were well drained; -the ashes and other refuse was cleared away from the village every -morning between six and seven o’clock, and carried to a general -dungstead at a distance, for use on their gardens. On inquiry as to the -state of the health of the workpeople living in these improved -tenements, it appeared that they had not one-half the amount of sickness -experienced by the rest of the workpeople who lived in the common -ill-regulated houses about a mile distance. The whole population had -fewer diseases than any other class of the population in the surrounding -country; they presented fewer cases of rheumatism, and there were -scarcely any lung diseases amongst them: their general health was -decidedly better than that of the adjacent agricultural population. - -The chief advantages of the improved arrangements of the places of work -were, on the side of the workpeople, improved health; security for -females and for the young against the dangers of fatal accidents, and -less fatigue in the execution of the same amount of work. But beyond -these the arrangement of the work in one room had moral advantages of -high value. The bad manners and immoralities complained of as attendant -on assemblages of workpeople of both sexes in manufactories, generally -occur, as may be expected, in small rooms and places where few are -employed, and that are secluded from superior inspection and from common -observation. But whilst employed in this one large room, the young are -under the inspection of the old; the children are in many instances -under the inspection of parents, and all under the observation of the -whole body of workers, and under the inspection of the employer. It was -observed that the moral condition of the females in this room stood -comparatively high. It would scarcely be practicable to discriminate the -moral effects arising from one cause where several are in operation; but -it was stated by ministers that there were fewer cases of illegitimacy -and less vice observable among the population engaged in this -manufactory than amongst the surrounding population of the labouring -class. The comparative circumstances of that population were such as, -when examined, would establish the conclusion that it must be so. - -The first expense of such a building is higher than a manufactory of the -old construction; but it appeared to possess countervailing economical -advantages to the capitalist, the chief of which are,—this same facility -of constant general supervision, the increase of the certainty of -superintendence, and the reduction of the numbers of subordinate -managers, the increase of efficiency of management, and a diminution of -its expense. Another advantage arose to the manufacturer in the superior -action of the machinery. In mills of the ordinary construction the -machinery is frequently deranged in its structure, and put out of order -by the yielding and unsteadiness of the upper floors. The machinery -erected on the ground floor has a firm basis, and a steady and more -durable action. The other advantages presented were, the saving of -labour in transporting the material from one process to another, a -labour which is often considerable in expense, as well as in -inconvenience, in lifting it into the higher rooms; the reduction of the -hazard of fire, and consequently in expense of insurance against it, as -fire could scarcely take place, and certainly could not rapidly extend -in a manufactory so constructed. These several sources of economy Mr. -Smith calculated would more than compensate for any increase of -ground-rent, even if the building were erected on land costing 1000_l._ -per acre. Mr. Marshall, of Leeds, on consulting with Mr. Smith, has -constructed a new manufactory (on the principle of that in Deanston) in -Leeds, where ground is valuable. This manufactory covers more than two -acres of ground, and is reported to be eminently successful. Power looms -are frequently arranged in buildings of one story, and I was informed of -another manufactory in Lancashire, nearly as large as that of Messrs. -Marshalls, built on one floor, but it did not appear to possess the -arrangements for ventilation and warming, and the other arrangements -necessary to the complete action of a place of work on the plan of that -at Deanston. - -Mr. Smith considered that the principle of arrangement for superior -inspection and management of a manufactory was equally applicable to -agricultural operations, and that it would be proportionately -advantageous in the superior ventilation and equality of temperature for -cattle, in the avoidance of labour and wet and cold, in removing from -one small separate building to another, and in the transport of produce, -to have all under one large roof, where the whole direction and -inspection of the homestead farming operations are brought under one -view. - -Of the manufacturing advantages of such arrangements I have had strong -testimony: of the advantages of such arrangements to the health and -moral and social condition of the workpeople, I could not entertain the -slightest doubt. I feel confident that the more closely it is examined, -the more clearly will the coincidence which I have endeavoured to trace, -of pecuniary interest with the health and the highest physical and moral -improvement of the lowest of the labouring classes, be established. Mr. -Smith avowed his confidence in this coincidence from his own experience -and observation as a practical principle. The improved health of the -workpeople was attended by more energy and better labour; by less of -lassitude and waste from relaxed attention; by fewer interruptions from -sickness, and fewer spare hands to ensure the completion of work. Under -the persuasion of the coincidence of interest, he had endeavoured to -direct the structural alterations to the promotion of the health of the -workpeople; he believed they might be advantageously carried further, -and had it in contemplation to make arrangements to promote habitual -bathing amongst them. He had, moreover, retained the services of a -medical gentleman to inspect the workpeople from time to time, and give -them timely advice, and, as far as possible, to prevent disease. He -agreed, and had long considered, that it was in the power of the masters -of Britain “entirely to extirpate excessive and habitual drinking. We -never,” said he, “permit a man to come near the works who is in the -slightest degree intoxicated, and never permit any one to be absent one -day drinking. You never can be well or cheaply served by a dissipated -workman. The most skilful workman, the man whose services I can the -least spare, must, if he takes to drinking, leave the place. It may -occasion immediate inconvenience and even immediate loss, but if the -rule be steadily applied, it will contribute to the comfort and the -profit of the master as well as of the man.” - -The importance of such beneficent influence on the health, the moral -condition and respectability of the labouring classes, is so little -understood, that I beg leave to submit further illustrations of the -value of— - - - _The Employers’ Influence on the Sobriety and Health of Workpeople by - modes of Payment which do not lead to Temptations to Intemperance._ - -The power possessed by extensive employers of labour to influence -beneficially their labourers, is not however confined to those who stand -in the combined relation of employer and landlord. In the course of -another inquiry as to the means of preventing crime, it appeared that a -large class of crimes and disorders arose from drunkenness. On carrying -the inquiry back into the causes out of which the drunkenness arose, -they appeared to be extensively removable, and that by the employers of -labour. The important influences that belong to this position will be -displayed in the effects of alterations in detail in one point of -management, namely, the mode of paying wages. The direct sanitary -effects may be best displayed in the following evidence of _Mr. Lomax_, -an army pensioner, which has been corroborated by superior officers:— - - “When I was in the Life Guards, 14 or 16 years ago, there was a good - deal of ill health prevalent amongst them. Before that time the men - received part of their pay weekly, namely, 7_s._ at the end of the - week. With this 7_s._ they had to provide the food which they - required, except their dinner. The ration for dinner was - three-quarters of a pound of uncooked meat, a pound of potatoes or - vegetables, and a pound of bread. It was found, however, that many of - the men spent the whole of the 7_s._ in a single day in drink or - dissipation. During the remainder of the week the men would be on what - was called the _crib-bite_, that is, living only on their dinner - rations. I knew many of the men who drooped under this system, partly - from the excess of drinking or dissipation, and partly from the - privation of the necessaries of life and the work they had to undergo. - This, again, led them to much temptation. If anything was lost it was - amongst this class of men that we looked for it. The crime-book would - speak as to the further bad consequences of these habits. - - “The plan was then tried of paying the men 1_s._ each day. Over and - above that the men were provided with coffee. It was universally felt - that this change was highly beneficial to their health, and it stopped - the dissipation, and the consequences of the dissipation.” - -The incapacity to apportion their means for temperate consumption (which -is not however confined to the working classes) is extensively shown in -the mismanagement of the means for procuring food. It is a subject of -complaint which frequently appears in the reports, that the ignorance of -domestic economy leads to ill health, by the purchase of unsuitable, and -at the same time, expensive food. We have been frequently besought to -obtain and promulgate, for popular information, instructions in frugal -cookery, and the management of supplies. It is observed by _Mr. -Brebner_, the governor of the Glasgow bridewell, where the cost of -maintaining the prisoners in health and increased strength is on average -only 2¾_d._ per diem, that - - “The regularity of diet in the prisons here is of vast importance, - both as to the quantity and the time of serving it up. If the same - persons were to get the same amount of food for a whole week, or for a - less time, at their own discretion, they would suffer from surfeit at - one time, and from long fasting at another. Irregularity of diet is - one of the most fruitful sources of disease that occur in civilized - life.” - -In further illustration of the beneficial influence which employers may -often exercise to assail such vices by regulations in detail, I cite the -following instances from a communication I have received from _Mr. Edwin -Hill_, the inspector of stamping machinery for the Government:— - - “During a period of nine years (from 1818 to 1827) I was engaged in - the superintendence of one of the largest works in the town of - Birmingham, consisting of two distinct mills, one employed in rolling - copper for the use of braziers and shipwrights, and the other in - rolling silver, brass, and other metals. In each mill there was a set - of skilled workmen, who undertook the work at fixed prices, and who - themselves employed numerous assistants at weekly wages. - - “Owing to difficulties in the way of making up the accounts at short - intervals, it was the custom for the master to advance weekly to each - workman in the silver mill a fixed sum of money (besides advancing a - sum to pay the assistants with). The accounts were made up annually, - and the balances due to the several workmen then paid. The payments, - both weekly and annually, were almost always made not to the men but - to their wives. The earnings of the men were considerable, varying - from 80_l._ to 180_l._ a-year. The men were, almost without exception, - highly respectable in their stations, their families were well - provided for, their homes cleanly and not without pretensions to some - degree of elegance, and their children sent to school at the sole - expense of the parents. Some of them had made considerable - accumulations of money, and even become proprietors of houses and - land. The workmen employed in the copper mill, on the contrary, had - been accustomed to receive the full amount of their earnings at the - end of each week, and, after paying their assistants, to divide the - surplus. These men were much addicted to drinking and feasting at the - alehouse; and, although their earnings were nearly as great as those - of the other men, their families were in wretchedness, and their wives - obliged to eke out a slender pittance by washing and other laborious - occupations. There were also several men employed as millwrights and - engineers, at regular and good weekly wages. These men were, almost - without exception, steady and respectable, and their families well - provided for. About the year 1822 the inconvenience and annoyance, and - loss, which arose from the unsteady habits of the second set of men, - led me to inquire into the causes of their inferiority to the others, - and I was soon led to attribute much of the evil to the great - irregularity in the amount of their weekly incomes, which varied from - about 10_s._ to 4_l._ 4_s._ per man. - - “The effects were as follows:—The men were reckless, trusting to their - luck to get ‘good work,’ _i. e._, that which bears a high price in - proportion to the required labour. They were enabled to deceive their - wives as to the amount of money obtained. They learned the minimum - with which their wives could contrive to keep house, and, having - learned it, they endeavoured to retain all above this minimum for - their own gratifications. Their wives, under the pressure of - necessity, picked their pockets, opened their drawers, &c., in search - of money believed to be hidden. Their wives actually desired that - their husbands might get drunk on Saturday night, because they could - the more easily abstract the money from their persons. - - “Upon the termination of my inquiries I induced the men, with little - difficulty, to receive their money in the way the other men did, viz., - by regular weekly advances, rather under their average earnings, with - a quarterly or annual settlement; and I took care that the wives - should know exactly what their husbands would receive; and from the - day the plan commenced, a most decided and permanent improvement took - place in the habits of the men, and in the appearance and general - comforts of their families. One of the men commenced saving money - immediately. This man’s savings, as I have lately been informed, now - in January, 1841, considerably exceed 1000_l._; whereas, during the - five or six years which he passed in the same occupation before the - change of plan, he made no saving whatever.” - -Another valuable example of the easy means possessed by employers of -preventing the formation of habits destructive to the health and -prosperity of workmen, is set forth in the evidence of Mr. Peter -Fairbairn, the extensive mechanist of Leeds. - -_Mr. Fairbairn_ examined. - - “You are a mechanist at Leeds?—I am. - - “What number of men do you employ?—Between 500 and 600. - - “Have you ever observed any effects produced in the habits of the - labouring classes in respect to drinking intoxicating liquors by the - mode in which they are paid their wages?—Yes, there are two modes in - which wages are most frequently paid, and both these modes are - prejudicial in their effects. The first effect is connected with the - place of payment. Some masters pay at the public-house, others pay the - men at the counting-house after the work is completed. The effects - produced by payment at the public-house are to oblige the workman to - drink. He is kept waiting in the public-house during a long time, - varying from two to three hours, sometimes as much as five hours. The - workman cannot remain in the house without drinking, even if he were - alone, as he must make some return to the landlord for the use of the - room. But the payment of a number of men occupies time in proportion - to their numbers. We find that to pay our own men in the most rapid - way requires from two to three hours. The assembled workmen, of - course, stimulate each other to drink. Out of 100 men, all of whom - will, probably, have taken their quart of porter or ale, above a third - will go home in a state of drunkenness—of drunkenness to the extent of - imbecility. The evil is not confined to the men; the destructive habit - is propagated in their families. At each public-house a proportion of - the poor women, their wives, attend. According to my own observation, - full 10 per cent. of the men have their wives and children in - attendance at the public-house. The poor women have no other mode of - getting money to market with on the Saturday night than attending at - the public-house to get it from their husbands. They may have children - whom they cannot leave at home, and these they bring with them. The - wives are thus led to drink, and they and their children are made - partakers at the scenes of drunkenness and riot; for there are not - unfrequently quarrels leading to fights between the workmen when - intoxicated. - - “Do not these late hours, consequent on such a mode of payment, also - lead them to the inferior markets, and prejudice the domestic economy - of the labourer’s household?—Yes, they have the less money to purchase - with, and must purchase an inferior quality of provisions. I have - observed that they do so. They are driven to the inferior shopkeepers - who keep open late; and they are also driven to make purchases on the - Sunday morning. It is only the inferior shopkeepers or hucksters who - will sell on the Sunday morning, and they sell an inferior commodity - at a higher price. Then the Sunday morning is thus occupied; the - husband, and sometimes the wife, is kept in a state of feverish - excitement by the previous night’s debauch: they are kept in a state - of filth and disorder; even the face is unwashed; no clean clothes are - put on, and there is no church attendance, and no decency. Indeed, by - the pressure of the wants created by habits of drinking, there is soon - no means to purchase clean or respectable clothes, and lastly, no - desire to purchase them. The man, instead of cleaning himself, and - appearing at church on the Sunday, or walking out with his family on - the Sunday afternoon in a respectable condition, remains at home in - filth, and in a filthy hovel. Of course there are no contributions to - sick-clubs under such circumstances; and if the workman has been - previously led to join a club, he is almost always in arrear with his - contributions, and is ultimately expelled. On the occurrence of the - disease to which such habits predispose him, there is nothing but the - most abject and complete destitution and pauperism. I have served the - office of churchwarden and overseer in Leeds three years, and, having - attended the weekly Board where applications for relief are made, I - have seen the end of this train of circumstances in the applications - for relief from parties who had previously been in the receipt of good - and sufficient wages (and even high wages) to have prevented such - applications. I have observed the whole train of these consequences in - several large works in London as well as in this town. - - “Are there not consequences too to the employers themselves, as well - as to the ratepayers, in connexion with the habits of labourers thus - created?—One consequence of these habits is the loss of time at the - commencement of the week, and the comparative inefficiency of the - workmen when they do come. The workman who has been absent from - drunkenness comes to his work pale, emaciated, shattered, and - unnerved. From my own observation in my own branch of manufacture, I - should say that the quantity and quality of the work executed during - the first day or so would be about one-fifth less than that obtainable - from a steady and attentive workman. - - “This deterioration, then, in a large number of workmen engaged in a - manufactory, may be noted as an important item of saving for the - consideration of a provident manufacturer?—Undoubtedly. Another - consideration for the master is the fact that such workmen, the most - idle and dissolute, are the most discontented, and are always the - foremost in mischievous strikes and combinations. - - “You have spoken of the consequences of making the public-house a - place of payment; what are the comparative effects of making the - payments at the counting-house?—A considerable reduction of the evil. - Payments to large numbers at the counting-house is still, however, - attended with much inconvenience and evil. The payment of the number - of men employed at our works (between five and six hundred) would, as - I have stated, occupy between two and three hours. This mode of - payment, therefore, implies the keeping of a large crowd together - during that time. During that time appointments are made of meetings - at public-houses to drink that would not otherwise take place. It also - generates discontent: it gives an opportunity, by assembling a crowd, - for any discontented or mischievous person to operate upon a large - mass of people. Formerly the business of my manufactory, and the - welfare of the working people, were very seriously interrupted by - strikes; and I could not help observing the facilities which such - meetings gave to such mischievous persons. - - “What is the mode of payment which you have adopted?—I send the pay - clerk into each room in the manufactory immediately after the dinner - hour, and he pays each man individually. Each man is scarcely taken - from his work half a minute. I may observe, that some masters, to save - themselves trouble, so as to avoid the inconvenience of getting small - change, will pay several men together. This again leads to the - public-house, where the men commonly go to get change to divide the - money amongst them; I therefore avoid paying any two men together, and - subjecting them to temptation as well as inconvenience and cost. Each - of my workmen being paid in the shop, without the loss of a minute, - may go at once directly home at the time when the work closes. He is - thus afforded an opportunity of going at once to the market at an - early hour, and is subjected to no factitious inducements to drink, - disorder, improvidence, and destitution. - - “What is the average time thus saved to each of the 550 workmen in - your manufactory, as compared with the more ordinary mode of - payment?—About an hour and a half, or half the three hours of payment. - - “Then, by this means, instead of bringing 550 persons to the one - person, the pay clerk, sending that one person to the 550 persons, you - save to them upwards of 800 hours of inconvenient waiting?—Just so. - - “How many persons, on the average, have you absent from work on the - Monday morning?—Not more than from four to five, until eight o’clock - in the morning; and on the return to work after dinner from one to two - persons. - - “That is from one to two persons the entire day during the Monday, out - of between five and six hundred workpeople?—Yes. - - “What number would have been absent on the Monday under the ordinary - circumstances?—About 30 per cent., or one-third, would be drunk on the - Saturday night; and full 10 per cent. would not make their appearance - until the Tuesday morning. Instead of only two absent during the whole - of the day, I should have more than 50; or, in other words, more than - 50 families not only distressed by what is spent in drink, but losing - one-sixth of their earnings, and I as a master losing from their - deteriorated work on the days when they do return. I beg leave further - to observe, that mere education in reading or writing, precepts or - preaching, are of very little avail against the temptations to drink - held out to working men; and I am confident that if employers could be - made to see and attend to their mutual interests, by a little care in - the removal of temptations, they might generally prevent the most - fruitful cause of disorder, destitution, and pauperism, at least as - extensively as I have prevented those consequences to my workmen and - their families by the adoption of the means I have described.” - -In the course of a report on the sanitary condition of the labouring -classes in the town of Lancaster, received from _Dr. De Vitrie_, the -effects of an amended practice are thus noticed:— - - “An excellent example is shown in this neighbourhood by the wealthy - manufacturers and tradesmen almost universally paying their men’s - weekly wages on a Friday evening (or, what is still better, early on - Saturday morning) instead of Saturday, thus putting it into the power - of all to spend their money to the best advantage at Saturday’s - market, and obviating the great temptation which formerly existed of - spending their earnings, or a large proportion of them, in the - public-houses and beer-shops after the termination of the week’s - labour. It may be said that such parties are as likely to dissipate on - a Friday as on a Saturday evening. The propensity I grant may be the - same, but there is no intervening day of rest to shake off the effects - of intemperance and indulgence, and as workmen must resume their - labours on the Saturday, hence it is that such a regulation exercises - not only a salutary but a provident influence.” - -The _Rev. Whitwell Elwin_ observes— - - “Where gain was dependant on the growth of better habits, I have seen, - with the agency of judicious individuals, encouraging cases of - complete reformation: an intelligent engineer in this neighbourhood - was about paying off a man whose profligacy had left him without a - decent covering, and who often depended for his victuals upon the - generosity of his fellow-workmen. He begged hard to be retained, and - his master at last consented, on condition that he himself should lay - out his wages for the next three months. He provided the man with good - lodgings, allowed him tea, sugar, and bread and butter night and - morning; meat, and either bread or potatoes, with a pint of beer every - day for his dinner; and before the appointed time was up, bought him - with the surplus a new suit of clothes. The man was so sensible of the - advantage of the change, that he became one of the most thrifty and - valuable workmen; and his master has often since tried the same - experiment with the same success. If we could collect all the - philanthropy and much of the self-interest of the country into wise - and profitable channels, we might, I believe in a twelvemonth, do much - towards regenerating the most wretched classes.” - -One employer of numerous labourers in a well-conducted establishment -stated to me that after long experience he found it necessary, for the -protection of the workpeople, as well as the efficiency of the -establishment, invariably to discharge every workman who was guilty of -drunkenness; and that the first visible sign to excite suspicion of the -habits of intoxication was the absence of personal cleanliness, then a -pallid countenance, on which inquiry was made. Another employer of -numerous labourers, _Mr. William Fairbairn_, of Manchester (the brother -of Mr. Fairbairn, of Leeds), who has had between one and two thousand -workpeople engaged in the manufactories of machinery in the firm of -which he is the first partner, stated, in answer to the question,— - - “What are their habits in respect to sobriety?—I may mention that I - strictly prohibit on my works the use of beer or fermented liquors of - any sort, or of tobacco. I enforce the prohibition of fermented - liquors so strongly that, if I found any man transgressing the rule in - that respect, I would instantly discharge him without allowing him - time to put on his coat. - - “Have you any peculiar grounds for adopting this course?—No; but as - respects myself I wish to have an orderly set of workmen; and in the - next place I am decidedly of opinion that it is better for the men - themselves and for their families. - - “Are you aware that it is a prevalent opinion that strong drink is - necessary as a stimulus for the performance of labour?—I am aware that - that was a prevalent opinion amongst employers of labour, but it is - now very generally abandoned; there are nevertheless some foundries in - which there is drinking throughout the works all day long. It is - observable, however, of the men employed as workmen, that they do not - work so well; their perceptions are clouded, and they are stupified - and heavy. I have provided water for the use of the men in every - department of the works. In summer time the men engaged in the - strongest work, such as the strikers to the heavy forges, drink water - very copiously. In general the men who drink water are really more - active, and do more work, and are more healthy than the workmen who - drink fermented liquors. I observed on a late journey to - Constantinople that the boatmen or rowers to the caiques, who are - perhaps the first rowers in the world, drink nothing but water; and - they drink that profusely during the hot months of the summer. The - boatmen and water-carriers of Constantinople are decidedly in my - opinion the finest men in Europe as regards their physical - development, and they are all water drinkers: they may take a little - sherbet, but in other respects are what we should call in this - country, tee-totallers. - - “What is their diet?—Chiefly bread; now and then a cucumber, with - cherries, figs, dates, mulberries, or other fruits which are abundant - there; now and then a little fish. - - “Do they ever use animal food?—Occasionally I believe the flesh of - goats, but I never saw them eating any other than the diet I have - described. - - “Did they appear to eat more than the European workmen?—About the - same; if anything, more moderate as respects the quantity.” - -I have collected much other information to the same effect. In the -Appendix, I have given, as a contrast, an instance of arrangements which -tend to promote the habit of drinking, and the consequences, a part of -which are met and dealt with by the administrators of relief from the -poor’s rates, in the shape of claims to relief on the ground of sickness -and consequent destitution; and another part of which fall as disorders -and crimes to be encountered by the police. - -I submit here one important instance of the exercise of a wise influence -on the habits of the agricultural population:— - -In a form of lease used in leasing the Highland property of the Duke of -Sutherland, which appears to be ably devised to ensure progressive -improvement, care for the moral welfare of the population is not -omitted. The poverty, disorder, and crime engendered by the destructive -habit of whisky drinking, fostered by the practice of illicit -distillation, is encountered by a clause which provides that if the -tenant “distill whiskey, or shall permit any one to distill whisky, or -shall sell or permit the same to be sold on the said premises hereby -set, or on any part of the said estate, or shall contravene any of the -regulations the said proprietors have established for the management -thereof, and that if he or they shall be convicted of any of the said -offences before the sheriff, depute, or substitute, or any two of his -Majesty’s justices of the peace for the said county; then, in either of -these events or cases, this agreement shall be, _ipso facto_, void and -null, and the said tenant shall be forthwith removable by summary -process before the judge ordinary, whereupon decree shall be pronounced -upon relevant proof of the fact.” - -The lease ensures the improvement of the tenements, and provides that -“no earthen houses or huts are permitted to be built on any -consideration.” The one provision is the proper complement of the other; -and Mr. Hill gives his testimony to the excellent effect which the -support given to the law, and the prevention of whisky drinking, produce -on the habits of the population. - - - _Employers’ Influence on the Health of Workpeople by the Promotion of - Personal Cleanliness._ - -I proceed to another instance of the power of the employers to protect -the health, as well as the morals of their workpeople, by influencing -their habits of personal cleanliness. - -But I shall first submit a few instances of the extent and prevalence of -personal uncleanliness amongst whole classes of workpeople. - -_Mr. John Kennedy_, in the course of the examinations of some colliers -in Lancashire, asked one of them— - - “How often do the drawers (those employed in drawing coals) wash their - bodies?—None of the drawers ever wash their bodies. I never wash my - body; I let my shirt rub the dirt off; my shirt will show that. I wash - my neck and ears, and face, of course. - - “Do you think it usual for the young women (engaged in the colliery) - to do the same as you do?—I do not think it is usual for the lasses to - wash their bodies; my sisters never wash themselves, and seeing is - believing; they wash their faces, necks, and ears. - - “When a collier is in full dress, he has white stockings, and very - tall shirt necks, very stiffly starched, and ruffles?—That is very - sure, sir; but they never wash their bodies underneath; I know that; - and their legs and bodies are as black as your hat.” - -One labourer remembered that a particular event took place at Easter, -“because it was then he washed his feet.” The effects of these habits -are seen at the workhouse on almost every one of the paupers admitted. -When it is necessary to wash them on their admission, they usually -manifest an extreme repugnance to the process. Their common feeling was -expressed by one of them when he declared that he considered it “equal -to robbing him of a great coat which he had had for some years.” The -filthy condition in which they are found on admission into the hospitals -is frequently sufficient to account for the state of disease in which -they appear, and the act of cleansing them is itself the most efficient -cure. The out-door service of the union medical officers amidst such a -population is often most painful and disgusting: _e. g._— - -_Mr. J. F. Handley_, medical officer of the Chipping Norton union, -states in his report— - - “When the small pox was prevalent in this district, I attended a man, - woman, and five children, all lying ill with the confluent species of - that disorder, in one bed-room, and having only two beds amongst them. - The walls of the cottage were black, the sheets were black, and the - patients themselves were blacker still; two of the children were - absolutely sticking together. It was indeed a gloomy scene. I have - relished many a biscuit and glass of wine in Mr. Grainger’s - dissecting-room when ten dead bodies were lying on the tables under - dissection, but was entirely deprived of appetite during my attendance - upon these cases. The smell on entering the apartments was exceedingly - nauseous, and the room would not admit of free ventilation.” - -Such conditions of the population, of habitual personal and domestic -filth, are not necessary to any occupation; they are not the necessary -consequence of poverty, and are the type of neglect and indolence; this -is proved by the example of men engaged in the same occupations with -improved habits. The medical officers of the Merthyr Tydvill union, in -their returns, represent the health of the colliery population to be -very good, a circumstance which is ascribed to their habitual -cleanliness. - -_Mr. J. L. Roberts_, surgeon, states— - - “The colliers in our district invariably, on their return from the - pits in the evening to their houses, strip to the skin, and wash - themselves perfectly clean in a tub of lukewarm water, and wipe with - towels until the cuticle is dry. The miners are not so particular. I - firmly believe that the health of other workmen employed generally - about the ironworks is not so permanently good as the colliers; they, - generally speaking, not undergoing complete ablution as the colliers - do. Generally, the colliers are quite free from any cutaneous disease, - or at least not so much affected with psora, &c., as the generality of - their fellow-workmen. Cutaneous diseases are frequent amongst children - from want of cleanliness.” - -In the places of work where there is the greatest need for cleanliness, -in every place where there is a steam-engine, hot water, which is -commonly allowed to run waste, is already provided in abundance for warm -or tepid baths, not only for the workpeople, but, where there are -numerous engines, for the whole population. If the same hot water arose -at the same heat and abundance from any natural spring, baths would be -erected, and medical treatises would be written in commendation of its -medicinal virtues, which, the better opinion appears now to be, are -ascribable, in the majority of instances, simply to the hot water, and -to its application in cases where it had not before been used. Hot or -tepid baths are deemed of more importance for the labouring classes in -winter than are cold baths in summer, and they might be generally -provided for the working classes in the manufacturing districts at a -cost utterly inconsiderable. - -A few years since a gentleman, observing some ditches in London, in the -neighbourhood of the City-road, smoking with clean hot water running -away from the steam-engine of a manufactory, directed attention to the -waste, and suggested the expediency of using that water to supply public -warm or tepid baths. After a time the suggestion was acted upon as a -private speculation, and large swimming-baths were constructed; one, -with superior accommodation and decorations at 1_s._; another, with less -costly fittings-up, at 6_d._ the bath. These were luxurious tepid baths, -kept at a heat of 84°. The example appears to have been followed in -Westminster by the establishment of similar tepid swimming-baths, where -only 3_d._ is charged to persons of the working-class. As many as 2000 -and 3000 of this class have resorted to these baths in one day, and the -bath at the lowest charge is stated to make the best return for the -capital invested in it. Similar establishments are, we believe, in -progress in other parts of the metropolis. _Mr. Samuel Greg_, at -Bollington, has formed baths for the use of his workpeople, which he -thus describes:— - - “The bathing-room is a small building, close behind the mill, about 25 - feet by 15. The baths, to the number of seven, are ranged along the - walls, and a screen about six feet high, with benches on each side of - it, is fixed down the middle of the room. The cold water is supplied - from a cistern above the engine-house, and the hot water from a large - tub which receives the waste steam from the dressing-room, and is kept - constantly at boiling temperature. A pipe from each of these cisterns - opens into every bath, so that they are ready for instant use. The men - and women bathe on alternate days; and a bath-keeper for each attends - for an hour and a half in the evening. This person has the entire care - of the room, and is answerable for everything that goes on in it. When - any one wishes to bathe he comes to the counting-house for a ticket, - for which he pays a penny, and without which he cannot be admitted to - the bathing-room. Some families, however, subscribe a shilling - a-month, which entitles them to five baths weekly; and these hold a - general subscriber’s ticket, which always gives him admittance to the - room. I think the number of baths taken weekly varies from about 25 to - 70 or 80. We pay the bath-keepers 2_s._ 6_d._ and 2_s._ a-week, and I - believe this amount has been more than covered by the receipts. The - first cost of erecting the baths was about 80_l._” - -The feet of the female as well of the male workers in such -establishments, who work in the mills without their stockings, are seen -coated with the filth of years, for which there is no other necessity -than their own habitual indolence. These habits mere admonitions will -not always remove from the adult population. A manufacturer in London, -who did not care to take this trouble with them, began with his -apprentices, and took them several times to the new tepid baths, as a -holiday and a reward, until they had experienced the comfort, and had -formed a habit, when he left them to themselves, and they paid out of -their own pocket-money the small amount necessary to defray the -expenses. Where the use of hot or warm water has been given to the -workpeople, and baths have been provided, they have frequently been -defective in some important point. _Dr. Barham_ states that the miners, -on their ascent to the ground, have commonly only the means of using the -hot water from a rivulet on a bleak and exposed situation; in other -places, as where bath-rooms are provided, the accommodation for dressing -was defective, in being cold and chilling instead of being made warm, as -it might be at a very trifling expense. It was only at Camborne, the -mine already noticed, that anything deserving the name of proper baths -had been erected. _Dr. Barham_ observes, in a communication on this -subject— - - “The security from chill during the ablution, and the abundance and - comfortable temperature of the water in the cases mentioned as - examples of superior accommodation, have no doubt contributed to a - comparative immunity from pulmonary disease and catarrhal affections, - which the managers and the men themselves have noticed since this - provision has been made. - - “The cost of the practice is so inconsiderable as to be unworthy - notice. Timber and iron for such purposes are always to be found in - our mines among what is no longer fit for its original destination. No - charge of any kind is made for the use of these accommodations. - - “The owners of steam-engines might always supply hot water, in - proportion to the amount of condensation effected, without any extra - cost to themselves, when they do not employ the heated water to some - purpose of their own. In some mines the warm water is husbanded for - the cleansing of the ores, but this is an exceptional case. Generally - speaking, there is a great quantity of iron cylinder and other - materials convertible to the conveyance of the water, which maybe - supplied at a very low rate, as unserviceable for engine-work. - - “I have thought that steam-engines are not the only sources for the - supply of hot water to the public at an insignificant cost. All works - in which great heat is employed, or almost all such works, might - supply heat to large bodies of water after the fuel has been most - economically applied to their own purposes. Smelting-houses, - foundries, glass-houses, for instances, have always heat enough to - spare for the warming of extensive thermæ. By the use of brick pipes, - surrounded by wood or some bad conductor, such heat, first applied to - the bottom of large reservoirs, might be distributed over extensive - districts, and buildings might be warmed and workshops supplied with - warm water for the thorough purification of the labourers, at a very - trifling expense. My own opinion is, that a system of _washing_ is - more desirable as a national habit than a system of _bathing_. The - latter is doubtless excellent for bodies of men who are under - effectual control, and for the young.” - - -_Employers’ Influence on the Health of Workpeople by the Ventilation of - Places of Work, and the Prevention of Noxious Fumes, Dust, &c._ - -In some of the “dusty trades,” the excessive amount of premature -mortality is so great as to justify interference, defensively, as -against the charges which, from the neglect of sanitary measures, fall -neither upon the employer nor upon the consumer, who directly benefit by -the produce of the industry, but upon ratepayers, to whom the -manufactory itself may be a nuisance. In the instance of such trades, -personal cleanliness is so far a requisite as to justify an additional -rate of insurance where it is neglected. Yet the regulations preventive -of disease are by no means onerous, either in their cost or their -interference with the processes. Some of the noxious manufactures, and -especially those in lead, have been the subject of examination by the -“Conseil de Salubrité of Paris,” and the preventive rules they -prescribed were as follows:—1. The establishment of a good ventilation -in the workshops or manufactories. 2. Exacting from the workpeople close -attention to personal cleanliness; obliging them to wash the hands and -face before dining, and before leaving the workshop; forbidding them -taking any of their meals in the workshop, and, by reasoning and -information, directing their attention to the dangers by which they are -surrounded. 3. Employing the practicable means for conducting the -processes so as to raise the least dust possible. 4. Boarding off the -mills and sieves, so as to prevent the escape of the smaller particles. -5. Requiring of the workmen engaged in the processes where there is -lead-dust or any other injurious dust suspended in the air, that they -cover the nose and mouth with a handkerchief slightly moistened. 6. -Subjecting the workshop to occasional medical inspection, in order to -prevent the intensity of any maladies that break out, and with that view -to examine the workmen from time to time to detect any symptoms of -disease, and to oblige the workman attacked to abstain from work until -the medical officer declares that he may resume it without -inconvenience. 7. Obliging workmen to wear frocks or blouses, which they -should leave in the workshop when they quit work; and these blouses -should from time to time be washed. 8. Sending away from the workshop -every workman who gives himself up to debauchery or drunkenness. 9. -Endeavouring to get the workmen, (_i. e._ workers in lead) to form the -habit of drinking every day, on leaving the workshop, a little -hydro-sulphuretted water, to neutralize the effects of the lead that may -have been taken into the stomach. - -All these regulations, with the medical attendance for the purpose of -prevention, would be greatly below any charge of insurance to the -individual workman for procuring medical attendance and remedies when -thrown out of work by sickness. - -In some of the trades, scattered instances of attention to cleanliness -and measures of prevention are found: for example, amongst the -journeymen painters. In answer to a question put by Dr. Mitchell to _Mr. -Tomlins_, the clerk to the Painters’ Company, whether painters suffer so -much as formerly from the disease to which they are peculiarly liable, -the clerk says,— - - “Not so much as formerly. This has been ascertained by a charity - administered at Painters’ Hall to men labouring under sickness. The - men are now more attentive to cleanliness. Formerly they would throw - their clothes on their beds and go to their meals without washing - their hands. A large proportion of the journeymen now carry a - workingdress to their job with them, and when they quit work at night - they exchange and put on clean clothes which are free from paint. This - applies more particularly to the westward of Temple Bar. One - master-painter of my acquaintance, Mr. Thornton, of Doctors’ Commons, - keeps a pail of solution of potash in his shop, in which the men wash - their hands, and which takes off every particle of paint; and it is - worthy of remark that only two men in 20 years have been afflicted - with paralysis in his employ. This is taken from 15 men constantly - employed on an average for seven years.” - -It will suggest itself that another generation of workpeople, and their -premature sickness and death, ought not to pass away leaving this -practice confined to the painters to the west of Temple Bar, and leaving -the beneficent expedient exclusively to the shop of Mr. Thornton, of -Doctors’ Commons. - -In connexion with the instance of the painters, I may give the following -from _Mr. James Gibbins_, a manufacturer of colours at the Mile-end -road. He was asked—“Are there any peculiar hazards to health connected -with the trade?” He replies,— - - “Arsenic and lead are employed in making colours, and hence injury - does arise, but such need not necessarily be the case; but although - water, towels, and soap are placed at the use of the men, there is no - persuading them to be habitually cleanly. After making or grinding - colours, they will not take the trouble to wash their hands, but - merely wipe them a little on their clothes, and then will take their - bread and meat, by which particles are carried off into the stomach. - It is impossible to persuade the men to be more cautious. The lead is - much more in use than the arsenic, and on the whole does more harm, as - the men are more on their guard against the arsenic.” - -The prevalent impression upon such instances would be expressed by such -phrases as, “If men will be so careless, there is no help for it; they -must take the consequences:” but they only take a part of the -consequences—the sickness; the main part of the consequences are taken -by others, especially if they are married, when the premature widowhood -and orphanage are sustained by the wife and children, who are maintained -at the expense of the relations or of the public. This recklessness is -however the result of neglected education, of which the workmen are the -victims, and for measures of beneficence such workmen are to be regarded -and treated as children, for they are children in intellect. An instance -of a beneficial measure of compulsory prevention taken by some employers -of labour is mentioned by Mr. John Kennedy, jun., in a report on the -condition of some classes of workpeople examined under the Commission of -Inquiry into the Employment of Children, not included in the regulations -of the Factory Act. Some workmen employed in “Kyanizing” wood became -frequently ill from the fumes created in the process, to which fumes -they unnecessarily exposed themselves. Admonitions to care were found to -be of no avail, and the employer at length gave notice that he would -discharge entirely from employment the first that was attacked with the -peculiar illness produced by the fumes of the metal. This threat was -acted upon, and no other cases of illness afterwards occurred. - -In France, where the diseases by which the working classes are afflicted -have been investigated by those medical men who have given their -attention to the improvement of the public health, the general -conclusion has been established of the futility of leaving protective -measures to the voluntary adoption of the individual workman. In the -course of one of his reports, _M. Duchâtelet_ observes, that— - - “It appears certain that the greatest part of the attacks of asphyxia - which have taken place in the sewers have arisen from the traps being - closed. I know that it is now enjoined on the workmen to open these - traps while they are at their labour. But do they do this? Assuredly - not in by far the majority of cases. Is it not a maxim to render - independent of the will and superintendence of men, and above all of - workmen, everything which appertains in a notable manner to their - preservation? In the grave and learned discussions which have occupied - this year (1824) the Academy of Sciences, on the means of preventing - the dangers arising from steam-engines, not only all the members of - the Commission, but the entire Academy, have been unanimous on the - necessity of rendering independent of the workmen the direction of the - level of the water in the boilers, and the tension of the steam. It - evidently appeared that on this depended the solution of the problem. - The same thing is now discussing on the subject of lighting by - hydrogen gas.” - -I will further adduce parallel examples, drawn from experience, in -respect to the condition of the working population in France. It is -contained in a treatise by _M. Emile Beres_, on the Means of -Ameliorating the Condition of Artisans:— - - “The condition of the labouring population would be less precarious, - and their lives less exposed to accidents of every kind, if more - foresight presided over their operations. Employers are often guilty - of unpardonable carelessness with respect to the employed. To see - their conduct, one would suppose that the men in their service were - inert machines, or else that they possessed the power of the Creator - to reconstruct broken limbs, to restore exhausted constitutions, or to - give life to the dead. Here a deleterious atmosphere, which ought to - be carefully purified, is imprudently allowed to be inhaled; there a - poison, which ought to be handled with precaution, is allowed to - penetrate every pore. Further on, as if man had wings, he is embarked - on the most fragile scaffolds. Again, he is inconsiderately left to - prosecute dangerous researches which demand the utmost care. It is not - thus that we should act when the health and life of human beings are - in question. To such neglects how many families owe their poverty and - misery! - - “There have long existed mills to grind plaster, which have not, - nevertheless, prevented the unhappy workmen from being employed, in - many places, and even in Paris, to pound it with a wooden club, their - bodies bent towards the ground, and thus inhaling it in such - quantities that the greatest number of them die young, of pulmonary - phthisis. - - “The use of the moveable inodorous tanks has been long understood in - Paris. It consists in substituting for the tanks of masonry vessels of - oak, painted, and strongly hooped with iron, so as to allow neither - matter nor smell to escape. They are placed beneath the pipe which - conveys the contents of the water-closet, and, when full, are carried - away, and replaced by others at every hour of the day, without - difficulty, without danger to the workmen, without inconvenience to - the inhabitants. Well; not only are the ancient tanks not suppressed - in favour of this system, so convenient in all respects, but every day - new ones are constructed, though not a year passes in which we do not - hear of unhappy men perishing in the process of emptying, suffocated - by the gas which escapes in their disgusting operation. Now, if we add - to the danger of emptying the receptacles, the nuisance to all the - inhabitants of the house, which is infected in its remotest corners, - as well as the neighbouring houses of the same street, or even - quarter; when we take into account the damage to furniture (especially - to things that are gilt) by the escape of sulphureous gas, we shall - have the measure of the negligence, I will not say of the proprietors - only who maintain such an abuse without any justifiable motive, but - even of the authority that suffers it. It is no rare thing, after the - emptying has taken place, to see asphyxia produced in the masons who - are employed in repairing the walls, or in remedying the infiltrations - from the privies. - - “There is another method, more recent, and, in all probability, more - advantageous, of preventing the inconveniences of the ancient - receptacles; it is the system of disinfecting fecal matter, discovered - by a learned chemist, M. Payen. Independently of its hygienic - advantages, and the procuring a powerful manure, this method comprises - a question of human dignity of great value. It is necessary, as far as - possible, to take from our fellow men the mischievous necessity to - perform labours which invest them with ideas of disgust. - - “Since the use of gas for lighting, several accidents have happened. - Are they not due, for the most part, to the want of precaution in the - directors of these manufactories, who have not sufficiently prescribed - to their men the necessary measures of prevention? Should they not all - know that one must not run with a candle into a place where there is a - stream of gas, as one would go in search of a stream of water? It is - this imprudence which commonly occasions the explosions that happen, - and which are ordinarily followed by the gravest accidents. Do we not - find the same carelessness in our mines, followed by the same - catastrophes? It is in vain, therefore, that Sir Humphry Davy applied - his genius to the discovery of the safety-lamp! Do not the most - ordinary rules of health condemn the ignorance with which the - preparations of mercury, of sulphur, of lead, of oxide of copper, &c., - are made? In the places, lastly, in which wool, hides, and other - animal substances are prepared, why not purify the atmosphere in which - the workmen exist with such difficulty? This omission is the more - strange, that some centimes of solution of chlorine every day would be - sufficient to purify the largest shops. - - “I insist strongly on the contents of this chapter, because it reveals - one of the deepest plague-spots of the labouring population of towns, - and because the remedies that it indicates are neither difficult to - discover, nor expensive in their application. With more solicitude and - surveillance on the part of the government, with more philanthropy on - the part of masters, with more precaution as well as self-love on the - part of the workmen, would our hospitals receive so many unhappy - beings, and death reap so many victims?” - - -_Employers’ Means of influencing the Condition of the Working Population - by regard to respectability in Dress._ - -Besides those means which affect immediately the health and moral -condition of the workpeople, others are within the control of their -employers which affect the personal appearance, and, through the -self-respect, the morality of the population. _Mr. William Fairbairn_, -in the course of an examination, adverted to the means of promoting -respectability in personal appearance:— - - “It is always,” said he, “an indication of looseness of character, and - a low standard of moral conduct, to see a mechanic in dirt or in his - working-clothes on Sunday. Thirty years’ experience leads me to draw a - very unfavourable conclusion as to the future usefulness to me, and of - success to himself, of any workman whom I see in dirt on a Sunday. - - “As a general rule, does the advance of his house keep pace with the - advance in condition of the person?—As a general rule, it does. Better - personal condition leads to better associates, and commonly to better - marriage, on which the improved condition of the house is entirely - dependent. It is due to the labouring classes of females in Lancashire - and the surrounding districts to state that, in the important - household virtue of cleanliness, they are superior to the females of - the same class in Scotland. - - “Are you aware of what is the condition of their houses. Have you - visited them?—I have not made it a practice to visit them, I chiefly - judge of their circumstances from seeing them with their wives and - families, and their well-dressed and respectable condition on the - Sundays. These externals are always indications of greater comforts - and respectability at home. I am a strong advocate for dress, and - encourage the working men to dress well; if I see any workman in a - dirty condition and in his working-clothes in the streets on the - Sunday, I do not, perhaps, speak to him then, but on the Monday I tell - him that I have been looking over the books, that I find that he has - had as good wages as other men who dress respectably, and that I do - not like to have any one about me who will not dress well on the - Sunday. This intimation has generally had the desired effect.” - - - _Employers’ or Owners’ Influence in the Improvement of Habitations and -sanitary Arrangements for the Protection of the Labouring Classes in the - Rural Districts._ - -I would now submit, for consideration the evidence collected to show the -appropriate means for the improvement of the condition of the labouring; -classes in the rural districts; and first, as to the effects produced by -improved residences:— - -These are stated in a letter from the chairman of the Bedford union to -Mr. Weale, the Assistant-Commissioner of the district, who had been -requested by the Board to inquire as to the moral as well as the -sanitary effects of improved tenements:— - - “_Turvey Abbey, January 4, 1841._ - - “My dear Sir,—I beg to acknowledge the receipt of your letter of the - 1st of January. You there state that, in a Return made to you by the - Board of Guardians of the Bedford Union on the sanitary condition of - the labouring population, it is reported that, in a few instances, - cottages of an improved description have been erected by the employers - of labour, the advantages of which have had a salutary influence on - the moral habits of the inmates: and you request to know in what - particular acts the improvement in moral conduct is displayed. - - “I have much pleasure in saying that some cases of the kind have come - under my own observation, and I consider that the improvement has - arisen a good deal from the parties feeling that they are somewhat - raised in the scale of society. The man sees his wife and family more - comfortable than formerly; he has a better cottage and garden: he is - stimulated to industry, and as he rises in respectability of station, - he _becomes aware_ that he has a character to lose. Thus an important - point is gained. Having acquired certain advantages, he is anxious to - retain and improve them; he strives more to preserve his independence, - and becomes a member of benefit, medical, and clothing societies; and - frequently, besides this, lays up a certain sum, quarterly or - half-yearly, in the savings’ bank. Almost always attendant upon these - advantages, we find the man sending his children to be regularly - instructed in a Sunday, and, where possible, in a day-school, and - himself and family more constant in their attendance at some place of - worship on the Lord’s-day. I know of more instances than one where, in - consequence of encouragement of the kind above mentioned to the father - of a poor family, the children were regularly sent to school, and - there became so much improved in character and learning that they are - now filling situations of high respectability, (one a confidential - clerk in a large mercantile house in London,) and are assisting to - support their parents in a manner as delightful as it is creditable. - - “A man who comes home to a poor, comfortless hovel after his day’s - labour, and sees all miserable around him, has his spirits more often - depressed than excited by it. He feels that, do his best, he shall be - miserable still, and is too apt to fly for a temporary refuge to the - alehouse or beer-shop. But give him the means of making himself - comfortable by his own industry, and I am convinced by experience - that, in many cases, he will avail himself of it. - - “Believe me, my dear sir, sincerely yours, - “CHARLES LONGUET HIGGINS. - - “_To Robert Weale, Esq._, - “_Assistant Poor Law Commissioner_.” - -The next exemplification is afforded in a letter from the clerk of the -Stafford Union:— - - “_Marston, Stafford, January 20, 1841._ - - “Sir,—I beg to acknowledge the receipt of your letter of the 1st - instant, as to the Return made by the Board of Guardians on the - sanitary condition of the labouring population of this Union, in which - it is stated that improved cottages have been erected by landed - proprietors for their labourers, and the advantages afforded by such - cottages have had a salutary influence on the moral habits of the - inmates, and requesting to be informed in what particular acts the - improvement in moral conduct is displayed. - - “In answer thereto, I will endeavour to illustrate the remark of the - Board of Guardians by contrasting the habits, the condition, and - prospects of a labourer occupying an improved cottage with the - occupier of a cottage of a contrary description. If we follow the - agricultural labourer into his miserable dwelling, we shall find it - consisting of two rooms only; the day-room, in addition to the family, - contains the cooking utensils, the washing apparatus, agricultural - implements, and dirty clothes, the windows broken, and stuffed full of - rags. In the sleeping apartment, the parents and their children, boys - and girls, are indiscriminately mixed, and frequently a lodger - sleeping in the same and the only room; generally no window, the - openings in the half-thatched roof admit light, and expose the family - to every vicissitude of the weather; the liability of the children so - situated to contagious maladies frequently plunges the family into the - greatest misery. The husband, enjoying but little comfort under his - own roof, resorts to the beer-shop, neglects the cultivation of his - garden, and impoverishes his family. The children are brought up - without any regard to decency of behaviour, to habits of foresight, or - self-restraint; they make indifferent servants; the girls become the - mothers of bastards, and return home a burden to their parents, or to - the parish, and fill the workhouse. The boys spend the Christmas - week’s holiday and their year’s wages in the beer shop, and enter upon - their new situation in rags. Soon tired of the restraint imposed upon - them under the roof of their master, they leave his service before the - termination of the year’s engagement, seek employment as - day-labourers, not with a view of improving their condition, but with - a desire to receive and spend their earnings weekly in the beer-shop; - associating with the worst of characters, they become the worst of - labourers, resort to poaching, commit petty thefts, and add to the - county rates by commitments and prosecutions. - - “On the contrary, on entering an improved cottage, consisting on the - ground-floor of a room for the family, a wash-house and a pantry, and - three sleeping-rooms over, with a neat and well-cultivated garden, in - which the leisure hours of the husband being both pleasantly and - profitably employed, he has no desire to frequent the beer-shop or - spend his evenings from home; the children are trained to labour, to - habits and feelings of independence, and taught to connect happiness - with industry, and to shrink from idleness and immorality: the girls - make good servants, obtain the confidence of their employers, and get - promoted to the best situations. The boys, at the termination of the - year’s engagement, spend the Christmas week’s holiday comfortably - under the roof of their parents; clothes suitable for the next year’s - service are provided, and the residue of wages is deposited in the - savings’ bank; a system of frugality is engrafted with the first - deposit, increasing with every addition to the fund: they are - gradually employed in those departments of labour requiring greater - skill, and implying more confidence in their integrity and industry, - and they attain a position in society of comparative independence. - - “I have selected an extreme case to show more fully the advantages - derived from improved cottages, and the immoral effects of inferior - dwellings, unfortunately too numerous, in this Union. - - “I have the honour to be, sir, - “Your obedient servant, - “PETER LOWE. - - “_To Robert Veale, Esq., - “Assistant Poor Law Commissioner._” - -Much regret is frequently expressed at the change of condition which has -taken place in the cultivation of the soil by farm labourers instead of -farm servants living in the house of the farmer, and subject to the -household rules at his board; but whatever real ground there may be to -regret the change, it appears to be one generally preferred by both -parties, and there appears to be no reason to expect that the ancient -system will be revived. In the Appendix I have given an examination of -the Rev. Thomas Whately, in reference to some frequent and most -important mistakes in respect to cottage economy. - -The Board agreeing that the most important leading examples of -improvement were to be expected from the benevolence and public spirit -of opulent individuals, requested the assistant commissioners in England -to note the most conspicuous improvements of labourers’ tenements they -have met with in their districts, and procure plans with a view to their -promulgation. From these I have selected several examples, and have -added several that I have met with in the course of my own inquiries. - -Some eligible plans of cottage tenements are thus described in _Mr. -Twisleton’s_ report from Norfolk and Suffolk:— - - “Although the general aspect of the cottages in Norfolk and Suffolk is - pleasing and attractive, I do not think that these counties can be - generally cited as abounding with model cottages. Some of the best - which I have seen belong to the Earl of Stradbroke, at Henham, near - Halesworth in Suffolk; to the Earl of Leicester, at Holkham; and to - the Rev. Mr. Benyon, at Culford, about five miles from Bury St. - Edmunds. Those of the Earl of Stradbroke are built of brick, roofed - with tiles, have four rooms at least, and have all proper conveniences - of pantries, cupboards, and out-offices; but, at the same time, as - they are principally with only one story, so that the bed-rooms are on - the same floor with the parlour and kitchen, such cottages would only - be built where land is no object; and they must be considered in the - light of luxuries and ornaments. Some of the cottages of the Earl of - Leicester, at Holkham, are perhaps the most substantial and - comfortable which are to be seen in any part of England; and if all - the English peasantry could be lodged in similar ones, it would be the - realization of an Utopia. I have obtained from Mr. Emerson, of - Holkham, their builder, drawings of the plans and of the elevation of - eight of these cottages, which are built of brick roofed with tiles. I - herewith transmit them to you, and it will be observed that there are - three sets, two of two cottages each, and one of four cottages. - Without entering into details respecting all the eight, I will draw - your attention to the double cottages of 1819. Each of these has a - front room, 17 feet by 12 feet in width, and 7 feet to 7 feet 6 inches - high; a back kitchen of the same height, and 13 feet by 9 feet wide, - together with a pantry on the same floor. Above these are three - bed-rooms which, in different proportions, cover the space already - specified for the ground-floor. At a convenient distance behind, each - cottage has attached to it a wash-house, a dirt-bin, a privy, and a - pig-cot. I may add that the drainage is excellent, that the water is - good, that each cottage has about 20 rods of garden-ground, and that - the rent, including gardens, is only three guineas a-year. Hence it is - not to be wondered at that Mr. Emerson the builder has been enabled to - say, in a letter to me: ‘I have never known in them an instance of - fever or any epidemic.’ - - “These cottages are cited as showing what may be done by a landed - proprietor who takes as great a pride in his good cottages and farms - as others in fine hunters and race-horses, rather than with the least - intention of asserting that the example is ever likely to be - universally imitated. The cost of building two such cottages is stated - by Mr. Emerson to be 220_l._ or 230_l._, which would be 110_l._ or - 115_l._ each. Now, although individuals, here and there, may build - cottages without regard to the pecuniary return, it may be assumed as - incontrovertible, that no class of cottages will be universally - adopted which does not command a reasonable interest for the money - expended on them. But considering the cost of repairs, and the - frequent trouble and uncertainty of obtaining the rents, it will - probably not be denied that 6_l._ a-year would be the _minimum_ as a - remunerative rent for the outlay of 110_l._ or 115_l._ on a cottage. - However, the rent of 6_l._ would scarcely be paid by the agricultural - population generally at the present wages: for reckoning the rate of - wages at 12_s._ a-week (which would be high for some parts of the - country), very few would be willing, out of that sum, to expend 2_s._ - 3¾_d._ a-week, or nearly a fifth of their earnings, for the rent of - their cottage. - - “I would take, therefore, a more attainable standard of excellence in - the cottages of the Rev. E. Benyon, at Culford. This is a remarkable - village of about fifty cottages, built within the last twenty years by - Mr. Benyon de Beuvoir. The outward appearance of them is pretty, and - it was this which first attracted my attention to them. They are built - with bricks, faced with blue flint-stones, which harmonize agreeably - with the blue slate of the roofs. They have each four rooms—two below - and two above—with a pantry and a cupboard. I herewith transmit to you - plans and drawings of five of these cottages in two sets—one - consisting of double tenements, and one of three tenements. It will be - observed that the principal room is 14 feet by 12 feet wide, and 7 - feet high, which is inferior in size to those at Holkham, and that - they have only two bed-rooms, while those at Holkham have three. At - the distance of a few feet from each set of cottages there is a wooden - building, roofed with tiles, which comprises a space for fuel, and a - privy for each cottage, and a common oven. The average cost of the - double cottages at Culford is stated to have been 170_l._, or 85_l._ - each.” - -_Mr. Loudon_, who has paid great attention to the subject of cottage -architecture, directs attention to the labourers’ cottages, either newly -erected, or altered, or improved, on the estate of Gregory Gregory, -Esq., at Harlaxton, near Grantham, Lincolnshire. - - “The village of Harlaxton,” says Mr. Loudon, “is, if possible, more - interesting to us than even the new mansion and gardens. We have seen - many ornamented villages both at home and abroad, but none so original - and so much to our taste as this of Mr. Gregory’s. Some of old date - are too like rows of street houses, such as those of Newnham - Courtenay, near Oxford; and Harewood, near Leeds; others are too - affectedly varied and picturesque, such as that at Blaize Castle, near - Bristol; and some have the houses bedaubed with ornaments that have - not sufficient relation to use, as when rosettes and sculptures are - stuck on the walls, instead of applying facings to the windows, - porches to the doors, and characteristic shafts to the chimney tops. - We recollect one near Warsaw, which is a repetition of the Grecian - temple, with a portico at each end; and one at Peckra, near Moscow, - every opening in which has a pediment over it, with highly enriched - barge-boards. In some villages the attempt is made to ornament every - house with trellis-work round the doors and windows, which produces - great sameness of appearance, and if ornamental, is so at the expense - of comfort, the creepers by which the trellis-work is covered - darkening the rooms, and encouraging insects; while, in other - villages, the cottages are so low and so small, that it is obvious to - a passing spectator they cannot contain a single wholesome room. - However, though we find fault with villages ornamented in these ways, - we are still glad to see them, because any kind of alteration in the - dwellings and gardens of country labourers can hardly fail to be an - improvement, both with reference to the occupiers and to the country - at large.” - -The external condition of the residence, and the apparent rank it holds, -is not without a beneficial moral effect on the occupants, by increasing -their self-respect and pride in the decencies of life. Mr. Loudon’s -enumeration of the requisites for cottage building are given in the -Appendix, together with views of the groups of cottages Mr. Gregory has -erected; contrasted with these is a group of hinds’ cottages, as -described by Dr. Gilly, in his appeal in behalf of the border peasantry, -from which a conception may be formed of the great difference in morals -as well as in health that may be anticipated from the effects of the -different order of residences on the population. - -[Illustration: - - GROUP OF NORTHUMBRIAN COTTAGES COPIED FROM REV^D. D^R. GILLY -] - -[Illustration: - - GROUPS OF DOUBLE COTTAGES AT HARLAXTON. -] - -[Illustration] - -[Illustration: - - VILLAGE SHOP AND DOUBLE COTTAGE AT HARLAXTON. -] - -[Illustration: - - GROUP OF COTTAGES AT HARLAXTON. -] - - PLANS OF A TREBLE COTTAGE FOR THREE FAMILIES, - SITUATED ON THE ESTATE OF - GREGORY GREGORY ESQ^R, AT HARLAXTON. - _Estimate, inducting all Expenses & Out Buildings, £ 280._ - -[Illustration] - -[Illustration] - - _M^r. Twistleton’s Report on Cottages &c._ - - COTTAGES - BUILT BY - BENYON de BEAUVOIR, ESQ^R. - AT - CULFORD in SUFFOLK. - -[Illustration] - -[Illustration] - - _M^r. Twistleton’s Report on Cottages &c._ - - COTTAGES BUILT BY THE EARL OF LEICESTER. - - AT HOLKHAM. IN NORFOLK. - -[Illustration] - -[Illustration] - - _Dimensions of Cottage._ - -_1. It is 36 feet in front. Its cost about £70._ - -_2. Each room is 16 feet square & 8 feet in height._ - -_3. There are two Garrets, used for sleeping rooms._ - - _2_ - _Apartments._ - - Nº 1 _Is a necessary._ - - 2 _Coal, Wood & Peat House._ - - 3 _Scullery._ - - 4 _Larder._ - - 5 _Cowhouse._ - - 6 _Kitchen._ - - 7 _Sitting room._ - - 8 & 9 _are Garrets._ - - _3_ - _Warming Apparatus._ - -_Behind the fire place of No. 6, Kitchen, is an Iron box, one side of -this Iron box, made of strong sheet or plate Iron, forms the back of the -fire place of No. 6. As two plates of iron are rivetted together, -leaving a space of 6 inches between the plates which forms a box, a -passage or pipe below the door as seen in the Plan, opened through the -wall. This pipe or passage made of stone or brick, or of iron, admits a -current of cold air to pass into the Iron box. This air entering the box -and being heated by the fire in No. 6, gives its warmth out to No. 7. By -means of a pipe which ascends from the top of the Iron box the two -garret rooms are warmed. Wet linen may be dried by placing a screen with -it before the Iron box in room No. 7._ - - _4_ - -_The advantages of a fire place No. 7, constructed with an Iron plate -for its back, and made into a box having two Iron plates fastened -together, as seen in the Iron box between rooms No. 6 & 7, are that_ - - _1. One fire place is made to warm two apartments on the same floor, - and by means of an Iron pipe, warm air is conveyed into the two - garrets above._ - - _2. The house can never be damp with such a simple economical method - of heating._ - - _3. In the Southern, Eastern & Midland Counties of England, where fuel - is sold at a high price, it is beneficial for the labourer to heat - his house in the manner just shown in the Closeburn Cottage._ - - _4. Much of the sickness of the labourer and delicacy of his children - proceed from damp Cottages._ - - PLAN OF COTTAGES - - ERECTED BY SIR STEWART MENTEATH, BARONET, - - FOR HIS LABOURERS AT CLOSEBURN. - -[Illustration] - - PLANS OF COTTAGES ERECTED AT EGERTON FOR H. & E. ASHWORTH. - -[Illustration] - - PLANS OF A DOUBLE COTTAGE, ERECTED AT BOLLINGTON. - -[Illustration] - - PLAN - OF THE - FARM COTTAGES - ERECTED UPON - _THE EARL of ROSEBERRY’S ESTATES_. - -[Illustration] - -I have been favoured by the Earl of Roseberry with plans of the new -labourers’ cottages he has built on his property in Scotland, which have -been highly approved by the Highland Society, who have inserted the -plans for publication in their “Transactions,” _vide_ Appendix. I have -been favoured by James Monteath, Esq., with a model of the cottages -erected by his father, Sir Stewart Monteath, Bart., for his labourers at -Closeburn. The plan of these cottages presents an important improvement, -by which one fire-place is made to warm two apartments on the same -floor, and by means of an air pipe warms the air in the two rooms above -them. I was informed that it admits of a further improvement in -practice, namely, of some means of closing the access of the warm air to -the sleeping-rooms during summer. - -The best plans I have obtained of tenements in actual occupation of the -rural manufacturing population appear to be those at Turton, and those -erected at Bollington. The best plans of labourers’ tenements in towns -are those supplied by Mr. Hodgson, and the Committee of Physicians and -Surgeons at Birmingham; the drawings and working plans of which I have -appended. - -In several of the plans for the rural districts there is one appendage -of the cottage of which the best-informed witnesses consider they ought -invariably to be divested, namely, a pigsty. The medical witnesses -strongly object that it is injurious to the health, especially in rows -of cottages, as it occasions accumulations of filthy refuse. Other -witnesses, such as the Rev. Thomas Whately, object that the pig is not -economical to the labourer, and that it furnishes a temptation to -dishonesty. His evidence on that subject, and on the other more -important question of large cottage allotments, will be found in the -Appendix. - -Mr. Loudon has favoured me with two drawings and plans of model -cottages, which need no other explanation than the specification. These -comprise the best examples that have come under observation during the -present inquiry of tenements in occupation that are well approved on -trial. - -Every detail, however, of the materials with which the cottage is -constructed, and the mode of its construction, deserve, and there is -little doubt will obtain, most careful attention, for it is only by -considering their comforts in detail that they can be improved, or the -aggregate effect on the immense masses of the community can be analyzed -and estimated. For example, it has been mentioned that a decided -difference is perceptible in the health and condition of workmen of the -same class who live in houses made of brick as compared with those -living in houses made of stone. - -A gentleman who has attentively observed the condition of the working -classes in the north of Lancashire, and the north of Cheshire, states -that the general health of the labourers in the north of Lancashire is -decidedly inferior. This inferiority he ascribes to several causes, and, -amongst others, to damp cottages, and— - - “Wood and wattled houses, such as our forefathers built, are the - driest and warmest of all; brick is inferior in both these requisites - of a comfortable house; but stone, especially the unhewn stone as it - is necessarily employed for cottages, is the very worst material - possible for the purpose. I prefer the Irish mud cottages. The evil - arises from two causes. The stone is not impervious to water, - especially when the rain is accompanied by high winds; and it sucks up - the moisture of the ground, and gives it out into the rooms; but - principally, stone is a good conductor of heat and cold, so that the - walls cooled down by the outer air are continually condensing the - moisture contained in the warmer air of the cottage, just as the - windows steam on a frosty morning; besides, the abstraction of heat in - stone houses must be a serious inconvenience. The effect of this - condensation must be, and is, to make clothes, bedding, &c., damp, - whenever they are placed near the wall, and therefore extremely - prejudicial to those who wear the clothes or sleep in the beds. Of - course I do not attribute all the damp of our cottages in this - neighbourhood to the stone; much of it is due to the wet climate, wet - soil, and building so near the ground; but the stone, as a material of - building, must bear a considerable share of the blame. I believe, too, - it is partly the cause of the very great difference of cleanliness of - the Cheshire farming people and ours of the same class. - - “Indeed the Cheshire people were brought up to wooden cottages: brick - was of later introduction. The greater facilities and inducements to - cleanliness in a dry house would, in the course of time, form a more - cleanly people, and superior healthiness would follow.” - -_Mr. Parker_ observes, that the construction of the cottages in -Buckinghamshire is frequently unwholsome:— - - “The improper materials of which cottages are built, and their - defective construction, are also the frequent cause of the serious - indisposition of the inmates. The cottages at Waddesdon, and some of - the surrounding parishes in the Vale of Aylesbury, are constructed of - mud, with earth floors and thatched roofs. The vegetable substances - mixed with the mud to make it bind, rapidly decompose, leaving the - walls porous. The earth of the floor is full of vegetable matter, and - from there being nothing to cut off its contact with the surrounding - mould, it is peculiarly liable to damp. The floor is frequently - charged with animal matter thrown upon it by the inmates, and this - rapidly decomposes by the alternate action of heat and moisture. - Thatch placed in contact with such walls speedily decays, yielding a - gas of the most deleterious quality. Fever of every type and diarrhœa - are endemic diseases in the parish and neighbourhood. Next to good - drainage and thorough ventilation, the foundation of a cottage is the - most important consideration. A foundation, to be good, must not only - be sufficiently strong to bear the superstructure, and of sufficient - depth to cut off all connexion with the surrounding vegetable mould - and that beneath the floor, but also be constructed of materials - calculated to resist moisture. The best materials for this purpose are - concrete and sound bricks, partially vitrified in the kiln or clamp. - If such bricks be well laid with mortar composed of sharp sand, - containing no vegetable substances, and the concrete be free from - earthy particles, well mixed and firmly thrown together, the admission - of damp will be entirely avoided. Stone, chalk, bricks which are not - thoroughly burnt, impure mortar, and wood, have all a tendency to - absorb moisture, which, if once received by such materials, ascends, - or ‘creeps up,’ as it is technically called by builders, and thus - affects the whole building. To avoid this “creeping up,” builders are - in the habit of placing a tire of slate in foundations above the - surface mould, a remedy of a temporary character only, for the action - of damp entirely destroys slate. Roman cement has also been used for - this purpose, but the sand mixed with this material renders it in some - degree porous. It has lately been suggested that a course of - well-burnt bricks set in asphalte would effectually prevent this - absorption of surface-water, and a favourable opinion of this plan has - been expressed by two intelligent architects.” - -He adds that— - - “In Berkshire the floors of the cottages are laid with red tiles, - called ‘flats,’ or with bricks of a remarkable porous quality, and as - each of these tiles or bricks will absorb half a pint of water, so do - they become the means by which vapour is generated. The cleanly - housewife, who prides herself upon the neat and fresh appearance of - her cottage, pours several pails of water upon the floor, and when she - has completed her task with the besom, she proceeds to remove with a - mop or flannel so much of the water as the bricks have not absorbed. - - “After having cleansed the cottage, the fire is usually made up to - prepare the evening meal, and vapour is created by the action of the - heat upon the saturated floor. Thus the means adopted to purify the - apartment are equally as injurious to the health of the inmates as the - filth and dirt frequently too abundant in the cottages of labouring - persons. - - “It is usual to insert in local Acts for the regulation of towns a - clause prohibiting the use of straw and similar vegetable substances - for roofing; and it appears to me to be desirable that some provision - should be made for the rural districts, by which the thatch of - cottages, when in a decomposed state, might be required to be removed. - In the parishes of Binton, Dorsington, and Long Marston, in the - neighbourhood of Stratford-on-Avon, simple continued fever, described - to be similar in character to the form of fever which frequently - occurs in the autumn and beginning of winter throughout England, - prevailed very extensively in the winter of 1839. Of 31 patients - attacked by it, seven died. Dr. Thompson of Stratford-on-Avon, the - physician who visited all the cases by the desire of the Board of - Guardians of the Stratford-on-Avon union, observes:—‘As almost all the - cottages in which there has been fever are thatched, and the thatch in - many of them is in a very rotten and insufficient condition, it is not - improbable that slow decomposition in the thatch, from the unusual - quantities of rain which has fallen, may have been going on, and - contributed to the production and continuance of fever. It has been - observed by others, I believe, that it is more difficult to get rid of - fever in thatched than in slated cottages.’ Dr. Thompson also remarks, - that in thatched cottages it is not usual to ceil or plaster the - inside of the roof; and he recommends that this should be done, and - that the plaster should be lime-washed once a-year.” - -In the course of some observations made on the construction of the -cottages of the labouring classes in France, it is observed that— - - “It is in vain that the workman breathes a pure air out of doors, if - on his return to his home he finds an infected atmosphere. Air, which - is so necessary to life and health, and which it is of the last - importance to renew often, especially in small rooms, remains thick - and loaded in the abode of the workman, because no currents can exist - in consequence of the window being almost always placed alongside the - door. The form of the chimney is another great evil in the - construction of country cottages. With a shaft very short and very - large, it is impossible for the room to get warm, and the heat - produced is almost entirely lost. This form of the chimneys is only - explicable by the ignorance of the constructors. However large a fire - may be required by the diverse needs of the family, it does not - involve the necessity to make the chimney shaft of a corresponding - size; on the contrary, the facility with which the smoke ascends is - altogether proportioned to the smallness of the latter, as may be seen - in the chimneys of stoves, which are always extremely narrow.” - -The _Rev. C. Walkey_, of Collumpton, gives instances of the want of -provision for ventilation in the cottages of the labouring classes:— - - “Cottages for the most part are without sufficient ventilation, - particularly in the up-stairs apartment, this being almost invariably - without a chimney, with a low window, commonly about two feet from the - floor, and having no ceiling, therefore the thatched roof, lofty in - itself, and full of cobwebs, contains the foul air; and in several - instances I have been the means of restoring health apparently by - blowing gunpowder in cases where fever has raged for months, the - ground-floors being often damp—very seldom above the level of the - land.” - -The proceedings of the Highland Society for the improvement of the -material condition of the labourer, especially on the subject of cottage -economy, appear to be extremely well directed. They have sought to make -improvements in detail, which are thus described in one of the reports -of a committee appointed to inquire into the subject:— - - “Medals have been offered by the society to proprietors for building - cottages of a good construction; and these medals are already in - demand. The subject was again brought forward by the Marquis of - Tweeddale, who filled the chair at the last general meeting; and - throughout the whole of Scotland it is attracting increasing - attention. The style of such buildings is everywhere improving, and - the measures of the society will make the country acquainted with the - best models. Still, without a considerable diminution of the expense, - the rapid introduction of a better system is hardly to be expected. To - that point, accordingly, the directors have turned their serious - attention. - - “Their first object has been the improvement of the windows, which - always form one of the principal items of charge, and have been - generally one of the worst constructed parts of the building. In many - districts of the Highlands the huts of the peasantry have nothing of - the kind, nor are there tradesmen within reach from whom they can be - obtained; and even in many of the more improved parts of the country - the cottage windows are seldom large enough to admit a sufficiency of - light; they are almost never provided with the means of ventilation; - and in a few instances can they be repaired without applying to a - tradesman. This is always attended with considerable expense; and, in - remote situations, skilful workmen are hardly to be obtained on any - terms. Accordingly, when glass is broken, recourse is had to the most - unseemly substitutes. These may annoy the inmate at first, but he soon - becomes habituated to them; one eyesore prepares him for another, and - in a short time the same slovenliness and disorder spread over the - whole establishment. - - “It appeared to the directors that much of this would be avoided if - the public could be made acquainted with the best description of a - cottage window. The demand would necessarily lead to their being - extensively manufactured, and consequently supplied at a moderate - price; and, what is of still more consequence, the general adoption of - such windows would lead to glass of the proper size being kept in - every village, and labourers would then be enabled to repair their own - windows. A premium was accordingly offered last year for the best - cottage window, not so much in the expectation of bringing forward - anything altogether new, as of enabling the directors to select the - best of the forms now in use. - - “Various specimens were sent in. Some were made of zinc; but these - were rejected, on the advice of tradesmen, as being too weak to admit - of repair by an unpractised hand. Wood and lead are, for the same - reason, equally unsuitable. One was constructed with astragals of - malleable iron, so thin as very little to impede the light, and - consequently admitting of glass of a very small size; but the - astragals not being provided with flanges for the glass to rest upon, - the repair must necessarily be a work of some difficulty; and these - also were consequently deemed unfit for the purpose. Cast-iron appears - to be the material least liable to objection; but astragals of - cast-metal must be of considerable thickness; and such frames, - therefore, could not be adapted to a very small size of glass without - materially obscuring the light. It was made by Messrs. Moses M’Culloch - and Co., Gallowgate, Glasgow; and, without the wooden frame, it costs - 5_s._ Glass for such a window may be purchased at 2¾_d._ per square. - These windows would appear adapted for farm-houses and workshops as - well as for cottages. They admit of being made of every variety of - size, and, in most cases, they may thus be fitted with ease to houses - already built. In many situations, it will thus deserve consideration - whether it may be better to repair the glass of old frames, or to - adopt windows of this construction, which may be purchased and kept up - at so very moderate an expense. It is understood that Messrs. - M’Cullock intend to establish agencies in all parts of the country, - and light and pure air will thus be supplied to the humbler classes - everywhere at a much cheaper rate than they have hitherto been - obtained.” - - The directors have next turned their attention to the means of - economizing fuel; and a premium for the best mode of accomplishing - this will be found in the list of this year. It will be observed, that - the object of the premium is not to obtain plans merely from Scottish - tradesmen, but to ascertain the devices which are practised in foreign - countries. In America, and several of the continental states, it is - understood that stoves are generally used for this purpose, and some - of these are said to be so perfect that no one who has been accustomed - to them would tolerate the fire-places of the Scottish cottages. There - may be a difficulty in introducing a novelty of this kind here; but if - it should promise to be beneficial, it would be at least deserving of - a trial; and if it should be generally adopted, this also would become - the subject of an extensive manufacture, and be obtained at a cheap - rate. - - “It appears to the committee, that still further facilities would be - afforded, both for the construction of new cottages and the - improvement of those already built, were doors, shelving, and the - other wooden work of the building manufactured in the same way as the - windows. The committee do not at present see any means of contributing - to the establishment of such works by the offer of premiums; but it - occurs to them that extensive proprietors might find it worth their - while to try the experiment, as an addition to the work of saw-mills. - If it should succeed with them, it could not fail in the hands of - tradesmen devoting their whole attention to the subject; and there - would be no want of men ready to embark in such undertakings. Should - an experiment of this kind be made, the committee hope that the - directors will be made acquainted with the result. - - “Such a supply of the leading materials would not only greatly - facilitate the work of proprietors both in the erection of new - cottages and the improvement of old ones, but labourers who have the - prospect of being permanent tenants would likewise be induced, at - their own expense, to make improvements, which they would at present - find quite impracticable. As the reduction of the price of every - article of dress now enables the humblest labourer to appear - respectably clothed, so the reduction of the expense of so many of the - essentials in the construction of a house would bring comfortable - lodging equally within his reach.” - -To the above-recited measures of the Highland Society, which are so well -directed to the improvement of the structure of cottages in the -important points of economy as well as of efficiency, they have added -prizes for the best-kept cottages and the best cottage gardens, which -have everywhere excited competition, and have been attended with -beneficial results. - -I have as yet met with no similar instance of attention given by large -and influential public bodies, to the improvement of the residences of -the working-classes in towns. I have, however, been favoured with one -communication from _Mr. Sydney Smirke_, the architect, who has had -experience in planning and superintending the erection of residences for -the men of the coast-guard service, and who, in some suggestions for the -improvement of the metropolis, has endeavoured to direct public -attention to the improvement of the structure of the residences of the -labouring classes. He states that— - - “The course that has been adopted by great manufacturers and others in - some rural districts, of erecting ranges of distinct cottages for - their labourers, is plainly inapplicable to large towns. If there were - no other obstacle to this arrangement, the value of land would alone - be fatal to it in such places; but my belief is that, without ultimate - pecuniary loss, and with the utmost direct and indirect benefit, - buildings, placed under some public control, might be erected for the - joint occupation of many families or individuals, and so arranged that - each tenant might feel that he had the exclusive enjoyment of a home - in the room or rooms which he occupied, and yet might partake, in - common with his neighbours, of many important comforts and advantages - now utterly unknown to him. - - “I propose that there should be erected buildings, in various parts of - the suburbs, consisting of perhaps 50 or 60 rooms, high, airy, dry, - well ventilated, light and warm, comfortably filled up, fire-proof, - abundantly supplied with water and thoroughly drained; such - regulations might be laid down for the conduct of the inmates as may - be necessary for the common good, without undue rigour or interference - with natural and proper feelings of independence. - - “Another class of structures should be raised, perhaps rather as - dormitories than for permanent residence, from which families would be - excluded; these should be arranged like some of the wards of Chelsea - Hospital, with separate compartments appropriated to each tenant. - Unlike the frail and worthless tenements that rise in great profusion - around London, these buildings should be studiously planned and - strongly constructed; all that the builder’s art can contribute - towards the safety, health, and comfort of each individual, should - here be found. In the former class of buildings, a room or rooms - should be let at a low weekly rent to any decent family that should - apply: in the latter, each compartment should be let by the night. - - “The exterior of these locanda, or public lodging-houses, should have - a cheerful, inviting appearance, not entirely without architectural - character, although free, of course, from the mere ornament and - frippery of architecture. - - “In throwing out these suggestions for such consideration as they may - deserve, it seems superfluous at present to trouble you with - explanatory plans and other details; it may be enough for me to assure - you that buildings can be erected, affording all the accommodations - above described, and offering to their inmates the luxury of a decent, - cleanly, and healthy abode, at a cost less than is usually required by - them for the purchase of the squalid resting-places they now resort - to, and yet enough to repay a fair interest on the original expense of - the new building. - - “It may be said that in providing these commodious dwellings for their - needy inmates, we shall be furnishing them with that which they do not - desire; that habitual and long acquaintance with privation has taught - them to regard and to endure, without any lively distaste, much of - that misery from which others, more delicately educated, would shrink - with disgust; but I consider this objection quite unfounded. A tainted - atmosphere cannot be less injurious because by long habit it is - breathed without nausea. If these deplorable habits have really - acquired so much force, it should be our part to make corresponding - efforts to teach the victims of them to become more sensible of their - misery, not indeed by inculcating lessons of discontent, but by - affording to them facilities for providing themselves with healthier - and happier abodes. - - “It is the true saying of an eloquent writer, that ‘les esclaves - perdent tout dans leur esclavage, jusqu’au désir d’en sortir;’ yet - surely no benevolent person would think himself idly or unprofitably - employed in loosing from bondage those whom long endurance has caused - to forget the blessings of freedom. I am, however, unwilling to - believe, even now, that the classes of whom I am speaking are - insensible to the comforts of cleanliness, or unable to appreciate the - benefit to be derived from improved habitations. - - “I confess I cannot discover any objection to the adoption of such a - plan for ameliorating the dwellings of the poorest classes of our - fellow creatures that would not be counter-balanced by many direct and - indirect advantages.” - -I beg leave to submit this communication and the plans with which Mr. -Smirke has favoured me, that it may be made known and considered. Much -importance will be attached to the testimony received from him as well -as from other professional men, that it is possible to afford to the -labouring classes the luxury of “a decent, cleanly, and healthy abode at -a cost less than is usually required from them for the squalid -resting-places they now resort to, and yet enough to repay a fair -interest on the original expense of the new building.” - -I see no reason to doubt the applicability of Mr. Smirke’s plan to such -places as those where ranges of buildings are now required as lodgings -for workmen, and, without questioning the applicability of the -proposition last cited, to all classes of residences. It is proper to -mention, that in the course of this inquiry frequent instances have -arisen of much social disorder arising from the too close contiguity of -residences, or from the want of some control over the inmates. In the -instances noticed of lodging-houses, or of one building, inhabited by -different families, living as in the apartments of the same dwelling, -the conclusion afforded by experience seems to be, that a power and -discipline almost as strong as that of a man-of-war, is requisite to -preserve order in such communities; and that until a degree of education -of the lower classes is attained, which is hopeless for the present, -generation at least, it is desirable to avoid any arrangement which -brings _families_ into close contact with each other. A large proportion -of the cases of assault and brawls which occupy the attention of the -petty sessions and sessions in towns, arise from contentions amongst the -inhabitants of courts and alleys, which are clearly ascribable to too -close contiguity; and these effects have frequently given rise to the -suggestion that if a city were rebuilt, the preservation of peace would -be much easier if such places were entirely removed and the inhabitants -separated. A common pump has gone far to furnish practice to a petty -attorney. All the females wanted to use it at the same time, and -perpetual quarrels and frequent assaults arose to get the first -supplies. Several attempts have been made by benevolent landlords to get -their labourers to make use of common bakehouses, common wash-houses, to -join for one common brewing, and have offered them the use of utensils; -but they never could be got to agree upon it, and I have met with no -instance in which such plans have succeeded. Unless the walls of -contiguous cottages are very thick, detached cottages have social -comforts and moral advantages superior to those houses built in rows; -and persons even of the middle class pay a higher rent for detached -tenements for the sake of the comparative freedom which they allow from -disturbance by their neighbours. The information I received in Scotland -respecting the assemblages of single men, farm-servants, in houses -called boothies, showed that the effect was also extremely unfavourable -to their moral habits. - - SKETCH OF A PLAN FOR A - - PUBLIC LODGING HOUSE - -[Illustration] - -In some of the new towns in Germany it is considered advantageous, for -the sake of the circulation of air as well as for comfort and for -security against fire, to have each house detached by a small space from -its neighbours. - - - _Effects of Public Walks and Gardens on the Health and Morals of the - Lower Classes of the Population._ - -Whilst separation rather than aggregation, more especially for families, -is the course of policy suggested by experience for the places of -residence of the working-classes, accommodation is called for from every -part of the country for public walks or places of recreation. The -committee of physicians and surgeons of Birmingham state, in the course -of their report on the sanitary condition of the population of that, -town:— - - “The want of some place of recreation for the mechanic is an evil - which presses very heavily upon these people, and to which many of - their bad habits may be traced. There are no public walks in or near - this town; no places where the working-people can resort for - recreation. The consequence is that they frequent the ale-houses and - skittle-alleys for amusement. Within the last half century the town - was surrounded by land which was divided into gardens, which were - rented by the mechanic at one guinea or half a guinea per annum. Here - the mechanic was generally seen after his day’s labour spending his - evening in a healthy and simple occupation, in which he took great - delight. This ground is now for the most part built over, and the - mechanics of the town are gradually losing this source of useful and - healthy recreation.” - -_Mr. Mott_, in his report on the condition of the labouring population -of his district, observes, in respect to that in Manchester— - - “There are circumstances attending the local position of Manchester - which might be urged in palliation of some of the habits of the - working classes. - - “There are no public walks or places of recreation by which the - thousands of labourers or families can relieve the tedium of their - monotonous employment. Pent up in a close, dusty atmosphere from - half-past five or six o’clock in the morning till seven or eight - o’clock at night, from week to week, without change, without - intermission, it is not to be wondered at that they fly to the spirit - and beer-shops, and the dancing-houses, on the Saturday nights to seek - those, to them, pleasures and comforts which their own destitute and - comfortless homes deny. - - “Manchester is singularly destitute of those resources which conduce - at once to health and recreation. With a teeming population, literally - overflowing her boundaries, she has no public walks or resorts, either - for the youthful or the adult portion of the community to snatch an - hour’s enjoyment. - - “The prospect of obtaining any wide area to be appropriated as a - public walk or otherwise for the use of the labouring classes, becomes - more remote each year, as the value of the land within and in the - neighbourhood of the town increases.” - -Mr. Joseph Strutt, of Derby, has presented to that town a public garden -of eleven acres, which has been so laid out by Mr. Loudon as to give the -advantages of a walk of two miles, and the interest afforded by an -arboretum, displaying the specimens of 1000 shrubs and plants. The plan -of laying out this public ground so as to make the most of the space, -appears to be one deserving of peculiar attention; and I have appended -to this report a copy with which I have been favoured. I am informed -that his Grace the Duke of Norfolk has expressed an intention, as soon -as some leases are out, to bestow 50 acres for the use of Sheffield as a -public garden. - -Much evidence might be adduced from the experience of the effects of the -parks and other places of public resort in the metropolis, to prove the -importance of such provision for recreation, not less for the pleasure -they afford in themselves, than for their rivalry to pleasures that are -expensive, demoralizing, and injurious to the health. A benevolent -gentleman near Cambridge, who wished to arrest the debauchery and -demoralization promoted by a fair, and, if possible, to put an end to -the fair itself, instituted on the days when it was held, and at a -distance from it, a grand ploughing match, at which all persons of -respectability were invited to attend. This brought from the fair all -the young men whom it was desired to lead from it to a regulated and a -rational and beneficial entertainment, and thus, without force and at a -very trivial expense, the fair was suppressed by the quiet mode of -drawing away its profit. - -On the holiday given at Manchester in celebration of Her Majesty’s -marriage, extensive arrangements were made for holding a chartist -meeting, and for getting up what was called a demonstration of the -working classes, which greatly alarmed the municipal magistrates. Sir -Charles Shaw, the Chief Commissioner of Police, induced the mayor to get -the Botanical Gardens, Zoological Gardens, and Museum of that town, and -other institutions thrown open to the working classes at the hour they -were urgently invited to attend the chartist meeting. The mayor -undertook to be personally answerable for any damage that occurred from -throwing open the gardens and institutions to the classes who had never -before entered them. The effect, was that not more than 200 or 300 -people attended the political meeting, which entirely failed, and -scarcely 5_s._ worth of damage was done in the gardens or in the public -institutions by the workpeople, who were highly pleased. A further -effect produced was, that the charges before the police of drunkenness -and riot were on that day less than the average of cases on ordinary -days. - -I have been informed of other instances of similar effects produced by -the spread of temperate pleasures on ordinary occasions, and their -rivalry to habits of drunkenness and gross excitement, whether mental or -sensual. - -But want of open spaces for recreation is not confined to the town -population. In the rural districts the children and young persons of the -villages have frequently no other places for recreation than the dusty -road before their houses or the narrow and dirty lanes, and accidents -frequently take place from the playing of children on the public -highways. If they go into the fields they are trespassers, and injure -the farmer. The want of proper spaces as play-grounds for children is -detrimental to the morals as well as to the health in the towns, and it -probably is so generally. The very scanty spaces which the children, -both of the middle and the lower classes, the ill as well as the -respectably educated, can obtain, force all into one company to the -detriment of the better children, for it is the rude and boisterous who -obtain predominance. In the course of some investigations which I had -occasion to make into the causes of juvenile delinquency, there appeared -several cases of children of honest and industrious parents, who had -been entrapped by boys of bad character; I inquired how the more -respectable children became acquainted with the depraved; when it was -shown that in the present state of many crowded neighbourhoods all the -children of a court or of a street were forced to play, if they had any -play whatsoever, on such scraps of ground as they could get, and all -were brought into acquaintanceship, and the range of influence of the -depraved was extended. The condition of the children in large districts -where there are no squares, no gardens attached to the houses, and no -play-grounds even to their day-schools, and where they are of a -condition in life to be withheld from playing in the streets, is -pronounced to be a condition very injurious to their bodily development. -The progress of the evil in the rural districts has been, to some -extent, arrested by a beneficent standing order of the House of Commons, -that all Enclosure Bills shall include provision for a reserve of land -for the public use for recreation. For children, however, the most -important reservations would be those which could be made for -play-grounds in front of their homes, on plots where they may be under -the eye of their mothers or their neighbours. Where the cottages are -near a road, they should be some distance from it, with the gardens or -play-ground in front. The separate or distant play-grounds have many -inconveniences besides their being out of sight; and where they are far -distant, they are comparatively useless. I have great pleasure in being -enabled to testily that the instances are frequent where the regulated -resort to private pleasure-grounds, and parks has been indulgently given -for the recreation of the labouring population. - -Amongst the instances of practical attention to the improvement of the -physical condition of labouring classes in the agricultural districts, I -may notice the following statement made to me by the late _Mr. Monck_ of -Coley House, Reading, who had bestowed much care upon the cottages on -his own estate. It comprehends the provision adverted to:— - - “The care taken of these cottages and gardens,” said he, “afford an - excellent criterion of the character of the labourers. I have paid - especial attention to those labourers who have displayed cleanliness - and order; and I pay the most respect to those who have achieved a - situation of the greatest comfort, and keep themselves and their - houses cleanly, and their children tidy. Formerly the cottages were in - bad order, their pavements and windows were broken; I had them all - paved, and their windows glazed. I told the cottagers that I did not - like to see shabby, broken windows, with patches of paper and things - stuffed in, or broken pavements which they could not clean; and that I - disliked Irish filth and all Irish habits of living. I engaged, after - the cottages were thoroughly repaired, to pay 1_l._ a year for - repairing them. I undertook to make the repairs myself, and deduct the - expense from this 1_l._; but if no repairs were wanted, they were to - have the whole 1_l._ themselves. This course has, I find, formed - habits of care; and their cottages are now so well taken care of that - very little deduction is made annually from the 1_l._ Formerly they - used to chop wood carelessly on their pavements, and break them; now - they abstain from the practice, or do it in a careful manner, to avoid - losing the money. In the winter, I give them two score of fagots - towards their fuel. I have found that by this means I save my hedges - and fences, and am pecuniarily no loser, whilst pilfering habits are - repressed. Since the enclosures have been made, I think some place - should be provided for the exercise and recreation of the - working-classes, and especially for their children. I have set out - four acres at Oldworth as a play-ground for the children, or whoever - likes to play. They have now their cricket-matches, their - quoit-playing, and their revels there. Sheep and cows feed on it; so - that it is no great loss to me. I let it for 4_l._ a-year to a man, on - condition that he cuts the hedges and keeps it neat. I have surrounded - it with a double avenue of trees. The sheep and cows do good to the - ground, as they keep the grass under, which allows the ball to run. I - give prizes to the boys at the school, which is maintained by the - cottagers themselves, and to which I contribute nothing but the prizes - for reading, writing, and knitting. - - “Many persons accuse the poor of ingratitude, but I find them the most - grateful people alive for these little attentions; and what do they - all cost me? why not more altogether than the keep of one fat - coach-horse.” - - - - -VII.—RECOGNISED PRINCIPLES OF LEGISLATION AND STATE OF THE EXISTING LAW - FOR THE PROTECTION OF THE PUBLIC HEALTH. - - -The evidence already given will, to some extent, have furnished answers -to the question—how far the physical evils by which the health, and -strength, and morals of the labouring classes are depressed may be -removed, or can reasonably be expected to be removed by private and -voluntary exertions. I now submit for consideration the facts which -serve to show how far the aid of the legislature, and of administrative -arrangements are requisite for the attainment of the objects in -question. - -It will have been perceived, that the first great remedies, external -arrangements, _i. e._ efficient drainage, sewerage and cleansing of -towns, come within the acknowledged province of the legislature. Public -opinion has of late required legislative interference for the regulation -of some points of the internal economy of certain places of work, and -the appointment of special agents to protect young children engaged in -certain classes of manufactures from mental deterioration from the -privation of the advantages of education, and from permanent bodily -deterioration from an excess of labour beyond their strength. Claims are -now before Parliament for an extension of the like remedies to other -classes of children and to young persons, who are deemed to be in the -same need of protection. The legislature has interfered to put an end to -one description of employment which was deemed afflicting and degrading, -i. e. that of climbing-boys for sweeping chimneys, and to force a better -means of performing by machinery the same work. It will be seen that it -has been the policy of the legislature to interfere for the public -protection by regulating the structure of private dwellings to prevent -the extension of fires; and the common law has also interposed to -protect the public health by preventing overcrowding in private -tenements. The legislature has recently interfered to direct the poorer -description of tenements in the metropolis to be properly cleansed. On -considering the evidence before given with relation to the effects of -different, classes of buildings, the suggestion immediately arises as to -the extent to which it is practicable to protect the health of the -labouring classes by measures for the amendment of the existing -buildings, and for the regulation of new buildings in towns in the great -proportion of cases where neither private benevolence nor enlightened -views can be expected to prevail extensively. - -It will have been perceived how much of the existing evils originate -from the defects of the external arrangements for drainage, and for -cleansing, and for obtaining supplies of water. Until these are -completed, therefore, the force of the evils arising from the -construction of the houses could scarcely be ascertained. - -The experience of legislation available for England for the regulation -of buildings is chiefly confined to the Metropolitan Building Act. The -provisions of that Act were directed simply to the prevention of the -spread of fires by requiring that party-walls should be built so as to -prevent the spread of fires, by confining them to the houses where the -fires occur. In this object it is in most instances successful. Wherever -a fire spreads beyond the single dwelling in the metropolis, it is -usually found either that the provisions of the Act have been evaded, -the walls being of the required thickness but rotten in substance, or -that omissions have occurred from default of notice, or from neglect of -the district surveyor. Out of the jurisdiction of the Act, the instances -are frequent where fires spread from the want of party-walls. The -erection of party-walls is good economy as a matter of insurance, for -each house is thereby confined to its own risks, instead of having the -additional risks of each of the contiguous houses, and perhaps of two or -three houses beyond them. If there were any point on which _à priori_ -legislative interference might be thought unnecessary it would be this, -on which the self-interest of the parties, for their own protection, -would ensure attention. Yet the immediate interest of the builder in -getting buildings erected at the lowest cost, or the want of foresight -on the part of the owner himself, has caused extensive masses of -buildings to be run up in the suburbs of the metropolis, and in -provincial towns, without any such protection. Whilst this Report was in -preparation I was informed of the destruction by fire of several -contiguous houses at Oxford that were without party-walls. But -party-walls are only one provision against fire; the omissions of other -necessary precautions are fearfully extensive, especially in warehouses -and buildings of a magnitude too great for the fire to be restrained by -party-walls, or to prevent fire catching the adjacent buildings whenever -it occurs. - -One, however, I may advert to, as connected with the provisions -necessary for the improvement of the sanitary condition of a town -population. It has been shown that the cheapest mode of street cleansing -is by supplies of water, which it would be necessary to use from -standing pipes. By the Street Act, the parish officers are directed to -provide standing pipes for the supply of engines in case of fire. This -regulation is declared to be almost a dead letter. The only means to -obtain supplies of water in the case of fire are from the plugs provided -by the water companies themselves for cleansing the pipes by -occasionally allowing the water to flow into the streets. It has been -proved to be practicable without any considerable cost to keep up, at -all times, such a pressure of water as on putting on a hose on any -standing pipe connected with the service, to enable the water to be -thrown over the highest houses. The fronts of houses in London have, in -some instances, been washed by this means, and in one instance it was -immediately and successfully applied to extinguish a fire. A large -proportion of houses are destroyed or seriously injured before engines -can be brought to the spot or water obtained. During the last four years -the fires in London have been more than 600 per annum. If each fire on -the average incurred a loss of 500_l._, the total loss annually would -exceed the total cost of the supplies of water for the whole of the -metropolis to the inhabitants, which, according to returns made to -Parliament in the year 1834, amounted to 276,200_l._ The superintendent -of the police at Liverpool estimated the average loss by fires in that -town during eight years at a much greater amount before a better system -of prevention was established. The cost of keeping the water always on -in the mains is so inconsiderable that it was voluntarily proferred by a -competing company in the metropolis, as an advantageous arrangement to -save the expense of water-tanks in private houses. I have high practical -authority for stating that the arrangement for keeping the water on the -mains for street cleansing, for washing the footways as well as the -carriage-ways, and, when necessary, for washing the fronts of the -houses, would also serve, at an inconsiderable expense, as the most -efficient means of extinguishing fires. Instead of the general loss of a -considerable part of an hour’s time before intelligence can be -dispatched and the distant fire-engines be got to the spot, in a few -minutes, or as soon as the flexible pipe in daily use could be screwed -on the main, a supply of water as powerful as that from any engine might -be brought to bear upon the fire. An extensive saving of life and -property, and of well-grounded alarm, might thus be added to the train -of benefits derivable from systematised arrangements for the cleansing -of towns and the prevention of epidemics. - -The provisions of the old Building Acts afford no sanitary securities, -but in connexion with the provisions respecting sewerage they afford -examples of what would be the effect of any measure which shall be -either unequally applied as to the jurisdiction, or unequally -administered. - -The attention of the Board has several times been directed to the -sickness prevalent amongst the working classes in various parts of the -Kensington union. Having had occasion to inquire into the subject, I -found that nearly all the illness occurred in premises run up by -inferior speculating builders out of the jurisdiction of the commissions -of sewers, or of the district surveyors; that they were built on -undrained spots, with walls not more than one brick thick; and that the -immediate expenditure for protective or sanitary purposes had thus been -extensively evaded. On carrying the inquiry further, it became apparent -that the limits of the jurisdiction of the commissioners of sewers, and -the limits of the jurisdiction of the district surveyors around the -metropolis, mark the commencement of buildings of an inferior character, -built without drains, without the security from party-walls, and without -proper means of cleansing. (_Vide_ Appendix, the evidence of Mr. Gutch, -district surveyor.) Under the peculiar circumstances of the country, -towns may arise and the old evils may be implanted before any old -district would probably be taken to include them. For example, the town -of Old Kingston is tolerably well drained and healthy; on the completion -of the railway a new town was suddenly run up by building speculators, -called New Kingston, built out of the jurisdiction of Old Kingston, but -without any adequate under-drainage, on a soil retentive of moisture, -and with streets unpaved and covered with mud; it is reported as a -consequence that fever has been rife in New Kingston, whilst Old -Kingston is comparatively free from it. - -If any one had to erect forty or fifty fourth-rate tenements near the -metropolis, by shifting them beyond the limits of the jurisdiction of -the district surveyor, he would nearly gain one house by the saving of -fees alone in the ordinary mode of remunerating such officers. - -All the information as to the actual condition of the most crowded -districts is corroborative of the apprehensions entertained by witnesses -of practical experience, such as Mr. Thomas Cubitt and other builders, -who are favourable to measures for the improvement of the condition of -the labouring classes, that anything of the nature of a Building Act -that is not equally and skillfully administered will aggravate the evils -intended to be remedied. To whatever districts regulations are confined, -the effect proved to be likely to follow will be, that the builder of -tenements which stand most in need of regulation will be driven over the -boundary, and will run up his habitations before measures can be taken -to include them. The condition of the workman will be aggravated by the -increased fatigue and exposure to weather in traversing greater -distances to sleep in a badly-built, thin, and damp house. An increase -of distance from his place of work will have the more serious effect -upon his habits by rendering it impracticable to take his dinner with -his family, compelling him either to take it in some shed or at the beer -shop. It is also apprehended that anything that may be done to increase -unnecessarily or seriously the cost of new buildings, or discourage -their erection, will aggravate the horrors of the overcrowding of the -older tenements; at the same time, the certain effect of an immediate -and unprepared dislodgement of a cellar population, would be to -overcrowd the upper portions of the houses where they reside. It would -indeed often be practicable to make those cellars as habitable as are -the cellars inhabited by servants in the houses of the middle and higher -classes of society. The difficulties which beset such regulations do not -arise from the want of means to pay any necessary increase of rents for -increased accommodation, but in the very habits which afford evidence of -the existence of the sufficiency of the means of payment. - -For practical legislation on the subject of increased charges on -tenements, the labourers must be considered to be in a state of penury, -and ready to shift from bad to worse for the avoidance of the slightest -charges, and therefore to be approached with the greatest caution. - -But there are other elements which it is proper to note as increasing -the tendency to evade immediate charges even for benefits. - -The increasing tendency to carry on manufacturing as well as commercial -operations for small profits on large outlays will probably occasion the -subject of the rents of labourers’ tenements in manufacturing districts -to be more closely considered as part of the cost of production than it -has hitherto been. The whole of the consequences cannot distinctly be -foreseen, further than that it will probably occasion a reduction of -high ground-rents, or the abandonment of particular districts which are -now the seats of some descriptions of manufacture. In the course of an -examination of the condition of the working population of Macclesfield, -which I was requested to aid, it was complained that much work was put -out to a rural district at a few miles distance from the town. On -inquiring as to the cause, it was answered, that the weavers in the -rural district were enabled to do the work at a reduced price, but at -the same real wages in consequence of reduced rents. The following -examination, however, displays the element indicated:— - -_Mr. Shatwell_, relieving officer, examined— - - “What is the common amount of rent paid by weavers in Macclesfield and - the adjacent districts?—A weaver cannot get, in Macclesfield, a proper - house for his loom, with due lights, for less than 10_l._ a-year. In - Hazel Grove and other places, he may get them for 2_l._ or 3_l._ - less—for about 7_l._—with a small garden attached, worth at least - 20_s._ a-year more. - - “What difference in price do you think would induce a manufacturer to - send goods to Hazel Grove in preference to Macclesfield?—A farthing a - yard, as that difference might make the difference in his profit. - - “How many yards will a weaver weave in the week?—They calculate that a - good weaver will weave 12 yards a-day, or an average of 60 yards - a-week. - - “Since 1_s._ 3_d._ a-week, or a farthing a yard, will make the - difference in profit, will not the difference in rent enable the - weaver to make that difference in price and yet obtain the same net - amount of wages?—Precisely so. - - “So that a manufacturer who employs 1000 hands at a low-rented place, - 3_l._ or 4_l._ a-year cheaper, such as Hazel Grove, if he obtain the - difference of rent as profit, will obtain a profit of 3,000_l._ or - 4,000_l._ per annum?—Certainly. - - “The cost of building and building materials being nearly the same in - Macclesfield and such a place as Hazel Grove, does not the difference - in rent consist chiefly in the difference of ground-rent?—Yes.” - -If in all instances, as in the last, better as well as cheaper -residences, with gardens attached, were likely to be the result of the -commercial operation to the workmen, the change were, of course, to be -desired. But it is to be feared that it may often be otherwise than a -competition of comforts, unless timely security be taken against its -being otherwise by appropriate legislative measures, which indeed were -necessary for the due protection of the ratepayers against the pecuniary -consequences of the disease and destitution undoubtedly occasioned by -such tenements as are thus described by _Mr. Mott_:— - - “An immense number of the small houses occupied by the poorer classes - in the suburbs of Manchester are of the most superficial character; - they are built by the members of building clubs, and other - individuals, and new cottages are erected with a rapidity that - astonishes persons who are unacquainted with their flimsy structure. - They have certainly avoided the objectionable mode of forming - underground dwellings, but have run into the opposite extreme, having - neither cellar nor foundation. The walls are only half brick thick, or - what the bricklayers call ‘brick noggin,’ and the whole of the - materials are slight and unfit for the purpose. I have been told of a - man who had built a row of these houses; and on visiting them one - morning after a storm, found the whole of them levelled with the - ground; and in another part of Manchester, a place with houses even of - a better order has obtained the appellation of ‘Pickpocket-row,’ from - the known insecure and unsubstantial nature of the buildings. I - recollect a bricklayer near London complaining loudly of having to - risk his credit by building a house with nine-inch walls, and declared - it would be like ‘Jack Straw’s House,’ neither ‘wind nor water tight:’ - his astonishment would have been great had he been told that thousands - of houses occupied by the labouring classes are erected with walls of - 4½ inch thickness. The chief rents differ materially according to the - situation, but are in all cases high; and thus arises the inducement - to pack the houses so close. They are built back to back, without - ventilation or drainage; and, like a honeycomb, every particle of - space is occupied. Double rows of these houses form courts, with, - perhaps, a pump at one end and a privy at the other, common to the - occupants of about twenty houses.” - -Whilst there is the new element of this extreme rapidity of construction -to accommodate demands for labour, the increasing rapidity of the -conveyance of goods and information is manifestly loosening the ties of -the manufacturer to particular neighbourhoods. Whilst looms have been -idle in Spitalfields on disputes on scale-prices, or from hesitation as -to comply with the requisite changes of modes of working, I am informed -that large quantities of work have been taken away, executed in the new -neighbourhoods, and returned at reduced prices to the London markets. In -the instance of Macclesfield, it is shown that neither foresight nor -considerations of the expediency of a reduction operates on the -speculating owners of tenements occupied by workmen in towns, or even on -the other ratepayers, (who bear the burdens of the sickness and -mortality, and pay extravagant rates, which are incident to them); nor -can the operation of a wise self-interest be relied upon to avert the -tendency to the dispersion of work, and the multiplication of -ill-conditioned and ultimately burdensome tenements. The following -evidence supplies additional illustration of this state of things:— - -_John Wilson_, relieving officer. - - Are you acquainted with the cottage property in Macclesfield?—Yes, I - am; as an assistant overseer, I see that the rates are collected. - - Are there in Macclesfield many large owners of cottage tenements?—The - number of owners of property in Macclesfield is about 1000; of these - about 300 receive incomes from cottage property, some of those only - one, others only two. The chief owner owns about 200 cottages; the - next owns about two streets or 45 cottages. One man owns about 180. - - Do you receive rates from these cottages?—From the cottages belonging - to these large holders we get no rates. - - How is it that you obtain no rates from these classes of - cottages?—Because they are tenanted by the lowest class of persons who - have nothing in their houses from which we could recover the rates. - - What are the rents paid from these cottages?—The rents vary from 1_s._ - to 2_s._ 8_d._ each house. The average would be about 2_s._ a-week. - - What would be the amount of rates on this cottage property if payment - were enforced?—From the 1_s._ a-week cottages the rates would be 6_s._ - per annum; from the others, 12_s._ per annum. Last quarter there were - nearly 300 people excused; and the total amount lost for rates excused - and houses empty was 900_l._ - - What proportion does that bear to the whole rates for the quarter or - for the year?—The loss for the year would be 1800_l._, and the rate - last year was 8726_l._; the amount collected was 5900_l._; but the - arrear of the former year would be in round numbers about 2000_l._ - more. - - Is the tenantry of these cottages a fluctuating tenantry?—Yes, very - much so. - - Are these tenements taken on the expectation that the rates will be - excused?—Yes; in many cases they are told when objecting to the - payment of the rent that they will have no rates to pay. - - Considering the qualities of the tenements, are the rents charged - really high rents?—Yes, they are. - - Are they such rents, as would justify the levy or the deduction of - rates from the proprietor, comparing them with the rents paid for good - property?—Yes, they are such rents; the house which I live in, and for - which I pay rates, and pay 8_l._ a-year rent, is a house of three - rooms on a floor, two floors, detached yard, and every convenience; - whilst cottages of a very inferior description, with two rooms only on - a floor, are as high rented and pay no rates. - - Are the rents from the inferior tenements rigorously exacted?—Yes, - they are. - - Are the occupants of these houses frequently applicants for parochial - relief?—Yes, they are. - - Do any numbers of them receive relief?—Yes, they do. - - What is the average amount of weekly out-door relief given to the - recipients?—Perhaps about 3_s._ - - Then the average relief is of the average amount of the rent of the - tenements you describe?—Yes; and I have no doubt that much of the - relief has gone to pay rent. - - If the rates were duly exacted, do you think it must follow that the - unduly high rents must be lowered in proportion?—Yes, they must. - - If the landlords were compelled to pay the rates, what would be the - saving to the town?—1_s._ in the pound. - - And no additional burden cast on the labouring classes?—No material - additional burden. - - Of course the diminution of out-door relief would diminish the means - of unduly paying high rents?—Certainly, it would. - -The sanitary condition of many of these dwellings is described in the -reports of Mr. Bland, the medical officer already quoted. - -It may hereafter excite surprise, that the labouring classes have -hitherto been left exposed to such influences as those described in the -last evidence, and in the evidence previously cited, as to the -pernicious operation of exemptions from payments of rates on the parties -intended to be benefited. - -My inquiries into the effects of the administration of the old poor law -brought before me numerous instances of such devastation, the effects of -which would not be obliterated during the lives of a generation. -Examples might also be presented of the deterioration of property by the -irruptions of an ill-regulated population by the running up of undrained -and badly-constructed dwellings in the finest suburbs of the metropolis, -and other towns throughout the country. Any regulations of the nature of -Building Acts confined to towns, or to particular districts, or that -were unequally or oppressively administered, must powerfully tend to -increase such evils to the labouring classes, to the ratepayers, and to -the owners of all suburban property. - -Frequent opportunities are, however, presented and commonly lost for the -erection of improved tenements for the use of the labouring classes, on -the occasion of taking down old tenements and erecting new ones to form -new streets, under the authority of Buildings’ and Towns’ Improvement -Acts. It is usually assumed that the general effect of the “clearances,” -as they are called, occasioned by the formation of new streets, though -attended with the present inconvenience of disturbing the occupants, is -ultimately of unmixed advantage, by driving them into new and better -tenements in the suburbs. I have endeavoured to ascertain by inquiries, -with the aid of the relieving officers, how far the assumption is -justified by the experience of such alterations as have been already -made in some of the crowded districts of the metropolis, by taking down -inferior tenements to form new streets. - -It is found to be difficult to trace the individuals of a population so -removed, and the inquiries on the subject are incomplete; but they tend -to show that the working people make considerable sacrifices to avoid -being driven to a distance from their places of work; that the poorest -struggle against removal to a distance from the opportunities of -charitable donations; and that where new habitations are not opened to -them in the immediate vicinity, every effort is made by biddings of rent -to gain lodgings in the nearest and poorest of the old tenements. To the -extent to which the displaced labourers succeed in getting lodgings in -the same neighbourhood, as a large proportion of them certainly do, the -existing evils are merely shifted, and, by being shifted, they are -aggravated. On a survey of the newly-built houses in the suburbs to -which displaced labourers can go, it appears that the labourer, to use -the expression of Dr. Ferriar, is almost “driven to hire disease,” for -if he do not find any lodging near his place of work, he is driven to a -choice amongst tenements of the character of those found in the parts of -Kensington out of the jurisdiction of the Metropolitan Building Act, -without sewers or drains, without water or proper conveniences on the -premises, without pavements or means of cleansing the streets; where -exorbitant rents are levied, where adequate means of moral or religious -instruction are yet unprovided, and where they will neither gain in -health nor in morals. - -On reference to such past experience it appears to suggest itself as an -expedient arrangement, that on the removal of old tenements and the -occupation of the old ground by building new houses and streets for a -superior class of tenants, or for public buildings, some provision -should be made against the aggravation of the existing evils as respects -the old occupants; that it should be required to be shown, for example, -that appropriate unoccupied tenements are in the market, and on failure -to do so, provisions might be made (on the principle of those provided -for preserving accommodation for the labouring classes in enclosure -bills) for the construction of appropriate tenements, in which qualities -of the nature of those described by Mr. Sydney Smirke might be ensured. -If the attention and power by which large public alterations are -obtained were, at the same time, directed to the construction of new -dwellings for the labouring classes, instead of spreading existing -evils, all such alterations might certainly, and at remunerative though -not at increased rents, be made the means of greatly improving the -condition of those who stand in the greatest need of attention and aid -for improvement. - -The most important immediate general measure of the nature of a Building -Act, subsidiary to measures for drainage, would be a measure for -regulating the increments of towns, and preventing the continued -reproduction in new districts of the evils which have depressed the -health and the condition of whole generations in the older districts. -Regulations of the _sites_ of town buildings have comparatively little -effect on the cost of construction, and it may in general be said that a -Building Act would effect what any enlightened owner of a district would -effect for himself, of laying it out with a view to the most permanent -advantage; or what the separate owners would effect for themselves if -they had the power of co-operation, or if each piece of work were -governed by enlarged public and private views. Had Sir Christopher Wren -been permitted to carry out his plan for the rebuilding of London after -the great fire, there is little doubt that it would have been the most -advantageous arrangement for rendering the whole space more productive, -as a property to the great mass of the separate interests, by whom the -improvement was defeated. The most successful improvements effected in -the metropolis by opening new lines of street, and the greater number of -the openings projected are approximations at an enormous expense to the -plan which he laid down. The larger towns present instances of -obstructions of the free current of air even through the principal -streets, and of deteriorations which a little foresight and the exercise -of an impartial authority would have prevented. In one increasing town, -a builder made a successful money speculation by purchasing such plots -of ground as would enable him to erect impediments and extort -compensation for their removal from the path of improvements in -building. The improvements affecting whole towns are also frequently -frustrated by the active jealousies of the occupants of rival streets. -It would appear to be possible to provide an impartial authority to -obtain and, on consultation with the parties locally interested, to -settle plans for regulating the future growth of towns, by laying down -the most advantageous lines for occupation with due protection of the -landowners’ interest. The most serious omissions in the building of -common houses are so frequently oversights as to make it probable, that -if it were required that a plan of any proposed building should be -deposited with a trustworthy officer, with a specification of the -arrangements intended for the attainment of the essential objects, such -as cleansing and ventilation, the mere preparation of the document would -of itself frequently lead to the detection of grievous defects. An -examination of Mr. Loudon’s specification of the requisites of cottages -will show that a large proportion of the most important of these are -independent of the cost of construction. - - - _General State of the Law for the Protection of the Public Health._ - -In a work which is considered in Germany the chief authority in respect -to the extensive administrative duties comprehended under the term -police,[41] the author, Professor Mohl, of Tubingen, in speaking of the -sanitary police of towns, observes, that “Medical police is both in -theory and practice essentially German. In German states only, as -Austria and Prussia, has anything been done in it systematically; the -literature also of medical police is almost entirely German. Other -states either do nothing at all, as England, the United States of -America, or only very imperfectly, as France; where anything is done, -German principles and arrangements are closely imitated.” - -It is stated that some of the new towns and the new parts of the old -towns in Germany, as in Stuttgard, Manheim, Darmstadt, exhibit striking -marks of this care in the comparative structure and arrangements of the -houses, and in the general administration, with a view to the health and -pleasure of the population, which is sometimes impressively displayed in -the superior condition of the public walks and gardens, as at Frankfort -and Baden-Baden. The professor’s reproach is, however, scarcely -applicable to the substantive English law, or to the early -constitutional arrangements in which are found extensive and useful -provisions, and complete principles for the protection of the public -health. - -1st. So much of the structural arrangements as depended on drainage was -provided for by the Commissions of Sewers, who were invested with -valuable powers by the statute 23d Hen. VIII, cap. 5, s. 1; the -authority of these Commissions “to be directed into all parts within -this realm where need shall require, according to the form ensuing, to -such substantial persons as shall be named by the Lord Chancellor and -Lord Treasurer, and the two chief justices, or by three of them, whereof -the Lord Chancellor to be one,” to cause “to be made, corrected or -repaired, amended, put down or reformed, as the case shall require, -walls, ditches, banks, gutters, sewers, gates, cullices, bridges, -streams, and other defences by the coasts of the sea and marsh ground.” - -2dly. The ancillary arrangements as to road cleansing as well as road -structure, were provided for by the highway laws, including the -provisions of the 5th Eliz. c. 13, s. 7, for the cleansing of the -ditches, &c. - -The common law provided general remedies for the redress of injuries, -under the comprehensive title nuisance (_nocumentum_), meaning anything -by which the health or the personal safety, or the conveniences of the -subject might be endangered or affected injuriously. By the law as it -now stands, the subject is entitled to protection against things which -are offensive to the senses, from which no injury to the health or other -injury can be proved than the often overlooked but serious injury of -discomfort, of daily annoyance, as by matters offensive to the sight, as -by allowing blood to flow in the streets; by filth, by offensive smells, -and by noises. The injuries termed nuisances were threefold,—first, -public or general; second, common; third, private. “Public is that which -is a nuisance to the whole realm; common is that which is to the common -nuisance of all passing by; private is that which is to a house or mill, -&c.” 2 Institute, 406. A common nuisance is defined to be an offence -against the public “either by doing a thing which tends to the annoyance -of all the king’s subjects, or by neglecting to do a thing which the -common good requires.” Hawk, p. 1. c. 107, c. 75, f. 1. For the private -injury there was the remedy by civil action; for the common and the -public injuries, the remedy was by indictment. - -The common-law obligation upon all owners of property has, in general, -been adhered to by the superior courts. “_Prohibetur ne quis faciet in -suo quod nocere possit alieno; et sic utere tuo ut alienum non lædas._” -9 Co. Rep. 58. - -Thus, it is held to be a common nuisance and indictable to divide a -messuage in a town for poor people to inhabit, by which it will be more -dangerous in time of infection. 2 Roll’s Abridgment, 139. Such -indictment of one Brown for dividing a messuage in the village of -Hertford was held good, and he was put to plead to it; and it was then -said that such indictments are frequent in London for dividing of -messuages. - -The policy of the common law was endeavoured to be enforced by the -statute of the 31st of Eliz. c. 7, which provided that there should not -be any inmate or more families or households than one dwelling or -inhabiting in any one cottage, made or to be made or created, upon pain -that every owner or occupier of such cottage, placing or wilfully -suffering any such inmate or other family than one, should forfeit -10_s._ for every month that such inmate or other family than one should -dwell in it. The statute provided that no cottage should for the future -be built without four acres at the least of land attached to it. But -this provision did not extend to cottages in towns, or for mineral -works, navigation, sheep cotes, &.c. From the number of decisions in the -books, it would appear that the provisions of the statute were -extensively enforced against the overcrowding of the tenements, but the -obligation for attaching the four acres of land impeded the erection of -new tenements, and occasioned inconvenience and led to the repeal of the -whole statute, by the 15th Geo. III. cap. 32. - -In a temporary Act passed in the 35th of Eliz. cap. c., for the -reforming of the great mischiefs and inconveniences that “daily grow and -increase by reason of the pestering of houses with divers families -harbouring of inmates,” that occurred in the city of London and -Westminster, it is recited that the practice had been productive of -“great infection of sickness.” This effect could scarcely have failed to -be perceived when the plague was so frequent and dreadful in its -visitations. The exemption from it is ascribed to such widening of the -streets and improvements of the houses as took place after the Fire of -London. - -But we apprehend that the common-law remedy still remains in force as -against the owners of tenements which are a nuisance. It was decided in -the case of the King _v._ Pedley, temp. 1834, 1st Adolphus and Ellis, -822:— - -“That if the owner of land erect a building which is a nuisance, or of -which the occupation is likely to produce a nuisance, and let the land, -he is liable to an indictment for such nuisance being continued or -created during the term. - -“So he is if he let a building which requires particular care to prevent -the occupation from being a nuisance, and the nuisance occur for want of -such care on the part of the tenant. - -“That if a party buy the reversion during a tenancy, and the tenant -afterwards during his term erect a nuisance, the reversioner is not -liable for it; but if such reversioner relet, or having an opportunity -to determine the tenancy omit to do so, allowing the nuisance to -continue, he is liable for such continuance. Per Littledale, J. - -“And such purchaser is liable to be indicted for the continuing of the -nuisance if the original reversioner would have been liable, though the -purchaser has had no opportunity of putting an end to the tenant’s -interest or abating the nuisance.” - -The stopping of wholesome air is held to be a nuisance as well as the -stopping of the light. Co. 9 Will., Aldred, 57. In the case of Lewes -_v._ Keene, Trin. Term. Jac. Rex, it was held by the court—“that the -light which cometh in by the windowes, being an essential part of the -house, by which he hath three great commodities, that is to say, air for -his health, light for his profit, prospect for his pleasure, may not be -taken away no more than a part of his house may be pulled down, whereby -to erect the next house adjoining. And with this resolution agreeth the -case of Eldred, reported by Sir Edw. Coke, in his Ninth Report, fol. 58, -where he showeth the ancient form of the action upon the case to be -_quod messuagium horrida tenebritate obscuratum facit_; but if there be -hinderance only of the prospect by the new erected house, and not of the -air, not of the light, then an action of the case will not lye, insomuch -that the prospect is only a matter of delight, and not of necessity.” - - -The corruption of the water is an offence at common law, and was early -the subject of a statutory provision. In the earlier periods the power -of the legislature was directly exercised for the abatement of -nuisances. I am favoured by the following illustrations from a -collection of records upon the subject made by _Mr. T. D. Hardy_, of the -Record Office in the Tower:— - -The first extract shows that sea-coal was in use in London much earlier -than is commonly supposed:— - - “_Patent Roll_, 16 Edw. 1.—The king to his beloved and faithful Thomas - de Weylaund, John de Luvetot, John de Cobeham, and Ralph de Sandwico, - custos of his city of London, greeting: From the complaint of many - persons, we understand that many people are dangerously aggrieved by - the furnaces of lime which are built in the said city and its suburbs, - and in Southwark; because the lime which formerly used to be burnt - with wood, is now burnt with sea coal, by which the air there is - affected and corrupted, to the great danger of persons frequenting - those parts and dwelling around them: we, therefore, being willing to - afford a fitting remedy for this, have appointed you to see those - furnaces, and remove the danger and nuisances which threaten from them - in these days, and to order further concerning them according to your - discretion, as you shall see most expedient for the common use and - safety; and therefore we command you, that taking with you our - sheriffs of London and our bailiffs of Southwark, you perform the - premises with diligence. We have also commanded the same sheriffs and - bailiffs that at a certain day, which you shall make known to them, - they attend to this with you, in form aforesaid. Witness, Edmund Earl - of Cornwall, at Westminster, on the 26th day of May.” - - “A.D. 1290, 18 Edw. I.—The Carmelite Friars of London, the - Friars-preachers, the Bishop of Salisbury, and others, petition - Parliament to abate a nuisance (viz. a great stench) near them which - they cannot endure, and which prevents them from performing their - religious duties, and from which several of the monks had died. - (Petit, in Parl. 18 Edw. I.) - - “35 Edw. I.—The mayor of London is commanded to prevent persons from - lighting furnaces near the Tower of London during the stay of the - Queen and the nobles at the tower, because the air is corrupted and - infection generated by the insalubrity of the air on account of the - said furnaces. (Rot. claus. 35 Edw. I.) - - “A.D. 1320, 14 Edw. II.—The inhabitants of the neighbourhood of - Smithfield complain to Parliament that wells and ditches are dug there - without the king’s license, to the annoyance of the inhabitants and - passengers. The mayor and corporation of London are thereupon ordered - to see that such nuisances are abated. (Petit, in Parl. 14 Edw. II.) - - “A.D. 1330, 4 Edw. III.—The chancellor and University of Cambridge - petition Parliament that the mayor and corporation of Cambridge may be - constrained to scour the ditch of the town, which is injurious to the - health of the inhabitants of the town. (Petit, in Parl. 4 Edw. III.) - - “44 Edw. III.—The butchers of London are forbidden to slaughter cattle - within that city, or throw entrails into the river Thames, on - forfeiture of the carcase and imprisonment. (Rot. claus. 44 Edw. III.) - - “A.D. 1370, 3 Rich. II.—The inhabitants of Smithfield and Holborn - complain of the infection of the air from butchers slaughtering - cattle, &c., and casting entrails into the ditches. (Petit, in Parl. 3 - Rich. II.) - - “By stat. 12th Rich. II. c. 13.—None shall cast any garbage or dung or - filth into ditches, waters, or other places within or near any city or - town, on pain of punishment by the Lord Chancellor at his discretion. - - “Butchers of London shall erect a slaughter-house on the banks of the - Thames, and thither carry off their offals, which, when cut into - pieces, shall be carried in boats, and at the commencement of the ebb - cast into the river. (Rot. Parl. 16 Rich. II.) - - “A.D. 1392, 16 Rich. II.—It is enacted that the butchers of London - shall not slaughter therein any swine or other beasts for sale. (Rot. - Parl. 16 Rich. II.) - - “Same date.—All filth, &c. ordered by Parliament to be removed from - both banks of the Thames between the palace of Westminster and the - power of London; and butchers or others are prohibited from casting - entrails, &c. into the river on penalty of 40_l._ (Ibid.) - - “Parliament forbids all persons from throwing dung, garbage, or - entrails of slaughtered beasts into rivers or waters near cities or - towns to corrupt the air and cause infection. (Rot. claus. 4 Hen. IV.) - - “The Chancellor is authorized to treat touching the non-rebuilding of - two forges in Fleet-street, London, demolished in a riot, as - straitening the said street.” (Rot. Parl. 18 Hen. VI.) - -We find the authority of Parliament exercised in the reign of Henry VII. -to restrain a nuisance. In the 4th of his reign, c. 3. - - “Item, it was shewed by a petition put to the king, our said sovereign - lord, in the said Parliament, by his subjects and parishioners of the - parish of St. Faith’s and St. Gregory’s in London, near adjoining unto - the cathedral church of St. Paul’s, that whereas great concourse of - people as well of his royal person as of other great lords and states - with other his true subjects, oftentimes was had unto the said - cathedral church, and that for the most part throughout the parishes - aforesaid the which oftentimes been greatly annoyed and distempered by - corrupt airs engendered in the said parishes, by occasion of blood and - other foulis things by reason of the slaughter of beasts and scalding - of swine, had and done in the butchery of St. Nicholas’s flesh - shambles, whose corruption and foul ordure by violence of unclean, - corrupt, and putrefied waters is borne down through the said parishes, - &c., complaint whereof at many and divers seasons also by the space of - sixteen years continually, as well by canons and petty canons of the - said cathedral church, landlords there, as also by many other of the - king’s subjects, of right honest behaviour, hath been made unto divers - mayors and aldermen of the City of London and no remedy had ne found; - that it may please our said sovereign lord of his abundant grace, to - provide for the conservation as well of his most royal person, as to - succour his poor subjects and suppliants in this behalf, considering - that in few noble cities and towns, or none within Christendon, - whereat travelling men have laboured, the common slaughter-house of - beasts should be kept in any special part within the walls of the - same, lest it might engender sickness unto the destruction of the - people.” - -Therefore it is enacted that butchers shall not slay beasts within the -walls of London; and that this law be observed in every walled town -“except Berwick and Carlisle.” - -The courts, however, have always had regard to the convenience of trade: -thus it was held,— - - “Si homme fait candells deins un vill, per qui il cause un noysom sent - al inhabitants, uncore ceo nest ascun nusans car le _needfulness_ de - eux dispensera ove le noisomness del _smell_.” (2 Roll’s Abr. 139.) - -But this decision has been doubted, “Because,” says Serjeant Hawkins, -Pl. Cor. 190, c. 75, “whatever necessity there may be that candles be -made, it cannot be pretended to be necessary to make them in a town, and -that the trade of a brewer is as necessary as that of a chandler; and -yet it seems to be agreed that a brewhouse erected in such an -inconvenient place where the business cannot be carried on without -incommoding greatly the neighbourhood may be indicted as a common -nuisance. A presentment was made to a Leet for erecting a glass-house; -and Twisden, J., said he had known an information adjudged against one -for erecting a brewhouse near Serjeants’ Inn; but it was insisted that a -man ought not to be punished for erecting anything necessary for the -exercise of his lawful trade; and it being answered that it ought to be -in convenient places where it may not be a nuisance, the other justices -doubted, and agreed that it was unlawful only to erect such things near -the King’s palace.” Vent. 26, Pasch. 21, Car. 2. Recently, however, when -some architects and medical gentlemen went to the top of Buckingham -Palace to examine it preparatory to its occupation by Her Majesty, they -were assailed by a cloud of smoke from the chimney of the furnace of a -neighbouring brewery; and the nuisance remains to the present time in -full force, notwithstanding the statutory provisions against it. - -Where the defendant in his business as a printer employed a -steam-engine, which produced a continued noise and vibration in the -plaintiff’s apartment which adjoined the premises of the defendant, this -was held to be a nuisance. The Duke of Northumberland _v._ Clowes, C. -P., at Westminster, A.D., 1824. - -The earlier sanitary regulations were frequently set forth in the -provisions of the local Acts for the regulation of the streets. From the -early street regulations of the city of London, we find that the purity -of the river and of the contributary streams was zealously regarded; the -ward inquests were specially charged to inquire:— - - “If any manner of person cast or lay dung, ordure, rubbish, sea-coal - dust, rushes, or any other noiant, in the river of Thames, Walbrook, - Fleet, or other ditches of this city, or in the open streets, ways, or - lanes within this city. - - “Also, if any person in or after a great rain falleth, or at any other - time, sweep any dung, ordure, rubbish, rushes, sea-coal dust, or any - other thing noiant down into the channel of any street or lane, - whereby the common course there is let, and the same things noiant - driven down into the said water of Thames.” - -But when it is considered how few of the streets were paved, or sewered, -or drained, the following regulation indicates what must have been their -condition and the habits of the inhabitants:— - - “No man shall cast any urine-boles or ordure-boles into the street by - day or night, afore the hour of nine in the night: and also he shall - not cast it out, but bring it down, and lay it in the channel, under - the pain of three shillings and four-pence; and if he do cast it upon - any person’s head, the party to have a lawful recompense, if he have - hurt thereby.” - -The state in which the streets were under such regulations is indicated -in the proclamations issued at the time of the Plague, 1569, to “warne -all inhabitants against their houses to keep channels clear from filth, -(by onlie turning yt) aside, that the water may have passage.” - -The prominent provisions of the modern Sewers’ and Street Acts are those -which contain penalties against the most effectual means of -street-cleansing,—that by discharging the street refuse through the -sewers; but whilst the local legislation was deficient in principle in -the main provisions, it is distinguished by a multitude of particular -provisions against nuisances and obstructions, which would argue the -most extensive foresight. The nature of the provisions habitually -resorted to are illustrated in the statute of 4th Geo. IV. c. 50, s. l, -for building the new London Bridge.[42] - -“Every man may abate a common nuisance.” Br. Nuisance. “The nuisance may -be abated, that is, taken away or removed by the aggrieved thereby, so -as he commits no riot in doing of it.” “And the reason,” says -Blackstone, “why the law allows this private and summary method of doing -one’s-self justice, is because injuries of this kind which obstruct or -annoy such things as are of daily convenience and use require an -immediate remedy, and cannot wait for the slow progress of the ordinary -forms of justice.” Com. B. iii. 6. And the annotator adds, “The security -of the lives and property may sometimes require so speedy a remedy as -not to allow time to call on the person on whose property the mischief -has arisen to remedy it. Pardon for a nuisance is void as for the -continuance thereof.” 3 Cro. Jac. 492, Dewell _v._ Saunders. - - - _State of the Special Authorities for reclaiming the Execution of the - Laws for the Protection of the Public Health._ - -The most important, perhaps, because the most cheap and accessible -authority for reclaiming the execution of the law for the protection of -the subject against nuisances, for punishing particular violations of -it, was vested in the Courts Leet. The statute of the view of -Frankpledge, 13 Edw. II., directs inquiry to be made of waters turned, -or stopped, or brought from their right course, and obstructions in -ditches were presentable at the Leet; but the stopping up a -watering-place for cattle was held not to be presentible as a common -nuisance. (40 Lit. 56 _a._) The juries, commonly called “annoyance -juries,” impanelled to serve on Courts Leet in towns, are accustomed to -perambulate their districts to judge of nuisances upon the view. But the -state of this machinery will be seen in the state of the evils which -come within its jurisdiction. - -With all this legal strength, however, there is scarcely one town in -England which we have found in a low sanitary condition, nor scarcely -one village marked as the abode of fever, that does not present an -example of standing violations of the law, and of the infliction of -public and common as well as of private injuries, the tenements -overcrowded, streets replete with injurious nuisances, the streams of -pure water polluted, and the air rendered noisome. - -The chimneys of the furnaces which darken the atmospheres, and pour out -volumes of smoke and soot upon the inhabitants of populous towns, afford -most frequent examples of the inefficiency of the local administration, -and the contempt of the law for the protection of the public against -nuisances which are specially provided for. - -Most modern private Acts contain penalties on gas-companies permitting -their washings to contaminate streams, or using for steam-engines -furnaces which do not consume their own smoke. The general statute, 1 -and 2 Geo. IV. c. 41, empowers the court to award costs to the -prosecutor of those who use such furnaces. Where the grievance may be -remedied by altering the construction of the furnace employed in the -working of engines by steam, the court may make an order for preventing -the nuisance in future. - -The specific effects of an excess of smoke on the general health of a -town population has not been distinguished, but from the comparatively -high average of mortality amongst the middle classes in situations -undistinguished by confined residences, or defective drainage, or -anything but an excessively smoky atmosphere; from the comparatively -rapid improvement of convalescents on removal to purer atmospheres, -there is strong reason to believe that the prejudicial effect is much -more considerable than is commonly apprehended even by medical -practitioners. As the smoke in Manchester and other towns becomes more -dense, the vegetation declines; and even in the suburbs the more -delicate species die. _Dr. Baker_, in his report on the sanitary -condition of the town of Derby, after adverting to the state of the -places of work as affecting the health of the operations, proceeds to -notice the effects of the smoke:— - - “The next general cause of injury to public health, and connected with - the foregoing, is the corruption of the air caused by the torrents of - black smoke that issue from the manufactory chimneys, the nuisance - from which is much augmented in heavy and moist states of the - atmosphere. There is a law by which those who most offend, as regards - their chimneys, can be punished; but of course the magistrates are not - also prosecutors, whilst, private individuals, being unwilling to - become informers, little is done to check this nuisance; and such is - the state of the air, that in gardens in the town none but deciduous - shrubs can be kept alive.” - -Besides the prejudicial effects on the health of the population by the -deterioration of the quality of the air that is breathed, a serious -effect is created by its operation as an impediment to the formation and -maintenance of habits of personal and household cleanliness amongst the -working classes. Even upon the middle and higher classes the nuisance of -an excess of smoke, occasioned by ignorance and culpable carelessness, -operates as a tax increasing the wear and tear of linen and the expense -of washing, to all who live within the range of the mismanaged chimneys. -In the suburbs of Manchester, for example, linen will be as dirty in two -or three days as it would be even in the suburbs of London in a week. -One person stated that, on the Isle of Arran, a shirt was cleaner at the -end of a week’s wear than at Manchester at the end of a day’s. - -Nor is this the only oppressive tax occasioned by the carelessness; _Mr. -Thomas Cubitt_, the eminent builder, when examined before the Committee -of the House of Commons, was asked,— - - “Suppose it were intended to build a row of houses, would you not - suffer them to be built unless there was a sewer provided?—I would not - allow a house to be built anywhere unless it could be shown that there - was a good drainage, and a good way to get rid of water. I think that - there should be some public officer responsible for that; that there - should be surveys of every district, so that the officer should be - aware whether the sewers were provided or not. I think there should be - an officer paid at the public expense, who should be responsible for - that. I think they should not be appointed by the district; there - should be no favouritism of that kind; but public officers, changed - from point to point, to take care of all public nuisances. With - respect to manufactories, here are a great number driven by - competition to work in the cheapest way they can. A man puts up a - steam-engine, and sends out an immense quantity of smoke; perhaps he - creates a great deal of foul and bad gas; that is all let loose. Where - his returns are 1000_l._ a-month, if he would spend 5_l._ a-month more - he would make that completely harmless; but he says, ‘I am not bound - to do that,’ and therefore he works as cheaply as he can, and the - public suffer to an extent beyond all calculation. I look upon it it - has this effect: a gentleman comes to London, and lives in London; I - will suppose he fits up his house in the best style he can; he has a - taste for good pictures and upholstery, and so on. After a time the - smoke has destroyed them, and he is disappointed and annoyed, and the - effect is he is brought down in his feelings in a degree from the - state in which he was accustomed to have things.” - -The appearance of the towns on the Sunday, when nearly all the furnaces -are stopped, when there is little more than the smoke from the -dwelling-houses, when everything is comparatively bright, and the -distant hills and surrounding country that are never visible though the -atmosphere of the town in the week-days may be seen across it, presents -nearly the appearance which such towns would assume on the working days, -if the laws were duly executed, and the excessive smoke of the furnaces -prevented. On inquiry of a peace-officer acting where redress is -provided for under a local Act, how it was that the dereliction of duty -occurred that was visible in the dense black clouds that darkened the -town, he replied that the chief members of the Board were the persons -whose furnace-chimneys were most in fault, and he appealed whether a man -in his condition was to be expected to prosecute his patrons? - -The greater part, if not the whole, of the excess of smoke and of -unconsumed gas by which the metropolis and the neighbourhoods of -manufactories are oppressed, is preventible by the exercise of care in -the management of the fires of the furnaces. And here also the measures -for the prevention of the nuisance are measures of economy. - -Many witnesses whose opinions are enforced by practical examples, state -confidently that such nuisances are generally the result of ignorance or -carelessness. Amongst others we may cite the authority of Mr. Ewart, the -inspector of machinery to the Admiralty, residing at Her Majesty’s -Dock-yard at Woolwich, where the chimney of the manufactory under his -immediate superintendence, regulated according to his directions, offers -an example of the little smoke that need be occasioned from steam-engine -furnaces if care be exercised. He states that no peculiar machinery is -used; the stoker or fire-keeper is only required to exercise care in not -throwing on too much coal at once, and to open the furnace door in such -slight degree as to admit occasionally the small proportion of -atmospheric air requisite to effect complete combustion. Mr. Ewart also -states that if the fire be properly managed, there will be a saving of -fuel. The extent of smoke denotes the extent to which the combustion is -incomplete. The chimney belonging to the manufactory of Mr. Peter -Fairbairn, engineer at Leeds, also presents an example and a contrast to -the chimneys of nearly all the other manufactories which overcast that -town. On each side of it is a chimney belonging to another manufactory, -pouring out dense clouds of smoke; whilst the chimney at Mr. Fairbairn’s -manufactory presents the appearance of no greater quantity of smoke than -of some private houses. Mr. Fairbairn stated, in answer to inquiries -upon this subject, that he uses what is called Stanley’s feeding -machinery, which graduates the supply of coal so as to produce nearly -complete combustion. After the fire is once lighted, little remains to -the ignorance or the carelessness of the stoker. Mr. Fairbairn also -states that his consumption of fuel in his steam-engine furnaces, in -comparison with that of his immediate neighbours, is proportionately -less. The engine belonging to the cotton-mills of Mr. Thomas Ashton, of -Hyde, near Stockport, affords to the people of that town an example of -the extent to which, by a little care, they might be relieved of the -thick cloud of smoke by which the district is oppressed. - -At a meeting of manufacturers and others, held at Leeds, for the -suppression of the nuisance of the smoke of furnaces, and to discuss the -various plans for abating it, the resolution was unanimously adopted, -“that in the opinion of this meeting the smoke arising from steam-engine -fires and furnaces can be consumed, and that, too, without injury to the -boilers, and with a saving of fuel.” Notice of legal proceedings being -given against Messrs. Meux, the brewers in London, for a nuisance -arising from the chimneys of two furnaces, they found that by using -anthracite coal they abated the nuisance to the neighbourhood, and saved -200_l._ per annum. The West Middlesex Water Company, by diminishing the -smoke of their furnaces saved 1000_l._ per annum. - -The gas-companies in the city of London were indicted for throwing their -refuse into the Thames, and compelled to dispose of it otherwise; and -they found out that they had been guilty of waste as well as of -nuisance; and it is stated that the whole of what was formerly cast away -has now become an important article of commerce. - -In the rural districts the Courts Leet have generally fallen into -desuetude. In illustration of the feeble tenure on which they were held, -I may mention that in some instances, where it has been necessary to -disallow payments of fees paid to the officers of those courts from the -poor’s rates, the stewards have stated that they should hereafter -discontinue the courts; and it is probable that they did so. In the -towns, Courts Leet are sometimes held, and inquest juries appointed; but -it is objected to these bodies, and frequently to the bodies constituted -under local acts, that they are usually composed of tradesmen who attend -unwillingly and at an inconvenient sacrifice of time; who can have -little or no information in respect to the evils in question; who have -no arrangements to bring the evils in question before them; no time to -master such information as may be brought before them casually; little -interest and scarcely any real responsibility imposed for ensuring any -mastery of it; and neither time nor adequate means at their disposal for -the removal of such evils as those in question when they are presented -to them, and proved to exist. Thus: two persons of respectability who -were unexpectedly called upon to serve on a jury of this description in -the metropolis, state that, as they had no properly qualified officer to -instruct them, they were only directed to the performance of their -duties by the accidental presence of a builder. - - “When we were sworn in, we went over the district: we went through - many places which were disgustingly filthy, that I have since learned - were places where there is always fever, but we were not told about - it; the afflicted knew nothing of our coming, and we had no medical - officer, or means to enable us to detect the presence of any nuisances - which would endanger the public health. - - “The number of persons sworn in was twenty-four, of whom I can - remember six were publicans (at one or other of whose houses we dined - on the days of meeting), one or two cheesemongers, three or four - tailors or drapers, one builder, and one bricklayer; the trades or - occupations of the remainder I cannot remember. Of the twenty-four - sworn in, twelve only served, and the duties were performed in - rotation. An allowance of 2_s._ 6_d._ was given to each juryman for - his expenses on the days of acting, with the exception of the foreman - and the secretary, who had been unfortunate enough, or who, for some - purpose of their own, managed to be sworn in on three or four previous - occasions. None of the jury knew the nature of the duties further than - that they were to examine weights and measures; that part of their - duty respecting the removal of nuisances, or of things affecting the - health or the lives of the inhabitants of the district which we - perambulated, was entirely neglected or lost sight of; the only - instance that I remember of any attention being paid to the subject, - was that of the condemnation of an old house in a disgusting - neighbourhood of houses; and in this case, although the house - certainly looked in a bad condition, the jury were quite unable to - come to a decision until the bricklayer and builder pronounced its - condemnation, when the jury at once became unanimous, and condemned - the house forthwith. My own impression was, that the house was not in - a safe condition, but I felt, in common with others, (the tailors, - drapers, and cheesemongers,) that however anxious we might be to - discharge our duties faithfully, that the nature of our occupations - did not at all qualify us to express an opinion upon the subject, and - hence we were all guided and determined by the opinion of the - bricklayer and builder who happened to be present. Had they not been - present, we should probably have done nothing. It is only necessary - for any sensible person to serve on such a body in a town to be - convinced of its entire inefficiency.” - -The district over which this jury perambulated was one in which -contagious disease often prevails in its worst forms; and it is quite -clear that, without appropriate arrangements, such a body would continue -to walk over the ground, equally unconscious of the evil and impotent to -effect its removal. - -A civil engineer and surveyor of very high acquirements in the -metropolis thus describes the qualification of persons serving on these -inquests:— - - “I speak from experience, having personally attended one of these - inquests, with a view to give them the benefit of my practical - knowledge; I did not find one of them amongst the twelve competent to - perform usefully to the parish or the public the duties imposed upon - them. I have known repeated instances in these united parishes, where - ruinous houses have been permitted to remain for years without - receiving any attention from the authorities, to the great danger of - the occupiers and also to the public. I would instance two houses that - to my certain knowledge have for ten or a dozen years inclined over in - the street from the pavement upwards of eighteen inches, without being - noticed by an Inquest Jury. My attention was lately directed - professionally by the owner of the houses in question to their state - and condition; upon a careful examination I found them so dangerous - that I immediately gave directions to have them shored up, and - recommended the tenant to vacate them in the meanwhile: to my great - surprise, at the expiration of three or four days after the houses had - been properly secured, the freeholders were served with a notice from - the Inquest Jury to do what had already been done, viz., secure the - houses from danger.” - -A gentleman who has acted as one of the Commissioners under the Act for -Bolton, thus describes the operation of its provisions:— - - “We have an Act in Little Bolton with extensive powers for the - preservation of the public health. - - “I was appointed in 1837 one of the Trustees or Commissioners under - this Act; they are elected by the ratepayers, and one-third go out - annually; party political feeling has created a strife as to whether - Whigs or Tories shall expend the public funds (the same is the case in - Manchester), and hence a strife as to the economy of management. The - streets are badly lighted, and sometimes not at all, to save the - expense of gas. A surveyor is appointed in Little Bolton, whose duties - are to see after the lighting, paving, cleansing, sewering, - fire-engines, and firemen, the prevention of nuisances, encroachments, - &c., &c.; to hiring and paying all the workmen, and buying the - materials for repairing the roads and streets over a district - containing about 15,000 inhabitants, for all of which service he - receives 80_l._ a-year. - - “With such talent as 80_l._ a-year will command, and such duties to - perform, it may readily be supposed that sewerages and nuisances are - liable to be overlooked. - - “I once called the surveyor before a Board of about twenty Trustees, - to draw attention to a pool of stagnant water lying in front of or - betwixt two rows of cottages about 60 feet apart from each other, and - about 150 feet long, covering nearly the whole of this vacant space of - around from one to two feet deep; dead dogs, kittens, and other - impurities in the height of summer were floating in it, yet I was - unable to obtain an order for the surveyor to expend a few pounds in - draining it off, or to compel the owner to do it, although situate in - the centre of a very populous district; and it continued in the same - state till built over by cottages the following year.” - -The nuisances which favoured the introduction and spread of the cholera -were for the most part evils within the cognizance of the Leets, and -could not have existed had their powers been properly exercised, yet so -complete was the desuetude of the machinery of these Courts that it -appeared nowhere to be thought of as applicable, and the new and special -machinery of the Boards of Health were created for the purpose of -meeting the pestilence. There are no funds provided by which the common -remedy by indictment could now be prosecuted: and since the most -offensive and injurious nuisances are those supported by large capital, -redress for the private injury is practically available only to persons -who can afford to risk large sums in litigation. In one instance in -Scotland, where the stream which supplied a village was discoloured and -rendered disagreeable to the taste by some dye-works, a gentleman who -took up the defence of the villagers, who were mostly his tenants, -stated to me that the litigation incurred by an obstinate defence -involved an expenditure of no less a sum than 4,000_l._, the whole of -which he did not recover, and that from his own experience he was -clearly of opinion no one who had not most inflexible determination, as -well as ample means, would be warranted in entering upon such a contest. -Powerful influence was used to induce him to stay the suit, and he was -by persons of his own class regarded as the persecutor of the author of -the nuisance. - -The complication of various nuisances in some of the larger -manufacturing districts has frequently become so great as to put them -beyond any existing legal remedy, whether private or public, by placing -out of the apparent possibility of distinct technical proof any injury -or particular effect arising from any one. An instance of this is stated -by Messrs. Paris and Fonblanque, where two indictments were preferred; -the one preferred against the proprietor of a Prussian-blue manufactory; -the other against a black-ash manufacturer; both of these works were -situated in Seward-street, Goswell-street, London. The counsel for the -defendant, in his cross-examination of the witnesses for the prosecution -of the Prussian-blue maker, drew from them an account of the noisome -vapours of the black-ash manufactury; while in the latter trial the same -barrister made the witnesses declare the extreme stench of the -Prussian-blue manufactory; so that in both cases the defendants obtained -a verdict, because in neither case could the witnesses for the Crown -unequivocally prove from which of the manufactories the nuisance -complained of arose. - - - _State of the Local Executive Authorities for the Erection and - Maintenance of Drains and other Works for the Protection of the Public - Health._ - -Having shown the state of the existing local authority for reclaiming -the execution of the law, for _causing_ that to be done “which the -common good requires,” and those things not to be done which tend “to -the annoyance of all the king’s subjects,” I proceed to describe the -general state of the executive authority, charged with the _doing_ of so -much of these things as is comprehended in town and road drainage; the -sewerage for house and street drainage, and the provisions for the -surface cleansing of streets. - -The extent of the areas to be drained determines arbitrarily the extent -of the operations of drainage, whether public or private, which shall -combine efficiency and economy. If these areas are occupied by different -parties, they cannot be cleared separately at an expense proportioned to -the extent cleared. In general they are only to be won by agreement -amongst the parties holding the property, to place the operations under -the guidance of science; these labours will then be rewarded by -production, whilst disease and pestilence, as well as sterility, are the -effects of the ignorance and selfish rapacity which impede such union -for the common advantage. The early history of the attempts of the -separate owners of portions of the tract of country included in the -Bedford Level to drain their property separately, is a history of -expensive failures, of attempts to get rid of the surplus water only by -flooding the lands of neighbours, and scenes of wretched animosities. -These continued until the whole tract was put under one strong authority -and scientific guidance, when productiveness and health arose as -described in the account of the sanitary condition of the Isle of Ely. -Had the natural district formed by the geological basin of that level -been subdivided for drainage operations into districts co-extensive with -districts for municipal, ecclesiastical, or parochial and civil -administrative purposes; or had it been divided into districts according -to property or occupation; had the commissions charged with the drainage -of these subdivisions acted independently by ill-paid and ill-qualified -officers, without any competent control, instead of acting on one -comprehensive plan in subordination to an engineer of science adequate -to its design and execution, vast sums of money might have been spent, -and the land would still have remained a pestilential marsh occupied by -a miserable population. - -The amount of surface-water on those lands made the expediency of -enlarged operations obvious, and their necessity pressing. Besides the -towns and tracts of country oppressed with surface-water, as described -in such evidence as that cited from the sanitary reports from populous -districts, the extent of country which is unhealthy as well as -comparatively unproductive, from the want of systematic under-drainage, -appears to be extensive and immense beyond any conception that could be -formed _à priori_, from the more conspicuous instances of enterprize, -intelligence, and science manifest amongst the population. What the -tract of country belonging to the Bedford Level, so subdivided and -inefficiently and expensively managed once was, large urban and rural -districts are now found to be in degree. The circumstances which govern -what is called the private drainage will illustrate the nature of the -administrative obstacles to efficient public drainage, and it is -necessary to consider them in connexion, for they are inseparably -connected by nature. - -Although the larger share of the land-drainage redounds to the pecuniary -profit of private individuals, yet it is proved so far to affect, the -public health beneficially, and contribute to the productive employment -of the labouring classes, and to other general public advantages, that -such works fairly come within the description of _publicum in privato_, -and as such entitled to collective and legislative care. Drainage -appears to be the primary, and in many cases the principal, operation -for the efficient construction and economical maintenance of roads. But -an efficient system of sewerage, and general town and road-drainage, has -an additional value as removing serious impediments to the general land -drainage. The following portion of the evidence of _Mr. Roe_ affords an -exemplification of the extent to which the private land-drainage is -commonly affected by such operations: - - “Have you found the sewerage produce any effect in the drainage of the - surrounding land?—Yes, we have found it lower the water in the wells, - often at great distances. For instance, in forming a sewer in the - City-road, we found that it lowered by four feet a well nearly a - quarter of a mile distance. The only remedy we could advise to the - parties was to lower the well: they did so. We afterwards had occasion - to lower the same sewer three feet, when the well was lowered again in - proportion; so that the construction of the sewer, in this instance, - drained an area of 40 or 50 acres on that side, and perhaps further. - The water is sometimes in such quantities, and so strong in the - land-springs, as to require openings to be left in the side of the - sewer for its passages.” - -The first obstacles to the general land-drainage have already been -adverted to in the small occupancies. To these must be added the want of -capital. The legislature has recently given to the owners of life -estates the power of charging the inheritance with the contributions to -the cost of permanent improvements by drainage. This power does not meet -the case of the smaller holdings; and drainage operations to be -effectual must, in general, be on a scale too large to be within the -habits of thought or action of small owners or occupiers, of varying -interests, and wanting confidence in each other to combine, make, or -manage immediate outlays for such purposes. But above all these is to be -added the circumstance of the power which the possession of a small part -of a district gives to one individual, to thwart those operations of the -majority which are for the common advantage, and consequently the -temptation which the possession of such power gives and almost ensures, -of its use to exact unjust and exorbitant conditions. When expressing to -a gentleman who has actively promoted improvements in agricultural -production in Scotland, my surprise at the large extent of marshy -district allowed to continue in a state of comparative sterility, -sources of rheumatism, and fevers and other diseases, he directed my -attention to the following among other exemplifications:— - -About a mile and a half distant, from one of the towns in Scotland, -there is a moss about seven miles long, with a small stream running -through it, with a fall of about 25 feet. At the outlet of this stream -there is an old corn-mill, which yields a rental of about 25_l._ per -annum. By the water being dammed up to turn this mill, the whole run is -impeded; and the consequent sluggishness of the stream occasions it to -be choked up with weeds. Whenever a fall of rain takes place, the banks -are overflowed, and not only is every improvement rendered -impracticable, but on several harvests as much as 500_l._ worth of hay -has been destroyed at a time when a heavy fall of rain has occurred and -occasioned an overflow. - -It so happens that the proprietor of the mill would himself clearly gain -more than the value of the mill from the drainage that would be effected -on his own lands by the removal of the dam. The other proprietors, -however, offered to him for its removal the full rental that he now -derives from the mill. The property is in the hands of a factor, who is -ignorant and obstinate, and the offer was refused. Now the land which -would be affected beneficially by the removal of the dam, is a tract of -seven or eight miles long, with an average width of two miles and a -half. The expense of an Act of Parliament, if it were resisted, as it -most probably would be, renders an appeal to the legislature valueless. -Thus one individual is enabled to exercise a despotic caprice against -the health and prosperity of the surrounding population, to inflict an -extensive loss of labour and wages on the working man, the loss of -produce and profit to the occupiers, the loss of rent to the other -owners, and at the same time to inflict on all who may live on the spot, -or come within reach of the marsh, the ill health and hazards of disease -from the miasma which it emits! - -The like despotic powers are found in every district in the way of the -public health, as well as of the private advantage. - -The passenger who enters Birmingham from the London railway may -perceive, just before the terminus, a black sluggish stream, which is -the river Rea, made the receptacle of the sewers of the town. _Mr. -Hodgson_, and the committee of physicians of that town, state, in their -sanitary report, that— - - “The stream is sluggish, and the quantity of water which it supplies - is not sufficient to dilute and wash away the refuse which it receives - in passing through the town, and that in hot weather it is - consequently very offensive, and in some situations in these seasons - is covered with a thick scum of decomposing matters; and this filthy - condition of the river near the railway station is a subject of - constant and merited animadversions, and that it requires especial - attention lest it should become a source of disease,” &c. - -The fatally dangerous sluggishness of this river is occasioned by the -diversion and abstraction of its water to turn a mill, “a fact which -will amply account for the deficiency and sluggishness of the current in -the very places where the contrary condition is the most wanted.” -_Captain Vetch_, who has been engaged in engineering operations in that -part of the country which have led him to observe the spot, states that— - - “The remedy is as easy as the evil is great; all obstruction being - removed from the course of the brook, and the water restored to its - original bed, the object would be effected; as to the value of the - mill-power which would thus be subverted, it cannot be a matter of - much amount, in a place where coals and steam-engines are so cheap, - and where the constant and regular work of the mill must be an object - of some importance.” - -After describing the means of the removal, he states— - - “In this manner, and by reserving the whole body of the water of the - Rea for cleansing its own bed, I have no doubt that this main sewer of - Birmingham would become as conspicuous for its wholesome and efficient - action as it now is for the contrary.” - -Birmingham presents an example such as indeed is common in most towns, -of the stoppage of a main current of air by a private building carried -across one end of a main street. The effects likely to result from the -obstruction to the invisible current are not dissimilar to those which -result from the obstruction to the stream of water, and the cost and -difficulty of relief from them are perhaps much greater. _Captain Vetch_ -refers, as another example of the condition of many of the towns in -respect to these chief streams, as described in the sanitary reports, to -the case of Haddington. - - “In the town of Haddington a mill-dam crosses the river Tyne in its - passage through the place, and into the mill-pool the main sewer is - discharged with a diminished and sluggish descent; and on occasion of - floods in the river, the water passes up the sewers and occasionally - lays the lowest part of the town under water. It would not be - difficult to direct the main sewer into the bed of the river below the - dam or weir, and by the additional declivity give some current to the - water of the sewer, which, from the pending up of the river at its - present outlet, has rendered it almost stagnant, so much so, that in - hot weather, and where it is not covered over, the exhalations are - very offensive; but was the sewer improved by the alteration - mentioned, still the pooling up of the river for the mill keeps the - lower part of the town damp, and even subjects it to partial - inundations. - - “One of the medical officers reports, that when ‘fever has been at any - time prevalent in the town, it has been most so in a portion of it - called the Nungate, lying close by the river, when during the summer - and autumn it is occasionally almost stagnant, and where there is a - considerable decomposition of vegetable matter.’ - - “Another medical gentleman, speaking of the main sewer, says, ‘this - small burn is a receptacle of the privies and refuse of vegetable - matters from the houses near which it passes; and in those parts where - it is uncovered, it forms an excellent index of the weather; previous - to rain the smell is intolerable.’ - - “The same gentleman proposes, as a remedy, that another small burn - having a parallel course at a short distance, should be turned into - the sewer to aid the sewerage. From my knowledge of the locality, the - recommendation, I should say, is judicious; but in this manner, though - the supply of water would be increased, the declivity or rather want - of declivity of the sewer would remain the same, and could only be - improved by removing the mill-dam, or directing the sewer into the bed - of the river below it, as already mentioned. Unquestionably from the - penning up of the river, the lower part of the town is at present very - ill drained, and it is somewhat remarkable that it was the first site - in Scotland visited by the Asiatic cholera. - - “In reference to the two cases cited, and to others of a similar - nature, it should be remarked, that the vicinities of the nuisances - are chiefly inhabited by the poorer classes, and who, from want of - influence in their own parts, are the more necessarily thrown under - the protection of state regulations.” - -It does not appear that any improvements have been suggested to the -inhabitants, or any question raised in respect to the compensation to -the owners of these obstructions. They are, however, enabled to refuse a -liberal compensation for removing from their property, and discontinuing -proceedings so injurious by the agency of invisible miasma, that if the -miseries were brought about by direct manual or visible operations, it -would be deemed the most horrible tyranny. In many, if not in most such -cases, the use of the property, with such attendant consequences, would -be found to be in contravention of the existing public rights; but the -expense and delay and uncertainty of the legal procedure practically -sustain such invasions on the surrounding property and on the public -health. - -The powers of continuing such evils amidst large masses of the -population, and against specific representations of the attendant evils, -are terrible when the extent of those evils are examined. For example, -it is stated in the records of the proceedings before adverted to, with -which _Dr. Currie_, of Liverpool, was connected, that,— - - “In the beginning of the year 1802, the corporation of Liverpool, - being about to apply to Parliament for powers to improve the streets - and the police of the town, requested the physicians of the infirmary - and dispensary to suggest to them ‘such alterations as might - contribute to the health and comfort of the inhabitants,’ in order - that, where necessary, they might include in the Bill about to be - brought into Parliament the powers requisite to carry such alterations - into effect. The physicians took this request into serious - consideration, and presented a report of considerable extent, - including a view of the causes of the uncommon sickliness of the two - preceding years, and of the measures requisite to prevent its - recurrence, and to remove the frequency of contagion in the - habitations of the poor. To lessen as much as possible the - contamination of the atmosphere, they recommended that lime should be - prevented from being burnt within a certain distance of inhabited - houses; that soaperies, tan-yards, and other offensive manufactories, - should in future be prevented from being established in the town; and - where now established, and authorized by usage, that they should, - whenever practicable, be purchased by the body corporate, and the - space they occupy be converted to other purposes. The same - recommendation they extended to slaughter-houses, and to all other - offensive trades or manufactories. They recommend, that in all cases - where fire-engines, or steam-engines, are necessarily employed in the - town or its vicinity, the burning of smoke should be enforced, as well - as in all other practicable cases where large volumes of smoke are - emitted. - - “They pointed out the necessity of enforcing cleanliness in the - streets, to which end an improvement of the pavement was represented - to be essential; and they particularly advised a general review of the - common sewers, and an improvement of their structure, on the - principles of a report on this particular subject addressed by them to - the mayor and magistrates in 1788. They further advised that effectual - provision should be made for draining the grounds within the - liberties, and particularly to the north of the town. ‘Repeated - remonstrances (I quote the words of the report) have been made for the - last twenty years on the collections of standing water, including - filth of every kind, which are suffered to remain in the district - which extends along the termination of the streets from St. - Paul’s-square to Byrom-street, and to which the low fevers which, in - the autumnal months especially, infest these streets, are principally - to be imputed. These remonstrances have been passed over, on the - ground, as we are informed, that the proprietors of the lands will not - agree to the plan necessary for draining them.’” - -Some of the most important improvements that might be accomplished in -the poorer and most infected districts of the larger towns by pulling -down the present tenements and erecting tenements of a superior order, -would, there is little doubt, amply repay any large capitalist or single -proprietor. In the course of our examination of the most wretched and -overcrowded wynds of Glasgow and Edinburgh, we were informed by persons -apparently of competent local information that, if they could be -purchased at a fair price for the public to be pulled down, there would -be a gain in the prevention of the charges of sickness and crime arising -from them; and that if they were simply rebuilt on a good plan, the -necessary outlay would be repaid by the improved rental from the -superior order of tenements. Each flat or story, however, frequently -belonged to a different owner, and the property in which the most -afflicted classes lived appeared to be extensively subdivided amongst -persons of different interests, of different degrees of permanency, and -with no power of co-operation, and with little or no capital. - -Now the class of persons whose feelings, state of intelligence, and -modes of action are displayed in the evidence on the drainage redounding -to private profit, are the class from amongst whom are necessarily taken -the members of the local boards, to whose uncontrolled direction and -choice of officer the structural works essential to the public health -are confided. - -The natural districts for public drainage are so capriciously subdivided -and departed from, as frequently to render economical and efficient -drainage impracticable. - -The municipal authorities who obtained powers for drainage, only thought -of the surface drainage of their own jurisdictions. Some towns are at -the bottom of basins and others on elevations, and the operations for -effectual drainage must often be commenced at a distance. It is stated -by persons of competent skill in drainage, as an example, a town situate -on one side of a hill will be drained dry by tapping or opening a spring -on the other side. The manifest defect in the areas of operations for -drainage is noticed in the report of the Committee of the House of -Commons, which in the year 1834 inquired into the administration of the -sewers’ rate in the metropolis, where perhaps the most money has been -expended in imperfect sewerage and cleansing of any part of the kingdom. -They reported that a primary defect of their constitution— - - “Is the want of system or combination between the different trusts - which have now, as before observed, each an independent action. The - inconveniences in this are palpable, for where the line of - communication with the Thames is not complete within each district, - the very improvements in the one trust may prove injurious to the - others. It appears by the evidence that a case of this kind occurred - not long ago in the city of Loudon, through which a part of the - Holborn and Finsbury sewerage is conducted to the river. The sewers of - the Holborn and Finsbury division having been greatly improved and - enlarged, the city sewers became inadequate to carry off their - contents, and a number of houses in the vicinity of the river were - inundated after each fall of rain, the contents of their own drains, - in addition to the waters from the high lands of the neighbouring - trust, being actually forced back into their houses from the volume of - water which occupied the main sewer. This has now been remedied at a - great expense to the city of London district, and by dint of much - labour and time; but if anything like combination had existed - previously, the improvements would have been carried on - simultaneously, and the inconvenience would never have occurred.” - -The surveyor of the City sewers under the management of the corporation, -speaks in a tone of grievance and oppression, that the waters of the -county would run into the municipal jurisdiction. Speaking of the -formation of a particular sewer, he says,— - - “The commissioners under the power of the Act of Parliament carried - the sewer, in the first instance, along their own pavement and for - their own drainage. It was thence continued up to Finsbury-place to - Bunhill-fields, then called Tyndal’s burial-ground, and is so - described in the Act; the county then communicated with it, and sent - their surplus water, or an immense run of it, into that sewer. The - city for its own drainage also built a sewer in Whitecross-street; the - county somehow or other got possession of that, and the water that - runs down Whitecross street is quite overpowering.” - -He speaks of some other drains which were formed by the city, and the -effects of the waters let in upon them from the county. - - “The Commissioners find themselves very much annoyed by the quantity - of water poured in from the county, which water communicates with the - city in Bishopsgate-street, through Shoreditch. * * * The county then - made another sewer, which takes water from the Tower Hamlets, and is - continued up the Kingsland-road, so that a very large portion of that - water has been thrown into that sewer, and annoyed this Irongate sewer - (the only communication with the Thames) very sorely; and the - Commissioners had been put to an enormous expense in rebuilding it, - and that was increased by houses being built over it with very high - stacks of chimneys. In consequence of the immense flood of water that - pours down all those different sewers from the county, the inhabitants - of the city, in the neighbourhood of Moorfields especially, have been - most dreadfully annoyed, so much so that their cellars became useless. - - “By the county, you mean the Holborn and Finsbury division?—Yes; - everything out of the boundary of the city. In order to meet the - difficulty for which there was no other cure, the commissioners have - built a sewer for the New London Bridge, which is ten feet by eight - feet at the mouth; they are continuing it up to the new street, eight - feet six inches by seven feet, and it is intended to take it up the - New Road to Moorfields, to continue the sewer along Princes-street and - up that new street; and I confidently expect I shall get from eight to - ten feet additional depth, and that then the whole of Moorfields will - be effectually relieved. - - “The necessity for this new sewer of this large dimension, arises from - the large quantity of water which flows in upon you from the - county?—Certainly. - - “You conceive yourself on the other side to derive some benefit from - these waters, because they cleanse and scour your sewers down?—Yes, as - far as the direct run goes they do, but beyond that they do an injury - that is incalculable; in this way the water runs right a-head, and an - immense quantity is brought in, it fills it, and the collateral sewers - cannot bear up against it, they are driven back and the sediment is - deposited, and when it falls that is left behind.” - -It need scarcely be pointed out that this municipal division had, until -they chose to drain, operated as a barrier to all the water described, -which was kept back to the injury of the county; to the injury indeed of -the health of those merchants and traders, clerks and men of business, -the population whose private residences are in the county, and beyond -their residences to the injury of the city, in so far as their -obstructions to drainage injured the pasturage and land cultivated for -the supply of the city. - -But a considerable portion of the city was itself imperfectly drained. -The chairman was asked,— - - “539. Do you conceive there is any large portion of the City left - without deriving direct advantage from the sewerage,—meaning, by - direct advantage, some underground communication with the sewers so as - to carry off the soil of the house?—There is a large part of the City - of London in that state.” - -It was stated, as an example, that Cheapside had no sewer. This was -accounted for from the circumstance, that the - - “whole form of that part of the city is like a tortoise’s back. - Cheapside and Leadenhall-street are the back-bone; and that accounts - for Cheapside, being the highest ground, never having had occasion for - a sewer for the surface drainage; the water all flows northward and - southward, so that accounts for the apparent contradiction of - Cheapside, a main street, having no sewer in it. - - “As far as _surface_ drainage is concerned?—Yes; the inhabitants of - Cheapside, generally speaking, have got cesspools: they perforated the - yellow clay or loam and got into the gravel, and whatever is thrown - into the cesspool mixes with the water and the earth: that is for the - benefit of the water-drinkers!” - -Thirty old streets in Westminster had no sewers. Other considerable and -ancient streets were also without sewers, although the inhabitants -contributed to the rates. - -Nor does there appear to be any conception as to the objects of the -service; and illegal fees, that must operate as exclusions to the poorer -inhabitants from the advantages which it is most desirable to confer, -were allowed to be exacted by the officers. Thus the chairman of the -City Commission was asked,— - - “574. Your clerks at the office take no fees?—I cannot say that they - take no fees; there is an ancient fee allowed, that any person who - communicates with the sewer shall pay a guinea; that is divided among - the clerks, the surveyor, and inspector, who see that the - communication is properly made: they pay a guinea for that purpose. - - “575. Are your clerks paid by those fees?—No, by fixed salary; the - fees are very trifling, for till lately they did not amount to 100_l._ - a-year. - - “576. The aggregate of the fees?—Yes, nor to 50_l._ a-year: if a party - applies to communicate with a sewer, and the Commissioners have no - objection, they call upon him to pay the estimate of the surveyor, and - the charges are made at the contract price, and in addition to that - they pay one guinea as a fee.” - -In another Commission the surveyor’s fee for the privilege is stated to -be one guinea. - -Before the Committee _Mr. James Peake_, the surveyor of the -Commissioners for the Tower Hamlets, states (Committee on Health of -Towns), “that in making a communication to the common sewers, the -parties who have to make the drain, besides doing it at their own -expense, have to pay 17_s._ 6_d._ for the first three feet of sewer. And -they,” the Commissioners of Sewers, “do that for this reason:—if they -were not to resort to that measure, the sewers would be destroyed. -_Every one would make a hole in the sewer_,” _i. e._, every one would -_use_ the sewer. - -_Mr. Samuel Byles_, another witness examined before the same Committee, -was asked— - - “193. You state that a great deal of disease is generated by the want - of ventilation and sewerage; is there any power in the Sewer - Commissioners to oblige the parties inhabiting the district to - communicate with the sewer if they made one?—No; and there is - unfortunately a paradox; there is a penalty on any person - communicating from his house into the common sewer. - - “194. If they are assessed to it that is not the case, is it?—Yes; it - appears to be a complete paradox; if privies are known to empty - themselves into the common sewer, the person is liable to a penalty.” - -No arrangements are made to bring the effects of the absence of drainage -to the knowledge of those bodies for their guidance in the performance -of their duties, nor does it appear to enter into their conception that -the protection of the public health forms any part of the objects of -their service. _Mr. James Peake_, the surveyor of the Commissioners of -the Tower Hamlets, was questioned on this point— - - “2012. It is stated to the Committee, that ‘in a direct line from - Virginia-row to Shoreditch, a mile in extent, all the lanes, courts, - and alleys in the neighbourhood pour their contents into the centre of - the main street, where they stagnate and putrefy;’ is that the case?—I - perceive by an inspection of the plan that there is no sewer about - Virginia-row; there is none nearer to it than Princes-street. - - “2013. It is stated that in some or other of those houses fever is - always prevalent; do you know the district so as to be aware whether - that is the case?—I cannot speak as to the state of the inhabitants; I - know it is very wretched. The whole of this land was excavated for - brick-making, and has been reduced to an unnatural level, so that the - sewers are hardly available. I believe many of those houses have - ditches round their gardens, and flowers and roots and stems are - thrown into the ditches, where they remain and stagnate; we are - working up, and shall be able to get the sewer in some parts five feet - lower than it was. - - “2014. It is stated to the Commissioners that in Whitechapel parish, - Essex-street and its numerous courts, as Martin’s-court, Moor’s-court, - Essex-court, Elgar-square, George-yard, and New-court, Crown-court, - Wentworth-street, and many parts of that street, there is no sewer - passes up?—There is none. - - “2015. Are the people very much in want of some mode of cleansing in - consequence?—It is the filthiest place which can be imagined. - - “2316. Is it thickly inhabited?—Yes, very densely populated. - - “2028. Do you not think that the want of such provision is very - injurious to the health of the inhabitants?—I do not think that sewers - have the effect which is attributed to them. - - “2029. You disagree with the medical men who think that the neglect of - this underground drainage is prejudicial to the health of the - community?—I cannot see how, if they have a good surface drainage, - they can be improved by an underground drainage, in nine cases out of - ten. - - “2064. Do you consider it your duty to alter a sewer, or carry up a - sewer, with reference to the health of the inhabitants?—Certainly not. - - “2065. Any alteration in the form of the sewerage, or any change - respecting it, is with reference to property, not with reference to - the health of the inhabitants?- Certainly.” - -_Mr. Unwin_, the clerk to the Commissioners of Sewers for the Tower -Hamlets, was thus examined before the Committee:— - - “1433. Do you know Hare-street-fields?—I do; that is not very densely - populated: there are a number of houses, but very few persons living - in them. - - “1434. Do you know that in wet weather a large portion of that - neighbourhood is completely inundated; that in all the houses forming - the square, and in the neighbouring streets, fever is constantly - breaking out, and that the character of the fever in the neighbourhood - has lately been very malignant?—I never heard that before. - - “1435. Then if that has occurred in the midst of your district, it is - a matter you never heard of?—Just so. - - “1436. Do you know Baker’s-Arms-alley?—That is in the parish of - Hackney; that is in our district; but it is a very open place. - - “1437. If it is the fact that there is a narrow court with a dead wall - about two yards from the houses, as high as the houses; that the - principal court is intersected by other courts extremely narrow, in - which it is scarcely possible for air to penetrate close to the dead - wall; that between the wall and the houses there is a gutter, in which - is always present a quantity of stagnant fluid full of all sorts of - putrefying matter, the effluvia from which are most offensive, and the - sense of closeness extreme; that all the houses are dark, gloomy, and - extremely filthy; that at the top of the innermost courts are the - privies, which are open and uncovered, the soil of which is seldom - removed, and the stench of which is abominable; you have not heard of - that?—No, I have not heard of any of those circumstances; I have heard - of very few complaints of fever in the Tower Hamlets. - - “1440. Do you not recollect that there are most fearful accounts of - fever prevailing in that district?—No, I had a report sent to me, - which I understood came from Dr. Southwood Smith, and there was a - communication I think from the Secretary of State upon it.” - -At the very time that this witness had heard of few complaints of fever -in the Tower Hamlets, the Board found themselves compelled, on account -of the appalling prevalence of fever amongst the poor resident in that -district, to direct the special inquiry by Dr. Arnott, Dr. Kay, and Dr. -Southwood Smith, as to the causes of the fever which led to the present -extended inquiry. The description given in the question of the narrow -court, with the dead wall about two yards from the houses was taken from -one of those reports. That self-same court was the Bakers’-Arms alley, -named in the preceding question; but instead of being situate, as -described by the witness, in the parish of Hackney, two or three miles -from the office of the Commissioners of Sewers, it is in Rosemary-lane, -distant from that office only the length of a street, and that not a -very long one—Leman-street. - -On the subject of the escapes of gas from the sewers there is no one -point on which medical men are so clearly agreed, as on the connexion of -exposure of persons to the miasma from sewers, and of fever as a -consequence. It appears that the evils of these escapes, on which -several medical men to whose testimony we have alluded gave evidence -before the Committee of 1834, may be prevented, and one of them prepared -a plan for this purpose. He states that the Commissioners having -expressed their doubts as to whether they were justified in trying the -experiment at the public expense, he said— - - “Very well, gentlemen, I suppose you are quite right there; I will - enter into an undertaking with you to do it at my own expense, to a - limited extent, in any part that the surveyor of the sewers will say - he thinks it will fail; at the worst part that he can point out I will - try it; and moreover, in that undertaking I engaged to replace the - things in _statu quo_ if they failed. I entered into that - understanding, and, as I was given to understand, the parish sent - their bond, with a copy of the request, to the Commissioners. Some - time elapsed and I heard nothing of it, and in fact I thought the - thing was so simple, and as I heard nothing to the contrary, I began - to make inquiries as to getting these traps cast, when one morning the - parish surveyor brought me the model back, with a verbal message, - which was, that ‘whether it would answer or not, it should not be - tried;’ the Commissioners had made up their minds that the stink - should not be kept down.” - -The reply made to this before the Committee on behalf of the -Commissioners, by one of the officers, was, “The sewers must have vent -somewhere; if you stop the vent in the street, it will penetrate into -the houses; also the danger from the gas-explosions are continually -taking place, and our people are frequently sent to the hospital. Our -surveyor can show a specimen of an entire new skin to his hand, and he -had an entire new skin to his face, and laid up in a very dangerous -state. This was from an explosion in the sewers. This is a danger the -Commissioners must of necessity look to.” “The gas always ascends from -its lightness. If the air-trap was put at the upper end of the -gully-drain, that would be the place where the gas would lodge, and any -candle brought near to this outlet into the upper part would occasion an -explosion.” - -Now it is precisely because “the gas always ascends from its lightness” -that men of competent science declare, without reference to the -particular plan proposed in this instance, that by means of a shaft or -chimney properly placed, private houses as well as the workmen may be -relieved from the dangers of the escapes of this gas, which is becoming -more deleterious from the increasing drainage from private houses as -well as from the escapes of gas from the gas-pipes, into the sewers of -which very strong instances are stated in the evidence. - -In the map of Leeds, where the cholera track is pourtrayed, it will be -observed that it followed closely the fever track; and were such maps so -far improved as to show at a view the condition of a district in respect -to dwelling and drainage, the marks to denote sites where the drainage -was imperfect would at the same time denote the seats of epidemic -disease. This had been so far observed by medical men that there was, -perhaps, no point on which they were more anxious and urgent than that -increased sewerage and cleansing should be adopted as preventives of the -cholera. Yet in one extensive densely populated district, the -Commissioners, because they had observed no effects on their own men, -who were accustomed to the sewers, took upon themselves to disregard all -the precautions advised by persons of complete knowledge. “At the time -of the cholera the arching over the sewers was very much applied for” in -the Ravensbourne Commission; “but,” says the officer of the commission, -“I do not think there was anything done on account of the cholera, -because the court held a different feeling on that point. Out of all the -men employed by the Commissioners of Sewers, and who were constantly in -those sewers, there was not one of those attacked by the cholera.” - -All this incompleteness as to the extent of the districts drained, and -the imperfection in the mode of executing the works, appears from the -complaints and evidence given before the Committee to be accompanied by -disproportionate and oppressive assessments and extravagant expenditure. - -The rates were complained of as levied on property which was undrained, -and derived no benefit from them; and by equal assessments on houses -which derive benefit by direct communications with the sewers, and on -houses which have no communication with them, and only derive benefit -from the surface drainage, and in some cases on houses which were -unoccupied. These unequal charges, sometimes for long periods, and for -large and permanent works, fell upon a fluctuating tenancy. “We should -claim,” says one witness, “20 years’ rate from the incoming tenant -(122), or we might have sold the premises” (129). - -In respect to the existing expenditure, very strong statements of -mismanagement were made in the majority of the town districts; but I -prefer referring on this topic to the evidence taken before the -Committee of the House of Commons. One marked character of the -expenditure is the greater amount paid to the clerk of the Board, and -for office expenses, than for any skill or science in the -superintendence of the work. Thus in the district where the -Commissioners, on the example of their own workmen, adjudged that the -applications for arching over the sewers on the ground that they created -a predisposition to the spread of the epidemic were unfounded, the -payments to the clerk of the Board for his salary and office was -750_l._, assistant-clerk 100_l._, and three surveyors were paid each -50_l._ (besides commission on works executed, and a fee of a guinea for -communicating with the drain.) In another subdivision the expenses of -the clerks, messengers, &c., exclusive of collection, were 15,737_l._ -for 20 years, while for the same period the expense of surveyors, -inspectors, and clerks of the works was 14,928_l._ In another division -the tavern expenses for 20 years were 7,935_l._ In one district the cost -of the commission, compared with the beneficial outlay on the works, -appeared to be 200 per cent. In regard to another level, it is stated -that there was laid out on works the sum of 17,455_l._ 18_s._ 10_d._; -and— - - £. _s._ _d._ - In working the commission 9,003 18 7 - Commission on collection 1,635 10 9½ - ——————— —— —— - Total £10,639 9 4½ - ======= == == - -The proportion of the cost of management to the expenditure on work -appears to have been similar in others of these administrative bodies. -The Committee stated as a principal defect of these bodies—“The want of -publicity and responsibility systematically enforced.” There were -several of the trusts in which the Courts have not been open to the -public, the right of the ratepayers to inspect the accounts not -admitted, and “where consequently a real responsibility in money matters -can hardly be said to exist.” - -_Mr. W. Fowler_, a Commissioner, says— - - “If they are to go from year’s end to year’s end without being subject - to any control, I feel the money will be expended as I believe it now - is, and dribbled away, not expended fairly in carrying the ostensible - works into execution.” - -Another defect resulting from the capricious constitution of these -trusts, on which the Committee reported, was the want of uniformity. - - “There are no two districts in which the law does not vary, or where, - if the law be the same, the commissioners do not interpret some parts - of in a different manner. - - “Thus, a man having property in Finsbury and in Westminster, or in the - City and in the Tower Hamlets, may find himself placed under different - systems, and may be led by his knowledge of the regulations of the one - district to violate the regulations of the other.” - -Such being the unfavourable constitution of these bodies as described in -the Parliamentary Reports, and the evidence taken before the Committees, -the accounts given of the qualifications of many of the officers of -these trusts for the execution of any work of magnitude requiring -scientific attainments are equally unfavourable. The following general -account of them is given by an architect of eminence, who has conducted -large works in the metropolis and in various parts of the country, and -is corroborated by several other engineers of extensive practice. - - “In the rural districts, the men appointed as surveyors by the local - Commissioners are very little better than common labourers, men with - no idea of construction or of management; that is the description of - men I have met with in the country places: they are commonly a sort of - foremen of the labourers who are called ‘ditch casters.’ In the towns - the men appointed are frequently decayed builders, or tradesmen whose - knowledge is limited to common artificers’ work, such as bricklayers’ - and carpenters’ work. Some may be capable of drawing: only a few. They - have neither education, nor salary, nor station, to place them above - bribery, and the consequences are notoriously such as might be - expected of public services performed by such an agency. In some - instances there are very good exceptions; that is, where the - remuneration is adequate to ensure the service of a respectable - persons, and where, as occasionally happens, a person of - respectability has the local influence to obtain the appointment. The - district surveyors in the metropolis are in general respectable and - well-qualified public officers. In local matters no thought is ever - had of combining duties. The chief concern of the Commissioner of - sewers, where he holds property of his own, is to drain his own - property.” - -Another description of the persons usually appointed as surveyors is -given in the following terms by a gentleman who is himself a surveyor of -extensive practice:— - - “As regards the appointment of surveyors to the Commissioners of - Sewers, I would observe that, in my opinion, very few of them are - properly qualified by education or otherwise to perform the important - duties entrusted to them in an effective and proper manner. A man to - be a good surveyor of sewers should be a practical civil engineer, in - which science is comprehended levelling in all its branches, and other - matters requisite and necessary in the construction of drains and - sewers: in proof of this, an instance recently occurred in one of the - divisions (which I need not particularize) in the construction of a - sewer, that after it had proceeded for a considerable distance, from - an error in taking the levels, was found to be below the level of the - outlet, and was in consequence obliged to be all destroyed, and - another sewer constructed upon a proper level. This error was so - clearly traced to the want of practical knowledge on the part of the - surveyor, or the application of it, that he was amerced in the greater - part of the cost.” - -A builder of extensive experience in the wealthy districts of the -metropolis states, that in making drains and executing works which -communicate with the sewers on which large sums have been expended, he -has not found one main sewer in three properly made; and the strongest -statements of the extravagant nature of the expenditure was made by -witnesses who had themselves acted as members of the bodies directing -it. - -The office business of two of the commissions appeared to me to be very -respectably conducted. But in the structural arrangements, in only one -commission do any of the works executed approach the existing state of -science. In that one, the Holborn and Finsbury trust, they happened to -obtain a surveyor, having science and practical experience as an -engineer, whose advice was acted upon, and that officer effected the -only considerable improvements of a scientific character that have been -made in the sewerage of the metropolis. These improvements for -preventing the accumulations of deposits in the sewers, and the -generation of malaria, and at the same time reducing the expenses of -cleansing more than one-half, must be considered improvements of a very -high order. But though they are demonstrated, and in full and successful -action, they appear to have been imitated only in one other adjacent -district. In the others they go on constructing sewers which are the -latent sources of pestilence and death. This officer was asked the -following questions:— - - “If the public, who may be ignorant of the science of sewerage and of - what it may accomplish, make no complaints, and do not call for the - adoption of any improved system, in how long a time do you think the - improvements demonstrated in the Holborn and Finsbury divisions would - reach the other ends of the metropolis by the force of imitation and - voluntary adoption?—From the apathy shown and prejudice against - anything new, however valuable it may be as an improvement, and the - various interests affected, such as the contractors for cleansing, I - do not expect that they would become general in the metropolis during - my life-time. The public are passive, and the adverse interests are - active. - - “You know the description of persons engaged as surveyors of various - descriptions in the rural districts and in the smaller towns?—Yes, I - do. - - “Unless care be taken, is it to be apprehended that any new - expenditure will be made on imperfect and unwholesome drains with flat - bottoms and on false principles at a disproportionate - expense?—Undoubtedly, except they have to act on rule, it will - certainly be so throughout the country. The drainage that I have seen - in the country districts is worse than in the metropolis.” - -The consideration of these circumstances, in respect to the past -expenditure in this branch of local administration, appears to be -necessary for meeting the objections and opposition to any future -expenditure, and especially of any apparent increase required for the -successful removal of the physical causes of bodily suffering, and the -moral degradation of the labouring classes. In the towns and districts -where the chief evils in question are admitted, but where anything -wearing the appearance of a new expenditure for any purpose is -unpopular, and will be thwarted or yielded unwillingly, the objections -when examined are found to consist mainly of a rooted distrust of the -money being equally levied, or carefully and efficiently expended for -the attainment of the professed objects of public advantage. From such -evidence as that already adduced from the Report of the Committee of the -House of Commons, but presented in greater extent and strength in the -course of the present inquiry—of instances of disease and death -occasioned by miasma from badly made and sluggish or stagnant drains -that pervade whole towns, it will be seen that it cannot fairly be said -that the distrust is not well founded. - -A due examination, however, of the experience even of voluntary and -private expenditure on the wealthy districts where water is laid on, and -the main drainage is complete for the removal of refuse, appears to -establish the conclusion that only a part of the work is then attained, -and that for the economical attainment of the general objects of -protecting the least protected classes, that which is generally deemed -the private and subordinate work, namely, the house drainage, must form -part of the same general system, and be executed under the same general -superintendence. - -It appears to be partly a defect in legislation, and partly a defect in -the constitution of the existing authorities for the direction of public -drainage, that their agency is never thought of for the superintendence -even of work which can seldom be cheaply and efficiently executed by -private individuals, and that can only be so executed and kept in order -by the systematic application of science and skill. An order, that the -landlords of all houses which have no drains communicating with the main -drains shall make them, is an order, when viewed in its operation in a -street or district where there are 50 or 100 different owners, that -those 50 or 100 persons shall separately get plans possibly from as many -different builders, and enter into contracts with them, and procure -capital which, to poor owners, will be a serious amount of several -hundred pounds in the aggregate, to be applied as a permanent investment -on property in which a large proportion of them will only have various -transitory interests. Viewed in its aggregate operation on all places -requiring amendment, the simple compulsory enactment for house drainage, -and without any previous care as to the means, would be, in effect, an -order for the expenditure of several millions of money in the manner -described by _Mr. Charles Oldfield_, a practical witness of great -experience, whose evidence (corroborated by the testimony of other -witnesses of extensive experience) has already been referred to on this -important topic:— - - “Have you as a builder had much experience in the drainage of - houses?—Very considerable experience, and I pay particular attention - to it; there is no part of a building to which I pay more attention - than to the drainage. I seldom allow the drains to be covered in - without seeing to them myself. - - “Do you think it desirable that legislative provision should be made - for the drainage of the tenements of the labouring classes?—I think it - most necessary; but merely ordering the drains to be made will not do. - Drains made for the tenements of the working classes, if left to the - parties, are almost sure to be badly constructed, and badly - constructed drains might merely carry away the soil; they might not do - that; and they would probably let in as great an evil, namely, the - foul air from the sewer. In general, unless care be taken, what is - called making drains will be opening conduits for the escape of foul - air from the sewers into the houses. This is frequently so with the - houses of the better classes of persons, where the drains are not made - perfectly air-tight, and are not properly trapped at all the - apertures. I am frequently called upon to examine houses where they - say they are oppressed by unpleasant smells. Some time ago I was - called upon to examine a house in one of the principal streets in - London, belonging to a gentleman of distinction, who was about to - abandon it in consequence of the unpleasant smells which were - continually arising. He was particularly annoyed that this smell arose - in the greatest strength whenever he had parties; the drains had been - opened, and there was no lodgement of soil in them. People commonly - imagine that when they get rid of the soil they have got rid of the - stench; they do not see and do not conceive the effect of the foul - air, which is so much lighter than atmospheric air that it escapes - where the atmospheric air would not. On examining the drains at his - house, I found that they were imperfect, and that the foul air - filtered through them. Whenever he had a party there was a stronger - fire in the kitchen, and stronger fires in other parts of the house, - and the windows and the external doors being shut, and a greater - draught created, larger quantities of the foul air from the sewers - rose up. These stenches arise in the greatest strength in the private - houses when the doors and windows are closed, the fire and column of - light air in the chimney being at work. So it would be with drains - made from the house to the sewer, or from the sewer to the house of - the poor man, unless care were taken in the construction of the - drains. When the door was shut, and he sat down to enjoy his fireside, - he would have a stench. This would be the effect of merely ordering - the drains to be made by the owners of such tenements, who would get - the work done in the way they thought to be the least expensive. You - would have them made in a row of tenements with every difference in - faults,—different forms, different sizes, different falls, bad - materials, without traps at the apertures, and not air-tight; - therefore constantly conducting a stream of polluted air from the - sewers into the houses; and there will be faults which an inspector - will not easily remedy when work is done in this manner. - - “In what way, then, would you recommend them to be done, for - efficiency?—They should be done entirely by the persons in charge of - the sewers, or under the control of officers of competent skill, who - should have power to enter upon the premises, and see that the whole - of the work was properly done. Neither should private persons have - power to make any alteration without giving notice, and making the - alteration according to well-tried and approved plans. I confine my - observations, however, to tenements of certain size,—to those for the - labouring man, who has no power to protect himself, and who stands in - need of protection. It might be deemed objectionable to exercise any - control over the higher class of tenements, and the wealthier people - are able to protect themselves; but all those things that are out of - sight are done in the worst manner in the smaller tenements. - - “If such an authority were to contract for the drainage of a whole - street, how much more cheaply do you conceive the work might be done - under one contract than if the labour were to be done separately, by - perhaps as many different occupiers or owners as there are houses, - each employing his own bricklayer?—At the least, from 10 to 15 per - cent. difference. Serving a notice in writing on a poor occupier, - perhaps a shifting one, that he is to get a drain made, would be of no - use. Proceeding by serving notices on the owners of such tenements, is - a course beset with difficulties. Many of the small owners are not - readily to be found; the ownership to some of the poorest plots are in - dispute. Then, when the owners are found, every owner has to seek and - bargain with a bricklayer for what he does unwillingly, and whom he - tells to do the work in the cheapest way he can. The owner does not - usually know what instructions to give; and in nine cases out of ten - the work will be badly, and at the same time expensively done. It is - with the greatest difficulty that I can get the drains to my own - houses properly done. Frequent complaints are made of the state of the - sewers by occupants in some districts, but when they are examined it - is found, in many cases, that the cause of complaint arises from their - own drain not being properly made. The poorer or reluctant owner would - seek a cheap or needy bricklayer, and will get an expensive one. - Everything ordered of this kind may be made a job of; the bricklayer - may do more than is wanted, or may make larger drains than necessary, - and thereby incur useless expense. If it be done by the public - authorities, leaving to the private parties to do it if they please - within a limited period, under the inspection of a proper officer, it - can hardly fail to be much less expensively done for the private - individual himself, and it is very sure to be better done for the poor - owner. The certain obstacles to any mere general enactments to have - the work done by a multitude of persons will be immense, and the work - will certainly be badly done, whilst, if it is well done, it will be - of the greatest public advantage.” - -_Mr. Roe_, the engineer, was asked, with reference to house drainage— - - “Have you found the system of cleansing the large drains by flushing - with proper supplies of water equally applicable to small drains?—Yes, - equally applicable. A gentleman has tried it on a private drain of - 18–inch capacity, and 1200 feet length, and it answers equally well. - It is cleansed by the collection of refuse water from 30 or 40 houses. - - “Might not the drains from private houses be also cleansed in the same - mode?—Yes, they might have a small and cheap apparatus for carrying - away all ordinary refuse. If in the small drain a brick fell in, it - could not be removed by the force of the small quantity of water which - could be obtained in such a situation. In our large sewers the heads - of water are in some cases strong enough to sweep away loose bricks. - - “Would it not be of advantage to the occupier if the private drains - were under the same general superintendence?—I conceive it would in - management. They are frequently put to great expense by getting - persons to attend to them who really do not understand them. They are - often now obliged to have recourse to the contractor’s men. Private - property is often drained through other private property, and when the - drains are choked, if the parties are not on good terms, they will not - allow each other facilities for cleansing. Under the Finsbury Local - Act there is a power to enforce the cleansing of private drains, and - by way of appeal that power is sometimes resorted to by private - individuals. - - “May we not presume that the same principles of hydraulics, as to the - advantages of a flow over a semicircular bottom, are as applicable to - small drains as to large ones?—More so from the flow of water being - smaller; the greater necessity for keeping it in a body to enable it - to carry away the common deposit. - - “Then there is a proportionate loss in having the private drainage - made with flat-bottomed bricks or boards?—Yes, there is proportionate - loss from the extra cost of cleansing. Semicircular drains of tiles - would be better, and cheaper than brick for private houses.” - -Supposing that only one-third of the existing tenements require -drainage, the saving of 15 per cent. on the expenditure by the execution -of the work by contract under the superintendence of a responsible -engineer would be more than 1,500,000_l._ sterling on the outlay, -independently of the difference in efficiency. - -The necessity has previously been suggested of spreading the immediate -cost over a number of years to make the charge coincident with the -benefit. Were it left to the option of individuals to repay the cost at -intervals of 20 or 30 years, and charge their tenants, as described in a -supposed form of notice to them, which I have appended to illustrate the -practical working of such a provision, (allowing them either to defray -the whole cost at once, or execute the work themselves, under proper -superintendence; if they thought they could execute it cheaper,) the -immediate advantages of such improvements would then have some chance of -being fairly estimated as against the immediate cost and inconveniences -of a change, and resistance from latent motives of hostility would be -obviated. - -But however the charge may be diffused, and to whatever extent -opposition on the part of the smaller owners may be obviated by care, it -cannot safely be overlooked that in the poorest districts where it is -most important that the works should be well executed, the superior -direction of such expenditure will, in the ordinary course, fall into -the hands of the owners of the worst-conditioned tenements, who have the -greatest dread of immediate expenses, and who are under the strongest -influence of petty jealousies; for in such districts it is precisely the -class of persons who cannot agree to profitable measures of private -drainage, who are the owners of the worst tenements, who, having leisure -during the intervals of their weekly collections, and from other causes, -are most frequently found in honorary offices for the direction of local -expenditure. One officer, when asked how it was that in a district where -fever had been rife nothing had been done under the authority of the -law, which authorized its being cleansed? replied, that the Board had -made precisely the same objections that were made when the cholera -appeared; when it was proposed to cleanse the district, the answer made -at the Board was, that “they did not believe it would do any good:” and -those of the officers who were landlords of the weekly tenements said, -“Why should we disturb and drive away our tenants?” and those who were -shopkeepers said, “Why should we frighten away our customers by -representing the neighbourhood as unhealthy?” consequently nothing was -done. - -The legislature, in making demands for such honorary services, has -usually proceeded on the theory which views all those who may be called -upon to render them, as persons qualified to understand the whole -subject intuitively, and having no other interest or views than to -perform the services zealously for the common weal; whereas, in the -locality they are viewed in a totally different light, not as public -officers, but in their private capacities, as owners or tradesmen, -competitors for advantages of various kinds. However unjust this -impression may frequently be, it is the impression that commonly -prevails; and since all of one class cannot have a share in the -administration of such funds, others of the same class, whether owners -or tradesmen, view the persons exercising the power as rivals, and -distrust their administration accordingly. As an owner, one member of a -local Board is strongly indisposed to any line of operations that will -apparently improve the property of another; and as an owner, too, he is -under the strongest jealousy if he proposes or does anything which may -appear to benefit his own property at the public expense. - -Neither is such distrust as to trustworthiness from skill and adverse -private interests confined to the administration of the public works of -sewerage and drainage; it is fortified by the example of the local -administration of the works of road construction and repair, a branch of -administration so inseparably connected with drainage operations, as to -justify and require a joint consideration with them. - -Witnesses of the most extensive practical experience lay the greatest -stress on the necessity of lifting these important branches of -administration out of the influence of petty and sinister interests, and -of doing so by securing the appointment of officers of superior -scientific attainments, who (subject to a proper local as well as -general control) may be made responsible for directing any new -expenditure on a scale of efficiency as well as of economy. A competent, -scientific, and efficient management, let it be applied to what part of -these works it may, can scarcely fail to be immediately as well as -ultimately the most economical management. But it will be found on -examination that the consolidation of all the structural arrangements, -comprising under-drainage and surface-drainage, road structure and -repair, under one service, is most required for the sake of efficiency. -Division of labour in the arts derives its efficiency from combination, -adaptation, and subordination to direction to one end; but that which -appears to be a division of labour in local administration is, in fact, -an insubordinate separation, weakening the means of procuring adequate -skill and power, occasioning obstructions and defective execution, and -enhancing expense. Were pins or machines made as sewers and roads are -constructed; shafts of pins would be made without reference to heads,—in -machines screws would be made without sockets, and, it may be -confidently stated, there would not be a safe or perfect and -well-working machine in the whole country. - -_Mr. Telford_, in a report on the Holyhead road, makes the following -observations:— - - “Perfect management must be guided by rules and regulations, and these - must be carried into effect by the unceasing attention of a judicious - and faithful surveyor who has by actual experience and attention - acquired a thorough knowledge of all that is required, and applicable - to the general and local state of particular districts, as regards - soil, materials, and climate; likewise the sort of wear to which the - surface is liable. A person possessed of all these requisites, and - otherwise properly qualified to level and set out new lines, &c., - where necessary, must receive the remuneration such a character - merits, and may always obtain, in this active and industrious country. - But however convinced and well-disposed trustees maybe to give this - remuneration, the tolls of five or six miles do not afford the means - of giving it. The consequence is that the Shifnal Trust (four miles) - has hitherto been under the management of a person so little - acquainted with proper road business, that it becomes a serious - consideration whether it will be prudent to suffer the extensive - improvement at Priors Leigh to be entrusted to his care. Until the - Parliamentary Commissioners interfered and showed a practical example, - the Wellington Trust (seven miles) was managed almost wholly by the - clerk; he had a sort of foreman, who appeared to be only partly - employed on the road. And on the Shrewsbury Trust (seven miles), as - has already been stated, the surveyor and contractor were united in - the same person. All these managers proceeded, without regard to any - rules and regulations whatever, receiving only occasional directions - from some of the most active of the trustees, whose varying opinions - served more to distract than benefit the practical operations of the - workmen. I must beg leave to add that these observations are - applicable to all trusts of similar extent, and are evidences of the - propriety of establishing districts of a magnitude to justify a more - perfect arrangement, and the employing of a properly qualified - surveyor, whose sole occupation should be the road under his care, and - who should also be enabled to keep constantly employed a set of - workmen thoroughly conversant with road observations, and working - chiefly by contract.”—_First Annual Report on the Holyhead Road_, May - 4, 1824. p. 25. - -It need scarcely be necessary to observe that in the sense of that great -engineer, care of the road implied the greatest care in respect to the -drainage. In consequence of the limited areas of management, although -great expense is incurred, the appointments of the surveyors to -superintend works which are never well executed by any other than an -experienced engineer, are inferior even to the appointments of the paid -officers to superintend the sewerage. _Sir Henry Parnell_ in his work, -“On the Formation and Management of the Public Roads,” thus -compendiously describes the composition of the chief bodies by whom -these officers are chosen and directed:— - - “According to the provisions of every Turnpike Act, a great number of - persons are named as trustees; the practice is to make almost every - one a trustee, residing in the vicinity of a road, who is an opulent - farmer or tradesman, as well as all the nobility and persons of large - landed properly: so that a trust seldom consists of fewer than 100 - persons, even it the length of the road to be maintained by them does - not exceed a few miles. The result of this practice is, that in every - set of trustees there are to be found persons who do not possess a - single qualification for the office, persons who conceive they are - raised by the title of a road trustee to a station of some importance, - and who too often seek to show it by opposing their superiors in - ability and integrity when valuable improvements are under - consideration, taking care, too frequently, to turn their authority to - account, by so directing the spending of the road money as may best - promote the interests of themselves or their connexions. - - “It sometimes happens that if one trustee, more intelligent and more - public-spirited than the rest, attempts to take a lead, and proposes a - measure in every way right and proper to be adopted, his ability to - give advice is questioned, his presumption condemned, his motives - suspected; and as every such measure will, almost always, have the - effect of defeating some private object, it is commonly met either by - direct rejection or some indirect contrivance for getting rid of it. - In this way intelligent and public-spirited trustees become disgusted, - and cease to attend meetings; for, besides frequently experiencing - opposition and defeat at the hands of the least worthy of their - associates, they are annoyed by the noise and language with which the - discussions are carried on, and feel themselves placed in a situation - in which they are exposed to insult and ill-usage.” - -He observes, that “Although this turnpike system has led to the making -of many new roads, and to the changing of many old ones into what may be -called good roads in comparison with what they formerly were, this -system has been carried into execution under such erroneous regulations, -and the persons who have been entrusted with the administration of them -have uniformly been either so negligent or so little acquainted with the -business of making or repairing roads, that at this moment it may be -stated with the utmost correctness that there is not a road in England, -except those recently made by some eminent civil engineers, which is not -extremely defective in the most essential qualities of a perfect road.” -To the varying extent of these defects the public are forced to ascend -unnecessary heights, travel unnecessary distances, employ more -horse-labour than would be necessary in travelling over roads that are -kept hard, dry, and level, instead of wet, soft, and rugged. From the -Report of the Commissioners appointed to inquire into the subject, it -appears that for every 200 miles of turnpike road there are, on an -average, ten surveyors: whereas, if the highways and turnpike trusts -were consolidated, one properly qualified surveyor might perform much -better the service with which the ten are charged. There are, it -appears, 1,116 turnpike trusts, comprehending about 22,000 miles. The -officers employed consist of 1,120 treasurers, 1,135 clerks, and 1,300 -surveyors: total, 3,555. The annual cost of the _repair_ of the turnpike -roads is 51_l._ per mile: total expenditure of 1,122,000_l._ per annum. -The debts amounted to upwards of 9,000,000_l._ and they appeared to be -rapidly increasing. The average expense of the _management_ of the -highway and the turnpike roads is estimated at 10_l._ per mile per -annum; but it is calculated that if the management of the turnpikes and -highways were consolidated, they might be better managed at an expense -of from 30_s._ to 2_l._ per mile per annum. On comparing the actual -expense of the repairs of roads under a scientific management of the -highways with the common cost, it appears probable that by management on -an extended and appropriate scale, upwards of 500,000_l._ per annum may -be saved on that branch of administration alone. - -The Committee of the House of Commons, which sat in 1834, examined some -of the most able engineers in the country, and a Commission subsequently -appointed, at the head of which were the Duke of Richmond and the -Marquis of Salisbury, coincided in recommending the adoption of the -principle of consolidation as the only means of retrieving that branch -of administration. - -I venture humbly to submit the grounds for the opinion in which I -believe their Lordships would concur, that the principle of -consolidation may be carried still further, and include all public works -within the locality, as the best means of obtaining for each or for all, -at the least expense, the most efficient scientific direction. - -It has been shown, in respect to drainage as well as road construction, -that the economy and efficiency of the works will be according to the -qualifications, the powers, and responsibilities of the officers -appointed to execute them, secured by legislative means, and that new -labour on the old condition, without skill, will be executed in the old -manner, extravagantly and inefficiently. But engineers or properly -qualified officers having the science of civil engineering could not be -procured for every separate purpose in every part of the country, as is -generally assumed in Acts of Parliament for effecting particular -objects. When such connected work is divided and separated, the -remuneration necessary to obtain properly qualified officers to attend -to the fragment of service is too high; the separation, therefore, in -most places, amounts to the exclusion of science from public work, or, -in other words, to its degradation. It will be found, when the works of -draining and road making and maintenance are examined, that the common -practice of making sewers on plans independently of the construction of -roads, and roads independently of the arrangements for cleansing and -keeping them dry, is always to the disadvantage of the work and to the -public. The same surface levels and surveys serve for drainage and for -road construction. The construction of the drains for roads and streets, -and the maintenance of them, are the primary and most important works; -the construction and maintenance of the surface of the road is a -connected work, subsequent in order, and can be best superintended by -the same officer. In every part of the country inconveniences and losses -are experienced from the separation of such work on almost every -occasion where repair or new construction is needed. In the towns a road -is broken up by the bursting of a sewer or the necessity of cleansing or -repairing it; the sewer is repaired, but the road is left broken, -because the road surveyor and his separate set of workmen are engaged in -some other work. In the metropolis, the breaches left in the roads by -the delay and want of concert amongst the various officers are a source -not only of great obstruction but of frequent accidents. In replacing -the pavements the water and the gas-pipes are not unfrequently put out -of order, and these again occasion another opening and another expense -to the public, for repairs. In the rural districts a road is out of -repair, but the first remedy is drainage; the road surveyor cannot -proceed because the sewers’ surveyor has his men elsewhere occupied. In -various other particulars the consolidation of the same work under the -same officer, acting with a combined staff of foremen and workmen, is -attended with advantages in efficiency and economy to which it were -unnecessary to advert, if the opposite arrangements were not the most -frequent. In the few instances that have taken place of a combination of -duties, the experience of the advantages of the combination would -occasion a proposal for separating them to be viewed as an increase of -trouble and expense, and a hinderance to the proper execution of the -work. - -In the districts where the greatest defects prevail, we find such an -array of officers for the superintendence of public structures as would -lead to the _à priori_ conclusion of a high degree of perfection in the -work from the apparent subdivision of labour in which it is distributed. -In the same petty districts we have surveyors of sewers appointed by the -commissioners of sewers, surveyors of turnpike-roads appointed by the -trustees of the turnpike trusts, surveyors of highways appointed by the -inhabitants in vestry, or by district boards under the Highway Act; paid -district surveyors appointed by the justices, surveyors of paving under -local Acts, surveyors of building under the Building Act, surveyors of -county bridges, &c. - -The qualifications of a civil engineer involve the knowledge of the -prices of the materials and labour used in construction, and also the -preparation of surveys, and the general qualifications for valuations, -which are usually enhanced by the extent of the range of different -descriptions of property with which the valuator is conversant. The -public demands for the services of such officers as valuators are often -as mischievously separated and distributed as the services for the -construction and maintenance of public works. Thus we have often, within -the same districts, one set of persons appointed for the execution of -valuations and surveys for the levy of the poor’s rates; another set for -the surveys and valuations for the assessed taxes; another for the land -tax; another for the highway rates; another for the sewers’ rates; -another for the borough rates; another for the church rates; another for -the county rates, where parishes neglect to pay, or are unequally -assessed, and for extra-parochial places; another for tithe commutation. -And these services are generally badly rendered separately at an undue -expense. - -It is in the ordinary course that local bodies would have the power of -appointing surveyors for seeing to the execution of provisions for the -regulation of buildings, on the precedent of the Metropolitan Building -Act; and these officers are paid by fees varying from 1_l._ to 3_l._ -10_s._ each building. In the towns, it is rare that one-story houses are -erected where the ground is of much value; and it will be a low average -to take all the new houses as of two stories, that, is, fourth-rate -houses, for which a fee of 2_l._ has been proposed to be paid. Before -the building surveyor can proceed, the sewers’ surveyor must have seen -that the drains are properly laid, and the builder have obtained a -certificate from him to that effect. The labour of the budding surveyor, -if properly performed, may require as much as an hour for the inspection -of each new building. But the amount of the proposed fee would in -general more than pay, in ordinary cases, for the construction of an -efficient drain for such a tenement. Any speculating builder who is -building a fourth-rate street of fifty houses, would, by removing out of -the limits of the jurisdiction, save by the removal the means of -erecting an additional house or drains for the whole of them. - -No past or proposed legislative measures prescribe any securities for -appropriate skill, or trustworthiness for the performance of such -services. It is matter of complaint in one extensive district in the -metropolis, that the duty of examining the premises is performed by -young men, junior clerks to the district surveyor. - -In proportion as science is securely allied to local administration is -its respectability enhanced and the attainment of its objects ensured. -It is dangerous to legislate in detail, for the information is not -usually available for legislative preparation against all existing local -difficulties, still less all future important contingencies. Where -detailed regulations are prescribed arbitrarily, the danger is incurred -of creating an obstacle to the work intended to be forwarded. For -example, it has been proposed that Parliament shall not only provide -“That every outer wall of every building shall be built of good, sound, -well-burnt, bricks, or good sound stone, and set in good mortar,” but -shall direct and instruct the builders, and fix, against any alteration -or improvement, the mode in which good mortar shall be made, viz., “And -the mortar and cement shall be _well_ compounded in the proportion of -_one_ part of good fresh-burnt lime or cement, and _three_ parts of -clean sharp sand;” there, however, are large tracts of country where -neither clean sand, nor sharp sand, nor sand of any sort is to be had, -and where they use smiths’ ashes for the purpose. But the use of this -material is thenceforward illegal, and no new discovery can be adopted -without the sanction of an Act of Parliament. In one large parish it was -lately desired to try a pavement of wood, when it was discovered that -the local Act prescribed the use of granite for pavement. In the -impracticability of carrying out all such detail, or from default of -defining the ends and prescribing the attainment instead of the means, -or stating the means generally, as that a wall shall be built “of -incombustible materials,” it is in the usual course to require that -important work shall be done in such manner as “shall be satisfactory to -the surveyor who shall inspect the same,” or “according to the -directions of the surveyor of the district;” _e. g._, that no chimney -shall be built more than six feet high, “unless the same shall be -secured by sufficient iron stays of such strength and dimensions, and to -be fixed in such manner as shall be approved of by the surveyor who -shall inspect the building.” The objections entertained by builders of -respectability to the granting of such large powers, is founded on the -certainty as to the character of the appointments of surveyors to be -hereafter made if no other securities than mere general directions be -taken in respect to them for the public protection. It may be a rival -builder who is appointed, and it is very certain to be generally a -person in trade by whom the power is exercised, whose dissatisfaction -with work really fair and good may be governed by sinister -considerations against which a fair builder will feel he has no defence; -but the greater danger is to the public, that no dissatisfaction may be -expressed with work that is cheap but unsound. The building covers bad -drains, and hides rotten walls, and the effects in the calamities of -spreading fires and falling houses, and calamities of sufferings, and -deaths, occur in after years, when the original defect may not be -detected by the closest examination, and when all concerned may have -departed. - -If the services of men of independent position, with the science and -qualifications of engineers, were secured, their inspection of works -would often be invited, and the notice they could not fail to take of -unintentional and profitless errors, such as wrong levels, which detract -from the convenience and value of tenements, would be of much value and -be received cordially, and the exercise of discretionary authority in -such hands would meet with comparatively respectful obedience. - -No one can have had occasion to examine much of the business of local -administration, without being aware of other evils entailed by the -multiplication of badly appointed officer’s in addition to the evils of -excessive cost and bad quality of the service to the ratepayers. One of -the evils is the fuel they add to the flames of local parties, by which -both parties are generally losers. Where special and scientific -qualifications are not defined, or, if defined, not secured—where the -most fatal errors, as in this instance, are shrouded by the nature of -the work from detection—all the idle dependents of election committees -who have time to spare, because they have failed in their own business -for want of steady application, and because their time is worthless, are -let in as candidates, and in proportion to the absence of security for -qualifications is the extent of expectation created and disappointment -ensured. The dreadful state of the labouring classes in the most -important towns,—the entire neglect of existing sanitary -regulations,—the apathy to repeated remonstrances that have been made by -eminent medical practitioners, as by Dr. Ferrier in Manchester and by -Dr. Currie of Liverpool,—the entire neglect of recommendations made by -them, which, if carried out, would have protected those communities from -immense burdens, from pestilence and slaughters worse than many wars, -and from an enfeebled, diseased, and, by physical causes, a degraded -generation of workpeople,—the resistance made from no other manifest -cause than a blind jealousy of interference, to the exercise of powers -that can have no other object than to prevent the like evils for the -future,—all indicate the conclusion as to the nature of the arrangements -to be expected from those who have by familiarity become insensible to -the means of preventing the evils which fall with the greatest weight on -the least protected classes. - -Supposing population and new buildings for their accommodation to -proceed at the rate at which they have hitherto done in the boroughs, -and supposing all the new houses to be only fourth rate, the expense, at -the ordinary rate of payment of surveyors’ fees, would be about -30,000_l._ per annum for the new houses alone. Fees of half the amount -required for every new building are allowed for every alteration of an -old one, and the total expense of such structures would probably be near -50,000_l._ in the towns alone—an expense equal to the pay of the whole -corps of Royal Engineers, or 240 men of science, for Great Britain and -Ireland.[43] - -But at the rate of increase of the population, of Great Britain, which -is 230,000 per annum, (_i. e._ equal in population to the annual -addition of a new county, such as Worcester or the North Riding of -Yorkshire,[44] and to accommodate them 59,000 new tenements are -required, or a number equal to that of two new towns annually such as -Manchester proper, which has 32,310 houses, and Birmingham, which has -27,268 houses,) affording, if all that have equal need receive equal -care, fees to the amount of no less than from 80,000_l._ to 100,000_l._ -per annum. This would afford payment equal to that of the whole corps of -sappers and miners, or nearly 1000 trained men, in addition to the corps -of engineers. - -From a consideration of the science and skill now obtained for the -public from these two corps for general service, some conception may be -formed of the science and skill that might be obtained in appointments -for local service, by pre-appointed securities for the possession of the -like qualifications, but which are now thrown away in separate -appointments at an enormous expense, where qualifications are entirely -neglected. - -The officers of the engineer corps have the execution and care of -structural works, docks and dock-yards, fortifications, military roads, -and barracks, in addition to the ordinary military duties. One captain -of engineers fills the office of hydraulic engineer to the Admiralty, -and to his superintendence is intrusted the construction and repairs of -all the docks, buildings, and other public works. - -The officers of the engineers have been distinguished for their services -on some of the most important civil commissions. As collateral services -which they have rendered to the public, may be mentioned the -trigonometrical survey of Ireland, and that now in progress for England -under the Board of Ordnance, and also the geological survey. The -levelling, however, and the whole of the detail of the trigonometrical -survey in England, is taken by the privates, corporals, and sergeants of -the corps of sappers and miners, who have been instructed in geometry, -drawing, and mensuration at the school at Chatham. The triangulation for -the detail of this work is executed by the engineer officers under the -direction of the superintendent of the survey, Colonel Colby. The great -majority of the surveys obtained under the Parochial Survey and -Valuation Act from private surveyors have been inferior to the surveys -executed under superintendence by the privates and non-commissioned -officers of the sappers and miners serving at a pay of from 1_s._ 2_d._ -to 3_s._, per diem. Out of 1700 first-class maps received under the -Parochial Assessment and Tithe Acts, not more than one-half displayed -qualifications for the execution of public surveys without -superintendence. Amongst the most satisfactory maps of the first class -of parochial surveys were those executed by a retired sergeant of -sappers and miners. The Commissioners for the colonization of South -Australia found it difficult to proceed satisfactorily with persons of -the ordinary qualifications of surveyors or civil engineers for that -country; and deemed it requisite to obtain the services of an engineer -officer, with a suitable number of trained men, sappers and miners, -under his command. - -But for the construction and care of local works, sewers, roads, and -drains and houses, no qualification whatsoever is usually conceived to -be requisite. The chairman of the Holborn and Finsbury Commission of -Sewers, where a change of management so beneficial to the health, and so -economical of the funds of the ratepayers, was obtained by placing the -work under the direction of an engineer, informed me that when that -commission advertised for a person to act as surveyor to the works who -understood the use of the spirit level, the candidates, who were nearly -all common housebuilders, were greatly surprised at the novel demand, -and several of them began to learn the use of that instrument in order -to qualify them for the appointment. In the canvassing letters which I -have seen for parochial or local surveyorships, I never observed -qualifications for skill or science even adverted to; and where a -special qualification happens to be prescribed by statute, it is not -regarded. For example, the Act of the 5 and 6 _Wm._ IV. enables the -parochial vestries to appoint as surveyor a person of “skill and -experience” to serve the office of surveyor of such parish. As an -example of this description of appointments, I may mention one where, in -an important district, the person appointed was an illiterate tinman, a -leading speaker at parish meetings, who, for a service occupying a part -of his time, receives a salary of 150_l._ per annum, _i. e._, as much as -a lieutenant of engineers and a private, or as much as three sergeants -of sappers and miners, whose whole time is devoted to the public -service. - -The mode in which such emoluments are at present wasted in the course of -administration under the Building Acts, and the extent of science and -skill that might be obtained for all purposes by the same amount of -money, may be seen by the rate of surveyors’ emoluments for a single -town. I submit, for example, the town of Leeds. There the average rate -of increase of houses having been 855 per annum, and of families 940, it -may be assumed that they will continue to increase at the same rate, -that is, of two new houses and three-tenths per diem, which, if they -were only fourth-rate houses, would be required to pay in fees 4_l._ -12_s._ per diem for two or three hours’ service at the ordinary rate of -payment to private surveyors. If we bear in mind the evidence as to the -character of the past appointments, and of the works themselves, and -consider that, where no securities are taken for qualifications, none -will be found except by accident, the contrast with the payment for the -services of men of superior qualifications will be clearly perceived. -Such an amount of emolument would defray the expense of a whole Board of -superior officers at the rate of pay to the officers of the corps of -engineers:— - - _Board of Officers._ - - £. _s._ _d._ - 1 Colonel 1 6 3 - 1 Lieutenant-colonel 0 18 1 - 2 Captains, at 11_s._ 1_d._ 1 2 2 - 2 First lieutenants, at 6_s._ 10_d._ 0 13 8 - 2 Second ditto, at 5_s._ 7_d._ 0 11 2 - —— —— —— - 4 11 4 - -Or if unity of direction and execution were required, the staff of -officers and men at the rate of pay for general service from the public -would be as follows. The rate of pay therein stated is subsistence pay: -the half-fees for every alteration made in a building would in most -cases suffice for the extra pay given to officers and men in active -service:— - - £. _s._ _d._ - 1 Captain 0 11 1 - 2 First lieutenants 0 13 8 - 3 Second ditto 0 16 9 - 1 Colour-sergeant 0 3 0½ - 3 Sergeants, at 2_s._ 6½_d._ 0 7 7½ - 6 Corporals, at 2_s._ 2½_d._ 0 13 3 - 22 Privates, at 1_s._ 2½_d._ 1 6 7 - —— —— —— - 4 12 0 - -The high rates of remuneration ordinarily given for fragments of -practically irresponsible service, would not only serve to defray the -expense of direction by scientific officers, but of execution by trained -subordinate officers. - -The following return will afford a display of the comparative rate of -emoluments in other towns from fees on the ordinary scale of surveyors’ -fees:— - - Rate of Rate of No. of New Rate of - Increase of Increase of Houses per Surveyors’ Fees - Families per Houses per Diem. per Diem for - Annum. Annum. Fourthclass - Houses. - - £. _s._ _d._ - - Liverpool 1205 638 1‑7/10 3 8 0 - - Leeds 940 855 2‑3/10 4 12 0 - - Manchester 590 589 1‑6/10 3 4 0 - - Birmingham 561 474 1‑3/10 2 12 0 - -For the construction of efficient works for drainage, it is shown that -science is indispensable. If scientific officers be chosen for this one -purpose, if the objectionable mode of remuneration by fees be preserved, -since they are required to inspect the foundations of houses for the -purpose of drainage, they might for one-fourth of the proposed fee be -required to give inspection to the remainder of the work, and the -process of double certificates and divided responsibility be saved. Even -if the amount of work were in particular places too great to be -performed by one person, it would be better, and less expensive, that it -should be performed by him through an assistant, for whose defaults he -should be responsible. A reduction of the accustomed fees to one-fourth, -or of the aggregate emoluments obtainable under a general Building Act -to 15,000_l._ or 20,000_l._ per annum would still entail the loss of so -much money that might serve to secure superior scientific service; -whilst in the less populous districts the payment for the separate duty -of verifying the fact of compliance with the provisions of the Act would -be too small to ensure the service of competent and responsible -officers. - -Besides the evils inherent in narrow districts, and the splitting of -connected functions which prevent the application of science by -preventing the appointment of scientific officers, there are other evils -attendant on such small jurisdictions and separation of functions, -namely, in the mode in which the money for such expenditure is levied. -The popular jealousy is excited by the further multiplication of -unnecessary offices, as of clerks and collectors, but real annoyance is -given by the consequent increased expense of separate collections. The -prevalent repugnance to direct taxation in any shape has hitherto been -greatly owing to the cause of grievances experienced in the number and -oppressiveness of the collections incidental to the ordinary local -taxation. Those collections confuse and obstruct the rate payers’ -economy. Where there are a number of rates collected at different -periods, some are forgotten and not provided for; and when demanded, -they fall with the inconvenience and create the irritation of a new tax. -The householder may have paid the collector of his poor’s rates, then -the collector of his assessed taxes, then the collector of the land tax, -then the collector of the watch rates, then the collector of his paving -rates, then his lighting rates, then his water rates, and then he thinks -he has done, when a collector calls to demand the payment of the church -rates; he may have paid him, when another collector appears to demand -the payment of a sewers’ rate for two years, probably for the period of -a former tenant, and for which the tenant on whom the demand is levied -receives no apparent advantage. A witness says[45] (2231), “In Limehouse -there had not been a sewer built for 100 and odd years, and there are -2000 houses, and not a sewer to them.” Another states (2066), “In one -case a sewer rate of 6_d._ in the pound was levied for 10 years, without -even surface drainage;” and in that case the party paid another rate to -a trust for paving, lighting, and making drainage. “We could claim six -years,” says another witness (860); “three years’ rates in arrear, as -against former occupiers, were levied on the incoming tenants” (1798). - -In a house receiving no benefit, the occupier, having refused to pay the -rate ten years, and having paid it but once in 1827, the commissioners, -when he left (1834) the house, “distrained on the new comer, and tore -down the corn-bin,” &c. His solicitor previously wrote to them that the -occupier was out of town, and wished them to abstain from taking any -violent measures, at the same time offering on his part to refer the -matter to any competent person (2328). In another case of aggravated -proceeding, Mr. William Baker, who was clerk to a like commission, -complained of the state of the sewerage, and of the rates in another -commission. He did not resist the rate, “for he knew very well what the -powers of the commissioners are, and it was not worth his while to -resist so strong a body.” The assessments of sewers’ rates are seldom -strictly legal. - -Such rates, being small in amount, they are levied at long intervals, -for the collection at once of a sum sufficient to defray the expense of -collection; and because they are collected at long intervals, the -irritation and resistance and trouble is great, and an additional sum is -paid by the public for the collector’s share of the trouble of the -collection. For the collection of the assessed taxes 3_d._ in the pound -is paid; for the collection of the sewers’ rates from 6_d._ to 1_s._ in -the pound is usually paid. I venture to state, that by a consolidation -of the collection of such charges, enough may be saved of money -(independently of the saving of oppression and irritation) from the -collection of the one local tax, the sewers’ rate, to pay the expense of -the services of scientific officers throughout the country. At present -the high constable collects the county rate from every parish, and -carries it to the county treasurer, in the county town, and charges for -the expense of a journey. By an easy alteration, by payment by cheques -from the union treasurer to the county treasurer, in one county (Kent) -1000_l._ per annum might be saved, or enough to defray the immediate -expense of constructing permanent drains for upwards of 500 tenements. -What might be gained on this head for immediate expenditure, in most -towns, will be shown in the following extract, from the evidence of _Mr. -Simkiss_, the auditor of the Wolverhampton union:— - - What are the amounts of the chief local rates collected, in round - numbers?—The poor’s rates are about 4000_l._, the highway rates about - 2000_l._, and there are rates levied by commissioners under a local - Act for lighting, watching, and improving the town, amounting to about - 3000_l._ in round numbers. - -On his admission of the practicability of combining with advantage the -superintendence of all this expenditure by one Board in such a town, a -combination of which there are several examples, he observes:— - - The greatest public advantage in having those duties united would be - the collection of the whole of the rates in one sum by the same - individual, and payment afterwards to the several purposes. - - What are the present disadvantages of a separate collection of these - rates?—First, that there are three collectors to pay instead of one. - 1_s._ in the pound is paid to the collector of the highway rates, - which is supposed to produce 100_l._ per annum. The collector of the - poor’s rates is paid by a fixed salary of 150_l._ per annum. The - collector of the commissioners’ rates is paid 8_d._ in the pound, and - he gets upwards of 100_l._ per annum. If the collection of the rates - were consolidated, they might be collected for 200_l._ per annum, and - upwards of 150_l._ per annum might be saved in salaries alone; but a - much larger sum might be saved by a more efficient collection of the - smaller rates. The surveyor’s rates and the commissioners’ rates not - being sufficient to occupy the whole time of separate individuals, - they attend to other things, and consequently much money is lost by - the delay in the operation. Parties remove, or die, or leave the town. - Three times the amount has been lost in Wolverhampton on the - collection of the highway rate as compared with the poor’s rates. The - highway rate and the commissioners’ rates, each being made for twelve - months, the collectors usually collect from the large rate payers - first; considerable time elapses before the smaller payers are called - upon, consequently much is lost by the delay. I have known it that the - highway rate has not been demanded in some parts of the town for seven - or eight months after it has been granted. The surveyors of highways, - and the commissioners of improvements, not taking so much care in - obtaining securities for the smaller rates, run greater risks of - defalcation. I do not advert to the collectors of the smaller rates in - our town, but the collectors of the smaller rates, being tradesmen, - usually use the public money in their trades, and there is frequently - much peculation. The accounts of the collection and expenditure of the - smaller rates are generally badly kept. - -What I have already submitted will, I hope, suffice to sustain the -recommendation, that at the least nothing should be done to aggravate -the existing state of complication and waste, by new divisions of -service and the unnecessary additions of new and unqualified officers, -and that everything should be done to guard against the continued -reproduction of the evils in question in districts where there is clear -ground. It would, I apprehend, be practicable in the old districts to -superadd the appointments of officers, with proper qualifications, -without any diminution of the emoluments of the existing paid officers -or any material disturbance of them. - -When the great importance of the general land drainage to the health of -those who labour upon it and to their most productive employment is -fully considered, it will, I conceive, be found entitled to all -collateral aid, to which an additional title would be conferred by equal -contribution of the owners and occupiers to the expenses of public -drainage. If officers of proper qualifications and responsibilities were -appointed, the works for sewerage branching from the towns, and the road -drainage, could not fail to aid, as indeed I conceive it should be -directed to aid, the private land drainage. The same surface levels and -sewerage, if made on the scale proposed by the Poor Law and Tithe -Commissioners (namely, of three chains to an inch) would serve for all -civil purposes, whether of towns or general land drainage, or road -drainage, for determining the descent of streams, for the application of -the water of which it is desirable to rid the upland wastes, and would -frequently be most beneficially applied for the use of the towns, and -for the use of the poorer districts. - -The appointment of persons having the scientific qualifications and -position of civil engineers might serve to supply a want which is -generally found to be the chief impediment to the drainage of land -subdivided amongst numerous small holders, namely, the means of -reference or appeal to some authority deriving confidence from skill and -impartiality to determine on the need of works, and the mode of -executing them, or to arbitrate; and on the compensation due from damage -arising from them. Given such an authority, and in those small, but, -from their great number, most important cases, where the expense of an -application to Parliament is out of the question, it might, be safe to -say, by a general provision, that the inhabitants of a town may procure -springs of water, and make, deepen, and scour drains through the -circumjacent district; that regulations may be made for arching over or -covering the sewers to proper distances from the towns; for the purchase -of ground, and for the erection of works for rendering the refuse of the -towns available for agricultural purposes: power might also be given to -lay pipes in the highways, to put plugs for the supplies of water -against fires, and for watering the roads. - -On referring to the experience of the efforts made in Ireland for the -drainage and reclaiming of bog lands, by which large tracts would be -obtained, it appears that the working of legislative measures for those -purposes have extensively failed, because the landowners had not -sufficient security that the work would be properly planned and -executed.[46] - -I would here beg leave to guard myself from an apparent inconsistency. -In 1838, I was examined before a committee of the House of Commons on -their resolution, “That it is expedient that the parishes, townships, -and extra-parochial places should be united in districts for the repair -of the highways throughout England and Wales.” On that occasion I -adverted to the evil of the unnecessary multiplication of new -establishments as well as new officers, to their inevitable inefficiency -and to the expense and obstruction to improvement which they created; -and I submitted these, amongst other grounds, for proposing that the new -duties should devolve on the boards of guardians of the new unions, as -such duties had been in various instances combined under local Acts. The -committee recommended the proposal for adoption. On the premises then -placed before me, as to the expediency of establishing a new -administrative body with new clerks and officers for the collection and -management of the fund for repairs of the highways _alone_, and in small -districts for which even the areas of unions were thought large, I -should still adhere to the same conclusion.[47] - -The present inquiry, however, has shown the general primary importance -of the works of sewerage and drainage throughout the country. The -execution of those works would properly devolve upon the commissioners -of sewers already in existence in the towns, or in the marsh districts, -or upon commissions of sewers which it will be found necessary to issue -to places where there has been no need of surface drainage, but which -stand in need of under-drainage. These being the primary works for -making the ground clear and keeping it clear for all other works, would -necessarily require the highest science and skill, and the strongest -establishment; and it would be only carrying farther the principle of -consolidation, as the only means of obtaining the most efficient -service, the most conveniently and at the lowest cost, now to recommend -that the care of the roads should, of all structural works, be made to -devolve upon that body which has the best means of executing them, -namely, the commissions of sewers, revised as to jurisdiction, and -amended and strengthened as to power and responsibility. What Colonel J. -F. Burgoyne, the experienced chairman of the Board of Works in Ireland, -stated in his evidence before the committee of the House Commons in -1836, (question 35,) on the consolidation of the turnpike trusts, may be -applied to the consolidation of other local works:—“One office and -account will then do for the whole; a superior superintendent could then -be employed, and more perfect machinery; the means will be more -generally available, and can be concentrated where required, by which -the works will be carried on with more advantage, and a system of -regular and rigid maintenance can be established so much more economical -and beneficial than that of occasional and periodical repairs.” - -It is due to state that in petitions from ratepayers much -dissatisfaction is expressed with the proceedings of the commissions of -sewers, and their objectionable working is assigned to their -irresponsibility, and a favourite remedy proposed is to make them -elective; but if the administration of expenditure by elective vestries -be examined, it is found to be no better; and of entirely open vestries, -even worse; and the practical responsibility for injustice done to -individuals, or to any one who cannot get up a party, still less. It -may, however, be submitted for consideration, whether the commissions -for sewers might not be so far modified as to admit some infusion of the -representative principle in their composition, by including, as -ex-officio members of the commission, the chairman and vice-chairmen for -the time being of the Boards of Guardians of the poor law unions -included within the jurisdiction of the commission. These officers are -elected by the elected representatives of the ratepayers—the guardians. -It will be seen that much of the evil which the preventive measures -within the province of the commission of sewers must provide against, is -presented, in the first instance, to the Board of Guardians, in the -shape of claims to relief on the ground of destitution occasioned by -sickness. The chairman or the vice-chairman, before whom the cases are -thus brought, would form an efficient medium of communication. The -measures of drainage and structural improvement are permanent -improvements of the greatest importance to the labouring men, in common -with other classes; but it is matter of fact that such improvements are -the least supported by those who have the least permanent interest—the -smaller occupiers; or by those who have the least means and have the -greatest dread of immediate expenses—the smaller owners. The chairmen -and the vice-chairmen of the unions in the rural districts are, however, -the chief landed proprietors, who are elected by the guardians for the -interest they take in the improvement of local administration. The most -important improvements in the residences of the labouring classes that -have been brought to view by this inquiry have arisen from the -spontaneous benevolence of the larger proprietors; and so much -improvement must depend upon their voluntary exertion, that, for the -sake of the labouring classes, it recommends itself as an important -arrangement, that those who, as chairmen of the Boards, have the -distribution of relief to the destitution attendant on sickness, should -be placed in a position to represent the need of the means of -prevention, and urge forward their execution. - -When the extent of the removable causes of sickness and mortality are -more clearly and extensively understood, as they will be, the Board of -Guardians will of necessity occupy much of the position of the Leet, as -a body fitted to act on complaints made, and to reclaim the execution of -the law against omissions and infractions which occasion illness or -injury to the most helpless classes. - - - _Boards of Health, or Public Officers for the Prevention of Disease._ - -In reports and communications, the institution of district Boards of -Health is frequently recommended, but in general terms, and they nowhere -specify what shall be their powers, how they shall seek out information -or receive it, and how act upon it. The recommendation is also -sanctioned by the committee which sat to inquire into the health of -large towns; and the committee state that “the principal duty and object -of these boards of health would be precautionary and preventive, to turn -the public attention to the causes of illness, and to suggest means by -which the sources of contagion might be removed.” “Such boards would -probably have a clerk, paid for his services, whose duty it would be to -make minutes of the proceedings, and give such returns in a short -tabular form as might be useful for reference, and important, as -affording easy information on a subject of such vital interest to the -people.” - -I would submit that it is shown by the evidence collected in the present -inquiry, that the great preventives—drainage, street and house cleansing -by means of supplies of water and improved sewerage, and especially the -introduction of cheaper and more efficient modes of removing all noxious -refuse from the towns—are operations for which aid must be sought from -the science of the civil engineer, not from the physician, who has done -his work when he has pointed out the disease that results from the -neglect of proper administrative measures, and has alleviated the -sufferings of the victims. After the cholera had passed, several of the -local boards of health that were appointed on its appearance continued -their meetings and made representations; but the alarm had passed, and -although the evils represented were often much greater than the cholera, -the representations produced no effect, and the boards broke up. In -Paris a Board of Health has been in operation during several years, but -if their operations, as displayed in their reports, be considered, it -will be evident that, although they have examined many important -questions and have made representations, recommending for practical -application some of the principles developed in the course of the -present inquiry; still as they had no executive power, their -representations have produced no effect, and the labouring population of -Paris is shown to be, with all the advantages of climate, in a sanitary -condition even worse than the labouring population of London. In the -Appendix I have submitted a translation of a report descriptive of the -labours of the Conseil de Salubrité, in Paris. From this report it will -be seen that they have few or no initiative functions, and that they are -chiefly called into action by references made to them by the public -authorities to examine and give their opinion on medical questions that -may arise in the course of public administration as to what -manufacturing or other operations are or are not injurious to the public -health. - -The action of a board of health upon such evils as those in question -must depend upon the arrangements for bringing under its notice the -evils to be remedied. A body of gentlemen sitting in a room will soon -find themselves with few means of action if there be no agency to bring -the subject matters before them; and an inquiring agency to seek out the -evils from house to house, wherever those evils may be found, to follow -on the footsteps of the private practitioner would be apparently -attended with much practical difficulty. - -The statements of the condition of considerable proportions of the -labouring population of the towns into which the present inquiries have -been carried have been received with surprise by persons of the -wealthier classes living in the immediate vicinity, to whom the facts -were as strange as if they related to foreigners or the natives of an -unknown country. When Dr. Arnott with myself and others were examining -the abodes of the poorest classes in Glasgow and Edinburgh, we were -regarded with astonishment; and it was frequently declared by the -inmates, that they had never for many years witnessed the approach or -the presence of persons of that condition near them. We have found that -the inhabitants of the front houses in many of the main streets of those -towns and of the metropolis, have never entered the adjoining courts, or -seen the interior of any of the tenements, situate at the backs of their -own houses, in which their own workpeople or dependents reside. - -The duty of visiting loathsome abodes, amidst close atmospheres -compounded of smoke and offensive odours, and everything to revolt the -senses, is a duty which can only be expected to be regularly performed -under much stronger motives than can commonly be imposed on honorary -officers, and cannot be depended upon even from paid officers where they -are not subjected to strong checks. The examination of loathsome prisons -has gained one individual a national and European celebrity. Yet we have -seen that there are whole streets of houses, composing some of the wynds -of Glasgow and Edinburgh, and great numbers of the courts in London, and -the older towns in England, in which the condition of every inhabited -room, and the physical condition of the inmates, is even more horrible -than the worst of the dungeons that Howard ever visited. In Ireland -provisions for the appointment of Boards of Health have been made, but -they appear to have failed entirely. One of the medical practitioners -examined before the Committee of the House of Commons was asked, in -respect to the operation of these provisions:— - - “3297. But in ordinary times, when the fever is not of very great - intensity, and is confined to the dwellings of the humbler classes, - there is no such provision put into force?—No, but then there is - another provision which may be put into force; this Act provides, that - ‘whenever in any city, town, or district, any fever or contagious - distemper shall prevail, or be known to exist, it shall and may be - lawful for any one or more magistrates, upon the requisition of five - respectable householders, to convene a meeting of the magistrates and - householders of such city, town, or district, and of the medical - practitioners within the same, in order to examine into the - circumstances attending such fever or contagious distemper.’ There is - another Act of 59 Geo. III., c. 41, which enables the parishes to - appoint officers of health; that is, a permanent power. Those officers - have very considerable authority; they can assess a rate. - - “3298. Are they appointed?—They are appointed, I think, in all the - parishes in Dublin except two; but they are inoperative: they are - unpaid, and it is a very disgusting duty. They can be made to serve, - but there is no control as to the amount of service they perform; so - that the provision is quite inoperative, unless an alarm exists. - - “3299. Do you not think the appointment of some such officers, - properly appointed, properly paid, and having reasonable power, for - the purpose of suggesting and enforcing such measures as shall be - beneficial, would be highly valuable?—I am sure it would, and it would - save an amazing quantity of expenditure to the country.” - -It has only been under the strong pressure of professional duties by the -physicians and paid medical and relieving officers responsible for -visiting the abodes of the persons reduced to destitution by disease -that the condition of those abodes in the metropolis have of late been -known; and I believe that it is only under continued pressure and strong -responsibilities and interests in prevention that investigation will be -carried into such places, and the extensive physical causes of disease -be effectually eradicated. - -Whilst experience gives little promise even of inquiries from such a -body as Boards of Health without responsibilities, still less of any -important results from the mere representations of such bodies separated -from executive authority, I would submit for consideration what appears -to me a more advantageous application of medical science, viz., by -uniting it with boards having executive authority. - -Now, the claim to relief on the ground of destitution created by -sickness, which carries the medical officer of the union to the interior -of the abode of the sufferer, appears to be the means of carrying -investigation precisely to the place where the evil is the most rife, -and where the public intervention is most called for. In the metropolis -the number of cases of fever alone on which the medical officers were -required to visit the applicants for relief, at their own residences, -amounted during one year to nearly 14,000. The number of medical -officers attached to the new unions throughout the country, and engaged -in visiting the claimants to relief on account of sickness, is at this -time about 2300. - -Were it practicable to attach as numerous a body of paid officers to any -local Boards of Health that could be established, it would scarcely be -practicable to insure as certain and well directed an examination of the -residences of the labouring classes as I conceive may be ensured from -the medical officers of the unions. In support of these anticipations of -the efficiency of the agency. of the medical officers when directed to -the formation of sanitary measures, I beg leave to refer to the -experience of a partial trial of them under a clause of the recent -Metropolitan Police Act, by which it is provided, that if the guardians -of the poor of an union or parish, or the churchwardens and overseers of -the poor of any parish within the Metropolitan Police district, together -with the medical officer of any such parish or union, shall be of -opinion, and shall certify under the hands of two or more of such -guardians, churchwardens, and overseers, and of such medical officer, -that any house, or part of any house, is in such a filthy unwholesome -condition that the health of the inmates is thereby endangered, then the -magistrates may, after due notice to the occupiers, cause the house to -be cleansed at his expense. - -The defects of the provision are, that it only authorizes cleansing and -not providing for the means of cleansing and personal cleanliness, by -directing supplies of water to be laid on; that it does not extend to -the alterations of the external condition of the dwelling; that the -immediate expense falls upon the occupier, who is usually in so abject a -state of destitution as to serve as a barrier to any proceeding -apparently tending to any penal infliction. With all these -disadvantages, its working may be submitted to show the general -eligibility of the medical officers of unions as officers for the -execution of sanitary measures. The following account is given by the -clerk to the Board of Guardians of Bethnal Green of the working of the -provision in that part of the metropolis:— - - _Mr. William Brutton._—We have taken prompt measures to execute the - clause of the Metropolitan Police Act, and the Commissioners’ - recommendations upon it, in our parish, and the effect produced has - already been beneficial. For example, the medical officer recently - reported, through me, to the Board of Guardians, that fever had arisen - in certain small tenements in a court called Nicholl’s Court, and that - it was likely to spread amongst the poorer classes in the district. He - reported that others of the houses than those in which fever existed - (and the inmates) were in a filthy condition, and that, unless - measures were taken for cleansing them properly, fever must - necessarily ensue. The Board, on receiving this communication, desired - me to proceed instantly, and take such measures as appeared to me to - be necessary for the abatement and prevention of the evil. I - immediately obtained a summons from the magistrates for the attendance - of the owner of the houses. He came directly, and stated that he was - not aware that the premises were in the condition in which our medical - officer had found them; and he promised that measures should be taken - for proper cleansing. Those measures were taken: the furniture of the - houses was taken out and washed; the houses were lime-washed. Some of - those who were ill died, but the progress of the fever was certainly - arrested. - - The Board followed up these proceedings by circulating the - Commissioners’ instruction and form of notification in every part of - the parish. But the proceeding had a very good effect in the immediate - neighbourhood. The proceeding was observed by the neighbours, and - there is every reason to believe that they have set to work to cleanse - and prevent a similar visitation. We have also learned that the - landlords of some of these smaller tenements have been rather more - particular than before: they have said we must see to the cleansing of - these places lest we should be had up for it before the magistrates. - - The guardians, considering the form of notifications useful, have - directed that they should be issued periodically before the times when - disease usually appears. In the course of a fortnight or three weeks - hence, when the equinoctial gales prevail, and when we have usually - much sickness and claims to relief, we shall probably have another - issue of the notifications. - - We have also given instructions to the relieving officer, as well as - the medical officer, to report on the existence of any filth or things - likely to be productive of disease that he may observe in the course - of his visits to the houses where he is called by the claims to - relief. The services of the relieving officer are highly important, as - he has an opportunity of observing the state of filth and the obvious - predisposition, and perhaps of causes of disease, preventing it before - the visits of the medical officer, who is of course only called upon - to attend when disease has arisen. The relieving officers visit more - frequently than the medical officer, and give the tickets or orders - requiring his attendance. - - You are Commissioner of the Sewers in the Tower Hamlets, are you - not?—Yes, I am. - - And you are of course aware of their procedure?—Yes. - - Do you think that body would be available for the execution of - sanitary measures?—Certainly not as compared with the Board of - Guardians: the Commissioners of Sewers meet only monthly, and have no - medical officers and no relieving officers. The Board of Guardians - meets weekly, and their officers are constantly at work, night and - morning. We have not even waited for the landlords, where prompt - measures appeared to be necessary for the removal of any active cause - of disease. Where cesspools have overflowed, and where there has been - a stoppage of water, we have directed the surveyor of the roads to - ascertain the cause of the stoppage, and to remedy the mischief - forthwith. - - But what legal right have the guardians had to do that: they have no - legal right to direct the road surveyor in the performance of his - duties?—Strictly speaking, we have not, but we have forcibly suggested - it as a matter of expediency. - - Between the notification of the evil and the execution of the remedy, - in the example you have cited by the Board of Guardians, what length - of time elapsed?—From the Friday to the Monday following. - - What time, so far as you have had experience, need ordinarily elapse - if execution follow immediately on the report?—Execution would follow - immediately on the order of the Board of Guardians. I think, however, - that the union officers should, in case of emergency, have a summary - acting power immediately for the preservation of life. The Guardians - thought their examination of the spot unnecessary after the report of - the medical officer. - -The following is the examination of the clerk to the Strand union as to -the practical working of the same measure in another district:— - -_Mr. James Corder_, clerk to the Strand union, examined;— - - What has been done in the Strand union in respect to the provisions of - the Metropolitan Police Act, 2 and 3 Vict., c. 71, sec. 41, with - respect to the powers conferred by that statute for the cleansing of - houses which are in an unwholesome condition? - - The attention of the medical officers was immediately drawn to the - section of the Act, and the instructions of the Poor Law Commissioners - relating thereto; and the result has been that proceedings have been - had in several cases, in all of which the necessary cleansing has been - performed by the owners, without the guardians being driven to the - necessity of causing the requisite lime-whiting and cleansing to be - done. The medical officer had frequently complained of the condition - of the places into which the cleansing had been carried. Those places - had for years been in the filthiest and most unwholesome condition: in - some courts and alleys the pavements were covered with an accumulation - of the most offensive matter, including the carcases of dead animals, - such as dogs and cats, which the scavengers said formed no part of - their contract to remove: their contract was only to cleanse the - carriage ways. Some of these courts and alleys abound in the principal - thoroughfares in the metropolis. The public, in passing through a - thoroughfare like the Strand, would scarcely imagine that an evil of - so much magnitude was close at hand. - - The powers conferred by the clause in question appears to be - restricted to the cleansing of the houses and the passages within the - cartilage. What proceedings did the guardians take with relation to - these external passages? - - They directed the condition of the places to be represented to the - Commissioners for paving and cleansing the district, who caused the - filth complained of to be removed. The cleansing of the footways, - however, forms no part of the duty of the Commissioners of Pavement, - nor of their surveyor, nor of the scavenger appointed by them; and - what was done was done extra-officially. - - It cannot, therefore, be relied upon for the future? - - No; and it is to be observed that the Metropolitan Paving Act - evidently contemplates that the cleansing of the footways shall be - done by the inmates of the houses. In the poorer districts, however, - this is entirely omitted to be done; in addition to which these courts - and alleys are frequently made, on account of their obscurity, a - depository for most offensive matter. In the better neighbourhoods, - the service of cleansing is performed by the servants; but the poor - people, who rise before daylight, go to their work, and return at a - late hour, have no time to cleanse their courts, and their earnings - are too scanty to allow payment to others for the performance of the - duty. In the better neighbourhoods, the cleansing does not always take - place. The medical officers report, that there is a better average - health in the streets that are well cleansed than in others where the - people are otherwise in the same condition of life. - - What are the main defects you have experienced in respect to the - provision of the Metropolitan Police Act, empowering the guardians to - take measures for cleansing houses? - - First, the delay which must take place before the provisions of the - Act can be put in operation. The medical officer has first to make his - report to the Board of Guardians; several days elapse before the Board - meets: then guardians have to inspect the premises in conjunction with - the medical officer previously to certifying as to the state thereof: - then application is made to the magistrate, who issues his summons, - returnable in seven days; at the expiration of which, if the cleansing - be not performed, the guardians are empowered to cause it to be done; - but they must first obtain a magistrate’s warrant for the purpose. All - this engenders delay; in addition to which our guardians have, in the - first instance, caused the landlord to be written to with a view to - prevent further proceedings, which in some instances have been - successful; but when it is not successful, it creates a further delay, - during which disease may rapidly increase and spread. The second - defect of the provision is, that the owners are not liable for the - expenses incurred; and the occupiers are mostly of the poorest class, - who have no effects on which a distraint could be made. With all these - difficulties, however, this provision has been very beneficial in its - operation; and it is very much to be desired that larger facilities - should be afforded for carrying its intention more fully into effect. - It may be added, that the medical officer should have remuneration for - the trouble he entails upon himself, by a report, in attending before - magistrates, until the object is effected. - -_Mr. John Smith_, the clerk to the Whitechapel union:— - - Have you taken any proceedings under the 41st clause of the - Metropolitan Police Act? - - We have issued notifications to every house in the union of the - necessity of cleansing the houses by whitewashing them inside and out, - and that the owners and occupiers were amenable for any neglect. The - relieving officers report to me, that these notifications have already - been productive of very good effects, and that whitewashing has been - actively practised. The relieving officers were instructed, wherever - they found a case of neglect, to threaten the landlord that he would - be proceeded against unless the tenement was duly cleansed. But as yet - we have taken no legal proceedings, because we have advised with the - magistrates, who do not consider that the owners can be proceeded - against in the first instance, and the occupiers of the tenements, - which are liable to be proceeded against, are most of them paupers and - persons in extreme poverty. - - With respect to the remedies, I find that the personal inconvenience - to which the clause subjects the guardians of visiting the spot is a - provision which will greatly obstruct its operations, and will at all - events greatly delay proceedings from time to time. The guardians who, - in our union, are men of business, consider that their time is fully - occupied at the Board, and they object to any attendance out of the - Board, and would give it reluctantly. If the cases are taken before - the magistrate, it appears desirable that the medical officer should - not be compelled to attend unless it were absolutely requisite, and - that the relieving officer should be allowed to prove the facts as to - the state of the dwellings recited in the medical officer’s - certificate, which could rarely be disputed. If the point were - disputed by the owner, then the medical officer or other witnesses - might be forthcoming. - - What is the number of houses in the union?—About 8000. - - How many cases on the average do your medical officers visit in the - year?—About 4000. - - Those visits of course are sometimes to different rooms of the same - tenement?—No doubt of that, and very frequently to the inmates of the - same room. - - Are the visits of the relieving officers to the dwellings of the - labouring classes more extensive than the visits of the medical - officers?—I should say more extensive. - - Between the two, are any class of the poorer and otherwise neglected - residences that would probably escape visitation?—I should say that - they must visit every spot within the district. - - Within such districts as that of Whitechapel, do you think the three - present medical officers and the relieving officers would suffice to - carry out sanitary measures actively and efficiently?—I think that for - efficiency additional strength would be required; perhaps one officer, - whose especial duty it should be to attend to the duties connected - with sanitary measures, supposing them carried out by the agency of - the existing establishments. - -From the consideration of such practical evidence, it will be seen that -the ordinary duties of the relieving officer in the first instance, and -of the medical officer afterwards, ensure domiciliary inspection of -large districts to an extent and with a degree of certainty that could -scarcely be ensured or expected of any agents or members of a board of -health unconnected with positive administrative duties. The inspection -of these officers of the boards of guardians more than supplies the -external inspection of inquests or of the leets; and it is submitted -that in their position these boards may most beneficially exercise the -functions of the leet in reclaiming the execution of the law, as against -acts of omission and of commission, by which the poorest of the -labouring classes are injured and the ratepayers burdened. - -It may therefore be submitted as an eligible preliminary general -arrangement, that it shall be required of the medical officer as an -extra duty, for the due performance of which he should be fairly -remunerated, that on visiting any person at that person’s dwelling, on -an order for medical relief, he shall, after having given such needful -immediate relief as the case may require, examine or cause to be -examined any such physical and removable causes as may have produced -disease or acted as a predisposing cause to it; that he shall make out a -particular statement of them, wherein he will specify any things that -may be and are urgently required to be immediately removed. This -statement should be given to the relieving officer, who should thereupon -take measures for the removal of the nuisance at the expense of the -owner of the tenement, unless he, upon notice which shall be given to -him, forthwith proceed to direct their removal. Except in the way of -appeal by the owner against the proceedings of either officer, or where -a higher expense than 5_l._, or a year’s rent of the tenement, were -involved by the alterations directed by the medical officer, it appears -to be recommended that no application to the Board of Guardians or the -magistrates should be required in the first instance, as it frequently -happens that the delay of a day in the adoption of measures may occasion -the loss of life and the wide spread of contagious disease; and an -application to the Board of Guardians or to the petty sessions would -usually incur delay of a week or a fortnight. To repeat the words of -Blackstone,—“The security of the lives and property may sometimes -require so speedy a remedy, as not to allow time to call on the person -on whose property the mischief has arisen to remedy it.” When any -tenement is in a condition to endanger life from disease, as it comes -within the principle of the law, so it should be included within its -provisions, and should be placed in the same condition as a tenement -condemned as being ruinous and endangering life from falling. - -The instances above given of the working of the provisions of the -Metropolitan Police Act for the cleansing of filthy tenements are, -however, instances of zealous proceedings taken by competent officers in -unions, where the attention of the guardians was specially called to the -subject, and where there were no opposing interests. But several other -instances might be presented, where the execution of the law is as much -needed, but where it is already as dead as any of the older laws for the -public protection, and the reason assigned is, that the local officers -will not, for the sake of principle and without manifest compulsion, -enter into conflicts by which their personal interests may be -prejudiced. Medical officers, as private practitioners, are often -dependent for their important private practice, and even for their -office, on persons whom its strict performance might subject to expense -or place in the position of defendants. Under such circumstances it is -not unfrequent to hear the expression of a wash from these officers, -that some person unconnected with the district may be sent to examine -the afflicted place, and initiate the proper proceedings. The working of -the provisions of the Factory Act for the limitation of the hours of -labour of children has been much impeded by the difficulty of obtaining -correct certificates of age and bodily strength from private medical -practitioners. On this topic a large mass of evidence might be adduced, -showing the unreasonableness of expecting private practitioners to -compromise their own interests by conflicts for the public protection -with persons on whom they are dependant. - -Cases of difficulty requiring superior medical experience and skill -occur frequently amongst the paupers. For general supervision as well as -for the elucidation of particular questions, the Board have proved the -practicability of obtaining for the public service the highest medical -skill and science. They have availed themselves of more various -acquirements than would be found in any standing _conseil de salubrité_. -On questions respecting fever they have availed themselves of the -services of the physician of the London Fever Hospital; on questions of -vaccination they have consulted the Vaccine Board of London, and the -authorities on the same question in Scotland. On questions as to -ventilation they have availed themselves of the services of Dr. Arnott; -and on the general questions affecting the sanitary condition of the -population they have consulted that gentleman and Dr. Kay, and Dr. -Southwood Smith, and others who could be found to have given special -attention to the subject. When serious epidemics have broken out in -particular unions the central Board has dispatched physicians to their -aid, or suggested to the guardians that they should have recourse to the -services of physicians in the neighbourhoods. The services of Dr. -Arnott, Dr. Kay, and Dr. Southwood Smith were thus directed in aid of -the medical officers of the eastern districts of the metropolis; and -their reports first developed to the public and the legislature the -evils which form the subject of the extended inquiry, and that might -otherwise have continued without chance of notice, or mitigation or -removal, to have depressed the condition of the labouring classes of the -population. But the results of such occasional visits appear to prove -the necessity and economy of an increase of the permanent local medical -service, and to establish a case for the appointment of a superior -medical man for a wider district than an ordinary medical officer, for -the special aid and supervision of the established medical relief. - -It will frequently be found that there is the like need of immediate -local inspection of the medical treatment of the destitute that there is -of a grade of inspecting surgeons for the military hospitals. It cannot -be otherwise than that amidst a numerous body of men there must be much -error and neglect in the treatment of the destitute, in the absence of -immediate securities against, neglect. The most able of the guardians -would confess that if they are not entirely incompetent to supervise -medical service, they are at the best but imperfectly qualified for such -a task, and the medical officers would act with more satisfaction to -themselves from the supervision of officers from whom they might derive -aid and confidence. - -But besides the medical treatment of the inmates of the workhouses and -prisons, there are other cases within most districts which need the -preventive service of a superior medical officer for the protection of -the public health. - -First, in the cases where the poorer classes are assembled in such -numbers as to make the assemblages _quasi_ public, and afford facilities -for medical inspection, as in schools. - -Secondly, also in places of work and in workmen’s lodging-houses. The -occasional visits of a district officer, for the prevention of disease -would lead to the maintenance of due ventilation, and to the protection -of the workpeople on such points as are already specified as injurious -to the health, and that arise simply from ignorance, and are not -essential to the processes. An examination of such places, if only -quarterly, would lead to the most beneficial results. - -So far as I have observed the working of the Factory Act, it appears to -me that the duties now performed by the sub-inspectors of factories -might be more advantageously performed by superior medical officers, of -the rank of army surgeons, who are independent of private practice. - -I am confirmed in this view by the following evidence of _Mr. Baker_, -surgeon of Leeds, the only factory inspector who has such -qualifications:— - - “Have you, as a surgeon, whilst visiting the factories as an - inspector, had occasion to exercise your professional - knowledge?—Frequently; during my service I have turned out great - numbers of children with scald-heads, which they were apt to propagate - amongst the rest of the children; some with phthisis, whose subsequent - death was more than probable; some with scrofulous ulcers; a great - many with extreme cases of ophthalmia; probably I may have removed a - thousand of these cases altogether. I rarely go to a mill where I do - not see a case of scald-head. - - “Have you ever had occasion to interpose in respect to - ventilation?—Frequently in extreme cases of variable temperature, also - in cases of offensive privies, which I find attended by dysenteric - affections; and also where there has been offensive water from - neglected sewers. I have also endeavoured to enforce personal - cleanliness on the children through the instrumentality of overlookers - and parents. One practice amongst the children in all kinds of mills - is to wear handkerchiefs on the head, by which the neglect of personal - cleanliness was concealed. Under these handkerchiefs were most of the - cases of scald-head, in a state of filthiness not easily describable. - I have assured the operatives that by the Act I had the power to - direct measures for the protection of their health as well as labour; - and I have established in many places the rule that the children shall - come with the faces clean, and the hair combed, and without - handkerchiefs whilst at work.” - - By such inspection of workpeople in the places of work do you conceive - it would be practicable to influence largely the sanitary condition of - the labouring population without inspection of the private - houses?—Yes; for the ill health which was occasioned by the state of - their houses or other places, would of course be visible on such - inspection. If they were removed from their places of employment on - the presentation of such appearances, the inattention which had - occasioned it would be removed too. - - “What length of time do you find such inspection would require each - time, say in a mill of about 1000 persons, and how frequent should - such inspection be?—On the average about two hours; to a practised eye - the symptoms of indisposition are discernable almost in walking - through a room. Under some circumstances an inspection of once in - three months would suffice. - - “Are there masters in your district who are aware of the interest they - have in the health of their workpeople?—Yes; there are many who pay - particular attention. I might mention two where a surgeon is specially - employed to take care of their workpeople. When persons are ill, they - are listless and sleepy, and negligent; there is also more waste made - in the processes of manufacture.” - -The superior economy of preventive services by such inspection as that -above displayed will scarcely need elucidation. - -From a consideration of such opportunities of inspection it will be -perceived that the enforcement of sanitary regulations on such -inspection by superior and independent officers, qualified by previous -examination, as in the army, would be a wise economy. By such -arrangements efficient medical superintendence would be provided for the -independent labourer employed in crowded manufactures, as well as for -the soldier and the sailor, not to speak of the pauper or the criminal. -One such officer would be able so to inspect and keep under sanitary -regulations the places of work, the schools and all the public -establishments of such a town as Leeds, which would bring under view -perhaps the greater proportion of the lower classes of the population. -There would still remain, however, those of the labouring classes who do -not work or lodge in large numbers, or work in a quasi-public manner, to -bring them within the means of convenient inspection. There would also -remain without protection the cases of persons of the middle classes. - -To meet these cases, I would suggest that the information brought to the -superintendent registrar as to the cause of death, imperfect and hearsay -as it yet is, may serve as the most accurate index to the direction of -the labours of a district officer appointed to investigate the means of -protecting the health of all classes. Having suggested the registration -of the causes of death (under medical superintendence), a head of -information not contained in the original draught of the Deaths’ -Registration Bill, I would guard against an over-estimate of the -importance of that provision; but I feel confident it would be found, -when properly enforced, one of the most important, means of guiding -preventive services in an efficient direction. For example, wherever, on -the examination of these registries, deaths from fever or other -epidemics were found to recur regularly, and in numbers closely -clustered together, there will be found, on examination, to be some -common and generally removable cause in active operation within the -locality. Amongst whatsoever class of persons engaged in the same -occupation deaths from one disease occur in disproportionately high -numbers or at low ages, the cause of that disease will generally be -found to be removable, and not essential to the occupation itself. The -cases of the tailors, miners, and dressmakers, and the removable -circumstances which are found to govern the prevalence of consumption -amongst them, I adduce, as examples of the importance of the practical -suggestions to be gained from correct and trustworthy registries of the -causes of death occurring in particular occupations as well as in -particular places. When a death from fever or consumption occurs in a -single family, in the state of isolation in which much of the population -live in crowded neighbourhoods, they have rarely any means of knowing -that it is not a death arising from some cause peculiar to the -individual. Even medical practitioners who are not in very extensive -practice may have only a few cases, and may be equally unable to see in -them, in connexion with others, the operation of an extensive cause or a -serious epidemic. The registration of the causes of death, however, -presents to view the extent, to which deaths, from the same disease, are -common at the same age, at the same time, or at the same place, or in -the same occupation. - -One of the most important services, therefore, of a superior medical -officer of a district would be to ensure the entries of the causes of -death with the care proportioned to the important uses to be derived -from them. The public should be taught to regard correct registration as -being frequently of as much importance for the protection of the -survivors as a post-mortem examination is often found to be. - -The mortuary registries and the registration of the causes of death are -not only valuable as necessary initiatives to the investigation of -particular cases, but as checks for the performance of the duty. The -system of registration in use at Geneva, combining the certificate and -explanation of the private practitioners and the district physician, -corresponds with a recommendation originally made for the organization -of the mortuary registries in England, and the experience of that -country might, perhaps, be advantageously consulted. - -It would be found that the appointment of a superior medical officer -independent of private practice, to superintend these various duties, -would also be a measure of sound pecuniary economy. - -The experience of the navy and the army and the prisons may be referred -to for exemplifications of the economy in money, as well as in health -and life, of such an arrangement. A portion only of the saving from an -expensive and oppressive collection of the local rates would abundantly -suffice to ensure for the public protection against common evils the -science of a district physician, as well as the science of a district -engineer. Indeed, the money now spent in comparatively fragmentations -and unsystematized local medical service for the public, would, if -combined as it might be without disturbance on the occurrence of -vacancies, afford advantages at each step of the combination. We have in -the same towns public medical officers as inspectors of prisons, medical -officers for the inspection of lunatic asylums, medical officers of the -new unions, medical inspectors of recruits, medical service for the -granting certificates for children under the provisions of the Factory -Act, medical service for the post-mortem examinations of bodies, the -subject of coroners’ inquests, which it appears from the mortuary -registries of violent deaths in England amount to between 11,000 and -12,000 annually, for which a fee of a guinea each is given. These and -other services are divided in such portions as only to afford -remuneration in such sums as 40_l._, 50_l._, 60_l._, or 80_l._ each; and -many smaller and few larger amounts. - -Whatever may be yet required for placing the union medical officers on a -completely satisfactory footing, the combination of the services of -several parish doctors in the service of fewer union medical officers -will be found to be advances in a beneficial direction. The -multiplication or the maintenance of such fragmentitious professional -services is injurious to the public and the profession. It is injurious -to the profession by multiplying poor, ill-paid, and ill-conditioned -professional men.[48] Although each may be highly paid in comparison -with the service rendered, the portions of service do not suffice for -the maintenance of an officer without the aid of private practice; they -only suffice, therefore, to sustain needy competitors for practice in -narrow fields. Out of such competition the public derive no improvements -in medical science, for science comes out of wide opportunities of -knowledge and study, which are inconsistent with the study to make -interests and the hunt for business in poor neighbourhoods. - -A medical man who is restricted to the observation of only one -establishment may be said to be excluded from an efficient knowledge -even of that one. Medical men so restricted are generally found to -possess an accurate knowledge of the morbid appearances, or of the -effects amongst the people of the one establishment, but they are -frequently found to be destitute of any knowledge of the pervading cause -in which they are themselves enveloped, and have by familiarity lost the -perception of it. Thus it was formerly in the navy that medical officers -on board ship, amidst the causes of disease, the filth, and bad -ventilation, and bad diet, were referring all the epidemic disease -experienced exclusively to contagion from some one of the crew who was -discovered to have been in a prison. We have seen that local reports -present similar examples of similar conclusions from the observation of -single establishments in towns, in which reports effects are attributed -as essential to labour, of which effects that same labour is entirely -divested in establishments in the county, or under other circumstances -which the practitioners have had no means of observing and estimating. -The various contradictory opinions on diet, and the older views on the -innocuousness of miasma, are commonly referable to the circumstances -under which the medical observers were placed; and examples abound in -every district of the errors incidental to narrow ranges of observation -in cases perplexed by idiosyncracies, and by numerous and varying -antecedents. It should be understood by the public that the value of -hospital and dispensary practice consists in the range of observation -they give; and that the extent of observation or opportunities of -medical knowledge are influenced or governed by administrative -arrangements. In several of the medical schools of the metropolis, -however, the opportunities of knowledge are dependent on the cases which -may chance to arise there. Fortunate administrative arrangements have, -in Paris, greatly advanced medical knowledge, by bringing large classes -of cases under single observation. The most important discoveries made -with respect to consumption, those made by M. Louis, were based on the -results of the post-mortem examinations of nearly 1300 cases by that one -practitioner. Nearly all the important conclusions deduced from this -extensive range of observations were at variance with his own previous -opinions and the opinions that had prevailed for centuries. The later -and better knowledge of the real nature of fever cases has been obtained -by a similar range of observation gained from the cases in fever -hospitals. Applications have been several times made to the -Commissioners by medical men engaged in particular researches to aid -them in the removal of the impediments to extended inquiry, by -collecting the information to be derived—from the sick-wards of the -workhouses and the out-door medical relief lists. - -The highest medical authorities would agree that, whatsoever -administrative arrangements sustain narrow districts, and narrow -practice, sustain at a great public expense, barriers against the -extension of knowledge by which the public would benefit, and that any -arrangements by which such districts or confined practice is newly -created, will aggravate existing evils. An examination of the state of -medical practice divided amongst poor practitioners in the thinly -populated districts shows that, but for the examinations, imperfect -though they be, as arrangements which sustain skill and respectability, -a large part of the population would be in the hands of ignorant -bone-setters. - -On a full examination of the duties which are suggested for a district -physician, or officer of public health, that which will appear to be -most serious is not the extent of new duties suggested, but the extent -of the neglect of duties existing. The wants, however, which it is a -duty to represent and repeat, as the most immediate and pressing, for -the relief of the labouring population, are those of drainage, -cleansing, and the exercise of the business of an engineer, connected -with commissions of sewers, to which the services of a board of health -would be auxiliary. The business of a district physician connects him -more immediately with the boards of guardians, which, as having the -distribution of medical relief, and the services of medical officers, I -would submit, maybe made, with additional aid, to do more than can be -done by any local boards of health of the description given, separated -from any executive authority or self-acting means of bringing -information before them. - -I have submitted the chief grounds on which it appears to me that -whatever additional force may be needed for the protection of the public -health it would everywhere be obtained more economically with unity, and -efficiency, and promptitude, by a single securely-qualified and -well-appointed responsible local officer than by any new establishment -applied in the creation of new local boards. Including, as sanitary -measures, those for drainage and cleansing, and supplies of water as -well as medical appliances, I would cite the remarks on provisions for -the protection of the public health, made by Dr. Wilson at the -conclusion of a report on the sanitary condition of the labouring -population of Kelso. After having noted some particular improvements -which had taken place, as it were, by chance, and independently of any -particular aids of science directed to their furtherance, he remarks -that “it is impossible to avoid the conclusion that much more might -still be accomplished, could we be induced, to profit by a gradually -extending knowledge, so as to found upon it a more wisely directed -practice. When man shall be brought to acknowledge (as truth must -finally constrain him to acknowledge) that it is by his own hand, -through his neglect of a few obvious rules, that the seeds of disease -are most lavishly sown within his frame, and diffused over communities; -when he shall have required of medical science to occupy itself rather -with the prevention of maladies than with their cure; when governments -shall be induced to consider the preservation of a nation’s health an -object as important as the promotion of its commerce or the maintenance -of its conquests, we may hope then to see the approach of those times -when, after a life spent almost without sickness, we shall close the -term of an unharassed existence by a peaceful euthanasia.” - - - - - VIII.—COMMON LODGING-HOUSES. - - -A town may be highly advanced in its own internal administration, its -general drainage, and its arrangements for house and street-cleansing -may be perfect, and they may be in complete action, and yet if the -police of the common lodging-houses be neglected, it will be liable to -the continued importation, if not the generation, of epidemic disease by -the vagrant population who frequent them. I have reserved the evidence -respecting them in order to submit it for separate considerations, -because they may apparently be better considered independently of the -administrative arrangements which affect the resident population of the -labouring classes. - -From almost every town from whence sanitary reports have been received -that have been the results of careful examinations, the common -lodging-houses are pointed out as _foci_ of contagious disease within -the district. These houses are stages for the various orders of tramps -and mendicants who traverse the country from one end to the other, and -spread physical pestilence, as well as moral depravation. The evidence -everywhere received distinguishes them prominently as the subjects of -immediate and decidedly strong legislative interference for the public -protection. - -The following extract from the Report of _Mr. E. W. Baines_, the medical -officer of the Barnet union, is submitted as an example of the -information received respecting them from the rural unions: - - “The lodging-houses for trampers are a prolific source of disease, and - productive of enormous expense to the parish in which they may be - situate; from one I have within this week sent into the union - workhouse six cases, namely, two of fever, three of itch and - destitution, and one of inflammatory dropsy. These unhappy beings are - boarded and bedded in an atmosphere of gin, brimstone, onions, and - disease, until their last penny be spent, and their clothes pledged to - the keeper of the house, when they are kicked out and left to the - mercy of the relieving officer.” - -The committee of physicians and surgeons, who have made a sanitary -report on the condition of the labouring population in Birmingham, give -the following account of the lodging-houses in that town:— - - “Lodging-houses for the lowest class of persons abound in Birmingham. - They principally exist near the centre of the town, many of them in - courts; but great numbers of front houses, in some of the old streets, - are entirely occupied as lodging-houses. They are generally in a very - filthy condition; and, being the resort of the most abandoned - characters, they are sources of extreme misery and vice. These houses - may be divided into three kinds,—mendicants’ lodging-house, - lodging-houses where Irish resort, and houses in which prostitutes - live, or which they frequent. - - “We find it stated in Mr. Burgess’s return, that in 47 of these the - sexes indiscriminately sleep together. In the day time the doors of - these houses are generally thronged with dirty, half-dressed women and - children; and if visited in an evening, the inmates are found to be - eating, drinking, and smoking. Such houses are, for the most part, - occupied by beggars and trampers, but many of them are the resort of - thieves. Some idea may be formed of the description of persons who - frequent some of these abodes, by stating that in two of them, one of - which was situate in John-street and the other in Thomas-street, a - chain, fastened at one end by a staple and at the other secured by a - padlock, was placed on the outside of the door, at the foot of the - staircase which led to the sleeping apartments. Upon asking the - mistress of the house for what purpose that was required, she stated - that she employed it to lock in the lodgers until she released them in - the morning, as they would otherwise decamp, and take away whatever - furniture or moveables they could carry with them. Some of these - houses are occupied exclusively by foreigners. In a court in - Park-street we visited one which was inhabited by Italians, men and - women, with their stock of musical instruments, monkeys, and other - small animals. We are informed that there is another Italian - lodging-house in Lichfield-street, as well as one which is frequented - only by the Flemish or German broom-girls.” - -In whatever part of the kingdom these receptacles are examined they -exhibit common characteristics. _Dr. Jenks_, in his report on the -sanitary condition of the labouring classes in Brighton, gives the -following account of the lodging-houses:— - - “Nottingham-street is the well-known haunt of tramps and beggars; - Egremont-street of the lowest prostitutes and thieves. Both streets - are on elevated ground, with good surface drainage, sufficiently wide - and commodious, and might easily be preserved in a decent state; but - all manner of disgusting refuse is thrown out of doors, and but seldom - removed by the scavengers. In Nottingham-street there are eight or - nine lodging-houses. Lodging-keepers have commonly three or four - houses, for each of which they pay 2_s._ 6_d._ per week. The following - is a description of one of them, and may serve as an _instar - omnium_:—The keeper of the lodging-house rented four of these small - tenements. One room, common to the whole of the inmates, who amounted - to 30, including the children, served both as kitchen and - sitting-room. This room was crowded when I visited it in company with - the chief police-officer, Mr. Solomons, with not less than 17 people - covered with filth and rags. In the largest of the sleeping-rooms, 16 - feet by 10 feet, by 7 feet high, there were six beds, five on - bedsteads and one on the floor, to accommodate twelve people of both - sexes, besides children. Each person paid 3_d._ per night. Those who - could afford more could be accommodated with a small room with one - bed. * * * In a word, the streets in this neighbourhood have for many - years been an intolerable nuisance to the town at large. They are the - resort of tramps, begging impostors, thieves, and prostitutes of the - lowest description, who daily and nightly take their rounds through - the town.” - -The following account of the lodging-houses in Manchester is from the -report of _Dr. Baron Howard_:— - - “The pernicious effects resulting from the vitiation of the atmosphere - by the congregation of many persons in a confined space are lamentably - illustrated in the common _lodging-houses_ of the poor; the crowded, - dirty, and ill-ventilated state of which is, I conceive, without doubt - one of the most prolific sources of fever in Manchester. To those who - have not visited them, no description can convey anything like an - accurate idea of the abominable state of these dens of filth, disease, - and wretchedness. - - “The great prevalence of fever in these houses during the severe - epidemic of 1837–38 attracted the especial notice of the Board of the - House of Recovery, who passed and transmitted the following resolution - to the churchwardens on the 3d of January, 1838:—‘It appearing that a - great number of cases of fever originates in the common lodging-houses - of the poor of the town, the Board begs to suggest to the - churchwardens and sidesmen the desirableness of appointing proper - persons to inspect the same, in order to prevent, as far as possible, - by cleanliness and ventilation, the increase and spread of this - malady.’ In consequence of this suggestion the parochial authorities - did immediately cause some of the most filthy of these establishments - to be cleansed and whitewashed; but it is evident that temporary - exertions of this kind, however praiseworthy, are quite inadequate to - effect much permanent improvement. - - “In some of these houses as many as six or eight beds are contained in - a single room; in others, where the rooms are smaller, the number is - necessarily less; but it seems to be the invariable practice in these - ‘keepers of fever beds,’ as the proprietors were styled by Dr. - Ferriar, to cram as many beds into each room as it can possibly be - made to hold; and they are often placed so close to each other that - there is scarcely room to pass between them. The scene which these - places present at night is one of the most lamentable description; the - crowded state of the beds, filled promiscuously with men, women, and - children; the floor covered over with the filthy and ragged clothes - they have just put off, and with their various bundles and packages, - containing all the property they possess, mark the depraved and - blunted state of their feelings, and the moral and social disorder - which exists. The suffocating stench and heat of the atmosphere are - almost intolerable to a person coming from the open air, and plainly - indicate its insalubrity. Even if the place be inspected during the - day, the state of things is not much better. Several persons will very - commonly be found in bed; one is probably sick, a second is perhaps - sleeping away the effects of the previous night’s debauch, while - another is possibly dozing away his time because he has no employment, - or is taking his rest now because he obtains his living by some night - work. In consequence of this occupation of the room during the day, - the windows are kept constantly closed, ventilation is entirely - neglected, and the vitiated atmosphere is ever ready to communicate - its poisonous influence to the first fresh comer whom habit has not - yet rendered insensible to its effects, an exemption which seems to be - in some degree acquired by habitual exposure, and which accounts for - the immunity frequently enjoyed by the keepers themselves of these - houses, whilst their lodgers are attacked in succession. This - circumstance, which was particularly noticed by Dr. Ferriar, I have - often observed. Where cellars are occupied as lodging-houses, the back - room is generally used as the sleeping apartment; and as this has - often no window, and can only receive air and light through the door - opening into the front room, the utter impossibility of ventilation - renders the ravages of infectious fevers particularly destructive when - they once find entrance. - - “The beds and bedding, being seldom washed or changed, are generally - in the most filthy condition, and consisting usually of those porous - materials to which contagious vapours are especially liable to attach - themselves, the danger of sleeping in them may be well conceived. Even - if a bed has been occupied by a fever patient who has died, or been - removed, it is often immediately used by fresh lodgers, without having - undergone any purification. - - “The disgraceful state of these lodging-houses has been dwelt upon at - some length, because I consider their evils of a most serious and - extensive nature, and I feel quite satisfied they are the most - malignant _foci_ of infectious fevers in Manchester. Indeed it is my - decided opinion that the vitiation of the atmosphere by the living is - much more injurious to the constitution than its impregnation with the - effluvia from dead organic matter; and certainly all I have observed - in Manchester induces me to consider the ‘human miasms’ generated in - overcrowded and ill-ventilated rooms as a far more frequent and - efficient cause of fever than the malaria arising from collections of - refuse and want of drainage. I have been led to this conclusion from - having remarked that fever has generally prevailed more extensively in - those houses where the greatest numbers were crowded together, and - where ventilation was most deficient, although the streets in which - they are situated maybe well paved, drained, and tolerably free from - filth, than in those where there was less crowding, notwithstanding - their location in the midst of nuisances giving rise to malaria. This - inference is also supported by the fact of the higher relative - proportion of fever to other diseases which has been shown to exist in - the collegiate church district, where the number of crowded - lodging-houses and confined courts, the closely compacted state of the - buildings, the narrowness of the streets, and consequent density of - the population and absence of ventilations, are most remarkable.” - -_Mr. John Rayner_, medical officer of the Stockport union, gives the -following account of the lodging-houses in that town:— - - “The lodging-houses in these districts, which are principally occupied - by the Irish labourers, are for the most part very much crowded, and - are in a remarkably filthy states. The beds and bedding are not only - loathsome to the sight but are extremely offensive to the smell, and - are so closely packed that several families may occupy the same room, - each bed containing several persons. In such places the married and - single often repose together, and the beds are so arranged, that in - some instances there is not room for a person to walk between them. I - have seen seven persons in the same bed, and last week removed to the - infirmary a case of rheumatic fever, with translation of the disease - to the heart, from a bed which every night contains _eight_ persons. I - have generally found that the lower order of Irish labourers occupy - the most filthy districts, and that wherever they _colonize_, misery - and wretchedness is sure to abound. They are the most common - applicants for medical relief at our charity.” - - “I lately had a case of inflammation of the absorbments of the legs, - from a trifling injury to the foot, in an Irish boy, who was living in - a dark, damp cellar, about four yards square, in which were two beds. - The height of the ceiling was not more than six feet, and yet _seven_ - persons laid in it, together with a few rabbits. One of the beds had - to be removed from the wall on account of its extreme dampness, and so - dark was the dwelling at mid-day, that I had to make use of a candle - whilst inspecting him.” - -The following is the description of the lodging-houses at the next -stage, by the relieving officer of the Macclesfield union:— - -_Mr. James Bland_, medical officer of the Macclesfield union,— - - “I beg to observe that the lodging-houses are a fruitful source of - fever. The persons renting these tenements showed greater resistance - than others in having their houses properly whitewashed at the time - the epidemic cholera appeared. The vagrants who visit these houses are - frequently attacked with fever: exposed during the day to the - inclemency of the seasons, with their imperfect covering, ragged - clothes, and naked feet, at night thrust into a room perhaps of 16 or - 20 square yards, having perhaps five or six beds and three individuals - in a bed, married and single, male and female, to all appearance - indiscriminately lodged. When a case of illness occurs, the - lodging-house keeper is most importunate and clamorous in demanding - relief from the town; and when obtained, it is quite a question - whether it will really be applied to the wants of the sufferer. I have - never any confidence that the remedies given will be administered to - the patient.” - -The further stages of the lodging-houses on the northern roads are thus -described in the reports:— - -_Mr. Nicholas Oliver_, the medical officer of Durham, thus describes the -lodging-houses in that town:— - - “One fruitful source of generating and propagating contagious diseases - is to be found in those common lodging-houses where vagrants and - mendicants, or any one whatever, whether healthy or diseased, are for - a trifling sum provided with lodgings. I have known 40 persons half - clothed, lodged in one of those wretched dwellings, three or four - lying in one bed upon straw, and only a single counterpane to cover - them, which is never changed. Excrementitious matter was allowed to - accumulate and be about the rooms in all directions, the stench being - most revolting. In the beginning of summer fever of a typhoid type - occurred in this house and affected a number of the inmates, but being - in the other district, they came under the care of the other medical - attendant.” - -The medical officer of the Teesdale union gives the following -description of the houses in that stage:— - - “In this court there are eight common lodging-houses, and the number - of lodgers sometimes amounts to 100; at this time it is 50: eight or - ten sleeping in a room, upon the most unwholesome straw. The buildings - are in general good; but the wretched and filthy state of the houses - can scarcely be conceived. From this part many of our applications - arise. It is, indeed, a source of physical and moral disease.” - -_Mr. Gilbert Ward_, the medical officer of the Tynemouth union, -describes the lodging-houses there as sources of disease, of which one -example may suffice:— - - “In a low, damp, dirty, ill-ventilated, miserable hovel, kept by the - most filthy people I ever beheld, containing four beds seldom changed, - and which I have witnessed filled with beggars of the lowest - description, there have been the following cases:—A son and daughter - died, another son and daughter had the disease, and the mother had two - attacks, all within a period of 18 months. This family, in consequence - of their filthy habits, was removed to the workhouse, but could not be - induced to remain; and they again returned to their old quarters, and - were afflicted as above described. - - “The constable has several times visited these houses, to endeavour to - prevent the nuisance of so many congregating in them; but his efforts - have hitherto been ineffectual.” - -_Sir John Walsham_ thus exemplifies the descriptions he has received of -the lodging-houses in Newcastle:— - - “There is a considerable number of lodging-houses in Newcastle, some - of the rooms of which are frequently occupied by from 15 to 20 persons - each. In these houses the most deplorable scenes of profligacy and - depravity are met with, both sexes being crowded together in a manner - injurious to both health and morals. - - “A medical gentleman told me, in Stockton, this morning, that in the - common lodging-houses where travelling vagrants are frequently - attacked with fever, &c., and in many cases die, the beds are the very - next night occupied by fresh inmates, who of course are infected with - the same disorder.” - -And one of the relieving officers for the same town says:— - - “I have frequently had occasion to complain to the magistrates against - the lodging-houses taking in so many lodgers; but the law in this - respect is so defective that they could render me no assistance. On a - Sunday last July, I went to see a man (a travelling musician) who was - very ill of the small-pox, and died a few days afterwards. The house - contained four small rooms, and was situated in a back yard, in a very - narrow, confined, dirty lane. There were 40 people in the house, and - they were not all in that lodged there. Four months ago I went into a - room in the same yard; the room was very dirty; it was 9 feet broad by - 15 feet long, and contained four beds, in which slept two men, four - women, and thirteen children. I found in one of the beds two children - very ill of scarlet fever; in another, a child ill of the measles; in - another, a child that had died of the measles the day before; and in a - fourth, a woman and her infant, born two days before; and the only - space between the four beds was occupied by a tinker, hard at work.” - -The lodging-houses in Scotland are similarly characterized. _Dr. Scott -Alison_ states that,— - - “There are many regular lodging-houses in Tranent, perhaps from 15 to - 20, in which paupers, vagrants, and a few labouring people live. The - people reside there for a considerable time. I have known colliers in - employment to live in these houses. They are crowded at all hours, but - more especially at night. Men, women, and children live and sleep in - the same apartment. In one of them I have seen an apartment, about 18 - feet long and 10 feet wide, which contained four beds made up - constantly; and when the house was ‘throng,’ another was added to the - number. The lodging-houses are the head-quarters for beggars. The - people go about during the day pursuing their avocations, and return - home at night to regale themselves with their earnings. These people - lie in bed till very late, and, if visited in the forenoon, may be - seen sitting beside the fire, roasting herrings or frying meat. They - live well amidst their wretchedness.” - -In the report of _Mr. James Cameron_, surgeon of Tain, there occurs the -following description of the lodging-houses in that part of Scotland:— - - “There are three lodging-houses in Tain, which are chiefly occupied by - beggars and hawkers. These places are kept in the filthiest condition - imaginable: I have been credibly informed that the bed-clothes used in - one of these houses have not been washed for the last five years! - Summer being the season when these people are generally abroad, these - low lodgings are then often crowded to excess. During the week-days - the beggars and hawkers perambulate the country, returning on Saturday - night. They frequently, especially when collected in large numbers, - drink to excess; and their conduct on such occasions is riotous and - disgusting in the extreme. The general charge for such lodgings is - 2_d._ per head for the night, with an ample allowance of whisky to the - landlords by way of perquisite. These individuals are unfortunately - the means of introducing infectious diseases, such as fever, - small-pox, measles, &c.” - -In Edinburgh and Glasgow, as the confluence of vagrants, and especially -of Irish vagrants, becomes greater, such receptacles become more -numerous and crowded, and the evils attendant upon them more intense. - -The injury done to the health of the public in general, and to the -health of portions of the operative classes, by the generation or -propagation of disease in such places, forms only one part of the evils -which call for interference by preventive measures. These evils appear -to require for their correction powers to be put in operation by the -concurrent exertions of the officers charged with sanitary measures, or -the prevention of disease; of the officers charged with the -administration of relief to destitution and the prevention of mendicity, -and of the officers charged with the protection of the public peace and -the prevention of crime. Further, to complete the view of the chief -evils arising from these receptacles, we may refer to the report and -evidence for the state of them, collected by my colleagues and myself, -on the inquiry as to the state of crime, under the Constabulary Force -Commission on the state of the lodging-houses in respect to crime:— - - “§35. We found only few of the magisterial divisions from which we - obtained information that were not seriously afflicted by the - existence of such receptacles, and in any arrangements for the - prevention of crime within the rural districts the means of - suppressing or controlling the common lodging-house must have a - prominent place. The trampers’ lodging-house is distinct from the - beer-shop or the public-house, or any licensed place of public - accommodation: it is not only the place of resort of the mendicant, - but of the common thief; it is the ‘flash-house’ of the rural - district; it is the receiving-house for stolen goods; it is the most - extensively-established school for juvenile delinquency, and commonly - at the same time the most infamous brothel in the district. - -The magistrates of the division of Warwick state— - - “‘That in the borough of Warwick such houses are both numerous and a - very general receptacle of petty offenders. Here the common vagrants - and trading beggars assemble in great numbers at nightfall, or take up - their quarters for very many days, making the lodging-house the common - centre from whence they issue in the morning, traverse their several - beats, and return at night. It is not unfrequent for such vagrants to - make the immediate neighbourhood their regular walk even for some - weeks, changing their beats, which are carefully arranged among - themselves, and only quitting their quarters to avoid detection in - some petty pilfering, or because, from becoming too well known, they - can no longer successfully impose on the public in the quarter they - have so long frequented.’ - -“The magistrates of the Chelmsford division state:— - - “‘There are several lodging-houses in the town of Chelmsford where in - the course of the year it is supposed upwards of 2000 trampers or - vagrants resort. The greater number of these persons shelter - themselves from apprehension and punishment under the Vagrant Act, by - professing to be match-sellers. This is made a cloak for begging alms, - and the pretext for going from house to house, and pilfering, as - opportunity offers. The lodging-houses at Chelmsford are made the - centre of a kind of circuit which these people make almost - periodically. - - “‘The system of lodging-houses for travellers, otherwise trampers, - requires to be altogether revised: at present they are in the practice - of lodging all the worst characters unquestioned, and are subject to - no other control than an occasional visit of inspection from the - parish officers, accompanied by the constables, whose power of - interference, if they have a legal right of entry, does not extend to - some of the most objectionable points connected with those houses, as - they can merely take into custody such persons as they find in - commission of some offence. The state in which those houses are found - on the occasion of such visit proves how much they require - interference. The houses are small, and yet as many as thirty - travellers, or even thirty-five, have been found in one house; fifteen - have been found sleeping in one room, three or four in one bed, men, - women, and children promiscuously. Beds have been found occupied in a - cellar. It is not necessary to urge the many opportunities of - preparing for crime which such a state of things presents, or the - actual evils arising from such a mode of harbouring crowds of low and - vicious persons.’” - -In our First Report we observed, that—“The mischiefs of these migratory -streams of depredators and vagrants, and other bad characters, is not -confined to the crimes which they commit, though those must be extremely -extensive to furnish such numerous hordes with the means of subsistence; -these characters, experienced in the crimes and vices of the criminal -associations of the larger towns from whence they sally forth, form such -large proportions of the population of the gaols in the rural districts, -as are stated in the return of prisoners in Knutsford gaol. The other -portion of the inmates of the gaol, chiefly agricultural labourers, -natives of the country, confined for misdemeanours, may in such -receptacles be considered pupils in these normal schools of crime, to -learn and carry back to the rural villages the knowledge and the -incitement to felonious practices.” - -It appears that, on the several grounds of public expediency, for the -preservation of the public health, and for the preservation of the -public peace, all common lodging-houses,—all places which are open for -the reception of strangers, travellers, and wayfarers by the night, and -houses laid out and provided for numbers of lodgers, should be subjected -to regulations for the protection of the inmates as well as the public -at large. This appears, indeed, to be consistent with the ancient police -of the country. By narrowing the definition of the places for which -licences were rendered necessary to those where spirits or fermented -liquors are sold to be drunk on the premises, (as if a revenue were the -only proper object of their government,) it appears that there has been -a mischievous dereliction of the ancient and sound policy of the law -which subjects the “victualler” as well as the keeper of the hostel, -inn, or lodging-house to responsibilities for the protection of the -inmates, and the convenience of the inhabitants in the neighbourhood -where such houses may be situate. The common lodging-house keeper is in -fact an inferior victualler, but evading the licence and the -responsibilities of the victualler, by sending out for the fermented -liquors which are consumed by the lodgers. - -It appears, from various portions of evidence, that the occupation of a -lodging-house keeper is a profitable one: instances are given from -various parts of the country where the keepers of such houses have -accumulated property; and whilst the keepers of public-houses, however -small, or of beer-shops, are subjected to the necessity of taking out -licences, there is no apparent reason for the exemption of lodging-house -keepers from that charge by reason of poverty; neither should I consider -that it would be a disadvantage, but the contrary, if the proper -regulation of such houses were effected at some increase of the price of -the lodgings. On examination of the description of persons accommodated -in such houses, (whilst there is a public provision for those who are -really in a state of destitution, and means are provided for removing -them to their places of settlement when it is necessary,) I find no -class whose migration is entitled to any encouragement by any diminution -of the charge of providing proper lodgings. Another topic of -consideration in connexion with houses of this class, is the tendency of -the degraded accommodation to degrade the classes of the population who -have recourse to it. I would therefore submit for consideration, whether -all common lodging-houses should not be required by law to take out -licences in the same manner as public-houses; and that, as the condition -of holding such licences, they be subjected to inspection by the medical -officers of the union (or the district medical officer), and bound to -conform to such sanitary regulations in respect to cleanliness, -ventilation, and numbers proportioned to the space, as he may be -authorized to prescribe for the protection of the health of the inmates: -and also that all such lodging-houses shall be subjected to the -regulations of the magistrates, and shall be open to the visits and -inspection of the police, for the enforcement of duly authorized -regulations, without any search-warrant or other authority than that -necessary for their entrance into any house belonging to a licensed -victualler. - -It may further be submitted for consideration that, by the beneficial -progress made in the habits of temperance in some districts, the disuse -of spirituous or fermented liquors may enable the proprietors of houses -of a higher order of resort than those in question to convert them into -coffee-houses or victualling-houses, and at the same time dispense with -the expense of the licence, and avoid also the responsibilities for the -protection of the public which the law has attached to licensed houses -of resort for travellers. - -From the reports received from the more populous towns, it would appear -that there are few houses which are let for the accommodation of large -numbers of regular lodgers which might not be benefited by the -inspection of a medical officer. I believe it would be more beneficial -to the public to extend than to narrow the definition of the places -which should be subjected to regulations as lodging-houses; and that a -discretion as to the description of house which shall be included might -be safely confided to the magistrates who have local charge of the -public peace and the public economy of the towns. - -The report received from _Mr. Charles R. Baird_, on the state of the law -applicable to the sanitary regulation of Glasgow, and the condition of -the labouring classes, as affected by the incompleteness or absence of -such regulations, affords evidence of the practical effect of measures -such as those recommended. Powers for the execution of such measures -have been already obtained and put into operation by the magistrates and -authorities of that city. - - “The lodging-houses,” said Dr. Cowan, “are the media through which the - newly-arrived immigrants find their way to the fever hospital; and it - is remarkable how many of the inmates of that hospital, coming from - lodging-houses, have not been six months in the city.” He might have - added, these lodging-houses are the great _foci_ of poverty, vice, and - crime, as well as of disease. These houses are generally of a very - wretched description, in low, unwholesome situations, exceedingly - dirty and ill-ventilated, and are frequently crowded to excess, it - being no uncommon thing to find 8, 10, and 12 persons in one small - apartment, as 9 feet by 8, or 11 by 8. Some of them also have no beds - whatever in them, the inmates lying on the bare floor, or with a few - shavings below them, with their clothes on. A more particular - description of them will be got in Captain Miller’s Papers on Crime in - the City Proper, Mr. Rutherglen’s (one of the magistrates) on Calton, - and Mr. Richardson on the Barony of Gorbals. It would appear from - these published documents, and from what I have been able to learn - otherwise, that the lodging-houses in the City Proper are decidedly of - the worst description; but I am aware that the authorities are - adopting means to have them in better order in future. In the burgh of - Anderston they have for some time been under the surveillance of the - police; and a record is kept of all lodging-houses for the - accommodation of casual visitors in Gorbals (by which it appears that - there were lately 92—50 kept by males, and 42 by females; only 25 of - them entertain the lowest class of poor), so that they may be properly - regulated. It is only in Calton, however, that they are attended to - with that strict care which is requisite, and fortunately the last - Police Act for that burgh gives ample powers for that purpose. It - provides, by section 20, That no keeper of lodging-houses of an - inferior description, for the accommodation of mendicant strangers and - others, shall receive lodgers without the house having been inspected - and approved of by the superintendent of police, and the - superintendent is authorized to fix the number of lodgers who may be - accommodated, and to order a ticket containing the number of lodgers - for which each house is registered; and any rules or instructions of - the commissioners of police regarding health, cleanliness, and - ventilation, to be placed in a conspicuous part of each room in which - lodgers are received. It also provides that the keepers of such - lodgings offending against these regulations shall be liable in - penalties. Section 21 enacts, That in the event of any person in such - houses becoming ill of fever or other disease, the keepers shall be - bound to give intimation thereof to the superintendent of police or - inspector, so that the disease may be inquired into and treated, and - the magistrates are authorized to order such persons to be removed. - And section 22 further enacts, That on any contagious or infectious - disease occurring in any such lodging-houses, or in any house or - apartment in any house, or apartment in any common tenement, &c., - where there is reasonable apprehension of such diseases spreading, the - magistrates may cause the remaining lodgers to be removed, and - measures to be taken for the disinfecting and cleaning of the houses - and apartments, and for the washing and purifying of the persons and - clothes of the inhabitants. - - “In addition to these excellent provisions, the magistrates of Calton, - in virtue of the powers in their police Acts, have issued the - following rules and instructions to be observed by all keepers of - lodging-houses, viz.—1st. The floors are to be washed at least twice - in each week, viz., on Wednesday and Saturday. 2nd. The walls are to - be whitewashed, and the houses thoroughly cleaned, on the 1st day of - each of the months of June, August, November and March, or on the - following day if any of these days fall on Sunday. And, 3rd. The - blankets used in all lodging-houses are to be thoroughly cleaned and - scoured on the 8th day of each of the months of June, August, - November, and March, or on the following day if any of these days fall - on Sunday; and if any person or persons in such house shall be - affected with fever or other infectious disease, the blankets and bed - clothes used by such person or persons shall be thoroughly cleaned and - scoured immediately after the removal of the diseased, and the bedding - used by persons affected with contagious disease fumigated immediately - after the removal of such person or persons. And where the bedding - used is shavings or straw, the same shall be burnt immediately after - such removal. - - “These provisions and regulations have been very judiciously enforced - by the magistrates of Calton and their superintendent of police, and - have been productive of most beneficial results. In addition to what - was formerly stated by Bailie Rutherglen, I have now before me a - distinct statement, by Mr. Smart, regarding the lodging-houses and - state of fever in Calton, which enables me to give the following - information:—Between 1st September, 1840, and 1st February last, 319 - persons were brought before the magistrates of Calton for keeping - unregistered lodging-houses. Of these 216 were ordered to desist from - keeping lodgers till houses registered, &c.; 91 were fined and - ordained not to keep lodgers; 12 cases were dismissed. Of the 307 - convicted for keeping unregistered lodging-houses, 90 got their houses - inspected and registered, 30 removed from the burgh, and 189 gave over - keeping lodgers, and were refused registration—refused principally on - account of the want of proper accommodation, and a few for harbouring - disreputable characters. Mr. Smart also informs me that several - hundreds of the worst houses of the poorer classes have been - whitewashed with Irish lime, and the lodging-houses having been put - under wholesome regulations, a marked improvement has taken place. In - Whisky-close, New-street, for several years past, as many as 30 cases - of fever occurred annually. Lime-washed in September last, and the - vagrants removed; only one case of fever has been known: and Mr. Smart - concludes, “I believe there are 1000 fever cases less in Calton this - day than there were on 1st September last.” Why should not the same - measures that have been so successfully enforced in Calton be - introduced into the City Proper and the other suburban districts?” - -It were only a statement of the concurrent opinion of the commissioners -of police, of magistrates, of medical officers, and of the guardians -charged with the administration of the poor’s rates, to represent the -urgent necessity of legislative provisions for the general adoption of -similar measures throughout the country. - - - - - IX.—RECAPITULATION OF CONCLUSIONS. - - -The last cited instance of the practical operation of measures for the -abatement of the nuisances attendant on common lodging-houses may also -be submitted as an instance of the advantages derivable from the -extension of such fields of inquiries as the present. On each of the -chief points included in it there would have been a loss of what I hope -will be deemed valuable corroborative information, had the inquiry been -confined either to England or to Scotland. The observation of the -important productive use of the refuse of the city of Edinburgh would -have been of comparatively little value as evidence leading to practical -applications, apart from the observation of what is accomplished by the -practical application of science to sewerage and drainage for the -immediate and cheapest removal of all the refuse of towns by water -through closed drains afforded by the operation in the Holborn and -Finsbury division of the metropolis. It may be stated confidently that, -if the inquiry could conveniently have had still further extension as to -time and place, the information would have been strengthened and -rendered more complete. From incidental facts I have met with, I am led -to believe that the whole of the effects which are the subject of the -present report would have been still more strikingly displayed in many -parts of Ireland. - -After as careful an examination of the evidence collected as I have been -enabled to make, I beg leave to recapitulate the chief conclusions which -that evidence appears to me to establish. - -_First, as to the extent and operation of the evils which are the -subject of the inquiry_:— - -That the various forms of epidemic, endemic, and other disease caused, -or aggravated, or propagated chiefly amongst the labouring classes by -atmospheric impurities produced by decomposing animal and vegetable -substances, by damp and filth, and close and overcrowded dwellings -prevail amongst the population in every part of the kingdom, whether -dwelling in separate houses, in rural villages, in small towns, in the -larger towns—as they have been found to prevail in the lowest, districts -of the metropolis. - -That such disease, wherever its attacks are frequent, is always found in -connexion with the physical circumstances above specified, and that -where those circumstances are removed by drainage, proper cleansing, -better ventilation, and other means of diminishing atmospheric impurity, -the frequency and intensity of such disease is abated; and where the -removal of the noxious agencies appears to be complete, such disease -almost entirely disappears. - -That high prosperity in respect to employment and wages, and various and -abundant food, have afforded to the labouring classes no exemptions from -attacks of epidemic disease, which have been as frequent and as fatal in -periods of commercial and manufacturing prosperity as in any others. - -That the formation of all habits of cleanliness is obstructed by -defective supplies of water. - -That the annual loss of life from filth and bad ventilation are greater -than the loss from death or wounds in any wars in which the country has -been engaged in modern times. - -That of the 43,000 cases of widowhood, and 112,000 cases of destitute -orphanage relieved from the poor’s rates in England and Wales alone, it -appears that the greatest proportion of deaths of the heads of families -occurred from the above specified and other removable causes; that their -ages were under 45 years; that is to say, 13 years below the natural -probabilities of life as shown by the experience of the whole population -of Sweden. - -That the public loss from the premature deaths of the heads of families -is greater than can be represented by any enumeration of the pecuniary -burdens consequent upon their sickness and death. - -That, measuring the loss of working ability amongst large classes by the -instances of gain, even from incomplete arrangements for the removal of -noxious influences from places of work or from abodes, that this loss -cannot be less than eight or ten years. - -That the ravages of epidemics and other diseases do not diminish but -tend to increase the pressure of population. - -That in the districts where the mortality is the greatest the births are -not only sufficient to replace the numbers removed by death, but to add -to the population. - -That the younger population, bred up under noxious physical agencies, is -inferior in physical organization and general health to a population -preserved from the presence of such agencies. - -That the population so exposed is less susceptible of moral influences, -and the effects of education are more transient than with a healthy -population. - -That these adverse circumstances tend to produce an adult population -short-lived, improvident, reckless, and intemperate, and with habitual -avidity for sensual gratifications. - -That these habits lead to the abandonment of all the conveniences and -decencies of life, and especially lead to the overcrowding of their -homes, which is destructive to the morality as well as the health of -large classes of both sexes. - -That defective town cleansing fosters habits of the most abject -degradation and tends to the demoralization of large numbers of human -beings, who subsist by means of what they find amidst the noxious filth -accumulated in neglected streets and bye-places. - -That the expenses of local public works are in general unequally and -unfairly assessed, oppressively and uneconomically collected, by -separate collections, wastefully expended in separate and inefficient -operations by unskilled and practically irresponsible officers. - -That the existing law for the protection of the public health and the -constitutional machinery for reclaiming its execution, such as the -Courts Leet, have fallen into desuetude, and are in the state indicated -by the prevalence of the evils they were intended to prevent. - -_Secondly. As to the means by which the present sanitary condition of -the labouring classes may be improved_:— - -The primary and most important measures, and at the same time the most -practicable, and within the recognized province of public -administration, are drainage, the removal of all refuse of habitations, -streets, and roads, and the improvement of the supplies of water. - -That the chief obstacles to the immediate removal of decomposing refuse -of towns and habitations have been the expense and annoyance of the hand -labour and cartage requisite for the purpose. - -That this expense may be reduced to one-twentieth or to one-thirtieth, -or rendered inconsiderable, by the use of water and self-acting means of -removal by improved and cheaper sewers and drains. - -That refuse when thus held in suspension in water may be most cheaply -and innoxiously conveyed to any distance out of towns, and also in the -best form for productive use, and that the loss and injury by the -pollution of natural streams may be avoided. That for all these -purposes, as well as for domestic use, better supplies of water are -absolutely necessary. - -That for successful and economical drainage the adoption of geological -areas as the basis of operations is requisite. - -That appropriate scientific arrangements for public drainage would -afford important facilities for private land-drainage, which is -important for the health as well as sustenance of the labouring classes. - -That the expense of public drainage, of supplies of water laid on in -houses, and of means of improved cleansing would be a pecuniary gain, by -diminishing the existing charges attendant on sickness and premature -mortality. - -That for the protection of the labouring classes and of the ratepayers -against inefficiency and waste in all new structural arrangements for -the protection of the public health, and to ensure public confidence -that the expenditure will be beneficial, securities should be taken that -all new local public works are devised and conducted by responsible -officers qualified by the possession of the science and skill of civil -engineers. - -That the oppressiveness and injustice of levies for the whole immediate -outlay on such works upon persons who have only short interests in the -benefits may be avoided by care in spreading the expense over periods -coincident with the benefits. - -That by appropriate arrangements, 10 or 15 per cent. on the ordinary -outlay for drainage might be saved, which on an estimate of the expense -of the necessary structural alterations of one-third only of the -existing tenements would be a saving of one million and a half sterling, -besides the reduction of the future expenses of management. - -That for the prevention of the disease occasioned by defective -ventilation, and other causes of impurity in places of work and other -places where large numbers are assembled, and for the general promotion -of the means necessary to prevent disease, that it would be good economy -to appoint a district medical officer independent of private practice, -and with the securities of special qualifications and responsibilities -to initiate sanitary measures and reclaim the execution of the law. - -That by the combinations of all these arrangements, it is probable that -the full ensurable period of life indicated by the Swedish tables; that -is, an increase of 13 years at least, may be extended to the whole of -the labouring classes. - -That the attainment of these and the other collateral advantages of -reducing existing charges and expenditure are within the power of the -legislature, and are dependent mainly on the securities taken for the -application of practical science, skill, and economy in the direction of -local public works. - -And that the removal of noxious physical circumstances, and the -promotion of civic, household, and personal cleanliness, are necessary -to the improvement of the moral condition of the population; for that -sound morality and refinement in manners and health are not long found -co-existant with filthy habits amongst any class of the community. - -I beg leave further to suggest, that the principles of amendment deduced -from the inquiry will be found as applicable to Scotland as to England; -and if so, it may be submitted for attention whether it might not be -represented that the structural arrangements for drainage would be most -conveniently carried out in the same form as in England, that is by -commissions, of the nature of commissions of sewers adapted, as regards -jurisdiction to natural or geological areas, and including in them the -chief elected officers of municipalities, and other authorities now -charged with the care of the streets and roads or connected with local -public works. - -The advantages of uniformity in legislation and in the executive -machinery, and of doing the same things in the same way (choosing the -best), and calling the same officers, proceedings, and things by the -same names, will only be appreciated by those who have observed the -extensive public loss occasioned by the legislation for towns which -makes them independent of beneficent, as of what perhaps might have been -deemed formerly aggressive legislation. There are various sanitary -regulations, and especially those for cleansing, directed to be observed -in “every town except Berwick and Carlisle;” a course of legislation -which, had it been efficient for England, would have left Berwick and -Carlisle distinguished by the oppression of common evils intended to be -remedied. It was the subject, of public complaint, at Glasgow and in -other parts of Scotland, that independence and separation in the form of -general legislation separated the people from their share of the -greatest amount of legislative attention, or excluded them from common -interest and from the common advantages of protective measures. It was, -for example, the subject of particular complaint, that whilst the -labouring population of England and Ireland had received the advantages -of public legislative provision for a general vaccination, the labouring -classes in Scotland were still left exposed to the ravages of the -small-pox. It was also complained by Dr. Cowan and other members of the -medical profession, that Scotland had not been included in the -provisions for the registration of the causes of death which they -considered might, with improvements, be made highly conducive to the -advancement of medical science and the means of protecting the public -health. - - I have the honour to be, - Gentlemen, - Your obedient servant, - EDWIN CHADWICK. - - - - - APPENDIX. - - - - - 1.—_Evidence of_ MR. JOHN ROE, _Civil Engineer, on the Practical - Improvement in Sewerage and Drainage tried in the Holborn and Finsbury - Divisions of the Metropolis_. - - -You are the surveyor to the Holborn and Finsbury Commission of -Sewers?—Yes, I am. - -By profession you are an engineer?—Yes; I have been engaged as an -engineer in the formation of canals and railways, and in the drainage -incident to such works. - -How long have you acted as surveyor to this branch of sewerage in the -metropolis?—Nearly four years. - -Have you observed the general state of the sewerage of the metropolis?—I -have only seen some of the sewers of other divisions, but I am generally -acquainted with the principle of their construction. - -Is it generally the same as that in which you found the sewers in the -Holborn and Finsbury divisions?—Yes, except that the forms differ in a -degree; some are flat-bottomed sewers, others segment-bottomed. For a -long time the Holborn and Finsbury divisions have used bottoms of a -semicircular form. - -The effect of a flat-bottomed sewer, it is to be presumed, when the -water is shallow and the flow slow, is to leave a larger quantity of -deposit?—Yes; it flows sometimes in a channel, leaving a deposit on each -side; sometimes the water flows on one side, leaving a deposit on the -other; but in all cases the flat-bottomed sewers occasion a larger -amount of deposit with the same flow of water: it is more than one-half -difference of the deposit which is left. - -What proportion of the sewerage of the metropolis do you believe to be -flat-bottomed?—I have not examined the other divisions, but I believe -the greater proportion of the sewerage to be flat-bottomed. In the City -they have built some of their sewers in a form nearly similar to those -adopted in the Holborn and Finsbury divisions; that is, approaching to -semicircular. In the Westminster division the invert is a segment of a -circle, whose chord being three feet the versed sine is six inches. Most -new sewers are making an approach to the better form by having segments. - -Is it not the fact that in proportion as the bottom approaches a plane -it approaches to the inconvenience of the flat-bottomed sewers, and -weakens the force of the current?—Yes, in a degree, it does. - -Are there any practical inconveniences, or is there any material -increase of expense in building semicircular bottoms?—None; and if the -sides are curved also it forms the stronger sewer for the same expense. - -How are the sides of the sewers generally built?—As far as I am -informed, they are built with upright walls. I know none but the new -sewers in the Holborn and Finsbury divisions that are built with curved -sides, though I have no doubt that if any new sewers are built under the -superintendence of Mr. Walker, who is president of the Engineers’ -Society, he would build them with curved sides. - -What are the disadvantages of the flat-sided sewers?—They are not -calculated to afford the greatest strength. In clayey or slippery -ground, where there is a pressure on the sides, they are more easily -forced in. I have myself seen instances where expensive sewers have been -forced in at the sides. The curved side gives the strength of an arch in -resisting such pressure. - -Is there any addition of expense in the construction of such forms of -sewers as you describe?—Less expense; there is less brick-work required. -As compared with some upright sewers with footings, the difference will -be two shillings in first size sewers, and four shillings per foot -lineal in sewers of the second size, in favour of the curved sewers. - -In respect to the levels, how have you found the sewers?—They appear to -have been entirely constructed with reference to the locality, to drain -to the nearest outlet, and not on an extended view for the whole -district, or with any view to sewerage on a large scale. In the Holborn -and Finsbury divisions the Commissioners now adopt a series of levels -suited from the lowest outlets to the surrounding districts. - -Have you heard of any alterations made in the surrounding districts on -the same principle?—I have heard of none as adopted generally. The City -have lowered several of their outlets; and Mr. Donaldson, on the -Westminster, has had the subject under consideration for some time. - -What are the chief effects of the piecemeal town drainage without -reference to extended levels?—Chiefly that when new lines of houses are -built and require new sewers, either the old sewers must be taken up and -re-constructed at a great expense, to adjust them to a new and effective -sewerage, or the new sewers, if they are adjusted to the old ones, are -deficient in fall, and they have greater deposits. - -Does the existing form or system of sewerage answer fully and at the -least expense the chief objects of sewerage in house and street -cleansing, and the removal of noxious substances?—No, it does not, -except where the outlets have been lowered, and the sewers continued at -a proper level; great accumulations of deposit are occasioned in the -sewers, and from their containing the refuse that was at one time -deposited in the cesspools, the deposit is more noxious than formerly; -the gas is more considerable, it escapes more extensively into streets -and into the houses, where the drains are not well trapped. My opinion -is that the general health of the men who work and have been accustomed -to the sewers, has become still worse; they are more pale and thin, and -lower in general health than formerly. The effect of the noxious gases -upon men working in these places is to lower the general health. Since I -have had the superintendence of the sewers, the men have encountered -about half a dozen accidents by explosions of gas. - -But is the health of these men who work in the sewers to be taken as a -criterion of the health of persons who are not accustomed to such -places?—I have had no means of forming a comparison, though I am of -opinion that gases which they encounter without any immediate injury -would be very injurious to the health of susceptible persons, or of any -persons not habituated to it. - -The first prejudicial effect of the defective system, then, is to -occasion these noxious accumulations; how are they removed?—Formerly, in -the Holborn and Finsbury sewers, and at present, I believe, in all other -sewers, the streets were opened at a great expense and obstruction (they -are so now, I believe, elsewhere); men descend, scoop up the deposit -into pails, which are raised by a windlass to the surface, and laid -there until the carts come; it is laid there until it is carted away, -sometimes for several hours, to the public annoyance and prejudice. The -contract price for removal from the old sewers without man-holes was -11_s._ per cubic yard of slop removed; where they have man-holes it was -6_s._ 10_d._ per cubic yard. This practice also involves injury and -expense as respects the pavement; a street may be well paved when it is -broken up for the cleansing of the sewers, but the portions of pavements -so disturbed are never so well put down again; neither can accidents be -effectually guarded against. - -By what means may these effects be obviated?—In the Holborn and Finsbury -divisions I suggested a plan of flushing the sewers, and of carrying off -all the refuse by water. This plan has been adopted, and it is now in -operation. The breaking up of the streets is avoided by the formation of -side entrances; cast-iron flushing gates are fixed in the sewers; the -ordinary flow of water in the sewers accumulates at these gates; the -gates are opened, and the force of the water is sufficient to sweep off -the deposit; and the system may be further extended. - -What is the comparative difference in the expense of construction?—The -cost of side entrances and flood-gates, as compared with the cost of -man-holes, is from 6_d._ to 1_s._ less per foot lineal of the length of -new sewers. - -What other expense is attendant on this improved practice?—The main -expense is the attendance of a man to shut and open the flood-gates. - -The structural expense being lower, is the ultimate expense of cleansing -lower also?—Yes; the expense of cleansing the sewers is about 50 per -cent. less than the prevalent mode. Our expense of cleansing the sewers -was about 1200_l._ per annum; we save 600_l._ of that, and expect to -save more; but to this must be added the saving to the public of the -cleansing of the private drains, formerly choked by the accumulations in -the sewers. This saving, on a moderate calculation, is found to be -upwards of 300_l._ per annum. There is also the diminution of the -escapes of gas from the old and continued accumulations. - -During what intervals are deposits allowed to remain on the old -mode?—The average is in one set of sewers about five years, and in -another about ten years. - -During which time the public are subjected to all the escapes of gas -from the decomposing accumulation?—Exactly so. It could not, however, go -on so long but for heavy falls of rain or snow, which occasion partial -clearances. - -What is the effect of these accumulations upon the private -drainage?—That the drains to the private houses are stopped: the first -intimation of the foul state of the main sewer arises from complaints of -individuals whose drains are affected; the accumulations in the private -drains also occasion an expense to the individuals and much annoyance. -By flushing the sewers this expense might be, and in the Holborn and -Finsbury division it is, avoided. - -Might not the price of sewers be reduced even below those you have now -in use, the egg-shaped sewers?—With the radiated bricks, I think that -the same capacity of sewerage may be secured with less thickness of -brick-work. I have given in an estimate of second-class sewers at 10_s._ -6_d._ per foot lineal; which is 7_s._ 6_d._ per foot less than the -common flat-bottomed sewer with footing. - -In these main drains a man may go up to examine them. Admitting them to -be necessary for the large towns, might not a smaller and less expensive -drainage suffice for small towns and villages?—There are situations in -courts, alleys, and small streets, where a less expensive form of -drainage would suffice. In fact 18–inch drains for short lengths, -costing, if made of radiated bricks, 4_s._ 6_d._ per foot, would -suffice; they would act well in proportion to the goodness of the falls. - -Have you found the system of cleansing the large drains by flushing with -proper supplies of water equally applicable to small drains?—Yes, -equally applicable. A gentleman has tried it on a private drain of -18–inch capacity, and 1200 feet length, and it answers equally well. It -is cleansed by the collection of refuse water from 30 or 40 houses. - -Might not the drains from private houses be also cleansed in the same -mode?—Yes, they might have a small and cheap apparatus for carrying away -all ordinary refuse. If in the small drain a brick fell in, it could not -be removed by the force of the small quantity of water which could be -obtained in such a situation. In our large sewers the heads of water are -in some cases strong enough to sweep away loose bricks. - -Would it not be of advantage to the occupier, if the private drains were -under the same general superintendence?—I conceive it would in -management. They are frequently put to great expense by getting persons -to attend to them who really do not understand them. They are often now -obliged to have recourse to the contractor’s men. Private property is -often drained through other private property, and when the drains are -choked, if the parties are not on good terms they will not allow each -other facilities for cleansing. Under the Finsbury local Act there is a -power to enforce the cleansing of private drains, and by way of appeal -that power is sometimes resorted to by private individuals. - -May we not presume that the same principles of hydraulics, as to the -advantages of a flow over a semi circular bottom, are as applicable to -small drains as to large ones?—More so from the flow of water being -smaller; the greater necessity for keeping it in a body to enable it to -carry away the common deposit. - -Then there is a proportionate loss in having the private drainage made -with flat-bottomed bricks or boards?—Yes, there is proportionate loss -from the extra cost of cleansing. Semicircular drains of tiles would be -better, and cheaper than brick, for private houses. - -Are there any other defects you have, as an engineer, noticed in the -prevalent mode of constructing the sewers?—Yes, the prevalent practice -is to join sewers at angles, frequently at right angles; this occasions -eddies and deposits of sediment that would otherwise pass off with the -water; it injures the capacity of the main sewers by obstructing the -current of water along them: I ascertained by experiment that the time -occupied in the passage of an equal quantity of water, along similar -lengths of sewer with equal falls, was— - - Seconds. - Along a straight line 90 - With a true curve 100 - With a turn at right angles 140 - -The Commissioners of the Holborn and Finsbury divisions agreed to -require that the curves in sewers, passing from one street to another, -shall be formed with a radius of not less than 20 feet; it is also -required that the inclination or fall shall be increased at the -junction, in order to preserve an equal capacity for the passage of -water, and of effect in sweeping away the deposit. - -When by heavy falls of snow or otherwise the refuse of the streets is -carried into such sewers, is there any difficulty in sweeping it -away?—None whatsoever. - -How are the gully-holes or entrances to the drains affected by such -deposits?—Under the prevalent system the gullies and shoots are formed -so as to retain deposit, on the principle that it is cheaper to get the -deposit out of those than out of the sewers. The Commissioners in -Holborn and Finsbury, having adopted the flushing principle, have also -adopted a new description of gully and shoot, which I proposed to them -for the purpose of conveying the whole of the deposit into the sewers; -it is then washed away by the flushing. - -In what number of years would the saving in cleansing sewers by flushing -repay the expense of applying the apparatus to the existing sewers in -the Holborn and Finsbury divisions?—In seven years. - -What would be the expense of the construction of chimneys to remove the -foul air from sewers?—The expense would depend upon the sort and form of -chimney that might be used. A suggestion of Mr. Stable, one of the chief -clerks of the Holborn and Finsbury commission, appears to meet the case -at the least expense. He suggests that the pipes used to carry off the -rain-water from the roofs of houses should be connected with the crown -of the sewers; thus forming a chimney for carrying off the effluvia from -the sewers, and also a conveyance for the rain-water into the sewers. -The cost of connecting one such pipe with a sewer would, on an average, -be about 3_l._ 16_s._ 2_d._ - -Have you any doubt of the practicability of carrying all the surface -cleansing of the streets into the sewers, and removing it by conveyance -in water, as was proposed at Paris, instead of by hand labour and -cartage?—I entertain no doubt whatever that it might be done, where -there is a good sewer and proper gully-holes and shoots; with a good -supply of water these would carry away rapidly all the surface refuse; -the experience of the sewerage in the Holborn and Finsbury divisions -prove it. - -How does it prove it?—At every opportunity the street-sweepers sweep all -they can into the gully-holes, and it is swept away without -inconvenience. - -One practical witness states that the expense of the cartage alone of -the refuse from a Macadamised street of half a mile, in the winter time -in the metropolis, is 5_l._ weekly. What would be the comparative -expense of carrying it away by the sewers?—It would save the whole -expense of the cartage; it would be less than the present expense of -sweeping and filling into the carts, and if there were a sufficient -supply of water on the surface, the work might be conducted with great -rapidity. - -You are aware that one inconvenience of the existing mode of street -cleansing, independently of the great expense, is the length of time -during which the wet refuse remains to the public annoyance on the -surface, until removed by the slow process of sweeping and cartage?—Yes; -and the men would appear to delay for the purpose of the dirt being -removed, by being washed by rain into the sewers. - -Do you conceive that all the business of street cleansing and house -draining might be consolidated advantageously to the public?—Yes, -clearly so, and with great economy. - -Have you, as an engineer, had experience in road construction?—Yes, I -have, having taken the levels and surveys preparatory to an Act of -Parliament being obtained for lowering the Long Compton Hills in -Warwickshire; I afterwards constructed the new line of road on Mr. -Telford’s principle. - -Considering the drainage of a new district: the under-drainage of the -roads and houses and the surface cleansing, would not the public gain by -putting the drainage, the road-construction, repair and maintenance of -the roads, under the same management?—Yes, the public would get it done -much better by one surveyor and one Board than by two. In the old -districts, besides the double expense of officers, inconveniences arise -from the want of unity between the contractors for the paving and the -contractors for the drainage; there is always conflicting interests -between the two, and the work is not in many cases done with the economy -and expedition which would be practicable. - -If the public, who may be ignorant of the science of sewerage and of -what it may accomplish, make no complaints, and do not agitate for the -adoption of any improved system, in how long a time do you think the -improvements demonstrated in the Holborn and Finsbury divisions would -reach the other end of the metropolis by the force of imitation and -voluntary adoption?—From the apathy shown and prejudice against anything -new, however valuable it may be as an improvement, and the various -interests affected, such as the contractors for cleansing, I do not -expect that they would become general in the metropolis during my -life-time. The public are passive, and the adverse interests are active. - -You know the description of persons engaged as surveyors of various -descriptions in the rural districts and in the smaller towns?—Yes, I do. - -Unless care be taken, is it to be apprehended that any new expenditure -will be made on imperfect and unwholesome drains with flat bottoms and -on false principles at a disproportionate expense?—Undoubtedly, except -they have to act on rule, it will certainly be so throughout the -country. The drainage that I have seen in the country districts is worse -than in the metropolis. - -Have you found the sewerage produce any effect in the drainage of the -surrounding land?—Yes, we have found it lower the water in the wells, -often at great distances. For instance, in forming a sewer in the City -Road we found that it lowered by four feet a well nearly a quarter of a -mile distance. The only remedy we could advise to the parties was to -lower the well: they did so. We afterwards had occasion to lower the -same sewer three feet, when the well was lowered again in proportion; so -that the construction of the sewer, in this instance, drained an area of -40 or 50 acres on that side, and perhaps further. The water is sometimes -in such quantities and so strong in the land springs as to require -openings to be left in the side of the sewer for its passage. - -Are there any fees taken in the Holborn and Finsbury divisions?—None. - -Do you think the system of the payment of officers by fees -objectionable?—Yes, highly so. - -“Have you met with instances where the drains have not acted, owing to -the inadequacy of the supplies of water?—I have not had my attention -called particularly to any private drain, so as to notice whether it did -not act owing to an inadequate supply of water, but taking the question -on the broad principle of the effect of a sufficient supply of water to -drains or sewers as beneficial in keeping them free from deposit, I beg -to state that I have noticed the effect on sewers of the same form and -having the same fall or inclination, and I have found that where there -has been an adequate supply of water no deposit has remained in them, -whereas where the supply of water was inadequate, deposit has -accumulated so much as to render cleansing necessary in a few years: the -effect must be the same in private drains.” - -[Figure 1 is a representation of the form of the common sewers built in -the Westminster division. It is a transverse section, representing, on a -scale of a quarter of an inch to a foot, a sewer of the larger sort, the -greatest height being five feet six inches and the width three feet. The -smaller sewers are made of the same form, but only five feet high and -two feet six inches wide. It chiefly differs from the more common form -of sewers in not having a perfectly flat bottom. - -[Illustration: - - _Fig. 1._ -] - -The following figures, 1, 2, are representations of the sewers in the -Holborn and Finsbury division of the metropolis, on the same scale as -the above. The part in which the joints are marked in the cut is, -according to the directions, to be worked in blocks with cement. - -[Illustration: - - _Fig. 1._ -] - -[Illustration: - - _Fig. 2._ -] - -The sides of these sewers form the curves of large radii struck from the -centres on the lines _a_ _a_, the radius for the larger size being about -13 feet, and that for the smaller size in proportion. - -The spaciousness of the sewerage in the Westminster division of the -metropolis has been an object of pride; and it is stated that the -commissioners have walked in procession down one main sewer prepared for -the purpose. It was the glory of Rome that some of its cloacæ were so -large that boats and chariots might pass through them. All this, -however, appears to have been mistaken in principle, and in ignorance of -the mischiefs of the generation of gases and of the principles of -hydraulics, and their application for the attainment of the objects in -question. Mr. Smith, of Deanston, who has introduced the greatest -improvements in land drainage, advances the general principle, that the -size of sewers should be so adjusted as to have them always as full as -possible, with a quick flow; and he contends that the drainage of a city -might and should be so constructed as to give rise to as little occasion -for men to go through the main drains as there is for men to go through -the main pipes for conveying supplies of water. He would make the drains -narrow. “Their transverse section should exhibit an oval or egg-shape, -having the vertical diameter at least double the length of the -horizontal. The bricks used should be made on purpose, with radiating -sides.” “Care should be taken to make the building water-tight and -air-tight, and to prevent the foul water and effluvia passing into the -contiguous soil. Where land drainage is to be received, special openings -can be made at intervals to receive it. All private drainage should pass -into the sewers under ground by well-secured channels or pipes. Strong -clay pipes, of an oval section, hard burned, and with a good arrangement -for secure jointing, might be cheaply procured for the purpose.” It may -be said that there is scarcely any drainage, even in the opulent -districts, that at present meets these conditions. E. C.] - - - 2.—_Evidence of_ MR. JOHN DARKE, _Contractor for Cleansing, as to the - Obstacles to Cleansing, and the Conversion of the Refuse of the - Metropolis to Productive Use_. - -What are the practical difficulties you find in the way of the cheap -cleansing of the streets and houses of the metropolis?—The great -difficulty of the cleansing of the metropolis arises from the want of -proper receptacles for the filth. There is no filth in the metropolis -that now, as a general rule, will pay the expense of collection and -removal by cart, except the ashes from the houses and the soap lees from -the soap-boilers; and some of the night-soil from the east end of the -town, where there happen to be in the immediate vicinity some -market-gardens, where it can be used at once, without distant or -expensive cartage. The charge for removing night-soil from the poorest -tenements may be about 1_l._ per tenement. One house with another, the -expense may be said to be in London about 10_s._ per year, as the -cesspools may be emptied once in two years. One house with another they -will not produce more than a load of refuse from the cesspools, which, -not being composed, there is great absorption of the liquid refuse. I -have given away thousands of loads of night-soil; as we have no means of -disposing of it, we know not what to do with it. - -What is the distance from the metropolis at which refuse is used?—The -expense of cartage of course increases with the distance. The average -extent of use of it as deposit does not exceed three miles from the -Post-office district in the city of London. Some night-soil has been -dried, packed up in the returned sugar hogsheads, and sent to the West -Indies for use as manure. - -Is it not conveyed away from London by canal?—We do not at present, but -it might be. There is a penalty in the local Act of 5_l._, for -depositing it on the wharf. - -Cannot you convey such manure by railway?—No, there is no mode of -conveyance provided. The charge, I believe, is a halfpenny per mile, but -that is for the use of the rails only; and the company do not favour the -transit of manure, and the farmer or contractor who would convey it must -provide engines for himself, which again would not pay. Night soil has -not yet been used systematically, and there are no places provided for -its reception. - -Might not the refuse be disposed of to better advantage than it now -is?—The refuse of a great portion of the metropolis might be disposed of -to immense advantage, but it must be by operations on a scale beyond the -power of private capitalists. The sweepings of the paved streets is good -as manure: on grassland it is nearly equal to horse-dung; but it -contains so much seed that it scarcely does on ploughed land for -immediate use. It produces great quantities of herbage; every year, -however, it improves, because the weed is lost from it and the manure is -left. When the streets are dry, and it will pay for transit, we sell a -few loads. The sweepings from the Macadamized roads consist so much of -granite that it is of very little use indeed; and in general the -street-sweepings are mixed up with other manure for sale. - - - 3.—_Evidence of_ MR. JOHN TREBLE, _Contractor for Cleansing, as to the - Obstacles to Cleansing, and the Conversion of the Refuse of the - Metropolis to Productive Uses_. - -You have been engaged in the cleansing of the metropolis, have you -not?—Yes; I have been engaged, and my father before me, in the general -cartage of materials, and also in extensive business as a nightman, but -I have now retired from business. - -What is the usual expense of emptying cesspools?—The full price to -respectable private houses is 15_s._ per load, but the contract price is -about 10_s._ per load. The period of emptying is dependent on whether -there is any drainage from the cesspool, or whether there are any -land-springs. Some would require to be emptied twice or three times -a-year, whilst others would go two or three years without being filled. -About 1_l._ per annum per tenement would perhaps be the expense one with -another. - -Where the cesspools are relieved, is not the ground about -saturated?—Yes, it is; in digging the foundations of old houses for new -buildings, the earth is found to be saturated. We have frequently to -empty one person’s place because it is found that the soil has -penetrated through to the neighbours’ houses. - -Does not this moisture affect the condition of the house?—Yes, and it -would be good economy for the sake of the house, and keeping a dry -foundation, to have water-closets and good drainage from the house to -the sewers. - -By having the water-closets, the expense of the removal of the soil, -annually or otherwise, would be saved?—Yes; and the expense of the -dearest water-closets bears no proportion to the annual expense of -cleansing, though water-closets I think might be constructed at a less -expense, on a more simple plan, than they now are. They might be -constructed on a principle to receive the rain-water and all the liquid -refuse from the houses, which would increase the cleansing. - -To effect cleansing on this principle, it will of course be necessary to -have the water laid on in the house?—Of course it will. It would greatly -assist the cleansing, if the water-companies were required to draw their -plugs once at least in the fortnight. It would cleanse their own pipes, -and assist in the cleansing of the sewers. The company would say that -that would be a great waste of water, but a sufficient body of water -might be obtained for the purpose in a quarter of an hour. - -Does not the soil bear any value as a manure?—In general it bears no -value to the nightman as a manure. One hinderance to any removal to a -distance is, that, by the police regulations, cesspools can only be -emptied in the night within certain hours. This prevents cartage to any -great distance, and cartage is very dear. Some nightmen have paid 6_d._ -per load for the liberty of depositing it. The object of the nightmen is -to get rid of the soil early, and return with the cart to complete the -emptying in one night. Formerly, before the new police were so much -about, the men would empty the cart in any bye street or place where -they could; they would, when it was in a liquid state, empty it down the -sewers; they do so now when they have an opportunity, and return to -complete the job. Formerly the site of the New London University was a -place in which the refuse was deposited; so was the site of the new row -of grand houses in Hyde Park Gardens. I think the site of Belgrave -Square was another place of deposit; but those places being built over, -there is now much difficulty in getting rid of the refuse. - -What is the expense of cartage in London?—As a contractor, for the use -of a cart, a man, and horse a-day, I used to charge 9_s._ the day for -carting stone and rubbish. My successor did it for 7_s._, but I saw his -name yesterday in the Gazette. The cost of the man’s work and the horse -will amount to 6_s._ or 7_s._ in London. - -What distance do your carts in full work travel in London?—A good day’s -work to send a load out and return empty would be about ten miles; over -hilly parts not so far. - -Is the street refuse of the paved streets valuable as manure?—Yes it is; -but it is only worth removal when it can be easily carted, that is, when -it is in a dry state. The contractor being obliged to cleanse the -streets in a given time, it would not pay to have such a number of carts -as to complete the cleansing within the time and carry the refuse to a -distance. They get rid of the refuse at the nearest place of deposit. In -dry weather they have less to do and can turn their carts to account. -The refuse is then dry, and it rides well, and may be sold to an -advantage, and it sometimes fetches half-a-crown a load. - -At what distance from the place of work would it be delivered at that -price?—At about three miles distance; not exceeding that. - -Is none of the refuse of the metropolis carried further as manure?—Yes; -some of the farmers who bring produce to market return with their carts -loaded with dung to greater distances. - -Is not canal conveyance used?—Much of the street cleansing is taken down -the canals. - -Do the contractors in general pay for the deposit of the refuse of -streets?—They would pay if they could get places of deposit near their -work; but all the places out to the outskirts, where any refuse whatever -could be deposited, are built upon. - -Do not the men sometimes get rid of the surface sweepings into the -sewers?—Yes; they do when it is in a liquid state, and when they are not -watched. - -Do you happen to know what is the expense of cleansing a street of a -given length?—I once contracted to remove the stuff from Bond-street -away; each cleansing took four teams and two stands, as it is called; or -two teams and one stand, that is, two two horse carts, and one single -horse cart standing to be loaded two days in the winter time. The cost -of cartage in the winter season for cleansing that street was about -5_l._ for each cleansing. It was cleansed less frequently than weekly: -that street is Macadamised. In the summer-time the expense would be less -than one-half. The expense of cleansing the whole of Marylebone, that -is, the expense of cartage, is about 2,200_l._ per annum, the parish -finding the sweepers. - - - 4.—_Extract from the Report of_ FOURCROY _and others, showing the - Calculation of the Extent of Pollution of the Seine from the Discharge - of the Refuse of the Streets of Paris_. - -“Not to neglect the details into which the Ministry desire us to enter, -we observe that the maximum of daily street-sweepings is, in winter, 684 -cubic metres; the minimum is 410; the average is 547. - -“On the other hand, the velocity of the waters of the Seine, measured at -their lowest level, being 6 decimetres 5 centimetres a second, and the -profile of the Seine, measured also at low water, at the bridge of the -Revolution, being 118 metres, we observe that there results, supposing -an uniform velocity in the whole mass, a flow of water of 76 cubic -metres a second; and in one day a flow of water 9,600 times greater at -low water than the most considerable volume of the street-sweepings of -Paris for the same space of time. This volume of water would be 16,015 -times greater than that of the street-sweepings, if compared with the -minimum of these last; that is to say, with the sweepings in summer, or -the time at which the waters of the Seine are lowest. Any error in the -calculation, arising from the inequality of the velocity in the -different parts of the column formed by the current, is too amply -compensated by other circumstances to need our consideration. - -“To this is to be added, that the season when the street-sweepings are -greatest, necessarily accords, all other things being equal, with the -period when the water is highest and most rapid, as the period of low -water answers to that when the refuse is least; and admitting the -preceding calculations, the volume of water would be more than 16,000 -times greater than the street-sweepings; and this proportion would -increase considerably when the water is highest, by reason of the double -proportion of height and velocity. - -“It is to be further considered, that a great portion of these sweepings -being insoluble in the water, would become precipitated, and unite with -the mud; that a larger portion still, deposited unequally on the two -banks, would never reach the bleaching-grounds, or the places where the -water is drawn, and that consequently their possible relation to the -water used in the city, reduces itself to a quantity excessively small, -and absolutely inappreciable.” - - - 5.—_Communication from_ CAPTAIN VETCH, _of the Royal Engineers, on the - Structural Arrangements of New Buildings, and Protection of the Public - Health_. - -DEAR SIR,—Agreeable to promise, I forward the following observations on -the improvement of large towns, as affecting the health, economy, and -comfort of the inhabitants, and so far as these depend on structural -arrangement. - -The points requiring the attention of the engineer and architect may be -stated as follows:—_complete ventilation_, _complete drainage_, ample -sewerage, ample supply of water, and lastly, a ready and good -communication between the various portions of the town. - -I should have commenced my observations with the subject of drainage as -the first in point of order were a new district or town to be built, but -as both drainage, and ventilation, and communication, &c., depend so -much on the arrangement of the streets, it may not be superfluous to -premise something on that head. It will be sufficiently obvious that -where towns are constructed on a regular plan with straight streets, the -communication, ventilation, and drainage is comparatively easy, and far -more effectual than under contrary circumstances; but it unfortunately -happens that our large towns contain many narrow, crooked streets, with -little or no arrangement, and though it may not be practicable -materially to mend what we now find so bad, we cannot fail to perceive -that a little timeous system and arrangement would have avoided many -evils we now complain of, with a less structural expense and a much -improved value of property to the owners. - -Many or most of the towns, both in British and Spanish America, are -formed on regular plans, commencing with a square as a nucleus, to the -faces of which the streets (as they rise) are made parallel, so that -whatever may be the extent of the town the increments take place in -regular order, until stopped by some natural obstruction; and though it -may be true we cannot now enjoy the good effect of any such original -precaution, yet as respects the extension or future increments of our -cities and towns, much benefit may still be derived by resorting to -system; and though we cannot now remodel what has been built by -proceeding regularly from a central point to the circumference, yet we -may adopt an external line or periphery as a basis of operation for the -construction of the future extension of the town on a regular plan or -system. - -It is fortunate for the metropolis that there existed some large -landowners in its vicinity, as the families of Bedford, Grosvenor, and -Portman, whose taste and spirit corresponded with their means, and that -large portions of the increments of London consequently possess all the -advantages that a well-considered system of utility could require; and -the benefit of such a circumstance will be best felt by contemplating -what effects a contrary proceeding would have produced; and further, the -plans pursued by the above-named families have not only been highly -beneficial in themselves, but they have served to stimulate the small -proprietors in their vicinity to the same useful ends; and what seems to -be wanted from the authority of the state is the means of ensuring such -beneficial measures in all cases, or at least protection against -antagonist or vicious proceedings in the owners of land adjoining towns. - -It will not fail to be remarked that the increments of London just -alluded to have been constructed chiefly for the abodes of the wealthy, -who can generally protect themselves, and remove from any noxious -neighbourhood. But the state, as the natural guardian of the poor, is -the more called upon to interfere with its authority to see that the -streets and houses intended for the labouring classes are constructed on -comfortable and sanitary principles. - -Most of our large towns have increased upon small, irregular nuclei, and -received their increments chiefly from buildings erected along the roads -branching into the country, presenting so many main streets radiating -from a centre, but leaving the intervening spaces to be irregularly and -imperfectly filled up at subsequent periods as chance or necessity -directed, and in this manner has arisen the great defect (to be -generally observed) of a good lateral connexion between the great -radiating streets. - -So great indeed is the above defect that it is often difficult to pass -from one site in the skirts of a town to an adjacent one without passing -towards the centre of the town by one radiating street and returning by -another; this defective construction of towns is the natural result when -they extend without any reference to a general plan or public -convenience, and the mode which, in my opinion, would best restore the -condition of a town so constructed to a commodious and useful state -would be as follows: - -I would propose, in the first instance, to connect all the radiating -streets of the town by straight lines drawn as near to the mass of -buildings in the town as the vacant or unbuilt ground would admit of; -this operation would have the effect of inclosing the town in an -irregular polygon, upon each side of which, as a normal line, I would -propose to lay out the future streets, one series of which would be -parallel to the normal lines, and another series would be perpendicular -to them, and in this manner the future increments of the town would -proceed on a fixed and uniform system, and would render the lateral -lines of communication as effective as the others, and would afford at -the same time increased facilities for ventilation and sewerage, and for -the supplies of water, gas, &c.; and proceeding on this system, it may -fully be anticipated that the building sites would become much more -valuable to their owners than if they remained to be laid out by -individual caprice on a disjointed plan. It would be valuable in most -cases that the normal polygon should be formed into a series of streets -of ample dimensions, fit for the reception of public buildings, -particularly schools; and occurring (as it would do) as the nearest -great lateral line of communication to the irregular mass of the town, -it would serve to do much of the duty in way of communication and -ventilation which the interior mass had left undone, and was unable to -effect, and might answer as the great respiratory of the town, and would -be well adapted to serve, if wide enough, and planted, for alamedas, or -public walks. - -In London, the line of the New Road and City Road furnishes almost the -only sample the metropolis possesses of polygon lines of communication, -and the utility of the sample is duly felt and appreciated. In Paris the -line of the Boulevards presents a favourable specimen of the convenience -and comfort of such a construction of streets. - -The advantage of adhering to system in laying out new towns, or -additions to old towns, will be much enhanced when we take into -consideration the means of supplying water, gas, &c. to the houses; and -as the application of science and machinery becomes more extended in -administering to the comforts of towns, it is manifest the more regular -the field of their action the more efficacious and economical will be -the results. On the score of ventilation, as well as for other -conveniences, it is important the streets should intersect and not abut -on each other, that the currents of air may have free escape.[49] - -One of the greatest evils arising from towns extending at caprice, -without reference to any general plan, is the vast expense that -subsequently arises when necessity demands communications to be made -through crowded masses of buildings; such events are of frequent -occurrence in the metropolis and other large towns, and so great is the -outlay to remedy what might have been avoided, that no measures proposed -for the improvement of towns merit such deep attention as these; and it -has sometimes occurred to me, that instead of applying the funds to -enlarging the leading thoroughfares, the object would in many cases be -better served by forming entirely new communications through the worst -constructed and less costly sites. In this manner we should have two -good communications instead of one; we should open the means of -communication, ventilation, and sewerage to places where at present they -exist most imperfectly, and we should expunge from the map of the town a -number of noxious, ill-ventilated ruinous buildings, the seats of dirt, -disease, and demoralization. - -Annexed is a plan of the town of Birmingham, on which is traced a study -or design for the future increments of that town on the principles above -proposed, which will serve to illustrate the views of the writer. The -figure P P P P represents the normal polygon. - -_Increments._—It is hardly to be expected that any very uniform plan of -building can be rigidly adhered to; moral as well as physical -difficulties may demand departure from regularity in the construction of -the future increments of a town, particularly where the field to be -occupied is extensive; but so long as the general principles are adhered -to, and the new streets proceeded with, upon a general preconceived and -authorized plan, all the needful objects may be attained; and it has -occurred to me that the mode most likely to give satisfaction to the -inhabitants would be for the municipal authorities to offer a premium -for the best design for the extension of the town, and of leaving the -selection to the majority of the ratepayers. - - TOWN OF BIRMINGHAM, - - _To illustrate the mode proposed for constructing the future increments - of an irregular Town, upon principles of general convenience and - utility._ - -[Illustration: _Standidge & Co. Litho. London_] - -Proprietors of large spaces of ground, or a combination of small ones, -might also claim and be authorized to form and execute their own plans, -provided always that they were previously submitted to examination and -approval by properly constituted authorities. - -It has been omitted to mention, that towns built on a regular plan, and -upon sanitary and commodious principles, are much less liable to the -accidents of fire, and the consequent loss of life and property; and -when such do occur, the facility of extinguishing them is much greater; -and one might also venture to predict that it will be found that the new -town of Edinburgh has suffered less from fire than any other town in -Great Britain. - -Prevention against fire is a subject well meriting consideration when -treating of the improvement of towns. It would seem that fires more -particularly occur in large public and private buildings, as for -instance, the Albion Mills, the theatres of Drury-lane and -Covent-garden, the Houses of Parliament, the Great Armoury in the Tower, -Royal Exchange, &c.; and it would be well to provide that all such -buildings should be detached, as well as manufactories and all buildings -containing steam-engines: but previous to legislating on the subject it -would be desirable to collect the statistics of conflagration, which -might readily be obtained from the fire-insurance offices. - -_Ventilation._—In new towns, or the increments of old towns, good -ventilation will be best secured by attending to the principles laid -down for the construction of such. - -The noxious ingredients which must exist more or less in the atmospheres -of all large towns may be dissipated by currents of air, or diluted by -access to large open spaces, while the origin of the evil may be much -reduced by a good system of sewerage. - -For the removal of noxious vapours existing in crowded towns the -following points deserve attention:— - -1. The conversion of blind alleys into thoroughfares. - -2. The continuation of leading streets through blocks of houses on which -at present they abut. - -3. The opening of wide and straight streets through the meanest, most -complex, and crowded parts of cities; this will prove the most important -measure for meeting the object in view; and what merits the next -consideration is the preservation of such good and healthy avenues as -already exist free from encroachments: for it has happened in the -metropolis while exertions were making in some districts to open wide -streets, in other districts a contrary system was at work. The New and -City Roads, the most commodious avenue in the vicinity of London for -length, width, useful and healthy communication, is in a constant -process of invasion, as may be noted more particularly in the vicinities -of Tottenham-court Road and King’s-cross; and unless some measures are -taken to preserve this noble respiratory of the metropolis, it is to be -feared in a short time its character will be entirely changed. - -4. Another mode of improving the air of towns is to open squares, or -public walks, or gardens, by the removal of some of the buildings, by -which means a reservoir of pure air is created, and in this manner the -city of Seville was essentially benefited; the streets are there -numerous, narrow, and dirty, but the city, abounding in large convents, -the removal of some of them, and the conversion of their ample sites -into piazzas or squares, afforded the air and space so much required for -the public health. - -In London there are some institutions that might be advantageously -removed to the suburbs or skirts of the town, such as the Charter-house -School and the Fleet Prison, and their sites converted into open -squares; but if such operations are too costly and difficult, we may at -least guard against the converse operation, viz., the covering of open -sites with masses of buildings. Thus we have seen in recent times the -gardens of Lincoln’s-inn and Gray’s-inn invaded; and we had lately a -proposition to convert Lincoln’s-inn-square into piles of buildings, and -to demolish what no art can supply, the finest reservoir of air which -the metropolis offers to a crowded neighbourhood. - -5. The circulation of pure air would be much increased by pulling down -all dead walls, and by substituting iron railings in their stead; and -too much credit cannot be given for what has already been effected in -this respect in the neighbourhood of Knightsbridge, &c. - -6. The prohibition of all burials in the metropolis and other large -towns, and the consequent diffusion of unwholesome effluvia. - -_Drainage and Sewerage._—As towns become more crowded, the value of good -drainage and sewerage as a sanitary measure becomes the more apparent; -and as the means of draining the site of a town above and below the -surface is to be effected in part by the same means as the sewerage or -removal of the liquid filth, the subject becomes of great importance, -and second only to the choice of the site of the town and distribution -of its streets; and if a _due regard to system_ has been shown to be so -desirable in the one case, it is no less so in the other, and before any -buildings are commenced the plan of drainage should be matured. - -In order to arrive at a good system of drainage for a piece of ground -intended to be built upon, or in a town where the sewerage requires -improvement, a necessary step in the process would be to add to the plan -of the town lines of equal altitudes, drawn at every two or three feet -of elevation, which would present at one view the means of comparing the -levels over the whole extent of the town; they would show the deepest -valleys where the main sewers would most conveniently run, and the most -efficient mode of combining the several classes of drains, so that the -declivities might be turned to the best account; in addition, the plan -should be so far geological as to show the boundaries of the strata, as -a body of marl or clay often upholds a quantity of water which might -prove injurious as a building site if not previously tapped. - -A notorious instance of this nature occurred at the village of Moseley, -near Birmingham. Preliminary to carrying the Gloucester Railway through -the village, in deep cutting, it had been ascertained by trial shafts -that the bottom consisted of quicksand, which rendered it difficult -either to construct a tunnel or to support the slopes in open cutting -until the water was removed; and for this object a drift or level was -brought up from a distance of a quarter of a mile through a bed of marl; -the miners proceeded for some distance perfectly dry until they reached -the quicksand, when the water flowed into the drift at the rate of 253 -cubic feet per hour, or 77½ gallons per minute, and the wells in the -village in a short time were laid dry, and had to be deepened at the -expense of the Railway company. It so happened in this instance that the -level of the quicksand was so deep that the surface of the land had not -been affected by the pending up of the water below; but if it had been -otherwise, the measure resorted to would have proved as useful to the -land as it was to the Railway. - -In laying out a plan of drainage and sewerage when a river or brook -passes through or alongside of a town, it will naturally become the main -drain of the place, and be the normal line from whence the second-class -sewers would diverge; but it not unfrequently happens when such a brook -is small and becomes the _cloaca maxima_, that, being left open, and -insufficiently supplied with water in the summer season, it constitutes, -instead of a benefit, a serious nuisance to the inhabitants; instances -of this kind may be observed at Edinburgh, Birmingham, Coventry, -Camberwell, &c., &c. It also happens at many towns that a stream passing -through or by them is dammed up to turn a mill just above or below the -town, or even in the middle of it, by which means the current useful to -clear away the filth is diverted, the water in the bed of the stream -into which sewers are discharged is left stagnant, while the vicinity of -the town is rendered wet and unwholesome from the pent up water. - -At Birmingham the Rea Brook is dammed up in its course through the town -to supply a mill. In the very excellent sanitary report of the town by -Dr. Hodgson and other medical gentlemen, it is stated that “the river -Rea may be considered the cloaca or main sewer of the town, but that its -condition is very bad;” the report also states, “that the stream is -sluggish, and the quantity of water which it supplies is not sufficient -to dilute and wash away the refuse which it receives in passing through -the town, and that in hot weather it is consequently very offensive; and -in some situations in these seasons is covered with a thick scum of -decomposing matters; and this filthy condition of the river near the -railway stations is a subject of constant and merited animadversions, -and that it requires especial attention lest it should become a source -of disease, &c.” - -The _cloaca maxima_ of Birmingham differs from that of ancient Rome; -that whereas in the latter art was employed to effect what nature had -left undone, here art has been employed to obstruct the useful course of -nature. I quite agree with the sanitary report as to the present noxious -state of the brook; and even those who travel on the railway may at -times be very sensible of the effluvia when crossing it. - -I am inclined to differ from the sanitary report as to insufficiency of -the water of the Rea for cleansing its own bed; but that report has not -adverted to the fact of the abstraction and diversion of the water of -the Rea from its natural bed to turn a mill, a fact which will amply -account for the deficiency and sluggishness of the current in the very -places where the contrary condition is most wanted. - -From my inspection of the locality, I am inclined to believe that the -descent of the Rea and its quantity of water in passing through the town -of Birmingham is sufficient under good arrangements for the efficient -and wholesome sewerage of its bed. - -If we take a distance of half a mile above the weir and half a mile -below it, that is, nearly from Morley-street to Lawley-street, I -consider I shall be justified in saying there is a descent of about 14 -feet, for I find a slight weir in Floodgate-street; at the dam itself -the fall is about eight feet, and from thence for a considerable -distance downwards the fall is considerable. - -Above the weir the stream for a short distance is sluggish from want of -declivity, and the water being pent up, keeps the houses there wet or -damp, while below the weir the bed of the Rea being left nearly dry, the -filth from the sewers which discharge there must stagnate, while at the -same time the water of the Rea passing through the mill-race with a good -body and current, applies to no act of cleansing. - -The mill-pool is extensive but shallow, and there the filth from above -accumulates. When the pool is filled with water it is worked off by the -mill, but the gratings prevent dead dogs and such like matter from -passing, and are there left to fester at low water. - -The remedy is as easy as the evil is great; all obstruction being -removed from the course of the brook and the water restored to its -original bed, the object would be effected; as to the value of the -mill-power which would thus be subverted, it cannot be a matter of much -amount in a place where coals and steam-engines are so cheap, and where -the constant and regular work of the mill must be an object of some -importance. - -In applying a remedy to the great evil under notice, the engineer should -not be content by merely restoring matters to their original and natural -state, but in so populous a town should apply all the aid which art can -bestow to assist natural circumstances. The bed of the Rea should be -formed with an uniform descent through the town and for some distance -below it, by dredging in some places and filling it in others with -coarse gravel or broken stones; or, better still, if funds will afford -it, by forming an inverted arch of stone or blue bricks to give full -effect to the scour of the stream; further, the engineer would render -the course of the brook through the town as straight as circumstances -would permit by cutting off loops and sinuosities. In this manner, and -by reserving the whole body of the water of the Rea for cleansing its -own bed, I have no doubt that this main sewer of Birmingham would become -as conspicuous for its wholesome and efficient action as it is now for -the contrary. - -About a mile above the town of Birmingham, there is another mill which I -am disposed to think would act rather beneficially than otherwise, in -removing the filth from the bed of the brook in its course through the -town; for in summer weather when the stream is scanty, by pooling it up -and letting the water down with force at intervals, the effect is much -increased. Whether the stream of the Rea be so deficient in summer as to -require this process, I would not now give a positive opinion, but there -are many somewhat analogous cases where the stream in summer is not -sufficient and where the pooling up and flushing off at intervals could -not but prove of great utility; and if I have now brought the case of -Birmingham into considerable detail, it is owing to the circumstance of -its exemplifying certain conditions that are common to a great number of -towns, and which, in a sanitary point of view, and more especially in -regard to the poorer classes of the community, are the most urgent for -remedy of any that have fallen under my observation. - -In the town of Haddington, a mill-dam crosses the river Tyne in its -passage through the place and into the mill-pool; the main sewer is -discharged with a diminished and sluggish descent; and on occasion of -floods in the river, the water passes up the sewers and occasionally -lays the lowest part of the town under water. It would not be difficult -to direct the main sewer into the bed of the river below the dam or -weir, and by the additional declivity give some current to the water of -the sewer, which from the pending up of the river at its present outlet -has rendered it almost stagnant, so much so, that in hot weather, and -where it is not covered over, the exhalations are very offensive; but -was the sewer improved by the alteration mentioned, still the pooling up -of the river for the mill keeps the lower part of the town damp, and -even subjects it to partial inundations. - -One of the medical officers reports, that when “fever has been at any -time prevalent in the town, it has been most so in a portion of it -called the Nungate,[50] lying close by the river, when during the summer -and autumn it is occasionally almost stagnant, and where there is a -considerable decomposition of vegetable matter.” - -Another medical gentleman, speaking of the main sewer, says, “this small -burn is a receptacle of the privies and refuse of vegetable matters from -the houses near which it passes; and in those parts where it is -uncovered, it forms an excellent index of the weather; previous to rain -the smell is intolerable.” - -The same gentleman proposes as a remedy that another small burn, having -a parallel course at a short distance, should be turned into the sewer -to aid the sewerage. From my knowledge of the locality, the -recommendation, I should say, is judicious, but in this manner, though -the supply of water would be increased, the declivity or rather want of -declivity of the sewer would remain the same, and could only be improved -by removing the mill-dam, or directing the sewer into the bed of the -river below it, as already mentioned. Unquestionably from the pending up -of the river, the lower part of the town is at present very ill drained, -and it is somewhat remarkable that it was the first site in Scotland -visited by the Asiatic cholera. - -In reference to the two cases cited and to others of a similar nature, -it should be remarked, that the vicinities of the nuisances are chiefly -inhabited by the poorer classes, and who from want of influence in their -own parts are the more necessarily thrown under the protection of state -regulations. - -The sewers of a city or town may be conveniently divided into four -classes:—First, the main drain or sewer, and this, whether natural or -artificial, being fixed, becomes the basis of the system, and upon it -the second drains or district class will be directed: these again will -receive the third class or street drains; and lastly, the house or -fourth class drains, will be discharged into the street drains. In small -towns, only the third and fourth class drains will be required; in large -towns, three classes of drains may be necessary; and in great cities, -all the four classes will be required. - - PLAN OF SEWERAGE - -[Illustration] - -[Illustration: - - STREET SEWERS (_o._ _p._) -] - -[Illustration: - - DISTRICT SEWERS (_c._ _d._) -] - -[Illustration: - - MAIN SEWERS (A. B.) -] - -[Illustration: - - _Fig. 1._ -] - -[Illustration: - - _Fig. 2._ -] - -With respect to the form of the drains, when bricks are used as building -materials, the bottoms of the drains will be best formed of inverted -arches of blue bricks, as forming a cheap, hard, and durable surface, -and giving every facility from the form, for the scouring force of the -water to remove the filth brought into the drain; but whether the curve -of the bottom shall be a semicircle or a segment will, I apprehend, -depend on the size of the drain. For very small drains a circular form -would be the cheapest and best; the next size would be more -advantageously constructed of an oval or egg shape, but still of bricks. -Drains of a still larger size, viz. the second class, may be -conveniently made either of brick or stone, arched and counter-arched at -top and bottom with battered sides, either straight or curved; the -counter-arches or curved bottoms will conveniently become flatter as the -drains increase in capacity to afford greater room for the accumulated -water to pass without rising and flooding back into the feeders. The -first and second-class sewers must be deep seated to receive their -respective tributaries or feeders, with some overfall; and though a -sufficient width for large drains may generally be procured, it is -difficult in many cases to command enough of depth, another circumstance -that can best be obviated by flattening the arches both at top and -bottom; but in large drains, where there is a body of water, the -scourage will be sufficient, without resorting to deeply curved bottoms. - -When bricks abound as a building material, they are particularly -convenient for the construction of deep sewers and drains, from the -facility of handling in confined spaces; but it is important their -quality should be of the best, since if they scale and decay, great -expense must be involved in the repair of the drain. The Tipton, or blue -brick, is the best for the facework of drains. - -In parts of the country where stone abounds, bricks are often little -known, and the resources of the district must be made use of; where the -blue lias limestone occurs, I have found it a cheap and excellent -material for forming culverts and drains of all sizes; and it was used -largely for that purpose on the Birmingham and Gloucester Railway. - -Annexed is a sketch of the sections of drains varying in form according -to their size. The batter which I found most useful and convenient for -wall-sided drains was 1 in 9, either curved or straight; the first is -the best form in theory, but in small works I found the bricklayers’ and -masons’ work more accurately to the straight batter; and the last is, -from its simplicity, better adapted to receive any sluices or -flush-gates that may be necessary. - -Annexed is also a sketch to show the distribution of drains in a town -supposed to be built on a regular plan, with a pretty uniform descent -towards an axis, which constitutes the site of the main drain; each -class of drains consisting of several sizes, it would be most useful as -well as economical that the drain of a particular class (if large) -should commence with the smaller size, and discharge or terminate with -the greater size, a plan that would aid the sewerage of the water. - -In a system of drainage, it is necessary to consider that the greater -the body of water, or in other words, the class of the drain, the less -declivity is sufficient; and the converse, the less the body of water, -or class of drain, the greater declivity is required; in the first case, -the hydraulic depth compensates for the want of declivity; and in the -second case, the declivity compensates for the want of hydraulic depth; -the multiplication of these qualities being a function of the velocity -or force of the current, due attention to the above is important in -economizing or turning to the best account the declivity for the -drainage of a large town. - -Having arranged the system of sewerage for a town, the next object will -be to render it as extensively useful as practice will admit of; and -from the experiments and practice of Mr. Roe, the surveyor to the -Holborn and Finsbury Commission of Sewers, we are warranted in the -belief that a good system of sewerage, aided by a sufficient supply of -water, will, in most localities, be sufficient to remove all the dirt -which arises in the streets, without the necessity of cartage, and also -all the filth of private dwellings which is at present led through -drains or pipes, or which by the aid of water may be practised more -extensively in future. - -We have first to consider the conveyance or discharge of the street dirt -into the main sewers, and the discontinuance of the present expense, and -annoyance of using carts for that purpose, at least with some few -exceptions. - -It is pretty obvious, that if the mud of London, like water, could be -made to flow through the drains much trouble and expense of cartage -would be saved; and it does happen that the street-dirt of London is so -diffusible with water, that with a little arrangement such a mode of -cleansing maybe followed; indeed it is highly probable that at present -more than one-half of the whole mud is carried off by the rains in that -manner. - -The mud of London, and other great towns in England, may be assumed in -wet weather[51] to arise, in three-fourths of its amount, from the -grinding or abrasion of the paving-stones, the remaining one-fourth part -consisting of soot, shop-sweepings, and cattle dung. - -The dirt arising from the detritus of the stones may be obviated in two -ways; 1st, by substituting for the green-stone forming the carriage-way, -quartz-rock, or quartzose stones. The green-stones contain hornblende -and felspar, which grind, like all argillaceous stones, into fine mud or -powder mixable in water, whereas quartz rock retains when ground the -form of clean sand, neither soiling nor capable of forming mud in -itself. The Lickey Hills in Worcestershire are composed of quartz rock, -and the roads in their vicinity show its excellence as a material for -road making. The quartz rock, however, of the island of Jura is much -purer, and that island contains an inexhaustible supply already broken -by nature into sizes nearly fit for laying on the roads; and Small’s Bay -in the island of Jura would form a convenient loading place, and by -means of a jetty and tram-way vessels might be laden at a small expense, -and much of the country supplied with the best of all materials for -road-making. The substance of the stone is hard and durable, and -consequently suffering little by abrasion; and it would be well worth -while to try the experiment of Macadamizing one of the leading streets -of London with this material, as the means of forming a good road, and -at the same avoiding the creating of a great quantity of street dirt. - -The other mode of avoiding the formation of mud is the substitution of -wooden pavements; of the success of these I have little doubt, though -for the present many failures have occurred, either from The foundation -not having been truly and firmly laid, or from the blocks of wood not -being massive enough. The greatest objection to wood pavements at -present is the slipping of the horses, but this I believe might be -obviated. - -The question, however, at present is to get rid of the street dirt, such -as it is; and for that purpose I apprehend it would only be necessary in -wet weather during rains that the street-cleaner should sweep the dirt -into the kennels, and aid the water by stirring the mud, to carry off -the material in a state of diffusion; in dry weather, the opening of -pipes with hose attached would serve the same purpose as the rains, and -at the same time aid the sewerage at the time most required. After a -short but heavy fall of rain, the cleansing effect of the water is fully -perceived: and if any means could be devised of saving the rain-water -that falls on the houses and in the streets, so as to apply it in -considerable quantities at intervals, it is probable that the rain-water -would be amply sufficient for all the purposes in question. - -I have heard of the plan pursued by the West Middlesex Water Company for -cleansing their reservoir at Kensington, at little expense, by diffusing -the muddy deposit in water, and allowing it to run off in pipes. - -In the city of Guanaxuato in Mexico, a similar mode of cleansing has -been long practised; a splendid tank of ample dimensions contains the -water used by the inhabitants; the tank is supplied by mountain -torrents, which bring down a considerable quantity of mud or silt, and -which makes a deposit in the bottom of the tank, which is formed by a -fine dam of masonry crossing a narrow valley, and provided with sluices. -The rainy season commences in the latter part of June, and a short time -previous the ceremony of emptying and cleansing the tank is gone -through; a kind of fair and holiday is held on the ground, to which most -of the inhabitants resort; the sluices are opened, and as the water -recedes, the watermen, boys, and all those who relish the fun, get into -the tank and keep stirring up the silt with sticks and spades, &c., and -in this manner the mud is annually carried off by the remaining water of -the past season, a subsidiary tank serving for use until the principal -one is replenished. - -By some sort of a similar process it is alleged that much of the -mud-banks of the Thames above the bridges have been removed, viz., by -the action of the paddle-wheels of the numerous steam-boats running -there. Some of the effect observed must be owing to the greater scour of -the tides since the removal of Old London-bridge, though some part may -also be due to the steam-boats. - -For the purpose of giving more aid to the surface-water in cleansing the -streets, and at the same time for keeping the footways and houses drier -and more free from mud, I should propose (at least as an experiment) a -different structure of the carriage-way, viz., to make it incline to a -centre kennel, instead of to two side ones. At present, in many places, -the centre of the carriage-way is elevated above the level of the shop -doors, and at the same time we often find the footway but three inches -higher than the kennel; and it is pretty obvious from this arrangement, -in dry weather, the dust will blow from the more elevated carriage-way -on to the footways, and into the shops and areas; and in wet weather the -water and mud being chiefly accumulated in the side gutters, the -carriage wheels and horses’ feet will distribute it plentifully on the -footways, and not unfrequently on the passengers, and all tending to -keep the houses damp and dirty, whereas it is obvious that, was the -descent constant from the houses[52] on either side to the centre of the -street, these evils would be avoided, and it will be no less evident -that all the surface-water flowing to one common channel would possess -more force and convenience for running the street dirt into the sewers. -I am inclined to believe that the carriage-ways are getting gradually -elevated above their proper level, from the contractors for paving not -excavating deep enough for the foundation of the pavement. - -Annexed is a sketch, showing in juxta-position the form of the -street-ways as at present, and as proposed to be; the street is supposed -to be a shop-street, 90 feet wide, having two areas of three feet each, -two footways of 12 feet, and 60 feet of carriage-way; on the section of -the proposed plan a fall of six inches, or 1 in 30, is given from the -shop door to the edge of the pavement; there is then a descent by two -steps of six inches each to the carriage way; and lastly, a descent of 1 -in 30, or of one foot to the kennel in the centre of the carriage-way. -The kennel may either be open or covered; if the latter, it must have -many gratings. In the city of Mexico the kennel is chiefly in the centre -of the street, and covered by large flat stones. - -On the proposed plan, if we suppose a step from the foot pavement to the -floor of the shop or house, the latter will be elevated about 3 feet -above the gutter, whereas at present we often find it not more than six -inches, and it will readily be admitted that such a difference in the -disposal of the surface-water cannot but keep the houses much drier and -more cleanly. - -By having one gutter in the centre of the streets instead of two, (one -at each side,) we remove two sluggish and inefficient kennels, which are -the source of damp to the pavement and to the houses, and we create one -which is at a distance and doubly effective. - -The subject of street pavements having been introduced as the means of -surface-drainage, it may be remarked how difficult it must ever be to -keep them in good order so long as they are liable to be broken up -whenever water or gas-pipes require altering or repairing, besides the -extreme annoyance occasioned during that operation; and though it may -not be possible to obviate the inconvenience in all cases, yet I -conceive the evil may be reduced to very narrow limits by resorting to -system, and I would suggest that under the foot pavements passages -should be formed, lined with brick-work or masonry, as a common -receptacle for all the water and gas-pipes, having the flagging over the -passage so laid as to be easily lifted in case of need, and being -provided at intervals with side entrances for inspection and all such -repairs as could be effected without raising the flagging. The position -of the gas-pipes under the foot-pavement would be convenient for the -street and shop lights, and the water-pipes would be then equally so for -the use of the houses. But in respect to the sewer of the street, I -should propose to place it near the centre of the carriage-way, as more -distant from the dwellings, but as equally convenient to both sides of -the street. (See the section for new form of carriage-way.) - -Having noticed the subject of diminishing the amount of street mud, and -of conveying the same into the sewers, as well as that portion of the -house filth which it may be practicable to discharge into them, we have -next to notice the mode of further disposing of the matter thus lodged -in the sewers. The practice has hitherto been (in a great degree) to -accumulate the filth in cesspools, and at intervals of five to ten years -to open the sewers by breaking into them, or to get access by man-holes -left for that purpose, and then drawing out the semiliquid contents of -the cesspool by means of a windlass and buckets; but in the Finsbury -division the surveyor, Mr. Roe, has had the merit of introducing a very -superior, less expensive, and less offensive mode of operation. Finding -that the surface-water did not generally enter the sewer in sufficient -quantity and with sufficient force to carry off the more solid contents, -he contrived, by sluices or flush-gates, to dam up the water to a -certain height, and then, by opening the same, to obtain a force of -water sufficient for the purpose; and the working of this new plan is -said to be highly satisfactory, the filth being prevented accumulating -in the sewers, and, as a necessary consequence, then choaking their -feeders, the house drains; and in this manner also the filth is removed -at less expense, and without any annoyance and noxious effluvia which -attend the old practice. - -Mr. Roe has adopted also side entrances to the sewers instead of -man-holes, for the inspection and repair of the flushing apparatus. The -chief expense beyond the first cost of Mr. Roe’s plan is the attendance -of a person to open the flush-gates; but it is probable that some -contrivance may be found by which the pent-up water on reaching a -certain point may be able to open its own gate. It has, however, -occurred to me, in respect to this mode of flushing off the filth, that, -instead of damming up the water in the sewers, and forming them into -reservoirs, the purpose might be more easily and more effectually -performed by accumulating the surface-water from the gutters into -reservoirs before entering the street or district drains; a greater -head, or force of water, might thus be obtained, while the sewers -themselves would always be open and free from the obstruction of the -sluices and pent-up water. - -In respect to the final deposit of the filth of London and other great -towns, it does seem a pity that so much valuable manure should be lost -to the land, and be discharged into rivers to their contamination and -obstruction, if any practicable and innocuous plan can be hit upon to -avoid the alternative. - -One plan has been suggested of receiving the contents of the sewers into -pits, and then by means of steam-power and a sufficient supply of water, -forcing the matter of the sewers in a diluted state through iron pipes -into the country, and then applying it to irrigate the land in the same -liquid state. It would require much calculation to form an accurate -estimate of the cost and profit of such an undertaking; but there can be -no doubt if the matter was so applied it would prove exceedingly -valuable in enriching the land to which it was applied, as we may judge -from what has occurred in the vicinity of Edinburgh from a similar kind -of irrigation. - -At Edinburgh, however, the liquid manure being conveyed from the town -for a distance in open ditches or sewers exposed to the sun and -atmosphere, it undergoes such a fœtid decomposition as to render the -operation no common nuisance to the public. But such effects would not -occur (at least, to the same extent) if the matter was conveyed in close -pipes with a plentiful effusion of water; and it is known that animal -carcases, when kept constantly exposed to fresh supplies of water, do -not suffer corrupt decomposition, but are changed into a fatty matter. -It seems necessary also that a certain degree of heat and exposure of -surface should be present to originate and promote fœtid decomposition, -as it is well known that in the pits in Paris, where so many dead bodies -were thrown, the result was not a fœtid decomposition, but a change of -the animal matter into adipocire, a comparatively inoffensive substance; -we may therefore expect that the discharge of the contents of the sewers -in pipes, excluded (as they would be) from heat, and copiously charged -with water, would be comparatively free from noxious exhalations. - -Another plan of reserving the contents of sewers for the purpose of -manure would be to continue the sewers to some distance from the town, -and then to discharge them into a series of covered catch-pits, allowing -the water to filter off after depositing the solid particles; when the -first series of pits were deemed sufficiently charged, the sewers might -then be discharged into a subsidiary series, until the matter in the -first had become sufficiently consistent for cartage. Upon the first -plan of proceeding, the liquid manure could only be applied to land -quite near at hand, and fit for irrigation; on the second plan the -manure might be conveyed to a distance and applied to arable land. - -It will be evident the great importance of applying such quantities of -manure as the sewers supply to useful purposes, but it is no less -evident that no system can be introduced to effect the object until -preceded by satisfactory experiments of cost, profit, and efficiency. -Some localities might offer facilities for one mode of action, and some -for another; and it is much to be desired that parties may be induced to -make experiments on both plans; and it is to be noted that though the -expense of raising the liquid manure from pits or tanks would be -necessary in some cases, yet in many situations no such operation would -be necessary. - -On the subject of purifying the air of sewers, and of preventing the -escape of foul air by any crevices or chinks, I have heard of the -ingenious contrivance of erecting a tall chimney and connecting it by a -pipe with the crown of a sewer, for the purpose of creating such a draft -up the chimney as would occasion an indraft at any leak that might occur -in the ramified mass of drains of the district to which the chimney -belonged. It appears to me that there are some objections to this plan; -but not being acquainted with all the details, I shall avoid entering -into any controversy on the subject, further than stating that I should -rather propose an opposite process for purifying the air of sewers. I -would recommend that they should be kept excluded as much as possible -from external heat and ascending columns of air; but at the same time I -would endeavour by all means to send down as copious a flow of water as -practicable; and in London, though the Thames water may not be proper -for domestic purposes, it would be sufficiently pure for watering the -streets and cleansing the drains; and the supply being inexhaustible, -its application would only be limited by the cost, of steam power and -iron pipes. - -In conclusion, I have to express my obligations to yourself for the -useful hints you have afforded me on several of the subjects above -treated of, and to say I shall be happy if any of the observations I -have submitted should prove conducive to the ends in view. - - I remain, dear Sir, - Yours truly, - JAMES VETCH. - - _Edwin Chadwick, Esq., - &c. &c. &c._ - London, 1st March, 1842. - - -6.—_Evidence of_ GEORGE GUTCH, Esq., _District Surveyor, on Shifting and -Building of Inferior Tenements in the Suburbs to avoid the Provisions of - the Metropolis Building Act_. - -Is there any distinction in the character of the buildings built out of -the limits of the Metropolitan Building Act, or out of the limits of -your own district as surveyor?—Yes; there is a less expensive -description of buildings built out of these limits. In the adjoining -parish of Kensington, there are tenements run up four stories in height -with only a nine-inch wall from the top to the bottom, whereas in any -parish under the Building Act the walls of the same description of -houses would be required to be 18 inches thick in the basement and 14 -inches upwards: this, however, is not a sized house for the occupation -of the poorer classes. At the Potteries, Notting Dale, Kensington, -however, there is a nest of houses huddled together without party-walls -and without drainage; many of them are built of wood and four-inch work, -and of such materials as would not be permitted where the Building Act -is in force. This is with reference to houses which are contiguous to -each other. - -Have you not seen instances where sewers are made and drains in action -where the state of the premises is nevertheless dangerous?—Yes; only -recently the parochial officers of Paddington inspected the workhouses -and buildings belonging to the Kensington union, when we found the -drains formed but not trapped, and the inmates exposed to the foul air -from the drains themselves. I have read Mr. Oldfield’s statement, and I -think it very true and very important. - - -7.—_Estimate by_ MR. HOWELL, _of the Cost of Structural Arrangements of - Sewerage, Drainage, Water-tank, and means of House Cleansing for - Labourers’ Tenements in the Metropolis_. - - FEET £ _s._ _d._ - - 55. Drain and digging, with pantile bottom, three - courses high, arched over and cemented 4 2 6 - 10. Small drain from water pipe 0 10 0 - 46. Sup. slate slab cistern, 4 ft. by 3 ft. 9, and 2 - ft. deep, holding 150 gallons 4 12 0 - 62. Three-quarter pipe to serve cistern, including - joints and fixing 3 2 0 - 12. Three-quarter pipe to serve yard, including joints - and fixing 0 12 0 - Two three-quarter cocks—10_s._; one cock-ball and - boss—8_s._ 0 18 0 - 7. Inch standing and under waste 0 10 6 - 1¾ washer and waste 0 2 6 - Pan closet, with basin, &c., complete 3 10 0 - Strong D. trap—20_s._, service box—10_s._ 6_d._ 1 10 6 - Cover to cistern 0 15 0 - —— —— — - 20 5 0 - Deduct 7½ per cent. if done at contract prices. 1 10 0 - —— —— — - 18 15 0 - - From the above estimate the following items should be deducted, as - appertaining to the present objectionable system:— - - £. _s._ _d._ - Cesspool 1 0 0 - Root of privy and ceiling 0 15 0 - Drain, say 65 ft. 3 5 0 - Water butt and stand 1 5 0 - Service pipe, 40 ft. 2 0 0 - Cock and ball—8_s._; waste pipe—7_s._ 0 15 0 - —— —— — - 9 0 0 - Less 7½ per cent. 0 13 6 - —— —— — - 8 6 6 - —— —— — - 13 8 6 - —— —— — - - - 8.—_Description or Specification of_ MR. LOUDON’s _Agriculturist Model - Cottage_. - -The plan and elevation which I have given are intended for an -Agricultural labourer in the north of England or in Scotland, where it -is customary to have the sleeping room on the ground floor. The walls -are supposed to be 18 inches thick, and the roof thatched, as being the -warmest covering in a cold bleak country. The front entrance is by a -porch, which contains a step-ladder to the garrets, which, being lighted -by windows in the gable ends, may be used as sleeping places for -grown-up children, while the younger children may sleep below in the -same room with their parents. _a_, is the kitchen; _b_, the sleeping -room; _c_, the back kitchen; _d_, the pantry; _e_, the dairy, if the -occupant should have a cow, which is generally the case with -agricultural labourers in Scotland; and _f_, a place for fuel, for -poultry, or for a furnace to heat a flue passing under the floors of the -two rooms in the direction of the dotted line _g_, the smoke escaping by -the upright flue _h_. The highest point of the sleeping-room floor is at -_g_, and of the kitchen floor at _i_; the highest point of the pantry -floor is at _d_, and of the dairy floor at _e_, and from these four -points the floors gradually slope at the rate of 1 inch to 7 feet to the -sill of the back kitchen door at _m_, so that no water can stand in any -part of these floors; and hence, when they are being washed with a mop -in the direction of the slope the water will readily flow towards the -back door. - -A place for wood or other fuel, or for a pig or rabbits, according to -the taste or circumstances of the occupant, is shown at _n_; a privy at -_o_; a tank for liquid manure, communicating with the privy, at _p_; and -a pit for ashes and solid manure at _q_. Both these pits may have -movable roofs. - -The surface of the yard slopes from the entrance door _r_, to the liquid -manure tank _s_. The back kitchen is entered by one step; the terrace in -front at _t_ is entered by three steps, and the door of the porch by a -half-step. - -The garden is only partially shown, the portion omitted being a -parallelogram of sufficient length to constitute the contents of the -whole ground allotted to the cottage, one-sixth of an acre. It is -surrounded by a hedge, which may be shown architecturally to give an -appearance of design and taste on the part of the occupant. - -The slope of the terrace may be covered with grass or flowers, -strawberries or ivy. The narrow border next the hedge may be planted -with flowers, and the larger compartments in front of the porch with -gooseberries, raspberries, currants, and dwarf apples. The culinary -crops are supposed to be grown in the back compartment, only a portion -of which is shown at _w_. - -_A B_, is the elevation of the front hedge. - -_C D_, a part of the side hedge. - -_E F_, a section on the dotted line _E F_, to a double scale. - -_G H_, a section on the dotted line _G H_. - -The upper part of the drawing is an isometrical view. - - - 9.—_Statement of the Requisites of Cottage Architecture, by_ J. C. - LOUDON, _Esq._ - -The _essential requisites_ of a comfortable labourer’s cottage may be -thus summed up:— - -1. The cottage should be placed alongside a public road, as being more -cheerful than a solitary situation; and in order that the cottager may -enjoy the applause of the public when he has his garden in good order -and keeping. - -2. The cottage should be so placed that the sun may shine on every side -of it every day throughout the year, when he is visible. For this -reason, the front of the cottage can only be parallel to the public road -in the case of roads in the direction of north-east, south-west, -north-west, and south-east; in all other cases the front must be placed -obliquely to the road, which, as we have previously shown, is greatly -preferable to having the front parallel to the road. - -3. Every cottage ought to have the floor elevated, that it may be dry; -the walls double or hollow, or battened, or not less than eighteen -inches thick, that they may retain heat; with a course of slate or -flagstone, or tiles bedded in cement, six inches above the surface, to -prevent the rising of damp; the roof thick, or double, for the sake of -warmth; and projecting eighteen inches or two feet at the eaves, in -order to keep the walls dry, and to check the radiation of heat from -their exterior surface. - -4. In general, every cottage ought to be two stories high, so that the -sleeping-rooms may not be on the ground floor; and the ground floor -ought to be from six inches to one foot above the outer surface. - -5. The minimum of accommodation ought to be a kitchen or living-room, a -back kitchen or wash-house, and a pantry, on the ground floor, with -three bed-rooms over; or two rooms and a wash-house on the ground floor, -and two bed-rooms over. - -6. Every cottage, including its garden, yard, &c., ought to occupy not -less than one-sixth of an acre; and the garden ought to surround the -cottage, or at all events to extend both before and behind. In general, -there ought to be a front garden and a back yard, the latter being -entered from the back kitchen, and containing a privy, liquid-manure -tank, place for dust and ashes, and place for fuel. - -[Illustration] - -7. If practicable, every cottage ought to stand singly, and surrounded -by its garden, or, at all events, not more than two cottages ought to be -joined together. Among other important arguments in favour of this -arrangement, it may be mentioned, that it is the only one by which the -sun can shine every day on every side of the cottage. When cottages are -joined together in a row, unless that row is in a diagonal direction, -with reference to a south and north line, the sun will shine chiefly on -one side. By having cottages singly or in pairs, they may always be -placed along any road in such a manner that the sun may shine on every -side of them, provided the point be given up of having the front -parallel to the road; a point which, in our opinion, ought not for a -moment to be put in competition with the advantages of an equal -diffusion of sunshine. - -8. Every cottage ought to have an entrance-porch for containing the -labourer’s tools, and into which, if possible, the stairs ought to open, -in order that the bed-rooms may be communicated with without passing -through the front or back kitchen. This, in the case of sickness, is -very desirable, and also in the case of deaths, as the remains may be -carried down stairs while the family are in the front room. - -9. The door to the front kitchen or best room should open from the -porch, and not from the back kitchen, which, as it contains the cooking -utensils and washing apparatus, can never be fit for being passed -through by a stranger, or even the master of the family, where proper -regard is had by the mistress to cleanliness and delicacy. - -10. When there is not a supply of clear water from a spring adjoining -the cottage, or from some other efficient source, then there ought to be -a well or tank, partly under the floor of the back kitchen, supplied -from the roof, with a pump in the back kitchen for drawing it up for -use, as hereafter described in detail. The advantages of having the tank -or well under the back kitchen are, that it will secure from frost, and -that the labour of carrying water will be avoided. - -11. The privy should always be separated from the dwelling, unless it is -a proper water-closet, with a soil-pipe communicating with a distant -liquid-manure tank or cesspool. When detached, the privy should be over -or adjoining a liquid-manure tank, in which a straight tube from the -bottom of the basin ought to terminate; by which means the soil basin -may always be kept clean by pouring down the common slops of the house. -No surface being left from which smell can arise, except that of the -area of the pipe, the double flap, to be hereafter described, will -prevent the escape of the evaporation from this small surface, and also -ensure a dry and clean seat. - -12. The situation of the liquid-manure tank should be, as far as -possible, from that of the filtered-water tank or clear-water well. It -should be covered by an air-tight cover of flagstone, and have a narrow -well adjoining, into which the liquid should filter through a grating, -so as to be pumped up or taken away without grosser impurities, and in -this state applied to the soil about growing crops. - -13. In general, proprietors ought not to entrust the erection of -labourers’ cottages on their estates to the farmers, as it is chiefly -owing to this practice that so many wretched hovels exist in the -best-cultivated districts of Scotland and in Northumberland. - -14. No landed proprietor, as we think, ought to charge more for the land -on which cottages are built than he would receive for it from a farmer, -if let as part of a farm; and no more rent ought to be charged for the -cost of building the cottage and enclosing the garden than the same sum -would yield if invested in land, or, at all events, not more than can be -obtained by government securities. - -15. “Most of these conditions are laid down on the supposition that the -intended builder of the cottage is actuated more by feelings of human -sympathy than by a desire to make money; and hence they are addressed to -the wealthy, and especially to the proprietors of land and extensive -manufactories or mines.” - -The following is the view of a double mechanic’s cottage, from Mr. -Loudon’s collection, similar to the agricultural labourer’s model -cottage, of which a view has already been given. - -[Illustration] - -Besides the details of construction, such as are exemplified in the -report, that appear deserving of attention, there are details in the -furniture of cottages, and particular descriptions of furniture by which -it appears that much improvement may be effected. For example, an -important improvement in the box bedsteads used in Scotch cottages has -been suggested by Dr. Wilson, of Kelso. It consists of a curtain-rod and -curtains, which may be drawn out about three feet from the front of the -bed, so as to form sufficient space between the curtain and the bed to -serve as a dressing-room. It is observed by Mr. Loudon, that some of the -Leith and London steamers had the berths in the ladies’ cabins fitted up -in this mode some years ago; and it is a principle applicable, and, it -is unnecessary to say. necessary for the preservation of decency in -double-bedded rooms, as well as in those cottages where the box bedstead -is used. The following is a copy of the plan of the improvement given by -Mr. Loudon. - -[Illustration: 2309] - -Another part of Dr. Wilson’s improvements in these beds consists of the -hinging a part of the roof of the bed, so that it may be opened like a -trap-door at pleasure for ventilation, and the hinging of the boards at -the foot and at the back for the same object, and for giving access to a -medical attendant. Mr. Loudon expresses a hope that these improvements -form one step to getting rid of box bedsteads altogether. They are -noticed here as exemplifications of the moral ends which may be gained -in structural arrangements, which incur inconsiderable expense, and only -a little care at the outset. Other detailed improvements may be made -subservient to structural economy. The following is an exemplification -thus described by Mr. Loudon:—“It is a matter of some difficulty, in -small cottages, to place the shutters to the windows on the ground floor -in such a manner as to answer the purpose, and yet be out of the way. -The following plan has been adopted in some buildings of that -description, which have been lately erected. The shutters are hung on -hinges in such a manner as to fall down into a recess below the window -during the day-time; and consequently they are quite out of the way when -not wanted for shutting up the house, or for temporary purposes. The -idea suggested itself that shutters be occasionally used as a table or -ironing-board; and to effect this end, two movable bars as supports were -let into mortices in the floor, and made to abut against similar -mortices made in the ledges on the under side of the shutters. The two -cornices were slightly rounded, and the upper surface was left plain -without paint. Two swing iron or wooden brackets might be used instead -of the wooden bars, as they could be folded back into the recess also.” - -[Illustration: 2308] - - - 10.—_Specification of the Cost of Erection, Weekly Rents, Interest on - the Capital invested, and, the Numbers of Tenements and Cottages - occupied by the Poor and Labourers; taken from Returns made by the - Relieving Officers of their respective Districts, in 24 Unions in the - Counties of Cheshire, Stafford, Derby, and Lancaster._ - - ┌─────────────────────┬────────────────────────────┐ - │ │ No. 1. Lowest Class of │ - │ │ Cottages, average 1_s._ │ - │ │3_d._ per Week, or £3. 5_s._│ - │ │ per Year, allowing for │ - │ │ Repairs, &c. │ - ├─────────────────────┼─────────┬────────┬─────────┤ - │ │ │Average │Interest │ - │ │Number of│Cost of │ on the │ - │ │Tenements│erecting│Outlay or│ - │ │ or │ each │ Capital │ - │ │Cottages.│Cottage.│invested.│ - ├─────────────────────┼─────────┼────────┼─────────┤ - │ │ │ £. │Per Cent.│ - │Congleton │ 1,168│ 47│ 7│ - │Macclesfield │ 2,481│ 38│ 8½│ - │Stockport │ 3,457│ 28│ 11‑12/20│ - │Altrincham │ 1,200│ 49│ 6‑13/20│ - │Northwich │ 1,615│ 52│ 6¼│ - │Nantwich │ 1,994│ 47│ 7│ - │Lichfield │ 1,281│ 34│ 9‑11/20│ - │Newcastle │ 1,502│ 57│ 5‑14/20│ - │Stoke-upon-Trent │ 2,181│ 45│ 7‑4/20│ - │Woolstanton and │ │ │ │ - │ Burslem │ 2,292│ 50│ 6½│ - │Tamworth │ 1,278│ 47│ 7│ - │Cheadle │ 1,438│ 40│ 8‑3/20│ - │Uttoxeter │ 672│ 29│ 11‑4/20│ - │Burton-upon-Trent │ 2,100│ 40│ 8‑3/20│ - │Leek │ 1,281│ 47│ 7│ - │Chapel-en-le-Frith │ 713│ 60│ 5‑8/20│ - │Hayfield │ 270│ 50│ 6½│ - │Glossop │ 142│ 60│ 5‑8/20│ - │Bakewell │ 2,519│ 58│ 5‑12/20│ - │Chesterfield │ 1,969│ 45│ 7‑4/20│ - │Belper │ 3,324│ 40│ 8‑1/20│ - │Derby │ 1,035│ 45│ 7‑4/20│ - │Salford │ 680│ 53│ 6‑1/20│ - │Chorlton-upon-Medlock│ 527│ 44│ 7‑8/20│ - ├─────────────────────┼─────────┼────────┼─────────┤ - │ │ 37,119│ 40[53]│ 8│ - └─────────────────────┴─────────┴────────┴─────────┘ - - ┌─────────────────────┬────────────────────────────┐ - │ │ No. 2. Second Class of │ - │ │ Cottages, average 2_s._ │ - │ │ 3_d._ per Week, or £5. │ - │ │ 15_s._ per Year, allowing │ - │ │ for Repairs, &c. │ - ├─────────────────────┼─────────┬────────┬─────────┤ - │ │ │Average │Interest │ - │ │Number of│Cost of │ on the │ - │ │Tenements│erecting│Outlay or│ - │ │ or │ each │ Capital │ - │ │Cottages.│Cottage.│invested.│ - ├─────────────────────┼─────────┼────────┼─────────┤ - │ │ │ £. │Per Cent.│ - │Congleton │ 2,035│ 66│ 8‑11/20│ - │Macclesfield │ 3,864│ 60│ 9‑11/20│ - │Stockport │ 5,032│ 53│ 10‑17/20│ - │Altrincham │ 1,352│ 79│ 7‑6/20│ - │Northwich │ 2,121│ 75│ 7‑11/20│ - │Nantwich │ 1,158│ 74│ 7¾│ - │Lichfield │ 1,227│ 68│ 8‑9/20│ - │Newcastle │ 1,135│ 78│ 7‑7/20│ - │Stoke-upon-Trent │ 5,610│ 60│ 9‑11/20│ - │Woolstanton and │ │ │ │ - │ Burslem │ 2,993│ 90│ 6‑8/20│ - │Tamworth │ 376│ 69│ 8‑7/20│ - │Cheadle │ 805│ 67│ 8‑12/20│ - │Uttoxeter │ 471│ 40│ 14‑8/20│ - │Burton-upon-Trent │ 1,270│ 90│ 6‑8/20│ - │Leek │ 650│ 63│ 9‑1/20│ - │Chapel-en-le-Frith │ 215│ 79│ 7‑6/20│ - │Hayfield │ 534│ 80│ 7‑4/20│ - │Glossop │ 559│ 80│ 7‑4/20│ - │Bakewell │ 424│ 87│ 6‑12/20│ - │Chesterfield │ 2,618│ 70│ 8‑4/20│ - │Belper │ 2,542│ 67│ 8‑12/20│ - │Derby │ 2,855│ 75│ 7‑11/20│ - │Salford │ 3,741│ 46│ 12½│ - │Chorlton-upon-Medlock│ 2,463│ 54│ 10‑11/20│ - ├─────────────────────┼─────────┼────────┼─────────┤ - │ │ 46,050│ 65│ 8¾│ - └─────────────────────┴─────────┴────────┴─────────┘ - - ┌─────────────────────┬────────────────────────────╥───────────┐ - │ │ No. 3. Third Class of ║ │ - │ │ Cottages, average 3_s._ ║ │ - │ │6_d._ per Week, or £9. 2_s._║ │ - │ │ per Year, allowing for ║ │ - │ │ Repairs, &c. ║Population.│ - ├─────────────────────┼─────────┬────────┬─────────╫───────────┤ - │ │ │Average │Interest ║ │ - │ │Number of│Cost of │ on the ║ │ - │ │Tenements│erecting│Outlay or║ │ - │ │ or │ each │ Capital ║ │ - │ │Cottages.│Cottage.│invested.║ │ - ├─────────────────────┼─────────┼────────┼─────────╫───────────┤ - │ │ │ £. │Per Cent.║ │ - │Congleton │ 395│ 94│ 9‑14/20║ 26,377│ - │Macclesfield │ 2,657│ 84│ 10‑17/20║ 50,639│ - │Stockport │ 6,436│ 98│ 9‑6/20║ 68,906│ - │Altrincham │ 540│ 101│ 9║ 30,139│ - │Northwich │ 212│ 89│ 10‑4/20║ 26,906│ - │Nantwich │ 471│ 108│ 8‑9/20║ 30,992│ - │Lichfield │ 320│ 148│ 6‑1/20║ 22,749│ - │Newcastle │ 251│ 136│ 6‑14/20║ 16,476│ - │Stoke-upon-Trent │ 946│ 90│ 10‑2/20║ 37,220│ - │Woolstanton and │ │ │ ║ │ - │ Burslem │ 295│ 150│ 6‑1/20║ 23,567│ - │Tamworth │ 134│ 117│ 7‑16/20║ 12,175│ - │Cheadle │ 169│ 101│ 9║ 14,473│ - │Uttoxeter │ │ │ ║ 12,837│ - │Burton-upon-Trent │ 125│ 115│ 7‑17/20║ 24,667│ - │Leek │ 104│ 86│ 10‑12/20║ 18,387│ - │Chapel-en-le-Frith │ 95│ 123│ 7‑8/20║ 10,448│ - │Hayfield │ 627│ 140│ 6½║ 9,493│ - │Glossop │ 1,050│ 90│ 10‑2/20║ 9,631│ - │Bakewell │ 74│ 146│ 6¼║ 25,879│ - │Chesterfield │ 128│ 105│ 8‑11/20║ 34,246│ - │Belper │ 661│ 107│ 8½║ 33,388│ - │Derby │ 1,026│ 155│ 5‑17/20║ 25,484│ - │Salford │ 5,445│ 75│ 12‑1/20║ 52,366│ - │Chorlton-upon-Medlock│ 4,261│ 83│ 10‑10/20║ 46,465│ - ├─────────────────────┼─────────┼────────┼─────────╫───────────┤ - │ │ 26,322│ 92│ 9¾║ 663,890│ - └─────────────────────┴─────────┴────────┴─────────╨───────────┘ - - -11.—_Tables of the Expense of building Cottages, and Repairs, in England - and Scotland._ - - ┌───────────────┬────────────────────────┬────────┐ - │ ENGLAND. │ Cost of Erection of │Cost of │ - │ │ Cottages. │Repairs.│ - ├───────────────┼───────────┬────────────┼────────┤ - │ │ │ │ │ - │ │ │ │ │ - │ │ │ │ │ - │ │ │ │ │ - │ │ │ │ │ - │ │ │ │ │ - │ │ │ │ │ - │ │ │ │ │ - │ │ │ │ │ - │ │ │ │ │ - │ │ │ │ │ - │ │Two-roomed.│Four-roomed.│ │ - ├───────────────┼───────────┼────────────┼────────┤ - │Norfolk, 22 │ │ │ │ - │ Unions │ │ │4 to 40 │ - │ │ 40_l._ to │ 60_l._ to │ per │ - │ │ 80_l._ │ 150_l._ │ cent. │ - │Suffolk, 15 │ │ │2 to 20 │ - │ Unions │ 30_l._ to │ 60_l._ to │ per │ - │ │ 125_l._ │ 180_l._ │ cent. │ - │Chester, 5 │ │ │ │ - │ Unions │ │ │10 to 30│ - │ │ 20_l._ to │ 25_l._ to │ per │ - │ │ 80_l._ │ 120_l._ │ cent. │ - │Derby, 7 Unions│ │ │2½ to 20│ - │ │ 20_l._ to │ 40_l._ to │ per │ - │ │ 100_l._ │ 120_l._ │ cent. │ - │Lancashire, 2 │ │ │ 10_s._ │ - │ Unions │ 30_l._ to │ 30_l._ to │ to │ - │ │ 50_l._ │ 55_l._ │ 40_s._ │ - │Stafford, 9 │ 20_l._ to │ 40_l._ to │4_s._ to│ - │ Unions │ 80_l._ │ 100_l._ │ 40_s._ │ - │Gloucester, 3 │ │ │ │ - │ Unions │ About │ │ │ - │ │ 62_l._ │ │ 10_s._ │ - │Hereford, 1 │ About │ │ │ - │ Union │ 62_l._ │ │ │ - │Monmouth, 5 │ About │ │ │ - │ Unions │ 62_l._ │ │ │ - │Worcester, 4 │ About │ │ │ - │ Unions │ 65_l._ │ │ │ - │Gloucester, 3 │ About │ │ │ - │ Unions │ 70_l._ │ │ │ - │Hereford, 8 │ About │ │ │ - │ Unions │ 45_l._ │ │ │ - │Brecknock, 1 │ About │ │ │ - │ Union │ 45_l._ │ │ │ - │Radnor, 2 │ About │ │ │ - │ Unions │ 45_l._ │ │ │ - │Salop, 2 Unions│ │ │ 10_s._ │ - │ │ 50_l._ to │ │ to │ - │ │ 55_l._ │ │ 12_s._ │ - │Worcester, 6 │ │ │ 10_s._ │ - │ Unions │ 50_l._ to │ │ to │ - │ │ 55_l._ │ │ 12_s._ │ - │Northumberland,│ │ │ │ - │7 Unions │ │ │ │ - │ │ 30_l._ to │ │3_s._ to│ - │ │ 50_l._ │ │ 5_s._ │ - │Durham, 8 │ │ │ 10_s._ │ - │ Unions │ 50_l._ to │ │ to │ - │ │ 70_l._ │ │ 15_s._ │ - │Cumberland, 1 │ │ │ │ - │ Union. │ 50_l._ │ │ 3_s._ │ - │Durham, 2 │ │ │ │ - │ Unions │ 45_l._ │ 60_l._ │ │ - │Cumberland, 4 │ │ │ │ - │ Unions │ 30_l._ to │ │ │ - │ │ 45_l._ │ │ 7_s._ │ - │Bedford, 5 │ │ │ │ - │ Unions │ 15_l._ to │ 20_l._ to │5_s._ to│ - │ │ 60_l._ │ 120_l._ │ 20_s._ │ - │Bucks, 1 Union │ 40_l._ to │ │9_s._ to│ - │ │ 60_l._ │ │ 10_s._ │ - │Hertford, 4 │ │ │ │ - │ Unions │ │ │ 20_s._ │ - │ │ 40_l._ to │ 50_l._ to │ to │ - │ │ 70_l._ │ 120_l._ │ 30_s._ │ - │Northampton, 6 │ 30_l._ to │ 50_l._ to │5_s._ to│ - │ Unions │ 100_l._ │ 150_l._ │ 20_s._ │ - │Stafford, 5 │ 20_l._ to │ 35_l._ to │7_s._ to│ - │ Unions │ 60_l._ │ 100_l._ │ 45_s._ │ - │Warwick, 7 │ 20_l._ to │ 50_l._ to │6_s._ to│ - │ Unions │ 70_l._ │ 140_l._ │ 40_s._ │ - │Worcester, 2 │ │ │ 10_s._ │ - │ Unions │ 10_l._ to │ 45_l._ to │ to │ - │ │ 50_l._ │ 150_l._ │ 12_s._ │ - └───────────────┴───────────┴────────────┴────────┘ - - ┌───────────────┬──────────────────────────────────────┐ - │ ENGLAND. │ │ - │ │ Rent of Cottages. │ - ├───────────────┼────────┬────────┬───────────┬────────┤ - │ │ │ 2. │ │ │ - │ │ │Cottages│ │ │ - │ │ │with one│ 3. │ │ - │ │ │Room on │Cottages of│ 4. │ - │ │ │ or │ the same │Cottages│ - │ │ │Bed-room│Description│ with │ - │ │ │ the │ or │ four │ - │ │ 1. │ Ground │Wash-house │ Rooms, │ - │ │Cottages│ Floor, │ as No. 2, │ two │ - │ │ with │ and a │ with a │ below, │ - │ │only one│ above. │Back-house │and two │ - │ │ Room. │Chamber │ annexed. │ above. │ - ├───────────────┼────────┼────────┼───────────┼────────┤ - │Norfolk, 22 │ │ 1_l._ │ │ │ - │ Unions │ 10_s._ │ 10_s._ │ │ 3_l._ │ - │ │ to │to 5_l._│ 2_l._ to │5_s._ to│ - │ │100_s._ │ 5_s._ │6_l._ 6_s._│ 9_l._ │ - │Suffolk, 15 │ 20_s._ │ │ │ │ - │ Unions │to 2_l._│2_l._ to│ 3_l._ to │3_l._ to│ - │ │ 15_s._ │ 6_l._ │ 6_l._ │ 8_l._ │ - │Chester, 5 │ │ 1_s._ │ │ │ - │ Unions │ │6_d._ to│ │ │ - │ │ 1_s._ │ 2_s._ │2_s._ 6_d._│ │ - │ │ 6_d._ │ 6_d._ │ to 4_s._ │ │ - │Derby, 7 Unions│ │ │ │ │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ - │Lancashire, 2 │ │ │ │ │ - │ Unions │ │ │ │ │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ - │Stafford, 9 │ │ │ │ │ - │ Unions │ │ │ │ │ - │Gloucester, 3 │ │ │ 5_l._ │ │ - │ Unions │ │ │ 10_s._ to │ │ - │ │ │ │ 6_l._ │ │ - │Hereford, 1 │ │ │ │ │ - │ Union │ │ │ │ │ - │Monmouth, 5 │ │ │ │ │ - │ Unions │ │ │ │ │ - │Worcester, 4 │ │ │ │ │ - │ Unions │ │ │ │ │ - │Gloucester, 3 │ │ │ │ │ - │ Unions │ │ │ 4_l._ │ │ - │Hereford, 8 │ │ │ 3_l._ │ │ - │ Unions │ │ │ 10_s._ │ │ - │Brecknock, 1 │ │ │ 3_l._ │ │ - │ Union │ │ │ 10_s._ │ │ - │Radnor, 2 │ │ │ 3_l._ │ │ - │ Unions │ │ │ 10_s._ │ │ - │Salop, 2 Unions│ │ │ 3_l._ │ │ - │ │ │ │ 13_s._ │ │ - │ │ │ │ 6_d._ │ │ - │Worcester, 6 │ │ │ 3_l._ │ │ - │ Unions │ │ │ 13_s._ │ │ - │ │ │ │ 6_d._ │ │ - │Northumberland,│ │ │ │ │ - │7 Unions │ 2_l._ │ │ │ │ - │ │5_s._ to│ │ │ │ - │ │ 4_l._ │ │ │ │ - │Durham, 8 │ │ 2_l._ │ │ │ - │ Unions │ │ 10_s._ │ │ │ - │ │ 4_l._ │to 6_l._│ │ │ - │Cumberland, 1 │ │ 3_l._ │ │ │ - │ Union. │ │ 5_s._ │ │ │ - │Durham, 2 │ │ │ │ │ - │ Unions │ │ │ 4_l._ │ │ - │Cumberland, 4 │ │ 2_l._ │ │ │ - │ Unions │ │ 12_s._ │ │ │ - │ │ │to 3_l._│ │ │ - │Bedford, 5 │ │ │ │ 2_l._ │ - │ Unions │ │ │ │ 10_s._ │ - │ │ │ │ │to 4_l._│ - │Bucks, 1 Union │ │ │ │ 2_l._ │ - │ │ │ │ │ 12_s._ │ - │Hertford, 4 │ │ │ │ 2_s._ │ - │ Unions │ │ │ │ 6_d._ │ - │ │ │ │ │ per │ - │ │ │ │ │ week. │ - │Northampton, 6 │ │ │ │ │ - │ Unions │ │ │ │ │ - │Stafford, 5 │ │ │ │2_l._ to│ - │ Unions │ │ │ │ 4_l._ │ - │Warwick, 7 │ │ │ │ │ - │ Unions │ │ │ │ │ - │Worcester, 2 │ │ │ │ │ - │ Unions │ │ │ │ │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ - └───────────────┴────────┴────────┴───────────┴────────┘ - - -11.—_Tables of the Expense of building Cottages, and Repairs, in England - and Scotland_ - continued. - - ┌─────────────┬────────────────┬────────┬────────────────┬────────────┐ - │ SCOTLAND. │Cost of Erection│Cost of │ Rent of │ Proportion │ - │ │ Cottages, &c. │Repairs.│ Cottages. &c. │of Rent paid│ - │ │ │ │ per Annum. │by Labourer │ - │ │ │ │ │to his total│ - │ │ │ │ │Expenditure.│ - ├─────────────┼────────────────┼────────┼────────────────┼────────────┤ - │Aberdeen │Houses for 6 │1_l._ │Garret or │From 8 to 14│ - │ │ families, │ per │ cellar, 25_s._│ per cent. │ - │ │ 250_l._ to │ year │ to 30_s._; │ │ - │ │ 300_l._ │ │ room and │ │ - │ │ │ │ closet 50_s._ │ │ - │ │ │ │ to 80_s._; two│ │ - │ │ │ │ rooms, 5_l._; │ │ - │ │ │ │ ditto and │ │ - │ │ │ │ closet, 6_l._;│ │ - │ │ │ │ cottages, &c.,│ │ - │ │ │ │ 4_l._ to 6_l._│ │ - │Aberdour │ │ │One or two │About 4½ per│ - │ │ │ │ rooms. 1_l._ │ cent. │ - │ │ │ │ to 2_l._; │ │ - │ │ │ │ cottage, 2_l._│ │ - │ │ │ │ to 3_l._ │ │ - │Arbroath │60_l._ to 80_l._│2 per │3_l._ to 6_l._; │From 11 to │ - │ │ │ cent. │ garrets, │ 16½ per │ - │ │ │ │ 20_s._ to │ cent. │ - │ │ │ │ 30_s._ │ │ - │Alloa │Houses for 3 │ │One apartment, │From 10 to │ - │ │ families, │ │ 1_l._ to │ 12½ per │ - │ │ 200_l._ to │ │ 3_l._; two │ cent. │ - │ │ 300_l._; │ │ ditto, 3_l._ │ │ - │ │ Cottage, │ │ to 5_l._; │ │ - │ │ 20_l._ to │ │ 1_l._ 10_s._ │ │ - │ │ 30_l._ │ │ to 3_l._ │ │ - │ │ │ │ cottage. │ │ - │Andrews, St. │ │ │1_l._ to 1_l._ │About 8¼ per│ - │ │ │ │ 15_s._ each │ cent. │ - │ │ │ │ room. │ │ - │Ayr │About 30_l._ │ │1_l._ 10_s._ to │About 8¼ per│ - │ │ │ │ 4_l._ │ cent. │ - │Carluke │Tenement for 2 │½ per │One room and │From 5 to │ - │ │ families, │ cent. │ closet, │ 12½ per │ - │ │ 60_l._ to │ │ 50_s._; one │ cent. │ - │ │ 70_l._ │ │ room and │ │ - │ │ │ │ kitchen, │ │ - │ │ │ │ 70_s._ to │ │ - │ │ │ │ 80_s._ │ │ - │Coldstream │40_l._ │ │2_l._ 10_s._ to │About 10 per│ - │ │ │ │ 3_l._ │ cent. │ - │Cupar, Fife, │30_l._ │ │1_l._ 10_s._ to │About 10 per│ - │ &c. │ │ │ 2_l._ 10_s._ │ cent. │ - │Douglas │ │ │1_l._ 10_s._ to │ │ - │ │ │ │ 2_l._ │ │ - │Dundee │60_l._ to 80_l._│5 per │One room, 2_l._ │From 6¼ to │ - │ │ │ cent. │ to 2_l._ │ 21¼ per │ - │ │ │ │ 10_s._; two │ cent. │ - │ │ │ │ rooms, 3_l._ │ │ - │ │ │ │ 10_s._ to │ │ - │ │ │ │ 5_l._ │ │ - │Dunfermline │80_l._ to 90_l._│ │1_l._ 10_s._ to │From 10 to │ - │ │ │ │ 6_l._ │ 11 per │ - │ │ │ │ │ cent. │ - │Earls Ferry │15_l._ to 30_l._│ │1_l._ to 2_l._ │About 5 per │ - │ │ │ │ │ cent. │ - │Elgin │ │ │1_l._ to 5_l._ │From 12½ to │ - │ │ │ │ │ 14 per │ - │ │ │ │ │ cent. │ - │Cowgate │ │ │2_l._ to 4_l._ │ │ - │Edinburgh │ │ │1_l._ to 5_l._ │From 6 to 25│ - │ │ │ │ 4_s._; 2_l._ │ per cent. │ - │ │ │ │ to 4_l._ for │ │ - │ │ │ │ one apartment;│ │ - │ │ │ │ one room and │ │ - │ │ │ │ kitchen, 3_l._│ │ - │ │ │ │ to 5_l._ │ │ - │Forfar │70_l._ to │1 per │Two rooms, 2_l._│From 12½ to │ - │ │ 110_l._ │ cent. │ 10_s._; ditto │ 14 per │ - │ │ │ │ and closet, │ cent. │ - │ │ │ │ 3_l._ 15_s._ │ │ - │Forres │ │ │1_l._ 10_s._ to │About 12½ │ - │ │ │ │ 5_l._ │ per cent. │ - │Fraizerburgh │ │ │2_l._ to 3_l._ │From 16½ to │ - │ │ │ │ │ 20 per │ - │ │ │ │ │ cent. │ - │Glasgow │Tenements for 16│ │One room, 2_l._;│From 7½ to │ - │ │ families, │ │ room and │ 33 per │ - │ │ 800_l._ to │ │ kitchen, 3_l._│ cent. │ - │ │ 1200_l._, room│ │ to 7_l._ two │ │ - │ │ and kitchen │ │ rooms and │ │ - │ │ for each. │ │ kitchen, 6_l._│ │ - │ │ │ │ to 9_l._ │ │ - │Haddington │ │ │1_l._ to 4_l._ │About 5 per │ - │ │ │ │ 10_s._ │ cent. │ - │Hoddon │10_l._ to 25_l._│2½ to 6 │About 2_l._ │From 8 to 10│ - │ │ │ per │ │ per cent. │ - │ │ │ cent. │ │ │ - │Inverary │ │ │10_s._ to 5_l._ │From 10 to │ - │ │ │ │ │ 20 per │ - │ │ │ │ │ cent. │ - │Inverkeithing│ │ │2_l._ to 3_l._ │From 6½ to │ - │ │ │ │ │ 14 per │ - │ │ │ │ │ cent. │ - │Inverness │30_l._ to 80_l._│ │From 1_l._ to │About 10 per│ - │ │ │ │ 3_l._ a room. │ cent. │ - │Irvine │30_l._ to 40_l._│ │2_l._ to 3_l._ │About 10 per│ - │ │ │ │ │ cent. │ - │Kirkcaldy │Two rooms, │ │One room, 30_s._│From 6 to 10│ - │ │ 40_l._ │ │ to 40_s._; two│ per cent. │ - │ │ │ │ rooms, 3_l._ │ │ - │Kirkwall │50_l._ to 60_l._│ │1_l._ to 2_l._ │From 6 to 16│ - │ │ │ │ for one room. │ per cent. │ - │Lanark │40_l._ to │ │2_l._ each │About 10 per│ - │ │ 50_l._, for │ │ apartment. │ cent. │ - │ │ two families. │ │ │ │ - │Leith │ │ │2_l._ 10_s._ to │ │ - │ │ │ │ 6_l._ │ │ - │Lesmahagow │50_l._ to 60_l._│1 per │2_l._ to 3_l._; │From 14 to │ - │ │ │ cent. │ attics, from │ 16½ per │ - │ │ │ │ 26_s._ to │ cent. │ - │ │ │ │ 32_s._ 6_d._ │ │ - │Lillisheaf │ │ │1_l._ to 3_l._ │About 10 per│ - │ │ │ │ │ cent. │ - │Lochmaben │20_l._ to 50_l._│ │1_l._ 10_s._ to │From 8 to │ - │ │ │ │ 3_l._ │ 16½ per │ - │ │ │ │ │ cent. │ - │Melrose │60_l._ to 80_l._│ │4_l._ │About 16½ │ - │ │ │ │ │ per cent. │ - │Montrose │30_l._ to 40_l._│ │1_l._ 10_s._ to │About 10 per│ - │ │ │ │ 2_l._ │ cent. │ - │Portobello │ │ │2_l._ 12_s._ for│About 10 per│ - │ │ │ │ a room. │ cent. │ - │Queensferry │30_l._ │1¾ per │1_l._ to 1_l._ │From 4 to 5 │ - │ │ │ cent. │ 10_s._ │ per cent. │ - │Renfrew │Tenement of four│per │6_l._; 2_l._ to │About 14 per│ - │ │ houses, │ cent. │ 3_l._ 10_s._ │ cent. │ - │ │ 300_l._ │ │ │ │ - │Selkirk │60_l._ to │ │2_l._ 10_s._ │From 10 to │ - │ │ 70_l._, two │ │ │ 12½ per │ - │ │ apartments. │ │ │ cent. │ - │Stewarton │House for two or│ │2_l._ to 3_l._ │From 6½ to │ - │ │ three │ │ │ 7½ per │ - │ │ labourers, │ │ │ cent. │ - │ │ 100_l._ to │ │ │ │ - │ │ 120_l._ │ │ │ │ - │Tain │10_l._ to 20_l._│ │10_s._ to 3_l._ │About 5 per │ - │ │ │ │ │ cent. │ - │Wigtown │15_l._ │ │1_l._ 10_s._ to │About 7½ per│ - │ │ │ │ 2_l._ │ cent. │ - └─────────────┴────────────────┴────────┴────────────────┴────────────┘ - - PLANS OF COTTAGES ERECTED AT EGERTON FOR H. & E. ASHWORTH. - -[Illustration] - - ELEVATION AND PLANS OF HOUSES IN GREAT RUSSELL STREET, - - BIRMINGHAM - -[Illustration] - - GROUND PLAN OF TWO NEW COURTS OF HOUSES IN BRADFORD STREET, BIRMINGHAM - -[Illustration] - - ELEVATIONS OF HOUSES, IN BRADFORD STREET, BIRMINGHAM. - -[Illustration] - - - 12.—_Examination of the_ REV. THOMAS WHATELEY, _Cookham, Berks, on - Cottage Allotments, and the keeping of Pigs by Cottagers_. - -It appears that a great part of the land of your parish is common, and -that a portion of the population borders upon the common. What is the -state of that population as compared with that which is too far removed -from the commons to enjoy any of their privileges?—The persons who live -in the immediate neighbourhood of the commons are evidently much poorer -than those who live at a distance. - -To what do you attribute this?—I attribute it to their depending upon a -precarious and uncertain income; and I am sure, from all the observation -I have been able to make, that a poor man’s best subsistence will always -depend upon constant work and good wages, and that he never works for so -bad a master as when he works for himself. And all employments, such as -attending sheep, geese, &c., besides the precarious nature of the return -made by them, usually impair his habits of steady and patient industry, -and frequently give him a turn for poaching and pilfering, and engender -other irregular and demoralizing habits. - -But may not the children of the cottager, while he is engaged in steady -and patient industry, be usefully and profitably employed in taking care -of a pig or geese on the common?—No. The reason which applies against -the father doing so, namely, the bad desultory habits engendered, -applies with greater force against the children doing so. If they are -old enough to be able to attend to these things, they are usually old -enough to be employed in some rural occupation for which wages would be -earned. Many mistakes are prevalent with respect to the profits from -keeping cows, sheep, geese, pigs, &c., for I do not believe that any of -these are really profitable; and though I am glad to see a pig as an -appendage to a cottage (if the cottager’s employer has no reason to be -sorry), because the pig serves as a sort of savings bank to the -labourer; for if the labourer had not the animal, he would not put by, -and out of his reach, from day to day, the money which the pig costs him -in fatting; yet it is notorious that a labouring man pays more dearly -for his bacon than he would do if he purchased it ready prepared to his -hand.[54] Nor would he be the better clothed or cheaper shod if he took -the operation of the Manchester weaver or the Nottingham shoemaker into -his own hands. - -But may not a labourer attend to the management of pigs or cows after -the hours of work?—I think not, because a good labourer usually works by -the great, and has done as much as his strength will allow when he -returns home; and because nothing is gained by feeding cattle upon -commons, where the cattle have nothing else to depend upon. The very -worst master a poor man can work for is himself. - -You say that the reason which applies against the father attending to -pigs, geese, &c., on commons, applies equally against the children being -so, _i. e._, the idle habits engendered; and that if they are old enough -to be able to attend to these things, they are usually old enough to be -employed in some rural occupation, for which wages would be earned. Now -would not the children be employed by farmers in the same sort of -labour, namely, in looking after cattle; and if so, why is it that the -care of cattle on the common for the other is worse or more demoralizing -than the care of the same sort of things for the farmer?—I conceive that -I have answered this question before. If a farmer sends his pigs or -other cattle into open fields or commons, and requires the assistance of -a child to watch them, they are turned out only for a change, but are -never in this part of the country kept upon the commons. - -Do you think allotments of land to the labourer beneficial; and if so, -what quantity may be usefully occupied by him?—I do not think allotments -of land to the poor beneficial. I had rather see the allotments gathered -into one large one, a farm, and the labouring man employed at good -wages, by a superintendent managing the whole at his own risk and for -his own interest, in the share to which his undivided and greater -attention and anxiety justly entitle him, that is, by a thriving farmer. -The poor man must be a poor master, and he had better serve a rich one. - -What do you believe would be the consequence of too large allotments of -land being made to the labourers?—That the poor man could not cultivate -it. The wealth of his employer is the poor man’s safeguard against want. -I approve of the practice of a benevolent farmer in my parish, who is -accustomed to give to his labourers a headland of his field as a bonus -to industry. He says he will make it worth the while of his labourers to -be honest and diligent towards him, by letting them feel that they will -have a suitable return from him. If what are called “ample allotments” -are given, it appears to me to be a sort of wholesale almsgiving, -attended with more than the usual mischiefs attendant upon most -almsgiving. The orchard and garden before me might, if cut up into -allotments, serve for six families of young labourers. It may be all -very well to say, “Take these, my good men, and be happy;” but when, in -the progress of population, there arises four times six families to be -fed from the same soil, where will then be the happiness of the -allotments? What, I submit, are small farms but ample allotments, and -what, when stripped of romance, is found by experience to be the -superior condition and power of production of the small farmers? Are -they not, even where they farm their own lands, almost universally -failing (like the small manufacturers against the large ones) in -competition before the more scientific management, economy of labour, -and more powerful application of capital of the large farmer. What is -all Ireland but a country of cottage allotments; and what is there in -that theatre of disorder and wretchedness that should induce the -benevolent (or those who may have in their eyes the immediate temptation -of _Irish rents_) to make trial of any such system in England? Are the -cottiers who possess the fee-simple, the small freeholders of Ireland, -in a superior condition by virtue of their allotments?—Many of the -promoters of allotments doubtless intend well, and act upon the evidence -of immediate benefits and satisfaction derived from them; so, probably, -did the original promoters of the bread-money, scales, and the allowance -system, labour rates, and the train of corrupting palliatives? - -Have you had an opportunity of observing experiments in what is termed -spade husbandry?—I have never seen spade husbandry; but I should wish to -see it universally adopted, if the adoption of it would add wealth to -the farmer, for in that case it could not fail to benefit the labourer. - -It is said that farmers ought to take the single agricultural labourers -into their houses, and preside at the labourers’ tables as formerly; -what is your opinion as to the practicability of recurring to the old -system?—Those who say so are very ill formed upon the subject. Farmers, -who were (in manners, wealth, and education) but very little better than -their own labourers, might formerly, with comfort to themselves and -advantage to their men, receive their carters into their family, and -dine at their table with them; but the habits of those times are gone -for ever. - -Do you think the enclosures of such parishes as Cookham beneficial to -the poor?—Yes I do, inasmuch as they extend the demand for the poor -man’s only marketable commodity—his labour. - -[Every position stated in this examination with relation to the -practical operation of the theory of small farm allotments, and of the -pig and cow theories, was corroborated by a large mass of evidence from -every part of the country, where they had been, for any length of time, -in operation.—E. C.] - - - 13.—_Arrangement of Public Walks in Towns; Plan of the Arboretum at - Derby, laid out by_ J. C. LOUDON, _Esq._ - -When it appeared that a general botanic garden would be too expensive, -both to create and to keep up; that a mere composition of trees and -shrubs with turf, in the manner of a common pleasure-ground, would -become insipid after being seen two or three times; and, in short, that -the most suitable kind of public garden, for all the circumstances -included in the above data, was an arboretum, or collection of trees and -shrubs, foreign and indigenous, which would endure the open air in the -climate of Derby, with the names placed to each. Such a collection will -have all the ordinary beauties of a pleasure-ground viewed as a whole; -and yet, from no tree or shrub occurring twice in the whole collection, -and from the name of every tree and shrub being placed against it, an -inducement is held out for those who walk in the garden to take an -interest in the name and history of each species, its uses in this -country or in other countries, its appearance at different seasons of -the year, and the various associations connected with it. - -[Illustration: PLAN OF THE DERBY ARBORETUM, 1840.] - -[Illustration] - -A similar interest might no doubt have been created by a collection of -herbaceous plants; but this collection, to be effective in such a space -of ground, must have amounted to at least 5000 species; and to form such -a collection, and keep it up, would have been much more expensive than -forming the most complete collection of trees and shrubs that can at -present be made in Britain. It is further to be observed respecting a -collection of herbaceous plants, that it would have presented no beauty -or interest whatever during the winter season; whereas, among trees and -shrubs, there are all the evergreen kinds, which are more beautiful in -winter than in summer; while the deciduous kinds, at that season, show -an endless variety in the ramification of their branches and spray, the -colour of their bark, and the colour and form of their buds. Add also, -that trees and shrubs, and especially evergreens, give shelter and -encouragement to singing-birds, to which herbaceous plants offer little -or no shelter or food. - -There are yet other arguments in favour of trees and shrubs for a garden -of recreation, which are worth notice. Herbaceous plants are low, small, -and to have any effect must be numerous; while to acquire their names, -and look into their beauties, persons walking in the garden must stand -still, and stoop down, which, when repeated several times, would soon, -instead of a recreation, become very fatiguing. Now trees and shrubs are -large objects, and there is scarcely one of them the beauty of which may -not be seen and enjoyed by the spectator while he is walking past it, -and without standing still at all. - -A glance at the plan, _fig. 2_, in p. 6, will show that I have provided -as great an extent of gravel-walk as the space would admit of; the total -length, including the walk round the flower-garden, exceeding a mile. -There is a straight broad walk in the centre, as a main feature from the -principal entrance; an intersecting broad and straight walk to form a -centre to the garden, and to constitute a point of radiation to all the -other walks; and there is a winding walk surrounding the whole. As a -straight walk without a terminating object is felt to be deficient in -meaning, a statute on a pedestal is proposed for the radiating centre -_i._ in _fig. 2_; a pedestal with a vase, urn, or other object, for the -second circle in the straight walk, _fig. 2_, _k_; while the pavilions -_fig. 3_, form terminating objects to the broad cross walk. - -As a terminal object gives meaning to a straight walk leading to it, so -it is only by creating artificial obstructions that meaning can be given -to a winding walk over a flat surface. These obstructions may either be -inequalities in the ground, or the occurrence of trees or shrubs in the -line which the walk would otherwise have taken, so as to force it to -bend out of that line. Both these resources have been employed in laying -down the direction of the surrounding walk, though its deviation from a -straight line has chiefly been made in conformity with the varying -position of the trees in the belt already existing. This belt, and also -the trees in the flower-garden, and in other parts of the plan, which -were there previously to commencing operations, and which are left -conformably to Mr. Strutt’s instructions, are shown in the plan, _fig. -4_, p. 75. The point of junction of one walk with another is always -noticeable in an artistical point of view, and affords an excuse for -putting down sculptural or other ornamental objects at these points. - - - 14.—_Boards of Health:—Report on the labours of the “Conseil de - Salubrité” of Paris, from 1829 to 1839._ _By_ M. TREBUCHET. - -Before the revolution of 1789, M. Lenoir, one of the last lieutenants of -police of that period, and one of those who most particularly occupied -themselves with the health of the city of Paris, consulted on questions -of health and salubrity two men, _Pia_ and _Cadet de Vaux_, both of them -apothecaries; the last had the title of inspector-general: it was to him -that all matters of health were habitually referred. Later, on the -institution of the prefect of police, in whose hands was vested all that -related to salubrity and the public health, this magistrate consulted -sometimes a physician, sometimes a chemist, sometimes a veterinary -surgeon, according to the nature of the case upon which he had to -determine. - -This state of things presented inconveniences so much the more serious -that the number of affairs increasing every day, demanded more unity in -the reports, and more activity in the labours. It was then that the -necessity was felt of establishing a permanent council. Such was the -origin of the “Conseil de Salubrité,” instituted by the prefect of -police, Dubois, the 6th of July, 1802. It was composed of four -members,—Deyeux, Parmentier, Huzard, senior, and Cadet-Gassicourt. In -1803, M. Thouret was called to the council; afterwards, in 1807, Leroux -and Dupuytren; in 1810, M. Pariset replaced M. Thouret, and it was at -the same period that the nomination of Doctor Petit took place. From -that time the men of the greatest consideration sought to have a part in -the labours of the “Conseil de Salubrité.” Thus we see enter -successively M. d’Arcet in 1813; M. Marc in 1815; M. Berard in 1817; the -engineer Girard, and Huzard, junior, in 1819; Pelletier and Juge in -1821; M. Gautier de Claubry and M. Parent Duchâtelet in 1825; MM. -Adelon, Andral, junior, Barruel, and Labarraque, in 1828; Doctor -Esquirol in 1829. The greater part of these men no longer exist. Deyeux, -Parmentier, Huzard, senior, Cadet-Gassicourt, Thouret. Leroux, -Dupuytren, Marc, Girard, Parent-Duchâtelet, Barruel, Esquirol, are no -longer there to direct the labours of the council, to contribute their -long experience and indefatigable activity; but their labours remain to -us, and we can at least draw from them useful instructions, and still -enlighten ourselves by their valuable opinions. - -Thus, and with the view to preserve these precious traditions, which -maintain in the council an unity of design so remarkable, the -administration decided from the commencement that their general reports -should be printed. - -This publication, which stopped in 1828, and of which the continuance -was greatly desired, has just been resumed by the orders of M. Gabriel -Delessert, prefect of police. - -This collection, which is of such general interest, embraces therefore a -period of nearly forty years. - -Perhaps we are to congratulate ourselves on the delay which has taken -place in the publication of these reports. In going over these ten years -it becomes more easy to follow the council in the progressive march of -their labours, to perceive that they were all based upon a uniform and -constant jurisprudence; that they had no other end than the preservation -of the public health, the well-devised interest of property and -industry. On this account we have always thought that besides the annual -reports, extremely useful in other respects, but confined within too -narrow a circle, it would be well to publish every ten years a summary, -which, retracing what had been done in that long period, should offer a -wide field of study both to governors and governed. - -Since 1829 the reports addressed to the administration, on the numerous -questions which it submitted to the council, amount to 4431. But that of -which there remains no trace are the experiments, often even the -preliminary reports, the trips, and sometimes the journeys, which each -of these reports rendered necessary; labours of which the report is only -a summary, and which impart such great authority to the decisions of the -council. - -These decisions relate to three great divisions,—_health_, _salubrity_, -and _industry_. Under _health_ are classed, among other things, the -researches on the adulteration of food, on the vessels used in its -preparation, on the precautions to be taken with respect to the vessels -and utensils of copper, regard being had to the uses for which they are -employed; the experiments on the adulteration of salts, on the -adulteration of bread and of flour by different substances, on the -poisonous substances employed to colour bonbons, liqueurs, &c.; the -examination of the methods employed in preparing pork; the examination -of the water used for drink; the adulteration of the flours of linseed -and mustard; the use of meat of animals who had died of disease; the -researches into the salubrity of dwellings. The head of _salubrity_ -comprises the anatomical theatres, their construction, the means of -remedying the causes of the unhealthiness which these establishments -present; the discharge of sulphurous waters from the public baths, the -utility of street fountains, the inspection of barracks, and the -sanitary measures to which they should be subject; the improvements to -be made in the fires of the establishments which employ coals; the -arrangements to be made for the deposit of filth in the rural districts; -the purification of sewers; the supply of water for domestic and -industrial purposes; the steps to be taken in exhumations; the -examination of different contrivances to empty privies, the -ameliorations to be introduced into this portion of service; the -wholesomeness of the markets, the inspection of prisons. The reports -which relate to _industry_ principally treat of the construction of -slaughter-houses; the condensation of the gas and vapours resulting from -the refining of metals; the fabrication, preservation, and sale of -fulminating and lucifer matches; the precautions to be taken in the -construction of fulminating powder-mills, and in the manipulation of the -substances employed there; the measures to be taken for the conveyance -of the fulminate of mercury; the researches into the employment of -bitumens, and the conditions to be prescribed to the makers; the making -wax-candles; the conditions to be imposed on cat-gut factories; the -researches on the fires of wash-houses, and on the necessity of -decomposing the soapy water to prevent putrefaction; the sanitary -measures applicable to white lead manufactories, and the researches on -the diseases of the workmen; the propositions of classification for -different trades, such as the silk-hat factories, the forges, the places -for making and keeping ether; and the beating of carpets. - -Thus health, salubrity, industry, offer to the “Conseil de Salubrité” a -vast field of researches and investigations, and we may affirm that -there is no question relating to these three great departments of the -administration which they have not profoundly meditated, and in part -resolved. If now we turn to other subjects we still find important -labours which touch in several points on the different matters of which -we have just spoken, but which have not, like them, a special and -clearly-defined character: such are the reports on epidemics and -small-pox; the measures to be taken to prevent or combat them; the -_epizooties_ that have prevailed at different epochs among several -species of animals, and particularly among milking-cows; the sale of -horses with glanders, and the regulations to which they should be -subject, as well as other animals seized with contagious diseases; the -measures to be taken against mad dogs, and the precautions in case of -bites from these animals; the modelling, examination, and embalming of -corpses; the aids to be afforded to the drowned and suffocated; the -measures to be taken to ascertain the number of these accidents as well -as of suicides; the compilation of a new nosographic table of the -diseases which cause death; the measures to be taken to prevent fires in -theatres, &c. &c. - -Such is a general view of the subjects upon which the council has been -called to give their opinions. It now remains to describe the -circumstances which demanded them, and the results they have produced. - -One of the objects which more especially engaged the care of the council -was that of bread. It is the thing, it is true, which most directly -interests the people. The quality of bread may be deteriorated by -various ingredients, but no one could have foreseen that noxious -substances would be employed with the view, ostensibly at least, of -improving it. Nevertheless the correctional tribunal of Brussels was -called upon some years since to try some bakers brought before it under -a charge of selling bread adulterated with noxious substances. On the -occasion of this trial the prefect of police inquired of the council if, -as these bakers alleged in their defence, a small quantity of a -substance which they called _blue_ alum, put into the yeast, had the -property of rendering the bread whiter and less heavy. - -In order to give their opinion, the council first examined what was the -substance called by the name of _blue_ alum. Some designate by this name -the sulphate of copper, but most people mean by blue alum the rock alum, -(sulphate of alumina and potass,) because this salt in the lump has a -bluish tinge, and, as with all the sulphates, the sulphate of which the -base is alumina is the only one which bears the name of alum, it is to -be presumed that it is this salt, or rock alum, which goes under the -name of _blue alum_, and not the sulphate of copper which is known in -commerce by the name of _blue vitriol_. - -It had been long known that alum, by the action of heat equal to that of -a baker’s oven, swells, increases in volume, and becomes a porous mass, -light and very white, which is no longer alum, but a mixture of a great -deal of insoluble sub-sulphate with a small quantity of alum, a -substance astringent, and not poisonous. It is probable that this -property, known to some bakers, determined them to add to bread made of -certain flour a little of this alum, which, without being injurious to -the health, really made the bread whiter, at the same time that the -crust became brown at a less heat. - -As to the employment of sulphate of copper (blue vitriol), it is only by -a gross error that it could be supposed capable of making bread white. -Nevertheless a baker of the town of Gand was prosecuted for putting this -poisonous salt into his bread. The commission appointed to examine the -bread not having been able to discover any trace of copper, mixed a -kilogram of flour, to which was added twenty-four grains of sulphate of -copper, and they affirmed that it was impossible to detect in the bread -the least trace of the salt they had introduced. - -After such an assertion it became interesting to make some researches on -the subject. In consequence, the delegates of the council who were -entrusted with the inquiry, had four loaves of a kilogram of flour made -under their eyes: in one of these loaves was put twelve grains of -sulphate of copper, in another eight grains, in a third four grains, and -but two grains in the fourth. These loaves rose ill, and although the -flour with which they were made produced bread very beautiful and white, -the four loaves were so heavy as scarcely to present any cavities. The -loaf No. 1 had a green disagreeable colour; the loaf No. 2 was in like -manner green, but of a less deep colour than the preceding; No. 3 was -also greenish; and No. 4, though colourless, could not support a -comparison with the bread made from the same flour pure. - -All these loaves were burnt separately in porcelain crucibles to -complete ashes. Those of the loaf No. 1 were a beautiful azure blue; -those of No. 2 a clearer sky-blue; those of No. 3 had a blue tint of a -lighter hue; and those of No. 4 were so slightly coloured that it would -have been impossible to infer that they contained copper. But all these -ashes, when submitted to the action of sulphuric acid diluted with -water, were dissolved, and when tested separately by hydrosulphuric -acid, produced black precipitates of sulphuret of copper, which -precipitates, tested separately in their turn by concentrated nitric -acid, furnished each a quantity of nitrate of copper, equal, within a -few fractions, to the sulphate added to each of the four loaves. - -It results, therefore, from the preceding experiments which have been -made with the greatest care, - -1. That the sulphate of copper (blue vitriol) cannot be used in making -bread for the purpose of rendering it lighter or whiter, because it -prevents its rising, and gives it a disagreeable colour; - -2. That by reducing it to ashes, and employing suitable means, almost -all the salt of copper added to the bread may be collected again. - -We should exceed the bounds of this Article if we were to re-produce the -numerous reports on the bread or flour submitted to the analysis of the -council, and especially on the bread and flour destined for the use of -prisons, on mixed flour, and on the quality of bread prepared from flour -mixed with starch. The council after examining this bread remarked, that -it was not disagreeable to the taste, nor liable to injure the health. -However, they were not able to pronounce on its nutritive qualities. It -has therefore been recommended that if bread made of flour so mixed was -offered for sale, it should have a peculiar form, in order that the -public should know what is the nature of the food which is sold to them. -The same conclusions have been come to with respect to the sale of bread -made of flour mixed with a seventh of the flour of rice. This bread is, -according to the council, savoury and it keeps well, and does not become -hard so soon as the bread prepared in the ordinary way. As to its -nutritive qualities, the council cannot determine on this particular, -the question being one of those which, in the actual state of science, -is the most difficult, and which can only be solved by a prolonged use -of the bread. To complete the series of reports on all that concerns -this species of food, we must speak of the leaden reservoirs made use of -by bakers. It was of moment to know whether the employment by the bakers -of Paris of leaden reservoirs to keep the water used in making bread -could give rise to accidents; whether these reservoirs should be -prohibited, or whether they might be allowed with certain modifications? - -The council have studied this important question, which is become among -chemists an object of controversy. Some have affirmed that the water -gets charged with oxide of lead by remaining in reservoirs formed of -this metal. Other chemists, of no less repute, and among others Guyton -de Morveaux, have established, on the contrary, that the presence of a -neutral salt, like sulphate, nitrate or muriate, in whatever quantity, -as 000·2, suffices to prevent the water from dissolving the lead; and -they explain in this way the use that is made, without any ill effects, -of the water of the Seine, and of wells, preserved in leaden vessels, -with or without exposure to the air. - -This diversity of opinion rendered necessary numerous experiments, which -have been made with the greatest exactness by a commission of the -council. It results from these experiments:— - -1. That distilled water put into a reservoir gives rise at the end of -some minutes to the formation of a salt of white-lead, but that this -salt does not dissolve in the water, and is precipitated, on the -contrary, to the bottom of the reservoir. - -2. That the waters of the Seine, and of wells, placed in leaden -reservoirs, have given rise, at the point of contact of the water and -air, to the formation of a white saline matter, which does not dissolve -in water but is precipitated to the bottom of the vessel. - -3. That the gaseous Seltz water acts the same on the leaden reservoirs -as the water of the Seine, and of wells. Before affirming what precedes, -the commission left some water for several weeks in four leaden -reservoirs. The liquid was almost entirely evaporated, and the remainder -of the water, when filtered, showed no trace of lead on the application -of the most delicate tests, such as the chromate of potash, -hydrosulphuric acid, and hydriodate of potash. - -Water which had remained in a bucket, spread over at the moment, and -throughout its whole extent, with a saline matter composed of carbonate -of lead and of lime, of sulphate of lime and organic substances, did not -leave the slightest trace of lead by the action on the water of the most -powerful tests. - -In consequence of these experiments, the council pronounced a formal -opinion, that the bakers might be permitted the use of leaden reservoirs -on condition that they put a cock three inches from the bottom of the -reservoir, in order that if the insoluble carbonate formed it might be -deposited in the water below the cock, and with the further condition -that the reservoir should be cleaned once a-month. For greater security, -the council thought that it should be required of bakers to cover over -the lead which lines these reservoirs with a thin coat of wax, which -would prevent the contact of the water with the metal, and stop the -formation of the insoluble carbonate of lead. To apply this wax it is -only necessary to heat slightly the lead, and rub it rapidly and several -times with a piece of wool done over with wax. - -Besides these questions which relate to the quality of the bread, the -council examined what mischief could arise from the use of copper scales -to weigh the dough of which the bread is made. It is known that the -dishes of these scales are copper, and that instead of being cleaned -with cloths they are cleaned with the chains by which they are -suspended, and which, for this purpose, are heaped together and act like -a brush. This state of things seriously engaged the attention of the -council with respect to the danger it presents. The dough, composed of -water and flour, and containing in addition a certain quantity of marine -salt, sticks to the dishes of the scales, and exercises on the metal a -chemical action, of which the result is the oxide of copper. The oxide, -or salts of copper, which is formed, next penetrates into the portion of -the dough which is afterwards detached by the friction of the chains. - -We may suppose that in this case some of the oxide of copper would be -introduced into the bread, and that it is important for the public -health to take measures to prevent, from negligence or imprudence, bread -which contained even very small quantities of salts of copper, from -being offered for consumption. The council thought that all danger would -be prevented. - -1. By compelling the bakers to use no scales but those of which the -dishes were of tinned iron. - -2. In prescribing to them to clean the dishes of the scales by means of -chains of tinned iron, which should only be used for this purpose. - -3. By obliging them to wash the chains, and the pan in which they are -kept, with warm water. - -4. By prohibiting the bakers to employ in their bakehouses utensils of -zinc, or red and yellow copper. - -5. By ordering the bakers, if it is not found expedient to impose the -execution of the measures indicated in the first and third articles, to -tin substantially the chains and dishes of their scales, and any -utensils of zinc, or red and yellow copper. - -The council have been occupied at different periods with the -adulterations of salt, and they have not ceased to lend active -assistance to the measures of surveillance prescribed by the Government. -Unhappily its efforts were long unsuccessful. Even now the analysis -which has been made of more than 6000 samples of salt, proves that fraud -always exists, although of a kind less detrimental to the public health. -In 1829 the council proposed to forbid the sale of salt which contained -from five to six per cent. of salts with a potash base, and to oppose, -in addition, the sale of salt mixed with sea-weed, even in small -quantities. The council has since renewed their investigations. More -than 3000 samples of salt, taken from the shops, were analysed by M. -Chevalier, who discovered that 309 samples were adulterated by ground -plaster, or salts of potash, or sulphate of soda, or by the iodines. -These adulterations were found chiefly in the grey salts. The later -experiments of the council have confirmed these results. They have, -moreover, shown that the salt derived from the mines of the south is -more pure than the salt of the west. It contains less water, and less of -the insoluble matter foreign to sea-salt. - -We wish we could follow the council in their numerous observations on -the filtering of water—on the use of vessels and utensils of copper—on -the dangers they present according to the circumstances in which they -are employed—and on the regulations of which they ought to be the -object; but there still remains much to be extracted, to show their -solicitude for everything which concerns the well-being of the people, -and the preservation of the public health. - -The council, in an article entitled, “Necessity to submit the -Construction of Houses to Sanitary Rules,” inserted in its General -Report for 1827 (p. 39), expressed the wish to see established in the -centre of every quarter of the town a spacious square, railed in, and -planted with trees, in which the children of all classes might, without, -apprehension, and without the special superintendence of their parents, -give themselves up to the exercise suitable to their years, and in which -the inhabitants of all ages might enjoy the solar influence, and breathe -a purer air than in their dwellings. It is, they said, so much the more -needful to come to this determination, that nearly all the gardens have -given place to houses, to streets, or to passages, and that the greater -part of those which have been preserved are surrounded by houses so -lofty that vegetation languishes for want of air and light, which -renders their existence more hurtful than beneficial to health. To these -reasons, which have lost nothing of their force, we will add that which -results from the advantages the quarter would receive from the presence -of such squares in respect to the healthiness produced by favouring the -ventilation of the streets; because a square is to all the streets which -open into it a true _fourneau d’appel_ with a double current, acting by -night as well as by day, at the same time that it is a powerful means by -which to facilitate the action of the winds in the interior of the town. - -By placing the charity schools in the vicinity of these squares an -advantage would be offered to the children of the poor which can rarely -be procured for them, that of experiencing the salutary action of the -sun, breathing a pure air, and taking their exercise safe from all -danger during vacations and play-hours. - -These powerful considerations naturally lead the council to speak of the -construction of houses under the double relation of public and private -health. - -“There are,” they say, “in the march of civilization, as in that of -sciences, epochs of progress which should be marked by the creation of -new laws. With all nations the monuments which attest their pride have -preceded the monuments which testify to their true glory; the first, -sterile, so to speak, in their existence, fix the attention by the -beauty of their form, by the elegance and grandeur of their proportions; -the second, created for the wealth or happiness of nations, attract our -notice to the utility or wisdom of their establishment. This epoch of -true glory has arrived for France. Enough of sterile monuments cover her -soil, still unfruitful in so many respects. Works of public utility, -laws which conduce to the common happiness, these are the monuments that -it is proposed to raise at the present day. - -“It is a monument of this last kind of which the council ventures to -suggest the erection, in demanding a law to regulate the construction of -towns, villages, and houses, under the double relation of public and -private health; a monumental law, if ever there was one, since it will -embrace France in its conceptions; all the citizens will enjoy its -benefits with a perfect equality; and the poor man, even more than the -rich, will find himself protected by it in his health, in his life, in -his happiness; because health is life—it is more, it is happiness. - -“A similar law has never existed among any ancient people, although we -find among several of them no equivocal proofs of the solicitude of -their legislators to introduce into the laws some precepts of health, -applicable to the people they governed. - -“We certainly find among the greater part of modern nations some -ordinances, and regulations, relative to the salubrity of towns and -houses; but their operation does not extend beyond the localities for -which they were made, and little, or not at all, known out of these -localities, they are still very imperfect, and altogether insufficient -for the localities themselves. - -“Nevertheless, can any one doubt the immense influence which the -salubrity of towns, of villages, and of the dwelling, even when it is -isolated in the midst of fields, exercises on the health and life of the -people. All statistics, general and individual, attest this extreme -influence; and there is no physician, a little observing, who has not -had frequent occasions to verify it at the bed-side of his patients. - -“We must be like the men, so well painted by the Psalmist, to reject -such evidence—_eyes have they and see not_. How shall we explain, or -rather, to what shall we attribute the difference that is remarked -between the mortality of one quarter and that of another quarter of the -same town; of one street and that of another street of the same quarter -or of the same village; or, lastly, the difference that is observed in -this respect between the houses of the same street, and those houses -which are completely isolated. Misery, it is replied to us, is the -cause. Yes, without doubt, misery is a powerful cause; but it is so -especially when it is driven back into the most insalubrious quarters, -streets, and houses; when it lives habitually in the midst of filth and -dirt, that is to say, in the midst of an infected atmosphere; and when -there is no misery, or when it exists in the same degree in the -quarters, in the villages, in the streets, and in the houses with which -the comparison is made, and, stronger still, when poverty is met with -precisely there where there is the least mortality, in what is to be -found the cause of this difference, if it is not in the insalubrity of -the dwelling-places? - -“If you had not seen yourself, Monsieur le Prefet, in one of the most -beautiful streets of Paris, and in the vicinity of the most frequented -promenade of the capital, the influence which the construction of the -houses we inhabit has on the health, we would seek by some facts to -convince you of this truth; but we are happy to need only to refer you -to your own experience. This great fact, which naturally results from -the comparison you have drawn, in a report addressed to the Minister of -Commerce, the 31st of June, 1832, between the mortality of the quarter -of the Hôtel-de-Ville, and that of the quarter of the Chaussée-d’Antin, -has not escaped you. Yet, in the striking difference which is found -between the mortality of these two quarters, you have not taken into -account the poor who died in the hospitals, and who were, undeniably, -more numerous from the quarter of the Hôtel-de-Ville than from that of -the Chaussée-d’Antin. What calculation has demonstrated to you for one -quarter of Paris exists in all in different degrees; and the same -calculation applied to other localities, very distant from the capital, -in which the condition, the habits, the mode of living, and the nature -of the labour which the inhabitants perform are nearly the same, has -given analogous results, presenting the same extremes, without the -possibility of assigning any other cause than the insalubrity of the -dwellings understood in its widest acceptation. - -“The council might accumulate facts, calculations, and quotations, to -support the opinion they have formed of the necessity of a law to -regulate the construction of towns, villages, and houses, under the -double relation of public and private health; but they have no need to -be at this pains to induce you to share their conviction, and they are -fully persuaded that, in proposing to you to promote a law so important, -they are only anticipating your desire to co-operate for the well-being: -of your fellow-citizens, and to aid the enlightened zeal of the Minister -of the Interior for all that is great and useful.” - -Under certain points of view, salubrity confounds itself with health; on -another side, it governs health; because, without it no good rules of -health can be established. Thus it has engaged the special attention of -the council. We see them to shrink from no difficulty, from no mission, -however painful, however dangerous even, it may be. Nothing escapes -their vigilant attention, and the administration is always sure to have -their aid in all the amendments that it wishes to introduce into this -important branch of public service. It is thus that they pass in review -all which appertains to the wholesomeness of sewers, to the improvement -of the paving, to the establishment of street-fountains, to the flow of -water for domestic or manufacturing purposes, to the cleansing of wells, -and of waste-water wells. The construction of the receptacles of -privies, those incessant causes of insalubrity and inconvenience, -occupies them above all. Here is what they say upon this point:— - -“The emptying of the privies in the city of Paris has become a very -heavy expense to the proprietors, and the expense is always on the -increase, in consequence of the modifications in the construction of the -receptacles, and the more abundant use of water; a use rendered -necessary by the actual form of the seats, and still more by the -introduction of private baths. - -“It is evident that the first condition for obtaining a result at once -economical and salubrious, is to separate, on the spot, the solid matter -from the liquid, to preserve what has an intrinsic value, and to reject -what is only cumbersome. - -“For more than half a century some men, animated by love for the public -good, and several speculators, have directed their researches to -discover a method of making this separation. At the head of these are -Girard and Gourlier, Casaneuve, Sanson, Derosne, Chaumet, the authors of -the article in the _Mémorial de l’Officier du Génie_, and, lastly, the -architects Payen and Dalmont. - -“The system of Gourlier is seducing: if it has not yet been submitted to -all the trials it requires, we are able to predict before hand that it -will succeed, and that it will be productive of advantage. - -“The benefits of the project of Gourlier are found in a higher degree in -that which has been adopted in barracks.[55] - -“The system of movable receptacles has the sanction of time, is -applicable everywhere, facilitates the removal of the contents, and -enables it to be done without smell or dirt: it preserves the workmen -from the dangers of asphyxy, prevents the decay of our houses, and -contributes to augment the disposable mass of manure. - -“To prevent the gravest consequences, it is essential not to conduct the -liquid from the privies into waste-water wells, and put them in -communication with the upper layer of the soil in which our wells are -sunk. Prudence requires that the liquid should not be directed into the -second layer, which in many parts of Paris furnishes very good water. If -it is possible, without great inconvenience, to conduct it into channels -altogether lower, it is still the opinion of many experienced persons -that it ought not to be done under Paris for any very considerable -quantities of water, and that it is necessary to reserve this resource -for localities badly situated, and which are rarely met with. - -“All the proofs show that the liquid of the privies may be discharged -into the Seine without inconvenience. An investigation conducted -formerly by Hallé and Fourcroy, on the sweepings of Paris, adds great -weight to this opinion. The ancient and recent gaugings, as well as the -daily observation of facts, demonstrate that the quantity of dirty water -sent into the Seine would be so small compared to the water of the -river, that it would always remain unperceived, and could in no way be -injurious to health. - -“To convey these waters to the Seine, the first idea which presents -itself is to cast them into one of the three great sewers which surround -Paris on the north. - -“A mass of facts and observations prove that the discharge into the -sewers of the liquid from the privies will not infect the sewers, nor -cause danger to those who work in them; that this infection will be so -much the less to be apprehended with the apparatus of Gourlier, with -that which has been adopted in barracks, and with the movable -receptacles, that, by these different methods, the separation taking -place slowly and successively, the liquid carries along with it but very -little of solid matter. - -“Everything seems to show that by mixing the liquid from the privies -with a sufficient quantity of water it might, without inconvenience, be -thrown upon the public way, and got rid of in this manner; but prudence -requires that before any innovations of this kind the project should be -submitted to minute and multiplied experiments. These experiments are -the more important, that the result would be to increase the revenues of -the city by the sale of a considerable quantity of water which it has -for disposal. - -“If the drying of the solid contents of the privies has hitherto been -considered as one of the most infectious and inconvenient trades, it may -be affirmed that it can now be made one of the less disagreeable, a -circumstance which we owe to the means of disinfection recently -discovered, or which, formerly known, have not been put in practice till -lately on a large scale.[56] - -“To favour the employment of these means, and to arrive thereby at -results of high importance, it is not sufficient for the administration -to be animated by praiseworthy intentions. It must obtain, by its -interposition with the supreme authority, a modification in the -classification of the establishments in which the fecal substances are -prepared, and, above all, must use the means at its disposal to disabuse -the public of the prejudices it entertains against these sort of places. -The administration will meet at first with very great obstacles, but, -with time and perseverance, may rest confident of success. - -“The changes proposed are of such importance, they will be attended by -consequences so useful, and extensive, that they will be sufficient to -render illustrious to future generations, and to recommend to their -gratitude, the name of the ministers who shall effect them.” - -Since their institution, the “Conseil de Salubrité” have been charged to -visit all the parts of France in which epidemic sicknesses have -appeared. Thus we find them in 1807 investigating the autumnal disorders -which broke out at Créteil, at Maisons, at Charenton, &c., and proposing -the creation of a travelling hospital to render aid to the country -districts during the prevalence of epidemics. Some years later, in 1810, -they went to Montreuil, to Montmartre, and other communes in which the -small-pox had assumed an epidemic character; to Pantin where there -reigned an epidemic fever; to Fontenay-sur-Bois, Rosny, &c., where some -ravages had been made by the dysentery. In 1812 they set forth the -causes of the epidemic maladies which had declared themselves in the -communes of Charonne, and Clicky, and by this means prevented their -recurrence. In 1818 they stopped the progress of an endemic fever in the -commune of Chevilly, and of the croup in the commune of Montreuil. In -1825 the small-pox committed great ravages among the inhabitants of -Paris, and of the rural communes of the department of the Seine. Brought -by a mass of workmen who flocked from the country to partake of the high -wages produced by a glut of employment, it was rapidly propagated among -a population who, through carelessness, or prejudice, had rejected the -blessing of vaccination. The small-pox, favoured in its development by -the high temperature of the atmosphere, gave rise for a moment to a -doubt of the preservative property of the vaccine. An eruptive malady, -the _varioloïde_, confounded with the small-pox by people in general, -and by inattentive and inexperienced medical men, originated this idea, -which some cases—rare certainly, but distinctly marked—of small-pox in -persons who had had the true cow-pox, appeared to confirm. It was then -feared that the vaccine had lost with time the advantages which rendered -it so precious; that, weakened in its nature, by passing from one -individual to another through a long course of years, it was no more -susceptible of modifying the organization in a manner to render it -inaccessible to the small-pox. It became therefore important to examine -with care this interesting point of practice. The difficult task was -performed by the council, and the administration, enlightened by their -reports, was able both to re-assure the people justly alarmed, and to -take the proper measures to arrest an evil of which no one could foresee -the consequences. - -It is by such labours that the council prepared themselves for the noble -and grand mission which was reserved for them by the appearance in the -capital of the cholera morbus,—a mission which they fulfilled with so -much courage and devotion. In the midst of this public calamity, the -“Conseil de Salubrité,” we do not hesitate to say, surpassed all -expectation. This same zeal was manifested in 1837, when the epidemic -catarrh made some ravages in the capital. Since then, with the exception -of local maladies of little importance, the “Conseil de Salubrité” have -not been called upon to occupy themselves with epidemics. - -The _épizooties_ are in many respects less serious than the epidemics. -Nevertheless, as they often affect the animals which serve for the -nutriment of man, and that, apart from this consideration, they may have -grave consequences for the public health, they have constantly engaged -the care of the council. In 1834 an _épizootie_ was reported to the -administration, which prevailed among the cows of the communes round -Paris, and which caused a great mortality. The researches of the council -established that this _épizootie_ was only a chronic disease, a true -pulmonary phthisis to which has been given the name of _pommeliere_, and -by which the greater part of the cows had been attacked which fill the -stables of the milkmen of Paris and its environs. According to the -council, the principal cause of the evil was to be attributed to the -vicious regimen to which this species of animal is subjected. “It is -known that they pass a part of the year in stables perfectly closed, in -which the space is not proportioned to the number of inmates, in which -the vitiated air renews itself with extreme difficulty, and in which the -heat is sometimes suffocating. It is known also that they pass suddenly -from the food of the stable to pasture, and that in this change they go -from the hot and humid atmosphere of the stable, to a sudden exposure to -the continual variations of the external air. This alternation of food, -and of heat and cold, operates as a powerful cause of disease. But as -the evil does not announce itself in a violent manner, as its progress -is not very rapid, as there is even a period in the disease in which the -animal is disposed to get flesh, the cow-feeder, who knows to what point -to keep her, sells her when she is ready to calve. It is in a radius of -thirty leagues from the capital that cows of this kind are purchased by -the jobbers who supply the milkmen of Paris. With these last they still -hold out a certain number of years, if they are properly cared for; but -in general they are kept in stables which are neither sufficiently -large, nor sufficiently airy, where they are exposed to the same causes -which gave birth to the malady. The phthisis arrives insensibly at its -last stage, and carries off every year from Paris, and its -neighbourhood, a great number of these cows. - -“As to the question, whether the sale of the flesh of oxen that have -died from the diseases just described should be allowed, the council -have already shown that, from time immemorial, the meat of cows attacked -by pulmonary phthisis in a slight degree, has been consumed at Paris as -good cow-beef. Often even cows which have reached the last stage of this -disease are consigned to the butcher, who offers their flesh for sale as -meat of the second quality, after taking the precaution to cut away the -lungs, the pericardium, the mediastin, and those parts of the sides and -diaphragm, which present a state of disorganization more or less -advanced. This commerce has always taken place in the environs of Paris, -and in Paris itself before the establishment of the _abattoirs_; and if -we are not able to affirm that food of this nature is not bad, there is -at least no example of its use having given rise to accidents. It is to -be presumed that in this case, as in many others, the cooking destroys -the vicious properties of the flesh, and deprives it of all the -qualities injurious to the health of the consumer. - -“The council have, however, been far from drawing from all these facts -the conclusion that it is unnecessary to watch over the sale of -butchers’ meat. They think, on the contrary, that this superintendence -cannot be too active, in order that the low price of such meat may not -lead poor families to make it habitually their principal sustenance. It -is known that a bad diet which is not injurious when used casually, may -become, by its continual employment, a source of disease. Numerous -observations have equally taught us, that the flesh of animals in which -putrefaction had commenced, has produced in persons who touched it the -most serious consequences. The council, building upon such data, believe -that it is indispensable to watch with the greatest care the sale of -meat, to have destroyed all the bad meat which is exposed in the shops, -and to forbid the butchers to sell the flesh of any animal that has died -from disease, or been killed in consequence of disease, unless a -veterinary surgeon and physician, appointed by authority, have decided -that the meat could be eaten without inconvenience.” - -Some considerations of a kind still more general are developed in the -important report made by the commission, charged in 1839 with the -investigation of the disease called _cocotte_, which attacked the -milking-cows, and deeply occupied the public attention. - -We stated at the commencement of this article, that the number of -reports made by the “Conseil de Salubrité,” during the years comprised -in this account, amounts to 4431. This number greatly surpasses in its -proportions that of the preceding years, that is to say, of the twenty -years which form the first period of their labours, dating from their -institution, and which only presents a total of 5008 reports. This -arises from the fact that Paris for a long time has been only a city of -produce, and that the labours of the council have necessarily increased -with the progress of trade, and the character, altogether manufacturing, -assumed by the department of the Seine since 1815. It is necessary, -moreover, to remark that the provisions of the decree of 1810 on -insalubrious establishments, by submitting certain classes of -manufactories to special authorizations, rendered more frequent the -intervention of the council, who were the first to demonstrate the -necessity of these new measures. “It is a great satisfaction to the -council,” say the reporters of their labours for the year 1810, “that -every year the observations and reports lead to general measures which -simplify your administration, by giving certain rules of which the -application becomes every day more easy. The public health was long -since compromised by the existence of certain manufactures, and in the -general accounts we have rendered we have never ceased to demand the -removal of insalubrious establishments. The National Institute, -consulted on this important point, shared our opinion, and a regulatory -law has just designated the manufactures which may be established in the -interior of towns, and those which are not to be tolerated there.” - -In the year 1811 we find 118 reports on classed establishments. This -number increased in 1812, and so from year to year, till in 1813, 313 -reports were made on establishments of this kind. The use of -steam-engines increased the labours of the council. In 1813, for -instance, there was but one report on these engines; in 1822, the number -had risen already to fifteen. The examination of these machines led the -council to examine their different systems, the dangers and -inconveniences they presented to the public health or safety, and we -foresee, in reading their important observations on this subject, all -the improvements which experience introduced in the sequel into this new -branch of industry. If we pass from the year 1822 to the year 1839, we -find there has been read ninety-six reports on engines of this -description: but they are no longer simple considerations on machines of -which the use is not well understood; they are views of an elevated -order, both on the application of these engines, and on their dangers -and inconveniences. We see that the council have profoundly studied -these important questions. - -“We have united under one head,” says M. Busy, the reporter, “all the -establishments on which reports have been made relative to -steam-engines. Each of these establishments doubtless offers by itself -some inconveniences inherent in the kind of trade carried on; but in -general these inconveniences are trifling. The greater part of the -manufactories about which there is a question are for the construction -of engines, and other analogous things, which can only affect the -neighbourhood by the noise and activity which reign there. Out of -sixty-three reports made to the council on steam-engines, eleven were on -sawing-machines, nine on shops for the construction of engines, six on -fulminating powder-mills, four on factories for printing and preparing -stuffs, three on mechanical printing presses. The other reports are -divided in the following manner: - -“On machines for flattening metal, for bruising colours, for -pulverizing, for mixing mortar, for extracting stone, seven; for sugar -refining, for the making of sugar of starch, three; for spinning, two; -for turning, two; for optical glasses, two; for polishing steel, one; -for cleaning grain, for the preservation of provisions, three; for -perfumery, two: for soap-making, two; for bleaching, for making candles, -hats, and delf-ware, for ironfounding, for scouring ashes, six; total -63. - -“There has been made besides on simple steam-boilers 33 reports, divided -among different trades in the following manner, viz:— - - For printing and preparing of stuffs and woollens 12 - Hat manufactories 7 - Wax and tallow candle manufactories 3 - The shops of mechanicians 2 - Refining 2 - Soap-making 2 - Extraction of the colouring matter from dye-woods 2 - Baths 2 - Dyeing 1 - -“If we add these 33 reports to the 63 preceding, we have a total of 96 -reports on steam-engines, or simple boilers. We join them together in -consequence of the identity of the inconveniences to which these -machines give rise. These inconveniences can only proceed from the -chance of explosion of compressed steam, or from the chance of fire, and -from the presence of smoke, which accompany the establishment of every -furnace, whatever may be its use. It is true, however, that among the -complaints or objections which have reached the council, several have -turned upon the noise and shaking occasioned by the steam-engines, a -shaking which is particularly felt in houses a little shut in, and -connected with the neighbouring houses. This occurred with the printing -presses, and some other mechanical applications of steam. - -“But these results are altogether independent of the steam itself, are -inherent in the imperfection of the mechanism employed, and would be -produced with much greater intensity by substituting for steam a horse, -a fall of water, the action of the wind, or any other mechanical motor. - -“If we consider the steam-engines and boilers with respect to the -explosions to which they may give birth, we see that no accident has -happened during the current year from a total or partial explosion of an -engine, and yet there is no complaint or opposition which is not swelled -by the fear of these dangers. If the accidents of this nature may with -justice, by their seriousness and sphere of action, provoke the fears of -the neighbours, the wise measures prescribed by the rules are of a -nature to render them impossible, when they are faithfully executed. -Thus, Monsieur le Prefect, the council have always vigorously insisted -on the maintenance of the precautions with which the law surrounds the -steam-engines, not only to shield the responsibility of your -administration, but also because they are persuaded that it is -impossible in the actual state of things to neglect these prescriptions -without exposing those who make use of steam-engines to eminent dangers. - -“The true and the most serious inconvenience of steam-engines is the -smoke. It is against this that most of the well-founded complaints are -raised. - -“This inconvenience is not only felt at the present moment, but it -excites, above all, apprehensions for the future. - -“When we consider that in the single year 1839, there have been granted -82 authorizations for steam-engines, and that we are yet but at the -beginning of the applications of this mechanical agent,—when we follow -the increasing progression of petitions addressed to the administration, -we are not able to suppress a certain fear against the ulterior -invasions of the smoke from these establishments. - -“The council have applied themselves for a long time to the solution of -this difficulty, which is met at every turn in the petitions addressed -to you, not only for steam-engines, but for all the trades in which -furnaces are employed. - -“Various systems have been proposed: that which first presents itself is -the use of smoke-consuming furnaces, which appears in fact the most -rational and appropriate. Nevertheless, although it is very easy to -assign the theoretical conditions for complete combustion of coal, the -difficulties of application have not permitted this kind of furnace to -become general. Hitherto the smoke-consuming furnaces require great -precision in the execution, great regularity in the distribution of the -fuel,—things difficult to realize in ordinary labour. On the other hand, -the great excess of air necessary to obtain complete combustion often -diminishes the efficacy of the coal, and renders these furnaces more -expensive, in certain cases, than the ordinary furnaces, in spite of the -loss of fuel which the latter involve. - -“The mechanical distributors to regulate the supply of fuel, and the -activity of the combustion, have been also proposed and employed with -success; but they are a considerable expense at the outset, and can be -but little adopted except in great concerns, and where there is a very -constant application of steam. - -“It remains to modify the nature of the fuel; and it is this which the -council have generally done. They commonly prescribe the use of coke, or -some variety of prepared coal, which gives no smoke—leaving it however -to the proprietors to make use of whichever method suits them best, -whether smoke-consuming furnaces, mechanical distributors, or fuel which -yields no smoke. - -“These regulations, Monsieur le Prefect, have been adopted in principle -by the “Conseil de Salubrité,” and are, in the majority of cases, the -condition to which they think it their duty to submit the authorizations -they have the honour to propose to you. - -“Doubtless their rigorous application may cramp certain establishments. -The council are not ignorant that for some particular purposes the use -of coke presents great obstacles, considering the construction of the -furnaces; but the absence of smoke in the combustion of coal is not so -very difficult to obtain, as to shake the intimate conviction of the -council that this constriction will be but momentary, and that it will -end by turning to the profit of the manufacturer. - -“The problem of which the council seek the solution, is able to be -resolved; it is so already in great part, but there yet remains one step -to arrive at the goal, and they will reach it by persevering in the -course they have adopted. In their efforts they have been sustained, we -repeat, by the conviction that they labour not only for the advantage of -the health and cleanliness of the capital, by seeking to guarantee its -inhabitants from the nuisance of smoke, but also for the advantage of -the manufacturer himself, by forcing him to a better employment of his -fuel, and by putting him into such a condition that he may be able to -select the localities which suit him, without being exposed to those -continual complaints, to those recriminations, often well-founded, which -have not always been foreseen, and which sometimes become the cause of -the greatest embarrassments to the manufacturing establishments. - -“An important progress in the path we indicate was made in 1839, by the -contrivance of M. Beslay, a mechanician, for steam-boilers—a contrivance -which has been pointed out in several reports on this subject, and which -proposes to prevent explosions and avoid smoke by means of a general use -of coke. It is only to be regretted that it has not yet been able to be -applied to all the purposes for which steam-boilers are employed.” - -The improvements introduced by the council into the different branches -of industry with which they have had to deal, and on which their reports -enter into details at once useful and interesting, are numerous. Thus -the refining of gold and silver, the factories for fulminating powder, -for gilding, for chemical products, for bitumen, for melting tallow, and -a mass of other trades, owe to them notable improvements, both in the -methods of fabrication, and in the conditions for public health and -safety under which they are to be carried on. The white-lead -manufactories have excited their earnest solicitude. It is known that -the workmen who labour in these places are subject to serious and -frequent maladies. In consulting the earlier labours of the council, we -see them unceasingly occupied with this question; but the frequency of -the accidents, and their seriousness, have more particularly attracted -their attention in these latter times, and have engaged them to compile -a set of instructions which set forth the best rules of health to be -observed in these manufactories. (The rules have already been quoted.) - -Later, the council have anew examined deeply this branch of trade. They -have visited the manufactories of white-lead existing in the department -of the Seine; they have obtained the experience of other departments, -and they have shown the necessity of commissioning one of their members -to follow the results of the rules quoted above. They have required, -moreover, that the administration should furnish some statistics on the -state of workers in white-lead admitted into the hospital. The -administration has hastened to defer to this wish, and there is no doubt -that there will result a sensible improvement in the health of the -workmen. - -(After giving several other minor instances of the labours of the -Conseil, the report thus concludes:—) - -And now that we have detailed the principal labours of the council, it -would be a necessary supplement to this article to show the results that -have followed from them,—the reforms they have introduced into the -public service. But here we are no more dealing with the labours of the -council, but with the labours of the administration. Thus independently -of the decisions on classed establishments, and which amount to about -300 a-year, it would be necessary to describe the measures for the -public health executed by the administration. But to confine ourselves -only to acts which interest the generality of the citizens, we may cite -the ordinances of police which relate to coloured sugar-plums; to horses -attacked with the glanders, or contagious maladies; to vessels and -utensils of copper; to the adulteration of salt; to the aid to be given -to the drowned and asphyxied; to the depôts for refuse in the rural -communes; to the dissection, modelling, and embalming of corpses; to the -cleaning of wells and waste-water wells; to the adulteration and sale of -fulminating powder; to the classification of new trades, the -amphitheatres of anatomy, the establishments of pork-butchers, &c. &c. - -Certainly there are few institutions that can show such results; there -are few that receive an impulse so enlightened and constant. Bound in an -intimate manner with the administration of which they form part, the -“Conseil de Salubrité” has at all times, found in it a just appreciator -of their labours. They know the credit accorded to their reports, and -the duties imposed on them by a confidence so honourable for the -administration that gives it, and so justly merited by the body that -receives it. - - - 16.—_Qualifications of Officers of Public Health: Statement by_ M. - DUCHÂTELET. - -It is generally thought in the world that the medical knowledge acquired -in the schools is all that is necessary to become a useful member of the -council. The greater part of medical men themselves share this opinion; -and on the strength of some precepts which they have collected from -books on health and professions, they think themselves sufficiently -instructed to decide on the instant the gravest questions, which can -only be resolved by special studies. - -A man may have exhausted medical literature; he may be an excellent -practician at the sick-bed, a learned physician, a clever and eloquent -professor; but all these acquirements, taken in themselves, are nearly -useless in a Conseil de Salubrité like that of Paris; and if an occasion -presents itself to make use of them, a very small number of persons -suffice to apply them. To be really useful in the council, it is -necessary to have an extended knowledge of natural philosophy, of the -constitution of the soil on which Paris stands, and of the geology of -neighbouring countries; it is necessary, above all, to know with -exactness the action which trades may have on the health of those who -exercise them, and the much more important action of manufactories of -every species on plants, on men congregated in towns, and on animals. -This knowledge, so important, of the action of manufactories and trades, -is not to be acquired by ordinary study, or in the silence of the -cabinet. It is not to be obtained without positive notions on the arts, -and on the greater part of the processes peculiar to each trade. It -requires habit and the frequenting of the places of work. In this -particular, more even than with medicine, books are not a substitute for -practice; and if there exist works on the subject, they are more likely -to mislead than enlighten. - -From what has been said, the necessity will be evident to introduce into -the council those physicians who have made health, and particularly the -public health, a special study; and to join with them chemists, and, -above all, manufacturing chemists, because what would many of those -persons, whose life has been passed in hospitals and the exclusive study -of medicine, be before a steam engine? It is clear that they would often -be deceived by those adroit and skilful manufacturers who would have an -interest in concealing the truth. - - -17.—_Instance by_ MM. DUCHÂTELET _and_ D’ARCET _of the erroneous Medical - Inferences as to the insalubrity of particular Trades_. - -Ramazzini is, as far as we know, the first who has treated professedly -of the maladies produced by the fumes of tobacco. In his great work, _De -Morbis Artificum_, he states that the workmen employed in the -manufacture of tobacco are seized with great pains in the head, with -vertigo, nausea, and perpetual sneezing; and that so great is the -subtilty of this substance, that all the neighbourhood, particularly in -summer, experience nausea. He adds, that those who work on tobacco lose -their appetite, and that their breath is insupportable. - -Fourcroy, after repeating in his translation of Ramazzini all the -passages from this author, adds, in a note, several observations to -prove the dangers of tobacco; such as, that a lady died from a cancer in -the nose in consequence of taking too much snuff; another from a polypus -in the œsophagus, which prevented her swallowing; another from frightful -convulsions produced by sleeping in a room in which tobacco had been -rasped. Fourcroy states, however, that there are some privileged persons -who become accustomed to the action of tobacco, and experience no -inconvenience from it. - -Cadet-Gassicourt, in a memoir addressed to the prefect of police on the -maladies incident to the trades carried on in Paris, says that the -workmen occupied in the preparation of tobacco are subject to vomitings, -colics, and acute and chronic affections of the chest; that they have -often vertigo, bloody fluxes, and are addicted to drink. - -Tourtelle, in his _Elémens d’Hygiène_, affirms that it is very dangerous -to sleep in warehouses of tobacco; and he quotes a case, mentioned by -Buchoz, of a young girl of five, who died in a short time from dreadful -vomitings, occasioned by this sole cause. - -Percy, in the article _Chapeau_, in the _Dictionnaire des Sciences -Médicales_, mentions, that some soldiers, exercising in the -_Champ-de-Mars_ in very warm weather, were overcome by syncope, which he -attributes to some tobacco that these men had put in their caps. - -In a new edition of Ramazzini and Fourcroy, by Patissier, we find the -opinions of these authors without observation or comment. The editor is -content to add, that those who have to do with tobacco are, in general, -wasted, discoloured, yellow, and asthmatical. - -Finally, Merat, in the article _Tabac_, in the _Dictionnaire des -Sciences Médicales_, says, that men engaged in the preparation of this -substance are wasted, discoloured, yellow, asthmatic, subject to colic, -diarrhœa, the bloody flux, but, above all, to vertigo, cephalalgia, -muscular tremor, to true narcotism, and to diseases, more or less acute, -of the chest. “All these assertions,” he continues, “are the fruit of my -observations in the hospitals of Paris. Tobacco causes not only evils -without number, but even death to those who prepare it. It deranges the -memory of all who inhale it, and renders it less clear and entire; it -weakens the tissues, especially the nervous tissues; it causes trembling -of the limbs; diminishes strength; it produces emaciation, and even -consumption, particularly among females; and sometimes begets entire -imbecility.” - -“We might multiply these quotations. The just celebrity of the authors -who have furnished them gives to their opinion a force which imposes -belief, and makes us reject every species of doubt. Let us recall, -however, the maxim of Descartes; let us cease to believe the words of a -master; let us dare to doubt for an instant, and, observing for -ourselves, let us learn to form an opinion, based on what our own senses -and judgment have taught us.” - -Acting in this spirit, Parent Duchâtelet and D’Arcet carried on a minute -investigation, in a vast manufactory of tobacco at Paris, containing -1,054 workmen. Not content with the results afforded by a single -establishment, they directed questions to the nine other great -manufactories of tobacco which France contains, and the answers were -prepared by the physicians, surgeons, and officers of each establishment -in conjunction. “The observations,” say MM. Duchâtelet and D’Arcet, -“which compose this memoir, have been collected from a sum total of 4518 -workmen. They appear to us so much the more valuable and conclusive, -that they have been made simultaneously in the most opposite parts of -France, by men who had not, and could not have, any connexion. There is -thus no possibility to suspect the influence of a preconceived opinion; -and if those to whom our inquiries were addressed are unanimous in their -replies, and if these replies agree with our own observations, we shall -be sure that we have arrived at the truth.” - -The conclusions which followed from these widely extended researches -were— - -1. That in the greater part of the factories there was never known an -example of an individual who could not accustom himself to the -emanations of tobacco, and that in the rare cases where it proved -injurious, it was always in a particular part of the process, which -merely obliged the workman to be transferred to another department of -the factory. - -2. That all which has been said on the frequency of nausea, of -vomitings, of diarrhœa, of colic, and of haemorrhages, is pure -supposition. That it is so no less with respect to the headaches, -sneezings, loss of appetite, foulness of breath, acute and chronic -affections of the chest, cancers, and other similar diseases. What the -same authors say on the discolouration of the skin of the workmen -engaged in the preparation of tobacco, on the yellow hue of their -complexion, their leanness, and emaciation, proves that they have not -observed for themselves, or have only seen the exceptions to the rule, -or have not compared this class of people with other workmen of the same -town, who were engaged in occupations of a totally different kind. - -3. That tobacco, far from producing, in those who prepare it, death and -narcotism, does not even influence their nervous system; and that -vertigo, syncope, muscular tremor, convulsions, and other like evils, -which have been charged against it, have never existed in the -manufactories, though the men sleep in the midst of the most subtil -preparations, or, at least, are not to be attributed to that cause. - -4. Not only is the tobacco without any effect on the health during the -first years devoted to its preparation, it has not the least ill -consequences in more advanced life. Feebleness and great age, or causes -altogether accidental, have been the sole ground for dismissing the -workmen. - -5. There are some professions which, without destroying health in an -evident manner, abridge life; but a great number of those who work on -tobacco reach, and even surpass, the ordinary limit of human existence. - -6. It is proved by innumerable facts, that the manufactories of tobacco -are not in anywise injurious to the men, animals, or plants, which may -exist in their vicinity. - -It thus turns out, upon examination, that this much maligned substance -is perfectly innocuous. “Yet what practitioner,” say MM. Parent -Duchâtelet and D’Arcet, “who had not had occasion to visit the workshops -and study their influence, would not be forced into belief by the -imposing authorities we have quoted above; who of them would hesitate to -regard as demonstrated opinions on which Ramazzini, Fourcroy, Cadet -Gassicourt, Tourtelle, Percy, Patissier, Merat and others are unanimous, -without a single person having uttered a contrary assertion? There are -found among these authorities two members of the Royal Academy of -Medicine, three members of the Academy of Sciences, two professors of -the Faculty of Medicine of Paris, one professor of the Faculty of -Medicine of Strasbourg, two chemists, and two celebrated physicians—one -French, the other Italian; in a word, six physicians and an apothecary, -who held, and still hold, the most eminent places in the learned world. -It is therefore evident that it is of the highest importance that trades -and professions should be investigated differently from what they have -hitherto been; and this importance daily increases, because of the -progress and extension of arts and manufactures.” - - - 18.—_On the Habitations of the Lower Orders of Paris._ - No. 1. - -The labouring classes are obliged to live in houses almost always -dilapidated, insufficient, or unhealthy. Such is the lot of the poor man -in all countries: the force of circumstances, the hard law of necessity, -compel it. Yet, if it is impossible to remedy completely this state of -things, may we not approximate to it, by building houses for every grade -of the lower orders—not only of the honest poor, but of the debased and -depraved? It appears to me that these houses would have a double -advantage;—they would diminish the causes of public insalubrity, and -offer to the honest and economical workman the means to procure a -residence equal to his necessities, and capable of producing in him the -taste for retirement and domestic peace so favourable to morals. It is -especially in this last point of view that the amelioration of the -dwellings of the poor and laborious class is to be ranked among the -preservatives against vicious habits. - -Rent being one of the most important and indispensable domestic -expenses, the father of a family, pressed by other wants of the first -necessity, naturally seeks the least costly habitation. Now, these -habitations exist only in certain quarters, and in certain streets of -those quarters: they are old, ruined, and filthy. The proprietors, in -order to tenant them, let the lodgings very low, and thus attract the -poorer families. If these lodgings were healthy, if they were sufficient -for all the members of the family, there would be no room for censure; -but they are foul, badly lighted, and neither air-tight nor water-tight. -They are small, and as parents and children live and sleep in the same -room, the overcrowding is both a cause of unhealthiness, and an offence -against good morals. Moreover, the bad state and filth of the passages, -privies, and sinks, give rise to infectious exhalations, which vitiate -the air of these humble abodes, and affect the health of their -inhabitants in a manner so much more mischievous that the greater part -of them work all the day in crowded and ill-ventilated shops. - -It would be worthy of a wise administration to remedy this dangerous -complication. The task is doubtless difficult; but why not grapple with -it boldly, instead of allowing to subsist in Paris, without any effort -to destroy them, so many centres of infection which reduce to the level -of the lowest animals the unfortunate beings who seek in them a retreat -for the night. - -Although the lodgings are not all repulsive, they are all alike open to -criticism. Some offend by overcrowding, others by the mode of sleeping; -others, lastly, by the absence of all ventilation, and even by a total -want of air. Overcrowding is an evil which prevails in all the lodgings -of the lowest class, and which aggravates the mischief resulting from -the other inconveniences to which they are subject. The twenty-five or -thirty thousand workmen employed in house-building, who flock to Paris -every year from certain departments, congregate in chambers, and sleep -there during the season. Many of these places are kept by countrymen of -their own, who attract them by their known probity, and the kindness -they entertain for them. These chambers abound principally in the -quarter of the Hôtel-de-Ville for the masons, and in the Faubourg -Saint-Martin for the carpenters. These excellent workmen, by an -exception more peculiar to them than to any others, look only to -economy. They bargain with the lodging-house keeper, so as to obtain for -six francs a month, besides the room, the washing of a shirt a-week, and -a mess of soup every day, for which they themselves provide the bread. -All that is not devoted to their slender wants is laid by for the -support of their family, or the increase of their little patrimony. The -police unanimously testify to the order and concord which reign in their -chambers, as well as to their good conduct abroad. Is it not mournful -that these fine fellows should sleep thus piled up in little garrets? -Accustomed to work in the open air, the smallness of their rooms is more -trying to them than to any others. Thus typhus fever is common among -them, and sometimes attacks a whole chamber. - -The overcrowding and deficient ventilation are still more injurious to -workmen employed in manufactures. They pass every day from an infected -lodging into a shop which is usually as unwholesome, and they are thus -predisposed to contract readily contagious maladies. - -Of all the lower orders, the chiffonniers inhabit the most infected and -disgusting lodgings. It is vain to expect to descend into the lowest -ranks of society,—inequality always appears somewhere. Even the -chiffonniers have their notables. There are some a little more -economical, a little more raised than the mass, and who enjoy a certain -comfort. Those the most elevated occupy one or two small rooms, which -they hire for themselves and their families; others possess a pallet, -which serves them to sleep on, in the chamber of which they are one -occupant among many. But this possession is more often collective than -personal; and although shared, it does not fail to excite the envy of -the poor wretches who lie in a species of trough, on rags, or on -handsful of straw, with which the room is strewed. The police charged -with the surveillance of the lodgings inhabited by the chiffonniers give -an incredible picture of them. Each occupant keeps by him his basket, -sometimes full of filth—and what filth! These savages do not hesitate to -comprise dead animals in their gleanings, and pass the night by the side -of this stinking prey. When the police go to these places, they -experience a suffocating feeling, bordering on asphyxy. They order the -windows to be opened when they can be opened, and the severe -representations they address to the lodging-house keepers on this -horrible mixture of human beings with decayed animal matter does not -move them. They answer, that their lodgers are accustomed to it as well -as themselves. A trait of manners peculiar to the chiffonniers, and -which might be called their pastime, consists in rat-catching in the -courts of the houses which they frequent. They entice the rats by the -aid of certain substances attached to the rags they gather in the -streets. With this view they put heaps of rags near the holes in the -walls, and when they think that the rats are buried in the rags, they -let loose into the court dogs trained for the purpose, and, in the -twinkling of an eye, they make themselves masters of the rats, of which -they eat the flesh and sell the skin. - -The lodgings which receive at night the scum of society are thorough -pest-houses. Those even which are not frequented by chiffonniers become, -by the crowding of the inhabitants and their filthy habits, dangerous -centres of infection. There are some chambers which contain as many as -nine beds, separated by small passages hardly wide enough to get -through, and these beds are often occupied by two persons who do not -know each other, and have never seen one another. Difference of sex is -no obstacle to these nocturnal and fortuitous cohabitations, although -the police neglect nothing to prevent disorders. Among the female -apartments there is one which is famous for the picture of decrepitude -and abjectness which it presents. The women who occupy it are old -drunkards, of whom several are suspected of theft. The spectacle of -these animated mummies has something sepulchral. - -One must bring to social anatomy a serious spirit of investigation, to -form a just idea of the population which lives in the concealed recesses -of society. The imagination, however fertile and daring, could never -reach, in this matter, to the height of the reality: there is a -character, a physiognomy, a strangeness, which it is necessary to have -seen in order to assume the responsibility of an historian. Let no one -tax with romance the traits of manners nor the description of places -contained in this chapter. However softened by the reserve I have -imposed on myself, they are not less true at bottom. I have sacrificed -the coarseness of the outline and colouring out of respect to decency. -It is the only infidelity of which I accuse myself. It is impossible not -to feel the necessity to provide an efficacious remedy for a state of -things so contrary to the rights of humanity and civilization.[57] - - - 19.—_On the Habitations and Lodgings of the Lower Orders of Paris._ - No. 2. - -There exist in Paris some thousands of individuals who have no -domicile—who sleep to-day in one place, the next day in another—and who -have recourse every evening to those houses where, for a payment usually -very moderate, they can at least obtain a place to lie in, and a -covering for their heads. It is not only strangers living temporarily in -Paris who lodge in this manner; a mass of workmen, mostly single men, -who have not stirred from the capital for ten, fifteen, and twenty -years, prefer this kind of life to the occupation of a separate chamber. -It may be affirmed, without fear of contradiction, that this population -comprises all that is most drunken and debased in society. It is -composed of people without foresight, and without a home, living from -day to day, and trusting to the hospitals in the case of sickness or -infirmity. It is in the lowest places in these disgusting haunts in -which a person is lodged for six, four, and even for two sous, that the -greater part of the prostitutes reside, who can scarcely, after -purchasing food, lay aside from their daily gains the trifling sum -necessary to avert sleeping in the open air. I have visited some of -these lodgings, and it was not without a feeling of pain that I have -seen human creatures reduced to live in such places, and that in the -capital of France. To give a just idea of these abodes, I will extract -some passages from the remarkable report which the inspector-general of -furnished lodgings addressed to the prefect of police at the time of the -cholera. It tells of nothing but houses in ruin, of straw for beds in a -state of putrefaction, of darkness, of infectious smells, of filth -without example. These are some of the passages:— - -“Rue ——, No. —. This house is remarkable for its excessive dirt. It is a -genuine centre of infection. It is inhabited solely by thieves, -smugglers, beggars, and prostitutes. It is impossible to enter without -being suffocated. - -“Rue ——, No. —. This house fixes the attention by its construction and -filth. There are no beds, except some loathsome pallets; animal remains, -intestines, and the refuse of meals, are rotting in the court; all the -chambers look on a corridor completely deprived of air and light; the -sinks and the privies of every story are loathsome from ordure and fecal -matter. It is the hideous abode of vice and misery. - -“Rue ——, No. —. The court of this house is four feet square, and is full -of dung; the chambers, crowded with occupants, open on it; the privies, -dilapidated to the fifth floor, let the fecal matter fall upon the -staircase, which is covered with it to the bottom. Many of the rooms -have no other aperture than the door which opens upon this staircase. -The house is the resort of sharpers, of thieves, of the most filthy -prostitutes, and of everything that is most abject both of men and -women. - -“Rue du Faubourg ——, No. —. A house occupied from top to bottom by -chiffonniers, mendicants, street-organists, street-walkers, and Italian -boys, who go about with animals. All these sleep upon rags picked from -the street, and of which there is a depôt on the ground-floor. More -complete abjectness it is impossible to witness. - -“Rue ——, No. —. This house is the resort of all that is most abased. It -is exclusively inhabited by thieves, prostitutes, discharged criminals, -beggars, vagabonds, gamesters, and every species of rogues. The greatest -filth reigns everywhere; the windows are made of oiled paper instead of -glass; the rooms are infected; at each story the ordure of the privies -flows upon the staircase.”[58] - -Another French writer, M. Frégier, has given the following description -of the external appearance of these abodes:—“The streets, not, at -farthest, more than eight feet wide, are dirty, and flanked by lofty -houses, four stories high, which are blackened by time. The height of -the houses renders the streets gloomy and damp, and the houses -themselves are dark, particularly on the ground-floor. Spirit shops, -beer shops, and low eating houses abound. The gloom of these shops, -joined to the repulsive physiognomy of the streets, infuse a secret -horror into the visitor who is led there by the spirit of observation, -and who knows that the greater part of the shops are the habitual resort -of the lowest prostitutes, and of rogues that live in the neighbourhood. -The lodgings and places of dissipation frequented by this part of the -population are worthy, from their filth, of the streets and quarters in -which they are situated.”[59] - - -20.-_Extract from the Report of the Commission appointed by the Central - Board of Public Health to ascertain the Condition of the Dwellings of - the Working Classes in Brussels, and to suggest Means for their - Improvement._ - -Our inquiries have led us more particularly into the most populous and -miserable districts into which the working classes are continually -crowding, in proportion as new and elegant buildings have encroached -upon the districts within the heart of the capital, formerly almost -exclusively occupied by those classes. We have visited successively, in -the district of _Minimes_, the _rue des Pignons_, and _de la -Samaritane_, the _cul-de-sac des Minimes_, the alley _des Prêtres_, _les -rues de l’Epris_, _du Bourreau_, _de la Oventail_, &c.; in the district -_de la Chapelle_, _les rues des Ménages_, _du Radro_, _de la Rasière_, -_des Rats_, _du Renard_, &c.; in the district _de la rue d’Anderlecht_, -_la rue des Navets_, and the alley _au Lait_. We entered into a great -number of the dwellings. We not only inquired, but also inspected, in -order that we might ascertain the truth of the statements which were -made to us. In now presenting the results of this inquiry, we do not -hesitate to call your attention to the very important facts which have -been gathered, at the same time that we ask your indulgence for the -imperfect manner in which we have been able to perform the duties -committed to our zeal and exertions. - -The misery of the localities we have visited struck us immediately, from -their appearance of uniform poverty. The streets and alleys, at all -times dirty and ill-paved, in times of rain or thaw had the appearance -of a pestilential mire; the water had no means of running off, and the -smallness of the passages, the absence of courts or gardens, the -crowding of families, and the detestable modes of building, rendered all -circulation of air or ventilation quite impossible. The most -indispensable conveniences were entirely wanting in most of the houses. -They had no pumps, nor privies, nor sewers, except one in common. -Indeed, we saw seventy houses that were provided with only one pump or -one privy for the whole of that number. - -If you enter the houses, the spectacle which is there presented to your -view is, if anything, still more wretched. If the arrangement and order -to be seen in some of the rooms recall the proverbial neatness of the -Flemish, on the other hand, the houses occupied by large families, the -alleys, the passages, and the stairs, are generally disgustingly filthy; -the brush of the whitewasher never passes along them, or if they are -ever cleaned, it is only to attract new tenants, who soon restore them -to their primitive dirtiness. The steepness of the stairs, which, -indeed, are often more like ladders, must be a perpetual cause of -accidents, especially to the young children. The space occupied by a -family is generally much too confined for each of the members to receive -the quantity of fresh air necessary for the preservation of health. -Hence their appearance is generally that of suffering and of bad -condition. The children are pale and emaciated, and bear all the visible -signs of premature suffering. The number of those who are rickety and -scrofulous is considerable, and the mortality amongst the children and -the aged exceeds all the most unfavourable averages. As we pass along -these receptacles of misery, we feel astonished to see so few old -people; an early death has carried them beyond their wretchedness: and -if inquiries are made of parents, there are few who have not lost one or -more children. It would be important to compare the proportion of deaths -in the families of the rich and of the indigent. There is little doubt -that this comparison would prove that misery, the want of proper air and -space, the occupations of these people, and privations of every sort, -sensibly diminish the period of life of the working classes. - -In these wretched habitations everything is sacrificed generally to the -rapacity of the proprietor. Every repair which affects the health or the -comfort of the tenant merely, and that is not necessary to prevent the -total ruin of the dwelling, is entirely neglected. What is the use of -cleaning the walls for people whose habits are filthy? Why make windows -for the entrance of air and light, or repair a sewer, or cleanse an -alley covered with stagnant water, for people who are accustomed to -pestilential smells? It is what a proprietor can never understand. Do -not believe, however, that these dreadful abodes are rented at their -proper value. On the contrary, the unfortunate people obliged to live in -these houses, because all better ones are closed against them, in -reality pay a higher rent than for a wholesome room in a good house. - - -21. _Principles of Sanitary Police in Germany. Extracts from Professor_ - MOHL. - -It is one important duty of a State to provide abundant supplies of -water for its people; and this duty is based on the impossibility, in -many cases, for individuals by their own exertions to procure even the -barest necessary quantity of water, and also that it requires much skill -to distinguish that which is of a good quality from that which is -injurious. The State ought, therefore, to provide water of the best -quality in sufficient abundance, and to arrange also for its most -extensive distribution: this is often attended with great difficulties -and with much expense, if the district is naturally ill-supplied with -springs of water; or where a town, being large, requires more water than -its own surface springs, or those of the immediate neighbourhood, can -supply. Without maintaining that the example given us by ancient -nations, of munificent expenditure in the laying out of aqueducts, &c., -is one which we, therefore, are obliged to follow, yet it may be -demanded of the State, that it should provide water, at least so far as -the absolute wants of life require, by aqueducts or pipes, or at least -by cisterns, laid down at the public expense. For the sake of the poorer -classes, it does not seem advisable that this duty should be handed over -to a private company.[60] - -An injudicious economy on this point affects most injuriously the habits -of cleanliness, and consequently the health of the lower classes. Water -is properly distributed when every district is provided with an -abundance of springs or wells. Loss of time, danger of fire, -difficulties in the time of contagious diseases, are the consequences of -the wells being few in number, even though each one should furnish a -large stream of water. - -It is a well-known fact, that locality has a great effect on the life -and health of the inhabitants, and especially according as it offers the -means of proper circulation of air or not. Thus, elevated situations are -generally more healthy than places shut in by hills. In towns, those -parts which are traversed by broad streets, are always more healthy than -those which are so closely covered with houses as never to be properly -ventilated, or where the sun can never penetrate to dry up the moisture; -but an ill-drained situation is the most injurious to health. - -The healthiness of a whole town is often essentially improved by the -formation of a single sewer or drain: in other places, it requires very -extended operations to produce the same effect. We may include amongst -the various influences, the ditches surrounding the cities filled with -stagnant water; by draining these, not only a purer air is gained, but -also a fertile piece of land. It ought to be remarked here, however, -that this work of draining water, and the removal of the mud, ought to -be done in the cold season; if not, dangerous fevers will in all -probability be the consequence. - -The foul air arising from marshy land, when that is necessary, as in the -cultivation of rice, is an evil for which there is no remedy.[61] - -Another means of improving the healthiness of a town, is by proper -attention to the breadth, and to the direction of the streets in all the -new quarters of the town. The streets ought to intersect, each other at -right angles, and not at too great distances: the direction of the -streets, also, should not run due north and south, as in that case the -streets lying parallel in one direction, would be scorched by the sun, -and without any shade during mid-day; whilst the streets running at -right angles to these, would never be warmed by a ray of sunshine. - -The health of towns would also be much improved by the prohibition of -all cellars as dwelling-houses, by legislative enactments as to the -elevation of the ground-floor of dwelling-houses above the level of the -streets, also as to the construction of proper conveniences attached to -dwelling-houses; and by regulations with regard to the proper size of -windows: also by regulations regarding the strictest cleanliness of the -streets, as this is more important in its effects on the health -generally, than even the situation of a town, or attention to its mode -of building. By attention to it, Holland is inhabitable; by the neglect -of it, Cairo and Constantinople are the very hot-beds of the plague. - -The first means to attain this cleanliness is by a proper paving of all -the streets, in order to lay the district dry. Without this, the streets -are either a stream of mud, or a sea of dust; in both cases equally -injurious to the health. It is often expensive to get a hard material -for the purpose of pavement; but when obtained, the expense of keeping -it in repair is much less. When it is possible, the streets should be -kept clean, by turning on them a stream of water,—the drains being -always kept well open to receive it afterwards. Every inhabitant should -be obliged to keep the portion of the street clean before his own door. -The refuse of the town ought to be conveyed away, at the expense of the -town, to some part of the country, removed from all dwelling-houses. - - - 22.—_A Report on the Statements of Dr. Mauthner regarding the Cotton -Manufactures, given at the Monthly Meeting on the 2nd of November, 1841. - By_ Herr L. M. VON PACHER. - -At the meeting of the 7th of June, Dr. Mauthner sent in a report on the -condition of the children employed in the cotton-works, in which he gave -an exposition of the evidence, partly of his own experience and partly -on the reports of others, of the moral and physical evils which the -various branches of manufacture bring with them, and proposals were put -into the hands of the owners of the mills for preventing the evils so -strongly denounced. - -The learned meeting determined to appoint a special commission to -inquire into so grave and important a matter. This body held its first -meeting on the 29th of July, at which our much-esteemed chairman -presided, and I had the honour to be commissioned to inquire into that -part of the report of Dr. Mauthner which treats more particularly of the -effects of the cotton manufactures. - -Before I enter upon the discussion on the special points of inquiry, -permit me to lay before you a few general remarks on the nature of our -inquiry, and of the condition of the people employed in the -cotton-works, more particularly of Lower Austria. It must first be -conceded that the condition of the children working in the factories is -closely connected with the condition of the rest of the working -population, and cannot be considered separately. Our president felt the -necessity of considering them in connexion throughout the various parts -of the inquiry which he had proposed to himself; and, before the -commencement of our inquiry, it was generally agreed that our attention -should extend also to the condition of the adult workpeople. - -We could not conceal from ourselves that we were undertaking a subject -at once the most important and the most delicate,—an inquiry which might -disclose to the general public that the unhappy signs of the times were -to be seen in our affairs, and which also, without cause, might alarm a -very excitable class as to their own condition. English and French -journals are full of the most striking descriptions of the physical and -moral evils of the manufacturing population; and not without ground, as -we learn from the various commissions of inquiry appointed by the -respective governments. With your permission I will quote a passage from -a report which the Commission de l’Intendance Sanataire du Nord drew up -in the year 1832, and which unfortunately has not been found exaggerated -even in later periods. It is word for word as follows:— - -“No one without personal inspection can form any conception of the -dwellings of our workpeople: the neglect in which they live brings evils -with it which makes their misery unbearable, indeed almost fatal. Their -poverty, by the negligence and demoralization which produces it, becomes -almost destructive. In their dark cellars, in their cellar-like rooms, -the air is never changed; it is perfectly poisonous. The walls are -covered with filth. If a bed is ever found, it is always filthy, and -made up of foul and rotten straw. It is covered with a coarse and dirty -rag, the colour or material of which can hardly be distinguished; it is -a miserable threadbare coverlet. The dirty and worm-eaten pieces of -furniture and utensils are thrown about without any order; the closed -windows scarcely allow any light to pass through their smoky panes, many -of which are stuffed with paper, and (it will hardly be credited) they -not unfrequently nail the window fast in order that it may run no risk -of being broken in the opening and shutting of it. The floors of their -houses are dirtier than the rest of the house, covered with ordure, -ashes, rotten straw, and all that has been brought in from the filthy -streets outside; it is a receptacle for every kind of vermin. The air is -no longer fit to breathe; one feels in these abodes stunned with an -overpowering and horrible stench, a smell of excrement, filth of every -kind, and of human beings. And the inhabitant of these abodes, in what -state is he? His clothes are in rags, and tossed on. His hair has never -known a comb, and is covered with the material with which he is working; -and his skin, though filthy, is yet distinguishable on his face, but on -the other part of his body, concealed by his rags, there are -accumulations of every kind. Nothing is so fearfully dirty as the old -and wrinkled of these demoralised creatures. Their abdomens distended, -their limbs distorted, their backs bent forward, their legs twisted, -their necks scarred and full of swellings, their fingers festered, their -joints swollen and weak, and, lastly, these unfortunate creatures are -tormented, we may say eaten up, with vermin of all kinds.” - -These descriptions were given by M. de Chambert, Boglli, Brigaudet, -Kulman, and Themistocles Lestibuwers. I shall be excused for having -given this long and disgusting extract, as it shows clearly what was the -state and the evils which could call forth those general and loud -complaints, and which made it a duty for government to take the matter -into consideration. The whole picture is too wretched to be brought into -the most distant comparison with the condition of the poorest of our -workpeople, who are in general well fed and decently clothed, and show -in the furniture of their cleanly-kept houses the fruits of their small -earnings. They, together with their children, enjoy excellent health, -and in general deserve the character of being a sober, industrious, -orderly, tractable, and attached class. But a large population of -workpeople, living entirely on the daily labour of their hands, wanting -many things in external circumstances which, to the eye accustomed to -luxury and abundance, are considered indispensable, under the continual -pressure of strict regulations and continuous labour, is not a very -enviable picture to the superficial observer, and often gives occasion -to many unfounded lamentations and ill-timed apprehensions, if not to -one-sided measures, which are, however, powerless against the stern -necessity of supporting thousands of human beings, which are disturbing -when they shake the established order of things, and are destructive -when they make a happy and quiet class of workpeople discontented with -their lot. - -The cotton-works in Lower Austria, which are almost all situated within -a circle of a few miles around Vienna, employ about 10,000 hands, for -whose accommodation solid and roomy dwellings have been erected for the -most part at the same time as the works were established. - -Most of the mills have not only a considerable number of dwellings for -the married workers, but large, separate sleeping-rooms for the -unmarried of both sexes, which are provided with beds, and lighted and -warmed at the expense of the mill. When the larger and older mills were -built, there was erected for the boys and girls a so-called children’s -house, in which, at that time, the children were provided at the expense -of the mill with food, clothes, and instruction, and who were bound by -certain regulations issued by the government, and were placed under the -inspection of the respective clergyman and physician of the district. -After the works were extended, they found they were obliged to give up -these institutions; and they now drew the requisite number of hands, -partly from the descendants of their own people, and partly from the -children of the country people, who, in the course of time, becoming -informed as to the condition of the children in the factories, send -their own children after they are too big for home employment and to go -to school, to work in the mills for a certain number of years; after -which, however, they generally return to their agricultural labour. On -the confines of Hungary, on a Sunday evening, hundreds of young, robust, -and healthy workpeople, carrying with them the provisions for the week, -may be seen coming to the mill, whence, on the Saturday evening, they -may be seen going in merry groups carrying their wages back to their own -homes. For these, and all who do not live with their parents, decent and -proper rooms are provided, sometimes in that which used to be the -children’s house, or in other places equally under inspection. - -The employment in cotton mills, and more especially of the children, -requires attention, and a certain quickness or sleight of hand more than -any bodily exertion. The whole of the hands are employed in roomy and -light apartments, which in summer are well ventilated, and in winter -warmed with great regularity, and there is nothing in the material, nor -in the processes of the manufacture, which can be injurious to the -health. The hours of work, which are generally from four to five in the -morning to seven or eight in the evening, are interrupted by three -meal-times; and on Saturday the mill is closed from three to four hours -earlier. The weekly wages of boys and girls are from 3 to 5 florins, and -those of the adults from 6 to 18, besides a house free; and it is not -only sufficient for their wants, but gives them also the means of laying -by a little saving, examples of which are not unfrequent. - -Under these circumstances the health is not, and cannot be, anything -else than extremely good; the large number of old who are still robust -and in employment, the experience and evidence of all the physicians who -practise amongst the mill population, the result of the reports of the -district physician, but above all, the healthy state they were in during -several epidemics, and also the small proportion of deaths as seen in -the parish register, all afford the most striking evidence of the fact -of their healthiness. Every noxious circumstance must undoubtedly bear -with it the traces of its evil; street riots, mobs of workpeople, and -excesses of all kinds, breaches of the law and criminal acts, numerous -and open concubinage, large numbers of illegitimate children (in many -manufacturing towns amounting to one-fourth of the whole births), and, -lastly, the large numbers of entirely destitute and disabled workpeople -who seek for assistance from the parish and from all charities; these -are the melancholy signs which mark in England and France the state of -the manufacturing population. - -In the course of 40 years, during which the Austrian manufactures have -arisen so near to the capital, and have been well watched by the police, -such moral and physical deterioration of so large a population could not -have escaped notice; but I ask where are those incontrovertible signs -which an hospital or a workhouse more frequently attended or applied to -by the mill population than by any other poor class of the community -would be? where are those prevailing diseases? where is the increased -mortality? and, lastly, where are the traces of moral and mental -degradation? Certainly it would be unjust to throw the stone at those -who have linked with the unavoidable demands of business circumstances -which might be measured by the scale of a more fortunate and independent -existence. - -Dr. Mauthner states, “that the weakness of the body and constitution of -the children employed in the great cotton-works in the neighbourhood is -very striking. - -“1st. That the race of men employed in those establishments is much less -robust than that of the peasantry of the neighbouring villages. - -“2nd. That bauchscropheln and scrophuleuse consumption are not uncommon; -that inflammatory diseases are very rare. - -“3rd. That premature old age and early death is the common fate.” - -Even supposing that since the establishment of the spinning-works there -could have been created a peculiar race of people, still the supposition -could not prove more than that the constitution of the workers had been -modified by their employment and their mode of living, since experience -shows that the duration of life is not shorter than that of the other -working classes. - -2dly. That the above-mentioned diseases principally affect children of -the earliest age, the former about the fifth year, the last about the -seventh year; and that it is to be premised that the children who never -work in the mill before their ninth year, come sometimes with the -disease already developed upon them. The children of the mill hands are, -indeed, less attacked by this disease than the children of the poor -agricultural labourer, because they are generally better housed and -clothed than these. That inflammatory diseases seldom appear is no sign -of a weak constitution, since, on the one hand, these seldom appear -amongst children; and, on the other hand, they do show themselves -amongst the adults, whenever there are external influences and inducing -circumstances to produce them; and all the physicians practising in the -cotton-works agree in stating that, with the exception of rheumatic -affections, there are no peculiar forms of disease amongst the -cotton-spinning population. - -3rdly. As to the statement of premature old age and early deaths, it is -one which is contradicted by all the experience of half a century. The -registers of deaths made by the clergymen of the parishes give the most -exact information as to the proportion of deaths. The results of these -are, - -1st. That the number of deaths, especially amongst the manufacturing -people, is proportionally less than amongst the agricultural labourers; - -2nd. That, as amongst other classes, the deaths are the most numerous of -children under two years; - -3rd. That between the age of 12 and 16 there are the fewest deaths; - -4th. That there are a great many between 60 and 70. - -The means proposed by Dr. Mauthner for obtaining a better physical and -moral state are, - -1st. Shortening the hours of labour; - -2ndly. Interrupting the hours of labour by school instruction: on both -which points there could be no discussion, since these are already -provided for by the law. - -With regard to the long working hours, which certainly appear very -oppressive to the unemployed spectator, long habit has accustomed the -workers to them, and they do not produce any perceptible injury, more -especially as the people are paid in proportion to the time they are -employed. It is to be remembered that there remain eight hours for rest, -none of which are spent in going and coming to their homes, as is the -case in other countries, as, for instance, in Mulhausen, where one-third -of the workers live from one to two miles from the mill. - -It is not during the hours of well-regulated and orderly employment that -there is any danger of demoralization, but during the leisure hours. -Villermé, in his valuable work on the _Etat Physique et Morale des -Ouvriers_, states that the moral and physical deterioration of the -manufacturing class in Rheims, where they only work from 10 to 12 hours, -is most striking. The hours of work being ended, the people fill the -taverns and the streets with prostitutes, whilst the workers from the -numerous manufactories of Sedan, who work 15 hours, are sober, moral, -and orderly. He mentions also that few manufactories employ so many -robust hands as the spinning works at Sedan. - -3dly. To employ more than one spinner to attend to a new spinning -machine which turns a greater number of spindles. - -It would in general be well to trust to the manufacturer the number of -workers he should employ, as his interest compels him to use a requisite -number of hands. In this particular case it ought to be stated that, -owing to the progress of machinery, the spinner having 800 or 1000 -spindles has less labour than formerly, when he had only 300 spindles to -attend to. - -4thly. That the children, and mill hands generally, should be kept in -good order, by sick funds and savings’ banks. - -In most works there is established a kind of sick fund, to which each -hand contributes weekly from 1 to 2 _kr._ for every guilder they earn; -or there are voluntary contributions to those who are invalided; or, -lastly, when they receive medical advice gratis, they have this fund to -expend in medicines. If this fund is sufficient to assist the sick, it -is not enough to support those in old age, and they must of necessity -depend on that help which they are entitled to as being the fathers of -families; and indeed every country mill can count many families amongst -the workers in which an aged father or mother is supported by their -children. - -The formation of regulations, binding on all and applicable to all -cases, as to the employment of children in mills, together with all -other regulations which affect the internal arrangements of a -manufactory, is incontestibly attended with many difficulties, and -indeed one might say with insuperable obstacles. French legislation has -employed itself three years with this object. The law has appeared, and -we have read it in our public journals. In the leading principles it -does not seem to contain anything but what has been in practice in -Austria for many years, though of our proceedings in regard to minute -details may be said what the minister of finance prognosticated in the -Chamber of Peers on the 31st May, 1837, when he said, “At different -times government has felt the necessity of a similar law. It has -occupied itself with it, and made every inquiry on the subject, but the -law itself presents extreme difficulties: many countries have attempted -one; England has even passed a law on this subject, but it is not -observed.” - -The interests of the children, it is repeated, have been protected by -the regulations issued by the government of Lower Austria, the last of -which were issued on July 16, 1839. For the moral and mental development -of the labourer in general there is only one great panacea: this lies in -the extension of trade, in the security and steadiness of employment, -and in the power of the labourer to maintain himself and his children -comfortably and respectably with the work of his own hands. - -It is to be hoped that our manufacturers will progress in the gradual -and prudent course which is equally removed from stupid and blind -adherence to old things, as from the spirit of hasty imitation and the -headlong pursuit of novelties. We shall then not have to fear the -creation of a dissolute and depraved class of workpeople, as we see in -other countries. For the rest, trust to the wise care of our -government—trust to the sound sense and excellent disposition of our -labourers—and, above all, trust something to the humanity and to the -opinions of the manufacturers of Austria themselves. - - - _Remarks on the Cotton Manufactory in Schwadorf._ - -There is here, under the superintendence of the master of the works, a -sick-fund for the workpeople, to which every man, woman, and child -together must contribute 1½ _xr._ kreutzer for every guilder they -receive in wages; for this they obtain not only for themselves, but also -for the members of their families who do not come to the mill (such as -the little children and the mothers), gratuitous medical advice and -medicines; and, further, the _men_, when they are prevented from coming -to the mill by sickness, receive a 12–kreutzer per day. - -The number of hands is on an average 170 men, 220 women and adult girls, -and 100 children; total, 550 individuals. - -The amount of contribution to the relief-fund was, in - - 1839 f.380·4 per day 62 _xr._ - 1840 f.410·56 per day 67 _xr._ - -Though on an average from five to six men of the 170 employed are -prevented from coming to their work, yet of these there are _four_ who -have received support from the fund, on account of the infirmities of -age and incurable diseases, for many years; so that, on an average, -there is only from one to two who are prevented from coming to their -work by sickness.[62] A part of the above-mentioned 550 mill hands live -in the adjacent district; these, when they cannot come to the medical -man belonging to the factory, are attended by the surgeon of the -district; but then, on the other hand, there must be set against these -the members of the families who do not work at the mill, as -above-mentioned, and which are about equal in number. Indeed, the number -of those coming for medical advice of the factory physician, and to -which the following tables relate, may be from 600 to 700. The total -population of Schwadorf is about 1700, of which, on an average of the -last 10 years, according to the parish register, 62 died annually. Of -these, according to the register kept by the factory physician, only 13, -on an average, were from the mill population; at least, as it appears in -the last seven years, during which the present physician has attended. - - Attended. Died. - 1834 1211 23 (N.B. Cholera.) - 1835 852 10 - 1836 653 15 - 1837 540 14 - 1838 394 12 - 1839 298 6 - 1840 345 10 - ———— —— - 4293 90 - ———— —— - Average 617 13 - - A Special View of the state of Sickness in the years 1839, 1840. - - ┌─────────────┬─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┐ - │ Diseases. │ Treated. │ - ├─────────────┼────────────────────────────┬────────────────────────────┤ - │ │ 1839. │ 1840. │ - ├─────────────┼────┬──────┬─────────┬──────┼────┬──────┬─────────┬──────┤ - │ │Men.│Women.│Children.│Total.│Men.│Women.│Children.│Total.│ - ├─────────────┼────┼──────┼─────────┼──────┼────┼──────┼─────────┼──────┤ - │Inflammation │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ and │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ consumption│ 10│ 17│ 10│ 37│ 35│ 19│ 10│ 64│ - │Nervous fever│ 19│ 4│ │ 23│ 8│ 9│ │ 17│ - │Diseases of │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ the first │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ class │ 23│ 25│ 7│ 55│ 34│ 18│ 19│ 71│ - │Chronic │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ disease of │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ the skin │ 15│ 11│ 5│ 31│ 12│ 9│ 14│ 35│ - │Bleeding and │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ other │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ cleansings │ 5│ 16│ 3│ 24│ 3│ 13│ │ 16│ - │Swelling of │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ the │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ scutiformed│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ glandule │ │ 10│ │ 10│ │ 6│ │ 6│ - │Consumption │ │ 2│ │ 2│ │ 2│ │ 2│ - │Spasms or │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ convulsions│ │ 15│ 6│ 21│ 1│ 10│ 10│ 21│ - │Green │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ sickness │ │ 20│ │ 20│ │ 30│ │ 30│ - │Rheumatism │ 5│ 7│ │ 12│ 4│ 6│ │ 10│ - │Worms │ 3│ 2│ 22│ 27│ │ 3│ 20│ 23│ - │Water in the │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ head │ │ │ 4│ 4│ │ │ 14│ 14│ - │Scrofula │ │ │ 2│ 2│ │ │ 3│ 3│ - │Sundries │ 5│ 11│ 2│ 18│ │ 20│ │ 20│ - ├─────────────┼────┼──────┼─────────┼──────┼────┼──────┼─────────┼──────┤ - │ Total │ 83│ 143│ 70│ 298│ 100│ 145│ 100│ 345│ - └─────────────┴────┴──────┴─────────┴──────┴────┴──────┴─────────┴──────┘ - - ┌─────────────┬─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┐ - │ Diseases. │ Deaths. │ - ├─────────────┼────────────────────────────┬────────────────────────────┤ - │ │ 1839. │ 1840. │ - ├─────────────┼────┬──────┬─────────┬──────┼────┬──────┬─────────┬──────┤ - │ │Men.│Women.│Children.│Total.│Men.│Women.│Children.│Total.│ - ├─────────────┼────┼──────┼─────────┼──────┼────┼──────┼─────────┼──────┤ - │Inflammation │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ and │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ consumption│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │Nervous fever│ │ │ │ │ 1│ │ │ 1│ - │Diseases of │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ the first │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ class │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │Chronic │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ disease of │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ the skin │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │Bleeding and │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ other │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ cleansings │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │Swelling of │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ the │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ scutiformed│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ glandule │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │Consumption │ │ 2│ 1│ 3│ │ 2│ 1│ 3│ - │Spasms or │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ convulsions│ 1│ │ 1│ 2│ │ │ 2│ 2│ - │Green │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ sickness │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │Rheumatism │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │Worms │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │Water in the │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ head │ │ │ │ │ │ │ 3│ 3│ - │Scrofula │ │ │ 1│ 1│ │ │ 1│ 1│ - │Sundries │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - ├─────────────┼────┼──────┼─────────┼──────┼────┼──────┼─────────┼──────┤ - │ Total │ 1│ 2│ 3│ 6│ 1│ 2│ 7│ 10│ - └─────────────┴────┴──────┴─────────┴──────┴────┴──────┴─────────┴──────┘ - -Although the number of deaths only includes those who lived in the -village of Schwadorf itself, yet under the “treated” are included also -all those from the neighbourhood whose illness was not too great to -prevent them coming to Schwadorf for medical advice. It further ought to -be remarked upon the apparently large number of cases of sickness, that -as the people have medical advice and medicine gratis, that they come -for it on the slightest illness, and the more so as not only the master -of the works but also the physician encourages them as much as possible -to do so, convinced that in most cases, by timely aid, more serious -illnesses are prevented. Lastly, it is to be understood that these -memoranda or notices have not been made for any special object, but only -for our own information. - - - _Remarks on the Factories in Neunkirchen._ - -1. _Screw Works._ There exists in connexion with this mill a sick-fund, -in which, however, the hands dwelling out of Neunkirchen do not -participate. Those who live in Neunkirchen pay to this fund weekly 1 -_xr._ for every guilder they earn as wages. They receive for this -medical advice and medicine gratis; and if they cannot come to work, the -following relief, namely, (those under Wr. Wf. fl. 4½ weekly wages have -nothing) - - From fl. 4½ to 6 daily 20 _xr._ W. W. - 6 to 9 daily 24 _xr._ W. W. - Over 9 daily 30 _xr._ W. W. - -Those Croatians who live in their houses do not receive any quota from -the sick-fund, but are, of course, attended. As to those who are out of -the district, they also receive medical advice gratis, if they can come -to the factory physician, even though they do not contribute to the -sick-fund. Only few have families, but these also, in case of sickness, -receive medical assistance. - -The number of hands varies considerably from 200 to 300; on an average -about 250; of these may be, - - Men and adults 180 - Women 20 - Children from 13 to 17 years 50 - -The total contribution to the relief-fund was, in the - - Year 1839, W. W. fl. 190·48, or 31 _x._ per day. - 1840, W. W. fl. 250·50, or 41 _x._ per day. - -Also on an average one or two individuals could not work on account of -illness. - -To both the spinning works of Herrn von Eltz and Herrn Roulet there is -attached a sick-fund, the exact rules of which I am not acquainted with. -In the print-works of Dubois, Dupasquier, and Co., the printers have a -sick-fund amongst themselves, out of which the hands in work assist -those who are unable to work, according to the circumstances. Since the -hands in the screw-works are not, like the spinners, a steady, fixed -class of workers, but a more fluctuating class, since it often happens -that members of the same family are employed in different factories, and -it is difficult to separate into heads the number of individuals who -have received medical aid; the annexed table for 1840 will give a -tolerably correct view of the state of sickness in the various works, -only with regard however to the numbers working, leaving the other -members of the family out of consideration. It is to be observed here, -that the physician by whom these statements have been drawn up is -appointed exclusively to the screw-works and the two spinning -manufactories. The hands from the print-works go also to other -physicians, of whom there are several in Neunkirchen; hence is explained -the apparently small number of persons from the print-works who have -received medical aid from him. - - Screw works of Spinning works of Print works of Von - Brevillier and Co. Frid. Eltz and Dubois, - Carl Roulet Dupasquier, and - together. Co. - - ─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────── - About 180 men 160 men 180 men - 20 women 200 women 90 women - 50 children 150 children 90 children - ——— ——— ——— - 250 persons. 510 persons. 360 persons. - - In 1840, - having - received - medical - treatment: - - Catarrh 14 30 8 - Rheumatism. 88 40 20 - Gastric 12 25 4 - Intermittent 5 16 3 - fever - Nervous fever 3 10 3 - Inflammations 16 36 10 - Various 17 36 8 - diseases - Scrofula 0 8 0 - Accidents 7 12 4 - ——— ——— ——— - 92 213 60 - - Deaths in the screw works 1 man, tubercles in the lungs. - Deaths in the screw works 1 man, inflammation of the lungs. - Deaths in the spinning works 1 man, tubercles in the lungs. - Deaths in the print works 1 man, apoplexy. - Deaths in the print works 1 man, fatal accident. - — - 5 men. - - A Tabular View of the Deaths in the various Spinning Manufactories, as a - means of comparing them with the Deaths occurring in the rest of the - Population, taken from the Registers of Deaths in the under-mentioned - Parishes. - - ┌───────┬───────────┬───────────┬───────┬──────────┬───────────┐ - │ │ │ Total │ │Proportion│ Spinning │ - │ Year. │ Parish. │Population.│Deaths.│of Deaths │ Works. │ - │ │ │ │ │per Cent. │ │ - ├───────┼───────────┼───────────┼───────┼──────────┼───────────┤ - │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - ├───────┼───────────┼───────────┼───────┼──────────┼───────────┤ - │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ 1840 │Günselsdorf│ 1,500│ 48│ 3.2│Teesdorf │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ 1840 │Pottendorf │ 4,000│ 157│ 4.0│Pottendorf │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ 1840 │Pottenstein│ 3,000│ 111│ 3.7│Fatnafeld │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │During │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ 10 │Schönau │ 860│ 354│ 4.1│Schönau │ - │ years │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │During │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ 10 │Sollenau │ 750│ 288│ 3.8│Sollenau │ - │ years │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ The │ │ │ │ │ │ - │average│Schwadorf │ 1,700│ 62│ 3.7│Schwadorf │ - │ of 7 │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ years │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │During │Steinabürkl│ 640│ 33│ 2.5│Steinabürkl│ - │2 years│ │ │ │ │ │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │During │Teresimfeld│ 1,200│ 78│ 3.3│Felydorf │ - │2 years│ │ │ │ │ │ - ├───────┼───────────┼───────────┼───────┼──────────┼───────────┤ - │ │ Total │ 13,650│ 1,131│ 3.8│ │ - └───────┴───────────┴───────────┴───────┴──────────┴───────────┘ - - ┌───────┬───────────┬───────┬──────────┬──────────────────────────────┐ - │ │ Mill │ │Proportion│ Age of Death of the Mill │ - │ Year. │Population.│Deaths.│of Deaths │ Population. │ - │ │ │ │per Cent. │ │ - ├───────┼───────────┼───────┼──────────┼──────┬───────┬───────┬───────┤ - │ │ │ │ │Under │Between│Between│Between│ - │ │ │ │ │ 3 │3 and 6│6 and 9│10 and │ - │ │ │ │ │years.│years. │years. │ 14 │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │years. │ - ├───────┼───────────┼───────┼──────────┼──────┼───────┼───────┼───────┤ - │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ 1840 │ 700│ 21│ 3.0│ 9│ │ │ 1│ - │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ 1840 │ 1,200│ 42│ 3.5│ 13│ 4│ 3│ 3│ - │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ 1840 │ 500│ 19│ 3.8│ 11│ 1│ │ │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │During │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ 10 │ 300│ 132│ 3.4│ 46│ 6│ 5│ 23│ - │ years │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │During │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ 10 │ 360│ 115│ 3.2│ 59│ 1│ 8│ 5│ - │ years │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ The │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │average│ 550│ 13│ 2.3│ │ │ │ │ - │ of 7 │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ years │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │During │ 394│ 16│ 2.0│ 13│ │ 1│ │ - │2 years│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │During │ 700│ 28│ 2.0│ 19│ │ │ 2│ - │2 years│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - ├───────┼───────────┼───────┼──────────┼──────┼───────┼───────┼───────┤ - │ │ 4,704│ 386│ 3.3│ 170│ 12│ 17│ 34│ - └───────┴───────────┴───────┴──────────┴──────┴───────┴───────┴───────┘ - - ┌───────┬───────────────────────────────────────────────────────┐ - │ │ │ - │ Year. │ Age of Death of the Mill Population. │ - │ │ │ - ├───────┼───────┬───────┬───────┬───────┬───────┬───────┬───────┤ - │ │Between│Between│Between│Between│Between│Between│Between│ - │ │15 and │19 and │26 and │32 and │38 and │41 and │45 and │ - │ │ 18 │ 25 │ 30 │ 36 │ 40 │ 44 │ 47 │ - │ │years. │years. │years. │years. │years. │years. │years. │ - ├───────┼───────┼───────┼───────┼───────┼───────┼───────┼───────┤ - │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ 1840 │ 1│ │ │ 2│ 1│ 1│ │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ 1840 │ 5│ 6│ 4│ 1│ 1│ │ │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ 1840 │ 3│ │ │ 1│ │ │ │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │During │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ 10 │ 7│ 12│ 2│ 4│ 2│ 5│ 4│ - │ years │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │During │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ 10 │ 5│ 6│ 3│ 5│ 2│ 2│ 6│ - │ years │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ The │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │average│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ of 7 │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ years │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │During │ │ │ 1│ │ │ │ │ - │2 years│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │During │ │ 1│ 2│ 2│ │ │ │ - │2 years│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - ├───────┼───────┼───────┼───────┼───────┼───────┼───────┼───────┤ - │ │ 21│ 25│ 12│ 15│ 6│ 8│ 10│ - └───────┴───────┴───────┴───────┴───────┴───────┴───────┴───────┘ - - ┌───────┬───────────────────────────────────────┐ - │ │ │ - │ Year. │ Age of Death of the Mill Population. │ - │ │ │ - ├───────┼───────┬───────┬───────┬───────┬───────┤ - │ │Between│Between│Between│Between│Between│ - │ │50 and │55 and │60 and │65 and │70 and │ - │ │ 54 │ 58 │ 64 │ 68 │ 75 │ - │ │years. │years. │years. │years. │years. │ - ├───────┼───────┼───────┼───────┼───────┼───────┤ - │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ 1840 │ 1│ 1│ 2│ 1│ 1│ - │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ 1840 │ 1│ │ │ │ 1│ - │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ 1840 │ │ │ │ 1│ 2│ - │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │During │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ 10 │ 3│ 2│ 4│ 4│ 3│ - │ years │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │During │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ 10 │ │ 3│ 6│ 2│ 2│ - │ years │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ The │ │ │ │ │ │ - │average│ │ │ │ │ │ - │ of 7 │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ years │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │During │ │ │ 1│ │ │ - │2 years│ │ │ │ │ │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │During │ 1│ │ 1│ │ │ - │2 years│ │ │ │ │ │ - ├───────┼───────┼───────┼───────┼───────┼───────┤ - │ │ 6│ 6│ 14│ 8│ 9│ - └───────┴───────┴───────┴───────┴───────┴───────┘ - - - 23.—_Typhus Fever, the vast amount of, produced among the Poor of - Liverpool from want of Ventilation and Cleanliness._ - -The typhus, or low contagious fever, prevails in all large cities and -towns to a degree that those are not aware of who have not turned their -attention to the subject, or whose occupations do not lead them to mix -with the labouring poor. In Liverpool it has been supposed that this -disease is seldom to be met with; and it is certainly true, that the -upper classes of the inhabitants are not often subjected to its ravages. -When the extent to which it is constantly present among the poor shall -be proved by authentic documents, this circumstance will serve to -demonstrate the narrow sphere of the contagion, and to show how much it -is within the limits of human power to lessen the frequency of the -disease. - -Of the inhabitants of Liverpool, it is ascertained that about 9500 live -in cellars underground, and upwards of 9000 in back houses, which in -general have an imperfect ventilation, especially in the new streets on -the south side of the town, where a pernicious practice has been -introduced of building houses to be let to labourers, in small confined -courts, which have a communication with the street by a narrow aperture, -but no passage for the air through them. Among the inhabitants of the -cellars and these back houses the typhus is constantly present; and the -number of persons under this disease that apply for medical assistance -to the charitable institutions, the public will be astonished to hear, -exceeds, on an average, 3000 annually. For the ten years preceding 1797, -there were, on an average, 119 patients ill of fever constantly on the -books of the dispensary. Of convalescents, unfit for labour, the average -number will be nearly as great. Thus, in Liverpool, 240 of the poor may -be considered as constantly rendered incapable of earning their -subsistence by this single disease; and as the poor seldom lay up any -part of their earnings for a season of sickness, the expense of their -maintenance must, in one form or other, fall on the public. If we take -this as low as 10_l._ for each, it will amount to 2400_l._ annually. - -Though the cure of this disease is a principal object of our charitable -institutions in Liverpool, it is to be lamented that hitherto little or -nothing has been done for its prevention. The infection arises from a -want of cleanliness and ventilation, and its influence is promoted by -damp, fatigue, sorrow, and hunger. A vigilant exercise of all the means -of prevention might, in a short period, supersede the use of hospitals, -by extinguishing the disease; a prospect in which the philanthropist -might more safely indulge, if he could calculate with the same -confidence on the wisdom as on the power of his species.[63] - - - 24.—_Extract from Dr. Ferriar’s Advice to the Labouring Classes in - Manchester; given in 1800._ - -Avoid living in damp cellars; they destroy your constitutions and -shorten your lives. No temptation of low rents can counterbalance their -ill effects. You are apt to crowd into the cellars of new buildings, -supposing them to be clean; this is a fatal mistake; a new house is -always damp for two years, and the cellars which you inhabit under them -are generally as moist as the bottom of a well. In such places you are -liable to bad fevers, which often throw the patient into a decline, and -you are apt to get rheumatic complaints, that continue for a long time -and disable you from working. - -If you cannot help taking a cellar, be attentive to have all the windows -put in good repair before you venture into it, and, if possible, get it -whitewashed. If you attempt to live in a cellar with broken windows, -colds and fevers will be the certain consequences. - -In many parts of the town you sleep in back rooms, behind the front -cellar, which are dark and have no proper circulation of air. It would -be much more healthy to sleep to the front; at least when you have large -families, which is often the case, you ought to divide them, and not to -crowd the whole together in the back cellar. - -Keep your persons and houses as clean as your employments will permit, -and do not regret the loss of an hour’s wages when your time is occupied -in attending to cleanliness. It is better to give up a little time -occasionally to keep your houses neat, than to see your whole family -lying sick in consequence of working constantly without cleaning. It -would be of great service if you could contrive to air your bed and -bed-clothes out of doors once or twice a-week. - -Always wash your children from head to foot with cold water before you -send them to work in the morning. Take care to keep them dry in their -feet, and never allow them to go to work without giving them their -breakfast, though you should have nothing to offer them but a crust of -bread and a little water. Children who get wet feet, when they go out -early fasting, seldom escape fever or severe colds. - - * * * * * - -Your health will always be materially injured by the following -circumstances:—living in small back buildings, adjoining to the open -vaults of privies; living in cellars where the streets are not properly -soughed or drained; living in narrow bye-streets where sheep are -slaughtered, and where the blood and garbage are allowed to stagnate and -corrupt, and perhaps more than all, by living crowded together in dirty -lodging-houses, where you cannot have the common comforts of light and -air. - -It should be unnecessary to remind you that much sickness is occasioned -among you by passing your evenings at ale-houses, or in strolling about -the streets or in the fields adjoining to the town. Perhaps those who -are most apt to expose themselves in this manner would pay little -attention to dissuasive arguments of any kind; however, those who feel -an interest in your welfare cannot omit making the remark. - - - 25.—_Principles of Jurisprudence and Responsibility for Accidents._ - -(_Extract from the First Report of the Commissioners of Inquiry into the -Labour Children in Factories._) - -From the evidence collected, it appears that in many of the mills, -numerous accidents of a grievous nature do occur to the workpeople. It -appears also that these accidents may be prevented, since in some mills -where more care of the workpeople is in general displayed they are -prevented. It appears further, that whilst some manufacturers liberally -contribute to the relief of the sufferers, many other manufacturers -leave them to obtain relief from public bounty, or as they may. - -The refusal to contribute to the expense of the cure of those who have -been maimed is usually founded on the assertion that the accident was -occasioned by culpable heedlessness or temerity. In the cases of the -children of tender years, we do not consider this a valid defence -against the claim for contribution from the employer. We cannot suppose -an obligation to perpetual caution and discretion imposed on children at -an age when those qualities do not usually exist. The indiscretion of -children must, we consider, be presumed and guarded against as a thing -that must necessarily, and to a greater or less extent, be manifested by -all of them. - -But the accidents which occur to the adults, are of themselves evidence -(unless they were wilfully incurred in a state of delirium) that the -individual used all the caution of which he is capable; as it may be -presumed that the loss of life or limb, or the infliction of severe -pain, would rarely be wantonly incurred. - -Some of the manufacturers have proposed that the inspectors, who they -think ought to be appointed to insure compliance with any legislative -regulation, should have power to inspect the factories, and direct what -parts of the machinery should be fenced off, and that after such -directions have been complied with, the manufacturer should be relieved -from further responsibility. - -We concur in the proposition for giving such power to inspectors, but we -do not concur in the proposal to relieve the manufacturer from -responsibility. - -We apprehend that no inspector would probably be so fully conversant -with all the uses of every variety of machinery as to be acquainted with -all the dangers which may be provided against; and also, that whilst -there is much machinery which does not, from its nature, admit of its -being boxed off, there is much that could not be made entirely safe -without the reconstruction of whole manufactories. - -Excluding from consideration the cases of culpable temerity on the part -of the adults, and assuming that the aid to be given when accidents do -occur shall afford no bounty on carelessness, the cases which remain for -provision are those of adults which may be considered purely accidental. -Taking a case of this class, where mischief has occurred in the -performance of the joint business of the labourer and his employer; the -question is, by which of these parties the pecuniary consequences of -such mischief shall be sustained. - -We conceive that it may be stated, as a principle of jurisprudence -applicable to the cases of evils arising from causes which ordinary -prudence cannot avert, that responsibility should be concentrated, or, -as closely as possible, apportioned on those who have the best means of -preventing the mischief. Unless we are to impose on the workman the -obligation of perpetual care and apprehension of danger, the nature of -the injuries inflicted are of themselves evidence that all the care -which can be taken by individuals attending to their work is taken by -them; it is only the proprietor of the machinery who has the most -effectual means of guarding against the dangers attendant upon its use. - -If such an extent of pecuniary responsibility for the accidents which -are incidental to the use of the machines is imposed upon him, those -consequences will be more likely to be taken into account, and to be -guarded against at the time of the erection of the machinery. The -workmen are not prone to regard immediate dangers, still less dangers -which are remote and contingent, and many of the accidents are of a -nature apparently too uncertain to form data for insurance. It could -hardly be expected that a workman in entering a manufactory should -object that any portion of the machinery is dangerous, and that it ought -to be boxed off. But the proprietor of the machine is necessarily the -person who can best foresee all the consequences incidental to its use, -and can best guard against them. By throwing upon him a portion of the -pecuniary responsibility for those mischiefs, we combine interest with -duty, and add to the efficiency of both. - -If the pecuniary consequences from unavoidable accidents were -considerable, the imposition of the proposed responsibility may be met -by the master, or by a deduction from the wages. Considering the -defective nature of most existing modes of provision against sickness -and casualties by benefit or friendly societies, and also, unhappily, -the large proportion of those who, from improvidence, do not take -advantage of these or other means, (of which some portion of the -working-class avail themselves in so exemplary and admirable a manner), -if we were to devise a form of insurance against the casualties in -question, available to all classes, we should recommend that measures -should be taken to secure from the master the regular deductions of the -amount of the contribution of the persons employed. - -We propose that in the case of all accidents whatsoever from machinery -occurring to children under fourteen years of age, the proprietor of the -machinery shall pay for the medical attendance on the child, and all the -expenses of the cure, until medical attendance is no longer required; -and also during the same period, shall continue to pay wages at the rate -of half the wages enjoyed by the individual in question at the time of -the occurrence of the accident. - -We are of opinion that persons above that age, in all cases where the -injury was received from accidents in the ordinary course of business, -where there was no culpable temerity, should receive similar treatment -at the expense of the employer, and should also be allowed half wages -until the period of cure, as we believe that an allowance of full wages -would occasion considerable fraud in the protraction of that period, -especially in the cases of accidents of a less serious nature. - -We think that the remedy should be given on complaint before a -magistrate or the inspector. - -“With regard to fatal injuries occasioned by wilful negligence, we have -at present no new remedies to suggest as substitutes to those afforded -by the common law.” - - [In a recent case, I believe in Scotland, 300_l._ damages were - recovered against the owner of an old mine for the loss of a child, - which had fallen into it accidentally from the opening not being - properly protected. - - It is sometimes stated that the owners of mines already come within - the principle, that they are interested in prevention, inasmuch as - they incur loss from the stoppage of work and otherwise by accidents. - The fact, however, of no exertions being made for prevention might be - adduced as proof that the share of the loss was not sufficiently - great, and the interest therefore inadequate; but it will generally be - found that no share of the loss falls directly on the manager of the - works, and that the pecuniary consequences are so far diffused over - numerous partners as not to be felt, and that this is so particularly - in works or machinery belonging to joint-stock companies. - - In Prussia, as well as Austria, deductions are required by the law to - be made from the wages of the men engaged in mining operations, which - deductions constitute a sick-fund for the support of the men during - ordinary sickness. The following is a translation of the articles of - the Prussian code in respect to the responsibility now imposed on the - owners for accidents to the workpeople in Prussia as in Austria:— - - Art. 214. “The proprietors of the mines are bound to take care of the - miners who are wounded or fall into bad health in their service. - - Art. 215. “When the provincial laws do not contain any express - provisions thereon, the person who works the mine shall pay to the - sick or wounded workman four weeks’ wages if the produce of the mine - does not cover the expense of working, or if it be only just equal to - it, or if it be required to defray the antecedent expenses of the - mine; and when the mine produces a sufficient dividend, the workman - shall be paid eight weeks’ wages in case the illness lasts that length - of time. - - Art. 216. “If the illness lasts a greater length of time, the miner - shall be supported out of the sick-fund. - - Art. 217. “The expenses of medical treatment, and of burial of a miner - wounded or killed by accident, shall be defrayed from the same fund. - - Art. 218. “The widow of a miner has also the right to claim the - gratuitous wages fixed by Article 215. - - Art. 219. “The gratuitous wages granted to the miner in case of wounds - or death are not allowed if the miner has killed or wounded himself - with premeditation, or by any gross neglect, working otherwise than in - the mine. - - Art. 220. “If the wound or death has been occasioned by malice or the - gross neglect of a third person, the latter shall indemnify the - sick-fund and the proprietors of the mine.”—E. C.] - - -26. _Extract from the Report of John L. Kennedy, Esq., Barrister at Law, - to the Commissioners for Inquiring into the Labour of Young Persons in - Mines and Manufactories._ - -In all the instances which I have met with of accidents occurring in -coal-mines, as I have repeatedly stated, negligence forms an almost -invariable element—negligence which is fairly assignable to one or other -of the parties concerned in this branch of industry: either negligence -on the part of the colliers, whether adults or children, in omitting -those means of safety which are within their own control, or negligence -on the part of the superintendent, or ultimately of the owners of the -mines, in not providing the _means_, or duly regulating those means of -safety, which are not within the discretion of any child or the control -of the individual workman. - -The children who are below the age of discretion are of course not to be -deemed responsible for that which they have not to exercise; and -unfortunately in the present state of education of the adult colliers, a -large proportion of them are in the same category as children in respect -to the want of discretion; and hence arises the first difficulty of any -direct legislative interference for their protection. - -Whatever detailed provisions might be laid down in any statute, or -directed by any public officer acting under the authority of any -statute, I can see no reason to believe that they would be adopted below -ground by such a population. - -For example; the safety-lamp is provided by most, and directed by all -proprietors and underlookers to be used by the colliers; but, as we have -seen, they habitually set aside the protection thus provided for them, -though they do so under a penalty of maiming or death—and what more -severe penalty could any statute impose or enforce with greater -certainty? Education appears to me to be the slow and remote but -complete preventive of those calamities arising from indiscretion. The -efficiency of this remedy, the fact that ignorance and brutality are not -essential to mining occupations, will, I apprehend, be shown by the -comparative superiority of a better educated class of miners, namely, -the Cornish miners and the lead miners of Lead Hills, Lanarkshire, who -often, with less wages than the colliers of this district, attain a -superior condition and are comparatively free from the like instances of -indiscretion. - -It will, however, be seen that there is a large class of accidents which -comes within the control of responsible agents, and which would scarcely -be within the control of the colliers, even if they had the discretion. -For example, the sufficiency of the winding-ropes, guiders and -side-rods, chairs, sliders, casing of the pit sides with brick and -mortar, covers over the tubs to prevent coal falling on those ascending -and descending in them, and the various other means of security in -superior pit gearing, which, having been adopted in some mines with -success, are demonstrably practicable, and no doubt ought to be used in -all other similar cases. - -But these practical measures appear to me from their number to be -incapable of specification in any statute that could be discussed or -tolerated in Parliament, if it should take upon itself the direction of -mining operations, and they are apparently too numerous and important, -to be intrusted to the discretion of any public officer. Positive -regulations by statute or under legislative sanction would, I apprehend, -impede changes in machinery and in operations which are commonly -beneficial to the whole class of the workpeople. In whatsoever mode such -preventive regulations were prescribed, the enforcement of them would, I -apprehend, imply an inspection by a public officer; from the nature of -the places I should doubt the efficiency of such inspection. I doubt -whether inspectors could be found who would faithfully descend shafts -two or three times the depth of the height of St. Paul’s, and amidst wet -and damp and noxious gases crawl or allow themselves to be waggoned -through miles of dark drains and subterranean caverns, with the chance -of the roof falling on them or being burnt by explosion, _to see that -all was right_, and not act on the easy assumption that it was so. - -I believe, in the course of my own performance of the disagreeable duty -assigned to me, I became tolerably familiar with such places; but I -could not but perceive that I might easily have been deceived, and was -always at the mercy of the colliers themselves for the completeness of -my information. - -No familiarity diminishes the disagreeable duty of proceeding through -low, hot, and damp galleries, bent with the chest on the knees, under -the oppression of clothes damp with moisture or perspiration, which the -inspector must endure. - -Proprietors themselves, whose direct interest it is to be aware of what -is going forward under ground, are obliged to depend for inspection on -their underlookers or foremen, who have been colliers. - -In a large proportion of accidents, especially those where the witnesses -are themselves destroyed, it would, I conceive, be extremely difficult, -if not impossible, to prove against underlookers or proprietors the -neglect of proper precaution. For example, in explosions of fire-damp -the air-doors are frequently blown to pieces, the waggons dashed to -atoms, the roof brought in by collapse from the exhaustion of the air in -the mine, and, in short, the position of everything so completely -deranged that it would be impossible to arrive at any correct conclusion -as to the state of things previous to the accident. - -A boy is thrown out of a tub in ascending the pit-shaft by the chairs -coming in contact half way, the chairs may or may not be broken, the -body is found dashed to pieces at the bottom; if it so happen that there -are no marks either on the chairs or basket to show that they have been -in contact, no one would be so bold as to swear that it was so. Numerous -cases of this nature might be cited. - -It may be a question whether extensive remedies are not practicable by -the application of the principle of concentrating responsibility on -those who have the best means of prevention, by such self-acting -arrangements as shall give them a direct interest in prevention. -Coal-owners and the underlookers of collieries assume that all the -accidents which are not caused by the negligence of the workmen -themselves are absolutely unavoidable, and in the present state of their -interest and knowledge I believe them to be sincere in their assumption. -As evidence of its truth, and in justification, they may adduce the -frequent return of verdicts of simply “accidental death” upon inquests -before the coroners. Conceding most fully that a large extent of -accident is an unavoidable and essential concomitant of this branch of -industry, the question then arises, Why should not this branch of -industry bear the whole of its necessary and unavoidable consequences? - -The more this question is examined, the more I apprehend will it be -found desirable that the full expenses of such accidents should be borne -by that branch of industry in which they are created; in which case they -will be borne either by those who, as producers, have the chief profits, -or they will fall, as I apprehend they ought to fall, on the consumers. - -The satisfaction of the pecuniary losses attendant on _personal -injuries_ from accidents, heavy and long continued as those losses are, -will be found to be a consideration of minor importance to the -_prevention_ of the accidents; and, above all, the prevention of the -degraded mental condition of the reckless population amidst which such -accidents occur. By imposing the pecuniary consequences, not as -penalties for omissions, which at present are really not wilful, but as -a trade charge or _insurance_ payable by the branch of industry liable -to the accidents, an interest will be created in their prevention on the -part of those who alone have the means of efficiently preventing them. -Instead of a penalty in the expense to which they might be put, they -would thus have a perpetually acting bounty in the saving of every new -improvement, and would be made the most efficient inspectors—having in -every foreman and collier a superintendent in himself, gratis to the -public. - -It is a maxim of this district that manufacturers “only improve or adopt -improvements upon threadbare profits.” Under the bounty created by the -just and necessary charge upon the mines of the insurance against -accidents and calamities, it can scarcely be doubted that the -coal-owners would find out and adopt improvements in working of which -they are themselves at present unaware. They would, moreover, have an -interest in the removal by education of that dense ignorance, -constituting that state of mind out of which the acts of “indiscretion” -or heedlessness, and the other daily acts which disturb the community, -emanate. Even with the present adult colliers, they would have an -interest in exercising such a preventive control as would be exemplified -by a case in another branch of industry which I have cited in the -section on Accidents in my Report on the Calico Print-Grounds—I allude -to the case of the men who were employed in kyanizing logs of wood on -the Bolton and Preston Railway. It would, of course, follow from the -adoption of the principle of charging the costs of accidents as an -insurance or trade charge on the employment, or on those who had the -best means of preventing them—viz. the coal-proprietors—that they should -be enabled to distribute the principle of self-insurance and -responsibility on their underlookers and workmen. - -I avail myself of an illustration of the operation of the principle of -preventive legislation which appears to me to be applicable to cases of -the nature of those which are the subjects of this Report. - -Formerly convicts were transported in private vessels engaged for the -purpose at a charge of a certain amount per head on the number -_embarked_. The ships belonged to respectable merchants and owners; and -on that responsibility which is supposed to attach to fair character and -respectability the convicts were committed to their charge. - -The interest which engrossed the mind of the shipowner, it may be -presumed, was that of making the most of his vessels, and sending out a -full cargo. No wilful oversight, still less any oppression, was perhaps -imputable to the owners, the captains, or any one else: but still the -fair profits of a good cargo could scarcely be expected to be sacrificed -for the avoidance of any temporary inconvenience of convicts during a -voyage; but somehow or other it happened that fever broke out, and that -the mortality during the first voyages was dreadful—sometimes half the -passengers were lost. I presume that the convicts were accompanied by -officers of the Government; but the importance of ventilation was little -known at that time, and even the King’s ships were ravaged by scurvy, -dysentery, and fever. The appointment of special inspectors for this -purpose solely would possibly have mitigated the evil to some extent, -perhaps to an extent to warrant the expense; but I believe it would have -protracted amendment, and left untouched a large mass of evil. - -At length, however, the form of contract was altered: instead of the -shipowners being paid per head on the number _embarked_, they were only -paid per head _on the number landed alive_; so that the shipowners lost -by every person who died on the passage. This form of contract changed -the whole face of things. - -Attention, or the efficient stimulus of interest, was directed to the -cause of the mortality: ventilation and other appliances were sedulously -attended to; the merchant, at his own proper cost, provided a medical -officer to take charge of the convicts, and the remuneration of that -officer was proportioned to the number landed _alive_. The result was -that the frightful mortality disappeared, and the voyages have generally -been effected with a higher degree of health amongst the passengers, or -with less mortality, than would perhaps have occurred amongst the same -number of the same class of persons living at large on shore.[64] The -East India Company have also, I am informed, adopted the same principle -in the payment of the medical officers who have charge of the transport -of their troops. The same principle has been directed to be applied by -the Poor Law Commissioners in the contracts for the shipment of -pauper-emigrants for Canada; and I am informed that complaints and the -cause of them have proportionably disappeared. - -I am informed by a friend who has taken a great interest in the subject -of the transport of emigrants, that a year or two ago the principle was -overlooked in the transport of emigrants by the Government agent. Some -vessels were chartered and officered by Government officers of the -highest character; but fever broke out in those ships, and there was -severe suffering; whilst the voyages of ordinary emigrant-ships, -commanded by common skippers—people of no rank or consideration, but -placed under a contract which made their interest coincident with -humanity—made their voyages as any person of practical experience and -observance of the operation of different interests might have expected. - -I believe that the practical application of the same principle of -legislation, viz. the concentration of responsibility on those who may -best find out and apply the means of prevention, would, in this -important branch of industry, in which such numbers of young persons, -and persons young in understanding and discretion, are employed, would -be the most efficient preventive, and would, at the same time, give the -owners and managers of collieries, at the outset, the least trouble, and -ultimately a high degree of comfort. - -I may here repeat, that it is observable in the district assigned to me, -that the accidents from the breakage of rope are of rare occurrence in -the deepest mines. The cost of a rope for the deeper mines is -proportionably greater than for those of less depth. Not only, -therefore, is the breakage of a rope a serious loss in itself, but the -cause of still more serious loss from the interruption of the very -extensive operations of the large mines to which they belong. It is a -matter of fact, that greater care is bestowed on these expensive ropes -and gearing, because it is the interest of those who are not always -thinking about preventing _remote_ accidents, but who are naturally and -properly always thinking about _immediate_ profits, to take care of -them. - -The responsibility implied by the proposed application of the principle -for prevention, is a responsibility for exercise of care in their own -business operations, which care can be exercised by them and no others, -without interrupting and interfering with them in their business -operations. - - - 27.—_Tables of Sickness in Prisons._ - - Table showing the Sickness experienced by 2,876 Prisoners committed to - the Prison of Glasgow, from 1st January to 31st October, 1841, including - 432 in Prison on 1st January, as compared with that of the East India - Company’s Labourers, and the Highland Society’s Tables. - - ┌────────┬─────────────────────────────────────────────────┬────────┐ - │ Age. │ Females. │ Prison │ - │ │ │ of │ - │ │ │Glasgow.│ - ├────────┼──────────┬──────────┬───────┬─────────┬─────────┼────────┤ - │ │Total No. │ Daily │ Total │ Average │ Actual │Average │ - │ │ of │ average │No. of │ No. of │sickness,│duration│ - │ │Prisoners.│ No. of │Days in│ Days in │Prison of│ of │ - │ │ │Prisoners.│Prison.│ Prison. │Glasgow. │Sickness│ - │ │ │ │ │ │ │ per │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ │ annum │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ │ for │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ │ every │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ │Female. │ - ├────────┼──────────┼──────────┼───────┼─────────┼─────────┼────────┤ - │ │ │ │ │ Days │ │ │ - │ Years. │ │ │ │ & │ Days. │ │ - │ │ │ │ │Decimals.│ │ │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │Under 16│ 68 │ │ 4,520 │ 66·47 │ 11 │ ·87 │ - │16 to 21│ 317 │ This │23,575 │ 74·36 │ 61 │ ·95 │ - │ │ │cannot be │ │ │ │ │ - │21 to 26│ 209 │ given │17,140 │ 82·00 │ 125 │ 2·74 │ - │ │ │ without │ │ │ │ │ - │26 to 31│ 172 │ immense │ 8,932 │ 51·93 │ 57 │ 2·34 │ - │ │ │ labour, │ │ │ │ │ - │31 to 36│ 95 │ no │ 6,306 │ 66·37 │ 30 │ 1·89 │ - │ │ │ register │ │ │ │ │ - │36 to 41│ 89 │ having │ 5,785 │ 65· │ 21 │ 1·5 │ - │ │ │ been │ │ │ │ │ - │41 to 46│ 46 │kept which│ 3,198 │ 69·52 │ 57 │ 6·5 │ - │46 to 51│ 45 │ readily │ 1,813 │ 40·28 │ 7 │ 1·38 │ - │ │ │ shows │ │ │ │ │ - │51 to 56│ 24 │the daily │ 1,530 │ 63·75 │ 9 │ 2·19 │ - │56 to 61│ 7 │average of│ 1,731 │ 247·28 │ 40 │ 8· │ - │61 to 66│ 5 │ the │ 45 │ 9· │ │ │ - │ │ │ various │ │ │ │ │ - │66 to 71│ 2 │ ages and │ 362 │ 181· │ 60 │ ·60 │ - │ │ │ sexes. │ │ │ │ │ - │71 to 76│ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │76 to 81│ │ │ │ │ │ │ - ├────────┼──────────┼──────────┼───────┼─────────┼─────────┼────────┤ - │ Total. │ 1,079 │ │74,837 │ 69·36 │ 478 │ 2·33 │ - └────────┴──────────┴──────────┴───────┴─────────┴─────────┴────────┘ - - ┌────────┬─────────────────────────────────────────────────┬─────────┐ - │ Age. │ Males. │Prison of│ - │ │ │Glasgow. │ - │ │ │ │ - ├────────┼──────────┬──────────┬───────┬─────────┬─────────┼─────────┤ - │ │Total No. │ Daily │ Total │ Average │ Actual │ Average │ - │ │ of │ average │No. of │ No. of │sickness,│duration │ - │ │Prisoners.│ No. of │Days in│ Days in │Prison of│ of │ - │ │ │Prisoners.│Prison.│ Prison. │Glasgow. │Sickness │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ │per annum│ - │ │ │ │ │ │ │for every│ - │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Male. │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - ├────────┼──────────┼──────────┼───────┼─────────┼─────────┼─────────┤ - │ │ │ │ │Days and │ │Days and │ - │ Years. │ │ │ │Decimals.│ Days. │Decimals.│ - │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │Under 16│ 267 │ │20,428 │ 76·50 │ 66 │ 1·17 │ - │16 to 21│ 596 │ This │43,484 │ 72·95 │ 417 │ 3·5 │ - │ │ │cannot be │ │ │ │ │ - │21 to 26│ 376 │ given │23,128 │ 61·51 │ 116 │ 1·83 │ - │ │ │ without │ │ │ │ │ - │26 to 31│ 204 │ immense │11,886 │ 58·26 │ 86 │ 2·65 │ - │ │ │ labour, │ │ │ │ │ - │31 to 36│ 111 │ no │ 8,409 │ 75·75 │ 64 │ 2·83 │ - │ │ │ register │ │ │ │ │ - │36 to 41│ 93 │ having │ 4,813 │ 51·75 │ 12 │ 9· │ - │ │ │ been │ │ │ │ │ - │41 to 46│ 62 │kept which│ 4,174 │ 67·32 │ 6 │ ·49 │ - │46 to 51│ 37 │ readily │ 1,195 │ 32·29 │ 7 │ 2·16 │ - │ │ │ shows │ │ │ │ │ - │51 to 56│ 26 │the daily │ 1,156 │ 44·46 │ 25 │ 7·9 │ - │56 to 61│ 12 │average of│ 612 │ 51· │ 4 │ 2·3 │ - │61 to 66│ 7 │ the │ 238 │ 34· │ 4 │ 6· │ - │ │ │ various │ │ │ │ │ - │66 to 71│ 4 │ ages and │ 948 │ 237· │ │ │ - │ │ │ sexes. │ │ │ │ │ - │71 to 76│ 1 │ │ 14 │ 14· │ │ │ - │76 to 81│ │ │ │ │ │ │ - ├────────┼──────────┼──────────┼───────┼─────────┼─────────┼─────────┤ - │ Total. │ 1,796 │ │123,885│ 68·98 │ 807 │ 2·38 │ - └────────┴──────────┴──────────┴───────┴─────────┴─────────┴─────────┘ - - ┌────────┬──────────┬────────────────┬─────────────────────┐ - │ Age. │East India│ Highland │ Prison of Glasgow. │ - │ │Company’s │ Society. │ │ - │ │Labourers.│ │ │ - ├────────┼──────────┼──────┬─────────┼─────────┬───────────┤ - │ │ Average │ Age. │ Average │ No. │ Deaths. │ - │ │ duration │ │duration │liberated│ │ - │ │ of │ │ of │ on │ │ - │ │ Sickness │ │Sickness │ account │ │ - │ │per annum │ │per annum│ of │ │ - │ │for every │ │for every│Sickness.│ │ - │ │ Man. │ │ Man, as │ │ │ - │ │ │ │shown by │ │ │ - │ │ │ │Tables of│ │ │ - ├────────┼──────────┼──────┼─────────┼────┬────┼─────┬─────┤ - │ │ Days and │ │Days and │ M. │ F. │ M. │ F. │ - │ Years. │Decimals. │Years.│Decimals.│ │ │ │ │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │Under 16│ │ 21 │ 4·0 │ │ │ │ │ - │16 to 21│ 4·02 │ 46 │ 7·0 │ 1 │ │ 3 │ 2 │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │21 to 26│ 5·40 │ 57 │ 14·0 │ │ 1 │ │ 1 │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │26 to 31│ 4·49 │ 63 │ 21·0 │ │ │ │ │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │31 to 36│ 4·55 │ 65 │ 30·8 │ │ 1 │ │ │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │36 to 41│ 5·57 │ 66 │ 37·8 │ │ │ 3 │ 1 │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │41 to 46│ 5·18 │ 67 │ 46·2 │ │ │ │ │ - │46 to 51│ 5·43 │ 68 │ 56·0 │ │ │ │ │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │51 to 56│ 6·80 │ 69 │ 63·0 │ │ 1 │ │ │ - │56 to 61│ 7·21 │ 70 │ 70·0 │ │ │ │ │ - │61 to 66│ 10·24 │ │ │ │ │ 1 │ │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │66 to 71│ 9·93 │ │ │ │ │ 1 │ │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │71 to 76│ 10·60 │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │76 to 81│ 12·67 │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - ├────────┼──────────┼──────┼─────────┼────┼────┼─────┼─────┤ - │ Total. │ │ │ │ │ │8[65]│4[65]│ - └────────┴──────────┴──────┴─────────┴────┴────┴─────┴─────┘ - - Dietary.│ Weight.—First-rate, 24 ounces; second-rate, 30 ounces; │ - │ third-rate, 36 ounces. │ - │ Equivalent Total in ounces of wheaten bread. │ - │Cost on an average 3‑1/16_d._ per day, but taking the average│ - │ of the last seven years, it cost exactly 2¾_d._ per day. │ - │ This is exclusive of fuel and cooking. │ - - Table showing the Sickness experienced by 2,889 Prisoners committed to - the Prison of Edinburgh from 1st January to 31st October, 1841, as - compared with that of the East India Company’s Labourers, and the - Highland Society’s Tables. - - ┌────────┬──────────────────────────────────────────────────┬──────────┐ - │ Age. │ Females. │Prison of │ - │ │ │Edinburgh.│ - │ │ │ │ - ├────────┼──────────┬──────────┬───────┬─────────┬──────────┼──────────┤ - │ │Total No. │ Daily │ Total │ Average │ Actual │ Average │ - │ │ of │ average │No. of │ No. of │sickness, │ duration │ - │ │Prisoners.│ No. of │Days in│ Days in │Prison of │ of │ - │ │ │Prisoners.│Prison.│ Prison. │Edinburgh.│ Sickness │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ │per annum │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ │for every │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Female. │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - ├────────┼──────────┼──────────┼───────┼─────────┼──────────┼──────────┤ - │ Years. │ │ │ │ Days & │ Days. │ │ - │ │ │ │ │Decimals.│ │ │ - │Under 16│ 106 │ 11·9 │ 3,631 │ 34·25 │ 9 │ ·90 │ - │16 to 21│ 420 │ 49·2 │15,060 │ 35·85 │ 25 │ ·60 │ - │21 to 26│ 437 │ 42·6 │12,952 │ 29·61 │ 102 │ 2·87 │ - │26 to 31│ 252 │ 22·8 │ 6,958 │ 27·61 │ 57 │ 2·90 │ - │31 to 36│ 135 │ 17·7 │ 5,463 │ 40·66 │ 32 │ 2·01 │ - │36 to 41│ 105 │ 11·1 │ 3,399 │ 32·37 │ 11 │ 1·17 │ - │41 to 46│ 47 │ 4·3 │ 1,327 │ 28·23 │ 30[66] │ 8·25 │ - │46 to 51│ 60 │ 7·5 │ 2,294 │ 38·23 │ 6 │ ·95 │ - │51 to 56│ 14 │ 1·6 │ 494 │ 35·28 │ 3 │ 2·21 │ - │56 to 61│ 29 │ 1·7 │ 524 │ 18·06 │ │ │ - │61 to 66│ 9 │ 1·2 │ 386 │ 42·88 │ │ │ - │66 to 71│ 11 │ 1·1 │ 339 │ 30·81 │ │ │ - │71 to 76│ 3 │ ·23 │ 70 │ 23·33 │ │ │ - │76 to 81│ 5 │ ·43 │ 130 │ 26· │ │ │ - ├────────┼──────────┼──────────┼───────┼─────────┼──────────┼──────────┤ - │ Total. │ 1,663 │ 173·36 │53,057 │ 32·49 │ 275 │ 1·9 │ - └────────┴──────────┴──────────┴───────┴─────────┴──────────┴──────────┘ - - ┌────────┬──────────────────────────────────────────────────┐ - │ Age. │ Males. │ - │ │ │ - │ │ │ - ├────────┼──────────┬──────────┬───────┬─────────┬──────────┤ - │ │Total No. │ Daily │ Total │ Average │ Actual │ - │ │ of │ average │No. of │ No. of │sickness, │ - │ │Prisoners.│ No. of │Days in│ Days in │Prison of │ - │ │ │Prisoners.│Prison.│ Prison. │Edinburgh.│ - │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - ├────────┼──────────┼──────────┼───────┼─────────┼──────────┤ - │ Years. │ │ │ │ Days & │ Days. │ - │ │ │ │ │Decimals.│ │ - │Under 16│ 216 │ 41·9 │12,752 │ 59·03 │ 43 │ - │16 to 21│ 314 │ 55·3 │16,826 │ 53·58 │ 143 │ - │21 to 26│ 223 │ 28·9 │ 8,199 │ 36·72 │ 37 │ - │26 to 31│ 136 │ 15·8 │ 4,818 │ 35·42 │ 36 │ - │31 to 36│ 95 │ 11·2 │ 3,426 │ 36·06 │ 25 │ - │36 to 41│ 81 │ 9·8 │ 3,007 │ 37·12 │ 7 │ - │41 to 46│ 56 │ 4·4 │ 1,338 │ 23·88 │ 2 │ - │46 to 51│ 55 │ 8·2 │ 1,892 │ 34·40 │ 12 │ - │51 to 56│ 23 │ 1·7 │ 544 │ 23·85 │ 13 │ - │56 to 61│ 24 │ 3·3 │ 1,004 │ 41·83 │ 36[66] │ - │61 to 66│ 19 │ 2·2 │ 683 │ 35·94 │ 8 │ - │66 to 71│ 8 │ ·62 │ 190 │ 23·75 │ │ - │71 to 76│ 3 │ ·16 │ 51 │ 17· │ │ - │76 to 81│ 3 │ ·19 │ 60 │ 20· │ 3[66] │ - ├────────┼──────────┼──────────┼───────┼─────────┼──────────┤ - │ Total. │ 1,256 │ 179·67 │54,790 │ 43·62 │ 365 │ - └────────┴──────────┴──────────┴───────┴─────────┴──────────┘ - - ┌────────┬──────────┬──────────╥────────────────┬─────────────────────┐ - │ Age. │Prison of │East India║ Highland │Prison of Edinburgh. │ - │ │Edinburgh.│Company’s ║ Society. │ │ - │ │ │Labourers.║ │ │ - ├────────┼──────────┼──────────╫──────┬─────────┼─────────┬───────────┤ - │ │ Average │ Average ║ Age. │ Average │ No. │ Deaths. │ - │ │ duration │ duration ║ │duration │liberated│ │ - │ │ of │ of ║ │ of │ on │ │ - │ │ Sickness │ Sickness ║ │Sickness │ account │ │ - │ │per annum │per annum ║ │per annum│ of │ │ - │ │for every │for every ║ │for every│Sickness.│ │ - │ │ Male. │ Man. ║ │ Man, as │ │ │ - │ │ │ ║ │shown by │ │ │ - │ │ │ ║ │Tables of│ │ │ - ├────────┼──────────┼──────────╫──────┼─────────┼────┬────┼─────┬─────┤ - │ Years. │ Days & │ Days & ║Years.│ Days & │ M. │ F. │ M. │ F. │ - │ │Decimals. │Decimals. ║ │Decimals.│ │ │ │ │ - │Under 16│ 1·23 │ ║ 21 │ 4·0 │ │ │ │ │ - │16 to 21│ 3·10 │ 4·02 ║ 46 │ 7·0 │ │ │ 1 │ │ - │21 to 26│ 1·64 │ 5·40 ║ 57 │ 14·0 │ │ │ │ │ - │26 to 31│ 2·72 │ 4·49 ║ 63 │ 21·0 │ │ │ │ │ - │31 to 36│ 2·63 │ 4·55 ║ 65 │ 30·8 │ │ │ │ │ - │36 to 41│ ·85 │ 5·57 ║ 66 │ 37·8 │ │ │ │ │ - │41 to 46│ ·51 │ 5·18 ║ 67 │ 46·2 │ │ │ │ │ - │46 to 51│ 2·31 │ 5·43 ║ 68 │ 56·0 │ │ │ 1 │ │ - │51 to 56│ 8·71 │ 6·80 ║ 69 │ 63·O │ │ │ 1 │ │ - │56 to 61│ 13·09 │ 7·21 ║ 70 │ 70·0 │ │ │ │ │ - │61 to 66│ 4·27 │ 10·24 ║ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │66 to 71│ │ 9·93 ║ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │71 to 76│ │ 10·60 ║ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │76 to 81│ 18·25 │ 12·67 ║ │ │ │ │ 1 │ │ - ├────────┼──────────┼──────────╫──────┼─────────┼────┼────┼─────┼─────┤ - │ Total. │ 2·4 │ ║ │ │ │ │ 4 │ │ - └────────┴──────────┴──────────╨──────┴─────────┴────┴────┴─────┴─────┘ - - Table showing the Sickness experienced by 5,408 Prisoners committed to - the Prisons of Salford from October 17, 1840, to October 16, 1841, as - -compared with that of the East India Company’s Labourers, and the -Highland Society’s Tables. - - ┌────────┬─────────────────────────────────────────────────┬────────┐ - │ Age. │ Females. │ Prison │ - │ │ │ of │ - │ │ │Salford.│ - ├────────┼──────────┬──────────┬───────┬─────────┬─────────┼────────┤ - │ │Total No. │ Daily │ Total │ Average │ Actual │Average │ - │ │ of │ average │No. of │ No. of │sickness,│duration│ - │ │Prisoners.│ No. of │Days in│ Days in │Prison of│ of │ - │ │ │Prisoners.│Prison.│ Prison. │Salford. │Sickness│ - │ │ │ │ │ │ │ per │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ │ annum │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ │ for │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ │ every │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ │Female. │ - ├────────┼──────────┼──────────┼───────┼─────────┼─────────┼────────┤ - │ Years. │ │ │ │ Days & │ Days. │ │ - │ │ │ │ │Decimals.│ │ │ - │Under 16│ 58│ 12·93│ 3,353│ 57·81│ 4│ ·44│ - │16 to 21│ 279│ 37·52│ 13,701│ 49·1│ 372│ 9·91│ - │21 to 26│ 264│ 31·96│ 11,681│ 44·24│ 239│ 7·46│ - │26 to 31│ 185│ 26·69│ 9,748│ 52·7│ 409│ 15·31│ - │31 to 36│ 120│ 17·33│ 6,329│ 52·74│ 316│ 18·22│ - │36 to 41│ 90│ 8·49│ 3,238│ 36·│ 56│ 6·31│ - │41 to 46│ 58│ 9·98│ 3,647│ 62·89│ 213│ 21·31│ - │46 to 51│ 46│ 6·36│ 2,325│ 50·54│ 55│ 8·63│ - │51 to 56│ 17│ 2·83│ 1,034│ 60·82│ │ │ - │56 to 61│ 9│ 1·07│ 393│ 43·60│ 80│ 74·3│ - │61 to 66│ 4│ ·05│ 192│ 38·│ 29│ 55·13│ - │66 to 71│ 1│ │ 14│ 14·│ │ │ - │71 to 76│ │ │ 30│ 30·│ │ │ - │76 to 81│ │ │ │ │ │ │ - ├────────┼──────────┼──────────┼───────┼─────────┼─────────┼────────┤ - │ Total │ 1,132│ 155·21│ 55,635│ 49·37│ 1,773│ 11·6│ - └────────┴──────────┴──────────┴───────┴─────────┴─────────┴────────┘ - - ┌────────┬─────────────────────────────────────────────────┐ - │ Age. │ Males. │ - │ │ │ - │ │ │ - ├────────┼──────────┬──────────┬───────┬─────────┬─────────┤ - │ │Total No. │ Daily │ Total │ Average │ Actual │ - │ │ of │ average │No. of │ No. of │sickness,│ - │ │Prisoners.│ No. of │Days in│ Days in │Prison of│ - │ │ │Prisoners.│Prison.│ Prison. │Salford. │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - ├────────┼──────────┼──────────┼───────┼─────────┼─────────┤ - │ Years. │ │ │ │ Days & │ Days. │ - │ │ │ │ │Decimals.│ │ - │Under 16│ 542│ 89·52│ 32,690│ 60·31│ 69│ - │16 to 21│ 1,072│ 155·2│ 56,671│ 52·86│ 623│ - │21 to 26│ 935│ 118·2│ 43,166│ 46·16│ 293│ - │26 to 31│ 590│ 78·07│ 28,507│ 47·67│ 182│ - │31 to 36│ 371│ 43·39│ 15,847│ 42·71│ 135│ - │36 to 41│ 316│ 41·14│ 15,023│ 47·54│ 210│ - │41 to 46│ 170│ 19·98│ 7,298│ 42·93│ 55│ - │46 to 51│ 117│ 13·11│ 4,818│ 41·18│ 77│ - │51 to 56│ 75│ 9·42│ 3,443│ 45·09│ 51│ - │56 to 61│ 47│ 4·24│ 1,547│ 32·93│ 7│ - │61 to 66│ 20│ 3·08│ 1,127│ 56·35│ 83│ - │66 to 71│ 9│ ·07│ 267│ 29·66│ 2│ - │71 to 76│ 4│ ·27│ 101│ 25·25│ │ - │76 to 81│ │ │ │ │ │ - ├────────┼──────────┼──────────┼───────┼─────────┼─────────┤ - │ Total │ 4,276│ 574·53│210,503│ 49·23│ 1,787│ - └────────┴──────────┴──────────┴───────┴─────────┴─────────┘ - - ┌────────┬─────────┬──────────╥────────────────┬─────────────────────┐ - │ Age. │Prison of│East India║ Highland │ Prison of Salford. │ - │ │Salford. │Company’s ║ Society. │ │ - │ │ │Labourers.║ │ │ - ├────────┼─────────┼──────────╫──────┬─────────┼─────────┬───────────┤ - │ │ Average │ Average ║ Age. │ Average │ No. │ Deaths. │ - │ │duration │ duration ║ │duration │liberated│ │ - │ │ of │ of ║ │ of │ on │ │ - │ │Sickness │ Sickness ║ │Sickness │ account │ │ - │ │per annum│per annum ║ │per annum│ of │ │ - │ │for every│for every ║ │for every│Sickness.│ │ - │ │ Male. │ Man. ║ │ Man, as │ │ │ - │ │ │ ║ │shown by │ │ │ - │ │ │ ║ │Tables of│ │ │ - ├────────┼─────────┼──────────╫──────┼─────────┼────┬────┼─────┬─────┤ - │ Years. │ Days & │ Days & ║Years.│ Days & │ M.│ F.│ M.│ F.│ - │ │Decimals.│Decimals. ║ │Decimals.│ │ │ │ │ - │Under 16│ ·77│ ║ 21│ 4·0│ │ │ │ │ - │16 to 21│ 4·01│ 4·02║ 46│ 7·0│ │ │ │ │ - │21 to 26│ 2·4│ 5·40║ 57│ 14·0│ │ │ 1│ │ - │26 to 31│ 2·33│ 4·49║ 83│ 21·0│ │ │ │ 1│ - │31 to 36│ 3·1│ 4·55║ 85│ 30·8│ │ │ 2│ 1│ - │36 to 41│ 5·1│ 5·57║ 66│ 37·8│ │ │ 1│ │ - │41 to 46│ 2·75│ 5·18║ 67│ 46·2│ │ │ 1│ │ - │46 to 51│ 5·83│ 5·43║ 68│ 56·0│ │ │ 1│ │ - │51 to 56│ 5·43│ 6·80║ 69│ 63·0│ │ │ │ │ - │56 to 61│ 1·65│ 7·21║ 70│ 70·0│ │ │ │ │ - │61 to 66│ 2·67│ 10·24║ │ │ │ │ 1│ │ - │66 to 71│ 2·69│ 9·93║ │ │ │ │ 1│ │ - │71 to 76│ │ 10·60║ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │76 to 81│ │ 12·67║ │ │ │ │ │ │ - ├────────┼─────────┼──────────╫──────┼─────────┼────┼────┼─────┼─────┤ - │ Total │ 3·098│ ║ │ │ │ │ 8│ 2│ - └────────┴─────────┴──────────╨──────┴─────────┴────┴────┴─────┴─────┘ - - - 28.—_Experience of Sickness in the Wynds of Edinburgh._ - - Table showing the Sickness experienced by 334 Persons, from 10th - November, 1840, to 10th November, 1841, in some of the Wynds and Closes - of Edinburgh, compared with the Sickness experienced in the Edinburgh - Prison, by the East India Company’s Labourers, and by the Members of - Benefit Societies, as shown in the Highland Society’s Tables. - - - ┌────────┬──────────────────┬─────────╥──────────┐ - │ Age. │ Females. │ Closes ║Prison of │ - │ │ │ and ║Edinburgh.│ - │ │ │ Wynds. ║ │ - ├────────┼────────┬─────────┼─────────╫──────────┤ - │ │ No. of │ Actual │ Average ║ Average │ - │ │Persons.│Sickness,│duration ║ duration │ - │ │ │ Closes │ of ║ of │ - │ │ │and Wynds│Sickness ║ Sickness │ - │ │ │ of │per Annum║per Annum │ - │ │ │Edinburgh│for every║for every │ - │ │ │ │ Female. ║ Female. │ - │ │ │ │ ║ │ - │ │ │ │ ║ │ - ├────────┼────────┼─────────┼─────────╫──────────┤ - │ Years. │ │ Days. │Days and ║ Days and │ - │ │ │ │Decimals.║Decimals. │ - │Under 12│ 12│ 98│ 8·1║ │ - │12 to 16│ 19│ 244│ 12·8║ ·90│ - │16 to 21│ 19│ 112│ 5·9║ ·60│ - │21 to 26│ 18│ 273│ 15·1║ 2·87│ - │26 to 31│ 23│ 215│ 9·3║ 2·90│ - │31 to 36│ 12│ 133│ 11·0║ 2·01│ - │36 to 41│ 30│ 199│ 6·6║ 1·17│ - │41 to 46│ 9│ 84│ 9·3║ 8·25│ - │46 to 51│ 11│ 477│ 43·3║ ·93│ - │51 to 56│ 5│ 81│ 16·2║ 2·21│ - │56 to 61│ 10│ 71│ 7·1║ ·00│ - │61 to 66│ 5│ 56│ 11·2║ ·00│ - │66 to 71│ 1│ 0│ ·0║ ·00│ - │71 to 76│ 2│ 365│ 182·5║ ·00│ - │76 to 81│ 1│ 35│ 35·║ ·00│ - ├────────┼────────┼─────────┼─────────╫──────────┤ - │ Total. │ 177│ 2,443│ 13·8║ 1·9│ - └────────┴────────┴─────────┴─────────╨──────────┘ - - ┌────────┬──────────────────┬─────────╥──────────┬──────────┐ - │ Age. │ Males. │ Closes ║Prison of │East India│ - │ │ │ and ║Edinburgh.│Company’s │ - │ │ │ Wynds. ║ │Labourers.│ - ├────────┼────────┬─────────┼─────────╫──────────┼──────────┤ - │ │ No. of │ Actual │ Average ║ Average │ Average │ - │ │Persons.│Sickness,│duration ║ duration │ duration │ - │ │ │ Closes │ of ║ of │ of │ - │ │ │and Wynds│Sickness ║ Sickness │ Sickness │ - │ │ │ of │per Annum║per Annum │per Annum │ - │ │ │Edinburgh│for every║for every │for every │ - │ │ │ │ Male. ║ Male. │ Male. │ - │ │ │ │ ║ │ │ - │ │ │ │ ║ │ │ - ├────────┼────────┼─────────┼─────────╫──────────┼──────────┤ - │ Years. │ │ Days. │Days and ║ Days and │ Days and │ - │ │ │ │Decimals.║Decimals. │Decimals. │ - │Under 12│ 6│ 21│ 3·5║ │ │ - │12 to 16│ 21│ 49│ 2·3║ 1·23│ │ - │16 to 21│ 19│ 98│ 5·1║ 3·10│ 4·02│ - │21 to 26│ 7│ 77│ 11·0║ 1·64│ 5·40│ - │26 to 31│ 16│ 133│ 8·3║ 2·72│ 4·49│ - │31 to 36│ 17│ 70│ 4·1║ 2·63│ 4·55│ - │36 to 41│ 19│ 287│ 15·1║ ·85│ 5·57│ - │41 to 46│ 13│ 393│ 30·0║ ·51│ 5·18│ - │46 to 51│ 15│ 243│ 16·2║ 2·31│ 5·43│ - │51 to 56│ 5│ 152│ 30·4║ 8·71│ 6·80│ - │56 to 61│ 9│ 385│ 42·7║ 13·09│ 7·21│ - │61 to 66│ 5│ 321│ 64·2║ 4·27│ 10·24│ - │66 to 71│ 2│ 82│ 41·0║ ·00│ 9·93│ - │71 to 76│ 3│ 251│ 83·6║ ·00│ 10·60│ - │76 to 81│ │ │ ║ 18·25│ 12·67│ - ├────────┼────────┼─────────┼─────────╫──────────┼──────────┤ - │ Total. │ 157│ 2,562│ 16·3║ 2·4│ │ - └────────┴────────┴─────────┴─────────╨──────────┴──────────┘ - - ┌────────┬────────────────┬───────┬──────────┐ - │ Age. │ Highland │Closes │Prison of │ - │ │ Society. │ and │Edinburgh.│ - │ │ │Wynds. │ │ - ├────────┼──────┬─────────┼───────┼──────────┤ - │ │ Age. │ Average │Deaths.│ Deaths. │ - │ │ │duration │ │ │ - │ │ │ of │ │ │ - │ │ │Sickness │ │ │ - │ │ │per Annum│ │ │ - │ │ │for every│ │ │ - │ │ │ Man, as │ │ │ - │ │ │shown by │ │ │ - │ │ │Tables of│ │ │ - ├────────┼──────┼─────────┼───┬───┼────┬─────┤ - │ Years. │Years.│Days and │M. │F. │ M. │ F. │ - │ │ │Decimals.│ │ │ │ │ - │Under 12│ │ │ 1│ │ │ │ - │12 to 16│ 21│ 4·0│ │ │ │ │ - │16 to 21│ 46│ 7·0│ │ │ 1│ │ - │21 to 26│ 57│ 14·0│ │ 2│ │ │ - │26 to 31│ 63│ 21·0│ │ │ │ │ - │31 to 36│ 65│ 30·8│ │ │ │ │ - │36 to 41│ 66│ 37·8│ │ │ │ │ - │41 to 46│ 67│ 46·2│ │ 1│ │ │ - │46 to 51│ 68│ 56·0│ │ │ 1│ │ - │51 to 56│ 69│ 63·0│ │ │ 1│ │ - │56 to 61│ 70│ 70·0│ 1│ │ │ │ - │61 to 66│ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │66 to 71│ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │71 to 76│ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │76 to 81│ │ │ │ │ 1│ │ - ├────────┼──────┼─────────┼───┼───┼────┼─────┤ - │ Total. │ │ │ 2│ 3│ 4│ │ - └────────┴──────┴─────────┴───┴───┴────┴─────┘ - - - 29.—_Suggested Form of Notification to Owners or Occupiers for the -distribution of the Expense of permanent Alterations, and the avoidance - of Overcharges on persons enjoying only portions of the benefit._ - -The Commissioners of Sewers appointed to superintend the execution of -the Act of Victoria, passed for the protection of the public health, -which requires that every inhabited tenement shall be provided with -proper means of drainage, and cleansing, and the removal of refuse, have -caused a survey to be made of the houses and tenements in—[court or -street, as the case may be]. On this survey it appears that your house, -with others in the same place, are without the requisites required by -law; that they are without proper sewers, without drainage from the -house, and without water or proper means for the constant removal of -night-soil, or conveniences for cleansing. - -By the section of the Act the several requisites hereunder described -are directed to be provided and completed within months after this -date. - -The Commissioners have directed tenders for contracts upon -specifications to be taken for the execution of the required works, -under a civil engineer, in the most beneficial manner and at the lowest -cost. - -They are also prepared to take loans on the security of the rates for -defraying the expenses of the execution of the works contracted for. - -It will be at your option either to repay at once the cost of the -requisite works by which the property will be benefited, or to repay it -by annual instalments in 30 year, paying 5 per cent. interest on the -principal sum expended, or on that part of it that may, from time to -time, remain unpaid. - -To save the trouble and expense of a double collection, annual -instalments and the interest on the principal sums expended will be -collected from the tenant with rates. Where the landlord is under any -agreement or obligation to cleanse the cesspools, the tenant will be -entitled to deduct from the rent the charge for the drainage and -apparatus for cleansing. Where the tenant pays rent weekly, or at -shorter periods than quarterly, and does not pay rates, the charge -for the works in question is required by the statute to be paid by the -owner of the tenement, who will levy the amount with the rent, or make -his own terms with the tenant for the improvement in question. - -The cost of the required improvements or principal sum, which will be -charged at the contract prices, together with the annual instalments and -interest thereon, and the weekly charge or improved rent that may be due -or charged on the weekly tenant, will be as follows:— - - ┌───────────────────────────┬─────────────┬─────────────┬─────────────┐ - │ │ │ Annual │ │ - │ │ │ Interest, │ │ - │ │ │commuted at 5│Weekly Charge│ - │ │ Annual │per cent. on │ to the │ - │First Outlay per Tenement. │ Instalment │ Outlay, │ Tenant, or │ - │ │for Repayment│ charged as │ Increased │ - │ │in 30 years. │ Rent on │ Rent. │ - │ │ │ Tenant, and │ │ - │ │ │ Annual Rent │ │ - │ │ │ of Water. │ │ - ├───────────────────────────┼──────┬──────┼──────┬──────┼──────┬──────┤ - │ £. _s._ _d._│ _s._ │ _d._ │ _s._ │ _d._ │ _s._ │ _d._ │ - │Water-closet │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │ Water-tank 10 8 6│ 6│ 11│ 6│ 8│ 0│ 3│ - │ Drain │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - │Main Sewer 5 12 0│ 3│ 9│ 3│ 6│ 0│ 1½│ - │Water │ │ │ 5│ 0│ 0│ 1│ - ├───────────────────────────┼──────┼──────┼──────┼──────┼──────┼──────┤ - │ Total │ 10│ 8│ 15│ 2│ 0│ 5½│ - └───────────────────────────┴──────┴──────┴──────┴──────┴──────┴──────┘ - -If the landlord undertake to cleanse the cesspools, then the additional -weekly charge on the occupier for the supplies of water and drainage -will be 2½_d._ weekly, involving, as the occupier should be informed, -the conveniences, cleanliness, and security to health, and saving of -medical expenses. - -Persons having only interests in property for years or for determinate -periods may, by means of the above table, distribute amongst the persons -successively interested in the property the portions of the charge to -which they are liable. - -The surveyor and officers of sewers are charged with the duty of from -time to time inspecting and seeing to the sufficiency of the means of -drainage and cleansing. By the terms of the contract the contractor is -bound to make good the drains for years, but the tenant will be -liable to make good any wanton damage. - -The Act gives to the owner of the beneficial interest in the premises -the option of executing the prescribed works himself, on giving notice -on or before the of such his intention, and entering into his surety -to execute them within the time prescribed and according to the contract -specifications, to the satisfaction of the officer charged with the -superintendence of the work. - - -30.—_Extracts from Evidence on the Moral and Physical Evils which may be - created by the mode of Hiring and Paying Workmen._ - - (Extract from Evidence given before a Committee of the House of - Commons.) - - CHARLES SAUNDERS. - -What is your occupation?—Coal-whipper. - -Have the goodness to state to the Committee the manner in which coal -whippers are engaged and paid?—I have been in the habit of obtaining a -living by coal whipping for the last 10 years, and when I want -employment, (me and the likes of me of course,) I have to go to the -publican to get a job, to ask him for a job; and he tells me to go and -sit down, and he will give me an answer by and by. I go and sit down, -and if I have 2_d._ in my pocket, of course I am obliged to spend it, -with a view of getting a job; and, probably, when two or three hours -have elapsed, by that time there is about 50 or 60 people come on the -same errand to the same person for a job. He keeps us three or four -hours there; and then he comes out, and he looks round among us, and he -knows those well that can drink the most, and those are the people that -obtain employment first. Those that cannot drink a great deal, and think -more of their family than others do, cannot obtain any employment; those -that drink the most get the most employment. When the men are made up -for the ship, we go to work the next day morning, but we have to take -what the publican calls the allowance, such as a quartern of rum, or -three half-quarterns, or a pot of beer, or what not; then they have to -take a pot of beer off in a bottle on board,—what he calls beer, but not -fit for a man to drink, generally speaking, what I call poison: I have -actually teemed it overboard myself, before I could drink it; I could -not drink it, although I have been sweating and as thirsty as a man -could be, and have put it overboard, and gone and dipped my bottle in a -bucket of water. - -In the after part of the day, when your work was over, where did you go -then?—Then, when we have done our day’s work, we came on shore, and we -had to go into the house again; and perhaps we might want a shilling or -two to get our families a little support; the landlord would tell us to -go and sit down in the tap-room, and he would give us some by and by, -and he would keep us there until nine or ten at night; first, we would -go for a pint or a pot, or what not, to see whether he was getting -ready, for we dare not go empty-handed, without a pot or pint, or to -call for something by way of excuse; after keeping us there until nine -or ten at night, then he would give us 2_s._ 6_d._ or 3_s._ - -Were you obliged to spend money in drink?—Yes. - -Could you not avoid it by any means?—No. - -What would have happened if you had refused to spend money in -drink?—Then we could have no employment; and moreover than that, if you -had had what you thought was requisite, if he did not think it was -sufficient, he would add more than what you had actually contracted for; -and if you refused to pay this, and you said, “I have not had but so -much, I won’t pay it.” “Oh, won’t you; if you do not, here is your -money, what you say it is; go out, and never come in here again.” - -Have you known anybody refused employment because they would not -contribute to the publican’s demand for drink?—Yes, I could find 50. - -Who have lost their employment because they would not drink so much as -the publican wished?—Yes, I could. - -Could you not engage yourself to the captain of the ship without going -to the publican?—No, for the publicans are some of them shipowners, and -they are all intermixed through the trade by one thing and another, so -that the captain or owner of the ship gives the favour to the publican -to employ the whippers. - - - MR. CLAYDON, _Master of the Limehouse Workhouse, belonging to the - Stepney Union_. - -With respect to the labouring classes, have you observed whether, with -respect to any of them, these ill-regulated inclinations are subjected -to unnecessary temptations?—The practice of paying men at public houses, -and making the obtaining employment dependent in a certain measure upon -drinking, which is the case with the coal-whippers. - -Have you ever had occasion as respects the coal-whippers to investigate -those cases?—We did at one period, having an opportunity, investigate -upwards of 40 cases of coal-whippers. - -Those were 40 applicants for relief?—The greater part of them were; 22 -of them were in the immediate receipt of relief at the time the others -were applicants. - -What was the result in those cases?—We took their earnings over a -considerable period, and we found that they had earned, taking the -average, 18_s._ 10_d._ per week. The utmost we could make out that their -families had received of that, in any shape, was 12_s._ 10_d._ per week. -Whatever might have been their family, one-third of it had gone in drink -and those charges which were brought against them. - -Had any of those men earned more than that?—There were instances in -which they had earned 20_s._ a-day. - -And all came upon the pauper list just the same?—Yes, just as destitute -as the rest, saving never seems to enter into their calculation at all. - -Then with respect to this particular class, notwithstanding their -earning wages twice as much as agricultural labourers earn probably, and -which agricultural labourers save money, and are depositors in -savings-banks, these men made no deposits, and no reserve, but the whole -of them fall upon the rates? In one shape or other they receive the -public charity, is that so?—Yes, in fact they have not the means -possessed by other labourers, of pawning anything. I question whether -you could find as much furniture in any one of their houses, as you -could pawn for 2_s._ 6_d._ - -Not even in those cases where they are earning a guinea a-day?—No, they -are all alike destitute, and their families look as dirty and as filthy, -and are as ill-governed, and their houses are as destitute of furniture -as those who earn the smaller sums, there is no difference; and in case -of sickness they come at once upon the parish, unless they sometimes -assist each other a little; but, however, they have no certain means at -all but the parish. Their sicknesses are generally short. In most cases -they are so ill prepared to bear sickness, that they are cut off very -rapidly, and die comparatively young. I do not speak this from actual -experience however. - -Have you seen the cases of the widows, and the children coming in upon -the parish?—Yes, we have 28 cases now. Our present numbers are 425 -children, that is from the whole of the Union; there is only a small -portion of the Union in the coal-whippers’ district, but we have 28 -children directly belonging to them, some of them legitimate, and others -illegitimate; all of that origin that we know decidedly that they are -the produce of those coal-whippers. - -Are the same observations as to the causes of the pauperism of the -adults to be taken as to the causes of the pauperism of the -children?—Yes. The observation is universal. The children cannot have -produced it themselves, but they have the same habits and the same -proneness to indulge the appetites, in fact I think there is a -remarkable deficiency in the consideration of most parents, in that -matter, even of respectable parents; they let their children go to the -confectioners and buy drams, for they are drams in another form, -peppermint and cloves, and so on, made up into articles of -confectionary, and nothing is so likely to produce a depraved appetite, -the transition is so natural from that to ardent spirit. - -With respect to the residences of those classes, the coal-whippers -especially, have you observed whether you have bad any cases of sickness -arising from their state of filthiness, or traceable to it?—I do not -know whether we can attribute it to that, but nothing can be more -likely, although it is impossible to say, for the coal-whipper is very -little at home, still nothing can be conceived more destitute, or more -disgusting than their abodes. - -What are the sorts of children you receive in the house from them with -respect to training or education, that is, of those classes of -coal-whippers?—They are completely uneducated; the generality of them -are very untractable. - -Allowed to run about wild?—Completely. - -No care taken of them?—Not the ordinary care of cleanliness. I had three -in last night, and notwithstanding all our anxiety after economy we were -obliged to burn every rag of their clothes. To cleanse them was out of -the question entirely; that is the case with half that come in to the -workhouse. - - -_Mr. Sargeant_, the relieving officer of the same district. - -Is it not your duty to visit the houses, and to inquire into the cases -of applicants for relief? Yes, it is. - -In doing so, you must trace the causes of the application for -relief?—Yes. - -What is the chief cause you find precede the application for -relief?—Excessive drink. - -In respect to those trammels which it is described that the -coal-whippers are in, what is the consequence as to their households? -how do you find, when you visit those cases, that their houses are -provided?—I would rather sleep in my coal-hole than in any of their -hovels. I went into six houses yesterday, each house contains four -rooms, and in some of those houses there were 30 souls. In the least -house there were 17. - -How many sleep in the same room?—In one room there were four widows and -two children, in the most wretched place imaginable. - -Are quarrels between man and wife frequent?—Yes; through drink. - -Are separations frequent? Yes; separations through drink on the part of -the wife. - -How many cases have you of wives separated from their husbands in the -same way? I have had 15. - -The wives, then, have imbibed the habits of the husbands? Yes. - -Is there no cleanliness on a Sunday? Oh dear, no! - -No attendance to church? No. - -As to the children, what is their condition? The children of most abject -wretchedness. Those poor children are sent out to scour the streets, to -pick up and do anything else they can; and not particular to thieving. - -What the condition of the girls?—The girls, when infants of seven years -of age, are turned out into the streets with fruit and all sorts of -things; when they arrive at the age of 14, go to stay stitching; then -they sit in doors at home with their mother, and so on, until the age of -15 or 16, when they generally become prostitutes. I see it, because I am -always amongst them. I have tried to get them to send those girls out to -service, when they say, “Mr. Sargeant, what am I to do? my husband earns -but little, I am obliged to depend upon what my daughter can do and -myself.” - - -_Mr. Rooke_, the relieving officer of St. George’s in the East. - -I know the poor population of our parish well. I know that a large -proportion of the juvenile delinquents in our streets are coal-whippers’ -children; I have known some of them to be transported. I know also that -the girls, who are coal-whippers’ children, turn out prostitutes; it is -seldom that any of them turn out to be good servants. Delirium tremens -is a frequent complaint amongst the coal-whippers, and it sometimes -extends to madness. There is one girl, for example, Margaret Harley, -aged 25, the daughter of a coal-whipper, who, for the last 10 years, has -always been either in a prison, in our workhouse, or the lunatic asylum; -I do not believe that during that time she has been 10 months out of -either of those places. I know a large proportion of the prostitutes in -our district who, as the children of these improvident classes, have -either been inmates of the house or otherwise chargeable to the public. - ------ - -Footnote 1: - - The Commissioners have no money to remunerate physicians; and those - named should be distinctly informed that the service will be purely - honorary. - -Footnote 2: - - Vide Appendix C. - -Footnote 3: - - See the evidence on this subject taken before the Committee of the - House of Commons, on the sewerage of the metropolis; see also the - evidence of _Mr. Oldfield_, an extensive builder, _post_. - -Footnote 4: - - Vide the evidence of Mr. Dark and Mr. Treble, Appendix. - -Footnote 5: - - Mr. Smith, of Deanston, is of opinion that it would be practicable to - distribute such refuse by irrigation without exposure of the surface - of the fluid in which it is held in suspension. - -Footnote 6: - - Professor Liebig in his work on the “Chemistry of Agriculture,” refers - to various authorities on the practical value of such refuse, who - state that “human urine is, if possible, more husbanded by the Chinese - than night-soil for manure; every farm or patch of land for - cultivation has a tank, where all substances convertible into manure - are carefully deposited, the whole made liquid by adding urine in the - proportion required, and invariably applied in that state.” This is - exactly the process followed in the Netherlands.—See “Outlines of - Flemish Husbandry,” p. 22. “The business of collecting urine and - night-soil employs an immense number of persons, who deposit tubs in - every house in the cities for the reception of the urine of the - inmates, which vessels are removed daily with as much care as our - farmers remove their honey from the hives. When we consider the - immense value of night-soil as a manure, it is quite astounding that - so little attention is paid to preserve it. The quantity is immense - which is carried down by the drains in London to the river Thames, - serving no other purpose than to pollute its waters. A substance which - by its putrefaction generates miasmata may, by artificial means, be - rendered totally inoffensive, inodorous, and transportable, and yet - prejudice prevents these means being resorted to. If,” says the - professor, “we admit that the liquid and solid excrements of man - amount on an average to 1½ lb. daily (5/4 lb. of urine and ¼ lb. - fæces), and that both together contain 3 per cent. of nitrogen; then - in one year they will amount to 547 lbs., which contain 16·41 lbs. of - nitrogen, a quantity sufficient to yield the nitrogen of 800 lbs. of - wheat, rye, oats, or of 900 lbs. of barley.”—(Boussingault) “This is - much more than is necessary to add to an acre of land in order to - obtain, with the assistance of the nitrogen absorbed from the - atmosphere, the richest possible crop every year. Every town and farm - might thus supply itself with the manure which, besides containing the - most nitrogen, contains also the most phosphates, and if rotation of - the crops were adopted, they would be most abundant.”—Edited by Dr. - LYON PLAYFAIR. - -Footnote 7: - - See _post_. - -Footnote 8: - - Treatise on Road Formation and Cleansing. - -Footnote 9: - - See in the Appendix the form of calculation. - -Footnote 10: - - In Paris the greater proportion of the private houses are even now - supplied with water only by water-carriers, and the means of the - immediate conveyance of refuse, by a system of water-closets - communicating through drains to sewers to receptacles for use, could - not have been presented to the consideration of the men of science to - whom the subject was referred. It appears that in the first class of - houses in that city the cesspools were formerly only emptied once in - four or five years, and that it is now considered a great improvement - that they are emptied twice or thrice a-year. But the offensiveness - and the frequent injurious effects from emptying and removing the - contents, has led to the proposal of a plan of closed receptacles or - removable tanks, in which the soil maybe carted away to the place of - deposit for use as manure. The retention, however, of accumulations, - which can only be constantly removed by means of water, and the want - of proper supplies of water laid on in the houses very seriously - disparages the salubrity and habits of the population of that city, as - well as of the towns in this country where the same practice prevails. - -Footnote 11: - - Mr. John Martin, the artist, has endeavoured to direct public - attention to the sewerage of the metropolis, and proposed the erection - of a grand cloaca maxima, and various architectural works along the - Thames, with the meritorious objects of preventing the pollution of - the river, and saving the refuse. His plan was to form a canal on each - bank parallel to the river, so as to intercept the whole of the - sewerage, and convey it to large reservoirs or places of deposit at a - distance. His plan for the north bank was a canal, constructed of - iron, costing 60,000_l._ per mile, extending from Westminster to the - mouth of the Regent’s Canal, “where the grand receptacle should be - from which the soil should be conveyed to barges, and transmitted by - canals to various parts of the country.”—_Committee on Sewers’ - Report_, p. 169. The primary objection to this plan is that it would - send the refuse still further out of the reach of large districts, - where it is wanted as manure, to a place where it would only be - available to the places for which canal conveyance would be - convenient; that it would leave untouched the great obstacle to the - use of manure, namely, the cost of removal and application by cartage - and hand labour. The construction of the canal would also involve the - disturbance of the whole of the wharf property; as originally - proposed, it involved their entire reconstruction, and the erection of - a grand colonnade along the banks of the river. For the removal of the - refuse, engineers of practical experience agree that the most eligible - plan was by various small conduits, not larger, where iron pipes might - be necessary, than the pipes used by the water companies in bringing - water into the metropolis, at a cost not a fifth, perhaps, of one - large canal, and without any disturbance of property. For the - application of the refuse as manure, practical experience at - Edinburgh, and of irrigation elsewhere, shows that the most effectual - mode of distribution for use is by water-meadows or drainage and - irrigation combined; forming an unseen, unostentatious, self-acting - system of excretory ducts, altogether superseding cartage or hand - labour, and conveying the refuse in closed streams, acting constantly - and rapidly until they distribute the refuse into the field of - production. - -Footnote 12: - - A litre is one pint and a twentieth. - -Footnote 13: - - The spread of the knowledge of the fact that animals are subject to - typhus consumption, and the chief of the train of disorders supposed - to be peculiarly human, will, it may be expected, more powerfully - direct attention to the common means of prevention. The following - extract from a report on the labours of the Board of Health at Paris - will show the effect of bad ventilation on cattle:—“The _epizootie_ - are in many respects less serious than the epidemics; nevertheless, as - they often affect the animals which serve for the nutriment of man, - and that apart from this consideration they may have grave - consequences for the public health, they have constantly engaged the - care of the council. In 1834, an _epizootie_ was reported to the - administration which prevailed among the cows of the communes round - Paris, and which caused a great mortality. The researches of the - council established that this _epizootie_ was only a chronic disease, - a true pulmonary phthisis, to which has been given the name of - _pommelière_, and by which the greater part of the cows had been - attacked which fill the stables of the milkmen of Paris and its - environs. According to the council, the principal cause of the evil - was to be attributed to the vicious regimen to which this species of - animal is subjected. It is known that they pass a part of the year in - stables perfectly closed, in which the space is not proportioned to - the number of inmates, in which the vitiated air renews itself with - extreme difficulty, and in which the heat is sometimes suffocating. It - is known, also, that they pass suddenly from the food of the stable to - pasture, and that in this change they go from the hot and humid - atmosphere of the stable to a sudden exposure to the continual - variations of the external air. This alternation of food and of heat - and cold operates as a powerful cause of disease. But as the evil does - not announce itself in a violent manner, as its progress is not very - rapid, as there is even a period in the disease in which the animal is - disposed to get flesh, the cow-feeder, who knows to what point to keep - her, sells her when she is ready to calve. It is in a radius of 30 - leagues from the capital that cows of this kind are purchased by the - jobbers, who supply the milkmen of Paris. With these last they still - hold out a certain number of years, if they are properly cared for, - but in general they are kept in stables which are neither sufficiently - large nor sufficiently airy, where they are exposed to the same causes - which gave birth to the malady. The phthisis arrives insensibly at its - last stage, and carries off every year from Paris and its - neighbourhood a great number of these cows.” A similar discovery was - only lately made as to the effect of defective ventilation on the - cavalry horses in some of the government barracks in England; and it - is stated, that a saving of several thousand pounds per annum was - effected by an easy improvement of the ventilation of the barracks - near the metropolis. An agriculturalist had a large number of sheep - housed to feed them on mangel wurzel, but a great number of them - sickened and died, and he declared that it was the food which had - killed them. A veterinary surgeon, however, who happened to be aware - of the consequences of defective ventilation, pointed out the - remedy,—a better ventilation for the sheep, which were overcrowded. - The defect was remedied; the sheep ate well, and throve upon the - mangel wurzel. - -Footnote 14: - - Vide extracts from the official report in the Appendix. - -Footnote 15: - - The following were the terms of our instructions to the district - medical commissioners of inquiry:—“A given amount of evil is - experienced by a class placed under peculiar circumstances; a large - portion of that evil is shared by other classes not under these - peculiar circumstances; to attribute the whole of the evil experienced - by the first class to those peculiar circumstances is obviously - fallacious. It is conceived that it is only by investigating the - subject with this precaution constantly in the mind that it is - possible to arrive at a just conclusion. While you carefully observe - the effects of labour on the children and the adult workpeople, and - report every case in which you conceive it to be excessive, and state - the reasons on which you ground that opinion, you are requested to - investigate minutely the concurrent causes of ill health. With this - view you are requested in every case to examine and report the state - of the drains in and about the factory: the state of the neighbourhood - of the factory as to dryness or dampness, cleanliness or filthiness: - the state of the houses and neighbourhood in which the children and - adult workpeople take their meals and exercise (if they leave the - factory), and where they sleep: the state of the air within the - factory, and which the workpeople usually respire, whether it be fresh - or whether it be not fresh, owing to deficient ventilation,—whether it - be pure, or whether it be rendered impure by effluvia floating in it, - and if so, what the effluvia are: what organs of the body are likely - to be injured, and what, from careful examination, you find to be - actually injured: the temperature of the air, the highest, the lowest, - and the average temperature, and the condition of the air as to - dryness or moisture.” - -Footnote 16: - - Rapport de la Commission des Epidémies de l’Académie Royale de - Médecine pour l’année 1839 et un partie d’ 1840. Par M. Brichetan, - Secrétaire Rapporteur de la Commission. - -Footnote 17: - - Vide Dr. Barham’s Report on Truro, Appendix. - -Footnote 18: - - These Tables are compiled from deaths which took place in Manchester - during the year 1840; in Leeds during the year 1840; in Liverpool - during the year 1840; in Bath during the year 1839; in Bethnal Green - during the year 1839; in the Strand union during the year 1840; in the - Kendal union during the year ended 30th September, 1841; in the county - of Wilts during the year 1840; and in Rutland during the three years - 1838, 1839, and 1840. - -Footnote 19: - - A brief explanation of the construction of tables of mortality may be - desirable to prevent misapprehensions by those who are unacquainted - with the nature of such evidence. If amongst 4481 who die each year, - as at Leeds, it be found that altogether, man, woman, and child, they - have lived 92,734 years, that number equally divided, without - distinction of the old and young, gives 21 years as the _average - period of life_. The variations of such average periods, as shown by - the tables showing the mean periods of death of a whole population, - are deemed the best test of its condition and progress. The tables of - _proportional mortality_ are such as those of Liverpool, where, out of - 223,054 inhabitants, 7435 die; that is to say, one-thirtieth of the - ascertained population are swept away every year. Such tables only - serve, however, for remote comparison of the condition of different - districts, for it will be perceived how large will be the different - conditions of two communities having exactly the same proportions of - mortality, but in one of which the deaths occur principally amongst - the infant population, and the other in which they occur amongst the - adults. Thus in all the parishes of Leeds, where the average age of - deaths of all who die is 21 years, since the deaths occur chiefly at - young ages amongst the labouring classes, the proportions of the - population who die annually is only 1 in 37. The average age of death, - or the average extent of life to every individual, may go on - increasing, and yet the proportions who die remain the same. Hence it - is that statistical returns of the proportions of death, which are so - generally used, are fundamentally unstable as means of ascertaining - the progressive sanitary condition of a population in different - countries. The _probabilities of life_ at different periods of life on - which insurance companies act, are determined by tables of a different - construction. To form a table of the probabilities of life at given - periods, in 1000 cases say, the date of the birth in each case is - ascertained, and observations are made of how many remain alive at the - end of each year at the different periods of life. From the different - ages at which that 1000 have died, it is held to be probable that - every other 1000 persons similarly circumstanced will die. The - observations on which tables of this description have been founded - have generally been from mixed classes differently circumstanced, and - no observations on a basis sufficiently large, that I am aware, have - been made to determine the probabilities of life to any one class of - workpeople, or to any one class of professional persons. The three - tables of the proportions of deaths at different ages would be of - little service to indicate the probability of life at different ages - unless we could ascertain with exactness the precise numbers of the - classes _living_ from which the deaths have occurred. More than half - the children of the working classes die, and only one-fifth of the - children of the gentry die, before the fifth year of age; and after - having attained that age, the _probabilities of life_ of the - labourer’s child might be greater than that of the child of the person - of the superior classes; but though we have other evidence that the - reverse is the case, we have not the evidence of well-constructed - tables of the probability of life at different periods strictly - applicable to that class. Though the proportions per cent. of those - who die in the higher and in the lower classes approximate in the - periods between 20 and 60 years of age, yet we know that the - probabilities of life in each class at each period are widely - different. The probable duration of life of a miner who had attained - 40 years of age may not be, and we have reason to believe is not, half - that of the agricultural labourer, not one-third that of a person of - the higher ranks who had attained the same period. - -Footnote 20: - - It is the practice in Geneva for female servants to delay marriage - until they have saved enough to furnish a house, &c. In illustration - of this state of things it is stated that in 290 out of 956 marriages, - the female was at the time of marriage older than the male. With - further advances in prosperity, it is anticipated that age of marriage - would again diminish. - -Footnote 21: - - “Out of 100 deaths in the 16th century, 25·92 were children in their - first year; in the 17th century, 23·72; in the 18th century, 20·12; in - 1801–13, they were 16·57; and in 1814–33, they were 13·85.” In - Liverpool, the number of children which in the year 1840 died under - one year of age was no less than 23 per cent., or what it was in - Geneva in the 17th century. In the county of Wilts where the - proportionate mortality is 1 in 58, the deaths of children in the - first year were 16 per cent. Dr. Griffin, in a report on the sanitary - condition of the population of Limerick, where the births appear to - bear such proportions to the marriages as they appear to have borne in - Geneva in the earliest periods, namely, of five children to a - marriage, and more in the worst-conditioned districts, makes an - important observation on the subject: “I find that as the poor nurse - their own children, there is in general an interval of about two years - between the birth of one child and that of the next; but if the child - dies early on the breast, this interval will be much shorter; and if - this occurs often, there will be a certain number born as it were _for - the purpose of dying_; and these being soon replaced, the same number - may still be preserved as if there had been few or no deaths, or only - the ordinary number.” Of these 55 per cent. died. - -Footnote 22: - - The registries in England at present supply no means of distinguishing - the migrant population who die in given places; and in each return a - small proportion of deaths have been omitted where the station of the - party has not been described; but taking as approximations the returns - of the ages of all who die, no district examined appears to present so - high a probability of life as at Geneva. The average age of all who - died in the respective periods before stated appear, from the returns - I have obtained, to be in the county of Rutland 39 years; in the - Kendal union 36; in the county of Wilts 35 years; in Bath 31; in the - Kensington union 30; in the Strand union 28; in the Whitechapel union - 27; in Bethnal-green 21; in Leeds 21; in Manchester 20; in Bolton 19; - in Liverpool 17. By the Northampton Tables the probability of life in - infancy to all born was 25 years; in Carlisle it was 38. - -Footnote 23: - - Some constitutions are found which resist vaccine matter. Here and - there constitutions appear which resist all the noxious influences by - which they are surrounded, and attain extreme old age. Not - unfrequently we find the existence of these solitary individuals - referred to as proofs of the general salubrity of the very - circumstances under which generations have fallen and been buried - around them. It is a singular fact, as yet unexplained, that the - greatest proportion of centenarians are of the labouring classes; and - that instances of them have from time to time appeared amidst the - crowded populations in some of the worst neighbourhoods in London, - where the average duration of life is the lowest. It is remarked by - Mr. Mallet, that in Geneva extreme old age has not participated in the - prolongation of life which has taken place in the less advanced ages. - In the periods of from 60 to 70 years of age the amelioration is - inconsiderable; after 70 years there is no perceptible improvement; - after 80 years the aged have indeed a little less probability of life - at the present time than they had in the 16th century. Centenarians, - who were not rare in the 16th and 17th centuries, now disappear; - during the last 27 years Geneva has not produced a single one. - -Footnote 24: - - _Bibliothèque Universelle, September, 1831._ - - In Alexandria, which is a seat of pestilence, where the Arab - population leave the ordure before their doors (as we have seen large - classes of the lower population do in this country), where the dog is - the only scavenger of the animal refuse (as the pig is in many - districts in our towns), where those who have died of plague remain - unburied for days amidst the abodes of the living (as those who have - died of fever often do in the poorest districts in this - country),—there, under the more powerful action of a burning sun, - disease and death are proportionately rife; and, as shown by some - returns of death in 1841, out of a population of 60,000, the deaths - were 7,017 (of which 1,165 only were from plague), or more than - one-tenth of the population. It is known, however, that in the - well-cleansed and best streets, inhabited by the European and - fluctuating population, the proportion of mortality is not greater - than amidst a similar population in the towns of Europe; but it is - stated that the lower population, notwithstanding that it has been - decimated by the annual mortality, has, within the last quarter of a - century, more than doubled. - -Footnote 25: - - An English military officer, who has had much practice as an engineer, - and who has done much to protect the health of the population of one - of the South American towns, by drainage, whose opinion I took on the - efficiency of measures for cleansing inferior districts, recently - informed me that he should take advantage of a favourable change which - had occurred in one of the recent revolutions, to return to South - America, and try what he agreed was the most efficient course of - proceeding, commencing with the middle classes, by inducing the new - government to undertake works for bringing water into the houses of - the inhabitants, and adopt the self-acting system of cleansing the - poorest districts, and the use of the refuse for distant production, - on the principles established in this Report. - - The authorities in Hamburgh have applied to Mr. Lindley, the engineer, - for a plan for the drainage of that town, and he has recommended for - adoption the same principles, and the application of the refuse for - agriculture, at a distance from the houses, instead of discharging it - into the water which washes the town. - -Footnote 26: - - Dr. Bisset Hawkins, the medical Commissioner in the Factory Inquiry, - stated in his Report, “I believe that most travellers are struck by - the lowness of stature, the leanness and paleness which present - themselves so commonly to the eye at Manchester, and above all, among - the factory classes. I have never been in any town in Great Britain - nor in Europe in which degeneracy of form and colour from the national - standard has been so obvious.” P. 6. From a return obtained in 1836 - and presented to the Manchester Statistical Society, of the cattle - passing the toll-gates and the meat sold in the markets, it appeared - that the consumption exclusively amongst this population could not be - less than 105 lbs. each person annually, man, woman, and child, or 450 - lbs. yearly per family of butchers’ meat alone, exclusively of bacon, - pork, fish, and poultry. The wretched personal appearance of this - population was only equalled by that of the Irish population of St. - Giles, where the man earned from 14_s._ or 16_s._ to 1_l._ per week, - (the wife and child earning something in addition,) but where it is - their habit to live chiefly on potatoes and use little meat. The - effect of a pure atmosphere, independently of diet, is shown in this - population when they go into the country during harvest time. After a - fortnight or three weeks’ absence, in which they will have had little - change of living, except, perhaps, taking less spirits, the whole - family return with the hue of health. - -Footnote 27: - - I have referred to the experience since the year 1801 in France, where - the registration of births amongst the migratory population of the - crowded districts, where the greatest mortality prevails, is likely to - have been as imperfect as in England, but that experience is, on the - whole, confirmatory, and proves that in the worst districts the births - still exceed the mortality. - - ┌─────────────┬─────────────┬─────────────┬─────────────┬─────────────┐ - │ │ Increase of │Proportion of│Proportion of│ Excess of │ - │ │Population in│Births in 35 │Deaths in 35 │ Births over │ - │ │ 35 Years in │ Years to │ Years to │ Deaths in │ - │ │every 10,000 │ 10,000 of │ 10,000 of │ 10,000 of │ - │ │ Persons. │ Population. │ Population. │ Population. │ - ├─────────────┼─────────────┼─────────────┼─────────────┼─────────────┤ - │5 groups of │ │ │ │ │ - │ departments│ 311│ 10,705│ 8,079│ 2,626│ - │ of _lowest │ │ │ │ │ - │ mortality_ │ │ │ │ │ - │6 groups of │ │ │ │ │ - │ departments│ 2,396│ 12,439│ 10,044│ 2,395│ - │ of _mean │ │ │ │ │ - │ mortality_ │ │ │ │ │ - │6 groups of │ │ │ │ │ - │ departments│ 4,190│ 13,024│ 12,350│ 674│ - │ of _highest│ │ │ │ │ - │ mortality_ │ │ │ │ │ - └─────────────┴─────────────┴─────────────┴─────────────┴─────────────┘ - -Footnote 28: - - In recruiting for the French army, the standard is now fixed at 1·566 - metres of height, which is about 5 feet 1½ inches English. - - Fifty years ago, however, the standard height was 5 feet 4 inches - English. - - The English standard is for the Foot Guards 5 feet 6 inches. - - lbs. avoirdupois. - - The mean weight in Belgium (Brussels and environs) - of the man is 140·49 - - In France (Paris and the neighbourhood) - the man is 136·89 - - The mean weight of the Englishman (taken at - Cambridge), from 18 to 25 150·98 - - (In coaches it is usually considered that it - averages 165 lbs.) - - The mean height of the Belgian male is 5 feet 6‑3/10 inches - - The mean height of the Frenchman 5 feet 4 inches - - The mean height of the Englishman 5 feet 9½ inches - - (M. Quetelet and M. Villermé, on the authority of M. Tenon, Annuaire - de l’Obs. de Bruxelles, 1836.) - -Footnote 29: - - The diseases included under “Other Diseases,” include the deaths - registered from a number of miscellaneous causes too numerous to be - specified in the table. - -Footnote 30: - - Where so much independent provision is made, as by clubs, only a part - of the consequences of premature deaths appear on the poor’s roll. The - population of Camborne is less exclusively mining than is Gwennap; but - the records of pauperism in the office afford marks of a general - difference in the condition of the population of the two parishes. - - ┌────────┬───────────────────┬────────────────────┬───────────────────┐ - │ │ │Ratio of Widows and │ │ - │ │Ratio of Paupers to│Women whose Husbands│Cost of Relief per │ - │Parish. │ the whole │have deserted them, │ Head on the whole │ - │ │ Population. │or are transported, │ Population. │ - │ │ │ to the whole │ │ - │ │ │ Population. │ │ - ├────────┼───────────────────┼────────────────────┼─────────┬─────────┤ - │ │ │ │ _s._ │ _d._ │ - │Gwennap │ 1 in 25 │ 1 in 186 │3 │2 │ - │Illogan │ 1 in 35 │ 1 in 346 │2 │2¾ │ - │Camborne│ 1 in 34 │ 1 in 401 │2 │4¾ │ - └────────┴───────────────────┴────────────────────┴─────────┴─────────┘ - -Footnote 31: - - I am informed that regulations on the principle of those we - recommended, under the Factory Commission for the Protection of Adult - Workmen from the consequences of Accidents, are now adopted in the - Prussian code, and practically enforced. - -Footnote 32: - - An Act made in Ireland the 3rd year of his present Majesty “for better - preventing the severities, &c., has the following clause:—“Whereas - many infectious disorders are daily produced by the confinement of - numbers in close prisons, whereunto there is no back-yard adjoining, - and the lives of his majesty’s subjects are endangered by the bringing - of prisoners into public streets for air; be it enacted—That every - grand jury at the assizes or quarter sessions may be enabled, and they - are hereby required and directed to contract either by lease, or to - purchase a piece of ground next adjoining the gaol, or as near as - conveniently can be had thereto, and cause to be erected necessary - houses, and a wall sufficient for the security of the said - prisoners.”” - -Footnote 33: - - Thirty-three males who were imprisoned for six months gained 37 lbs. - total weight; five females gained 19 lbs.; twenty-two males, confined - during twelve months, gained 3 lbs.; eight females, during the same - period, gained 5 lbs.; seven males in eighteen months gained 24 lbs.; - and two females 10 lbs. At Edinburgh also they were weighed, and, on - the whole, they gained. See Appendix, statement of the periods of - confinement and weight of prisoners at the commencement and - termination of their imprisonment. - -Footnote 34: - - It is observed by Dr. Wilson, in reference to the mortality in the - navy, that “the mortality from wounds is inconsiderable compared with - that occasioned by disease. Much misconception has prevailed on this - subject in the public mind. Deaths in action, by the general - excitement attending them, from being published in official despatches - and perpetuated in gazettes, make more than a due impression; for it - is found, when accurately reckoned, that they are few in comparison - with those resulting from ordinary diseases. Sir G. Blane, when - writing under the common impression, and without the corrections of - figures, alleges that half the mortality in war periods is - attributable to wounds received in battle and other external causes; - but he gives a very different account when he dismisses - unauthenticated notions to deal with numerical facts. He then states, - that from 1780 till 1783, though in that period, besides single - actions, engagements with forts, &c., the great battle of the 12th of - April was fought, the mortality from disease, compared with that from - external causes, was as 3 to 1; in 1779, according to his statement, - the former was to the latter as 8 to 1.” During the last 41 months of - the peninsular war, whilst 24,930 privates died of disease, only 8899 - died of wounds, or were killed in battle. The deaths during the - campaign were,—of the privates in battle, 4·2 per cent.; of disease, - 11·9 per cent.: of officers, in battle, 6·6 per cent.; of disease, 3·7 - per cent. per annum. The average deaths in four battles, Talavera, - Salamanca, Vittoria, and Waterloo, were 3·9 per cent. of officers, - 2·11 of privates. In the peninsular war there were generally 22½ per - cent. of men absent on account of sickness; and a reduction of the - proportions of sick to 6 per cent. would have set free 10,000 men from - the hospitals to be added to the effective force of the - army.—_Official Returns._ The highest increased charge for insurance - of military men during the peninsular campaign was 10 guineas per - cent. The extra premiums taken on the insurance of military lives on - service in India and China are from 3 to 5 guineas per cent., - governed, however, by the unfavourable chances of the climate to which - the campaign leads, as well as by the increased risks from battle. The - extra premiums on naval officers in hostile service is usually from 3 - to 5 guineas per cent., governed by the consideration of the climate. - -Footnote 35: - - _Vide_ Appendix for estimate and detailed specification. From some - recent experiments made with the egg-shaped sewers or main drains, it - appears that drains of sufficient size might be made at one-third less - than the price for sewers in the annexed estimate. In many instances, - main drains costing one-half the sum would suffice. - -Footnote 36: - - As an instance of the little account the manufacturing workpeople have - made of such charges, it is mentioned by Sir Charles Shaw that, on the - introduction of the new police force into Manchester, he found the - workpeople in the habit of paying 6_d._ per week each to the old watch - for calling them up. He put a stop to the practice, as being one which - interfered with the regular duties of the police, and as being founded - on a habit which might be corrected. The employers, however, - complained of the interruption of the practice, and requested that it - might be renewed. Sir Charles, considering that 6_d._ was too high a - charge, offered to allow the police to call up the workpeople at 2_d._ - per week each, provided the masters, to save the trouble of the weekly - collection, deducted the amount from the weekly wages, and paid it - over to the police fund. The answer to the proposal was, that the - workpeople would sooner pay 6_d._ of their own accord than have 1_d._ - deducted from their wages by their masters. - -Footnote 37: - - The experience of France is precisely similar. In a work of great - authority on the lower classes of that country, it is stated that the - secret of the existence of so many filthy, infected, and miserable - habitations, is simply that the persons who pay two sous for their - lodging at night spend ten sous on brandy by day. - -Footnote 38: - - A butter merchant informed me that the value of the Irish butter was - deteriorated to a greater extent than they were aware of, from its - being frequently made in close smoky hovels instead of in clean and - well-ventilated dairies, as in England. - -Footnote 39: - - In an inquiry, from house to house, into the condition of the - labouring population in the parishes of St. Margaret and St. John - Westminster, it was found that, out of a total of 5366 houses, 2352 - were occupied for terms under one year, and that no less than 1834 had - been occupied during periods from one to six months only. - -Footnote 40: - - It appears that the mortality for five years, ending 1839, was in - Catrine 1 to 54.20, whilst in Glasgow for the same period it was 1 to - 31. - -Footnote 41: - - Mohl. Polizei-Wissenschaft, vol. i. page 135, Note. - -Footnote 42: - - “Or shall on the said bridge, or in any street or place within the - distance aforesaid (all the legislation was restricted to “fifty - yards”) from either end thereof, hoop, fire, cleanse, wash, or scald - any cask or tub; or hew, saw, or cut any stone, wood or timber; or - bore any timber; or make or repair, or wash or clean any coach, - chaise, waggon, sledge or other carriage, or the wheel, body, springs, - or other part of any coach, chaise, waggon, sledge, or other carriage - (except such as may want immediate repair from any sudden accident on - the spot, and which cannot be conveniently removed for that purpose); - or wet, slack, or mix any lime; or wet, mix or make any mortar; or - shoe, bleed, or farry any horse or other beast, unless in case of - sudden accident; or clean, dress, drive, or turn loose any horse, or - other beast, or cattle; or show or expose any stallion or stonehorse; - or show or expose, or exercise or expose to sale any horse or other - beast; or kill or slaughter, or scald, singe, dress or cut up any - animal, either wholly or in part; or cause or permit any blood to run - from any slaughter-house, butcher’s-shop or shamble into any of the - streets or places within the distance aforesaid from the said bridge; - or shall sell or assist in selling by auction or public sale, any - cattle, goods, wares, merchandize, or thing or things whatsoever; or - hang up or expose to sale, or cause or permit to be hanged up, placed - or exposed to sale, any goods, wares, or merchandize whatever, or any - fruit, vegetables, or garden-stuff, butchers’ meat, or other matter or - thing upon the said bridge; or in, or upon, or so as to project over - or upon the footway or carriage-way of the said streets or places - within the distance aforesaid, or beyond the line, or on the outside - of the window or windows of the house, shop, or place at which the - same shall be so hanged up, placed, or exposed to sale, or so as to - obstruct or incommode the passage of any person or carriage: or leave - open after sunset the door or window of any cellar, or other - underground room or apartment, without having placed or left a - sufficient light therein to warn and prevent persons passing in the - streets and public places within the distance aforesaid from the said - bridge, from falling into such cellars or other underground rooms or - apartments; or bait, or cause to be baited any bull or other animal; - or throw at any cock or fowl in the manner called cock-throwing, or - set up any fowl to be thrown at in such manner; or play at foot-ball, - or at any other game on the said bridge, or within such distance as - aforesaid, to the annoyance of any inhabitant or inhabitants, or - passenger or passengers,” * * * * “or wilfully permit or suffer any - horse, or other beast or cattle which such person may be riding or - driving, or leading, to go thereon; or shall tie or fasten any horse - or other cattle to any house, wall, fence, post, tree, or other thing - whatsoever, across any of the highways, footways, or foot-pavements of - the said bridge, or within the distance aforesaid.” - -Footnote 43: - - Pay of the corps of Royal Engineers for the United Kingdom of Great - Britain and Ireland, consisting of 241 officers, viz.—5 - colonels-commandant, at 2_l._ 14_s._ 9½_d._ per diem each; 10 - colonels, at 1_l._ 6_s._ 3_d._ ditto; 20 lieutenant-colonels, at - 18_s._ 1_d._ ditto; 5 lieutenant-colonels, at 16_s._ 1_d._ ditto; 40 - captains, at 11_s._ 1_d._ ditto; 40 second captains, at 11_s._ 1_d._ - ditto; 80 first lieutenants, at 6_s._ 10_d._ ditto; 40 second - lieutenants, at 5_s._ 1_d._ ditto;—total, 48,093_l._ - - Pay of the corps of Royal Sappers and Miners for general service, - consisting of 961 men, officers included; viz.—Staff: 1 brigade-major, - at 10_s._ per diem; 1 adjutant, at 10_s._ ditto; 1 quarter-master, at - 8_s._ ditto; 2 serjeant-majors, at 4_s._ 6½_d._ ditto each; 3 - quarter-master serjeants, at 4_s._ 0½_d._ ditto; 1 bugle-major, at - 4_s._ 0½_d._ ditto;—total 972_l._ One company consisting of—1 colour - serjeant. at 3_s._ 0½_d._ per diem; 3 serjeants, at 2_s._ 6½_d._ ditto - each; 4 corporals, at 2_s._ 2½_d._ ditto; 4 second corporal, at 1_s._ - 10¾_d._ ditto; 75 carpenters, masons, bricklayers, smiths, wheelers, - coopers, collar-makers, painters, tailors, miners, and 2 buglers, at - 1_s._ 2½_d._ per diem each;—total 3,465_l._—_Ordnance Estimates_ for - 1841. - -Footnote 44: - - It may be of interest to observe that as the whole population grows in - age, the annual increase in numbers may be deemed to be equivalent to - an annual increase of numbers of the average ages of the community. If - they were maintained on the existing average of territory to the - population in England, the additional numbers would require an annual - extension of one fifty-seventh of the present territory of Great - Britain, possessing the average extent of roads, commons, hills, and - unproductive land. The extent of new territory required annually would - form a county larger than Surrey, or Leicester, or Nottingham, or - Hereford, or Cambridge, and nearly as large as Warwick. To feed the - annually increased population, supposing it to consume the same - proportions of meat that is consumed by the population of Manchester - and its vicinity, (a consumption which appears to me to be below the - average of the consumption in the metropolis,) the influx of 230,000 - of new population will require for their consumption an annual - increase of 27,327 head of cattle, 70,319 sheep, 64,715 lambs, and - 7894 calves, to raise which an annual increase of upwards of 81,000 - acres of good pasture land would be required. Taking the consumption - of wheat or bread to be on the scale of a common dietary, _i. e._, 56 - oz. daily for a family of a man, woman, and three children, then the - annual addition of supply of wheat required will be about 105,000 - quarters, requiring 28,058 acres of land, yielding 30 bushels of wheat - to an acre; the total amount of good land requisite for raising the - chief articles of food will therefore be in all about 109,000 acres of - good pasture land annually. If the increase of production obtained by - the use of the refuse of Edinburgh (that is, of 3900 oxen from one - quarter of the refuse of Edinburgh) be taken as the scale of - production obtainable by appropriate measures, the refuse of the - metropolis alone that is now thrown away would serve to feed no less - than 218,288 oxen annually, which would be equivalent to the produce - of double that number of acres of good pasture land. - -Footnote 45: - - Vide Report. - -Footnote 46: - - By the statute of 1 and 2 Wm. IV. c. 57, power was given to - undertakers to contract for the improvement of land in Ireland, on - condition that they should receive a profit which was in no case to - exceed 15_l._ per cent. on the outlay. The undertakers, on the consent - of two-thirds of the proprietors or of the lessees, were to apply to - the Lord-lieutenant for a commission. Individual proprietors or - lessees, not exceeding six in number, upon receiving the assent of - two-thirds of the proprietors or lessees, might also apply for a - commission. To the reason above assigned for the failure, these must - be added—that the machinery of the Act is considered complicated; that - it nevertheless contained no provisions for ascertaining boundaries, - without which in Ireland it would be unsafe to raise any annuity upon - the lands; that the mode of repayment, _i. e._, that if the landlords - did not within a certain time pay the gross sum assessed, the - undertakers were entitled to a redeemable annuity upon the lands - drained; but there was no provision to compel the landowners to pay - the gross sum, and the annuities might be small and numerous. - -Footnote 47: - - Except in endeavouring to give more emphatic recommendations as to the - importance of making all the paid officers really responsible, I - should not vary the representation I had then the honour to make in - respect to the means of giving efficiency to local administration. - “With respect to the allusion of Mr. Earle, as to the cry of - centralization, I conceive that it is a cry to which the few who use - it can attach no definite ideas, and it has certainly had little - influence except with the most ignorant. The phrase has been used - abroad against the destruction of the authority of local - administrative bodies, and the substitution of an inefficient and - _irresponsible_ agency by the general government. But even abroad, all - those who call themselves the friends of popular liberty do not - declaim against centralization, but against _irresponsibility_. Here - the phrase is used against a measure by which strong local - administrative bodies of representatives have been created over the - greater part of the country, where nothing deserving the name of - systematised local administration has heretofore existed. The central - board may be described as an agency necessary for consolidating and - preserving the local administration, by communicating to each board - the principles deducible from the experience of the whole; and, in - cases such as those in which its intervention is now actually sought, - acting so as to protect the administration being torn by disputes - between members of the same local board; between a part or a minority - of the inhabitants and the board, and between one local board and - another, and in numerous other cases affording an appeal to a distant - and locally disinterested, yet highly responsible authority, which may - interpose to prevent the local administrative functions being torn or - injured by local dissentions. I feel confident that the more the - subject is examined, the more clearly it will be perceived that the - great security for the purity and improvement of local administration - must depend on a central agency.” - -Footnote 48: - - The parish doctors in England were often paid only 20_l._ per annum - for attendance in parishes of considerable extent. The payments to - medical officers who have their private practice are generally - quadrupled, as compared with the parish doctors. The medical - arrangements in Glasgow will illustrate the frequent state of the - existing arrangements in Scotland. The burgh of Glasgow, exclusive of - the suburbs, is divided into 12 districts, to each of which a medical - practitioner is appointed, who is paid for his services out of the - poor’s rates. Dr. Cowan stated of them in his report,—“The duties of - the district surgeons are laborious and dangerous. Nearly all of them - take fever, which involves a heavy pecuniary loss. Their salary is - less than 21_l._ per annum, being less than 1_s._ for the treatment of - each case.” For an equivalent district in population under the New - Poor Law in England, namely, in Lambeth, there are four out-door - medical officers, at salaries of 107_l._ each, and two in-door medical - officers, at salaries of 128_l._ each. They have in addition their - private practice and fees for vaccination, and special cases. The - usual rate of medical allowance to the resident medical officers of - dispensaries, who are excluded from private practice, has been from - 60_l._ to 70_l._ per annum. - -Footnote 49: - - After the great fire of London, had the plan of Sir Christopher Wren - been adopted for the reconstruction of the City, that circumstance - would have saved the great expenses which have lately been incurred in - rendering the communications commodious; but no price could now - achieve the conveniences and facilities which his plan would have - conferred on the inhabitants during the long interval. - -Footnote 50: - - The Nungate is situated along the edge of the mill-pool. - -Footnote 51: - - In dry weather the abrasion of the stones is much less. - -Footnote 52: - - Scotland Yard, Finsbury Circus, and the north side of St. Paul’s - Churchyard afford partial illustrations of this arrangement. - -Footnote 53: - - General Average. - -Footnote 54: - - Mr. Terry, who is a very extensive farmer in Cookham, and was present - during this inquiry, explained this, and, in corroboration of Mr. - Whateley’s evidence on this point, stated that he, as a farmer, could - not make any profit by growing pigs beyond a certain size. The only - advantage which he had from keeping them was in using them to collect - the refuse corn, which would otherwise be trodden under foot at the - barn-door and rendered unmarketable; the office of the pig was to - gather up this refuse, and convert it into a marketable commodity, - pork. To fat the pigs beyond a certain size required more than the - refuse of the farm-yard; and, therefore, would not pay the farmer. It - was therefore, the practice of the farmers to sell the pigs to the - millers, who were enabled to fat them on another description of - refuse. Now if the labouring man kept a pig, as he had no farm-yard, - and no refuse to feed it with, he must either buy the food or steal - it. If he were honest and bought the food, his pork would, as Mr. - Whateley has stated, cost much more than he could buy it for. A pig - could only be kept on the produce of such a piece of land as a - labourer could not well cultivate whilst he attended to his other - duties. In this state of things, the temptation to pilfer for the - support of the pig was considerable. Other witnesses incidentally - corroborated this statement, and I found that with many farmers the - circumstance of a labouring man having a pig was an objection to - giving him employment. The Rev. Mr. Faithful, of Hatfield, Herts, - stated, as the result of his observation, that the keeping of pigs was - decidedly not profitable to cottagers; and such was the temptation to - steal which their possession of pigs created, that he had known a - labourer, who had a pig given to him, to steal from the donor the wood - to make its sty, the straw to litter it, and the food to feed it. The - farmers ridiculed the prevalent statements as to the small cost at - which pigs could be kept,—statements commonly made to the gentry by - roguish rustics, who profited by these delusions; a pig was not - accommodating enough to fatten on less for the cottager than for the - farmer. - - A friend, who writes from Wiltshire, observes,—“I cannot make out who - it is that does fatten pigs to a profit. I asked a brewer the other - day if, with his grains, he did not make it answer; and he told me - that, on the contrary, he was always out of pocket, and only kept a - pig for the pleasure of eating his own pork. ‘Private individuals,’ he - added, ‘feed their pigs with what should rather be called spoilt malt - than grains. I cannot afford to do that; I must get out all the - goodness for my beer, and then there is not sufficient nutriment left - to fatten without the addition of things which I must purchase.’ It is - not unlikely that many persons, who fancied they kept pigs to a - profit, have fed them on this ‘spoilt malt,’ in ignorance that they - were, in fact, giving their swine valuable beer instead of refuse - grains.” - - A gentleman, speaking of such appendages to labourers’ tenements in a - manufacturing district, states,—“Formerly most of our houses had them, - but they are terrible things for getting out of repair, and we are - pulling them down a good deal, and clearing the ground; for I know, - from intelligent, clear-headed workmen, that the manufacturing - families cannot grow their pork nearly so cheap as they can buy it. - The trade in bacon is quite different to what it was 20 or 30 years - ago. Now it is a great business, and the quantity of the improved - Irish pigs brought even into smallish cottages is very large. In such - villages where yard-room is not very large, swill and manure make a - terrible stink. Only such of our people keep pigs as have a fondness - for it, and as a sort of hobby, but believing that it does not pay.” - -Footnote 55: - - The plan of Gourlier was simply to divide the receptacle into two - parts, an upper compartment and a lower. The contents of the - water-closet were discharged into the upper portion, and the water - drained into the lower, through holes pierced in the partition. In the - barrack plan there was no division in the receptacle, but, instead, a - leaden pipe pierced with holes was carried perpendicularly through the - midst of it, into which the water filtered from the receptacle, and - was conducted anywhere at pleasure. Neither of these systems obviated - two principal evils—the necessity to empty the receptacles, and the - stagnation of the water, from the night-soil, round the foundations of - the houses, from whence it worked its way up into the walls. The - annoyance always felt from the removal of night-soil in Paris, and the - ineffectual efforts of scientific men, for a long course of years, to - discover a remedy, is a sufficient proof of the imperfection of all - other methods except sewers. There has never indeed been a question - that this last system was incomparably the best. But it has not - occurred to men of science at Paris, that there could be any other - outlet for the sewers besides the Seine, and the popular apprehension - that the water would by this means be polluted, combined with the - unwillingness to sacrifice the manure, have been always viewed as - fatal objections.—_Translator._ - -Footnote 56: - - The disinfection is produced by mixing the night-soil with calcined - mud, or burned turf, or saw-dust, or refuse tan, and various other - substances. A commission of the Conseil de Salubrité found that a - large barrel of fecal matter was deprived of all smell in five minutes - by this process; and even putrefied entrails, the severest test by - which it could be tried, yielded equally to its influence. The - commission, however, doubted the success of the application where the - water was in large proportions.—_Translator._ - -Footnote 57: - - Classes Dangereuses, tom. ii., p. 126. - -Footnote 58: - - Parent Duchâtelet, de la Prostitution, tom. i. p. 504. - -Footnote 59: - - Classes Dangereuses, tom. i., p. 135. - -Footnote 60: - - Even in case of the existence of water companies for the supply of - towns, there should still be public springs or wells, which would - furnish at least the absolutely necessary quantity of water, free of - _all_ expense. In this case, any one who wished to have greater - abundance, or wished the water to be introduced into his house, might - have it by paying for it. - -Footnote 61: - - The instances of towns having gained very essentially by drainage are - Stuttgard, which has, in consequence, entirely lost a peculiar endemic - fever; and Pavia which, by the filling up of the city ditches, has had - its average duration of life much raised. - -Footnote 62: - - Supposing the number to be 1½ daily out of 170, that would give little - more than half a week’s sickness yearly to each individual employed. - This is a very low average. The sickness found to prevail in ordinary - times amongst the labouring population of two parishes in Westminster - was at the rate of between 5 and 6 days to each individual. The - sickness of the Metropolitan Police is 10½ per annum to each - individual. The proportionate mortality of 13 annually out of 550 is 1 - to 42, which it will also be perceived, on reference to the standards - previously given, is a low proportion of mortality for a manufacturing - population. - -Footnote 63: - - Dr. Currie’s Medical Reports, chap. xxii. Liverpool, 1797. - -Footnote 64: - - Formerly the mortality on board convict ships amounted to 50 and even - 60 per cent. during the voyage; under the more recent arrangements - they have amounted only to about 1½ per cent.—E. C. - -Footnote 65: - - Ten has been the average deaths, taking the last three years. - -Footnote 66: - - I am of opinion that this Table does not afford sufficient data to - warrant general conclusions being deduced from it after the age of 36, - as the number of prisoners above that age is too small. In proof of - this it may be stated that one person experienced 18 days’ sickness - out of the 30 days in the class from 41 to 46, and that another had 18 - days’ sickness out of the 36 in the class from 56 to 61, while in the - class 76 to 81, one person experienced 3 days, being the whole - sickness. J. SMITH. - - - - - LONDON: - - Printed by WILLIAM CLOWES and SONS, Stamford Street, - - For Her Majesty’s Stationery Office. - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - - - TRANSCRIBER’S NOTES - - - 1. Added page numbers for the major headings in the Contents. - 2. Silently corrected typographical errors and variations in spelling. - 3. Archaic, non-standard, and uncertain spellings retained as printed. - 4. Enclosed italics font in _underscores_. - 5. 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