summaryrefslogtreecommitdiff
path: root/64900-0.txt
diff options
context:
space:
mode:
authorRoger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org>2025-10-14 18:11:01 -0700
committerRoger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org>2025-10-14 18:11:01 -0700
commitcdfc9da5e0357d3937785d798b3fca7af4b0c924 (patch)
treec29dfeb52ac50f0c3189e26a8aea709a297435f4 /64900-0.txt
initial commit of ebook 64900HEADmain
Diffstat (limited to '64900-0.txt')
-rw-r--r--64900-0.txt8126
1 files changed, 8126 insertions, 0 deletions
diff --git a/64900-0.txt b/64900-0.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ab0560e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/64900-0.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,8126 @@
+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 64900 ***
+
+ THE SPANISH SERIES
+
+ TOLEDO
+
+
+
+
+ THE SPANISH SERIES
+
+ _EDITED BY ALBERT F. CALVERT_
+
+
+ GOYA
+ TOLEDO
+ MADRID
+ SEVILLE
+ MURILLO
+ CORDOVA
+ VELAZQUEZ
+ THE PRADO
+ THE ESCORIAL
+ ROYAL PALACES OF SPAIN
+ GRANADA AND ALHAMBRA
+ SPANISH ARMS AND ARMOUR
+ LEON, BURGOS & SALAMANCA
+ VALLADOLID, OVIEDO, SEGOVIA,
+ ZAMORA, AVILA & ZARAGOZA
+
+
+
+
+ TOLEDO
+
+ AN HISTORICAL AND DESCRIPTIVE
+ ACCOUNT OF
+ THE “CITY OF GENERATIONS,”
+ BY ALBERT F. CALVERT, WITH
+ OVER 500 ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+
+ LONDON: JOHN LANE, THE BODLEY HEAD
+ NEW YORK: JOHN LANE COMPANY MCMVII
+
+
+ Printed by BALLANTYNE & CO. LIMITED
+ Tavistock Street, London
+
+
+ TO
+ S.A. INFANTA MARIA TERESA
+ IN WHOSE SYMPATHY
+ THE ANCIENT GRANDEUR IS LINKED WITH
+ THE FUTURE GREATNESS OF SPAIN
+ THIS VOLUME
+ WITH AN ASSURANCE OF SINCERE ESTEEM
+ IS DEDICATED
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+The author would, in the ordinary way, be hard put to it to frame a
+reasonable apology for compiling a new volume on the subject of the
+ancient and royal city of Toledo. Artists have reproduced its wonder of
+imposing and picturesque detail; archæologists have explored its many
+monuments; historians have discovered in its archives a record which,
+for many centuries, represents the log-book of Spain. There is no
+secret, apart from the impenetrable mystery of its origin, which has not
+been revealed; its chronicle is a well-thumbed volume. The beginnings of
+Spanish history go no further back than the earliest references we have
+to the natural stronghold founded on the seven rocks on the banks of the
+Tagus, and Spanish tradition claims for the citadel an antiquity coeval
+with the sun and stars. Both the history and the legends have been
+transcribed in many languages, yet, in a series which is intended to
+embrace all Spain in its compendious design, the inclusion of the
+twice-told tale of the “city of generations” carries with it an
+unquestionable justification.
+
+The ambition of the author has not been to throw fresh light on a
+well-worn subject, nor to supplement the work of earlier and more
+erudite writers with new facts or theories, but simply, as in the case
+of the earlier volumes in this series, to equip the illustrations with a
+brief, explanatory text. It would be futile to attempt to even outline
+the story of Toledo in some hundred and fifty pages of letterpress, but
+I hope it may be found that in this limited space sufficient detail has
+been given to convey to the reader a general idea of the changing
+fortunes and unchanging character of the city, which Padilla has
+described as “the crown of Spain, the light of the world, free from the
+time of the mighty Goths.”
+
+The impression of grandeur and melancholy, of strength and silence,
+which the traveller receives from a visit to the one-time capital of the
+Peninsula, cannot be suggested by the written word, but it may be that
+the illustrations will recall, if they do not suggest, the feeling which
+the city inspires. Toledo is mediæval in its architecture and its
+atmosphere. The Moorish occupation has left no more than a scratch upon
+its Gothic character; the spirit of modernity has been defied by its
+virile antiquity. But the Moslem remains have been made a feature of the
+illustrations, and, as in the volumes devoted to Seville, Cordova, and
+Granada in this series, the intricacies of Arabian decoration have been
+extensively reproduced.
+
+Many of the plates are included here by the courtesy of Messrs.
+Alguacil, Rafael Garzon, Hauser and Menet, and Moreno, and to these
+gentlemen I tender my sincere thanks for the permission accorded me to
+reproduce them. I have also to acknowledge my indebtedness to Mr. E. B.
+d’Auvergne for the assistance rendered by him in the compilation, and to
+Messrs. Martin and Gamoneda for their kindness in allowing me to make
+use of the matter and illustrations contained in the volume on _Toledo_
+which they have published in the new series of the _Monumentos
+Arquitectónicos de España_.
+
+I venture to hope that no apology is needed for including the chapter on
+El Greco, and the selection of his pictures, which appear in this
+volume. A separate book, devoted entirely to this subject, which will be
+issued in this series, cannot be ready for some time, and as so little
+has been written about Domeniko Theotokopouli, and so few of his
+pictures have been reproduced, I have decided to incorporate these brief
+notes concerning the Cretan painter, whose association with Toledo
+extended over a period of nearly forty years.
+
+ A. F. C.
+
+
+“ROYSTON,”
+
+ SWISS COTTAGE,
+
+ N.W.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+ PAGE
+
+THE CHILDHOOD OF THE CITY 1
+
+THE CITY UNDER THE VISIGOTHS 8
+
+TOLEDO UNDER THE MOOR 29
+
+TOLEDO THE CAPITAL OF CASTILE 59
+
+BUILDINGS OF THE CASTILIAN PERIOD 83
+
+THE CATHEDRAL 101
+
+THE DECLINE OF THE CITY 130
+
+EL GRECO 147
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+
+ TITLE PLATE
+
+Toledo. (_Specially drawn for The Spanish Series_) 1
+
+General View of Toledo from the South-east 2
+
+View of Toledo from the South-east 3
+
+General View of Toledo 4
+
+View of Toledo from the Campo del Rey 5
+
+General View of Toledo 6
+
+State of the Ruins of the Circo Maximo in the Year
+1848, according to the “Album Artistico” 7
+
+The River Tagus 8
+
+Bridge of Alcantara 9
+
+Perspective of St. Martin’s Bridge and the Direction
+of the Fortified Lines 10
+
+Perspective View of the Site of the Aqueduct 11
+
+Environs of Toledo 12
+
+Plaza de Zocodover 13
+
+The Town Hall 14
+
+The Market-place 15
+
+The Market-place 16
+
+A Street in Toledo 17
+
+A Street in Toledo 18
+
+A Street in Toledo 19
+
+A Street in Toledo 20
+
+A Street in Toledo 21
+
+A Street in Toledo 22
+
+A Street in Toledo 23
+
+A Street in Toledo 24
+
+Visagra Gate 25
+
+A Street in Toledo 26
+
+A Street in Toledo 27
+
+Bridge of Alcantara 28
+
+Alcantara Gate 29
+
+Alcantara Portal and Bridge 29
+
+Exterior of the Northern City Walls 30
+
+Fortifications of the old Bridge of Boats, replaced by
+the Bridge of St. Martin 31
+
+Remains of the City Walls of “Al-Hizém,” from the
+Gate of the Doce Cantos to the Plaza de Armas of
+the Bridge of Alcantara 32
+
+Remains of the City Walls, south-west, rebuilt at the
+Time of the Reconquest 33
+
+Remains of the Roman Ramparts of the first Enclosure
+of the City 34
+
+Remains of the Roman Ramparts of the first Enclosure
+of the City. (Plaza de Armas of the Bridge of
+Alcantara) 35
+
+Visigoth Capital transformed into a Fountain Basin.
+(No. 9, Callejon de la Lamparilla) 35
+
+Principal Entrance to the House of the Baths of Aben-Ya-Yix
+Bajada al Colegio del Infantes 36
+
+Sepulchral Arch of the Infante don Fernando Perez
+in the Belen Chapel in the Convent of the Comendadora
+de Santiago 36
+
+Ruins of Polan Castle. Fourteenth Century 37
+
+Guadamar Castle 38
+
+Remains of the Roman Ramparts of the first Enclosure
+of the City 39
+
+The Exterior Walls 40
+
+Remains of the Fortifications in the Jewish Suburb 40
+
+Gate of the “Almofala” (Bib-al-Mojadha) rebuilt in
+the Fourteenth Century 41
+
+“The Abbot’s Tower” in the Northern Walls 41
+
+Ruins of the Aquaria Tower, commonly called “Horno
+del Vidrio” 42
+
+Remains of the Aqueduct (left bank of the river) 43
+
+Remains of the Aqueduct (right bank of the river) 43
+
+Remains of the Roman Construction in the Tower of
+the Plaza de Armas of the Bridge of Alcantara 44
+
+Bridge of Alcantara 45
+
+East Side of the Bridge of Alcantara 46
+
+Posterior Façade of the defensive Tower of the Bridge
+of Alcantara 47
+
+Defensive Tower of the Bridge of Alcantara. Anterior
+Façade 48
+
+Alcantara Gate 49
+
+Commemorative Inscription in the Avenue of the
+Defensive Tower of the Bridge of Alcantara 50
+
+Coat-of-Arms of the Catholic Sovereigns in front of
+the Defensive Tower of the Bridge of Alcantara 51
+
+“The Khalif’s Capitals” at No. 13 Calle del Coliseo 51
+
+Perspective of the Bridge of Alcantara 52
+
+St. Martin’s Bridge 53
+
+St. Martin’s Bridge 54
+
+Façade of Santa Cruz 54
+
+Defensive Towers at the Entrance of St. Martin’s
+Bridge and the Town 55
+
+Restored Posterior Façade of the Arch de La Sangre 55
+
+Remains of the Aqueduct (right bank) 56
+
+East Side of St. Martin’s Bridge 57
+
+Defensive Tower of St. Martin’s Bridge. Façade seen
+from the Bridge 58
+
+Defensive Tower of St. Martin’s Bridge. Façade seen
+from the Highway 58
+
+Malbardón Gate. Eleventh Century 59
+
+Visagra Gate 60
+
+Upper Part of the Visagra Gate. Built in 1550 61
+
+Tower in the City Walls of “The Suburb of San Isidoro,”
+near the new Visagra Gate 62
+
+Hydraulic Machine and Remains of the Walls in the
+Quarter of the Curtidores, near the River 63
+
+Walls of the Suburb of San Isidore 63
+
+Ancient Visagra Gate 64
+
+Ancient Visagra Gate. The Side which joins the Wall
+and the side Defensive Tower 65
+
+Ancient Visagra Gate. Defensive and Side Tower 66
+
+Ancient Visagra Gate. Remains of the Eastern Façade 67
+
+Detail of the Principal Façade of the old Visagra Gate 68
+
+Interior of the old Visagra Gate 68
+
+Ancient Visagra Gate 69
+
+The Tower called “Puerta Baja de la Herreria,” now
+“Gate of the Sun” 70
+
+Castle of San Servando 71
+
+Castle of San Servando. Ancient Entrance in the West
+Façade 72
+
+Castle of San Servando. South-east Angle 72
+
+Door of the Castle in San Servando 73
+
+Gate of Valmadron 74
+
+Gate of Cambrón 75
+
+Los Baños de Florinda de Cava 76
+
+Entrance to Los Baños 77
+
+Ruins of the Tower called “Los Baños de Florinda
+de Cava” 78
+
+Details of the Convent of Santa Fe. Eleventh Century 79
+
+West Portal in the old Hermitage, now the Inn of Santa
+Ana, on the Sisla road 80
+
+Altar-piece of San Justo 81
+
+Detail of the Church of San Justo. Fifteenth Century 82
+
+Detail of the Chapel of Santos Justo and Pastor 83
+
+Effigies of Juan Guas, architect of San Juan de Los
+Reyes, and of his son. Chapel of Christ at the
+Column, in the Parish Church of San Justo 84
+
+Effigies of Mari Alvares, wife of Juan Guas, and of her
+Daughter. Chapel of Christ at the Column, in
+the Parish Church of San Justo 85
+
+Mosque of the Tornerias. Exterior of the South Façade,
+South-west Angle 86
+
+Interior of the Mosque de las Tornerias 87
+
+Arch of the “Kibláh” in the Mosque de las Tornerias 88
+
+Mosque of the Tornerias. Trefoil Arched Window 89
+
+Mosque of the Tornerias. Horse-shoe Window 89
+
+Mosque of the Tornerias. Arched Window 90
+
+Mosque of the Tornerias. Rectangular Window 90
+
+Mosque de las Tornerias 91
+
+Mosque of the Tornerias, built over Roman Remains 92
+
+Supposed Elevation of the Mosque of Bib-al-Mardóm 93
+
+Supposed Plan of the Mosque of Bib-al-Mardóm 94
+
+Actual Situation of the North-east Façade of the
+Ancient Mosque of Bib-al-Mardóm, a Transept
+and _Mudejar_ Apsis of the Hermitage of Santo
+Cristo de la Luz 95
+
+The Mosque of Bib-al-Mardóm, Horse-shoe Arch and
+Remains of the Dado and Little Arches and Windows
+in the North-east Façade (right side) 96
+
+The Mosque of Bib-al-Mardóm, Horse-shoe Arch and
+Remains of the Dado of Little Arches and Windows
+in the North-east Façade (left side) 97
+
+Principal Nave in the Mosque of Bib-al-Mardóm 98
+
+Arch in the Southern Interior of the Mosque of Bib-al-Mardóm 99
+
+Actual Entrance to the Castle 99
+
+Mosque of Bib-al-Mardóm. Arch in the Interior Wall,
+South-west Angle 100
+
+Detail of the North-west Façade of the Mosque of Bib-al-Mardóm 100
+
+Bib-al-Mardóm. “Arch of the Cross,” Interior Façade 101
+
+Bib-al-Mardóm. “Arch of the Cross,” Exterior Façade 101
+
+Mosque of Bib-al-Mardóm 102
+
+North-west Façade of the Mosque of Bib-al-Mardóm
+(Hermitage of Santo Cristo de la Luz), discovered
+in February 1899 103
+
+The Epigraphic Medallion on the North-west Façade of
+the Mosque of Bib-al-Mardóm (Hermitage of
+Santo Cristo de la Luz), rebuilt in the year 370
+after the Hegira (A.D. 980) 104
+
+Visigoth Capital in the old Moorish Parish Church of San
+Sebastian 105
+
+Visigoth Base which serves as a Capital in the old
+Moorish Parish Church of San Sebastian 105
+
+Santo Cristo de la Luz 106
+
+The Hermitage of Santo Cristo de la Luz 107
+
+Wall-Paintings of Santo Cristo de la Luz 108
+
+Church of Santo Cristo de la Luz 109
+
+Wall-Paintings of Santo Cristo de la Luz 110
+
+Ancient Mosque, now the Hermitage of Santo Cristo
+de la Luz 111
+
+Exterior of the Hermitage of Santo Cristo de la Luz,
+and Towers of various Churches 112
+
+Detail of the Transito (Synagogue), built in 1360 at the
+expense of Samuel Levi 113
+
+Details of the Interior Decoration of the Church of the
+Transito (Ancient Synagogue) 114
+
+Details of the Interior Decoration of the Church of the
+Transito (Ancient Synagogue) 115
+
+Details of the Transito (Synagogue) 116
+
+Details of the Transito (Synagogue) 117
+
+Details of the Transito (Synagogue) 118
+
+Entrance Arch in the Building called Taller Del Moro 119
+
+Detail of Decoration in the Moorish Workshop 120
+
+Details of the Palace of the Ayalas 121
+
+Details of the Palace of the Ayalas 122
+
+Exterior of the Chapel of Santo Cristo de la Vega 123
+
+Door and Exterior of Santa Maria la Blanca 124
+
+Sections and Details of the Ancient Synagogue, now the
+Church of Santa Maria la Blanca 125
+
+Part of the Longitudinal Section of the Ancient Synagogue,
+now the Church of Santa Maria la Blanca 126
+
+Interior of Santa Maria la Blanca 127
+
+Interior of Santa Maria la Blanca 128
+
+Interior of Santa Maria la Blanca 129
+
+Cárcel de Santa Hermandad 130
+
+A Gothic Doorway 131
+
+A Doorway 132
+
+St. Michael’s Tower. Fourteenth Century 133
+
+House of the Toledos 134
+
+Details of a Courtyard 135
+
+Details of a Courtyard 136
+
+Details of a Courtyard 137
+
+Details of a Courtyard 138
+
+Details of a Courtyard 139
+
+The Fountain of Calerahigo 140
+
+Arab Details 141
+
+Visigoth Crowns and Crosses of Guarrazar 142
+
+Visigoth Crowns and Crosses of Guarrazar 143
+
+Visigoth Crowns and Crosses found at Toledo and now
+in the Royal Armoury at Madrid 144
+
+San Pedro Martin 145
+
+Calle de Santo Tomé 145
+
+Alcazar Royal Palace. Reproduction of the Engraving
+made in 1566 for Braun’s “Civitates Orbi Terrarum” 146
+
+Perspective of the Alcazar in 1845. East and North
+Façades. Reproduction of an Engraving in the
+Work “Toledo Pintoresca” 147
+
+The Alcazar. Taken from the Plaza de Zocodover 148
+
+South Façade of the Alcazar 149
+
+The Alcazar. West Façade after the latest Restoration 150
+
+The Alcazar 151
+
+Alcazar. Principal Façade on the North 152
+
+The Alcazar. East Façade, after the latest Restoration 153
+
+General View of the Alcazar 154
+
+The Alcazar. The Principal Staircase 155
+
+The Alcazar. Principal North Portal 156
+
+The Alcazar. Court and Plan 157
+
+Court of the Alcazar 158
+
+Court in the Alcazar. After the latest Restoration 159
+
+The Alcazar. Plan and Details. North Façade 160
+
+Details of the North Façade of the Alcazar 161
+
+Door of the Hall of the House of the Mesa (the Table) 162
+
+Details of the House of the Mesa 163
+
+Details of the House of the Mesa 164
+
+Details of the House of the Mesa 165
+
+Details of the Hall of the House of the Mesa 166
+
+Details of the Hall of the House of the Mesa 167
+
+Details of the Hall of the House of the Mesa 168
+
+Details of the House of the Mesa 169
+
+Doorway of the College of the Infantes. Sixteenth
+Century 170
+
+Doorway of the Palace of the Martinez 171
+
+Roman Tower of San Juan de los Reyes 172
+
+Cloisters of San Juan de los Reyes 172
+
+Exterior of San Juan de los Reyes 173
+
+San Juan de los Reyes 174
+
+Plan of the Church and Processional Cloister of San
+Juan de los Reyes 175
+
+Doorway in San Juan de los Reyes 176
+
+Gothic Doorway in San Juan de los Reyes 177
+
+Exterior of the Arch of San Juan de los Reyes 178
+
+Interior of San Juan de los Reyes 179
+
+Interior of San Juan de los Reyes 180
+
+Interior of San Juan de los Reyes 181
+
+Longitudinal Section of the Church of San Juan de los
+Reyes 182
+
+Interior, San Juan de los Reyes 183
+
+Retablo, San Juan de los Reyes 183
+
+Gallery in San Juan de los Reyes 184
+
+Gallery in San Juan de los Reyes 185
+
+Details of San Juan de los Reyes 186
+
+Details of Gallery in San Juan de los Reyes 187
+
+Details of San Juan de los Reyes 188
+
+San Juan de los Reyes. Wall in the Presbytery 189
+
+Interior of San Juan de los Reyes 190
+
+Interior of San Juan de los Reyes 191
+
+Interior of San Juan de los Reyes 192
+
+San Juan de los Reyes. Decoration in the Transverse
+Nave 193
+
+San Juan de los Reyes. Details of the Arms of Isabella
+the Catholic 194
+
+Details of the Transept of the Church of San Juan de
+los Reyes 195
+
+San Juan de los Reyes. Interior 196
+
+A Dome in San Juan de los Reyes 197
+
+Remains of Windows of San Juan de los Reyes 198
+
+Details of the Cross-Aisle in the Church of San Juan
+de los Reyes 199
+
+Altar of San Juan de los Reyes 200
+
+Altar of San Juan de los Reyes 200
+
+Details of the Altar-piece in San Juan de los Reyes 201
+
+Copy of the original Drawing of the Arch and Cross-Aisle
+of San Juan de los Reyes 202
+
+Longitudinal Section of the Cloister of San Juan de los
+Reyes 203
+
+Cloisters of San Juan de los Reyes 204
+
+San Juan de los Reyes. The Cloisters 205
+
+Cloisters of San Juan de los Reyes 206
+
+Cloisters of San Juan de los Reyes 207
+
+Details of the Cloisters of San Juan de los Reyes 208
+
+Compartment of the Cloisters of San Juan de los Reyes 209
+
+San Juan de los Reyes. Details of the Cloisters 210
+
+Details of the Cloisters of San Juan de los Reyes 211
+
+San Juan de los Reyes. Details of the Cloisters 212
+
+San Juan de los Reyes. Details of the Cloisters 213
+
+San Juan de los Reyes. Details of the Cloisters 214
+
+San Juan de los Reyes. Details of the Cloisters 215
+
+Church of San Juan de los Reyes. Courtyard 216
+
+Court in San Juan de los Reyes 217
+
+Doorway of the Museum of San Juan de los Reyes 218
+
+San Juan de los Reyes. Details above Door of Museum 219
+
+Palace of Don Pedro the Cruel 220
+
+Details of the Palace of Don Pedro the Cruel 221
+
+Façade of the Palace of Don Pedro the Cruel 222
+
+Doorway of the Palace of Don Pedro the Cruel 223
+
+Doorway of the Palace of Don Pedro the Cruel 224
+
+The Cathedral 225
+
+General View of the Cathedral 226
+
+The Cathedral 227
+
+Section of the Cathedral 228
+
+Longitudinal Section of the Cathedral 229
+
+Transverse Section of the Cathedral 230
+
+Principal Façade of the Cathedral and Tower 231
+
+The Cathedral. Detail of the Exterior 232
+
+The Cathedral. Portal of the Principal Façade 233
+
+The Cathedral. Principal Gate 234
+
+The Cathedral. The Gate of the Lions 235
+
+The Cathedral. Porch of the Principal Façade 236
+
+The Cathedral. The Lion Door 237
+
+The Cathedral. The Lion Door 237
+
+Door of the Cathedral 238
+
+The Cathedral. Door of the Lost Child 239
+
+The Cathedral. Details of the Puerta de la Feria 240
+
+The Cathedral. Gate of the Conception 241
+
+The Cathedral. Ornamental Details of the Gates 242
+
+The Cathedral. Central Nave 243
+
+The Cathedral. Tomb of Alonso de Carrillo 243
+
+The Cathedral. General View of the Interior 244
+
+The Cathedral. General View of the Interior 245
+
+The Cathedral. Interior 246
+
+The Cathedral. Interior 247
+
+Windows in the Principal Nave of the Cathedral 248
+
+The Cathedral. Grating of the Principal Chapel.
+Sixteenth Century 249
+
+The Cathedral. Exterior of the Principal Chapel 250
+
+The Cathedral. Exterior of the Principal Chapel 251
+
+The Cathedral. Exterior of the Principal Chapel 252
+
+The Cathedral. Details of the Principal Chapel 253
+
+The Cathedral. Details of the Principal Chapel 254
+
+The Cathedral. Exterior of the Principal Chapel 255
+
+The Cathedral. Details of the Principal Chapel 256
+
+The Cathedral. Details of the Principal Chapel 257
+
+The Cathedral. Altar-piece of the Principal Chapel 258
+
+The Cathedral. Detail of the Altar-piece of the Principal
+Chapel 259
+
+The Cathedral. Exterior of the High Altar 260
+
+The Cathedral. Exterior of the High Altar 261
+
+The Cathedral. Exterior of the High Altar 262
+
+The Cathedral. Details of the Altar-piece 263
+
+The Cathedral. Frontal of the High Altar. Fifteenth
+Century 264
+
+The Cathedral. Frontal of the High Altar. Fifteenth
+Century 265
+
+The Cathedral. Detail of the Frontal of the High
+Altar 266
+
+The Cathedral. Exterior of the Principal Chapel 267
+
+The Cathedral. Sepulchre of Cardinal Mendoza in the
+Principal Chapel 268
+
+The Cathedral. Dome of the Principal Chapel 269
+
+The Cathedral. Exterior of the Choir 270
+
+The Cathedral. Exterior of the Choir 271
+
+The Cathedral. Details of the Exterior of the Choir 272
+
+The Cathedral. Exterior of the Choir 273
+
+The Cathedral. Choir Stalls 274
+
+The Cathedral. Choir Stalls 275
+
+The Cathedral. Choir Stalls 276
+
+The Cathedral. Details of the Choir Stalls, representing
+the Re-conquest of Granada by Ferdinand and Isabella 277
+
+The Cathedral. Interior of the Choir 278
+
+The Cathedral. Details of the Choir 279
+
+The Cathedral. Details of the Choir 280
+
+The Cathedral. The Archbishop’s Throne, representing
+the Transfiguration. By Berruguete 281
+
+The Cathedral. Virgin of the Laneros 282
+
+The Cathedral. Detail of the Choir Stalls. Re-conquest
+of Granada by Ferdinand and Isabella 283
+
+The Cathedral. Detail of the Choir Stalls. Re-conquest
+of Granada by Ferdinand and Isabella 284
+
+The Cathedral. Detail of the Choir Stalls. Re-conquest
+of Granada by Ferdinand and Isabella 285
+
+The Cathedral. Detail of the Choir Stalls. Re-conquest
+of Granada by Ferdinand and Isabella 286
+
+The Cathedral. Detail of Choir Stalls. The Capture
+of Alhama by Ferdinand and Isabella, 1482. Re-conquest
+of Granada 287
+
+The Cathedral. Detail of the Choir Stalls. Re-conquest
+of Granada by Ferdinand and Isabella 288
+
+The Cathedral. Detail of the Choir Stalls. Re-conquest
+of Granada by Ferdinand and Isabella 289
+
+The Cathedral. Detail of the Choir Stalls. Re-conquest
+of Granada by Ferdinand and Isabella 290
+
+The Cathedral. Detail of the Choir Stalls. Re-conquest
+of Granada by Ferdinand and Isabella 291
+
+The Cathedral. Detail of the Choir Stalls. Re-conquest
+of Granada by Ferdinand and Isabella 292
+
+The Cathedral. Detail of the Choir Stalls. Re-conquest
+of Granada by Ferdinand and Isabella 293
+
+The Cathedral. Upper part of the Choir Stalls, carved
+by Berruguete and Borgoña. Sixteenth Century 294
+
+The Cathedral. Upper part of the Choir Stalls, carved
+by Berruguete and Borgoña. Sixteenth Century 295
+
+The Cathedral. Upper part of the Choir Stalls, carved
+by Berruguete and Borgoña. Sixteenth Century 296
+
+The Cathedral. Upper part of the Choir Stalls, carved
+by Berruguete and Borgoña. Sixteenth Century 297
+
+The Cathedral. Upper part of the Choir Stalls, carved
+by Berruguete and Borgoña. Sixteenth Century 298
+
+The Cathedral. Upper part of the Choir Stalls, carved
+by Berruguete and Borgoña. Sixteenth Century 299
+
+The Cathedral. Upper part of the Choir Stalls, carved
+by Berruguete and Borgoña. Sixteenth Century 300
+
+The Cathedral. Masonry in the Choir 301
+
+The Cathedral. Exterior of the Presbytery 302
+
+The Cathedral. Interior of the Chapel of the New
+Kings with the Sepulchres of Don Henry the
+Bastard and his Wife 303
+
+The Cathedral. Sepulchres of Don Henry the Bastard
+and his Wife in the Chapel of the New Kings 304
+
+The Cathedral. Sepulchre of Cardinal Tavera in the
+Chapel of the New Kings 305
+
+The Cathedral. Sepulchre of Don Juan I. in the Chapel
+of the New Kings 306
+
+The Cathedral. Sepulchre of Doña Leonor, Wife of Don
+Juan I., in the Chapel of the New Kings 307
+
+The Cathedral. Chapel of the Descent of the Virgin 308
+
+The Cathedral. Muzarabic Chapel 309
+
+The Cathedral. Details of the Chapel of the Virgen
+de la Antigua 310
+
+The Cathedral. Chapel of the Virgen de la Antigua.
+Fourteenth Century 311
+
+The Cathedral. Doorway of the Chapel of the Canons 312
+
+Altar-piece of Santa Isabel 313
+
+Altar-piece of Santa Catalina 313
+
+Altar-piece of Santa Catalina 314
+
+Altar-piece of Santa Catalina 315
+
+Altar-piece of Santa Catalina 316
+
+Chapel of Santa Catalina. Founded by the Counts of
+Cedillo 317
+
+The Cathedral. Chapel of Santiago, containing the
+Sepulchres of Don Alvaro de Luna and that of his
+Wife Doña Juana. Fifteenth Century 318
+
+The Cathedral. Sepulchre of Don Juan de Zerezuela in
+the Chapel of Santiago. Fifteenth Century 319
+
+Cupola of the Chapel “de los Reyes Nuevos” in the
+Cathedral 320
+
+Cupola of the “Capilla de Santiago,” called “De Don
+Alvaro de Luna” in the Cathedral 320
+
+The Cathedral. Sepulchre of Don Gil Carrillo de Albornoz
+in the Chapel of San Ildefonso 321
+
+The Cathedral. Sepulchre of Gil de Albornoz in the
+Chapel of San Ildefonso 322
+
+The Cathedral. Entrance to the Chapter Room. Sixteenth
+Century 323
+
+The Cathedral. Chapter Room 324
+
+The Cathedral. Various Portraits of Cardinals 325
+
+The Cathedral. Various Portraits of Cardinals 326
+
+The Cathedral. Details in the Chapter Room 327
+
+The Cathedral. Chapter Room 328
+
+The Cathedral. Doorway of the Chapter Room 329
+
+The Cathedral. Detail of a Doorway in the Chapter
+Room 330
+
+The Cathedral. Cupboard made by Gregorio Pardo
+(1549-1551), for the Antechamber of the Chapter
+House 331
+
+Cupboard in the Cathedral 332
+
+The Cathedral. A Rich and Gossamer-carved Ceiling
+in the Chapter Hall. Sixteenth Century 333
+
+The Cathedral. Ceiling in the Chapter Hall 334
+
+The Cathedral. A Ceiling in the Ante-room 335
+
+The Cathedral Cloisters 336
+
+The Cathedral Cloisters 337
+
+Presentation Portal in the Cloister of the Cathedral 338
+
+Exterior, by the Cloisters of the Chapel, of the Place of
+Sepulchre built by Henry II. for his Tomb 339
+
+The Cathedral. Picture by Bayeu in the Cloisters 340
+
+Portal of St. Catherine in the Cloister of the Cathedral 341
+
+The Cathedral. Details of the Gate of the Presentation
+in the Cloister 342
+
+The Cathedral. Reliquary of San Sebastian in the
+Octavo 343
+
+The Cathedral. Detail of the Reliquary of San Sebastian
+in the Octavo 344
+
+The Cathedral. A Byzantine Reliquary 345
+
+Sepulchres in the Cathedral 346
+
+Sculpture in the Cathedral 347
+
+The Cathedral. Bronze Lectern and Books of the
+Holy Office 348
+
+The Cathedral. A Bronze Pulpit 349
+
+The Cathedral. Detail of a Pulpit 350
+
+Pulpit in the Cathedral 351
+
+Cathedral Bells which Ring when the Host is Elevated 352
+
+The Cathedral. Statue of Don Juan II. Sixteenth
+Century 353
+
+The Cathedral. St. Francis of Assisi 354
+
+The Cathedral. A Picture by Bayeu 355
+
+Details in the Cathedral 356
+
+The Cathedral. Cover of a Missal 357
+
+The Cathedral. Silver Salver, “The Abduction of the
+Sabine Women,” by Benvenuto Cellini 358
+
+The Cathedral. Chalice and Paten 359
+
+The Cathedral. A Ship that belonged to Queen Juana
+la Loca 360
+
+Monstrance in the Cathedral 361
+
+The Cathedral. Sword of Alfonso VI. 362
+
+The Cathedral. The Adoration of the Kings (silk) 363
+
+The Cathedral. The Veil of Santa Leocadia (silk) 364
+
+The Cathedral. The Assumption (silk) 365
+
+The Cathedral. The Beheading of San Eugenio (silk) 366
+
+Kufic Entablature in the Cathedral 367
+
+The Cathedral. A Dalmatic embroidered in Gold and
+Silk. Sixteenth Century 368
+
+The Cathedral. A Chasuble embroidered in Gold and
+Silk. Sixteenth Century 369
+
+The Cathedral. Details of the Puerta del Reloj 370
+
+The Cathedral. Details of the Puerta del Reloj 371
+
+The Cathedral. Details of the Puerta del Reloj 372
+
+The Cathedral. Details of the Puerta del Reloj 373
+
+Effigies of Juan Guas (architect of San Juan de los
+Reyes), his Wife, and Children 374
+
+Sculpture in San Andrés 375
+
+Banner of the Salado 376
+
+St. Peter Natano and St. Theresa sculptured in Wood 377
+
+Plan of the Santa Iglesia Primada 378
+
+Santa Isabel. Side Altar-piece 379
+
+Santa Isabel. Detail of an Altar-piece 380
+
+Parish Church of Santiago 381
+
+Exterior of Santiago del Arrabal. Thirteenth Century 382
+
+Pulpit in the Church of Santiago del Arrabal, from
+which San Vicente de Ferrer preached against the
+Jews 383
+
+Parochial Church of Santiago del Arrabal 384
+
+Church of San Tomé 385
+
+Detail of an Altar-piece in the Church of the Trinity 386
+
+Sepulchres in the Church of St. Peter the Martyr 387
+
+Details of a Sepulchre in the Church of St. Peter the
+Martyr 388
+
+Church of St. Peter the Martyr. Statue of a Kneeling
+Canon 389
+
+Chapel in San Juan de la Penitencia 390
+
+Chapel in San Juan de la Penitencia 391
+
+Details of San Juan de la Penitencia 392
+
+Sepulchre in San Juan de la Penitencia 393
+
+Sepulchre in San Juan de la Penitencia 394
+
+Detail of the Convent of San Juan de la Penitencia 395
+
+Details of the Convent of San Juan de la Penitencia 396
+
+Convent of Santo Domingo 397
+
+Convent of Santo Domingo 398
+
+Convent of Santo Domingo 399
+
+Ancient Sepulchre in the Convent of Santo Domingo 400
+
+Santo Domingo el Real. Principal Altar-piece 401
+
+Doorway of the Convent of San Antonio 402
+
+Porch of the Church and Convent of San Clemente 403
+
+Porch of the Church and Convent of San Clemente 404
+
+Detail of the Interior of the Convent of San Clemente 405
+
+Portal of Santa Cruz 406
+
+Portal of Santa Cruz 407
+
+Porch of Santa Cruz 408
+
+The Hospital of Santa Cruz 408
+
+Court of Santa Cruz 409
+
+Courtyard of the Hospital 410
+
+Court of Santa Cruz 411
+
+Court of Santa Cruz 412
+
+Detail of the Portal of the Hospital of Santa Cruz 413
+
+Details of Santa Cruz 414
+
+Hospital of Santa Cruz 415
+
+Portals in the Vestibule of the Ancient Hospital of
+Santa Cruz 416
+
+Hospital of Santa Cruz. Portrait of the Founder,
+Cardinal Mendoza 417
+
+Hospital de Afuera. The Court 418
+
+Hospital de Afuera 419
+
+Hospital of St. John Baptist 420
+
+Hospital de Afuera. Sepulchre of Cardinal Tavera,
+1557, Alonzo Berruguete 421
+
+The University 422
+
+The University 422
+
+Details of the House of Munárriz 423
+
+Gate of Al Mardóm 424
+
+Altar of the Church of San Justo 424
+
+Portal of the Archbishop’s Palace 425
+
+In the Town Hall 425
+
+Cloisters of San Juan de los Reyes 426
+
+View of St. Martin’s Bridge, looking down the River 426
+
+Gallery of San Juan de los Reyes 427
+
+A Moorish Workshop 427
+
+Hotel Castilla 428
+
+Detail of the Courtyard of the Hotel Castilla 429
+
+Visigoth Capitals in the Church of San Sebastian 430
+
+National Archæological Museum. Capital, Fourth
+Century after the Hegira 431
+
+National Archæological Museum. Capital of Santiago
+de los Caballeros near the Alcazar. Fourth
+Century after the Hegira 431
+
+Capital in the Archæological Museum 432
+
+National Archæological Museum. Fragment of Dado
+found near the Basilica of Santa Leocadia 433
+
+National Archæological Museum. Window of San Ginés 433
+
+National Archæological Museum. Decorative Table in
+White Marble, belonging to the Aljama Mosque of
+Toledo 434
+
+National Archæological Museum. Decorative Fragment
+found at the “Miradero.” Carved in White
+Marble 434
+
+Capital in the South-west Angle, belonging to the old
+Mosque, now the Hermitage of Santo Cristo de la
+Luz 435
+
+The Fifth of the Visigoth Capitals of the Hospital of
+Santa Cruz 435
+
+National Archæological Museum. Skylight or Ornament
+found at Toledo 436
+
+Visigoth Capital in the Provincial Museum 436
+
+Architectural Fragments of the Visigoth Period in the
+Parish Church of San Román 437
+
+Architectural Pieces of the Visigoth Period existing in
+the City 438
+
+Architectural Fragments of the Visigoth Period 439
+
+Capital of the South-east Angle belonging to the ancient
+Mosque, now the Hermitage of Santo Cristo de la Luz 440
+
+Visigoth Capital of the old Parish Church of San Sebastian 440
+
+National Archæological Museum. Visigoth Capitals of
+the Church of Santa Eulalia. Fragment of the
+Dado of the Basilica of Santo Leocadia 441
+
+Capitals in the Archæological Museum 442
+
+Provincial Museum. Capital of the Fourth Century
+after the Hegira 443
+
+National Archæological Museum. Arab Astrolabe
+made at Toledo in the year 459 after the Hegira
+(A.D. 1067) 443
+
+Architectural Fragments of the Visigoth Period 444
+
+Architectural Fragments anterior to the Mahometan
+Irruption, No. 1 445
+
+Architectural Parts and Decorative Remains anterior
+to the Mahometan Irruption, No. 2 446
+
+Architectural Parts and Decorative Fragments anterior
+to the Mahometan Irruption, No. 3 447
+
+Arches of various Churches of the Fourteenth and
+Fifteenth Centuries 448
+
+Denudation of our Lord before the Crucifixion. El
+Greco. Sacristy of the Cathedral 449
+
+The Virgin, St. Anne, the Child Jesus, and St. John.
+El Greco. Chapel of St. Anne 450
+
+Our Lady of Sorrows. El Greco. Sacristy of the New
+Kings, in the Cathedral 451
+
+Pentecost. El Greco. Church of the Trinity 452
+
+Jesus and St. John. El Greco. Church of St. John
+the Baptist 453
+
+The Assumption. El Greco. Chapel of San José 454
+
+St. Martin. El Greco. Chapel of San José 455
+
+The Holy Eucharist, by El Greco. Church of San José 456
+
+San José and the Child Jesus. El Greco. Parish
+Church of the Magdalene 457
+
+The Interment of Count de Orgaz. El Greco. Church
+of Santo Tomé 458
+
+Detail of the Interment of Count de Orgaz. El Greco 459
+
+Fragment of the Interment of the Count de Orgaz. El
+Greco 460
+
+Fragment of the Interment of the Count de Orgaz. El
+Greco 461
+
+Fragment of the Interment of the Count de Orgaz. El
+Greco 462
+
+Fragment of the Interment of the Count de Orgaz. El
+Greco 463
+
+Fragment of the Interment of the Count de Orgaz 464
+
+Fragment of the Interment of the Count de Orgaz. El
+Greco 465
+
+Fragment of the Interment of the Count de Orgaz. El
+Greco 466
+
+The Annunciation. El Greco. Parish Church of San
+Nicolás 467
+
+The Crucifixion. El Greco. San Nicolás 468
+
+San Pedro Nolasco. El Greco. Parish Church of San
+Nicolás 469
+
+The Assumption. El Greco. Parish Church of San
+Vicente 470
+
+San Eugenio. El Greco. Parish Church of San Vicente 471
+
+St. Peter. El Greco. Parish Church of San Vicente 472
+
+Jesus and the Virgin. El Greco. Parish Church of
+San Vicente 473
+
+The Ascension. El Greco. San Domingo el Antigua 474
+
+A Saint (? Santo Domingo el Antigua). El Greco 475
+
+The Birth of Jesus. El Greco. Santo Domingo el
+Antigua 476
+
+Santa Veronica with the Sudarium. El Greco. Santo
+Domingo el Antigua 477
+
+St. John Baptist. El Greco. Santo Domingo el Antigua 478
+
+St. John the Evangelist. El Greco. Church of Santo
+Domingo 479
+
+Altar-piece of the Convent of Santo Domingo. El Greco 480
+
+St. Francis of Assisi. El Greco. College of Noble
+Ladies 481
+
+The Baptism of Jesus. El Greco. Hospital of St. John
+Baptist 482
+
+Portrait of Cardinal Tavera. El Greco. Hospital of
+St. John Baptist 483
+
+View of the High Altar of the Tavera Hospital. El
+Greco 484
+
+General View of Toledo (left half). El Greco. Provincial
+Museum 485
+
+General View of Toledo (right half). El Greco. Provincial
+Museum 486
+
+View of Toledo. El Greco. Provincial Museum 487
+
+Portrait of Antonio Covarrubias. El Greco. Provincial
+Museum 488
+
+Portrait of the Son of Covarrubias. El Greco. Provincial
+Museum 489
+
+The Crucifixion. El Greco. Provincial Museum 490
+
+Allegory of the Virgin. El Greco. Provincial Museum 491
+
+Portrait of Juan de Avila. El Greco. Provincial
+Museum 492
+
+Our Saviour. El Greco. Provincial Museum 493
+
+St. John the Evangelist. El Greco. Provincial Museum 494
+
+St. Peter. El Greco. Provincial Museum 495
+
+St. Matthias. El Greco. Provincial Museum 496
+
+St. Philip. El Greco. Provincial Museum 497
+
+St. Andrew. El Greco. Provincial Museum 498
+
+St. Thomas. El Greco. Provincial Museum 499
+
+St. Simon. El Greco. Provincial Museum 500
+
+St. Matthew. El Greco. Provincial Museum 501
+
+St. Jude Tadeo. El Greco. Provincial Museum 502
+
+An Apostle. El Greco. Provincial Museum 503
+
+An Apostle. El Greco. Provincial Museum 504
+
+An Apostle. El Greco. Provincial Museum 505
+
+The Annunciation. El Greco 506
+
+The Dream of Philip II. El Greco. Chapter Hall
+of the Escorial 507
+
+St. Maurice and the Theban Legion. El Greco. Chapter
+Hall of the Escorial 508
+
+Portrait of El Greco by Himself. Señor A. de Beruete,
+Madrid 509
+
+Christ driving the Money Changers from the Temple.
+El Greco. Señor de Beruete, Madrid 510
+
+Portrait of a Student (El Greco?). El Greco. Don
+Pablo Bosch, Madrid 511
+
+
+
+
+TOLEDO
+
+
+
+
+THE CHILDHOOD OF THE CITY
+
+
+There are spots that stand out in the ocean of time like islands
+unsubmerged. The flood of years has rolled onwards past and around them,
+and its billows have broken in vain against their shores. Such a spot is
+Toledo. It lifts its head above the ever-shifting waters of the ages,
+and looks forth unchanged, unchanging, across the sea of centuries--a
+last surviving beacon of the drowned mediæval world.
+
+Very old is the city. It has outgrown decay. Nor can we conceive it as
+changing. It has almost become a part of the everlasting hills on which
+it stands. The rock has grown into Toledo and Toledo into the rock.
+
+In a land where all is old, men marvel at the antiquity of this city.
+And when it was younger by centuries, the chroniclers, groping amid
+legends and fables the wildest and most extravagant, strove to penetrate
+the darkness of the ages and to discern the pale glimmerings of Toledo’s
+dawn. Here, surely, first trod the first man, thought the ancients, and
+here was already a city when God first placed His sun exactly over it in
+the yet-dark Heavens. If this was not so, said another chronicler, then
+beyond doubt Toledo’s seven hills were the first to appear above the
+waters of the Deluge, and Tubal, the grandson of Noah, established here
+a kingdom. So stories and traditions multiplied, each historian
+inventing a fresh one. These fables of the city’s founding are quaint,
+curious, and ingenious. Iberia and Hispania of course suggested persons,
+and so we find Iberia, daughter of King Hispan, and wife of a Persian
+captain, Pyrrhus, resorting in search of health to the banks of the
+Tagus, and her husband making a bower for her on these rocky steeps.
+Hercules, who is credited with the foundation of Seville, added the
+building of Toledo to his many labours. “Dismiss these far-fetched
+fables,” cries the learned prelate De Rada, “and admit that our city was
+founded by the Consuls Tolemon and Brutus, in the reign of Ptolemy
+Evergetes.” But another conjecture as absolutely baseless as the others!
+More interesting is the legend that the town was built by Jews flying
+from Nebuchadnezzar, by whom it was named Toledoth, “the city of
+generation.” Certain it is that Jews lived in Toledo at the earliest
+periods of its history, and played a great part, as we shall see, in its
+affairs. However picturesque may be these traditions and wonderings of
+the sages, we cannot resist the conclusion that the beginnings of this
+old capital of Spain were obscure and commonplace enough. Along the
+banks of the yellow Tagus savage tribesmen pastured their flocks and
+herds, and the more practical spirits among them recognised the
+advantages of the cliff above the river as a settlement. Doubtless mere
+temporary encampments succeeded each other here season after season,
+till some sentiment or necessity attached men permanently to the spot,
+and a rude cluster of huts was formed--the rough inception of our
+greatest towns.
+
+The Celtiberians hereabouts were known to the Romans as Carpetani (how
+ill these Latin forms seem to reproduce the uncouth designations which
+these primitive peoples really bore!) The Carthaginians were the first
+civilised nation to come in contact with them, and we hear of a Punic
+governor, Tago. It is impossible to resist the suspicion that his
+personality arose, Aphrodite-like, from the river Tagus. But a Moorish
+writer gives a plausible account of a revolt which arose among the
+Carpetani consequent on Tago’s assassination by Hasdrubal, the
+contemporary of Hannibal. This brought that great commander himself upon
+the scene. Before him the tribesmen were scattered like chaff before the
+wind.
+
+Did the African Phœnicians found a permanent station at Toledo? It
+would not seem so. No vestige or fragment, no trace whatever of their
+domination has come down to us. Most likely this was a mere trading
+centre, where the black-bearded, keen-eyed Semites bartered the wares of
+Africa and the East against the ores and fleeces of Spain. The
+population remained almost purely Celtic. One wonders if a few
+Carthaginians settled amongst them, and if their descendants became
+confounded with their kinsmen in race, the Jews. It is a wild
+conjecture, but might not the presence of such Semitic settlers have
+given rise to the fantastic legend of the founding of Toledo by the
+Children of Israel?
+
+Where the Carthaginian sowed, the Roman reaped. And now the Carpetanian
+village looms in the light not of mere tradition, but of history. Livy
+tells us that in the year 193 B.C. the Pro-Consul Marcus Fulvius
+Nobilior defeated a host of Celtiberians, Vaccei and Vectones in this
+region, and took prisoner a king called Hilerno. In consequence of this
+victory Toledo--described as _urbs parva sed loco munito_--fell into the
+power of the conquerors. The wild rebellious Celts might henceforward
+chafe and lash themselves into impotent fury; on their necks the yoke of
+the Roman was firmly riveted, never by the natives unassisted to be
+shaken off.
+
+Historians have remarked on the aloofness of the Toledans during the
+long winter of foreign domination. Between the various leaders and
+factions who made Spain their cock-pit, the citizens observed strict
+neutrality. They rendered no assistance to Viriathus in his magnanimous
+attempt to recover national independence. Perhaps they were not wanting
+in sympathy for their compatriots; but the conquerors had long
+recognised the military value of the town by the Tagus, and here we may
+suppose was always a strong garrison ready to stamp out the first
+efforts at revolt.
+
+Under the wings of the Roman eagle, the material prosperity of Toledo
+steadily increased. From a collection of wretched huts, it had become a
+_colonia_, the capital of Carpetania. As such it would have had its
+_arx_, or citadel, prætorium, forum, temples, baths, and _vici_, or long
+suburbs straggling into the country. Of all these practically no traces
+remain. But in the Vega, outside the town, may be traced a semicircular
+enclosure, formed by masses of stones and mortar, about a metre in
+thickness, but of varying height. This space has been dignified with the
+name of Circus Maximum, and is undoubtedly a Roman work. But Señor
+Amador de los Rios has demonstrated almost conclusively that the Circus
+never advanced much beyond the foundations, which we now see before us
+probably in no very different state from that in which they were left
+some two thousand years ago. But though no Celtiberian captives or
+Christian martyrs here were “butchered to make a Roman holiday,” the
+consecration of the spot to the practice of cruelty bore fruit in after
+years. For the fires lit by the Inquisition were kindled here, and the
+Christian put the incompleted amphitheatre to the use for which it had
+been designed by the Pagan. To-day the men of Toledo play at _pelota_ in
+the enclosure, and their cheery shouts may well scare away the ghosts of
+torturer and victim.
+
+This may be regarded as the most important Roman remains in the
+neighbourhood of the city. The famous Cave of Hercules, which figures so
+largely in legendary lore, was probably the crypt or substructure of a
+Temple of Jupiter; and on the cliff-side below the Alcazar are a few
+fragments of a once-important aqueduct.
+
+It has been conjectured from the dimensions of the projected Circus that
+the Romans had at one time thought of elevating Toledo to the rank of
+chief city of Spain. The design, if it ever was formed, was never
+carried into execution. Of what passed in the town under Latin rule we
+have but the vaguest notion. Toledo, like almost every other place in
+Europe, has its traditions of fierce persecution productive of local
+martyrs. Almost as many Christians were massacred in Spain, if we
+credit these stories, as Gibbon thinks perished in the whole Roman
+Empire. Among the martyrs of Toletum, it is perhaps superfluous to say,
+was a young and lovely virgin, in this instance called Leocadia. She was
+done to death by the truculent Dacian. St. Eugenius, the first bishop of
+Toledo, is said to have been a disciple of St. Paul. He was martyred at
+Paris, and his alleged remains were obtained from Charles IX. of France
+and presented to the city by Philip II.
+
+In early ecclesiastical annals Toledo has less shadowy claims on
+remembrance as the seat of several councils, the most celebrated being
+those of 396, 400, 589. The minutes of the second council are preserved
+in the local archives. Miss Hannah Lynch makes merry over the fathers’
+spirited denunciations of her sex. In truth, the irreverent reader is
+reminded of those other fulminations launched in the diocese of Rheims
+against certain persons unknown, and of the poet’s surprised comment on
+their want of effect. The sex fared better at the hands of the Council,
+however, than vegetarians and mathematicians, both of whom were
+excommunicated downright. Neither class is numerous in Spain at the
+present day, so the labours of the fathers may not have been altogether
+ineffectual.
+
+
+
+
+THE CITY UNDER THE VISIGOTH
+
+
+During the fifth century the Toledans may well have listened with
+attention to spiritual discussions, for looking forth from their rocky
+perch, they beheld the kingdoms of the earth passing away, and all that
+had seemed stable and eternal fading like the morning mist. The final
+breaking-up of the great world-controlling power was evident. Nations,
+the very names of which the men of the south had never heard, loomed
+from out the darkness of the north, and swept like a cloud of locusts
+over the land. The whole of Spain was desolate. Toledo, ever grim and
+stubborn, stood prepared to die hard. The tide of Vandal invasion surged
+in vain round her walls; then spent its fury in the south. The Visigoths
+established themselves in southern France. Under Walya they had overrun
+Spain, but had exchanged it, willingly enough, for Aquitania. Euric the
+Balthing, who succeeded his brother Theodoric as king in 466, seems to
+have repented of the bargain. He reconquered all Spain, except Galicia,
+which was held by the Suevi, and took Toledo. Where the Vandal had
+failed, the Visigoth succeeded. In the first years of the sixth century
+the Franks stripped Euric’s grandson, Amalaric, of practically all his
+possessions north of the Pyrenees, and the kingdom of the Visigoths
+became synonymous with Spain. Its capital was Narbonne during the
+troubled reigns of Theudis and Theudigisel. But in 553 Athanagild was
+elected king. His wife was the sister of the Bishop of Toledo, and
+partly on that account, perhaps, but more probably because of its
+central position, he made that city his capital. That rank it retained
+during the continuance of the Visigothic monarchy, with the brief
+interval of the reign of Liuba, who succeeded Athanagild in 567 and
+removed his Court to Narbonne.
+
+The history of Toledo for the next century and a half becomes, in some
+sort, the history of Spain. Under Liuba’s brother and successor
+Leovigild (more correctly Liobagilths) the monarchy was consolidated.
+The Suevi in the north-west were subdued, and the nominal suzerainty of
+the Eastern Emperor was disavowed. Despite the difference in religion
+between the Visigoths, who were Arians, and the Romanised Iberians, who
+were Catholics, the two races began to intermingle, and the fusion of
+both into a single nation commenced. Leovigild was the first of his line
+to assume the insignia and appurtenances of royalty, and struck coins
+with his own likeness and the description, “King in Toledo.” The title
+is significant of the increased importance of the city. The prosperity
+of the kingdom was temporarily interrupted by the celebrated
+insurrection of the monarch’s son Ermenegild. This was the outcome of
+the marriage of that prince with Ingunthis, the daughter of the Prankish
+and Catholic king Sisebert. The wedding was solemnised in Toledo with
+great pomp, but the city shortly after became the scene of violent
+quarrels between Queen Goiswintha and her daughter-in-law. Ermenegild
+embraced his wife’s religion, and headed a revolt against his father. He
+was defeated, and paid the penalty with his life at Tarragona, after
+refusing to accept the sacrament at the hands of an Arian bishop.
+Unedifying though his conduct may appear to us, he was regarded as a
+martyr for the faith, and is enrolled among the saints of the Catholic
+Church.
+
+Nor does his example seem to have been without its effect upon his
+brother, Reccared, who succeeded Leovigild in 587. In the month of May
+589, Toledo was thronged with Catholic bishops and priests--many lately
+returned from exile--and with nobles from all parts of Spain, making
+their way to the Basilica of Santa Maria de la Sede Real, to assist at
+the solemn profession of the Catholic faith by the king and his queen,
+Baddo. Sixty-two prelates took part in this, the third Council of
+Toledo, the most eminent being Massona, Bishop of Merida, Leandro of
+Baetica, Santardus of Braga, Ugno of Barcelona, Megecias of Narbonne,
+and Eufemio of Toledo. It was a memorable day for Spain. The king’s
+example was soon followed by his subjects of his own race, and the
+unification of the two peoples was greatly accelerated.
+
+During the hundred and ten years that elapsed between the death of
+Reccared (601) and the rout of the Guadelete (711), no fewer than
+fifteen sovereigns sat on the throne of Spain. Toledo was the theatre of
+their barbaric triumphings, their violent entrances and tragic exits.
+Now the city would resound with the savage, exultant yells of the
+townsmen, as they dragged the body of the usurper Witeric up and down
+the steep, uneven streets--to cast the bleeding, shapeless thing that
+had so lately been a king, upon a dunghill. Now, the people would be
+acclaiming Wamba, greatest of the Visigoths--after the strange scene at
+Gerticos, where the crown was forced upon him at the sword’s point;
+another time, a long procession of captives would file through the
+gates, to witness to the old king’s triumph in Narbonnese Gaul. Not a
+“demise of the crown” but there would be angry mutterings among the
+townsfolk, and whispers of murder, compulsion, and fraud. And while the
+kings raved and the people wept, the Church grew every day stronger--so
+strong that usurper and legitimate sovereign alike had perforce to
+obtain her sanction to his election and accession. And as the years went
+on, the spark of religious zeal in the breast of Spain was fanned into
+flame, and we read of fierce onslaughts on the Jewish citizens, and of
+merciless edicts, condemning them to penalties painful and humiliating.
+Dark days were these for the Children of Israel whose home Toledo so
+long had been; but darker still were impending for their persecutors and
+for the royal line of the Visigoths.
+
+An exact picture of society in Spain at this period has been preserved
+in the Etymologies of Isidore Pacense. The Visigoths were a primitive,
+barbarous people, who had imposed upon themselves the outward
+appearances of Roman, or rather of Byzantine, civilisation. The
+contemptuous reference of Hallam to this “obscure race” is undeserved.
+Even in their earlier stages of development the Goths manifested many
+noble qualities--notably, a clemency towards their enemies--which were
+not conspicuous in the more polished nations of the South. And though
+they never properly assimilated the culture of the Latins, they attained
+to a degree of refinement and civilisation which compares favourably
+with that reached by contemporaries. “Spain,” remarks the author of
+“Toledo” in the “Monumentos Arquitectónicos de España,” “may then fairly
+and proudly claim that, while in Central Europe art had acquired no
+distinctive form--in the midst of the bitterness of slavery, when,
+before the abjuration of Reccared, the fusion of the races was not
+legally recognised--the Iberian Peninsula had developed a definite and
+evident artistic and literary individuality. That individuality must
+have been the result of the fortuitous conjunction and union of Latin
+traditions, more or less degenerate, with influences originally
+Byzantine and with those other transformed elements introduced by the
+Germanic hosts of Atawulf; but, even then, it remains an individuality,
+which asserts itself in the surviving examples of Visigothic culture,
+and which was transmitted to the generations succeeding the Moslem
+conquest.”
+
+According to the standpoint of the critic, the Gothic kings’ taste for
+pomp and luxury may be interpreted as proof of their civilised instincts
+or of their native barbarism. For of the splendour of the Court of
+Toledo we have abundant testimony. From the writings of Isidore, we
+learn that the nobles used only goblets and basins of the precious
+metals, that their garments were of superfine silk, and their ornaments
+of the richest jewels. The elaborate ceremonial of the royal household
+may be inferred from the list of functionaries--the First Count, or
+Chief Butler, the _Escancias_; the Count Chamberlain, or _Cubiculario_;
+the Master of the Horse, _Estabulario_; the Major Domo, or _Numerario_;
+the Steward, or _Silonario_; the Master of the Pages, or _Espartarius_;
+the Count of the _Sagrarios_, or Sacred Things; and the Treasurer, or
+_Argentarios_. These offices were only held by the highest nobles. In
+the Cluny Museum at Paris and the Royal Armoury at Madrid are preserved
+the superb Votive Crowns discovered at Guarrazar in 1858. These
+priceless objects proclaim the wealth and munificence of the Visigothic
+monarchs. They are composed of double hoops of gold, decorated on the
+outside by three bands in relief. The outer bands are set with pearls
+and sapphires, and the middle band with the same stones in a setting of
+a red vitreous substance. The crown is suspended by four chains from a
+double gold rosette, which encloses a piece of rock crystal set in
+facets. Each chain consists of four links, shaped like the leaf of the
+pear-tree, and _percées à jour_. In its original state the crown of King
+Swinthila, now in the Madrid Armoury, had, hanging from its lower rim, a
+cross and twenty-two letters, making up the inscription, SVINTHILANUS
+REX OFFERET. All and each of these letters were actual jewels, set in
+the red glassy paste already mentioned, to them being attached large
+single pearls and pear-shaped sapphires. Though only twelve letters were
+remaining when the crown was discovered, the dedication was skilfully
+reconstructed by Señores de Madrazo and Amador de los Rios. The crown of
+Recceswinth in the Cluny Museum and the crown of the Abbot Theodosius at
+Madrid do not differ greatly from that of Swinthila in style and
+material. Though the workmanship is rude compared with modern specimens
+of the goldsmith’s art, these crowns still excite admiration by their
+beauty and richness. Inquiring into the origin of their style, Señor de
+Riaño arrives at the conclusion that it “must be looked for in the East;
+their manufacture was most probably Spanish. We cannot imagine the
+extraordinary magnificence of the Visigothic court, so similar to that
+of Constantinople and other contemporary ones, without the presence at
+each of a group of artists whose task was to satisfy these demands.” Not
+only the applied arts, but letters and learning were cultivated at
+Toledo. Swinthila and Recceswinth delighted in the composition of
+epistles and verses, in which, unfortunately, the taste, acquired from
+the Byzantines, for long-winded, flowery and involved phrases is
+painfully apparent. Recceswinth interested himself in the collection and
+revision of ancient manuscripts. In his reign flourished the learned and
+saintly Ildefonso, who was publicly thanked for his work on the
+perpetual virginity of Mary by the martyr Saint Leocadia, who came
+expressly from Heaven for the purpose. One of Ildefonso’s successors in
+the see of Toledo, Julian, was a Jew by birth, or at least descent. He
+was renowned for his erudition and especially as a polemical writer.
+Though he narrowly escaped excommunication as a heretic, he is now
+venerated as a saint, and was buried beside St. Ildefonso.
+
+As the seat of a Court which did something more than ape the culture of
+the Latins (_pace_ Mr. Leonard Williams), Toledo rose from an obscure
+Roman colony into a city of dignity and importance. It is supposed to
+have reached its highest stage of development in the reign of King Wamba
+(672-680), whose mutilated statue confronts the traveller on approaching
+the town from the railway-station. Most of the buildings ascribed by the
+chroniclers, however, to that king were in all probability only restored
+by his orders, and were originally constructed by his predecessors.
+Isidore Pacense enumerates among the edifices existing in his time in
+Spain, basilicas, monasteries, oratories, and hermitages; the _Aula
+Regia_, or royal residence, “distinguished before all other buildings by
+the richness of the four porticos which encircled it”; the _Atrii_ of
+the nobility, which were allowed only three porticos; hospitals,
+guest-houses, and _Repositaria_, or treasure-houses. It is reasonable to
+assume that the capital of Spain would have possessed buildings of all
+the kinds specified during the hundred years that elapsed between the
+death of Athanagild and the accession of Wamba.
+
+To the former king is attributed the foundation of the sanctuary
+converted later into the Hermitage of Cristo de la Luz, and the Church
+of Santa Justa, reconstructed in the sixteenth century. From an
+inscription on marble found in 1581, near the Convent of San Juan de la
+Penitencia, it would appear that Reccared built a church consecrated to
+the Virgin in the year 587. The text runs: IN NOMINE DNI CONSECRA | TA
+ECCLESIA SCTE MARIE | IN CATHOLICO DIE PRIMO | IDUS APRILIS ANNO FELI |
+CITER PRIMO REGNI D-NI | NOSTRI GLORIOSISSIMI H | RECCAREDI REGIS ERA |
+DCXXV. To Liuba II. is ascribed the erection of the Church of San
+Sebastian, where some capitals and shafts, discovered in 1899, exist to
+attest its Visigothic origin. The Basilica of Santa Leocadia dated from
+the days of Sisebut (612-621): and though the chroniclers assign no date
+to the dedication of the Church of San Ginés there can be no doubt that
+it took place in the seventh century. Wamba adorned with statuary and
+partially restored the city walls, but it is an error, based on a
+corrupt text of Isidore Pacense’s, to suppose that he built them.
+
+The site of the Aula Regia, or Palace of the Visigothic kings, has long
+been a matter of dispute among archæologists. The author of the article
+on Toledo in the “Monumentos Arquitectónicos” decides in favour of the
+plot of ground covered by the Convents of the Concepcion and the
+Comendadores de Santiago, the ruined Hospital of Santa Cruz, and the new
+extension of the Paseo del Miradero--close to the Zocodover, in the
+north-east angle of the city. Adjacent to the palace was the Basilica of
+Saints Peter and Paul, “which seems,” says Señor Menendez y Pidal, “to
+have been the royal pantheon, opened only for the entombment of the
+sovereign and the taking the oath of allegiance to his successor.” Here
+were suspended the votive crowns, afterwards buried at Guarrazar; here
+probably were interred Athanagild, Leovigild, Reccared I., Liuba II.,
+Gundemar, Sisebut, Reccared II., Tulga, Erwig, Egica, and Witica. Their
+very dust has long since been scattered by the wind--who shall say
+where? In a hall attached to that Basilica, in similar annexes to the
+Basilicas of Santa Leocadia and Santa Maria de la Sede Real, were held
+those ecclesiastical synods which so powerfully contributed to the
+shaping of the destinies of Spain. Santa Leocadia’s church is now known
+as the Cristo de la Vega; the Basilica de Santa Maria faced the Bridge
+of Alcantara and was in after years known as Santa Maria de Alficem.
+Here Recceswinth is said to have been crowned, the temple being
+afterwards restored by Erwig, Wamba’s successor.
+
+Not a single building erected by the Visigothic kings exists to-day.
+“Destroyed by man’s fury and by the vicissitudes of time,” regretfully
+observes Señor Amador de los Rios, “or altered till all trace of their
+original form has been lost, by the pious care which intended to
+preserve them, you may seek in vain in the city of Wamba for an intact
+monument of that age; not even the walls ascribed to that prince have
+remained entire. Fragments of friezes; isolated capitals, which have
+adorned later edifices, oddly out of place in the scheme of decorations,
+or cut and defaced; broken shafts, perhaps bearing some inscriptions;
+pieces of a hinge, a metope, a lintel, or an impost, perhaps some
+dedicatory tablet--this is all that has escaped at Toledo the
+devastating scythe of time.”
+
+These relics, however, are fortunately numerous. For a detailed
+description of the more important, the reader is referred to the
+“Monumentos Arquitectónicos de España.” Some we shall notice more
+particularly in dealing with the edifices of which they now form part.
+
+Under Wamba the Visigothic monarchy reached the apex of its greatness.
+Under his four successors, Erwig, Egica, Witica, and Roderic, State and
+people are said to have become hopelessly enervated. The old Gothic
+vigour blazed up now and again in some individual ruler or statesman,
+but failed to communicate itself to the nation. The kingdom was
+tottering to its fall. The taste for display and the amenities of
+existence grew stronger in this period of decline. Never was there such
+wealth and splendour in Toledo as when it fell a prey to the hosts of
+Islam. The rapid decay of this once great and martial race is without a
+parallel in history. It is difficult to assign to it a cause. Luxury was
+the privilege only of the nobility and clergy, and could hardly have
+corrupted the whole people. Modern writers lamely attribute the final
+catastrophe to ecclesiastical influence and domination. Perhaps when all
+has been said, the state of Spain under Witica and Roderic was not much
+worse than under subsequent rulers of other dynasties; and the downfall
+may have been due, not so much to the effeminacy of the vanquished, as
+to the extraordinary military genius of the conquerors. Historians would
+have said little about the degeneracy of the Visigoths if the battle of
+the Guadalete had had a different issue.
+
+The Hispano-Goths, as Catholics, evinced a fanatical and intolerant
+temper which had been conspicuously lacking in them as Arians. Harsh
+edicts continued to be promulgated against the Jews--then, as till a
+much later date, a most important element in the population of Toledo.
+The unlucky Children of Israel may have derived in the intervals of
+persecution some malicious consolation from the bitter quarrels between
+the king and the Catholic clergy. Witica was an enemy, or what was
+probably regarded as the same thing, a would-be reformer of the Church.
+To his impiety, indeed, monkish writers are fond of ascribing the
+destruction of the Gothic kingdom. His predecessor, Egica, did not
+hesitate to condemn to excommunication, exile, and confiscation of
+property, Sisebert, the powerful Archbishop of Toledo. Perhaps some
+clerkly chronicler, by way of retaliation for this outrage upon his
+order, invented the following discreditable story, to be found in the
+pages of Lozano.
+
+King Egica had conceived an ardent passion for the beautiful Doña Luz,
+who is described as the grand-daughter of Kindaswinth, and the sister of
+Roderic, afterwards king. Her love, however, was given to her uncle, Don
+Favila, Duke or Governor of Cantabria. The lovers, wearied at last by
+the king’s opposition to their union, went through a secret and
+simplified form of marriage in the lady’s bedchamber before a statue of
+the Virgin. In the course of time. Doña Luz became a mother. Egica’s
+suspicions had already been enkindled, and fearing his wrath, she placed
+the new-born infant in a little ark and set it afloat on the bosom of
+the Tagus. As her maids pushed out the tiny craft from the foot of the
+steep path that leads down from Toledo, a radiance diffused itself
+around the sleeping child and for long marked his passage down the broad
+stream. The irate monarch, divining that Doña Luz must in some way have
+disposed of her child, caused a census to be taken of all the children
+born in and around the city within the past three months with the names
+of the respective fathers. The number of births was recorded at
+35,428--a very surprising total for Toledo! And, which is still more
+remarkable and highly creditable to the city, the parentage of these
+numerous infants was in every case authenticated. What then had become
+of Doña Luz’s baby? Baffled in his quest, the king suborned one of his
+minions, Melias by name, to accuse the unfortunate lady of incontinency.
+The penalty for this offence, we are told, was nothing less than death
+by fire; and for that fate Egica bade Doña Luz prepare, unless she could
+secure a defender or otherwise clear her reputation. At the eleventh
+hour, the valorous champion appeared in the person of Don Favila, who
+disproved the charge made against his lady-love to the satisfaction of
+mediæval intelligences, by the simple method of running her accuser
+through the body. This, however, did not satisfy the sceptical monarch,
+who insisted on a further ordeal by combat. A knight named Bristes,
+cousin of the recreant Melias, was challenger and accuser on this
+occasion, and was quickly despatched by the doughty Favila.
+
+In the meantime the ark containing Pelayo, the infant child of Doña Luz
+and her champion, had reached Alcantara, where the little passenger
+almost miraculously fell into the hands of his mother’s other uncle,
+Grafeses. This benevolent prince took every care of the child,
+unsuspicious, of course, of his origin. Attracted to Court by the noise
+of these scandals and combats, he found a handkerchief in his niece’s
+room, the counterpart of one which he had discovered in the little ark.
+Doña Luz soon confessed to him the whole story, and he endeavoured to
+intercede for her with the king. Egica, probably more exasperated than
+ever, insisted on a third duel between Favila and a knight called
+Longaris. Both combatants had been wounded when a holy hermit appeared
+on the scene, and admonished the king as to his wickedness and hardness
+of heart. Egica repented and consented to the public celebration of the
+marriage of Favila and Doña Luz. Here we have a fine romantic account of
+the origin of the heroic Pelayo, the restorer of the monarchy and the
+saviour of the Spanish nation.
+
+Wilder, more romantic still, and better known are the legends clustering
+round the last king of the Goths. The scene of most of these is laid in
+Toledo. Here was held that wonderful tournament, to which resorted all
+the crowned heads of Europe--aye, even such potentates as the Emperor of
+Constantinople and the King of Poland. A new city of palaces was reared
+in the Vega by the hospitable Roderic to accommodate his fifty thousand
+noble guests. This splendid function may have taken place before or
+after the king’s strange marriage with the bewitching Moorish princess
+Elyata (re-baptized Exilona), who had been washed ashore by the sea on
+the coast of Valencia. Lovely as was his consort, Roderic did not, as we
+all know, remain faithful to her. Here enters the mournful and very
+shadowy figure of Florinda, otherwise known as La Cava. This peerless
+damsel was confided to the care of the king by her father, the trusty
+Julian (or Illán), governor of Ceuta. Alas for the maiden! while bathing
+in the Tagus, her charms were only too well revealed to Roderic, gazing
+from his palace windows on the cliff above. A glimpse of a shapely leg
+scarce concealed by a diaphanous mantle decided the fate of
+Florinda--and of Spain. What he could not effect by persuasion, the
+king effected by violence. Perhaps he hoped that the proud Julian’s
+daughter would keep silence as to her own dishonour. He was mistaken. A
+trusty page, spurring night and day, quickly bore the fatal tidings to
+the father at distant Ceuta, and the missive in which the wronged
+Florinda implored vengeance on her betrayer.
+
+To the no doubt conscience-stricken Roderic, seated in good old kingly
+fashion upon his throne, appeared two venerable strangers with a message
+of mysterious import. When Hercules had founded (as some men say)
+Toledo, not far from the city, among the mountains, he had reared a
+tower, of which these uncouth brethren were the guardians, as their
+ancestors, in an unbroken line, had been before them. On this tower and
+on its unknown and fearful contents, the demigod had laid a necromantic
+spell. It had been the custom of each of the Kings of Spain to affix to
+the massive doors a new lock, and now Roderic was summoned to fulfil
+this duty, for failing this and if any rash mortal should discover the
+secret of the tower, ruin, absolute and immediate, must overtake his
+kingdom. Agog with curiosity, with a brilliant cavalcade, the king
+clattered through the streets of his capital, and found the wondrous
+tower in the recesses of the hills. The aged custodians besought him to
+hasten and to affix his seal to the enchanted doors. In vain! it was
+with another intention the impetuous sovereign had come hither. He burst
+open the doors and rushed in, where never man since Hercules had dared
+to tread. Before him stood a gigantic statue in bronze, which dealt
+blows with a great mace unceasingly to right and left. On its breast
+were inscribed the words, _I do my duty_. Roderic sternly adjured the
+creature of enchantment to let him pass. It obeyed. In the interior of
+the tower the King found a casket of rich workmanship. A legend thereon
+warned him of the doom that would overtake him who should open it.
+Roderic forced open the lid. He beheld a fold of linen on which were
+painted the figures of Moorish warriors in battle-array. As he gazed the
+figures seemed to move, to grow larger, to assume the proportions of
+men. He beheld a battlefield where Goths and Moors contended for the
+mastery. Breathless, he awaited the issue. The Goths were flying, and he
+saw his own white steed, Orelia, galloping through the fray--riderless.
+Affrighted, the king and his attendants rushed to the door. There lay
+the two ancient custodians, dead. Thunder rolled, a storm burst over the
+land, and Roderic and his cavaliers drew not rein till they reached the
+palace of Toledo. Next day the stout-hearted Goths reascended to the
+hills. But as they approached, behold a great eagle swooped down from
+the sky holding in its talons a flaming brand! The tower blazed up like
+matchwood. Then arose a great wind which carried the ashes to every part
+of Spain; and every man on whom a portion of the ashes fell was
+afterwards slain in battle by the Moors.
+
+These direful portents must surely have prepared Roderic for treachery,
+conspiracies, and unpleasantness of all kinds. But when Count Julian
+arrived, smiling and deferential, to take his daughter home to Ceuta, he
+seems to have suspected nothing, feared nothing. The rest of the
+story--Julian’s invitation to the Moors, the rout of Guadalete, the
+disappearance of Roderic--relates to the history of Spain generally, not
+to that of Toledo. Dozy believes that Julian actually existed, but he
+seems to have been a Byzantine governor of Ceuta, not a Spaniard. It is
+hardly necessary to say that Florinda is as much a figment of the
+imagination as the enchanted tower. Yet near the Puente de San Martin
+(above which never king’s palace stood) some fragments of masonry are
+pointed out as the Baños de la Cava (Florinda’s Bath). They are, in
+reality, but the remains of a Moorish tomb.
+
+In July 711, King Roderic set out from Toledo, never to return. Upon the
+news of the rout of Guadalete, all the magnates and prelates abandoned
+the city. Its surrender to the Moorish host of the one-eyed Tarik was
+the work of the Jews, who had not forgotten the persecutions of Sisebert
+and Egica. There were Jews in the invading army under the command of
+Kaula-al-Yahudi. When Tarik appeared before the walls, a venerable
+Israelite was let down in a basket, and, approaching him, offered to
+admit him to the city if liberty and the free exercise of their religion
+were guaranteed to his race. The Berber joyfully accepted these terms,
+and on the following day proud Toledo--deserted by its Christian
+inhabitants--was annexed to the Saracen Khalifate.
+
+
+
+
+TOLEDO UNDER THE MOOR
+
+
+Never again was Toledo to attain to the wealth and splendour it
+possessed under Wamba and his successors. The invaders, fresh from the
+conquest of the richest provinces of Africa, were dazzled by the
+magnificence of the spoils that fell to them in the dark-browed city
+above the Tagus. The Arabian historians have need of all their powers of
+hyperbole to over-estimate the richness of the treasure. There was
+enough and to spare, Al Leyth Ibn Saïd tells us, for every soldier in
+the army. The humblest troopers might have been seen staggering under
+the weight of priceless silks and garments, chains of gold, and strings
+of precious stones. The rude Berbers, fresh from their mountains, but
+ill appreciated the value of the loot, and cut the costliest fabrics in
+two or more pieces to adjust their shares. A magnificent carpet,
+composed of superb embroidery, interwoven with gold and ornamented with
+filigree work, and profusely set with gems, is said to have been treated
+in this way by the troopers into whose greedy hands it fell. It would be
+interesting to learn the place of manufacture of this carpet, for from
+the silence of St. Isidore upon the subject of textile fabrics, it would
+seem that they were not made in his time in Spain.
+
+But, to credit the Moorish chroniclers, the rarest of exotic treasures
+had been accumulated in the Visigothic capital. Here were found the
+Psalms of David, written upon gold leaf in a fluid made from dissolved
+rubies! and most wonderful of all, the Table of Solomon made out of a
+single emerald! It was brought to Toledo--so runs one version--after the
+taking of Jerusalem, and was valued in Damascus at one hundred thousand
+dinars--equal to about £50,000. We are not surprised to hear that this
+unique piece of furniture “possessed talismanic powers”; for tradition
+affirms it was the work of genii, and had been wrought by them for King
+Solomon the Wise, the son of David. This marvellous relic was carefully
+preserved by Tarik as the most precious of all his spoils, being
+intended by him as a present to the Khalifa; and, in commemoration of
+it, the city was called by the Arabs, Medina Almyda, that is to say,
+“The City of the Table.”
+
+Thus far Washington Irving. With characteristic credulity, Ibn Hayyan,
+the historian, gives in the translation of Gayangos a substantially
+different account of the treasure: “The celebrated table which Tarik
+found at Toledo, although attributed to Solomon and named after him,
+never belonged to the poet-king. According to the barbarian authors, it
+was customary for the nobles and men in estimation of the Gothic Court,
+to bequeath a portion of their property to the church. From the money so
+amassed the priests caused tables to be made of pure gold and silver,
+gorgeous thrones and stands on which to carry the Gospels in public
+processions, or to ornament the altars on great festivals. The so-called
+Solomon’s table was originally wrought with money derived from this
+source, and was subsequently emulously enlarged and embellished by
+successive kings of Toledo, the latest always anxious to surpass his
+predecessor in magnificence, until it became the most splendid and
+costly gem ever made for such a purpose. The fabric was of pure gold,
+set with the most precious pearls, emeralds and rubies. Its
+circumference was encrusted with three rows of these valuable stones,
+and the whole table displayed jewels so large and refulgent that never
+did human eye behold anything comparable with it.... When the Muslims
+entered Toledo it was discovered on the altar of the Christian Church,
+and the fact of such a treasure having been found soon became public and
+notorious.”
+
+Gibbon accounts for the presence of the Table of Solomon at
+Toledo--assuming that there ever was such a thing, and that it ever was
+there at all--by supposing it to have been carried off by Titus to
+Rome, whence it may have been taken by Alaric when the Goths sacked the
+city. Whichever version of the table’s origin be accepted, it seems
+strange that it was not carried away by the clergy in their flight from
+Toledo. Of its ultimate fate nothing is known, unless we can accept the
+little that is revealed in the following history.
+
+Upon Musa approaching the city to supersede Tarik, the latter broke off
+and concealed one of the legs of the table. Musa was already incensed
+against his lieutenant for having deprived him of the glory of the
+conquest of Spain, and emphasised his reprimands with strokes of a whip.
+When he found that the leg of the table was missing, his anger was very
+great. Tarik assured him he had found it in that mutilated condition,
+and Musa caused the missing leg to be replaced by one of gold. His
+subordinate, however, he cast into prison, where the One-Eyed One
+remained till released by orders from the Khalifa himself. He was amply
+revenged on Musa, when upon the latter presenting the table to his
+sovereign as his own discovery, he was able triumphantly to give him the
+lie by producing the missing leg of emerald. And so the wonderful Table
+of Solomon, of emerald, or of gold, or of both, passes out of the ken of
+history.
+
+We hear of Musa’s son, Abd-ul-Aziz (or “Belasis,” as he is quaintly
+termed by old Spanish writers) marrying King Roderic’s widow, Exilona,
+at Toledo. Abd-ul-Aziz, however, was Governor of Seville, where he met
+his death, and it is not unlikely, if he married the queen at all, that
+he did so in that southern city, where she may have been left by her
+first consort to await the result of the battle of the Guadalete. If
+there be any truth in the legend that Exilona was of Moorish origin
+herself, the story of this second and apparently cold-blooded union
+seems less improbable. Tradition has it that the widow of the Goth only
+consented to the match on Abd-ul-Aziz promising to observe towards her
+all the deference due to a Christian queen. He kept his promise only too
+faithfully, and his forcing his officers to bend the knee to a woman and
+an infidel, is said to have contributed to bring about his assassination
+in the mosque at Seville.
+
+The conquerors here, as in other parts of the kingdom, acted generously
+towards the conquered. A moderate tribute was levied on the Christians,
+who were allowed to practise their religion and be governed by their own
+laws and customs. Seven churches were allotted to their use, the names
+of these being Santa Eulalia, Santa Maria de Alficem, Santa Justa, San
+Sebastian, San Marcos, San Torcuato, and San Lucas. But these privileges
+must have hardly consoled the citizens for the loss of the town’s rank
+as capital of Spain. It became, as it had been under the Romans, “a
+strong place,” of which the dominant race valued the advantages, but, in
+consequence of the rise of Cordoba and Seville it sank to the condition
+of a provincial town.
+
+As such its career was throughout stormy and turbulent. The spirit of
+rebellion seemed instinct in the grim fortress-like city, and infused
+itself into Mohammedan and Christian, Arab and Castilian alike. The two
+races fraternised well enough. They had a common interest: resistance to
+any external authority. This impatience of control was characteristic of
+the Toledans for centuries. Its annals during the period of Mohammedan
+occupation are a tedious record of sieges, riots, usurpations and
+massacres. Such events are only of interest when studied in the minutest
+detail. A brief _résumé_ of them is, however, indispensable to a proper
+knowledge of the town.
+
+The citizens’ first appearance in the troubled arena of Muslim politics
+was as loyalists--an uncongenial _rôle_! In the civil wars that
+distracted the reign of Abd-ul-Malik, Toledo was held by his son Omeya,
+and vainly besieged for a month by the rebels. On the approach of
+Abd-ul-Malik, the garrison, wishful of glory, made a vigorous sortie and
+completely routed the investing force. The townsmen had tasted blood.
+It took much to quench their thirst. Knowing their character, in the
+troubles fomented by the pretender Yusaf ben Debri, his partisan,
+Mohammed Abu-l-Aswad took refuge among them in the year of the Hegira
+142. The place was immediately invested by the Wizir, Al Kama, and as
+usual offered a stout resistance. Wearied of their ruler, however, the
+people played him false and betrayed the town to the Wizir. Abu-l-Aswad
+was taken prisoner and sent to Cordoba.
+
+A year or two later the Toledans repented of their submission. While the
+Amir, Abd-ur-Rahman, was engaged in preparations for a war in the east
+of Spain, some powerful families, led by one Hixem ben Adra al Fehri,
+rose, seized the Alcazar, and put the Wizir to flight. They released the
+notorious rebel, Kasim ben Yusuf, from prison, and raised an army of
+about ten thousand men--mostly freebooters and masterless men who seemed
+to have regarded Toledo as the best market for their peculiar talents.
+The Amir’s appearance before the walls, with a powerful army, caused
+moderate counsels to prevail among the insurgents. The citizens were
+anxious to be rid of the undesirables they had invited into their midst,
+and persuaded Hixem to visit the royal camp to solicit terms.
+Abd-ur-Rahman generously pardoned him, and once more incarcerating
+Kasim, left the town to itself.
+
+He soon had good reason to repent his forbearance. In 763 Kasim escaped
+from confinement, rallied the citizens round him, and declared the town
+subject only to the Khalifa of Damascus. The siege that followed was
+languidly conducted. The people, we read, were suffered to cultivate
+their fields, and to carry produce into the city unmolested. At this
+rate the siege might have lasted as long as that of Candia. Kasim,
+meanwhile lulled into a sense of security, abused his power, and
+alienated his unruly subjects. On the arrival of the Amir, he was given
+notice to quit. Having seen him successfully elude the royal forces,
+Toledo opened its gates to Abd-ur-Rahman. The Amir, despairing of the
+townsmen’s temper, exacted from them but a nominal obedience, but his
+successor, Hakam, thought to coerce them by a bitter lesson. As
+Governor, he sent them one Amru of Huesca, a renegade Christian, “by a
+condescension,” he wrote, “which proves our extreme solicitude for your
+interests.” The renegade’s policy was thorough. He ingratiated himself
+with the people, and posed as the champion of their liberties. It was at
+their own suggestion that he raised a fortress in their very midst. The
+place being strongly garrisoned and all being ready, the approach of a
+large army, commanded by the Amir’s son, Abd-ur-Rahman, was announced.
+At the suggestion of the Governor, the prince was invited by the
+nobility into the city; and he, in return, as if to mark his sense of
+the honour conferred upon him, ordered a great feast to be made ready at
+the Castle. To this all the chief men were bidden. What followed is
+known as the Day of the Fosse. The guests were allowed to enter only one
+by one. Behind the gate stood a man with bared arm and uplifted axe. As
+each guest entered there was a sweep of the arm, a flash of steel, and a
+head rolled into the ditch already prepared. Without, nothing was heard,
+nothing was seen, nothing suspected. The episode reminds one of the
+famous Blood Bath of Stockholm. The butchery is said at last to have
+been revealed to those waiting outside the wall by the thick vapour
+issuing from the gate. A physician, who had been watching for hours, and
+who had noticed that none of the numerous guests who had entered, had
+issued forth, was the first to raise the alarm. “Men of Toledo,” he
+shouted, “I vow that yonder vapour is not the smoke of a feast, but
+rises from the blood of our butchered brethren!”
+
+This ghastly tragedy occurred in 807, and has given rise to a proverbial
+expression current in Spanish--_una noche Toledana_, applied to a night
+disagreeably passed in sleeplessness or pain.
+
+The blow struck by the ferocious Amru was of the kind that alone met
+with the approval of Macchiavelli: it not only intimidated, but it
+crushed. For a quarter of a century we hear no more of tumults or
+dissensions in the City by the Tagus. Meantime it prospered. Arts and
+letters flourished. In the year 827 we have to record the death “of the
+very learned alfaqui, Isa ben Dinar el Ghafeki, a native of that city
+and a disciple of Malik ben Anas. He was a man beloved by all--friendly
+in manner, admirable in conversation, and upright of life: such as were
+taught by Isa ben Dinar acquired their learning with delight. He was in
+the habit of practising some few observances that were considered
+extraordinary: he made, for example, the prayer of the dawn with the
+preparation and ablutions proper to that of the evening twilight.”
+
+The opulence of the Jews and Christians decided the Wali, Aben Mafût ben
+Ibrahim, to increase their tribute. This led to the outbreak of 832. A
+wealthy young citizen, named Hakam el Atiki, otherwise known as El
+Durrete, or “the striker of blows,” had been insulted by the Wali, and
+used the discontent of the people as a means of avenging his injuries.
+He distributed money freely among the more inflammable sections of the
+populace, and collected about him a body of lawless followers. One of
+these was seized in the Soko, or market-place (the Zocodover) by one of
+the Wali’s officers, and a tumult at once uprose. In the end the
+Alcazar fell into the hands of the rebels, and the Wali barely escaped
+with his life. Hakam, however, was shortly afterwards obliged to abandon
+his conquest, and spread abroad the report that he had left the country.
+The vigilance of the garrison becoming in consequence relaxed, he seized
+the city by a _coup de main_, and held it for some years. He was
+wounded, taken prisoner, and beheaded in 837, by Abd-el-Raf, his head
+being suspended from the gate of Bisagra.
+
+So far the risings at Toledo had been mainly political, and the townsmen
+had sunk their religious and racial differences to make common cause
+against the stranger. The cause of the insurrection of 854 was, by
+exception, an outburst of fanaticism on the part of the Muzarabes or
+Christians, who practised the ritual of the Spanish Goths. It was at
+this time that the Catholics of Cordoba and Seville, subject to some
+extraordinary aberration, had in great numbers earned the doubtful
+honour of martyrdom by blaspheming Mohammed. To Toledo, as the most
+likely spot at which to create a disturbance, came Eulogius and stirred
+the Christians to avenge the “wrongs” of their co-religionists. Under
+the leadership of Sindola, they dispossessed their Moorish governors,
+and carrying the war into the enemy’s own country, defeated the Amir’s
+forces at Andujar. Ordoño King of Leon, now came to the assistance of
+the citizens, who, hitherto, had shown no eagerness to call in the help
+of the Christians of the north. Mohammed, the Amir, presently appeared
+before Toledo, and drew the allied forces into an ambush. The Christians
+were totally defeated--almost annihilated. Nothing daunted, the
+Toledans, later on, insulted their sovereign by electing Eulogius to the
+vacant archiepiscopal see. Mohammed, by way of reprisal, inveigled a
+large force of Christians on to a bridge which he had undermined. It was
+the Day of the Fosse over again.
+
+In the year 873, we find the independence of Toledo, subject to his
+suzerainty, nominally acknowledged by the Amir, who was probably glad to
+make any terms that promised peace with vassals so turbulent. In the
+reign of the Amir Al Mundhir even this faint shadow of outside authority
+was shaken off by the city, which again asserted its complete
+independence, in 886, under Ibn Hafsûn. The town was besieged by the
+royal forces under the Wizir Haksim. The wily Ibn Hafsûn, seeing that
+the stronghold must fall, proposed to the opposing general that he
+should allow him to evacuate the place and transport his army to the
+frontier of Valencia, on a train of beasts of burden to be provided by
+the besiegers. Haksim joyfully assented to this capitulation, and on the
+day appointed, what was supposed to be the entire army of the rebel
+chief issued from the gates of the city and wended their way, with the
+train of packhorses, eastwards. Leaving what he considered a sufficient
+garrison in Toledo, Haksim drew off the greater part of his forces and
+went to Cordoba. Meanwhile the crafty Hafsûn swiftly retraced his steps,
+and with the aid of the considerable detachment he had left concealed in
+the town, put the garrison to the sword, and once more hurled defiance
+at the Amir. Great was Al Mundhir’s wrath on the receipt of this
+intelligence, and before nightfall, the head of Haksim lay severed from
+his body.
+
+Ibn Hafsûn proved a formidable antagonist. The Amir lead an army against
+him in 888 and was defeated and killed. Twenty years later Hafsûn died,
+bequeathing what was practically an independent sovereignty to his son.
+The great Khalifa, Abd-ur-Rahman III., now sat on the throne of Cordoba.
+He determined to put an end to the arrogant pretensions of the unruly,
+untameable city. His summons to capitulate being contemptuously
+rejected, he took the field in 930. For eight years the siege went on,
+varied by exploits and incidents, which might prove matter for a Moorish
+Iliad. Famine stalked abroad in the obstinate city, but the Hafsûns
+would not hear of surrender. When at last it became plain that the
+people would yield, the leaders and their partisans, to the number of
+four thousand, made a last desperate sortie. Two thousand cavaliers,
+with a foot-soldier clutching firmly hold of each horse’s girth, they
+broke through Abd-ur-Rahman’s camp, and got clean away. Almost joyfully
+the townsmen opened their gates to the great Amir--to be firmly bitted
+and bridled during the remainder of his reign.
+
+That the town was still subject to the central authority in the year
+979, we gather from this incident. The Governor, Abd-ul-Malik Ibn Merwân
+having some difference with the Wali of Medina Selim (Medinaceli),
+challenged him to single combat and slew him. For this, without more
+ado, he was removed from office by orders from Cordoba.
+
+In the first quarter of the eleventh century, Toledo recovered her
+freedom, on the break-up of the Umeyyah empire. Under her sultan,
+Ismail, in 1023, she was able to boast that she knew no other lord or
+ruler under the blue heavens. After Ismail came Abu-l-Hasan Yahya al
+Ramân who reigned till 1075, and was then succeeded by Yahya Kadir, who
+lost his throne in 1085.
+
+Before relating the incidents of the reconquest of Toledo by the
+Christians and its incorporation in the steadily expanding kingdom of
+Leon, we will take a glance at the city as it was under its Mohammedan
+rulers. Of its affluence, importance, and strength, the foregoing
+cursory sketch of its history has afforded us some idea. It ranked as
+the metropolis of the Christian element in the Amir’s dominions, and its
+prelates early obtained recognition from their Paynim sovereigns as
+dignitaries of the highest standing. Among them were such notable men as
+Wistremir and Eulogius. One of the archbishops of Toledo, Elipando,
+embraced the heresy of Nestorius, and went the length of excommunicating
+his fellow bishops. Upon his death, however, an orthodox successor was
+chosen. The Christians were wealthy and arrogant. They were classed in
+congregations, dependent on their various churches, each division
+including certain families irrespective of their domiciles. Toledo,
+during the three and a half centuries of Mohammedan dominion, never
+seems to have lost the outward character of a Christian town. Moorish
+influence she felt, and it served to soften and chasten her rough
+features, but Moorish she never became as did Seville and Cordoba. Yet
+in every corner of the old city the guides are prone to point out the
+buildings and remains that they fondly believe to be of Arabic
+workmanship. In reality, very few monuments of the Mohammedan period
+have survived. It is not by what we see but by what we read that we can
+form an idea of the city as it was in those days.
+
+It was renowned for its clepsydras or water-clocks, invented by
+Abu-l-Kasim. These are described as follows in an Arabic document: “But
+what is marvellous and surprising in Toledo, and what we believe no
+other town in all the world has anything to equal, are its water-clocks.
+It is said that Az-Zagral [Abu-l-Kasim] hearing of a certain talisman
+which is in the city of Arin, of Eastern India, and which shows the
+hours by means of _aspas_ or hands, from the time the sun rises till it
+sets, determined to fabricate an artifice by means of which the people
+could know the hour of day or night, and calculate the day of the moon.
+He made two great ponds in a house on the bank of the Tagus, near the
+Gate of the Tanners, making them so that they should be filled with
+water or emptied according to the rise and fall of the moon.” The water
+began to flow into the ponds as soon as the moon became visible, and at
+dawn they were four-sevenths full. The water rose by one-seventh every
+twenty-four hours, and were full at full moon. As the luminary waned,
+the water fell in exact proportion. The exact working of these
+contrivances was lost when an astronomer, deputed by Alfonso el Sabio to
+examine them, broke parts of the intricate machinery.
+
+The chroniclers relate wonders of the palace of An Naôra, so called from
+its celebrated _noria_ or hydraulic apparatus. The apartments were so
+splendid as to rival those of the palace of the Amir himself, and “were
+resplendent as the sun at noonday, and the moon at the full.” In the
+luxurious gardens was the lake or albuhera, in the centre of which rose
+a pavilion of glass, where Al Ramân-bil-Lah, the last sovereign of
+Toledo, used to pass the night. “The clever architects”--we quote from
+the “Monumentos Arquitectónicos”--who made the lake, not only raised the
+waters from the river in order to fill it, but raised them above the
+cupola of the pavilion, over and around which they flowed incessantly,
+forming around it a diaphanous and crystalline mantle. Not a drop could
+penetrate the structure or touch the persons within. With the sonorous
+murmur of these waters mingled that produced by the fountains that
+gushed forth from the mouths of the lions in metal guarding this
+wonderful pavilion. Illumined inside with lamps of various colours,
+without it presented a fantastic appearance, which was reflected back
+from the waters of the lake, and which the people of Toledo contemplated
+with admiration through the dense foliage.”
+
+Of this exquisite pleasaunce, no trace remains. Nor is anything left of
+the other palace of Al Hizem, built by Ismaîl, the first admittedly
+independent Sultan of Toledo--afterwards inhabited by the Christian
+kings. The principal building in Moorish times was, of course, the
+Aljama, or Chief Mosque. This seems to have been erected at the same
+time as the great Mezquita at Cordoba, in the reign of Abd-ur-Rahman
+II., and to have been richly embellished and enlarged under the third
+and greatest Khalifa of that name. We read that in the fourth century of
+the Hegira, the architect Fatho ben Ibrahim el Caxevi built two
+sumptuous mosques, called, the one, Adabejin, the other Gebel Berida;
+but where these were situated, or what was the real Arabic spelling of
+the names, we have no means of knowing.
+
+Happily a few specimens of the local architecture of that epoch remain.
+Of these one of the learned compilers of the “Monumentos
+Arquitectónicos” writes: “In spite of their varying degrees of
+integrity, and although greatly damaged and changed by later
+restorations, these works possess an extreme importance, and suffice to
+manifest the peculiar physiognomy of the secondary religious edifices of
+this part of the Peninsula at the most glorious epoch of the
+Khalifate--a physiognomy strikingly different from that of the principal
+religious structures, or Aljamas, equivalent to our cathedrals, and
+different also from that of the same buildings in the south. They show,
+furthermore, decorative processes believed to have been unknown in
+Spain at that epoch.”
+
+The most complete and remarkable of these buildings is the Mosque of
+Bib-el-Mardom, now known as the Cristo de la Luz. It is situated to the
+north of the city, between the Puerta del Sol and the Puerta Bisagra.
+Here Alfonso VI., on entering Toledo on May 25, 1085, halted and caused
+Mass to be celebrated, leaving his shield behind him as a memento of the
+incident.
+
+The exterior of this most interesting building is unpromising. It is
+thus described by Mr. Street: “The exterior face of the walls is built
+of brick and rough stone. The lower part of the side wall is arcaded
+with three round arches, within the centre of which is a round horseshoe
+arch for a doorway; above is a continuous sunk arcade of cusped arches,
+within which are window openings with round horse-shoe heads. The lower
+part of the walls is cut with single courses of brick, alternating with
+rough stonework; the piers and arches of brick, with projecting labels
+and strings also of unmoulded brick. The arches of the upper windows are
+built with red and green bricks alternated.” Restorations carried out in
+1899 brought to light a most interesting pierced frieze running round
+the north-eastern façade, and serving as a sort of ventilator. Above was
+deciphered the following inscription in Arabic characters: “In the name
+of God, the Compassionate, the Merciful. This mosque was rebuilt ... the
+renewal of its upper part, proposing to render it more beautiful, and
+[the restoration] was finished, with the help of God, under the
+direction of Musa Ibn Ali, the architect, and of Saada. It was completed
+in the Muharram of the year 370” [July 17, 979, to August 15, 980 A.D.]
+The whole façade of the edifice has been much disfigured by successive
+reconstructions, coatings of plaster, &c., and has undergone much more
+serious transformation than the interior.
+
+Entering when the eyes have become accustomed to the obscurity, we make
+out the details of a very small and curious structure. Again to quote
+Mr. Street, the nave is only “21 ft. 7¼ in. by 20 ft. 2 in., and this
+space is subdivided into nine compartments by four very low circular
+columns, which are about a foot in diameter. Their capitals are all
+different. The arches, of which four spring from each capital, are all
+of the round horseshoe form; above them is a string-course, and all the
+intermediate walls are carried up to the same height as the main walls.
+They are all pierced above the arches with arcades of varied design,
+generally cusped in very Moorish fashion, and supported on shafts; and
+above these each of the nine divisions is crowned with a little vault,
+formed by intersecting cusped ribs, thrown in the most fantastic way
+across each other, and varied in each compartment. The scale of the
+whole work is so diminutive that it is difficult, no doubt, to
+understand how so much is done in so small a space; but looking to the
+early date of the work it is impossible not to feel very great respect
+for the workmen who built it, and for the ingenious intricacy which has
+made their work look so much larger and important than it really is.”
+After the Reconquest, the loftier portion of the temple, consisting of
+apse and transept, and containing the altar, was added. Looking closer
+into the details of the Moorish portion, one is struck by the contrast
+presented by rude shafts and capitals, evidently of Visigothic
+workmanship, with the general elegance and delicacy of the whole. On
+making a careful study of these features, it is difficult to resist the
+conclusion (supported, indeed, by tradition) that they formed part of an
+earlier and less skilfully constructed mosque, itself merely a
+restoration or adaptation of a Visigothic church. Señor Amador de los
+Rios is of opinion that the existing structure constituted only the
+inner portion or _maksurah_ of the temple, and believes that the
+southern wall is the only part of the outer or enclosing _enceinte_
+remaining. In this he finds traces of the _kiblah_ or sanctuary,
+_membar_, and other features peculiar to Mohammedan worship. The mosque
+consisted originally, in all probability, in addition to the fabric we
+now see, of naves extending on each side of those still standing, from
+north-east to south-west. Even thus the mosque must have been very
+small. The exact configuration and plan of the original building is
+still a matter of great perplexity to archæologists, and a great many
+more discoveries remain to be made before anything can be positively
+stated under this head.
+
+The newer, or Christian, portion of the mosque contains some remarkable
+mural paintings, discovered in 1871. They date from about the close of
+the twelfth century, and exhibit pronounced Byzantine influence. It
+seems satisfactorily established that two of the four female figures
+represent Saints Eulalia and Martiana; and the other two, in all
+probability, the martyrs Leocadia and Obdulia. The fifth figure--that of
+a man--represents a prelate. It may be, as Mr. Leonard Williams thinks,
+the Archbishop Bernardo, who figures largely in the annals of the
+Reconquest; or the prelate’s patron saint. It is not to that archbishop,
+however, but to one of his successors--possibly Don Gonzalo Perez
+(1182-1193)--that the remodelling of the building into a Christian place
+of worship should be ascribed.
+
+This intensely interesting monument is the subject of several curious
+and entertaining legends. In the days of Athanagild (and it is not
+impossible, as we know, that the church may have existed at that time) a
+crucifix, greatly venerated by the citizens, hung over the door. Two
+evil-minded Jews, Sacao and Abishai by name, to express their hatred for
+Christianity, drove a lance into the side of the figure. Instantly blood
+gushed forth. The terrified Israelites hid the miraculous object in
+their own home, but were traced by the stains of blood, and (it is
+hardly necessary to add) torn to pieces. This irritated their
+co-religionists, who, to avenge them, poisoned the feet of the statue.
+This resulted in a second miracle, for when a devout woman was about to
+kiss the feet, they were withdrawn--to the discovery and undoing, once
+more, of the villainous Jews. The right foot of the image remains
+withdrawn to the present day, that all men may know the truth of the
+story.
+
+Now we come to the explanation of the name “Cristo de la Luz.” When the
+Moors were about to take the city, the Christians walled up the
+miraculous crucifix, with a lamp burning before it. Three hundred and
+seventy years passed; and on the glorious May 25, 1085, Alfonso VI. and
+his Christian chivalry came riding into reconquered Toledo. Among the
+cavaliers was the Cid, Ruy Diaz de Bivar. The warrior’s horse, on
+passing the mosque, stumbled, or, as others have it, knelt. With
+preternatural acuteness, the Cid suspected some unusual circumstance,
+and had the adjacent wall broken down. Then was discovered the crucifix
+with the lamp still burning brightly, as when placed there nearly four
+centuries before. The mosque was reconsecrated on the spot; and the King
+left his shield as a memento. There it hangs to-day, above the central
+arch, bearing a white cross on a crimson ground. Whether it is authentic
+or not, we cannot say, but below it one may read: _Esto es el escudo que
+dejo en esta ermita el Rey Don Alfonso VI., cuando ganó á Toledo y se
+dijo aqui la primera misa._
+
+The Cristo de la Luz is no longer a church, and is now classed among the
+national monuments of Spain.
+
+Hardly less interesting, but very far from being as well known, is the
+ancient mosque in the Calle de las Tornerias. It is contained in the
+upper part of the private houses numbered 27, 29, and 31. The mosque
+having been built against a steep incline, it was raised on a
+substructure of galleries, which now form the ground floor of the modern
+houses. The mosque was never converted to Christian uses, and retains
+its original physiognomy almost unimpaired. In the opinion of Spanish
+archæologists, it belongs to the same period as the Cristo de la Luz;
+but Street does not share this view, and thinks it a later work. Like
+the other mosque, it is built more or less in the form of a square, and
+has likewise Visigothic columns and capitals, pointing to the existence
+of a previous structure. Here, also, we find the horseshoe arch and the
+cupola, and evidences of the position of the kiblah. Recent restorations
+have shown that the walls are composed of the finest brickwork,
+unsurpassed for smoothness and regularity. But so far no trace has been
+revealed of any texts from the Koran, or inscription commemorating the
+architect’s name, such as were usual in the Mohammedan temples of Spain.
+
+The Puerta Antigua de Bisagra, or ancient gate of Bisagra--not to be
+confounded with the new gate of the same name built by Charles V.--is
+dilapidated and falling to pieces. In Moorish times it was the principal
+entrance to the city. The name was probably originally Bib-Sahla. It
+dates from about the beginning of the tenth century, but to the
+primitive structure only the foundations of the gate belong. A
+reconstruction seems to have been carried out at the time of the
+Reconquest, and to that epoch the arch, or gate, properly speaking, may
+be assigned. The upper portion of the time-worn fabric belongs to a
+still later period. This is the only one remaining of the fifteen gates
+with which the walls of Toledo appear to have been furnished during the
+Mohammedan occupation.
+
+The celebrated Puente de Alcantara, as it exists to-day, must be
+regarded as the work of the Christians. It took the place of a
+structure, built or restored by the Musulmans, and regarded by the
+writers of their time and nation as one of the wonders of Spain.
+According to an inscription on the bridge tower, the work dated from the
+year 997 A.D., and was built by “Alif, son of Mohammed Al Ameri,
+Governor of Toledo, under the great Wizir, Al Mansûr.” With it, no
+doubt, were incorporated the remains of previous Gothic and Roman
+constructions. It was almost entirely swept away in a great flood in the
+year 1258, after having already undergone extensive repairs and
+restorations since the Reconquest. Thus we may conclude that there can
+be few if any traces of the Moorish bridge in the actual Puente de
+Alcantara. On the other side of the town there was probably a wooden
+bridge or bridge of boats, where the Puente de San Martin now spans the
+river. A little below it is a brick tower, with open arches, the
+horseshoe curve of which, and other features, bespeak its Moorish
+origin. Legend places here the incident of the Bath of Florinda. In
+later times the work was believed to be the remains of a bridge. But an
+Arabic inscription, recently redeciphered and translated, goes to prove
+that the tower formed part of a very different monument: “In the Name of
+God, the Merciful, the Compassionate! Oh, men, believe that the promises
+of God are certain and let not yourselves be seduced by the flattery of
+the world, nor be lured away from God by the deceits of the Evil One!
+This is the tomb of Hosàm (?)-ben-Abd ... [He confessed that there is no
+other God but] God. He died [may God have mercy on him] ... the year
+eight ... and four hundred.” The Baños de la Cava may now be safely
+regarded as a Musulman sepulchral monument of the fifth century after
+the Hegira.
+
+We have now briefly considered the only monuments of interest to any but
+the most ardent archæologists that can be ascribed, so far as their
+general structure is concerned, to the Moslem lords of Toledo. Admitting
+that the most important buildings of that time have long since
+disappeared, it remains clear that the city could never have presented
+the Oriental aspect of the Andalusian seats of Islam.
+
+The history of the city as an independent State is soon told. Under
+Ismail and his son Al Mamûn, Toledo became the most powerful Musulman
+State in Spain. The lesser principalities having been disposed of, a
+fierce struggle for supremacy was waged between Al Mamûn and the Amir
+of Seville. A desperate battle before the walls of Murcia decided the
+issue in favour of the Toledan, and gave Valencia into his hands. But,
+as is often the case with men of all ranks, Al Mamûn’s strength and
+wisdom were undone and rendered unavailing by his fatal trait of
+magnanimity.
+
+Alfonso of Leon, dispossessed of his kingdom by his brother, threw
+himself upon the protection of the Amir of Tolaitola. The noble Muslim
+bestowed upon the fugitive prince a palace near his own, an oratory, and
+a garden “wherein to recreate himself”; and allowed him to establish a
+miniature Court for himself and his followers at Brihuega. Lands were
+assigned to him as a source of revenue, and he became the most intimate
+and honoured friend of the Amir. It is said that in return an oath was
+exacted of Alfonso that he would assist his host against all men, and
+never war upon him or his son. That some such pledge should have been
+asked for in return for such magnificent hospitality seems very
+probable. The Archbishop Don Rodrigo relates that one day Al Mamûn found
+himself with his most trusty counsellors in a wood from which a full
+view of the city could be obtained. The Moorish sovereign fell to
+discoursing upon the defences of the place and the best means of
+attacking it. These words were overheard by Alfonso, who chanced to be
+by, and who at once feigned sleep beneath a tree. Here he was presently
+discovered by the Moors, to their great dismay. Some among them asked
+leave of Al Mamûn to slay him. On this permission being indignantly
+refused, they dropped hot lead on the Leonese prince’s hand to see if he
+were really asleep. Alfonso did not stir, which would have convinced
+most people that he was feigning sleep. The Muslims, on the contrary,
+retired, satisfied that he had heard nothing and seen nothing.
+
+Before returning to his kingdom, the Christian prince renewed his vows
+of loyalty and friendship to Al Mamûn, with whom personally, indeed, he
+never broke faith. The Moor’s son, Yahya, reaped the reward of the
+father’s generosity. A weak and incapable sovereign, addicted to luxury
+and despised for his devotion to superstitious practices, he was
+detested by his own subjects, who on one occasion drove him out of the
+city, to take refuge at Cuenca. His authority was restored only with the
+help of his natural foes, the Castilians. Alfonso, unmindful of his vow,
+forgetful of the dead Al Mamûn’s princely generosity, could not resist
+this opportunity of adding to his dominions the old capital of the Kings
+of Spain. For six years he laid waste the frontiers of the Amirate, and
+in the seventh year--carefully availing himself, no doubt, of the
+information unwittingly communicated by his old benefactor--invested
+Toledo itself. Famine accomplished what arms could not, Yahya asked for
+terms. They were onerous enough. They involved the cession of all the
+Moorish King’s dominions, except Valencia, the Muslims who elected to
+remain in Toledo being guaranteed the free exercise of their religion,
+their property, and liberty. They were to be subject to their own laws
+and tribunals and to retain their mosques. The terms, as remarks
+Quadrado, were, in fact, almost the same as those granted to the
+Christians by the Arabs three hundred and seventy years before. Only the
+Alcazar, the bridges, gates, and the garden called the Huerta del Rey,
+were reserved to Alfonso himself. The capitulation completed, Yahya and
+his court took the road to Valencia, and Alfonso VI. entered Toledo by
+the Bib-el-Mardom on Sunday, May 25, 1085.
+
+“May God renew her past splendour, and inscribe once more the name of
+Toledo on the list of the cities of Islâm!” This was the devout
+aspiration of a Muslim chronicler, but in neither particular has it ever
+been fulfilled.
+
+
+
+
+TOLEDO THE CAPITAL OF CASTILE
+
+
+The incorporation of the haughty city of the Visigoths with the kingdom
+of Castile was, when the first wave of enthusiasm had subsided, regarded
+with coldness and misgiving by its people. The Toledans were as
+tenacious as ever of their peculiar customs and privileges which they
+had hoped to maintain intact. Even with the powerful assistance of the
+Cid, whom he appointed Alcalde, Alfonso found the ordering of the
+affairs of his new capital a difficult and dangerous task. The
+population included (remarks Don Jose Quadrado) “the conquered and
+resigned Musulman, the Israelite ever submissive and industrious, the
+Mozarabe ennobled by his ancient lineage and constancy in his faith, the
+Castilian, proud of his conquests, the foreigner rewarded for his
+prowess, or attracted from remote countries by signal privileges; and
+this multiplicity of races and diversity of creeds demanded as many
+separate systems of law and administrations.” The Jews, Musulmans and
+foreigners continued subject to their own codes and tribunals; but while
+the Mozarabe or native of Toledo clung to the old Fuero Juzgo or
+Visigothic law, inherited from his fathers, the Castilians and Leonese
+expected to be ruled according to the ruder, rougher code of their
+warrior counts and kings. Alfonso dealt with these two peoples of common
+race and language as with the other more widely distinct races. Each had
+an Alcalde of its own, subject, however, to the Alcalde Mayor named by
+the king. A compromise, too, was arrived at, the Castilians being
+subject to their own law in civil cases, and to the Mozarabe in criminal
+matters. On the whole, the tendency of these measures was to conciliate
+the Toledans. But we find evidence of jealousies between them and their
+conquerors or deliverers from the North for many years afterwards.
+
+Alfonso’s honour had not gone unstained in regard to his taking the city
+of his old friend and benefactor, and the Moors must have been sanguine
+indeed if they looked forward to a scrupulous fulfilment of the pledges
+given them by the conqueror while he was _outside_ the walls. The clause
+that entitled the Muslims to the free and exclusive use of their mosques
+was particularly obnoxious to the rabid ecclesiastics and crusaders who
+accompanied the king. With increasing irritation they compared the noble
+proportions of the Mohammedan mezquita with those of the humble
+provisional Catholic Cathedral of Santa Maria de Alficem. While Alfonso
+was absent in Leon, he left the city in charge of his queen, Constancia,
+a Frenchwoman, and of her countryman, Bernard, now bishop, and formerly
+a monk of Cluny. This prelate took advantage of his sovereign’s absence
+to burst one night into the coveted mosque with an armed party, and
+having “purified” it, suspended bells in the minarets, which announced
+at dawn the celebration of the Christian rite. When word was brought to
+the King of this infamous violation of the treaty, he set out for
+Toledo, announcing his intention of burning the bishop alive. Moved
+either by that magnanimity which in the person of Al Mamûn had
+contributed to their downfall, or, as Spanish writers say, by a
+far-seeing prudence, the Moors went out in a body to meet the monarch,
+and besought him to forgive the highly placed thieves. Alfonso, with a
+show of reluctance, acquiesced in their prayer, and the Christians were
+most undeservedly confirmed in the possession of a church they had no
+hand in creating. The Alfaqui, or headman of the Muslims, was
+munificently rewarded for his generosity, his statue being placed in the
+Capilla Mayor of the new cathedral, which was solemnly consecrated in
+1087. No nation has shown a very nice sense of honesty in respect of
+church property, yet it needs no subtle intelligence to perceive that a
+church is as much the property of the particular sect for whose special
+use it was designed by members of that sect, as any private house is of
+its private owner.
+
+The sturdy Toledans were attached, not only to their laws and customs,
+but (which was of more importance in those days) to their own Gothic or
+Mozarabic ritual. This differs in what are considered important
+particulars from the Roman. The host is divided into nine parts,
+representing the Incarnation, Epiphany, Circumcision, Passion, Death,
+Resurrection, Ascension, and Eternal Kingdom of Christ. Of these
+fragments, seven are arranged to form a cross. Because it is not Roman,
+English writers are fond of extolling the beauty and simplicity of this
+liturgy. It was a stumbling-block to Queen Constance and the zealous
+French bishop, who were anxious to reduce all things in Spain to
+Catholic uniformity. The King ordered the question to be decided by
+ordeal of single combat. The Mozarabic champion remained the victor. The
+bishop then demanded the ordeal of fire. The two missals were
+accordingly thrown into a great blazing pile, and the local favourite,
+having probably been saturated with some incombustible preparation,
+remained unconsumed. Another version has it that neither book was
+injured by the flames. Alfonso, after his fashion, clinched the
+controversy by ordering the Mozarabic ritual to be confined to the two
+parish churches allotted to the Christians by their Moorish rulers,
+whilst everywhere else Mass was to be celebrated according to the Roman
+office.
+
+Alfonso VI. had to fight hard to keep possession of Toledo. The
+Almoravide invasion had burst like a tidal wave over Southern Spain.
+Everywhere the Musulmans were recovering their spirits and their
+strength. The Castilian king fled, wounded, from the bloody field of
+Zalaca, with only five hundred followers, leaving behind him twenty
+thousand slain. Toledo could have had no pleasant associations for its
+latest conqueror. Here died three of his _six_ wives--Constancia of
+Burgundy, Isabel of France, and Zayda of Seville. At Ucles was slain his
+only son, while yet a mere child. “Where is your prince?” asked the
+unhappy father of the warriors escaped from the rout. “Where is the
+light of my eyes and the staff of my age?” All were silent. “He is dead
+and you live!” bitterly exclaimed the king. “Yes,” replied Alvar Fañez
+sternly, “we live to save the throne, the country, and the lands
+acquired with our blood and sweat.” But the Alcazar re-echoed to the
+mournful plaint, “Sancho! Sancho, my son!” till Alfonso VI. passed away
+in July 1109. The stones of which the church altars were built had
+miraculously distilled tears in token of his approaching death. Before a
+year had passed the Vega was blackened by the advancing hordes of Islam.
+The Castle of Azeca, the monastery of San Servando, fell into their
+hands; but the City of the Goths, thanks to the leadership of Archbishop
+Bernard and of Alvar Fañez, hurled back the hosts of Ali and was held
+fast for Spain.
+
+The accession of Alfonso VII. el Batallador brought brighter days to his
+capital, but it was assailed during the twelfth century with a
+succession of calamities that might have broken down the patience of
+Job. The year 1113 was marked by an earthquake and disastrous
+overflowing of the Tagus; 1116, by a fire on a large scale; in 1117, the
+price of wheat rose, to fourteen soldos the bushel; in 1168, the Tagus
+was again in flood; again in 1181 and 1200; between 1187 and 1200, all
+the grocery stores were burnt (how or why, we are not told), the Tagus
+was frozen over in 1191, and there was a famine the following year.
+Eclipses of the sun were of the commonest occurrence: we hear of them in
+1114, 1162, 1177, 1191, and 1207. We can easily imagine the Mohammedan
+denizens shaking their heads and ascribing these phenomena, especially
+the last, to the change of government, and extolling the good old times
+of Al Mamûn when earth, river, and sun kept their places and behaved
+according to rule.
+
+Yet Toledo flourished, and her citizens were never more in their element
+than in the spring of the year 1212, when their town became the
+rallying-point and base of the great crusading army, destined to achieve
+the crowning mercy of the Navas de Tolosa. The dominant personality of
+that time was the Archbishop Rodrigo Jimenez de Rada. A writer of
+history, a valiant soldier, a sagacious statesman, princely in his
+magnificence, and angelic in his charity, he was a tower of strength in
+Spain, and especially for Toledo, in the dreadful years of famine and
+brigandage that followed the victory over the Moor. His name will be for
+ever remembered as practically the founder of the great cathedral which
+is the city’s crowning glory and title to fame.
+
+The century of floods, earthquakes, and eclipses passed away, and found
+Toledo a hotbed of civil strife and internecine discord. As in Italian
+cities at the same time, rival families and factions fought in the
+streets, turned their houses into fortresses, and set the civic
+authorities at defiance. The hidalgos of Toledo would hurry home from
+warring with the infidel to plunge their swords into the bosoms of their
+fellow townsmen. Laras and Castros waged pitched battles for the
+possession of the capital of Castile. At last the royal power asserted
+itself, and with terrible effect. We read that “the King Ferdinand came
+to Toledo, and hanged many men and boiled others alive in cauldrons.
+Era MCCLXII. (1224).” This boiler of his fellow men is known as _Saint_
+Ferdinand. His father, Alfonso IX. of Leon, is also mentioned as having
+broiled his rebellious subjects, and flayed others alive. But such
+performances are not considered by a certain class of writers even now
+to argue any real depravity of character.
+
+The sainted king’s severity on another occasion is more creditable to
+him. On his entry into the town, two young women threw themselves at his
+feet and implored vengeance on their betrayer, Fernandez Gonzalo--the
+Alcalde himself. The high rank of the offender did not save him from
+instant decapitation, and his head was within an hour gazing down on the
+scene of his amours from the Puerta del Sol. Whether the betrayed
+damsels or any one else were benefited by these drastic measures, the
+panegyrists of the righteous king forgot to tell us.
+
+Still it was an age when strong measures were called for; and
+recognising this, the citizens themselves instituted the famous Santa
+Hermandad or Holy Brotherhood for the maintenance of public order and
+suppression of brigandage. The organisation received the royal sanction,
+and was endowed with many privileges. It supplied the place of a regular
+police force for all Castile for at least three centuries, and readers
+will remember the frequent references to it in the pages of “Don
+Quixote.”
+
+Toledo had not yet become a capital in the sense of being the permanent
+residence of the sovereign. Saint Ferdinand and his immediate
+predecessors and successors were essentially soldiers. Their Court was
+the camp, and in the unremitting war of reconquest it was necessarily
+transferred from place to place, from one confine of the ever-expanding
+kingdom to the other. When at Toledo the king resided at the
+Alcazar--which in Moorish days had been a fortress constructed of
+_tapia_ (a species of concrete), and which was fortified with masonry by
+Alfonso VI. The building was enlarged and embellished, and made more
+suitable for a royal residence by Sancho el Bravo (1284-1295). But the
+state of affairs in what may be termed the Epoch of the Reconquest
+(1085-1252), was obviously not favourable to the development of the
+building arts. Toledo possesses few memorials of these days, for such
+edifices as may have been founded at or before that time have undergone
+such transformations as to render them practically the products of later
+ages. Such supplies and energies as were not absorbed by the
+all-important business of war were naturally diverted to the building of
+the cathedral, which was not, as we shall see, completed for another two
+centuries.
+
+Mediæval history concerns itself almost exclusively with kings and
+princes, battles and treaties. Of the life of the people in Spain, as
+elsewhere, we hear very little. From stray references in the records we
+glean the information that the streets of Toledo were filthy and
+unpaved, and frequently encumbered with the carcases of beasts. Over the
+gates the heads of malefactors were ever rotting, poisoning the already
+vitiated air. We have concise details, too, of no particular interest,
+as to the municipal constitution of the city. Beyond this meagre
+information, we know something of the history of Toledo only so far as
+it was also the history of Spain.
+
+Pedro I., the Cruel (1350-1368), had no liking for the gloomy, turbulent
+town, and during his reign Seville might have been called the seat of
+government. However much he may have endeared himself to the
+Andalusians, the ferocious king was no favourite with the Toledans. When
+the ill-used queen, Blanche of Bourbon, escaped from her prison in the
+Alcazar and claimed the right of sanctuary in the cathedral, the city
+rose in her behalf, and a thousand native blades sprung from their
+scabbards to protect her. An alliance was concluded with Talavera and
+Cuenca, and the gates opened to Don Enrique of Trastamara, the king’s
+half-brother. It is said that Pedro’s faction held the bridge of San
+Martin, expecting the rebel prince to enter that way, while his
+supporters introduced his troops into the town by the opposite bridge of
+Alcantara. The Trastamara partisans attacked the Jewish quarter, the
+Israelites being especial favourites of Don Pedro, and a frightful
+massacre ensued. Soon the king’s party gained the upper hand, and the
+unfortunate Blanche was removed from the city, wherein she had found
+such staunch friends, to the castle of Sigüenza.
+
+This is not the first time we read of a massacre of Jews at Toledo. Yet
+the town was for many centuries one of the strongholds of Jewry in
+Europe, and a centre of Hebrew culture and activity. The story of the
+Jews of Toledo is, in fact, one of the most interesting chapters in the
+history of the city and of Spain.
+
+Jews were settled in the Peninsula at a remote period. The author of
+“The Moorish Empire in Europe” (S. P. Scott) thinks their arrival in
+that country “antedated the Christian Era by at least a thousand years.”
+As we know, legend actually ascribes the foundation of Toledo to the
+race. This may, we think, be due to a confusion of the Israelites with
+Phœnician settlers. At the time of Christ, the Jews of Spain were very
+numerous and opulent. Another legend tells how their chief men addressed
+a letter to the Sanhedrim at Jerusalem, protesting against the
+Crucifixion. A document--altogether spurious, it need hardly be
+said--has been produced in support of this story. After the destruction
+of Jerusalem by Titus, there seems to have been a large influx of Hebrew
+refugees into Spain. So long as the Visigoths remained Arians, they
+remained tolerant; but Reccared, soon after his conversion to
+Catholicism, levelled the severest enactments against the Israelites. He
+set a bad precedent. With Sisebut began the long era of persecution. His
+harsh edicts, forcing the Jews to choose between baptism and banishment,
+are still to be found in the Fuero Juzgo. Swinthila, Kindila,
+Recceswinth, Erwig, and Egica followed the same policy. Among the
+tyrannical enactments of this time is the grotesque command that the
+Jews of Toledo should eat pork! Under these circumstances it is not to
+be wondered that the Spanish Jews beheld with dawning hope the
+successful progress of the Mohammedans in Northern Africa. A secret
+intelligence was established with these Semitic conquerors of a newer
+faith, and thanks to the constant intercourse between the Jews of Africa
+and those of Spain, Musa and Tarik were fully supplied with the most
+minute particulars of the Visigothic State.
+
+The period of the Khalifate was the Golden Age of Spanish Jewry. The
+numbers of the race, depleted by persecution, were increased by the
+advent of upwards of twelve thousand Yemenite Jews, invited by the
+Moorish conquerors. Never since the days of Solomon had the Children of
+Israel known such peace and prosperity. Possessed already of a
+remarkably high degree of culture, they communicated their knowledge to
+the Arabs, who showed themselves generous patrons and protectors. Nor
+were the new rulers of Spain slow to perceive the advantages to be
+derived from the subject race’s commercial enterprise and talent for
+affairs. Though the versatility of the Jew at this time was one of his
+most remarkable characteristics, it was above all as a physician that he
+was esteemed by Muslims and Christians alike. In this capacity he became
+the indispensable and most trusted companion of sovereigns and prelates,
+and penetrated into the very arcana of power. From Court physician to
+Minister the transition in those days of personal government was easy,
+and we find Hasdai ben Isaac Ibn Shaprut occupying both positions under
+Abd-ur-Rahman I.
+
+As far as was consistent with their religious beliefs, the Jews of
+Toledo assimilated themselves with the conquerors. The minutes of the
+congregation were kept in Arabic down to the end of the thirteenth
+century, and that language was sedulously cultivated and almost
+exclusively employed by the brilliant succession of Jewish theologians
+and humanists who made the city a centre of literary and scholastic
+activity.
+
+We have it on the authority of Mr. S. P. Scott that, under the Muslim
+dominion, the Jews were allowed to elect a king, always a prince of the
+House of Judah, “who, while not openly invested with the insignia of
+royalty, received the homage and tribute of his subjects.” It is
+illustrative of the respect of the race for learning that the erudite
+Rabbi Moses, when recognised exposed as a slave at Cordoba, was
+immediately elected to this dubious royalty.
+
+The Jews of Toledo must have viewed with unpleasant apprehensions the
+re-establishment of the Catholic monarchy. Yet at first it seemed they
+had no cause for alarm. Alfonso VI., as we know, granted to them the
+liberal privileges by which the Muslims also benefited. But in the
+charter confirming the customs of the Mozarabes (1091) it was made plain
+that no penalty would be exacted of a Christian for the murder of a Jew
+or Muslim. The result might have been foreseen. Seventeen years after,
+the people rose in savage fury, broke into the synagogues and butchered
+the rabbis in their pulpits, burnt and pillaged every Jewish house, and
+slaughtered the luckless objects of their animosity without mercy. But
+it was the people, rather than the governing classes, who manifested
+this violent racial prejudice. As in every other land, in spite of
+persecution, the Chosen People grew in wealth and abated not their
+industry and commercial activity. It was they who brought to the grim
+Gothic city the choicest products of the East; they alone who could
+combat the ravages of disease; they alone who could supply the needy
+king and nobles with the coin for which in Italy men paid as much as one
+hundred and twenty per cent. interest. Spain hated the Jew, but could
+not as yet do without him.
+
+The rule of Alfonso VI.’s successors could not have been excessively
+harsh, for many Jewish families, hounded out of Southern Spain by an
+unusual manifestation of Mohammedan bigotry, took refuge within the
+walls of Toledo. Thanks to the influence of Fermosa, the Jewish mistress
+of Alfonso VIII., many of her race exercised important functions at the
+Court. But the fanatical temper of the populace attributed to the favour
+shown these unbelievers the disaster of Alarcos, and the beautiful
+favourite and her friends were murdered in the very presence of the
+king.
+
+“At the beginning of the thirteenth century,” says Mr. Joseph Jacobs,
+B.A., in the “Jewish Encyclopædia,” “the Shushans, the Al-Fakhkhars, and
+the Alnaquas, were among the chief Jewish families of Toledo, Samuel Ibn
+Shushan being nasi [the chief of Sanhedrim] about 1204. His son built a
+synagogue which attracted the attention of Abraham ben Nathan of Lunel,
+who settled in Toledo before 1205. During the troubles brought upon
+Castile by the men of ‘Ultrapuertos’ in 1211-12, Toledo suffered a riot;
+and this appears to have brought the position of the Jews more closely
+to the attention of the authorities. In 1219 the Jewish inhabitants
+became more strictly subject to the jurisdiction of the Archbishop of
+Toledo, who imposed upon every Jew over twenty years old an annual
+poll-tax of one-sixth of a gold mark; and any dispute about age was to
+be settled by a jury of six elders, who were probably supervised by the
+nasi, at that time Solomon ben Joseph Ibn Shushan. In the same year
+papal authority also interfered with the affairs of the Toledo Jews,
+ordering them to pay tithes on houses bought by them from Christians,
+‘as otherwise the Church would be a considerable loser.’”
+
+A significant phrase! But not only houses and land all over the country
+were mortgaged to the Jews, but also church plate and even the sacred
+vessels. Jewish usurers were said to drink out of the chalices used for
+the Precious Elements. The exasperation of the Christians was
+disregarded by Alfonso X. the Learned, who entertained a profound
+respect for the erudition and traditions of the Jews. A Hebrew, Don Zag
+Ibn Said, directed the compilation of the famous Alfonsine Tables; and
+under the patronage of the monarch, Toledo became famous for its
+translations from the Arabic into Hebrew, Latin, and Spanish. The rabbis
+distinguished themselves in medicine and astronomy. While doing his
+utmost to draw the oppressed race within the fold of the Catholic
+church, the Learned King granted permission to the Jews of Toledo to
+erect that beautiful synagogue which, under the name of Santa Maria la
+Blanca, ranks to-day among the national monuments of Spain.
+
+“The Spanish Jews,” says Mr. Scott, “by reason of the peculiarities of
+their situation, the hostility of their rulers--which their pecuniary
+resources and natural acuteness often baffled, but never entirely
+overcame--and their successive domination by races of different origin,
+faith, and language, were impressed with mental peculiarities and
+characteristics not to be met with in their brethren of other countries.
+Their religious formalism was proverbial, and the Hebrew of Toledo
+observed more conscientiously the precepts of the Pentateuch and Talmud
+than the Hebrew of Damascus or Jerusalem.” Thus we find the Jews of
+Toledo siding against the rationalising theories of the great
+Maimonides, himself a native of Cordoba, and whose tomb is a conspicuous
+landmark on the western shore of the Sea of Galilee.
+
+Don Amador de los Rios reproduces an ancient record for the year 1290,
+stating the amount of tribute payable by the various Jewish communities
+of Castile. Out of a total of 2,801,345 maravedis the Israelites of the
+city of Toledo contributed 216,500, and those in the entire archdiocese
+1,062,902 maravedis. The pomp of Catholic public worship and the wealth
+of the clergy are partially accounted for by these figures.
+
+Up till then, always the most valuable (from a European point of view)
+and the most prosperous element of the population of Toledo, the Jews
+assumed yet greater prominence in the reign of Pedro I. That prince was
+declared by his numerous enemies to be the substituted child of a
+Jewess, and his Court was reviled as a Jewish Court. He showed favour to
+the race in many ways. His treasurer and confidential adviser was the
+famous Don Samuel Ha Levi. Whether or not the Jewish statesman’s
+administration was in the interests of Castile, it is too late in the
+day to say; but there can be no doubt that he was a loyal servant of his
+king and a devoted friend of his own people. He it was who caused to be
+erected Toledo’s other great synagogue, now called the Transito. He was
+a warm ally of the beautiful Maria de Padilla, Pedro’s gentle mistress,
+and for years, with consummate astuteness, defended himself against the
+insidious and violent attacks of his innumerable enemies. His enormous
+wealth--honestly or dishonestly acquired--brought about his downfall. In
+the very year (1360) the synagogue was completed, Samuel was seized at
+Seville, and, by order of the king, placed upon the rack. The haughty
+Hebrew is said to have died of sheer indignation. Pedro shed crocodile
+tears over his ill-starred Minister’s fate, and greedily confiscated his
+property. His fortune was found to consist of 70,000 doubloons, 4000
+silver marks, twenty chests filled with treasure, and eighty Moorish
+slaves. The property of all Levi’s relatives was also forfeited to the
+Crown, and was valued at 300,000 doubloons. Pedro did not, however,
+withdraw his favour from the Jews as a race. It had been well for them
+if he had. Their loyalty to the Bluebeard King earned for them the
+detestation of the partisans of Enrique de Trastamara, and brought
+about, as we have seen, the massacre of 1355, in which 1200 Jews
+perished.
+
+The new king, Enrique, took advantage of a riot said to have been
+excited by the arrogance of the converted Jews in 1367, and in which
+1600 houses were burnt to the ground, to impose a tribute of no less
+than twenty thousand gold doubloons on the afflicted people.
+
+It was possibly due to the presence of a large Israelite population that
+Toledo, very much against its will, had been held for King Pedro in
+1369. It was, in consequence, fiercely assailed by its own archbishop,
+Don Gomez Manrique, while Pedro sent an army largely composed of
+Saracens to its relief. The city was a prey to famine, internecine
+warfare, pestilence, and to every description of calamity. The killing
+of Pedro and the accession of Enrique were hailed as an ineffable boon
+by the wretched citizens. But from that hour the position of the Jews
+grew more and more pitiable. Their prosperity waned, and with it the
+prosperity of the old city in which they had so long been unwelcome
+guests.
+
+Their final ruin as a community was effected mainly at the instance of
+St. Vicente Ferrer, the Dominican. Visiting the city in 1391 he so
+inflamed the devout populace with apostolic zeal that they burst into
+the larger of the two Juderias or Ghettos, put practically the whole of
+its inhabitants--including the venerable rabbis, Judah ben Asher and
+Israel Alnaqua--to the sword, sacked the quarter from end to end, and
+demolished most of the synagogues. The saintly Ferrer reappeared at
+Toledo twenty years later, but there were nominally no Jews left to
+massacre. The Hebrews that remained had been “converted.” The good friar
+did what he could, and induced the Toledans to confiscate the synagogue
+built in Alfonso X.’s reign and convert it into the Christian Church of
+Santa Maria la Blanca. We suggest that it should have been renamed San
+Vicente del Sangre.
+
+The work of destruction was done thoroughly, and henceforward we hear
+little in the story of Toledo of the Children of Israel. But their names
+have not been altogether forgotten. Mr. Jacobs gives a long list of
+members of that luckless congregation, famous for their learning and
+science. He enumerates theologians, physicians, astronomers,
+grammarians, satirists, poets and astrologers. Toledo, thanks to these
+latter, achieved an unenviable reputation as a centre of the magic art.
+Indeed, this was known at one time as the Arte Toledana. “It is said”
+(we quote Mr. Jacobs) “that Michael Scott learned his magic from a
+Toledo Jew named Andreas, who translated works on magic from the
+Arabic.” The same writer elsewhere says: “The Spanish Jews differed but
+little from the Christian population with regard to customs and
+education. They were fond of luxury, and the women wore costly garments
+with long trains, also valuable jewellery; this tended to increase the
+hatred of the population towards them. They were quarrelsome and
+inclined to robbery, and often attacked and insulted one another even in
+their synagogues and prayer-houses, frequently inflicting wounds with
+the rapier or sword they were accustomed to carry.” With royal
+permission a Jew might have two wives.
+
+Deprived of the more legitimate pastime of Jew-baiting, the Toledans
+began to turn their swords against each other and their sovereign.
+“Never,” remarks Gamero, “had the nobility shown itself so arrogant and
+rebellious as during the reign of Juan II.” Envy of that great man and
+powerful Minister, Don Alvaro de Luna, was mainly the cause of this. The
+leading families took different sides, and the streets frequently were
+slippery with the blood of the citizens. The Alcalde, Pero Lopez de
+Ayala, declared against the great Constable and held the town as an
+independent seigneurie against the king’s forces for five years. King
+Juan had deserved better things of his lieges of Toledo, for in 1431 he
+had entertained them on his return from his campaign in Andalusia with
+festivities and pageants of the gayest character. The people took part
+in bull fights and games in the Zocodover, while the knights and
+_ricoshombres_ jousted and feasted in the Vega. The Alcazar re-echoed to
+the music of lute and lyre, and the songs of the minstrels. But Toledo
+was not to be subdued with kindness. The artisan class presently
+revolted on the imposition of a new tax, the tumult being the occasion
+of the saying, _Soplara il odrero, y alborozarse la Toledo_ (Let the
+ironmonger blow and Toledo will rise). Next, the cruel and miserly
+governor, Pedro Sarmiento, followed Ayala’s example, and demanded of the
+king the dismissal of the noble Constable. The royal forces were set at
+defiance, and a pitched battle was fought below the walls. The fortune
+of the day remained with the rebels, and Sarmiento was able for a time
+to dictate to his sovereign. He was at last crushed, but was able to
+carry off an enormous amount of treasure loaded on two hundred mules.
+
+These events had produced a permanent feud between the families of Ayala
+and Silva, only terminated by the marriage of the heir and heiress of
+the respective houses. Toledo, during the first three-quarters of the
+fifteenth century, was a prey to incessant warfare. Sometimes the whole
+town would be contending against external foes for or against the king,
+sometimes it would be the nobles contending with the people, or the
+church with the nobles. Toledo, as a whole, supported its archbishop,
+Carrillo, when in 1465 he pronounced sentence of dethronement on Enrique
+IV. Three years later that unlucky monarch managed, by winning over the
+Ayalas to his side, to make his entry into the city. The proud chief of
+the family was himself obliged to flee from the town in 1471. The king
+was besieged in the Alcazar; the balance inclined sometimes to this
+party, sometimes to that. The old animosities between the Ayalas and
+the Silvas blazed up again from time to time; and under its weak
+sovereign Toledo had its fill of fighting. But those brave days were
+drawing to a close, and in 1474, came one before whom even Toledans had
+to bend the knee and whom, recognising in her a stronger spirit, they
+afterwards delighted to honour. The accession of Isabel the Catholic on
+the death of Enrique IV., and to the exclusion of the rightful heiress,
+Juana, calumniously nicknamed La Beltraneja, marks the beginning of a
+new era in the history of Spain, and therefore of Toledo.
+
+
+
+
+BUILDINGS OF THE CASTILIAN PERIOD
+
+
+The earliest specimens of post-Moorish architecture in Toledo partake
+more or less of the character of fortifications. For many years, as we
+have seen, after the Reconquest the Christians’ hold upon the city was
+precarious, and the first efforts of the Castilian kings was naturally
+towards strengthening its defences. The history of the walls of Toledo
+is obscure and confused; but it seems certain that a wall has always
+extended within historic times across the northern side of the loop
+formed by the river. The Conqueror Alfonso VI. strengthened and added to
+this defence by the erection of the newer or outer wall, inclosing the
+suburb or Arrabal del Antequeruela. He also appears to have restored the
+inner or Moorish wall, and has left traces on the magnificent Puerta del
+Sol, a Moorish work which must have been quite new in his day. Indeed,
+it may possibly have been built by Moorish masons after the Reconquest.
+It is a noble and impressive portal to the grand old city, and most
+powerfully impresses the beholder. Quadrado will have it that so
+dignified a monument can have been the work only of a ruling race, in
+the days of its liberty and glory; it could not have been the mere
+afterglow of the ascendency and taste of a nation now subjugated. We
+may, however, be permitted to doubt whether the political decadence of a
+people becomes _instantly_ manifested in its artistic life. The gateway
+forms a high tower with two flanking turrets, one square and abutting on
+the wall, the other rounded and finishing off the _enceinte_. The portal
+is composed of a succession of four arches, all being of the horseshoe
+shape, though the outer arches are more pointed than the inner ones.
+Above the outermost arch is a double row of arcades of brickwork, the
+arches intersecting. Over the second arch is a circular medallion in
+relief, representing the Virgin offering the chasuble to St. Ildefonsus.
+Another relief in marble is supposed to represent the summary punishment
+of Fernan Gonzalez by St. Ferdinand, for the seduction of two young
+women. The battlements are of a type common enough in Spanish Christian
+architecture, but which Mr. Street thinks was derived originally from
+the Moors. Another writer, Mr. O’Shea, remarks: “This gate with its warm
+orange tints, that contrast so admirably with the lapis-lazuli azure of
+the cloudless sky, its battlement fringing the top, and opening vistas
+of most novel aspect, is a treasure for an artist.” The exceeding
+quaintness and majesty of this gateway have moved many writers to
+express themselves almost too rapturously. Toledo’s other gates--the
+Puerta Nueva de Visagra and the Puerta del Cambrón--date from a much
+later period.
+
+The rude, dismantled pile of the Castle of San Servando, which crowns
+the height opposite to the Bridge of Alcantara, marks the site of a
+monastery, erected by Alfonso VI. in gratitude for his escape from the
+rout of Sacralias (1086). It was peopled by Benedictines from Sahagun
+and Cluny. These holy men soon found by the defensive works with which
+their new home was provided that their duties would not be entirely of a
+clerical description. Yusuf-ben-Tashfin, the Almoravide leader, almost
+destroyed the building during his abortive siege of Toledo, and Alfonso
+subsequently gave the establishment the aspect and features of a
+fortress. As such it bore the brunt of the repeated Saracen onslaughts
+in the first half of the twelfth century. It was abandoned in
+consequence by the monks, and was bestowed by Alfonso VIII. on the
+Knights Templars. It continued in their possession till the suppression
+of the Order in 1312. It seems to have fallen into ruins soon after, and
+was rebuilt about 1386, on the initiative of the great archbishop,
+Tenorio. It is not a very interesting monument. It is built of masonry,
+with facings of red brick here and there. Three of its four sides are
+standing, and the same number of towers. These bear a resemblance to the
+outer or circular tower of the Puerta del Sol. The windows and arches
+exhibit Moorish, or rather Mudejar, influence. The castle in its day
+must have been a fine specimen of the mediæval stronghold. To-day its
+ruin is complete. It serves as a home to the owl and the bat, and the
+very ghosts of monks and templars seem to have deserted it as
+uninhabitable.
+
+The castle is referred to by Calderon and other writers, and seems at
+one time to have been a favourite spot for duels.
+
+The increased importance of Toledo as the capital of Castile
+necessitated the improvement of its communications with the outside
+world. The Bridge of Alcantara was, at the time of the Reconquest, the
+only permanent traject across the Tagus, and the bridge of boats on the
+western side of the town having been swept away, Alfonso X. (1252-1289)
+decreed the construction of a stone bridge now known as the Puente de
+San Martin. It was built of five arches and lasted till the reign of
+Pedro I., when it was blown up by that king’s partisans to obstruct the
+entry of Enrique de Trastamara. It continued in a practically demolished
+condition for twenty years, when the great archbishop, Pedro Tenorio,
+determined to restore the missing arches at his own expense. It is said
+that the architect entrusted with the work found, to his dismay, the
+night before the day fixed for the opening, that, owing to some
+oversight in his calculations, the whole fabric would collapse on the
+removal of the scaffolding. He made known the cause of his anxiety to
+his wife; and she rose at dead of night, and setting fire to the whole
+structure preserved her husband’s reputation and, not impossibly, his
+life. The reconstructed bridge was, of course, without fault or flaw. A
+final reconstruction took place in 1690. On the town side, the Puente de
+San Martin is defended by two square towers. Above the archway are two
+inscriptions relating to the works executed by order of Charles II. The
+further extremity of the bridge is defended by another square
+battlemented tower with a horseshoe arch. Its two bridges are among the
+most picturesque features of Toledo.
+
+With the obvious exception of the cathedral, the most interesting
+monuments of what we may term the middle age of Toledo are the two
+synagogues, now styled Santa Maria la Blanca and El Transito. The Jews,
+as we have seen, everywhere loom large in the annals of Toledo.
+
+The first-named of these temples derives its actual name from a
+tradition that a Christian church occupied the site in Visigothic times,
+to account for the dedication of which a legend is repeated similar to
+that of Santa Maria ad Nives at Rome. It is situated on what was once
+the Jewry or Ghetto, on the western side of the city, not far from the
+Puente de San Martin. Its foundation--as a synagogue--is variously
+ascribed to the period of the Reconquest, to the last days of the
+Moorish dominion, and to the latter period of the Khalifate. The first
+date seems the most probable. It continued to be used for the Jewish
+worship till 1405, when, as has been already told, it was seized and
+converted into a Catholic church. It has long since become a merely
+secular monument. The exterior, approached through the most miserable
+and sordid neighbourhood, is very far from reflecting the splendour the
+Jews enjoyed at its foundation. The façade, mean and dilapidated like
+the rest of the exterior, is probably of much more recent construction
+also. Within, a strange, fantastic impression is created. The phrase,
+“How are the mighty fallen!” involuntarily rises to the lips as one
+contemplates the traces of grandeur and elegance subsisting amid ruin
+and decay. The temple is symbolical of the race: exotic, reminiscent of
+a lost glory, depressed, oppressed. There is, however, no trace or
+suggestion of the primitive Hebrew architectural style about the
+building. The traditions of Jerusalem were either unknown to, or had
+been forgotten by, those who reared these walls--likely enough Moors,
+whose skill was always at the disposal of Christian and Jew. In fact,
+the synagogue may be taken as a fine example of late Saracenic work. The
+plan consists of a nave with two aisles on each side. The nave was
+prolonged in the seventeenth century so as to form a chancel. The
+building is 81 feet long by 63 feet wide. The nave reaches to a height
+of 60 feet, and is 15 feet broad, while the aisles measure only 12 feet
+and rise from 40 to 50 feet high. The nave and aisles are separated by
+four rows of octagonal columns, from which spring bold horseshoe arches
+of the true Moorish type. The capitals are of stucco and elaborately
+designed with floral devices, in which the fir-cone is conspicuous;
+there is a vague suggestion of Byzantine influence. Mr. Street imagines
+them to be much later than the original capitals which they overlay.
+“All the Moorish decorative work seems to have been executed in the same
+way in plaster. This was of very fine quality, and was evidently cut and
+carved as if it had been stone, and seldom, if ever, I think, stamped or
+moulded, according to the mistaken practice of the present day. The
+consequence is that there is endless variety of design everywhere
+and--wherever it was desired--any amount of undercutting. The spandrels
+above the arches are filled in with arabesque patterns, and there is a
+cusped wall arcade below the roof.” All this stucco work appears to date
+from about the time of Alfonso X., or perhaps from a later restoration.
+Above the nave is an exquisite frieze in low relief, formed of lines
+interlacing and crossing each other. The roof is of pine-wood, and _not_
+of Lebanon cedar, as at one time alleged. Mr. Street thinks “the
+pavement is very good, but must be about the date of the conversion of
+the synagogue into a church. It is divided into compartments by border
+tiles laid down the length of the church on either side of the columns.
+The spaces between them are filled in with a rich diaper of encaustic
+and plain red tiles, whilst the general area between these richer bands
+is paved with large red, relieved by an occasional encaustic, tiles. The
+latter have patterns in white, dark blue, and yellow, and in all cases
+they are remarkable for the beautiful inequality of the colours of the
+surface of the design. Both colour and material are in themselves better
+than the work of our tile manufacturers of the present day and
+illustrate very well the difference between hand-work and machinework.”
+The Catholics added three altars in the plateresque style, which, it is
+unnecessary to say, do not harmonise with the rest of the edifice. One
+of the retablos is attributed to Berruguete.
+
+Comparing this old Jewish meeting-place with the other and later
+synagogue, Miss Hannah Lynch remarks: “As a religious temple, as the
+expression of solemn worship rooted in the strange and mysterious East,
+the former is by far the more imposing, the more earnest and harmonious.
+Prayer in the _Transito_ seems a matter of graceful and artistic
+dilettanteism; here it appears a great racial cry of the soul.”
+
+The later vicissitudes of this synagogue are curious. About the middle
+of the sixteenth century it was converted by Cardinal Siliceo into an
+asylum for the professional frail ones of Toledo; but about half a
+century later the establishment ceased to exist--whether because there
+was no more frailty in Toledo or no more repentance, we are not told.
+Subsequently it was turned into a barracks, and then (O’Shea says) into
+a dancing-hall.
+
+The Transito (so called after the Transit of the Blessed Virgin, _i.e._,
+the Assumption) is situated in the same quarter. We have already told
+the story of its foundation by Samuel Ha Levi, the powerful treasurer of
+Pedro I. Upon the expulsion of the Jews from Spain in 1492, it was
+handed over to the Order of Calatrava, who dedicated it to St. Benedict
+(San Benito). This synagogue is also purely Moorish in style, but of the
+later or Granadan period. Its plan differs radically from that of Santa
+Maria la Blanca. It constitutes a parallelogram, undivided into naves
+and aisles, 76 feet by 31 feet, and 44 feet high. The effect is simple
+and graceful. The side walls are quite plain up to the height of about
+twenty feet, where a broad frieze of stucco runs round the building,
+with floral and star pattern designs, and bordered by inscriptions in
+Hebrew. Above this is an arcade with double shafts, and extremely rich
+capitals. The arches are of the horseshoe form, cusped into seven
+points. Eight of the arches contain lattice-work of the most beautiful
+design. Indeed, the whole of the arcading is rich and graceful beyond
+all praise. The western wall, where was formerly the Rabbinical chair,
+and is now the altar, is profusely decorated with patterns,
+inscriptions, and coats of arms, down to within seven feet of the floor.
+In the opposite wall windows have been pierced, breaking into the
+frieze. The roof is of cedar, and a fine specimen of _artesonado_ work.
+Across it run tie-beams, superfluous in this case, but of which the
+Moorish builders were fond. The rafters slope down equally to a deep
+cornice, which is carried right across the angles, “so as to give
+polygonal ends to the roof.”
+
+On either side of the altar are long Hebrew inscriptions now illegible,
+and the precise meaning of which has been a subject of fierce and
+perpetual controversy. The text on the Epistle side may be translated:
+“The mercies which God hath shown us, raising up amongst us judges and
+princes to deliver us from our enemies and oppressors.... And we of this
+land have built this house with a strong and mighty arm. The day that it
+was built was great and delightful for the Jews, who, attracted by the
+fame of these things, came from the ends of the earth to see ... if a
+ruler should be given us who should be as a tower of strength ... to
+govern our commonwealth.... And there was raised up to help us, Samuel
+[Levi,] and God was with him and with us, and who found for us grace and
+mercy. He was a man of peace, powerful among all the people, and a great
+builder. These things were accomplished in the reign of the King Don
+Pedro; may God be his helper, enlarge his dominions, prosper him and
+succour him, and place his seat over all princes. May God be with him
+and all his house, and may every man be humbled before him ... and let
+those who hear his name rejoice to hear it in all the Kingdoms, and let
+it be manifest that he has been unto Israel a defender and a shield.”
+The inscription on the Gospel side proclaims the Rabbi Myir Abdali as
+the architect and extols his pre-eminent virtues, and pathetically
+celebrates the return of good and prosperous times--times not destined
+to last for the luckless race!
+
+In the neighbourhood of the synagogue exists the skeleton of the palace
+built by the great Jewish treasurer. It afterwards passed into the hands
+of the Marquises of Villena, and is associated with Don Enrique de
+Aragon, uncle of Juan II., a very interesting personality. He was a man
+of vast learning, and was, probably in consequence, reputed to be a
+magician and in league with the Evil One. Indeed, his magnificent
+library, including his own writings, was, in after years, burnt by order
+of the Inquisition. Beneath the mansion are still to be found various
+subterranean chambers, which popular superstition declares to have been
+the scene of Don Enrique’s conferences with Satan and his satellites.
+This necromancer was indeed Marquis of Villena, but it is by no means
+certain that he inhabited this house, which afterwards became the
+property of another family (the Pachecos), on whom the title was
+conferred by Enrique IV. The palace was deliberately burnt by its owner,
+the Duque de Escalona, in the reign of Charles V., it having been
+contaminated, as he thought, by the temporary residence within its walls
+of the Constable de Bourbon, then in arms against his own country. The
+Castilian grandee’s sense of honour was not a mere pose. The building is
+now the property of the Marquis de la Vega, who has tastefully restored
+it. It receives additional interest from its having been, as is now
+believed, the home of El Greco.
+
+Two ruinous structures are pointed out as the palaces of Don Pedro and
+of Enrique de Trastamara respectively. The latter probably belonged to
+one of the Counts of Trastamara, not to the king who bore that title. It
+is in the Moorish style, with horseshoe arches, friezes, and _ajimeces_.
+The so-called palace of Don Pedro is of the same class of architecture,
+but has much less to show--a horseshoe arch, a dado, and an almost
+illegible Arabic inscription which reads, “Lasting glory and perpetual
+prosperity to the master of this house.”
+
+Better examples of the Mudejar (or late Moorish) style are the Casa del
+Mesa and the Taller del Moro. The former is situated close to the church
+of San Román, and was built soon after the Reconquest by that prominent
+Toledan, Esteban Illán. The saloon is one of the very best examples of
+this style of architecture. It is 60 feet long by 22 feet wide, and 36
+feet high. The artesonado ceiling is thus described by Street: “The
+patterns are formed by ribs (square in section) of dark wood with a
+white line along the centre of the soffit of each. The sides of the ribs
+are painted red, and the recessed panels have lines of white beads
+painted at their edges, and in the centre an arabesque on a dark blue
+ground. The colours are so arranged as to mark out as distinctly as
+possible the squares and patterns into which it is divided, and the
+sinking of some panels below the others allows the same pattern to be
+used for borders and grounds with very varied effect. The reds are
+rather crimson in tone, and the blues very dark.” The entrance--of a
+slightly horseshoe pattern--is framed in exquisite and luxuriant
+traceries. So also is the opposite _ajimez_ window, but here the designs
+show Gothic influence. A high dado of _azulejos_ and a very deep cornice
+and frieze of delicate workmanship complete the decoration of this very
+beautiful hall.
+
+The Taller del Moro is (quite without foundation) said to occupy the
+site of the massacre of the _Noche Toledana_. It was so called because
+it was used as a workshop during the building of the cathedral. There is
+a conflict of opinion as to its age, but it probably dates from about
+the time of the Reconquest. The Arabic inscriptions, however, imply that
+it was intended for the habitation of a Moor, the Latin texts being
+doubtlessly added by later owners. The Taller consists of a large hall,
+54 feet long by 23 feet wide, and of two adjacent smaller apartments. It
+exhibits the artesonado ceiling, the delicate stucco-work and friezes
+with star-like and floral designs we are led to expect in specimens of
+Mudejar architecture. Street doubts if the stucco-work dates further
+back than 1350. The portal is in good Gothic style, and was added by
+Cardinal Mendoza.
+
+As in all other Spanish cities, after their reacquisition by the
+Christians, in Toledo, for many, many years, Moorish architects and
+masons continued to be employed even in the construction of sacred
+edifices. This accounts for the mixed Christian and Saracenic style of
+several of the churches, even where these had not originally been
+mosques. The interesting church of San Román had been a Mohammedan
+temple remodelled to the requirements of Christian worship, while the
+tower or steeple is a Mudejar work added by Esteban Illán, and (to quote
+Mr. Street), “the finest example of its class to be seen here.” The
+steeple is of rough stone and brick, of a warm brown tone, and quite
+plain for more than half its height. The upper stages are pierced with
+windows which exhibit a very ungraceful trefoiled variation of the
+horseshoe arch--then fast dying out. Notwithstanding, the steeple has a
+noble and rugged appearance, like most things Toledan. The church itself
+has been so often restored, that it is hard to assign it to any one
+epoch. The Capilla Mayor is of the sixteenth century, and of the
+plateresque style. One of the altars has a front of black stone, carved
+at the edges in imitation of an altar-cloth with embroidery and lace.
+Here and there traces may be detected of the original mosque. The
+steeples of the churches of Santa Magdalena, Santo Tomé, San Pedro
+Martir, San Miguel, Santa Leocadia, and La Concepcion, resemble that of
+San Román, but differ greatly in size.
+
+The minor churches of Toledo are not specially interesting. Without the
+walls, however, is one with noteworthy characteristics. The little
+“basilica” of the Cristo de la Vega occupies the site of the famous
+church of St. Leocadia, built by the Visigothic King, Sisebuth, in the
+seventh century, to mark the place of the virgin saint’s martyrdom.
+Several of the great councils were held here. The story is told that the
+saint appeared in person here to St. Ildefonso, in the presence of King
+Recceswinth, and having expressed her satisfaction at the theologian’s
+masterly defence of the virginity of the Blessed Virgin, allowed him,
+with the royal dagger, to cut off a piece of her veil as a souvenir of
+her visit. This event naturally raised the “basilica” in the estimation
+of the devout. It was demolished by the Moors, and restored in 1162. It
+underwent many restorations and was finally ruined by the French during
+the War of Independence. The present edifice represents little more than
+the apse of the chapel of the Cristo de la Vega. There was a miraculous
+crucifix, attached to which is a particularly silly legend. Two lovers
+had plighted their troth before the image, and the man afterwards denied
+the promise. The girl adjured the Christ to bear witness to the truth of
+her statement, and the figure obligingly extended a wooden arm while a
+voice from on high proclaimed, “_I testify._” Another version has it
+that the figure testified in favour of a Christian who (_mirabile
+dictu_) had lent money to a Jew; and yet another, that it expressed
+approbation of the magnanimity of a cavalier who had pardoned his enemy
+under extraordinary circumstances. Whatever it may have done, the
+crucifix has long since disappeared. An Arabic inscription deduces that
+Mohammed ben Rahman, first King of Toledo, was buried here, A.D. 743. As
+there was no king in the city of that year, and as the first independent
+sovereign was otherwise named, the inscription must be apocryphal or
+else the word “king” must signify in the original merely _Vali_ or
+governor.
+
+A legend, better known and rather less silly than that of the Cristo de
+la Vega, deals with the love affairs of an imaginary Moorish princess,
+called Galiana “la mora mas celebrada de toda la moreria,” the daughter
+of an equally mythical king, called Galafre. _He_ is linked up with
+history by some writers alleging him to have been the nephew of the
+wicked Count Julian, Galiana was the apple of her parent’s eye, and for
+her delectation he built a palace abounding in all conceivable delights.
+The young lady had, in some way, compromised herself with a gigantic
+Moor, Bradamante by name; and to rid her of this truculent wooer, no
+less a personage than Charlemagne appeared on the scene. All, of course,
+ended happily (except for Bradamante) by the conversion of the lovely
+princess and her marriage to the gallant Frank. In the Puerta del Rey,
+outside the town, may still be seen a building dilapidated, let out in
+tenements, which is pointed out as the Palace of Galiana. The place was
+a mansion of the great Guzman family and exhibits traces of fine Moorish
+work--horseshoe arches, twin-windows, a defaced inscription or two, some
+tiling, and arabesques--enough, in short, to conjure up a splendid
+Moorish palace, which, however, need not have antedated the Reconquest.
+
+The building is the property of H.I.M. the Empress Eugénie, and it is
+somewhat to be regretted that her attention has not been directed to its
+present condition and to the chance here presented of retarding the
+decay of a valuable monument of antiquity.
+
+
+
+
+THE CATHEDRAL
+
+
+Transcending in importance all the other monuments of Toledo and,
+indeed, of Castile, is the Cathedral--one of the noblest specimens of
+Gothic architecture the world affords. The metropolitan church of Spain,
+it is sumptuous without gaudiness, austere without gloominess, admirably
+interpreting the spirit of Spanish Catholicism before it withered under
+the chilling influence of Philip II. and the Inquisition. The Cathedral
+of Toledo does not impress the foreigner as typically national. Indeed
+it corresponds no longer to the temper of the nation. And it was raised
+as a protest against those Moorish influences which have passed into the
+life and art of Spain, and without which nothing can be taken as
+representatively Spanish.
+
+The Cathedral of Toledo, then, is Gothic, and may be said to embody the
+ideals of old Spain--of the young fighting nation that looked forward,
+not backward. Splendid as the Mosque seized by Archbishop Bernard and
+converted to Christian uses may have been, it was the work of the
+infidel. In 1227 King Ferdinand III. and the Archbishop Don Rodrigo de
+Rada were able at last to give effect to a determination arrived at some
+years before; and on August 14 the first stone of a new temple, which
+should never have been contaminated by Muslim rites, was laid with
+solemn ceremony. The name of the architect continues to be a matter of
+controversy. An epitaph in the sacristy of the Capilla de los Doctores
+affords some clue to his identity. It runs as follows:
+
+ Agni: jacet: Petrus Petri: magister
+ Eclesia: Scte: Marie: Toletani: fama:
+ Per exemplum: pro more: huic: bona:
+ Crescit: qui presens: templum: construxit
+ Et hic quiescit: quod: quia: tan: mire:
+ Fecit: vili: sentat: ire: ante: Dei:
+ Vultum: pro: quo: nil: restat: multum:
+ Et sibi: sis: merce: qui solus: cuncta:
+ Coherce: obiit: x dias de Novembris:
+ Era: de M: et CCCXXVIII (A.D. 1290).
+
+“Petrus Petri” is interpreted by Spanish writers “Pedro Perez,” but we
+incline to Mr. Street’s view that the correct rendering is probably
+Pierre le Pierre, the architect having been, as the name implies, a
+Frenchman. “This, at any rate,” continues Mr. Street, “is certain: the
+first architect of Toledo, whether he were French or Spanish, was
+thoroughly well acquainted with the best French churches, and could not
+otherwise have done what he did. In Spain, there was nothing to lead
+gradually to the full development of the Pointed style. We find, on the
+contrary, buildings, planned evidently by foreign hands, rising suddenly
+without any connection with other buildings in their own district, and
+yet with most obvious features of similarity to works in other countries
+erected just before them. Such is the case with the cathedrals at
+Burgos, at Leon, and at Santiago, and such even more decidedly is the
+case here. Moreover, in Toledo, if anywhere, was such a circumstance to
+be expected. In this part of Spain there was in the thirteenth century
+no trained school of native artists. Even after the conquest the Moors
+continued to act as architects for Christian buildings whether secular
+or ecclesiastical, and, indeed, to monopolise all the art and science of
+the country which they no longer ruled. In such a state of things I can
+imagine nothing more natural than that, though the Toledans may have
+been well content to employ Mohammedan art in their ordinary works, yet,
+when it came to be a question of rebuilding their cathedral on a scale
+vaster than anything which had as yet been attempted, they would be
+anxious to adopt some distinctly Christian form of art; and lacking
+entirely any school of their own, would be more likely to secure the
+services of a Frenchman than one of any other nation.... But however
+this may have been, the church is thoroughly French in its ground-plan
+and equally French in all its details for some height from the ground;
+and it is not until we reach the triforium of the Choir that any other
+influence is visible; but even here the work is French work, only
+slightly modified by some acquaintance with Moorish art....”
+
+The stupendous fabric, once begun, whether by French or Spanish hands,
+took two hundred and sixty-six years to finish. From the death of the
+first architect in 1270 to the year 1425 the names of the architects
+have been lost. During this period, the successive styles of
+architecture naturally influenced the original scheme and found
+expression in the building. It was in January 1493 that the roof was
+finished and the main structure completed. Certain chapels, such as the
+Reyes Nuevos, Sagrario, &c., were later additions. Among the later
+architects we find Rodrigo Alfonso, Alvar Gomez, Martin Sanchez, and
+Juan Guas. The stone employed inside (according to O’Shea) was quarried
+at Oliguelas, some nine miles from the city. It becomes harder with age.
+“The external portion is all of Berroqueña stone, save the ornamentation
+of the portals, which is also of Oliguelas white stone.”
+
+The Cathedral forms an oblong, semicircular at the eastern end, and
+lying east and west. In width it is exceeded only by the Cathedrals of
+Milan and Seville, measuring 178 feet broad by 395 feet long. On the
+north side are the cloisters and additional chapels and sacristies. From
+the eastern side project the chapels of the Reyes Nuevos, San Ildefonso,
+and Santiago, and the Winter Chapter-room. The plan of the interior is
+easy of comprehension. The nave extends from the western entrance to the
+Capilla Mayor: on either side of it are two aisles which are continued
+round and behind this chapel in a semicircular sweep. Street extols the
+skill with which this arrangement has been carried out. Between the
+Choir and the Capilla Mayor a transept extends across the church, not
+projecting, however, beyond the outer walls of the farther aisles. The
+eighty-eight pillars which support the fabric and mark off these
+divisions are composed each of from eight to sixteen light columns,
+standing on the same base. The capitals are moulded in plain foliage.
+The arches resting on these pillars make up the seventy-two vaults of
+which the roof is composed. The aisles rise gradually in towards the
+central nave, which is 116 feet high. The crypt or substructure
+corresponds in its divisions and the number of its piers to the edifice
+above. The pavement is of bluish white marble arranged in chequers.
+
+In the original plan no side-chapels appear to have been contemplated.
+But the chapel of Santa Lucia was added by Archbishop de Rada in memory
+of Alfonso VI. And, in addition to chapels built since the rest of the
+church, the spaces between the buttresses in the outer aisles have been
+railed off so as to form twenty-three chapels of various styles and
+periods. The interior is lit by 750 stained-glass windows of rich hues
+that delight the spectator. They depict episodes from the Scriptures,
+and are said to have been as carefully designed as if intended for close
+inspection. Among the artists were Dolfin (1418), De Vergara, Albert of
+Holland, Maese Cristobal, Juan de Campos, Vasco Troya, and Pedro
+Francés. The effect of the light falling in rays of richest colour on
+the pavement and columns is magical. The walls are denuded of colour and
+rudely whitewashed.
+
+The centre of the Cathedral is occupied by the choir (_Coro_), to the
+east of which, separated by the transept, is the Capilla Mayor. The
+choir is enclosed by walls and cloisters, except on the side facing the
+Capilla Mayor, where it is railed in by the magnificent reja, designed
+by Domingo de Cespedes and Hernando Bravo (1548). Like the corresponding
+railing of the High Chapel opposite, this work was formerly heavily
+silver-plated and gilded, but at the time of the French invasion it was
+recoated with iron to secure it from spoliation. Unfortunately, no
+means have yet been discovered of restoring the reja to its original
+state. Among the elaborate ornamentation may be noticed the arms of
+Cardinal Siliceo and of the Ayala family, with the interwoven
+inscriptions _Procul esto prophani_ and _Psale et psile_. The Choir is
+paved with white marble inlaid with dark. The vaulting above the Choir
+itself rises to the height of a hundred feet, the aisle round it to
+ninety feet, and the outer aisle to thirty-five feet. In the outer aisle
+are small chapels placed between the buttresses. Mr. Street describes
+this part of the building in great detail and considers that the
+original scheme of the Cathedral is only to be seen here. The triforium,
+formed of an arcade of cusped arches, in the outer wall of the inner
+aisle exhibits Moorish influence. “It would be impossible,” writes the
+authority just mentioned, “to imagine any circumstance which could
+afford better evidence of the foreign origin of the first design than
+this slight concession to the customs of the place in a slightly later
+portion of the works. An architect who came from France, bent on
+designing nothing but a French church, would be very likely, after a few
+years’ residence in Toledo, somewhat to change in his views, and to
+attempt something in which the Moorish work, which he was in the habit
+of seeing, would have its influence. The detail of this triforium is,
+notwithstanding, all pure and good....”
+
+The Choir is enriched by a magnificent screen, lecterns, and stalls. The
+screen, or _respaldo_, which at one time seems to have been continued
+right across the transept, encloses the Choir on three sides, and
+consists of an arcade carried on fifty-two columns of jasper and marble,
+and supporting and enclosing admirable statuary and sculpture. Above the
+capitals of the columns is a series of fifty-six medallions in high
+relief, dating from 1380, and representing scenes from the Old
+Testament. These reliefs are worthy of close study, and are beautiful
+examples of simple and faithful mediæval treatment. The series is
+supplemented by a medallion with a bust by Berruguete and the statues of
+Innocence and Sin, by Nicolas de Vergara--works on which Street outpours
+the vials of his wrath.
+
+Of the wonderful Choir Stalls of Toledo everyone has heard. They are
+unsurpassed triumphs of the carver’s art. The lower tier, including
+fifty seats, is the work of Maese Rodrigo, and dates from 1495. The
+stalls are of walnut wood, and the carving portrays the campaign against
+Granada by the Catholic Sovereigns. The carving being almost
+contemporary with the events illustrated has given these reliefs an
+historical as well as an artistic value. The names of the fortresses
+are here and there indicated by labels, and the designs are somewhat
+marred by the introduction of fanciful monsters. The whole breathes very
+much of the mediæval spirit, and we can, therefore, hardly complain of a
+certain stiffness and lack of variety. They form an admirable contrast
+to the finer, more finished work of the upper tier of stalls, executed
+fifty years later by Berruguete and Philip of Burgundy, surnamed
+Vigarni. Thirty-five seats, including the Primate’s, are the work of the
+Spaniard, the thirty-six opposite exhibiting the skill of the
+Burgundian. “They were wrought,” says O’Shea, “in rivalry of each other,
+and finished in 1543; and as Cardinal Tavera’s inscription runs:
+‘Certaverunt turn artificum ingenia; certabunt semper spectatorum
+judicia.’” The stalls are placed in recesses of alabaster, and separated
+by fine red jasper columns, with capitals in white marble. Over the
+recesses is a series of alabaster figures in low relief of the prophets
+and patriarchs. The carvings on the stalls themselves depict episodes
+from both the New and Old Testaments. The work breathes the spirit of
+the Renaissance, interpreted by Berruguete and his colleague with a
+skill, it has been truly observed, worthy of Benvenuto Cellini himself.
+Berruguete was a pupil of Michelangelo. His work is more vigorous than
+that of Vigarni, who excels in elegance and softness of outline.
+Street’s denunciations of these triumphs of the carver’s art are a
+curious instance of the length to which an artistic bias may lead a
+clever writer and critic. The reliefs representing the visits of the
+Blessed Virgin to Purgatory and to St. Ildefonso are not by Philip of
+Burgundy, but by his brother Gregorio.
+
+Very fine are the reading-desks, with friezes of gilded bronze, executed
+by the two Vergaras in the middle of the sixteenth century. Those on the
+Epistle side are carved in low relief with the stories of David and
+Saul, the Blessed Virgin and St. Ildefonso, and the Apocalypse; those on
+the Gospel side, the stories of St. Ildefonso, the Ark of the Covenant,
+and the Passage of the Red Sea. In the centre of the Choir is a
+magnificent brass lectern upheld by a great eagle with wings outspread;
+its eyes are of red stones and it crushes with its talons a struggling
+dragon. It was executed in 1646 by Salinas. The pedestal on which it
+stands is older by two hundred years, and is thoroughly Gothic in
+character, with buttresses, pinnacles, and statuary. The work is said to
+be German. The pedestal is borne by six lions, finely sculptured.
+
+The northern entrance to the transept, which separates the Choir from
+the Capilla Mayor, affords the best and least interrupted view of the
+Cathedral. That view impressed the writer with its calm majesty and
+sanctity, but by way of contrast it is worth while recording the
+impressions of a traveller only lately returned (Mr. Stewart Dick): “My
+first feeling was one of disappointment--a feeling that even now has
+hardly worn away.
+
+“It is vast and cold. A white expanse. Huge pillars towering up to a
+great height. A blaze of harsh daylight. In the middle, blocking up the
+view down the nave, the tawdry gilt of the Coro. Doors opening and
+banging all round, people promenading, sitting on the bases of the
+pillars and talking with undropped voices. You ask yourself with
+amazement, Is this a church? The form is here, but where is the spirit?
+
+“In fact, it is only in the evening that Toledo Cathedral comes into its
+own. It is quiet and peaceful then. The promenaders have all gone away,
+the blaring of the organ has ceased, and through the open door you hear
+the twittering of birds in the cloisters. The shadows darken among the
+pillars, the beautiful windows begin to glow, and a soft light fills the
+upper part of the church. It is like the opening of a flower.
+
+“Then at last you begin to feel the impressiveness and the dignity of
+those avenues of mighty pillars. The trivialities that annoyed you are
+lost, the effects are broad, grand, and majestic, and at last the
+building is a temple; it seems as if the Holy Spirit had entered with
+the fall of the twilight.”
+
+The Capilla Mayor, or High Chapel, occupies the eastern end of the nave,
+the aisles sweeping round behind it. The hinder portion was originally
+the Capilla de los Reyes Viejos, the chapel in which were entombed
+Sancho el Bravo, Sancho el Deseado, Alfonso VII., and others. In the
+year 1498 the two chapels were thrown into one by Cardinal Cisneros, who
+left the royal tombs for a time undisturbed. The High Chapel, according
+to O’Shea, measures 56 feet in length, 50 feet in breadth, and 116 feet
+in height. The piers are sculptured with the effigies of kings,
+prelates, and saints, and with “a multitude of angels playing on
+different instruments, and with outspread wings, that want but incense
+to raise them again from the spot where they have alighted.” The walls
+of the chapel are pierced or of open-work, the stone in parts being
+almost transparent, and thus adding to the brightness of the effect. Two
+rows of statuary enhance the beauty of the stonework, which is among the
+earliest portions of the fabric. But these walls, for all their
+magnificence, are put in the shade by the superb reja or railing, facing
+that of the Choir, and contemporary with it. This work is thus described
+by Señor Riaño: ‘The reja is 42 feet wide by 19 inches high; it rests
+on a pediment of marble ornamented with masks and bronze work upon which
+rises the reja, which is divided horizontally by means of a frieze of
+ornamentation, and this again vertically into five compartments. In each
+vertical division there is a pilaster of four sides formed of _repoussé_
+plates, carved with a fine ornamentation in the Renaissance style; this
+is again terminated with life-size figures in high relief of bronze. The
+second compartment rises upon the band which divides it in a horizontal
+sense; it follows the same decoration in its pilasters, and is
+terminated by a series of coats of arms, torches, angels, and a variety
+of foliage which finishes the upper part. Upon the centre, hanging from
+a thick chain, supported from the roof, is suspended a life-size Rood of
+admirable effect, which completes the decoration. In several spots there
+are labels with mottoes in Latin; in one of them appears the following
+inscription, and the date of 1548, when the splendid work was finished:
+‘Anno MDXLVIII. Paul III. P.M. Carol. V. Imper. Rege. Joannes Martinez
+Siliccus Archiepiscopus Tolet. Hispaniae Primat.’ The railings of the
+reja are silvered, and the reliefs and salient points gilt. The artist
+who made it was Francisco Villalpando, a native of Valladolid; this
+model was chosen in preference to those of several artists, who
+presented their plans in competition before the ecclesiastical
+authorities; it is calculated that ten years elapsed before it was
+finally finished, Villalpando was greatly distinguished likewise as a
+sculptor and architect.” By him are the gilt pulpits in the plateresque
+style, made from the bronze tomb that the Great Constable, De Luna, had
+caused to be designed for himself. On a pier at the extremity of the
+chapel is the statue of the celebrated shepherd, Martin Alhaga, who is
+said to have, semi-miraculously, guided Alfonso VIII. and his army to
+the rear of the Moorish forces at Las Navas de Tolosa--thus securing the
+victory to the Christians. The king, who alone saw his features, is said
+to have designed the statue. Opposite is the figure of the Moorish
+Alfaqui, Abu Walid, whose intercession secured the old mosque to the
+Catholics, in the manner already narrated.
+
+The splendour of the High Altar, with its jasper and bronzes, renders a
+detailed description impossible and inadequate. Its magnificent retablo,
+rising to the very roof, is the richest gem of the Cathedral. Designed
+by Philip Vigarni (Borgoña), and painted and gilded by his brother Juan,
+numerous other masters contributed to its excellences. We may name
+Maître Petit Jean (of France or Aragon), Almonacid (a converted Moor),
+Copin (a Dutchman), Francesco of Antwerp, Fernando del Rincon, Egas, and
+Pedro Gumiel. The retablo is of wood and divided into five compartments
+by gorgeous columns. The subjects are from the New Testament, and are
+worked out with immense and ornate elaboration. The whole is crowned
+with a colossal Calvary. Behind the High Altar is placed that
+extraordinary example of eighteenth-century bad taste, the too famous
+_Transparente_. The whole architecture, painting, statues, carving and
+bronze is the work of the same person, Narciso Thomé who completed it in
+1734. Much as we may denounce the taste (or rather the lack of it) of
+this triumph of the Churrigueresque style, we are obliged to admire the
+wonderful execution of this misdirected genius.
+
+The royal tombs lie around the High Altar. They were placed in recesses,
+sculptured in the Gothic style by Diego Copin of Holland, by order of
+Cardinal Cisneros in 1507. The arches are peculiarly graceful and light.
+The tombs themselves date from much earlier times. Here sleep their last
+sleep Alfonso VII., Sancho el Bravo, Sancho el Deseado, and several
+Infantes. To the left of the altar is the sepulchre, more glorious than
+any king’s, of the great Cardinal Mendoza, erected by order of Isabel
+the Catholic, who owed so much to him. It was the work of Covarrubias,
+and is all of precious marbles. One side is formed by the sarcophagus
+with its recumbent effigy, the other by an altar. Above this last is a
+medallion representing the Archbishop Adoring the Cross. Part of the
+wall was demolished to make room for this stately mausoleum. Beneath the
+Capilla Mayor is a subterranean chapel, not of special interest. It
+contains a Burial of Christ by Copin, deserving of an inspection that in
+the dim light is well-nigh impossible, and some pictures by Ricci.
+
+At the eastern extremity of the Cathedral, behind the Capilla Mayor and
+projecting beyond the general outline, is the chapel of San Ildefonso.
+Erected by Archbishop de Rada, it remains the last important
+middle-pointed feature of the building, though considerably modified by
+Cardinal Albornoz in the latter part of the fourteenth century. It is
+eight-sided, and has beautiful traceried windows, and arches richly
+moulded and decorated. In arched recesses, beneath gabled and pinnacled
+canopies, are the tombs of Cardinal Albornoz, and several members of his
+family. There is much beautiful detail on the tomb of Don Iñigo de
+Mendoza, who fell at Granada in 1491; and the sepulchre of the Bishop of
+Avila by Tejada is a noble temple of the plateresque. The altar is
+modern. St. Ildefonso was the prelate who distinguished himself by his
+advocacy of the doctrine of the Immaculate Conception. In return he is
+said to have received signal marks of favour from the Blessed Virgin,
+who invested him with a cassock, came down to attend Matins in his
+company, and so forth.
+
+To the north of this chapel is the larger Capilla de Santiago, likewise
+projecting beyond the original ground plan, and dating from 1435. It was
+built by order of the Great Constable, Alvaro de Luna, to be the place
+of sepulchre of himself and wife, on the site of an earlier chapel
+dedicated to St. Thomas à Becket. The plan is similar to that of the
+last chapel described. Outside, the flat-pitched tile roof is finished
+with a battlement and circular turrets at the angles. The most
+conspicuous features of the chapel are the tombs, in Carrara marble, of
+the Constable Alvaro de Luna and his wife Doña Juana Pimentel. The
+Constable is shown in full armour, and at each corner of his tomb kneels
+a knight of Santiago, of which order he was Grand Master. Four
+Franciscan monks attend on his lady. In niches in the wall repose
+kinsmen of the ill-fated Constable, the tombs all having been executed
+by permission of Isabel the Catholic, by Pablo Ortiz in 1488,
+thirty-five years after De Luna’s death on the scaffold at Valladolid.
+The tombs designed for the Constable in his lifetime were to have been
+furnished with life-size figures in bronze, which, by mechanical
+contrivance, were to have risen each time Mass was celebrated, and to
+have remained during the service in a kneeling posture. These figures
+were destroyed by the Infante Don Enrique, and the bronze was used by
+Villalpando for the pulpits in the Capilla Mayor. The retablo of the
+High Altar reveals the portraits of the founder and his wife by Juan de
+Segovia. “The chapel,” says Mr. Street, “bears evidence in the
+‘perpendicular’ character of its panelling, arcading and crocketing, of
+the poverty of the age in the matter of design. At this period, indeed,
+the designers were sculptors rather than architects, and thought of
+little but the display of their own manual dexterity.”
+
+Passing down a corridor between this chapel and that of Santa Leocadia
+we reach the Capilla de los Reyes Nuevos, lying quite outside the
+original plan of the Cathedral. It was founded by Enrique II. of
+Trastamara, and contains his tomb, his wife’s, and the sepulchres of
+Enrique III., his Queen, Katharine of Lancaster, Juan I. and Queen
+Leonor, and the effigy of Juan II., who is buried near Burgos. The
+chapel is a fine specimen of the Renaissance style, reconstructed by
+Alfonso de Covarrubias in 1534. The portal is fine, and is guarded by
+two kings armed and bearing escutcheons. During Mass, a gorgeously
+apparelled functionary holds upright a mace, crowned and jewelled, and
+with the arms of Spain.
+
+The side-chapels of the Cathedral are not, on the whole, as interesting
+as one would expect in a building of such antiquity and associations. To
+the south of the Capilla de San Ildefonso is the Capilla de la Trinidad;
+next comes the entrance to the Chapter House or Sala Capitular, an early
+sixteenth-century work with an artesonado ceiling in red, blue, and
+gold, excelling anything of the kind in Andalusia. The thirteen frescoes
+adorning the walls of the Chapter House are by Juan de Borgoña, who was
+also responsible for the earlier series of portraits of the archbishops.
+Copin’s work is to be recognised in the archiepiscopal throne, the other
+stalls being by Francisco de Lara. Returning to the church through a
+portal in the Moorish style, we find on the left the chapel of San
+Nicolas, followed by the chapels of San Gil, San Juan Bautista, Santa
+Ana, and the Reyes Viejos, founded in 1290 as the Capilla del Espritu
+Santo, with a fine reja by Céspedes. The chapel of Santa Lucia, founded
+by Archbishop de Rada, is, of course, in the best Gothic style, and has
+“an extremely rich recessed arch in stucco, of late Moorish work--a
+curious contrast to the fine pointed work of the chapel.”
+
+The Capilla de San Eugenio contains the alabaster effigy of Bishop del
+Castillo (1521), and the tomb in the Mudejar style of the Alguacil
+Fernan Gudiel (1278). The statue of the saint is by Copin, the
+paintings on the retablo by Juan de Borgoña. Adjacent to the chapel is
+the colossal figure of Saint Christopher, usually seen in Spanish
+churches. This figure is probably coeval with the fabric, but was
+restored in 1638. A primitive style of art is also to be seen in the
+altar-piece of the Capilla de San Martin. The next two chapels--de la
+Epifania and de la Concepcion--do not present any features of special
+interest.
+
+In the south-west angle of the church is the interesting Mozárabic
+Chapel, built in 1504 by Enrique de Egas, under the orders of the famous
+Cardinal Ximenes de Cisneros. It is devoted to the celebration of Mass
+and the offices of the church according to the Mozárabic ritual, which
+till the middle of the last century was followed in six of the parish
+churches. The Cupola dates from 1626, and was the work of Jorge Manuel
+Theotocopuli. The porch is Gothic, and the reja in good Renaissance
+style, executed by Juan Frances in 1524. The frescoes, of no great
+value, painted by Juan de Borgoña, represent the expedition against
+Oran, in which the great Cardinal took part. Miss Hannah Lynch gives a
+vigorously worded account of a service in this chapel according to its
+peculiar rite: “The quaint old ritual may be heard every morning at 9
+A.M., and will be found extremely puzzling to follow. The canons, in a
+sombre, flat monotone, chant responses to the officiating priest at the
+altar. The sound combines the enervating effect of the hum of wings,
+whirr of looms, wooden thud of pedals, the boom and rush of immense
+wings circling round and round. After the first stupefaction, I have
+never heard anything more calculated to produce headache, nervous
+irritation, or the contrary soporific effect. In summer, it must be
+terrible.”
+
+At the opposite, or north-west, angle of the church is the Chapel of San
+Juan or of the Canons, so called because Mass can be celebrated here
+only by those dignitaries. It was built in 1537 by Covarrubias in the
+Renaissance style, and occupies the site of the old tower chapel, called
+the Quo Vadis. The ceiling is of artesonado, in gold and black, with
+carved flowers and figures. Since 1870 this chapel has been the
+repository of the Cathedral Treasure, styled Las Alhajas, or the Jewels.
+Here is kept the gorgeous _custodia_, or portable tabernacle, made by
+order of Cardinal Cisneros by Juan de Arfe, who began it in 1517 and
+completed it without assistance in 1524. This triumph of the
+silversmith’s craft is in the form of a Gothic temple, eight feet high,
+with all the architectural details, such as columns, arches, and
+vaultings, the whole resembling delicate lacework. Scenes from the life
+of our Saviour are illustrated in reliefs. There are no fewer than two
+hundred and sixty statues of various sizes, all exhibiting the same
+skill. The tabernacle was gilded over in 1595 by Valdivieso and Morino.
+The _viril_ inside, in which the Host is exposed, was made of the first
+gold brought from America, is completely covered with precious stones,
+and weighs twenty-nine pounds. In the Treasure is also included the
+mantle of the Virgen del Sagrario, considered by Señor de Riaño the most
+remarkable specimen of embroidery that exists in Spain. It is described
+in the following manner: “It is made of twelve yards of cloth of silver,
+entirely covered with gold and precious stones. In the centre is an
+ornament of amethysts and diamonds. Eight other jewels appear on each
+side of enamelled gold, emeralds, and large rubies; a variety of other
+jewels are placed at intervals round the mantle, and at the lower part
+are the arms of Cardinal Sandoval [seventeenth century] enamelled on
+gold and studded with sapphires and rubies. The centre of this mantle is
+covered with flowers and pomegranates embroidered in seed-pearls of
+different sizes. Round the borders are rows of large pearls. Besides the
+gems which are employed in this superb work of art, no less than 257
+ounces of pearls of different sizes, 300 ounces of gold thread, 160
+ounces of small pieces of enamelled gold, and eight ounces of emeralds
+were used.” The beautiful dish, repoussé in silver, the designs on
+which represent the Rape of the Sabines and the Death of Darius, was
+believed to be the work of Benvenuto Cellini, but is now ascribed to the
+Flemish artist, Mathias Méline. Among the Alhajas are also four
+geographical globes, with large silver figures, gleaming with
+gems--eighteenth-century work. Of historical interest is the sword, said
+to have been worn by Alfonso VI. on his entry into Toledo, and the
+original letter written by St. Louis of France to the Chapter, bestowing
+sacred relics obtained from the Great Emperor: “Given at Etampes, the
+year of our Lord, 1248, month of May.” Other objects of value are the
+Cope of Cardinal Albornoz and the Cruz de la Manga, made in the
+sixteenth century by Gregorio de Varona, a native of the city. Here,
+also, are the archiepiscopal cross, planted by Cardinal Mendoza on the
+summit of the Alhambra in 1492, and the Golden Bible in three volumes,
+dating from the twelfth century. It is to be doubted if the accumulation
+of these splendid objects, intended for diverse practical uses, in one
+collection, serves to show any of them to the best advantage.
+
+On the north aisle are the chapels of Teresa de Haro, Nuestra Señora de
+la Antigua--where the Spanish colours used in the Moorish campaigns were
+blessed--of the Pila Bautismál, with a beautiful bronze font, and a
+reja by Céspedes; and the large Capilla de San Pedro, built in 1442 in
+the Gothic style by Archbishop de Rojas. The founder’s fine monument was
+placed here in the eighteenth century. On the other side of the Puerta
+del Reloj is the Capilla de la Virgen del Sagrario, noted for a statue
+of the Blessed Virgin, which she is said to have kissed on her visit to
+St. Ildefonso. The statue is of dark-coloured wood, and was formerly
+clothed in a mantle embroidered by Felipe Corral; and composed of gold,
+rubies, emeralds, and pearls, now kept in the Treasury. In this chapel
+the degree of doctor is conferred on licentiates. The two small chapels
+of the Cristo and of Santa Leocadia are adjacent to the entrance to the
+Capilla de los Reyes Nuevos.
+
+Adjoining the Chapel of the Virgen del Sagrario are a set of apartments,
+built with it upon the site of an old hospital, by Nicolas de Vergara,
+junior, at the close of the sixteenth century. These rooms are the
+Sacristia, Vestuario, Cuarto de la Custódia, and Ochavo. The Sacristia,
+entered through a portal 26 feet high, contains paintings by El Greco,
+to be noticed in the chapter on that master; the ‘Betrayal of Christ,’
+by Goya; and a ceiling fresco by Luca Giordano, representing the Miracle
+of San Ildefonso. The Vestuario contains pictures by several Italian
+masters, among them ‘Paul III.’ by Titian; a replica of the portrait at
+Naples; a ‘Madonna’ by Rubens; and a ‘St. Francis’ by El Greco. The
+Custodia was till lately the Cathedral Treasury. The Ochavo, at the back
+of the Capilla de la Virgen, is richly adorned and contains the
+collection of relics, among them massive silver caskets, wonderfully
+wrought, for the bones of the saints Leocadia and Eugenius.
+
+The vestments preserved here, to the number of forty sets, belong mostly
+to the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, and are of the most splendid
+description. “Each set [says Riaño] generally includes a chasuble,
+dalmatic, cope, altar frontal, covers for the gospel stands, and other
+smaller pieces. The embroideries on the orphreys, which are formed of
+figures of saints, are as perfect as the miniatures on illuminated MSS.”
+
+The Cloisters to the north-west of the church were built by Cardinal
+Tenorio in 1389. They are not, as Miss Lynch observes, to be compared
+with those of Burgos, of Santiago, or of Oviedo. The garden they enclose
+lends a brighter, gayer note to the columned and arched galleries than
+is found in those other cathedrals. The frescoes in the lower cloister
+were painted by Francisco Bayeu, and illustrate the lives of St.
+Eugenius and the legend of the _Niño perdido_.
+
+We should, perhaps, have described the exterior of the Cathedral first,
+but from the sightseer’s point of view the interior is, of course, more
+important. It is a general subject of complaint that it is extremely
+difficult to obtain a good view of any considerable part of the fabric
+from the outside, nor does it stand out as conspicuously from a distance
+as its imposing dimensions would lead one to suppose. The best view is
+to be obtained from the church of Nuestra Señora de la Valle, above the
+Puente de San Martin. The exterior, with its flying buttresses, finials,
+and rose-windows, reflects the Gothic spirit of the interior. The west
+façade is flanked by two towers, that above the Chapel of the Canons
+alone being complete. It is 295 feet high, and was begun by order of
+Archbishop Tenorio, in 1380, by Rodrigo Alfons, and completed under
+Archbishop Contreras in 1440 by Alvar Gomez. On the summit is a small
+spire, surmounted by a cross, a vane, and an arrow. Here are hung the
+bells, among them the famous Campana Gorda, weighing nearly two tons,
+and whose note reaches to Madrid. The tower also contains a peal called
+the Matraca, worked continuously by mechanism from Maundy Thursday till
+Easter Saturday. The view from the summit is far-reaching and inspiring.
+
+Among the finest features of this noble church are its eight principal
+entrances. In the western façade are three portals--the Puerto del
+Perdon in the centre, flanked by the Puertas de los Escribános and de
+la Torre. All date from the first half of the fifteenth century and are
+in the Gothic style. The Puerta del Perdon forms a noble arch, richly
+ornamented, and divided into two smaller arches by a column surmounted
+by the figure of Christ, above which are the Twelve Apostles. Above
+these again is a relief in the Renaissance style representing the gift
+of the Chasuble to San Ildefonso. The smaller doors are in single
+arches, and are sculptured with statues of angels and patriarchs. The
+Puerta de los Escribános is so called because through it the notaries
+enter the church to take their oaths. It is also called the Puerta del
+Juicio. Above it is a long inscription commemorating the taking of
+Granada and the expulsion of the Jews. Above the portals the façade is
+adorned with a colossal sculpture of the Last Supper, the Saviour and
+the Apostles being seated each in a niche, and the table reaching from
+buttress to buttress. The façade is pierced with a beautiful rose-window
+thirty feet across with a glazed arcade beneath.
+
+On the south side are the Puertas Llana and de los Leones. The former in
+the classic style, was made by Ignacio Haám in 1800. The Puerta de los
+Leones gives access to the transept, and is a magnificent Gothic work,
+erected in 1460 by the Fleming, de Egas, and ornamented by Juan Alemán.
+The sculpture of the portal is perfect. The six columns of the atrium
+are surmounted by six lions holding shields. Here are the famous bronze
+doors, wrought by Villalpando and Ruy Diaz del Corral in 1545. The
+wood-carving and decoration employed a great many masters, among whom
+may be mentioned Velasco, Troyas, and the two Copins. Between them was
+divided the sum of 68,672 maravedis. At the opposite or northern end of
+the transept is the Puerta del Reloj, dating from the beginning of the
+fifteenth century, and so named from the clock above it. The door is of
+bronze and above it is a fine rose-window of about the same period. It
+is considered by Street the best example of stained glass now remaining
+in the Cathedral. West of this, the Puerta de Santa Catalina leads into
+the eastern cloister. The decoration is profuse. St. Catharine, and the
+instruments of her martyrdom, are shown, with the arms of Spain and the
+Tenorio family. The Puerta de la Presentacion, also leading into the
+cloister, is in the Renaissance style, and dates from 1565. Pedro
+Castañeda, Juan Vasquez, Torribio Rodriguez, Juan Manzano, and Andrés
+Hernandez are named as the designers of this very fine portal. The
+cloisters are entered from the west side next to the tower, by the
+Puerta del Mollete, so called because _molletes_ or rolls were or are
+distributed to the poor here.
+
+The chapel and cloister of San Bias on the north side of the cloisters
+are the most important additions made to the structure in the fifteenth
+century. The chapel contains the monument of the founder, Cardinal
+Tenorio, and “in the cloister walls,” says Street, “a door which, in the
+capricious cusping and crocketing of its traceried work, illustrates the
+extremes into which Spanish architects of this age ran in their
+elaboration of detail and affectation of novelty.”
+
+
+
+
+THE DECLINE OF THE CITY
+
+
+Toledo, up till then hardly distinguished for its loyalty to the Crown,
+loved Isabel the Catholic, and on her account, perhaps, rendered
+obedience to her Aragonese husband. The Catholic sovereigns liked the
+city, and generally held their Court there. The magnificent Cardinal
+Mendoza was the prime mover in the expedition against Granada, and
+planted the Cross on the summit of the Alhambra. The power of the
+primacy was in no way diminished by the consolidation of the monarchy,
+and Toledo still looked rather to its archbishop than to its king for
+guidance and governance. Under Ferdinand and Isabel it prospered
+exceedingly. The arts of peace were studied, industries flourished, and
+the more adventurous and restless spirits found an outlet for their
+energies in colonial enterprises beyond the seas instead of cutting each
+other’s throats in the byways of the city. Toledo became courtly and
+urbane. The luckless princess, Juana, was born at the Alcazar in 1479;
+and here the Infanta Isabel was married on April 29, 1498, to the King
+of Portugal. Only a few months later her corpse was brought hither from
+Zaragoza, to be laid in the convent of Santa Isabel.
+
+The death of Queen Isabel, and the proclamation of Juana and Felipe I.
+on May 22, 1502, put an end to the long spell of peace. Toledo sided at
+first with Ferdinand against his son-in-law, and was held by the Silvas
+against the latter’s forces under the Marquis de Villena. In the
+following year (1506) the Ayalas, supported by the townsmen generally,
+took possession of the town, and resolved to maintain its liberties
+against the Flemish favourites and centralising tendencies of the new
+_régime_. The Silvas, as a matter of course, ranged themselves on the
+opposite side, and the streets ran red with blood. Toledo was herself
+again.
+
+The accession of the Flemish prince, Charles, afterwards emperor,
+determined the Castilians to make a stand for national independence.
+What city had so good a claim to be the headquarters of the movement,
+the focus of anti-foreign agitation, as Toledo the turbulent? In 1520
+occurred the outbreak of the _Comuneros_ movement. At its head were four
+gentlemen of Toledo: Hernando Dávalos, Gonzalo Gaytan, Pedro de Ayala,
+and (greatest of all) Juan de Padilla. Twenty thousand citizens rallied
+to the cry of “Padilla y Comunidad!” and the movement spread from the
+Tagus to Salamanca and westwards to the frontiers of Portugal. To
+Juana, imprisoned at Tordesillas, herself a Toledan, protestations of
+loyalty and devotion were addressed. But denounce her son’s fraudulently
+obtained sovereignty she would not. Meanwhile Charles’s forces were not
+idle. The Alcaide, Clemente de Aguayo, held the tower of San Martin, and
+Don Juan de Silva, the Alcazar, against the insurgents. But the townsmen
+were victorious. Padilla, however, was defeated at Villalar, and
+executed, with his brave lieutenants, Juan Bravo and Maldonado.
+
+In the Comunero leader’s dauntless wife, Maria de Pacheco, liberty found
+a new champion and Spain a new heroine. “She was found praying at the
+foot of the Cross,” says Miss Lynch, “when her servants brought her the
+news of Padilla’s defeat and death. She rose, robed herself in black,
+and walked to the Alcazar between her husband’s lieutenants, Dávalos and
+Acuña, who bore a standard representing Padilla’s execution. They named
+her captain of the insurgents, and found her implacable and violent, but
+still a sovereign commander.” For sixteen months under this Castilian
+Joan of Arc the old city of the Visigoths held out against the armies of
+Charles V. Routed in a bloody sortie on October 16, 1521, by Zuñiga,
+prior of San Juan, the Comuneros were obliged, ten days later, to
+abandon the gates to the besiegers. A truce was agreed to, while the
+demands of the citizens should be presented to the Emperor. Maria
+remained in her own house, as in a fortress, guarded by her faithful
+troops. But on February 3 the murder of a citizen brought on a renewal
+of the conflict. Desperate battle waged in every street and lane. Maria,
+assailed and valiantly defended in her stronghold, at last cut her way
+through, and retired to Portugal, dying at Oporto years afterwards. The
+townsmen were worsted, and sullenly submitted. Toledo had fought her
+last fight.
+
+Her day was over. Charles V. forgave her, and would come at times to
+live in the Alcazar. She was still the capital of Spain. But her haughty
+temper and the arrogance of her clergy matched ill with the policy of
+Philip II. In 1560 Madrid--upstart, provincial Madrid--was proclaimed
+the _única corte_. Less important than under the Khalifate, Toledo
+became a mere provincial town. But the Church did not desert her. She is
+still the metropolitan see of Spain.
+
+Let us see what the monarchs of United Spain did for the old city, and
+what monuments remain of the days when it was Court and capital.
+
+The church of San Juan de los Reyes, near the Puente de San Martin, was
+built in 1476 by Ferdinand and Isabel, in thanksgiving for the victory
+of Toro gained over the Portuguese allies of Juana, nicknamed “la
+Beltraneja.” The first architect was a Fleming, Juan Guas, one of the
+builders of the cathedral. The church was intended to receive the ashes
+of the royal founders, but after the capture of Granada it was decided
+to establish the mausoleum in that city, and the completion of San Juan
+de los Reyes was delayed till the seventeenth century. In consequence,
+the architecture exhibits the transition from the Late Gothic to the
+Late Renaissance style. “Nothing,” remarks Street, “can be more
+elaborate than much of the detail of this church, yet I have seen few
+buildings less pleasing or harmonious.” The exterior is unpromising, and
+is decorated, if we can use the word in such a connection, with festoons
+of rusty chains which fettered the limbs of the Christians in Moorish
+prisons. The chief entrance, to the north, was completed by Covarrubias
+in 1610, and is in the decadent style of architecture. It is adorned
+with inferior statuary, and the arms and initials of the Catholic
+sovereigns.
+
+The interior is composed of a single nave, two hundred feet long and
+from forty-three to seventy feet wide. There are four chapels on one
+side and three on the other. At the east end of the church is a shallow
+five-sided apse, forming the Capilla Mayor. Over the junction of the
+nave and transept is an octagonal cupola, resting on four fine pillars,
+with a pointed dome and a window in each face. At the west end of the
+church is a deep gallery, containing the choir. The altar dates from the
+Renaissance period, and is brought well forward into the nave. It came
+from the suppressed church of Santa Cruz. Above it is a blue velvet
+canopy, embroidered with the eagle, the symbol of St. John. The whole
+fabric is enriched with statuary, tracery, carving, and heraldic devices
+in almost reckless profusion. The yoke and the arrows--the devices of
+the Catholic sovereigns--and their coats of arms are repeated again and
+again. Among the inscriptions is one commemorating the foundation of the
+church. It runs: “Este monasterio é églesia mandaron hacer los muy
+esclarecidos Principes é señores D. Hernando é Doña Isabel, Rey y Reina
+de Castilla, de Leon, de Aragon, de Sicilia, los cuales señores por
+bienaventurado matrimonio y uñaron los dichos Reinos, seyendo el dicho
+rey y señor natural de los reinos de Aragon y Sicilia, y seyendo la
+dicha señora Reina y señora natural de los Reinos de Castilla y Leon; el
+cual fundaron á gloria de nuestro señor Dios, y de la bienaventurada
+Madre suya, nuestra Señora la Virgén Maria, y por especial devocion que
+le ovieron.”
+
+Admirable as is the church in its general structure, and in the detail
+and execution of its ornamentation, it is garish and ostentatious. There
+is a superabundance of light and luxury. Here there is no dim religious
+light, no suggestion of mystery or devotion. Prayer would seem
+incompatible with the whole character of the edifice. More favourable
+was the opinion of Théophile Gautier, who declared that “Gothic art
+never produced anything more suave, more elegant, or more fine.”
+
+Attached to the church is the convent, bestowed on the Franciscans, and
+pillaged by the French in 1808. It has been converted into a museum,
+which does not contain much of great interest. The most important
+exhibits are fragments of Visigothic inscriptions and Moorish tile-work.
+
+The cloister of San Juan de los Reyes is a gem of florid Gothic, and the
+finest part of the whole fabric. There are two galleries, one above the
+other, the lower with traceried openings, the upper with large open
+arches. As in the church, there is here an excess of decoration, hardly
+a square inch on pillar, arch, and vaulting being free from sculptured
+ornamentation. There is a bewildering profusion of statues of angels,
+men, and animals, of scroll-work and foliage, heraldic devices and
+inscriptions. The whole is dazzlingly white--more like a temple of the
+Sun than a shrine of “the pale Galilean.” The original effect, perhaps,
+was less crude, for the church and cloisters have been recently
+restored, and, it must be confessed, not too skilfully.
+
+A most beautiful specimen of azulejo work has been built into the
+north-west wall. It comes from the suppressed monastery of the Calced
+Augustines, and is said to have been a part of the ornamentation of the
+ancient palace of Don Rodrigo--wherever that may have been situated.
+
+Before the finishing touches had been put to San Juan de los Reyes, the
+last important Gothic work of Toledo, the erection of one of the two
+earliest examples of the Renaissance style in Spain had been begun. The
+hospital of Santa Cruz was built between the years 1494 and 1514 by
+Enrique de Egas, of Brussels, some ten years after he had completed the
+college of the same name at Valladolid. The hospital was designed by the
+founder, the mighty Cardinal Mendoza, as an asylum for foundlings. He
+died in 1495, and left 75,000 ducats to the queen for the completion of
+the work. Isabel it was who chose the site overlooking the bridge of
+Alcantara, where formerly the palace of the legendary King Galafre is
+fabled to have stood. Among other stories connected with the spot is
+that of a Leonese princess wedded against her will to a Moorish prince,
+her union with whom was prevented by the intervention of an angel. As in
+all the early specimens of Spanish Renaissance architecture, the
+groundwork of the building approximates to the Gothic, the new ideas
+manifesting themselves in the decoration and carving. The portal is
+superb. The reliefs represent the Adoration of the Cross by St. Helena,
+St. Peter, St. Paul, and the founder, Cardinal Mendoza, two pages also
+appearing, bearing mitre and helmet. Other reliefs, exquisitely
+chiselled, have for subjects the espousals of St. Joachim and St. Anne,
+and Charity. The four cardinal virtues are shown, and everywhere, amidst
+a maze of ornamentation, occur Mendoza’s arms and device. The
+plateresque windows, with their rejas in the local style, are deserving
+of admiration. Entering, we find a vast _patio_, enclosed by a double
+arcaded gallery of marble, and, crossing it, ascend a grand staircase
+with a fine ceiling of the _artesonado_ kind. The chapel, in the form of
+a Maltese cross, has also a fine ceiling, and Gothic pillars,
+beautifully carved, that attest the splendid appearance once presented
+by this dismantled building. Some of the columns adorning Santa Cruz
+were brought from the Visigothic church of Santa Leocadia.
+
+To the same period belongs the Franciscan convent and church of San Juan
+de la Penitencia, begun by order of Cisneros in 1514, and finished by
+his secretary, Fray Francisco Ruiz, Bishop of Avila. The semi-Moorish
+palace of the Pantojas was utilised in its construction, and the whole
+building bears traces of Arabic, or rather Mudejar, workmanship.
+Entering the chapel by a porch adorned with the great Cardinal’s arms
+and foliations in the Gothic style, we find ourselves in a sombre
+edifice of a single nave, revealing a curious medley of styles. The roof
+is a fine example of the artesonado. Over the transept, which is divided
+from the nave by a plateresque reja, is a cupola with a stalactite roof
+of the Moorish pattern. The principal retablo is early Renaissance, and
+several of the altars may be classed as Baroque. The most interesting
+feature of the church is the tomb of the Bishop of Avila, who died in
+1528. It is in the Renaissance style, and was the work of a Lombard
+artist. It is wrought in Sicilian marble, and is thus described by Ponz:
+“Above a large stone divided by three pilasters to form three pedestals
+there are an equal number of statues seated, representing Faith, Hope,
+and Charity. Between the pilasters are the arms of the Bishop--five
+castles. In a framed recess are the urn, couch, and recumbent figure. In
+front of the urn are seen two weeping children, and within the recess
+four angels draw aside the curtains. On either side are two Doric
+pillars supporting the frieze, which is inscribed, ‘Beati mortui qui in
+Domino moriantur.’ On the edge are two antique columns admirably
+executed. Between these columns and pilasters are statues, St. James and
+St. Andrew, and above, the figures of children. Over all is a bas-relief
+of the Annunciation, with the statues of St. John the Divine and St.
+John Baptist, one-half the size of the Virtues below.”
+
+The Emperor-King Charles V. had, as we have seen, small reason to love
+Toledo, but he did something for the permanent embellishment of the
+city, and the last architectural monuments reared on its craggy
+peninsula belong to his era.
+
+It is difficult to ascribe the Alcazar, to which reference has so often
+been made, to any one epoch. It has undergone so many vicissitudes, so
+many reconstructions, that the name, as we have employed it, must be
+understood to represent a site rather than the actual palace. A
+stronghold of some sort has always been here--possibly, in Roman times,
+the Arx, where tradition avers the martyr Leocadia suffered death. The
+Arabian geographer, Jerif al Edris, writing in 1154, describes Toledo as
+“a town great in extent and population, extremely strong, with fine
+ramparts, and an Alcazaba, fortified and impregnable.” This citadel was
+doubtless the Alcazar, which was strengthened and rebuilt by successive
+Castilian kings, and is said to have been the residence of the Cid, the
+first Christian Alcaide. Added to, reconstructed, partially demolished
+and repeatedly restored, it must have presented an aspect rude and
+heterogeneous enough when, in 1538, Charles V. ordered Alonso de
+Covarrubias and Luis de Vega to rebuild the palace entirely on the
+lines of the new Alcazar of Granada. The Flemish Emperor may, then,
+fairly be considered the founder of the present fortress-palace, though
+it has since his time undergone radical transformations. It was burnt
+down during the War of Succession in 1710, restored sixty years later,
+destroyed again by the French in 1810, and devastated by a third
+conflagration as late as 1887. Since 1882 it has been the seat of the
+Royal Military Academy.
+
+The northern façade was constructed after the designs of Covarrubias,
+and looks on the square created by Ferdinand and Isabel in 1502. The
+reconstruction was so complete that probably no stone of the older
+façade was left in its place. The façade is severe and majestic,
+revealing classical influence, though not without important traces of
+the plateresque. It is flanked by towers, and adorned with a handsome
+portal--the work of Enrique de Egas, brother-in-law of Covarrubias. Over
+the door are the Imperial arms, supported by the figures of two heralds
+or mace-bearers. The fortress-like eastern façade is believed to be a
+part of the original Alcazar as restored by Alfonso X.; the western side
+of the building dates from the reign of the Catholic sovereigns, and the
+southern, with massive Doric pillars and square turrets, was built after
+designs by Juan de Herrera.
+
+The inner court, or _patio_, is described by a Spanish writer as
+“solemn, grandiose, full of majesty ... constructed for the
+dwelling-place of the August Cæsar.” It forms a spacious parallelogram
+and is enclosed by an arcade in two storeys with columns of the
+Corinthian order. Above the capitals are displayed the escutcheons of
+the various kingdoms ruled over by Charles. The modern restorers of the
+palace have adorned the court with a statue of the Emperor in the Roman
+costume in which he was so fond of being represented.
+
+The finest feature of the palace must have been the staircase, designed
+by Villalpando and Herrera, which has been to some extent restored after
+its destruction by Stahremberg in 1710. One of the widest staircases in
+the world, “it ends,” says Miss Hannah Lynch “in the void!” In truth,
+the Alcazar is not to-day a very interesting building. It is, in
+reality, quite impossible to identify the scenes of the romantic and
+historical episodes which we know occurred in one or other of the
+successive Alcazars. But the room in which Alfonso VI. died and the
+window at which the hapless Blanche de Bourbon wept, _pace_ the local
+guides, must have disappeared to the last stone and fragment ages ago.
+All that can be said of the palace to-day is that it forms an imposing
+landmark, and affords from its northern terrace one of the finest views
+of Toledo.
+
+To the age of Charles V. (or Carlos I. as in Spain he would properly be
+called) belongs the Hospital de San Juan Bautista, styled the Hospital
+de Afuera (outside) in the suburb of Covachuelas. The building was begun
+in 1541 by order of Archbishop Juan de Tavera, who died on his return
+from the baptism of Prince Carlos at Valladolid. The building was
+carried on after Bustamente’s death by the two Vergaras, and completed
+about 1600. The façade dates from the eighteenth century and is still
+unfinished. The courtyard, spacious and imposing, is divided into two
+and enclosed by colonnades. A fine Renaissance portal by Berruguete
+leads into the large chapel, which is in the form of a cross and
+surmounted by a dome. The pavement is of black and white marble. Before
+the altar is the tomb of Archbishop Tavera by Berruguete. This is one of
+the finest monuments in Spain. It was finished by Berruguete when he was
+over eighty years old, in 1561, his death taking place the same year in
+one of the rooms under the great clock. His sons received nearly a
+million maravedis for the work. “The Cardinal,” says Théophile Gautier,
+“is stretched out upon his tomb in his pontifical habit. Death has
+pinched his nose with its strong fingers, and the last contraction of
+the muscles, in their endeavour to retain the soul about to leave the
+body for ever, puckers up the corners of the mouth and lengthens the
+chin; never was there a cast taken after death more horribly true; and
+yet the beauty of the work is such, that you forget any amount of
+repulsiveness that the subject may possess. Little children in attitudes
+of grief support the plinth and the Cardinal’s coat of arms. The most
+supple and softest clay could not be more easy or more pliant; it is not
+carved, it is kneaded!”
+
+The hospital contains some of El Greco’s most notable work, which will
+be noticed in the chapter on that master.
+
+To Charles V. Toledo also owes the grand New Gate of Visagra, built in
+1550, and restored in 1575. It consists of two separate structures, or
+gateways, enclosing a _patio_. On the exterior of the north gate is
+shown the double eagle with the Spanish arms and a Latin
+inscription--all in sculptured granite. On the inside is a fine statue
+of St. Eugenio, variously attributed to Berruguete and Monegro. The
+statues of Gothic kings, a life-sized angel with unsheathed sword,
+elegant capitals and balconies, combine to make this gateway one of the
+finest approaches possessed by any city in the world.
+
+The Ayuntamiento, or town hall, of Toledo was erected in the time of
+Ferdinand and Isabel by the corregidor Gomez Manrique, and enlarged and
+restored between 1576 and 1618 by the corregidor Juan Tello, under the
+supervision of El Greco. The façade is composed of two storeys, the
+first consisting of nine arches with Doric columns which spring from
+massive pillars, the second of as many arches with Ionic columns. The
+edifice is surmounted by two towers, crowned with steeples and
+weather-vanes. On the fine staircase may be read in letters of gold on a
+blue ground this admonition to the civic dignitaries of Toledo:
+
+ Nobles, discretes varones,
+ Que gobernais á Toledo,
+ En aquellas escalones,
+ Desechad las aficiones,
+ Codicio temor, y miedo,
+ For los comunes provechos,
+ Dejad los particulares;
+ Pues vos fizo Dios pilares
+ De tan riquisimos techos,
+ Estad firmes y derechos.
+
+The Summer Council Chamber is handsomely decorated with _azulejos_, and
+contains some battle pictures. The portraits of Carlos II. and his wife
+are the work of Carreño.
+
+The celebrated Bridge of Alcantara, of which mention has so often been
+made in these pages, belongs indifferently to all the epochs of Toledo’s
+history, so no apology is needed for mentioning it here. “It constitutes
+to-day as in the past,” writes Amador de los Rios, “the principal
+entrance to the city, and, constructed very wisely on one of the
+narrowest parts of the river, it is formed of a great central arch of
+more than twenty-eight metres in breadth, resting on the right on a
+solid pile, often demolished, behind which is a smaller semicircular
+arch, which is, in turn, sustained by the bridge head, founded on the
+rock and pierced by a still smaller arch or passage, where several
+Visigothic remains have been discovered.” At the outer or country end of
+the historic bridge formerly stood a fortified tower, which was in 1787
+replaced by the existing structure. This is in a pretentious style, and
+is decorated with various inscriptions, among them one commemorating the
+building by order of Philip V. The majestic hexagonal tower on the town
+side, with its picturesque turrets, dates probably from 1259. Above it
+is a statue of St. Ildefonso, by Berruguete. Over the archway are
+sculptured the badges of Ferdinand and Isabel (the yoke and bundle of
+arrows), commemorating the restoration of the tower, in 1489, by Gomez
+Manrique. A noble bridge is this of Alcantara; old--old as the city--the
+work of all Toledo’s rulers, and like Toledo, grim, stern, rude,
+destined, it would seem, to endure for ever. Romans, Visigoths, Moors
+and Castilians have lingered on it, triumphed on it, fled across it,
+fought upon it, and across it to-day must walk every traveller entering
+with reverence this great temple of the mediæval and bygone.
+
+
+
+
+EL GRECO
+
+BY
+
+ALBERT F. CALVERT AND C. GASQUOINE HARTLEY
+
+
+Domeniko Theotokopuli,[A] known to us to-day as El Greco, was the first
+great painter of Spain, and in his strange and fascinating art, the
+Spanish School compels for the first time the attention of the world.
+And El Greco was not Spanish. He was born in Crete, it would seem about
+the year 1548, and died at Toledo in 1614. Learning his art in Venice,
+in his early manner he is a pure Venetian, owing much to the work of the
+Bassani, and more to the inspiration of Tintoretto, but in Toledo he
+became Spanish and himself, developing there a manner in which the
+special temper of the race finds an expression passionate enough, not
+equalled again, indeed, until the advent of Goya.
+
+There will always be some men imaginative, entirely personal, who,
+like El Greco, seek to express themselves, and in so doing, quite
+unwittingly probably, express the life of their age. Having the
+interpretative--creative would perhaps be the truer word--genius, their
+work becomes, as it were, a mirror, which reflects not the man alone,
+but the circumstances that have formed his life. For, after all, what
+the artist does is to use up what he has seen.
+
+This is why El Greco seems to chronicle for us our impressions of
+Toledo, and of Spain.
+
+Surely no other painter has lived in a city in such strong agreement
+with his spirit. Think of the place--wind-swept, heat-dried,
+extraordinarily austere, yet flushed with colour, ochre-red shading to
+unusual greens; heaped upon its rocky throne above the yellow flowing
+Tagus, its rugged silhouette straight cut against a sky hard and clear
+as enamel; and, beyond, the sierra like a great brown sea in which it
+all stands as an island starting from the waves. A suggestion of
+strenuousness seems to linger everywhere, a spirit, personal and keen,
+cruel almost as the sword-blades the city fashions. The very buildings,
+placed upon the crags beneath the great hulk of the Alcazar, repeat this
+impression, they rise in sharp upward and downward lines like an
+arrangement of swords, and make their appeal by the strange strength of
+their aspect. The streets are a tortuous net of steep-rising
+passage-ways. A city strongly itself that has suffered no change,
+fantastic as a city seen in a dream.
+
+Yes, to those who know Toledo, the impression of the character of the
+city upon El Greco will bring no surprise. His art corresponds perfectly
+with its setting. Everywhere his work is around you, for El Greco is one
+of those painters who has but a single home. He built churches and other
+buildings--the classic façade of the Ayuntamiento, for instance, was
+modelled on his design; he carved statues, he painted pictures, there
+are canvases of his in the museum, in the cathedral, and in many of the
+churches. And in all this mass of work, it is the living force behind it
+that is the first impression that you gain; a kind of driving power that
+fascinates you, just as Toledo fascinates you, by reason of its power.
+El Greco was a painter able to create--that is the secret of it all.
+And, be it remembered, the artist does not find his matter straight from
+the springs of his brain, what he is able to see he sets down, and that
+is all. His art is great in exact measure as it is able to transfer this
+vision from him to us. In this way El Greco, to whom vision seems to
+have been the whole of life, does in his pictures transfer to us the
+entire impression of Toledo, so that it is difficult to speak of his art
+without making Toledo the refrain.
+
+And as we wait with his pictures and note, after the first surprise has
+left us, the qualities of the work, throughout they confirm this. The
+very form of his composition is moulded upon Toledo. Just as its
+buildings cluster around the Alcazar, almost as bees swarming about
+their queen, so he groups everything around a central figure. Never,
+after he came to Toledo, did El Greco use Italian backgrounds. And in
+his long, lithe figures, so fantastic in their hard outlines, sometimes
+we catch that suggestion of the sword that haunts Toledo. Then when we
+come to more tangible things, we find to-day El Greco’s models in the
+dark peasants of Toledo. Nowhere else can we quite believe in the
+reality of those coldly fervent, self-absorbed, ecstatic men, who greet
+us with such fascination from his canvases, their lean, long profiles
+suggesting again that aspect of a sword.
+
+Then, El Greco’s colour was drawn from the landscape around him. And
+colour, if we may credit the truth of the conversation recounted by
+Pacheco, was to him the one quality in painting, form, drawing, all
+else, being of secondary significance. This, too, was learnt in Toledo,
+where colour has an allurement--illusive and insistent. Toledo it was
+showed him the existence of cold tones, and the fascination of its greys
+and livid greens led him to anticipate modern colour, at a time when
+every one else was painting warm tonalities. In the Convent of San Juan
+de los Reyes, now the Museo Provincial, is that ‘Bird’s-Eye View of
+Toledo,’ the picture in which we have a portrait of George Manuel
+Theotokopuli, El Greco’s son. At first you will be astonished, it is the
+strangest landscape in the world. But wait with the picture--always the
+danger with El Greco is that you will not linger enough. The painter who
+sees for himself must be studied, not dismissed as he who but sets down
+the common vision of things. And El Greco does give us the real Toledo
+in this fantastic landscape. Do you doubt this? Then go when night falls
+upon the city to some such vantage-point as the Puerta del Cambón, where
+beneath the dome of the evening sky you will see Toledo, heaped roof
+against roof, tower against tower. You will forget the strangeness of
+the picture’s statement, as you come to see that it is just this effect
+that El Greco has caught. Now you will recognise the reality of those
+bluish whites, those tones of green that surprised you, and, in
+gladness, you will yield to the truth, the beauty--are not the two the
+same?--of the painter’s vision, and avow how much he has taught you to
+see.
+
+Always El Greco’s pictures leave an impression of their own upon the
+spectator; and this is the test of vital work. It is personality that
+counts in art. Whether he paints the visible truth of outward things, as
+in his portraits--that wonderful series in the Prado, for instance, in
+which he startles us with his revelation of his model--or pure fancies
+of the mind, as ‘The Vision of Philip II.,’ in the Escorial, a picture
+that would seem to have no conscious reference to things seen, one feels
+that he had something definite to express. And although his style at
+first may have been formed largely on that of the great Venetian
+painters, of Tintoretto especially--a “sort of shorthand of the
+Venetian,” Mr. Ricketts calls it--in all his pictures there is but one
+personality--that of himself. At the back of his art was a force of
+passionate character--unbalanced? Yes! capricious and arbitrary; a
+tyrannical need that compelled expression. But in spite of his singular
+conventions and, from a theorist’s point of view, the strangeness and
+exaggeration of his qualities, he does convey his meaning, splendidly
+effective, if not the best. And because of this intensity of vision we
+have those pictures of exaggerated statement that give credit to the
+fable of the painter’s madness, such as the ‘St. John the Baptist,’ in
+the Hospital San Juan Bautista, a picture which many have found ugly,
+while the few see in its new conception a striving for personal
+utterance, and find many things in its suggestion.
+
+El Greco stumbled in his methods maybe, never in his purpose, which was,
+it would seem to us, the significance of movement. All his strange
+skill, the power of his imagination, his new knowledge of colour and
+light, are used in this service, to bring home to us the vision of
+movement that everywhere he saw. Even in his portraits it is this that
+holds us. There is something more in them than the outward likeness;
+there is a power of reaching to and showing us the unquiet spirit
+within. He makes his portraits live and speak. This quality is present
+in all his work. Every picture is built up by its effect; and this
+effect is movement--life. By concentrating on a particular passage, by a
+contempt for detail and peddling accuracy, he directs our minds to this
+principal thing. His interest, as it were, compels ours; he realises his
+vision and makes us share in his imagination.
+
+But it may be said that in many of these pictures the effect is forced;
+in the ‘St. Maurice,’ the rejected altar-piece of the Escorial, for
+instance, in the ‘Baptism of Christ’ and the ‘Descent of the Holy
+Spirit,’ in the Prado, and in many pictures in Toledo, easily
+recognised, in which realities are replaced by a series of conventions.
+It is not necessary to wait to particularise examples. Certainly one
+does not see in the pictures of other painters those greens, those ashen
+whites and crimsons, those livid blacks; El Greco’s use of colour is
+unusual and his own. Light is not used as he uses it, as a quantity for
+emotional appeal; those faces, so elongated or contracted, and with such
+extravagant expressions, those figures with hard anatomical outlines, do
+not correspond with life as we see it. Yes, this is true. But look
+longer at these pictures.... Well, would it be possible to gain their
+_effects_ without the _defects_? If things are forced out of harmony it
+is for the sake of “telling strongly.” All this search for expression is
+done quite consciously. El Greco throughout was strong enough to be true
+to himself and to his imagination. He knew that no system of art is
+final, that the achievements of artists are, in truth, the stones
+wherewith the Temple of Art is built. Imagination does not see
+commonplaces. And we recall the statement of Blake--he, too, a painter
+of visions of the mind: “He who does not imagine in stronger and better
+lineaments, and in stronger and better light, than his perishing mortal
+eye can see, does not imagine at all.”
+
+El Greco might have said these words.
+
+And the man? There is a portrait Domeniko Theotokopuli has left of
+himself now in the Museum of Seville. In it we see the long, striking
+profile, with its large, strong nose, restless eyes and straight mouth,
+cruel slightly, framed by the great white ruff that forms such fitting
+setting to the fine head. The forehead is high, the dark hair scant upon
+the temples. We may read in the face, and still more in the perfectly
+shaped hands--the left holds a square palette upon which are the five
+primary colours, white, black, yellow-ochre, vermilion, and lake, the
+colours he used most frequently--the fastidiousness of the artist, the
+instinct for beauty; we may read a peculiar suggestion of mysticism and
+ardour; self-assertion, too, and impatience--both wait in those long,
+nervous fingers. It is a face of genius, but of a kind restless,
+unbalanced, decadent perhaps. And we understand the driving energy that
+burned to fever, so that at times the balance was lost between the
+painter’s aim and the result, and we realise that the work of such a man
+must be introspective, experimental, neurotic.
+
+We know nothing almost of El Greco’s life, and if external happenings
+were all, the most original painter of Spain would remain an unexplained
+personality. His very name is uncertain, and contemporary writers,
+disregarding the Theotokopuli, speak of him as Domeniko Greco. We do not
+know the year in which he was born, for the information given by
+Palomino in “El Museo” must certainly be questioned, no register of his
+birth as yet having been found among the Cretan archives, or in the
+parochial books of the Greek colony in Venice, the city in which it
+seems certain that he lived--a pupil, we may well think, of Tintoretto,
+rather than of Titian; and this in spite of the letter of his friend
+and compatriot the miniature-painter, Clovio,[B] in which Clovio speaks
+of the young Greek painter’s skill, tells of his coming to Rome, and,
+after commending him to the patronage of the Cardinal Nepote Farnese,
+refers to his having learnt his art from the greatest Venetian. But the
+testimony of his work gives more truth than this statement; his early
+pictures, their authorship so long unknown, again and again have been
+attributed to Tintoretto, to Bassano, to Veronese even, never to Titian.
+
+That El Greco was a Cretan we know by his signature, always in Greek, on
+many pictures, Λομήνικος Θεοτοκόπουλος Κρήσεποίει--the ‘San Maurice,’
+in the Escorial, is one. And again, when called, in 1582, by the
+Tribunal of the Inquisition to act as interpreter in the case of a
+Cretan accused of being a Morisco, he describes himself as “Domeniko
+Theotokopuli, native of Candia, painter, resident in Toledo,” as we
+learn from a document discovered by Señor Cossio, to whose research, and
+to that of Señor Foradada and of Señor de Beruete, we owe the few
+discovered facts of El Greco’s life.
+
+We know that Domeniko Greco came to Toledo some time before 1577, and in
+that year he was at work in the convent of Santo Domingo el Antigua,
+where the Church was built and its statues carved by him, and where he
+painted the screens of the fine retablo; that further, he would seem
+never to have left Toledo; that he married there, and had a son, George
+Manuel, who was architect and sculptor to the cathedral from 1628 to his
+death in 1631, and also a daughter, whose portrait figures in several
+pictures--in ‘Christ Despoiled of his Vestments,’ in the cathedral, for
+one; that he died in Toledo, and was buried in Santo Domingo el Antigua
+on April 7, 1614[C]--and that is about all. We have record of much
+work--Toledo still has more than fifty Grecos--and there were pictures
+painted for the small town of Illescas, and also for Madrid. We read of
+two lawsuits, one undertaken to compel the Cathedral Chapter to pay in
+full for the ‘Expolio,’[D] the second to vindicate the painter’s right
+to sell his pictures without paying the tax levied upon merchandise.
+These lawsuits, his pictures, with their dates and signatures, certain
+contracts and receipts, are the few facts to be reported.
+
+It would seem that this strange, self-contained life wished to be
+silent; for it is perhaps not too fanciful to read this meaning into
+that answer given by El Greco when asked, in connection with the writ
+served on him for the ‘Expolio,’ whether he had been brought to Toledo
+to paint the retablo of Santo Domingo: “I am neither bound to say why I
+came to this city nor to answer the other questions put to me.” Here we
+gain hints of certain very real traits of character.
+
+And, if the facts of his life are meagre enough, we can find suggestions
+of this same temper, silent, yet passionate, in that visit of Pacheco to
+the Toledan painter when he was old, in 1611, of which we have spoken
+before. Pacheco tells us that El Greco was a student of many things, a
+writer on art, a great philosopher given to witty sayings, a sculptor
+and architect as well as a painter. He writes of much work that he saw,
+and speaks in particular of a cupboard in which were models in clay of
+each picture El Greco had finished. The two painters talked on many
+subjects, of colour and its supreme quality in painting, of Michael
+Angelo and his failure as a colourist. But in all the account of
+Pacheco, always so minutely laborious, it is significant to note in one
+sentence the impression he formed of Domeniko Greco: “He was in all
+things as singular as in his painting.”
+
+Nor will it do to overlook the testimony of Giuseppe Martinez, whose
+“Practical Letters on the Art of Painting,” though not printed until
+1866, were written a century before. He too speaks of Domeniko Greco as
+of extravagant disposition, and in proof recounts that he engaged
+musicians to play to him that he might “enjoy an additional luxury
+during meals.” The prudent Aragonese condemns this “too much
+ostentation,” but we capture again some fresh clues and hints of this
+strangely effective personality--a fanatic of life, a fanatic of
+painting.
+
+But we have not settled the account of genius when we have called it
+unusual, fanatic, or decadent. It is the solution of the dull that
+genius is extravagant consciously. El Greco can have had no desire, no
+power, to repeat the easy, the commonplace. If strange, exaggerated
+even, his art is without a trace of affectation. When he painted a
+vision he felt it natural to symbolise his idea in the way that he did.
+In colour, in form, he painted only what his imagination saw, gaining in
+colour fresh harmonies for himself, and a new suggestion of movement in
+his imaginative compositions, to which our imagination must find answer.
+
+El Greco understood all nature as a Living Presence; his art was a
+series of experiments to express this. And every one must be struck with
+the peculiar development of this special personality in his art from
+stage to stage--stages that with sufficient accuracy may be divided into
+three periods.
+
+The first is the pupil’s search for truth; the Venetian stage, in which
+we find a consciousness of tradition, showing itself in the
+still-fettered design, in the attitudes of the figures, in the use of
+warm colour, in a flowing quality in the paint, and, especially perhaps,
+in the landscape backgrounds, so Venetian with palaces and marble-paved
+piazzas; yet mingled with all this tradition is an emphatic personality,
+an ardour of expression, very difficult to define, seen in such early
+pictures as ‘The Blind Man,’ in the Parma Gallery, or ‘The Cardinal,’ in
+the National Gallery, both painted before 1577. Over the whole Venetian
+period the influence of Tintoretto is obvious; while the portraits of
+these years recall in their method the work of the Bassani; and of the
+pre-Spanish pictures, as, for instance, the ‘Cleansing of the
+Temple,’[E] now in the possession of the Countess of Yarborough, and the
+replica of the same subject on a small scale, in the Cook collection at
+Richmond, Surrey, a picture of real beauty that testifies to El Greco’s
+skill in miniature--these, and many other works, were thought until
+quite recently to be the work of the Venetians, the first being
+attributed to Paul Veronese, the latter to Tintoretto, and this in spite
+of their marked character.
+
+And the Venetian influence remained in the first years in Toledo. It is
+seen in the beautiful Virgin in the early ‘Assumption,’ painted for the
+central altar-screen of Santo Domingo el Antigua, but now in the
+Prado.[F] But the chief work of this period is the ‘Christ Despoiled of
+His Vestments,’ still in the sacristy of the cathedral in Toledo, for
+which it was painted in 1577. Here, perhaps, in the fine simplicity of
+the grouping, in the dignity of the inspired head of the Saviour, in the
+rich and strong colour and in the vivid light and shade, we have the
+best results of all El Greco learnt in Venice. But even in this
+beautiful picture we see the development, or rather the co-existence, of
+his two styles: on the one hand carefully and thoroughly worked-out
+qualities, a balanced art remembered from Venice, but with it all a
+power that was his own, that seized the elements in the picture and gave
+them life--his life. And again, we have in the excessive height of the
+Christ, in the hands of many of the figures in this picture and in the
+‘Assumption,’ first hints of the special conventions with which the name
+of El Greco is certainly most associated.
+
+We come to the second stage, in which the painter, forgetting tradition,
+seeks to set down his vision in his own way; it is the period of
+experiment, as we see it first in the ‘St. Maurice,’[G] painted in 1581,
+that strange picture, rejected, as we may so well believe, by Philip
+II., who, misunderstanding, as many have done since, the intensity of
+feeling that animates the work, attributed its exaggerated expression to
+madness. Here, and in other pictures of this time, in the seizing
+‘Vision of Philip II.’ and in the ‘St. John the Baptist’ in particular,
+we have splendid examples of imaginative work. Maybe the details are
+impossible, perhaps absurd--many have found them so--but for others the
+inspiration of the painter triumphs, and the longer they gaze at these
+visions the more they are impelled. For, be it remembered, the idea
+should be the starting-point in all imaginative pictures, and should
+control both the design and its treatment, and these Greco’s are
+splendid in this respect. Whether the imagination is exaggerated and
+perverted in wilful experiment, whether from an uncertain technical
+equipment, or whether it is, as we would think, the natural and true
+expression of intense dramatic vision, it is not easy to say. Who shall
+decide whether to call these mad pictures or visions that breathe the
+sublime? That is a question hard to answer in much of El Greco’s
+characteristic work. Perhaps the truth is that we dislike too readily
+what we do not easily understand. El Greco goes back to first principles
+and speaks in symbols with which we are not familiar. Those spectres of
+human kind that surprise us in so many of his pictures in Toledo, in
+those in the Prado, as well as in these two in the Escorial, do not
+suggest life as we see it; but they are inspired--they do convey his
+meaning. This painter’s method is a real enigma; he essayed surprising
+effects by separating colour into its original values; he used light as
+a means of emotional appeal, giving us sometimes most delicate
+harmonies, sometimes discordant contrasts. Domeniko Greco had to teach
+his world to see what he saw, and in this way he came, it may seem to
+some, to over-emphasise what to him was truth.
+
+And his third stage was a fevered expression of his imaginative vision.
+We have entered a new world of extraordinary restlessness, the
+restlessness that must exist when spirit struggles from the bonds of the
+flesh. Toledo, the ardent arid city, burnt fiercely in El Greco’s blood,
+and, more and more, he seems to have felt that it was not enough to
+record facts; to have cared less to give æsthetic pleasure; but that the
+object of his art should be to clothe abstract ideas with life. It is
+something of all this that we find in his later pictures. In each there
+is emphasis--or, if you like, exaggeration--of statement; in the
+‘Coronation of the Virgin’ in San José, for instance, a picture that in
+a strange, left-handed way carries us forward to the picture by
+Velazquez[H] on the same subject. The exaggeration is equally visible in
+the ‘Assumption’ in San Vicente, more beautiful, and the most
+interesting of these rare visions, a picture in which we have
+movement--the very sensation of a figure passing through the air as we
+have, perhaps, in no other picture. It is even stronger in the group of
+pictures in Madrid, the ‘Baptism,’ the ‘Descent of the Holy Spirit,’ the
+‘Resurrection,’ and the ‘Christ Dead in the Arms of God’; it meets us
+again in the ‘St. Joseph with the Child Jesus,’ and in the ‘Virgin and
+Child with Saints Justa and Gertrude,’[I] both in San José, the church
+that is the museum of so much of the master’s work--pictures all similar
+in their intense sentiment; while emphasis burns to a white flame of
+ardent expression in the famed ‘St. John the Baptist,’ the wonderful
+picture of which we have spoken already. It is there, too, in the
+‘Christ Crucified,’ one in the Prado, one in San Nicolas, surely the
+most terrible realisation possible of that scene of sacrifice, in which
+the agony of spirit so outweighs the agony of the flesh, and sky and
+earth seem to take their share in the struggle.
+
+It is impossible to translate the effect of these animated religious
+pictures into words. El Greco was not content to embody the old myths in
+fresh forms, but he gave fresh forms to the ideas that are, as it were,
+the soul of each myth--that which lives when the form of the stories
+change. Even in his pictures with few figures, such for instance, as the
+‘Mary and Jesus,’ in San Vicente, the ‘St. Francis,’ of which there are
+four replicas in Toledo, or that earlier picture, a beautiful rendering
+of a difficult theme, ‘La Veronica,’ one of the series painted for the
+Santo Domingo el Antigua in 1575-76, we have this exaggeration. Then,
+sometimes, exaggeration, which in each picture, after all, only
+emphasises the idea, disappears altogether, and we are given figures of
+singular beauty, as the ‘San Martin,’ in San José, or the really fine
+Madonnas--dark, oval-faced angels that surprise us at times with a
+beauty of type we hardly expect from El Greco. But, as a rule, in the
+pictures of this period, roughly marked by the painting of that
+experimental picture the ‘St. Maurice,’ there is this intensity of
+expression; and especially we find a new, and often strange, use of
+colour; colour, as well as form, being used as a means of dramatic
+statement, with a result that to many is exaggeration. For El Greco
+learnt first, perhaps, from the Venetians, and afterwards certainly in
+Toledo, many new possibilities of colour--that it has a quality that
+speaks, and further that the appeal of a picture depends first of all on
+the tone of its colour. It is for this reason he used colour as a means
+of emotional appeal; it was another quality by which to convey his idea
+to the world. For El Greco held truly that the province of art is to
+interpret, not to imitate. Every development of his art seems to have
+come from his own mind, hardly at all from the work of other painters;
+from the first he was true to his ideals. And always his pictures seem
+to be more the work of his soul than of his hand; which, in other words,
+is to say that he was greater as an artist than as a painter.
+
+Domeniko Greco, like so many of the painters of Spain, was great in
+portraiture; and some of his portraits, such as those of Antonio
+Covarrubias and of Juan de Alava, in the Museo de San Juan de Los Reyes,
+that of Cardinal Tavera, in the Hospital de Afuera, the whole series in
+the Prado, and many others not possible to name, are as fine portraits
+as have ever been done in the world. In his earliest portraits even, in
+that of Julio Clovio, in the Museum of Naples, or that of ‘A Student,’ a
+portrait, it well may be, of the young painter himself, we have the
+qualities of his later work; always it is the spirit of his model that
+he seeks.
+
+And this inward interpretation of life is seen, too, in that picture
+which is accounted rightly the most interesting, though not perhaps the
+most typical, of his work, ‘The Burial of Gonzalo Ruiz, Count of Orgaz,’
+still in the Church of Santo Tomé, where it was painted in 1584. Look at
+this gallery of living portraits, all the life of Toledo--the life of
+Spain--is reflected back from those ardent faces. In St. Augustine,
+splendid in ecclesiastical robes, is the magnificent opulence of the
+Catholic Church; in the livid face of the dead count, in the cowled monk
+and two priests is the fervid piety of a people who have felt themselves
+in mystical communion with God; in the young, warm beauty of St. Stephen
+and the lovely acolyte is the full joy and rich colour of Spain; and
+lastly, in the long line of mourners who stand behind the group of the
+principal figures, and where the painter’s own nervous face is the sixth
+portrait counting from the right side, you have types unchanged in
+Castile to-day. And how individual is the rendering of the upper section
+of the picture in which Christ awaits in the heavens the spirit of the
+dead saint. Yes, this picture is one of the greatest pictures in Spain;
+it is always interesting.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 1
+
+TOLEDO
+
+_Specially drawn for The Spanish Series_]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 2
+
+GENERAL VIEW OF TOLEDO FROM THE SOUTH-EAST]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 3
+
+VIEW OF TOLEDO FROM THE SOUTH-EAST]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 4
+
+GENERAL VIEW OF TOLEDO]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 5
+
+VIEW OF TOLEDO FROM THE CAMPO DEL REY]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 6
+
+GENERAL VIEW OF TOLEDO]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 7
+
+STATE OF THE RUINS OF THE CIRCO MAXIMO IN THE YEAR 1848, ACCORDING TO
+THE “ALBUM ARTISTICO”]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 8
+
+THE RIVER TAGUS]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 9
+
+ALCANTARA BRIDGE]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 10
+
+PERSPECTIVE OF ST. MARTIN’S BRIDGE AND THE DIRECTION OF THE FORTIFIED
+LINES]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 11
+
+PERSPECTIVE VIEW OF THE SITE OF THE AQUEDUCT]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 12
+
+ENVIRONS OF TOLEDO]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 13
+
+PLAZA DE ZOCODOVER]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 14
+
+THE TOWN HALL]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 15
+
+THE MARKET-PLACE]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 16
+
+THE MARKET-PLACE]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 17
+
+A STREET IN TOLEDO]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 18
+
+A STREET IN TOLEDO]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 19
+
+A STREET IN TOLEDO]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 20
+
+A STREET IN TOLEDO]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 21
+
+A STREET IN TOLEDO]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 22
+
+A STREET IN TOLEDO]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 23
+
+A STREET IN TOLEDO]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 24
+
+A STREET IN TOLEDO]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 25
+
+VISAGRA GATE]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 26
+
+A STREET IN TOLEDO]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 27
+
+A STREET IN TOLEDO]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 28
+
+BRIDGE OF ALCANTARA]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 29
+
+ALCANTARA GATE
+
+ALCANTARA PORTAL AND BRIDGE]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 30
+
+EXTERIOR OF THE NORTHERN CITY WALLS]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 31
+
+FORTIFICATIONS OF THE OLD BRIDGE OF BOATS, REPLACED BY THE BRIDGE OF ST.
+MARTIN]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 32
+
+REMAINS OF THE CITY WALLS OF “AL-HIZÉM,” FROM THE GATE OF THE DOCE
+CANTOS TO THE “PLAZA DE ARMAS” OF THE BRIDGE OF ALCANTARA]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 33
+
+REMAINS OF THE CITY WALLS, SOUTH-WEST, REBUILT AT THE TIME OF THE
+RECONQUEST]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 34
+
+REMAINS OF THE ROMAN RAMPARTS OF THE FIRST ENCLOSURE OF THE CITY]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 35
+
+REMAINS OF THE ROMAN RAMPART OF THE FIRST ENCLOSURE OF THE CITY. (PLAZA
+DE ARMAS DEL PUENTE DE ALCANTARA)
+
+VISIGOTH CAPITAL TRANSFORMED INTO A FOUNTAIN BASIN. (No. 9 CALLEJON DE
+LA LAMPARILLA)]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 36
+
+PRINCIPAL ENTRANCE TO THE HOUSE OF THE BATHS OF ABEN-YA-YIX BAJADA AL
+COLEGIO DEL INFANTES
+
+SEPULCHRAL ARCH OF THE INFANTE DON FERNANDO PEREZ IN THE BELEN CHAPEL IN
+THE CONVENT OF THE COMENDADORA DE SANTIAGO]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 37
+
+RUINS OF POLAN CASTLE. FOURTEENTH CENTURY]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 38
+
+GUADAMAR CASTLE]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 39
+
+REMAINS OF THE ROMAN RAMPARTS OF THE FIRST ENCLOSURE OF THE CITY]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 40
+
+THE EXTERIOR WALLS
+
+REMAINS OF THE FORTIFICATIONS IN THE JEWISH SUBURB]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 41
+
+GATE OF THE “ALMOFALA” (BIB-AL-MOJADHA) REBUILT IN THE FOURTEENTH
+CENTURY
+
+“THE ABBOT’S TOWER” IN THE NORTHERN WALLS]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 42
+
+RUINS OF THE AQUARIA TOWER, COMMONLY CALLED “HORNO DEL VIDRIO”]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 43
+
+REMAINS OF THE AQUEDUCT (LEFT BANK OF THE RIVER)
+
+REMAINS OF THE AQUEDUCT (RIGHT BANK OF THE RIVER)]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 44
+
+REMAINS OF THE ROMAN CONSTRUCTION IN THE TOWER OF THE PLAZA DE ARMAS OF
+THE BRIDGE OF ALCANTARA]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 45
+
+BRIDGE OF ALCANTARA]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 46
+
+EAST SIDE OF THE BRIDGE OF ALCANTARA]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 47
+
+POSTERIOR FAÇADE OF THE DEFENSIVE TOWER OF THE BRIDGE OF ALCANTARA]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 48
+
+DEFENSIVE TOWER OF THE BRIDGE OF ALCANTARA. ANTERIOR FAÇADE]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 49
+
+ALCANTARA GATE]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 50
+
+COMMEMORATIVE INSCRIPTION IN THE AVENUE OF THE DEFENSIVE TOWER OF THE
+BRIDGE OF ALCANTARA]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 51
+
+COAT OF ARMS OF THE CATHOLIC SOVEREIGNS IN FRONT OF THE DEFENSIVE TOWER
+OF THE BRIDGE OF ALCANTARA
+
+“THE KHALIF’S CAPITALS” AT No. 13 CALLE DEL COLISEO]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 52
+
+PERSPECTIVE OF THE BRIDGE OF ALCANTARA]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 53
+
+ST. MARTIN’S BRIDGE]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 54
+
+ST. MARTIN’S BRIDGE
+
+FAÇADE OF SANTA CRUZ]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 55
+
+DEFENSIVE TOWERS AT THE ENTRANCE OF ST. MARTIN’S BRIDGE AND THE TOWN
+
+RESTORED POSTERIOR FAÇADE OF THE ARCH DE LA SANGRE]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 56
+
+REMAINS OF THE AQUEDUCT (RIGHT BANK)]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 57
+
+EAST SIDE OF ST. MARTIN’S BRIDGE]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 58
+
+DEFENSIVE TOWER OF ST. MARTIN’S BRIDGE. FAÇADE SEEN FROM THE BRIDGE
+
+DEFENSIVE TOWER OF ST. MARTIN’S BRIDGE. FAÇADE SEEN FROM THE HIGHWAY]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 59
+
+MALBARDÓN GATE. ELEVENTH CENTURY]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 60
+
+VISAGRA GATE]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 61
+
+UPPER PART OF THE VISAGRA GATE. BUILT IN 1550]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 62
+
+TOWER IN THE CITY WALLS OF “THE SUBURB OF SAN ISIDORO,” NEAR THE NEW
+BRIDGE OF VISAGRA]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 63
+
+HYDRAULIC MACHINE AND REMAINS OF THE WALLS IN THE QUARTER OF THE
+CURTIDORES, NEAR THE RIVER
+
+WALLS OF THE SUBURB OF SAN ISIDORO]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 64
+
+ANCIENT GATE OF VISAGRA]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 65
+
+ANCIENT GATE OF VISAGRA. THE SIDE WHICH JOINS THE WALL AND THE SIDE
+DEFENSIVE TOWER]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 66
+
+ANCIENT GATE OF VISAGRA. DEFENSIVE AND SIDE TOWER]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 67
+
+ANCIENT GATE OF VISAGRA. REMAINS OF THE EASTERN FAÇADE]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 68
+
+DETAIL OF THE PRINCIPAL FAÇADE OF THE OLD GATE OF VISAGRA
+
+INTERIOR OF THE OLD GATE OF VISAGRA]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 69
+
+ANCIENT GATE OF VISAGRA]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 70
+
+THE TOWER CALLED “PUERTA BAJA DE LA HERRERIA,” NOW “GATE OF THE SUN”]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 71
+
+CASTLE OF SAN SERVANDO]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 72
+
+CASTLE OF SAN SERVANDO. ANCIENT ENTRANCE IN THE WEST FAÇADE
+
+CASTLE OF SAN SERVANDO. SOUTH-EAST ANGLE]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 73
+
+DOOR OF THE CASTLE IN SAN SERVANDO]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 74
+
+GATE OF VALMADRON]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 75
+
+GATE OF CAMBRÓN]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 76
+
+BAÑO DE LA CAVA]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 77
+
+ENTRANCE TO CAVA BATHS]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 78
+
+RUINS OF THE TOWER OF THE OLD BRIDGE OF BOATS, CALLED “BAÑO DE LA
+CAVA”]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 79
+
+DETAILS OF THE CONVENT OF SANTA FE.
+
+ELEVENTH CENTURY]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 80
+
+WEST PORTAL IN THE OLD HERMITAGE, NOW THE INN OF SANTA ANA, ON THE SISLA
+ROAD]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 81
+
+ALTAR-PIECE OF SAN JUSTO]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 82
+
+DETAIL OF THE CHURCH OF SAN JUSTO.
+
+FIFTEENTH CENTURY]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 83
+
+DETAIL OF THE CHAPEL OF SANTOS JUSTO AND PASTOR]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 84
+
+EFFIGIES OF JUAN GUAS, ARCHITECT OF SAN JUAN DE LOS REYES, AND OF HIS
+SON. CHAPEL OF CHRIST AT THE COLUMN, IN THE PARISH CHURCH OF SAN JUSTO]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 85
+
+EFFIGIES OF MARI ALVARES, WIFE OF JUAN GUAS, AND OF HER DAUGHTER. CHAPEL
+OF CHRIST AT THE COLUMN, IN THE PARISH CHURCH OF SAN JUSTO]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 86
+
+MOSQUE OF THE TORNERIAS. EXTERIOR OF THE SOUTH FAÇADE, SOUTH-WEST
+ANGLE]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 87
+
+INTERIOR OF THE MOSQUE DE LAS TORNERIAS]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 88
+
+ARCH OF THE “KIBLÁH” IN THE MOSQUE DE LAS TORNERIAS]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 89
+
+MOSQUE OF THE TORNERIAS. TREFOIL ARCHED WINDOW
+
+MOSQUE OF THE TORNERIAS. HORSE-SHOE WINDOW]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 90
+
+MOSQUE OF THE TORNERIAS. ARCHED WINDOW
+
+MOSQUE OF THE TORNERIAS. RECTANGULAR WINDOW]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 91
+
+MOSQUE DE LAS TORNERIAS]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 92
+
+MOSQUE OF THE TORNERIAS, BUILT OVER ROMAN REMAINS]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 93
+
+SUPPOSED ELEVATION OF THE MOSQUE OF BIB-AL-MARDÓM]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 94
+
+SUPPOSED PLAN OF THE MOSQUE OF BIB-AL-MARDÓM]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 95
+
+ACTUAL SITUATION OF THE NORTH-EAST FAÇADE OF THE ANCIENT MOSQUE OF
+BIB-AL-MARDÓM, A TRANSEPT AND _MUDEJAR_ APSIS OF THE HERMITAGE OF SANTO
+CRISTO DE LA LUZ]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 96
+
+THE MOSQUE OF BIB-AL-MARDÓM, HORSE-SHOE ARCH AND REMAINS OF THE DADO AND
+LITTLE ARCHES AND WINDOWS IN THE NORTH-EAST FAÇADE (RIGHT SIDE)]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 97
+
+THE MOSQUE OF BIB-AL-MARDÓM, HORSE-SHOE ARCH AND REMAINS OF THE DADO OF
+LITTLE ARCHES AND WINDOWS IN THE NORTH-EAST FAÇADE (LEFT SIDE)]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 98
+
+PRINCIPAL NAVE IN THE MOSQUE OF BIB-AL-MARDÓM]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 99
+
+ARCH IN THE SOUTHERN INTERIOR OF THE MOSQUE OF BIB-AL-MARDÓM
+
+ACTUAL ENTRANCE TO THE CASTLE]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 100
+
+MOSQUE OF BIB-AL-MARDÓM. ARCH IN THE INTERIOR WALL, SOUTH-WEST ANGLE
+
+DETAIL OF THE NORTH-WEST FAÇADE OF THE MOSQUE OF BIB-AL-MARDÓM]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 101
+
+BIB-AL-MARDÓM. “ARCH OF THE CROSS”
+
+INTERIOR FAÇADE
+
+EXTERIOR FAÇADE]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 102
+
+MOSQUE OF BIB-AL-MARDÓM]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 103
+
+NORTH-WEST FAÇADE OF THE MOSQUE OF BIB-AL-MARDÓM (HERMITAGE OF SANTO
+CRISTO DE LA LUZ), DISCOVERED IN FEBRUARY 1899]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 104
+
+THE EPIGRAPHIC MEDALLION ON THE NORTH-WEST FAÇADE OF THE MOSQUE OF
+BIB-AL-MARDÓM (HERMITAGE OF SANTO CRISTO DE LA LUZ), REBUILT IN THE YEAR
+370 AFTER THE HEGIRA (A.D. 980)]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 105
+
+VISIGOTH CAPITAL IN THE OLD MOORISH PARISH CHURCH OF SAN SEBASTIAN
+
+VISIGOTH BASE WHICH SERVES AS A CAPITAL IN THE OLD MOORISH PARISH CHURCH
+OF SAN SEBASTIAN]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 106
+
+SANTO CRISTO DE LA LUZ]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 107
+
+THE HERMITAGE OF SANTO CRISTO DE LA LUZ]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 108
+
+WALL-PAINTINGS OF SANTO CRISTO DE LA LUZ]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 109
+
+CHURCH OF SANTO CRISTO DE LA LUZ]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 110
+
+WALL-PAINTINGS OF SANTO CRISTO DE LA LUZ]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 111
+
+ANCIENT MOSQUE, NOW THE HERMITAGE OF SANTO CRISTO DE LA LUZ]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 112
+
+EXTERIOR OF THE HERMITAGE OF SANTO CRISTO DE LA LUZ, AND TOWERS OF
+VARIOUS CHURCHES]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 113
+
+DETAIL OF THE TRANSITO (SYNAGOGUE), BUILT IN 1360 AT THE EXPENSE OF
+SAMUEL LEVI]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 114
+
+DETAILS OF THE INTERIOR DECORATION OF THE CHURCH OF THE TRANSITO
+(ANCIENT SYNAGOGUE)]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 115
+
+DETAILS OF THE INTERIOR DECORATION OE THE CHURCH OF THE TRANSITO
+(ANCIENT SYNAGOGUE)]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 116
+
+DETAILS OF THE TRANSITO (SYNAGOGUE)]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 117
+
+DETAILS OF THE TRANSITO (SYNAGOGUE)]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 118
+
+DETAILS OF THE TRANSITO (SYNAGOGUE)]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 119
+
+ENTRANCE ARCH IN THE BUILDING CALLED TALLER DEL MORO]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 120
+
+DETAIL OF DECORATION IN THE MOORISH WORKSHOP]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 121
+
+DETAILS OF THE PALACE OF THE AYALAS]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 122
+
+DETAILS OF THE PALACE OF THE AYALAS]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 123
+
+EXTERIOR OF THE CHAPEL OF SANTO CRISTO DE LA VEGA]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 124
+
+DOOR AND EXTERIOR OF SANTA MARIA LA BLANCA]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 125
+
+SECTIONS AND DETAILS OF THE ANCIENT SYNAGOGUE, NOW THE CHURCH OF SANTA
+MARIA LA BLANCA]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 126
+
+PART OF THE LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF THE ANCIENT SYNAGOGUE, NOW THE
+CHURCH OF SANTA MARIA LA BLANCA]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 127
+
+INTERIOR OF SANTA MARIA LA BLANCA]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 128
+
+INTERIOR OF SANTA MARIA LA BLANCA]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 129
+
+INTERIOR OF SANTA MARIA LA BLANCA]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 130
+
+CÁRCEL DE SANTA HERMANDAD]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 131
+
+A GOTHIC DOORWAY]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 132
+
+A DOORWAY]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 133
+
+ST. MICHAEL’S TOWER. FOURTEENTH CENTURY]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 134
+
+HOUSE OF THE TOLEDOS]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 135
+
+DETAILS OF A COURTYARD]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 136
+
+DETAILS OF A COURTYARD]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 137
+
+DETAILS OF A COURTYARD]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 138
+
+DETAILS OF A COURTYARD]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 139
+
+DETAILS OF A COURTYARD]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 140
+
+THE FOUNTAIN OF CALERAHIGO]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 141
+
+ARAB DETAILS]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 142
+
+VISIGOTH CROWNS AND CROSSES OF GUARRAZAR]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 143
+
+VISIGOTH CROWNS AND CROSSES OF GUARRAZAR]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 144
+
+VISIGOTH CROWNS AND CROSSES FOUND AT TOLEDO AND NOW IN THE ROYAL ARMOURY
+AT MADRID]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 145
+
+SAN PEDRO MARTIN
+
+CALLE DE SANTO TOMÉ]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 146
+
+ALCAZAR ROYAL PALACE. REPRODUCTION OF THE ENGRAVING MADE IN 1566 FOR
+BRAUN’S “CIVITATES ORBI TERRARUM”]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 147
+
+PERSPECTIVE OF THE ALCAZAR IN 1845. EAST AND NORTH FAÇADES. REPRODUCTION
+OF AN ENGRAVING IN THE WORK “TOLEDO PINTORESCA”]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 148
+
+THE ALCAZAR. TAKEN FROM THE PLAZA DE ZOCODOVER]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 149
+
+SOUTH FAÇADE OF THE ALCAZAR]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 150
+
+THE ALCAZAR. WEST FAÇADE AFTER THE LATEST RESTORATION]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 151
+
+THE ALCAZAR]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 152
+
+ALCAZAR. PRINCIPAL FAÇADE ON THE NORTH]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 153
+
+THE ALCAZAR. EAST FAÇADE, AFTER THE LATEST RESTORATION]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 154
+
+GENERAL VIEW OF THE ALCAZAR]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 155
+
+THE ALCAZAR. THE PRINCIPAL STAIRCASE]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 156
+
+THE ALCAZAR. PRINCIPAL NORTH PORTAL]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 157
+
+THE ALCAZAR. COURT AND PLAN]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 158
+
+COURT OF THE ALCAZAR]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 159
+
+COURT IN THE ALCAZAR. AFTER THE LATEST RESTORATION]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 160
+
+THE ALCAZAR. PLAN AND DETAILS. NORTH FAÇADE]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 161
+
+DETAILS OF THE NORTH FAÇADE OF THE ALCAZAR]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 162
+
+DOOR OF THE HALL OF THE HOUSE OF MESA]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 163
+
+DETAILS OF THE HOUSE OF MESA]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 164
+
+DETAILS OF THE HOUSE OF MESA]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 165
+
+DETAILS OF THE HOUSE OF MESA]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 166
+
+DETAILS OF THE HALL OF THE HOUSE OF MESA]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 167
+
+DETAILS OF THE HALL OF THE HOUSE OF MESA]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 168
+
+DETAILS OF THE HALL OF THE HOUSE OF MESA]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 169
+
+DETAILS OF THE HOUSE OF MESA]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 170
+
+DOORWAY OF THE COLLEGE OF THE INFANTES. SIXTEENTH CENTURY]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 171
+
+DOORWAY OF THE PALACE OF THE MARTINEZ]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 172
+
+ROMAN TOWER OF SAN JUAN DE LOS REYES
+
+CLOISTERS OF SAN JUAN DE LOS REYES]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 173
+
+EXTERIOR OF SAN JUAN DE LOS REYES]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 174
+
+SAN JUAN DE LOS REYES]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 175
+
+PLAN OF THE CHURCH AND PROCESSIONAL CLOISTER OF SAN JUAN DE LOS REYES]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 176
+
+DOORWAY IN SAN JUAN DE LOS REYES]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 177
+
+GOTHIC DOORWAY IN SAN JUAN DE LOS REYES]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 178
+
+EXTERIOR OF THE ARCH OF SAN JUAN DE LOS REYES]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 179
+
+INTERIOR OF SAN JUAN DE LOS REYES]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 180
+
+INTERIOR OF SAN JUAN DE LOS REYES]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 181
+
+INTERIOR OF SAN JUAN DE LOS REYES]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 182
+
+LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF THE CHURCH OF SAN JUAN DE LOS REYES]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 183
+
+INTERIOR, SAN JUAN DE LOS REYES
+
+RETABLO, SAN JUAN DE LOS REYES]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 184
+
+GALLERY IN SAN JUAN DE LOS REYES]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 185
+
+GALLERY IN SAN JUAN DE LOS REYES]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 186
+
+DETAILS OF SAN JUAN DE LOS REYES]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 187
+
+DETAILS OF GALLERY IN SAN JUAN DE LOS REYES]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 188
+
+DETAILS OF SAN JUAN DE LOS REYES]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 189
+
+SAN JUAN DE LOS REYES. WALL IN THE PRESBYTERY]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 190
+
+INTERIOR OF SAN JUAN DE LOS REYES]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 191
+
+INTERIOR OF SAN JUAN DE LOS REYES]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 192
+
+INTERIOR OF SAN JUAN DE LOS REYES]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 193
+
+SAN JUAN DE LOS REYES. DECORATION IN THE TRANSVERSE NAVE]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 194
+
+SAN JUAN DE LOS REYES. DETAILS OF THE ARMS OF ISABELLA THE CATHOLIC]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 195
+
+DETAILS OF THE TRANSEPT OF THE CHURCH OF SAN JUAN DE LOS REYES]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 196
+
+SAN JUAN DE LOS REYES. INTERIOR]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 197
+
+A DOME IN SAN JUAN DE LOS REYES]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 198
+
+REMAINS OF WINDOWS OF SAN JUAN DE LOS REYES]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 199
+
+DETAILS OF THE CROSS-AISLE IN THE CHURCH OF SAN JUAN DE LOS REYES]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 200
+
+ALTAR OF SAN JUAN DE LOS REYES
+
+ALTAR OF SAN JUAN DE LOS REYES]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 201
+
+DETAILS OF THE ALTAR-PIECE IN SAN JUAN DE LOS REYES]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 202
+
+COPY OF THE ORIGINAL DRAWING OF THE ARCH AND CROSS-AISLE OF SAN JUAN DE
+LOS REYES]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 203
+
+LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF THE CLOISTER OF SAN JUAN DE LOS REYES]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 204
+
+CLOISTERS OF SAN JUAN DE LOS REYES]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 205
+
+SAN JUAN DE LOS REYES. THE CLOISTERS]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 206
+
+CLOISTERS OF SAN JUAN DE LOS REYES]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 207
+
+CLOISTERS OF SAN JUAN DE LOS REYES]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 208
+
+DETAILS OF THE CLOISTERS OF SAN JUAN DE LOS REYES]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 209
+
+COMPARTMENT OF THE CLOISTERS OF SAN JUAN DE LOS REYES]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 210
+
+SAN JUAN DE LOS REYES. DETAILS OF THE CLOISTERS]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 211
+
+DETAILS OF THE CLOISTERS OF SAN JUAN DE LOS REYES]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 212
+
+SAN JUAN DE LOS REYES. DETAILS OF THE CLOISTERS]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 213
+
+SAN JUAN DE LOS REYES. DETAILS OF THE CLOISTERS]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 214
+
+SAN JUAN DE LOS REYES. DETAILS OF THE CLOISTERS]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 215
+
+SAN JUAN DE LOS REYES. DETAILS OF THE CLOISTERS]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 216
+
+CHURCH OF SAN JUAN DE LOS REYES. COURTYARD]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 217
+
+COURT IN SAN JUAN DE LOS REYES]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 218
+
+DOORWAY OF THE MUSEUM OF SAN JUAN DE LOS REYES]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 219
+
+SAN JUAN DE LOS REYES. DETAILS ABOVE DOOR OF MUSEUM]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 220
+
+PALACE OF DON PEDRO THE CRUEL]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 221
+
+DETAILS OF THE PALACE OF DON PEDRO THE CRUEL]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 222
+
+FAÇADE OF THE PALACE OF DON PEDRO THE CRUEL]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 223
+
+DOORWAY OF THE PALACE OF DON PEDRO THE CRUEL]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 224
+
+DOORWAY OF THE PALACE OF DON PEDRO THE CRUEL]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 225
+
+THE CATHEDRAL]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 226
+
+GENERAL VIEW OF THE CATHEDRAL]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 227
+
+THE CATHEDRAL]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 228
+
+SECTION OF THE CATHEDRAL]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 229
+
+LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF THE CATHEDRAL]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 230
+
+TRANSVERSE SECTION OF THE CATHEDRAL]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 231
+
+PRINCIPAL FAÇADE OF THE CATHEDRAL AND TOWER]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 232
+
+THE CATHEDRAL. DETAIL OF THE EXTERIOR]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 233
+
+THE CATHEDRAL. PORTAL OF THE PRINCIPAL FAÇADE]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 234
+
+THE CATHEDRAL. PRINCIPAL GATE]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 235
+
+THE CATHEDRAL. THE GATE OF THE LIONS]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 236
+
+THE CATHEDRAL. PORCH OF THE PRINCIPAL FAÇADE]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 237
+
+THE CATHEDRAL
+
+THE LION DOOR
+
+THE LION DOOR]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 238
+
+DOOR OF THE CATHEDRAL]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 239
+
+THE CATHEDRAL. DOOR OF THE LOST CHILD]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 240
+
+THE CATHEDRAL. DETAILS OF THE PUERTA DE LA FERIA]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 241
+
+CATHEDRAL. GATE OF THE CONCEPTION]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 242
+
+THE CATHEDRAL. ORNAMENTAL DETAILS OF THE GATES]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 243
+
+THE CATHEDRAL
+
+CENTRAL NAVE
+
+TOMB OF ALONSO DE CARRILLO]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 244
+
+THE CATHEDRAL. GENERAL VIEW OF THE INTERIOR]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 245
+
+THE CATHEDRAL. GENERAL VIEW OF THE INTERIOR]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 246
+
+THE CATHEDRAL. INTERIOR]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 247
+
+THE CATHEDRAL. INTERIOR]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 248
+
+WINDOWS IN THE PRINCIPAL NAVE OF THE CATHEDRAL]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 249
+
+THE CATHEDRAL. GRATING OF THE PRINCIPAL CHAPEL. SIXTEENTH CENTURY]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 250
+
+THE CATHEDRAL. EXTERIOR OF THE PRINCIPAL CHAPEL]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 251
+
+THE CATHEDRAL. EXTERIOR OF THE PRINCIPAL CHAPEL]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 252
+
+THE CATHEDRAL. EXTERIOR OF THE PRINCIPAL CHAPEL]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 253
+
+THE CATHEDRAL. DETAILS OF THE PRINCIPAL CHAPEL]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 254
+
+THE CATHEDRAL. DETAILS OF THE PRINCIPAL CHAPEL]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 255
+
+THE CATHEDRAL. EXTERIOR OF THE PRINCIPAL CHAPEL]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 256
+
+THE CATHEDRAL. DETAILS OF THE PRINCIPAL CHAPEL]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 257
+
+THE CATHEDRAL. DETAILS OF THE PRINCIPAL CHAPEL]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 258
+
+THE CATHEDRAL. ALTAR-PIECE OF THE PRINCIPAL CHAPEL]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 259
+
+THE CATHEDRAL. DETAIL OF THE ALTAR-PIECE OF THE PRINCIPAL CHAPEL]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 260
+
+THE CATHEDRAL. EXTERIOR OF THE HIGH ALTAR]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 261
+
+THE CATHEDRAL. EXTERIOR OF THE HIGH ALTAR]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 262
+
+THE CATHEDRAL. EXTERIOR OF THE HIGH ALTAR]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 263
+
+THE CATHEDRAL. DETAILS OF THE ALTAR-PIECE]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 264
+
+THE CATHEDRAL. FRONTAL OF THE HIGH ALTAR. FIFTEENTH CENTURY]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 265
+
+THE CATHEDRAL. FRONTAL OF THE HIGH ALTAR. FIFTEENTH CENTURY]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 266
+
+THE CATHEDRAL. DETAIL OF THE FRONTAL OF THE HIGH ALTAR]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 267
+
+THE CATHEDRAL. EXTERIOR OF THE PRINCIPAL CHAPEL]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 268
+
+THE CATHEDRAL. SEPULCHRE OF CARDINAL MENDOZA IN THE PRINCIPAL CHAPEL]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 269
+
+THE CATHEDRAL. DOME OF THE PRINCIPAL CHAPEL]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 270
+
+THE CATHEDRAL. EXTERIOR OF THE CHOIR]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 271
+
+THE CATHEDRAL. EXTERIOR OF THE CHOIR]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 272
+
+THE CATHEDRAL. DETAILS OF THE EXTERIOR OF THE CHOIR]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 273
+
+THE CATHEDRAL. EXTERIOR OF THE CHOIR]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 274
+
+THE CATHEDRAL. CHOIR STALLS]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 275
+
+THE CATHEDRAL. CHOIR STALLS]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 276
+
+THE CATHEDRAL. CHOIR STALLS]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 277
+
+THE CATHEDRAL. DETAILS OF THE CHOIR STALLS, REPRESENTING THE RE-CONQUEST
+OF GRANADA BY FERDINAND AND ISABELLA]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 278
+
+THE CATHEDRAL. INTERIOR OF THE CHOIR]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 279
+
+THE CATHEDRAL. DETAILS OF THE CHOIR]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 280
+
+THE CATHEDRAL. DETAILS OF THE CHOIR]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 281
+
+THE CATHEDRAL. THE ARCHBISHOP’S THRONE, REPRESENTING THE
+TRANSFIGURATION. BY BERRUGUETE]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 282
+
+THE CATHEDRAL. VIRGIN OF THE LANEROS]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 283
+
+THE CATHEDRAL. DETAIL OF THE CHOIR STALLS. RE-CONQUEST OF GRANADA BY
+FERDINAND AND ISABELLA]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 284
+
+THE CATHEDRAL. DETAIL OF THE CHOIR STALLS. RE-CONQUEST OF GRANADA BY
+FERDINAND AND ISABELLA]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 285
+
+THE CATHEDRAL. DETAIL OF THE CHOIR STALLS. RE-CONQUEST OF GRANADA BY
+FERDINAND AND ISABELLA]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 286
+
+THE CATHEDRAL. DETAIL OF THE CHOIR STALLS. RE-CONQUEST OF GRANADA BY
+FERDINAND AND ISABELLA]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 287
+
+THE CATHEDRAL. DETAIL OF CHOIR STALLS. THE CAPTURE OF ALHAMA BY
+FERDINAND AND ISABELLA, 1482. RE-CONQUEST OF GRANADA]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 288
+
+THE CATHEDRAL. DETAIL OF THE CHOIR STALLS. RE-CONQUEST OF GRANADA BY
+FERDINAND AND ISABELLA]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 289
+
+THE CATHEDRAL. DETAIL OF THE CHOIR STALLS. RE-CONQUEST OF GRANADA BY
+FERDINAND AND ISABELLA]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 290
+
+THE CATHEDRAL. DETAIL OF THE CHOIR STALLS. RE-CONQUEST OF GRANADA BY
+FERDINAND AND ISABELLA]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 291
+
+THE CATHEDRAL. DETAIL OF THE CHOIR STALLS. RE-CONQUEST OF GRANADA BY
+FERDINAND AND ISABELLA]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 292
+
+THE CATHEDRAL. DETAIL OF THE CHOIR STALLS. RE-CONQUEST OF GRANADA BY
+FERDINAND AND ISABELLA]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 293
+
+THE CATHEDRAL. DETAIL OF THE CHOIR STALLS. RE-CONQUEST OF GRANADA BY
+FERDINAND AND ISABELLA]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 294
+
+THE CATHEDRAL. UPPER PART OF THE CHOIR STALLS, CARVED BY BERRUGUETE AND
+BORGOÑA. SIXTEENTH CENTURY]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 295
+
+THE CATHEDRAL. UPPER PART OF THE CHOIR STALLS, CARVED BY BERRUGUETE AND
+BORGOÑA. SIXTEENTH CENTURY]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 296
+
+THE CATHEDRAL. UPPER PART OF THE CHOIR STALLS, CARVED BY BERRUGUETE AND
+BORGOÑA. SIXTEENTH CENTURY]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 297
+
+THE CATHEDRAL. UPPER PART OF THE CHOIR STALLS, CARVED BY BERRUGUETE AND
+BORGOÑA. SIXTEENTH CENTURY]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 298
+
+THE CATHEDRAL. UPPER PART OF THE CHOIR STALLS, CARVED BY BERRUGUETE AND
+BORGOÑA. SIXTEENTH CENTURY]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 299
+
+THE CATHEDRAL. UPPER PART OF THE CHOIR STALLS, CARVED BY BERRUGUETE AND
+BORGOÑA. SIXTEENTH CENTURY]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 300
+
+THE CATHEDRAL. UPPER PART OF THE CHOIR STALLS, CARVED BY BERRUGUETE AND
+BORGOÑA. SIXTEENTH CENTURY]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 301
+
+THE CATHEDRAL. MASONRY IN THE CHOIR]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 302
+
+THE CATHEDRAL. EXTERIOR OF THE PRESBYTERY]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 303
+
+THE CATHEDRAL. INTERIOR OF THE CHAPEL OF THE NEW KINGS WITH THE
+SEPULCHRES OF DON HENRY THE BASTARD AND HIS WIFE]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 304
+
+THE CATHEDRAL. SEPULCHRES OF DON HENRY THE BASTARD AND HIS WIFE IN THE
+CHAPEL OF THE NEW KINGS]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 305
+
+THE CATHEDRAL. SEPULCHRE OF CARDINAL TAVERA IN THE CHAPEL OF THE NEW
+KINGS]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 306
+
+THE CATHEDRAL. SEPULCHRE OF DON JUAN I. IN THE CHAPEL OF THE NEW KINGS]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 307
+
+THE CATHEDRAL. SEPULCHRE OF DOÑA LEONOR, WIFE OF DON JUAN I., IN THE
+CHAPEL OF THE NEW KINGS]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 308
+
+THE CATHEDRAL. CHAPEL OF THE DESCENT OF THE VIRGIN]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 309
+
+THE CATHEDRAL. MUZARABIC CHAPEL]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 310
+
+THE CATHEDRAL. DETAILS OF THE CHAPEL OF THE VIRGEN DE LA ANTIGUA]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 311
+
+THE CATHEDRAL. CHAPEL OF THE VIRGEN DE LA ANTIGUA. FOURTEENTH CENTURY]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 312
+
+THE CATHEDRAL. DOORWAY OF THE CHAPEL OF THE CANONS]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 313
+
+ALTAR-PIECE OF SANTA ISABEL
+
+ALTAR-PIECE OF SANTA CATALINA]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 314
+
+ALTAR-PIECE OF SANTA CATALINA]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 315
+
+ALTAR-PIECE OF SANTA CATALINA]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 316
+
+ALTAR-PIECE OF SANTA CATALINA]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 317
+
+CHAPEL OF SANTA CATALINA. FOUNDED BY THE COUNTS OF CEDILLO]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 318
+
+THE CATHEDRAL. CHAPEL OF SANTIAGO, CONTAINING THE SEPULCHRES OF DON
+ALVARO DE LUNA AND THAT OF HIS WIFE DOÑA JUANA. FIFTEENTH CENTURY]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 319
+
+THE CATHEDRAL. SEPULCHRE OF DON JUAN DE ZEREZUELA IN THE CHAPEL OF
+SANTIAGO. FIFTEENTH CENTURY]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 320
+
+CUPOLA OF THE CHAPEL “DE LOS REYES NUEVOS” IN THE CATHEDRAL
+
+CUPOLA OF THE “CAPILLA DE SANTIAGO,” CALLED “DE DON ALVARO DE LUNA” IN
+THE CATHEDRAL]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 321
+
+THE CATHEDRAL. SEPULCHRE OF DON GIL CARRILLO DE ALBORNOZ IN THE CHAPEL
+OF SAN ILDEFONSO]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 322
+
+THE CATHEDRAL. SEPULCHRE OF GIL DE ALBORNOZ IN THE CHAPEL OF SAN
+ILDEFONSO]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 323
+
+THE CATHEDRAL. ENTRANCE TO THE CHAPTER ROOM. SIXTEENTH CENTURY]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 324
+
+THE CATHEDRAL. CHAPTER ROOM]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 325
+
+THE CATHEDRAL. VARIOUS PORTRAITS OF CARDINALS]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 326
+
+THE CATHEDRAL. VARIOUS PORTRAITS OF CARDINALS]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 327
+
+THE CATHEDRAL. DETAILS IN THE CHAPTER ROOM]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 328
+
+THE CATHEDRAL. CHAPTER ROOM]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 329
+
+THE CATHEDRAL. DOORWAY OF THE CHAPTER ROOM]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 330
+
+THE CATHEDRAL. DETAIL OF A DOORWAY IN THE CHAPTER ROOM]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 331
+
+THE CATHEDRAL. CUPBOARD MADE BY GREGORIO PARDO (1549-1551), FOR THE
+ANTECHAMBER OF THE CHAPTER HOUSE]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 332
+
+CUPBOARD IN THE CATHEDRAL]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 333
+
+THE CATHEDRAL. A RICH AND GOSSAMER CARVED CEILING IN THE CHAPTER HALL
+SIXTEENTH CENTURY]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 334
+
+THE CATHEDRAL. CEILING IN THE CHAPTER HALL]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 335
+
+THE CATHEDRAL. A CEILING IN THE ANTE-ROOM]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 336
+
+THE CATHEDRAL CLOISTERS]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 337
+
+THE CATHEDRAL CLOISTERS]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 338
+
+PRESENTATION PORTAL IN THE CLOISTER OF THE CATHEDRAL]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 339
+
+EXTERIOR, BY THE CLOISTERS OF THE CHAPEL, OF THE PLACE OF SEPULTURE
+BUILT BY HENRY II. FOR HIS TOMB]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 340
+
+THE CATHEDRAL. PICTURE BY BAYEU IN THE CLOISTERS]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 341
+
+PORTAL OF ST. CATHARINE IN THE CLOISTER OF THE CATHEDRAL]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 342
+
+THE CATHEDRAL. DETAILS OF THE GATE OF THE PRESENTATION IN THE CLOISTER]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 343
+
+THE CATHEDRAL. RELIQUARY OF SAN SEBASTIAN IN THE OCTAVO]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 344
+
+THE CATHEDRAL. DETAIL OF THE RELIQUARY OF SAN SEBASTIAN IN THE OCTAVO]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 345
+
+THE CATHEDRAL. A BYZANTINE RELIQUARY]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 346
+
+SEPULCHRES IN THE CATHEDRAL]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 347
+
+SCULPTURE IN THE CATHEDRAL]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 348
+
+THE CATHEDRAL. BRONZE LECTERN AND BOOKS OF HOLY OFFICE]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 349
+
+THE CATHEDRAL. A BRONZE PULPIT]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 350
+
+THE CATHEDRAL. DETAIL OF A PULPIT]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 351
+
+PULPIT IN THE CATHEDRAL]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 352
+
+CATHEDRAL BELLS WHICH RING WHEN THE HOST IS ELEVATED]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 353
+
+THE CATHEDRAL. STATUE OF DON JUAN II. FIFTEENTH CENTURY]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 354
+
+THE CATHEDRAL. ST. FRANCIS OF ASSISI]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 355
+
+THE CATHEDRAL. A PICTURE BY BAYEU]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 356
+
+DETAILS IN THE CATHEDRAL]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 357
+
+THE CATHEDRAL. COVER OF A MISSAL]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 358
+
+THE CATHEDRAL. SILVER SALVER, “THE ABDUCTION OF THE SABINE WOMEN” BY
+BENVENUTO CELLINI]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 359
+
+THE CATHEDRAL. CHALICE AND PATEN]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 360
+
+THE CATHEDRAL. A SHIP THAT BELONGED TO QUEEN JUANA LA LOCA]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 361
+
+MONSTRANCE IN THE CATHEDRAL]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 362
+
+THE CATHEDRAL. SWORD OF ALFONSO VI.]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 363
+
+THE CATHEDRAL. THE ADORATION OF THE KINGS (SILK)]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 364
+
+THE CATHEDRAL. THE VEIL OF SANTA LEOCADIA (SILK)]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 365
+
+THE CATHEDRAL. THE ASSUMPTION (SILK)]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 366
+
+THE CATHEDRAL. THE BEHEADING OF SAN EUGENIO (SILK)]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 367
+
+KUFIC ENTABLATURE IN THE CATHEDRAL]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 368
+
+THE CATHEDRAL. A DALMATIC EMBROIDERED IN GOLD AND SILK. SIXTEENTH
+CENTURY]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 369
+
+THE CATHEDRAL. A CHASUBLE EMBROIDERED IN GOLD AND SILK. SIXTEENTH
+CENTURY]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 370
+
+THE CATHEDRAL. DETAILS OF THE PUERTA DEL RELOJ]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 371
+
+THE CATHEDRAL. DETAILS OF THE PUERTA DEL RELOJ]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 372
+
+THE CATHEDRAL. DETAILS OF THE PUERTA DEL RELOJ]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 373
+
+THE CATHEDRAL. DETAILS OF THE PUERTA DEL RELOJ]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 374
+
+EFFIGIES OF JUAN GUAS (ARCHITECT OF SAN JUAN DE LOS REYES), HIS WIFE,
+AND CHILDREN]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 375
+
+SCULPTURE IN SAN ANDRES]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 376
+
+BANNER OF THE SALADO]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 377
+
+ST. PETER NATANO AND ST. THERESA SCULPTURED IN WOOD]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 378
+
+PLAN OF THE SANTA IGLESIA PRIMADA]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 379
+
+SANTA ISABEL. SIDE ALTAR-PIECE]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 380
+
+SANTA ISABEL. DETAIL OF AN ALTAR-PIECE]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 381
+
+PARISH CHURCH OF SANTIAGO]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 382
+
+EXTERIOR OF SANTIAGO DEL ARRABAL. THIRTEENTH CENTURY]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 383
+
+PULPIT IN THE CHURCH OF SANTIAGO DEL ARRABAL, FROM WHICH SAN VICENTE DE
+FERRER PREACHED AGAINST THE JEWS]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 384
+
+PAROCHIAL CHURCH OF SANTIAGO DEL ARRABAL]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 385
+
+CHURCH OF SAN TOMÉ]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 386
+
+DETAIL OF AN ALTAR-PIECE IN THE CHURCH OF THE TRINITY]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 387
+
+SEPULCHRES IN THE CHURCH OF ST. PETER THE MARTYR]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 388
+
+DETAILS OF A SEPULCHRE IN THE CHURCH OF ST. PETER THE MARTYR]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 389
+
+CHURCH OF ST. PETER THE MARTYR. STATUE OF A KNEELING CANON]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 390
+
+CHAPEL IN SAN JUAN DE LA PENITENCIA]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 391
+
+CHAPEL IN SAN JUAN DE LA PENITENCIA]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 392
+
+DETAILS OF SAN JUAN DE LA PENITENCIA]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 393
+
+SEPULCHRE IN SAN JUAN DE LA PENITENCIA]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 394
+
+SEPULCHRE IN SAN JUAN DE LA PENITENCIA]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 395
+
+DETAIL OF THE CONVENT OF SAN JUAN DE LA PENITENCIA]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 396
+
+DETAILS OF THE CONVENT OF SAN JUAN DE LA PENITENCIA]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 397
+
+CONVENT OF SANTO DOMINGO]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 398
+
+CONVENT OF SANTO DOMINGO]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 399
+
+CONVENT OF SANTO DOMINGO]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 400
+
+ANCIENT SEPULCHRE IN THE CONVENT OF SANTO DOMINGO]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 401
+
+SANTO DOMINGO EL REAL, PRINCIPAL ALTAR-PIECE]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 402
+
+DOORWAY OF THE CONVENT OF SAN ANTONIO]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 403
+
+PORCH OF THE CHURCH AND CONVENT OF SAN CLEMENTE]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 404
+
+PORCH OF THE CHURCH AND CONVENT OF SAN CLEMENTE]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 405
+
+DETAIL OF THE INTERIOR OF THE CONVENT OF SAN CLEMENTE]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 406
+
+PORTAL OF SANTA CRUZ]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 407
+
+PORTAL OF SANTA CRUZ]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 408
+
+PORCH OF SANTA CRUZ
+
+THE HOSPITAL OF SANTA CRUZ]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 409
+
+COURT OF SANTA CRUZ]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 410
+
+COURTYARD OF THE HOSPITAL]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 411
+
+COURT OF SANTA CRUZ]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 412
+
+COURT OF SANTA CRUZ]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 413
+
+DETAIL OF THE PORTAL OF THE HOSPITAL OF SANTA CRUZ]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 414
+
+DETAILS OF SANTA CRUZ]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 415
+
+HOSPITAL OF SANTA CRUZ]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 416
+
+PORTALS IN THE VESTIBULE OF THE ANCIENT HOSPITAL OF SANTA CRUZ]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 417
+
+HOSPITAL OF SANTA CRUZ. PORTRAIT OF THE FOUNDER, CARDINAL MENDOZA]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 418
+
+HOSPITAL DE AFUERA. THE COURT]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 419
+
+HOSPITAL DE AFUERA]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 420
+
+HOSPITAL OF ST. JOHN BAPTIST]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 421
+
+HOSPITAL DE AFUERA. SEPULCHRE OF CARDINAL TAVERA. 1557. ALONZO
+BERRUGUETE]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 422
+
+THE UNIVERSITY
+
+THE UNIVERSITY]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 423
+
+DETAILS OF THE HOUSE OF MUNÁRRIZ]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 424
+
+GATE OF AL MARDÓM
+
+ALTAR OF THE CHURCH OF SAN JUSTO]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 425
+
+PORTAL OF THE ARCHBISHOP’S PALACE
+
+IN THE TOWN HALL]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 426
+
+CLOISTERS OF SAN JUAN DE LOS REYES
+
+VIEW OF ST. MARTIN’S BRIDGE, LOOKING DOWN THE RIVER]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 427
+
+GALLERY OF SAN JUAN DE LOS REYES
+
+A MOORISH WORKSHOP]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 428
+
+HOTEL CASTILLA]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 429
+
+DETAIL OF THE COURTYARD OF THE HOTEL CASTILLA]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 430
+
+VISIGOTH CAPITALS IN THE CHURCH OF SAN SEBASTIAN]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 431
+
+NATIONAL ARCHÆOLOGICAL MUSEUM
+
+CAPITAL, FOURTH CENTURY AFTER THE HEGIRA
+
+CAPITAL OF SANTIAGO DE LOS CABALLEROS NEAR THE ALCAZAR. FOURTH CENTURY
+AFTER THE HEGIRA]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 432
+
+CAPITAL IN THE ARCHÆOLOGICAL MUSEUM]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 433
+
+FRAGMENT OF DADO FOUND NEAR THE BASILICA OF SANTA LEOCADIA
+
+WINDOW OF SAN GINÉS
+
+NATIONAL ARCHÆOLOGICAL MUSEUM]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 434
+
+NATIONAL ARCHÆOLOGICAL MUSEUM. DECORATIVE TABLE IN WHITE MARBLE,
+BELONGING TO THE ALJAMA MOSQUE OF TOLEDO
+
+NATIONAL ARCHÆOLOGICAL MUSEUM. DECORATIVE FRAGMENT FOUND AT THE
+“MIRADERO.” CARVED IN WHITE MARBLE]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 435
+
+CAPITAL IN THE SOUTH-WEST ANGLE, BELONGING TO THE OLD MOSQUE, NOW THE
+HERMITAGE OF SANTO CRISTO DE LA LUZ
+
+THE FIFTH OF THE VISIGOTH CAPITALS OF THE HOSPITAL OF SANTA CRUZ]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 436
+
+NATIONAL ARCHÆOLOGICAL MUSEUM. SKY-LIGHT OR ORNAMENT FOUND AT TOLEDO
+
+VISIGOTH CAPITAL IN THE PROVINCIAL MUSEUM]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 437
+
+ARCHITECTURAL FRAGMENTS OF THE VISIGOTH PERIOD IN THE PARISH CHURCH OF
+SAN ROMÁN]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 438
+
+ARCHITECTURAL PIECES OF THE VISIGOTH PERIOD EXISTING IN THE CITY]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 439
+
+ARCHITECTURAL FRAGMENTS OF THE VISIGOTH PERIOD]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 440
+
+CAPITAL OF THE SOUTH-EAST ANGLE BELONGING TO THE ANCIENT MOSQUE, NOW THE
+HERMITAGE OF SANTO CRISTO DE LA LUZ
+
+VISIGOTH CAPITAL OF THE OLD PARISH CHURCH OF SAN SEBASTIAN]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 441
+
+NATIONAL ARCHÆOLOGICAL MUSEUM. VISIGOTH CAPITALS OF THE CHURCH OF SANTA
+EULALIA. FRAGMENT OF THE DADO OF THE BASILICA OF SANTO LEOCADIA]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 442
+
+CAPITALS IN THE ARCHÆOLOGICAL MUSEUM]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 443
+
+PROVINCIAL MUSEUM. CAPITAL OF THE FOURTH CENTURY AFTER THE HEGIRA
+
+NATIONAL ARCHÆOLOGICAL MUSEUM. ARAB ASTROLABE MADE AT TOLEDO IN THE YEAR
+459 AFTER THE HEGIRA (A.D. 1067)]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 444
+
+ARCHITECTURAL FRAGMENTS OF THE VISIGOTH PERIOD]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 445
+
+ARCHITECTURAL FRAGMENTS ANTERIOR TO THE MAHOMETAN IRRUPTION, No. 1]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 446
+
+ARCHITECTURAL PARTS AND DECORATIVE REMAINS ANTERIOR TO THE MAHOMETAN
+IRRUPTION, No. 2]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 447
+
+ARCHITECTURAL PARTS AND DECORATIVE FRAGMENTS ANTERIOR TO THE MAHOMETAN
+IRRUPTION, No. 3]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 448
+
+ARCHES OF VARIOUS CHURCHES OF THE FOURTEENTH AND FIFTEENTH CENTURIES]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 449
+
+DENUDATION OF OUR LORD BEFORE THE CRUCIFIXION
+
+EL GRECO
+
+SACRISTY OF THE CATHEDRAL]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 450
+
+THE VIRGIN, ST. ANNE, THE CHILD JESUS AND ST. JOHN
+
+EL GRECO
+
+CHAPEL OF ST. ANNE]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 451
+
+OUR LADY OF SORROWS
+
+EL GRECO
+
+SACRISTY OF THE NEW KINGS, IN THE CATHEDRAL]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 452
+
+PENTECOST
+
+EL GRECO
+
+CHURCH OF THE TRINITY]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 453
+
+JESUS AND ST. JOHN
+
+EL GRECO
+
+CHURCH OF ST. JOHN THE BAPTIST]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 454
+
+THE ASSUMPTION
+
+EL GRECO
+
+CHAPEL OF SAN JOSÉ]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 455
+
+ST. MARTIN
+
+EL GRECO
+
+CHAPEL OE SAN JOSÉ]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 456
+
+THE HOLY EUCHARIST. BY EL GRECO CHURCH OF SAN JOSÉ]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 457
+
+SAN JOSÉ AND THE CHILD JESUS
+
+EL GRECO
+
+PARISH CHURCH OF THE MAGDALENE]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 458
+
+THE INTERMENT OF COUNT DE ORGAZ
+
+EL GRECO
+
+CHURCH OF SANTO TOMÉ]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 459
+
+DETAIL OF THE INTERMENT OF COUNT DE ORGAZ
+
+EL GRECO]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 460
+
+FRAGMENT OF THE INTERMENT OF THE COUNT DE ORGAZ
+
+EL GRECO]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 461
+
+FRAGMENT OF THE INTERMENT OF THE COUNT DE ORGAZ
+
+EL GRECO]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 462
+
+FRAGMENT OF THE INTERMENT OF THE COUNT DE ORGAZ
+
+EL GRECO]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 463
+
+FRAGMENT OF THE INTERMENT OF THE COUNT DE ORGAZ
+
+EL GRECO]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 464
+
+FRAGMENT OF THE INTERMENT OF THE COUNT DE ORGAZ]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 465
+
+FRAGMENT OF THE INTERMENT OF THE COUNT DE ORGAZ
+
+EL GRECO]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 466
+
+FRAGMENT OF THE INTERMENT OF THE COUNT DE ORGAZ
+
+EL GRECO]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 467
+
+THE ANNUNCIATION
+
+EL GRECO
+
+PARISH CHURCH OF SAN NICHOLÁS]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 468
+
+THE CRUCIFIXION
+
+EL GRECO
+
+SAN NICHOLÁS]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 469
+
+SAN PEDRO NOLASCO
+
+EL GRECO
+
+PARISH CHURCH OF SAN NICHOLÁS]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 470
+
+THE ASSUMPTION
+
+EL GRECO
+
+PARISH CHURCH OF SAN VICENTE]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 471
+
+SAN EUGENIO
+
+EL GRECO
+
+PARISH CHURCH OF SAN VICENTE]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 472
+
+ST. PETER
+
+EL GRECO
+
+PARISH CHURCH OF SAN VICENTE]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 473
+
+JESUS AND THE VIRGIN
+
+EL GRECO
+
+PARISH CHURCH OF SAN VICENTE]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 474
+
+THE ASCENSION
+
+EL GRECO
+
+SANTO DOMINGO EL ANTIGUA]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 475
+
+A SAINT (? SANTO DOMINGO EL ANTIGUA)
+
+EL GRECO]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 476
+
+THE BIRTH OF JESUS
+
+EL GRECO
+
+SANTO DOMINGO EL ANTIGUA]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 477
+
+SANTA VERONICA WITH THE SUDARIUM
+
+EL GRECO
+
+SANTO DOMINGO EL ANTIGUA]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 478
+
+ST. JOHN BAPTIST
+
+EL GRECO
+
+SANTO DOMINGO EL ANTIGUA]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 479
+
+ST. JOHN THE EVANGELIST
+
+EL GRECO
+
+CHURCH OF SANTO DOMINGO]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 480
+
+ALTAR-PIECE OF THE CONVENT OF SANTO DOMINGO
+
+EL GRECO]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 481
+
+ST. FRANCIS OF ASSISI
+
+EL GRECO
+
+COLLEGE OF NOBLE LADIES]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 482
+
+THE BAPTISM OF JESUS
+
+EL GRECO
+
+HOSPITAL OF ST. JOHN BAPTIST]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 483
+
+PORTRAIT OF CARDINAL TAVERA
+
+EL GRECO
+
+HOSPITAL OF ST. JOHN BAPTIST]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 484
+
+VIEW OF THE HIGH ALTAR OF THE TAVERA HOSPITAL
+
+EL GRECO]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 485
+
+GENERAL VIEW OF TOLEDO (LEFT HALF)
+
+EL GRECO
+
+PROVINCIAL MUSEUM]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 486
+
+GENERAL VIEW OF TOLEDO (RIGHT HALF)
+
+EL GRECO
+
+PROVINCIAL MUSEUM]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 487
+
+VIEW OF TOLEDO
+
+EL GRECO
+
+PROVINCIAL MUSEUM]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 488
+
+PORTRAIT OF ANTONIO COVARRUBIAS
+
+EL GRECO
+
+PROVINCIAL MUSEUM]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 489
+
+PORTRAIT OF THE SON OF COVARRUBIAS
+
+EL GRECO
+
+PROVINCIAL MUSEUM]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 490
+
+THE CRUCIFIXION
+
+EL GRECO
+
+PROVINCIAL MUSEUM]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 491
+
+ALLEGORY OF THE VIRGIN
+
+EL GRECO
+
+PROVINCIAL MUSEUM]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 492
+
+PORTRAIT OF JUAN DE AVILA
+
+EL GRECO
+
+PROVINCIAL MUSEUM]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 493
+
+OUR SAVIOUR
+
+EL GRECO
+
+PROVINCIAL MUSEUM]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 494
+
+ST. JOHN THE EVANGELIST
+
+EL GRECO
+
+PROVINCIAL MUSEUM]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 495
+
+ST. PETER
+
+EL GRECO
+
+PROVINCIAL MUSEUM]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 496
+
+ST. MATTHIAS
+
+EL GRECO
+
+PROVINCIAL MUSEUM]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 497
+
+ST. PHILIP
+
+EL GRECO
+
+PROVINCIAL MUSEUM]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 498
+
+ST. ANDREW
+
+EL GRECO
+
+PROVINCIAL MUSEUM]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 499
+
+ST. THOMAS
+
+EL GRECO
+
+PROVINCIAL MUSEUM]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 500
+
+ST. SIMON
+
+EL GRECO
+
+PROVINCIAL MUSEUM]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 501
+
+ST. MATTHEW
+
+EL GRECO
+
+PROVINCIAL MUSEUM]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 502
+
+ST. JUDE TADEO
+
+EL GRECO
+
+PROVINCIAL MUSEUM]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 503
+
+AN APOSTLE
+
+EL GRECO
+
+PROVINCIAL MUSEUM]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 504
+
+AN APOSTLE
+
+EL GRECO
+
+PROVINCIAL MUSEUM]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 505
+
+AN APOSTLE
+
+EL GRECO
+
+PROVINCIAL MUSEUM]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 506
+
+THE ANNUNCIATION
+
+EL GRECO]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 507
+
+THE DREAM OF PHILIP II.
+
+EL GRECO
+
+CHAPTER HALL OF THE ESCORIAL]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 508
+
+ST. MAURICE AND THE THEBAN LEGION
+
+EL GRECO
+
+CHAPTER HALL OF THE ESCORIAL]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 509
+
+PORTRAIT OF EL GRECO BY HIMSELF
+
+SEÑOR A. DE BERUETE, MADRID]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 510
+
+CHRIST DRIVING THE MONEY-CHANGERS FROM THE TEMPLE
+
+EL GRECO
+
+SEÑOR DE BERUETE, MADRID]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 511
+
+PORTRAIT OF A STUDENT (EL GRECO?)
+
+EL GRECO
+
+DON PABLO BOSCH, MADRID]
+
+ * * * * *
+
+THE
+
+SPANISH SERIES
+
+Edited by ALBERT F. CALVERT
+
+
+A new and important series of volumes, dealing with Spain in its various
+aspects, its history, its cities and monuments. Each volume will be
+complete in itself in a uniform binding, and the number and excellence
+of the reproductions from pictures will justify the claim that these
+books comprise the most copiously illustrated series that has yet been
+issued, some volumes having over 300 pages of reproductions of pictures,
+etc.
+
+
+Crown 8vo Price 3/6 net
+
+ 1 GOYA with 600 illustrations
+ 2 TOLEDO “ 510 “
+ 3 MADRID “ 450 “
+ 4 SEVILLE “ 300 “
+ 5 MURILLO “ 165 “
+ 6 CORDOVA “ 160 “
+ 7 EL GRECO “ 140 “
+ 8 VELAZQUEZ “ 142 “
+ 9 THE PRADO “ 223 “
+10 THE ESCORIAL “ 278 “
+11 ROYAL PALACES OF SPAIN “ 200 “
+12 GRANADA AND ALHAMBRA “ 460 “
+13 SPANISH ARMS AND ARMOUR “ 386 “
+14 LEON, BURGOS AND SALAMANCA “ 462 “
+15 VALLADOLID, OVIEDO, SEGOVIA }
+ ZAMORA, AVILA AND ZARAGOZA } “ 390 “
+
+ * * * * *
+
+_UNIFORM WITH THIS VOLUME_
+
+MURILLO
+
+A BIOGRAPHY AND APPRECIATION. ILLUSTRATED BY OVER 165 REPRODUCTIONS FROM
+PHOTOGRAPHS OF HIS MOST CELEBRATED PICTURES
+
+
+While the names of Murillo and Velazquez are inseparably linked in the
+history of Art as Spain’s immortal contribution to the small band of
+world-painters, the great Court-Painter to Philip IV. has ever received
+the lion’s share of public attention. Many learned and critical works
+have been written about Murillo, but whereas Velazquez has been
+familiarised to the general reader by the aid of small, popular
+biographies, the niche is still empty which it is hoped that this book
+will fill.
+
+In this volume the attempt has been made to show the painter’s art in
+its relation to the religious feeling of the age in which he lived, and
+his own feeling towards his art. Murillo was the product of his
+religious era, and of his native province, Andalusia. To Europe in his
+lifetime he signified little or nothing. He painted to the order of the
+religious houses in his immediate vicinity; his works were immured in
+local monasteries and cathedrals, and, passing immediately out of
+circulation, were forgotten or never known.
+
+ * * * * *
+
+_UNIFORM WITH THIS VOLUME_
+
+SPANISH ARMS AND ARMOUR
+
+A HISTORICAL AND DESCRIPTIVE ACCOUNT OF THE ROYAL ARMOURY AT MADRID.
+ILLUSTRATED WITH 386 REPRODUCTIONS FROM PHOTOGRAPHS. DEDICATED BY
+SPECIAL PERMISSION TO H.M. QUEEN MARIA CRISTINA OF SPAIN
+
+
+Although several valuable and voluminous catalogues of the Spanish Royal
+Armoury have, from time to time, been compiled, this “finest collection
+of armour in the world” has been subjected so often to the disturbing
+influences of fire, removal, and re-arrangement, that no hand catalogue
+of the Museum is available, and this book has been designed to serve
+both as a historical souvenir of the institution and a record of its
+treasures.
+
+The various exhibits with which the writer illustrates his narrative are
+reproduced to the number of nearly 400 on art paper, and the selection
+of weapons and armour has been made with a view not only to render the
+series interesting to the general reader, but to present a useful text
+book for the guidance of artists, sculptors, antiquaries, costumiers,
+and all who are engaged in the reproduction or representation of
+European armoury.
+
+ * * * * *
+
+_UNIFORM WITH THIS VOLUME_
+
+THE ESCORIAL
+
+A HISTORICAL AND DESCRIPTIVE ACCOUNT OF THE SPANISH ROYAL PALACE,
+MONASTERY AND MAUSOLEUM. ILLUSTRATED WITH PLANS AND 278 REPRODUCTIONS
+FROM PICTURES AND PHOTOGRAPHS
+
+
+The Royal Palace, Monastery, and Mausoleum of El Escorial, which rears
+its gaunt, grey walls in one of the bleakest but most imposing districts
+in the whole of Spain, was erected to commemorate a victory over the
+French in 1557. It was occupied and pillaged by the French two and
+a-half centuries later, and twice it has been greatly diminished by
+fire; but it remains to-day, not only the incarnate expression of the
+fanatic religious character and political genius of Philip II., but the
+greatest mass of wrought granite which exists on earth, the leviathan of
+architecture, the eighth wonder of the world.
+
+In the text of this book the author has endeavoured to reconstitute the
+glories and tragedies of the living past of the Escorial, and to
+represent the wonders of the stupendous edifice by reproductions of over
+two hundred and seventy of the finest photographs and pictures
+obtainable. Both as a review and a pictorial record it is hoped that the
+work will make a wide appeal among all who are interested in the
+history, the architecture, and the art of Spain.
+
+ * * * * *
+
+_UNIFORM WITH THIS VOLUME_
+
+TOLEDO
+
+A HISTORICAL AND DESCRIPTIVE ACCOUNT OF THE “CITY OF GENERATIONS,” WITH
+510 ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+
+The origin of Imperial Toledo, “the crown of Spain, the light of the
+world, free from the time of the mighty Goths,” is lost in the
+impenetrable mists of antiquity. Mighty, unchangeable, invincible, the
+city has been described by Wörmann as “a gigantic open-air museum of the
+architectural history of early Spain, arranged upon a lofty and
+conspicuous table of rock.”
+
+But while some writers have declared that Toledo is a theatre with the
+actors gone and only the scenery left, the author does not share the
+opinion. He believes that the power and virility upon which Spain built
+up her greatness is reasserting itself. The machinery of the theatre of
+Toledo is rusty, the pulleys are jammed from long disuse, but the
+curtain is rising steadily if slowly, and already can be heard the
+tuning-up of fiddles in its ancient orchestra.
+
+In this belief the author of this volume has not only set forth the
+story of Toledo’s former greatness, but has endeavoured to place before
+his readers a panorama of the city as it appears to-day, and to show
+cause for his faith in the greatness of the Toledo of the future.
+
+ * * * * *
+
+_UNIFORM WITH THIS VOLUME_
+
+SEVILLE
+
+A HISTORICAL AND DESCRIPTIVE ACCOUNT, WITH 300 ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+
+Seville, which has its place in mythology as the creation of Hercules,
+and was more probably founded by the Phœnicians, which became
+magnificent under the Roman rule, was made the capital of the Goths,
+became the centre of Moslem power and splendour, and fell before the
+military prowess of St. Ferdinand, is still the Queen of Andalusia, the
+foster-mother of Velazquez and Murillo, the city of poets and pageantry
+and love.
+
+Seville is always gay, and responsive and fascinating to the receptive
+visitor, and all sorts of people go there with all sorts of motives. The
+artist repairs to the Andalusian city to fill his portfolio; the lover
+of art makes the pilgrimage to study Murillo in all his glory. The
+seasons of the Church attract thousands from reasons of devotion or
+curiosity. And of all these myriad visitors, who go with their minds
+full of preconceived notions, not one has yet confessed to being
+disappointed in Seville.
+
+The author has here attempted to convey in the illustrations an
+impression of this laughing city where all is gaiety and mirth and
+ever-blossoming roses, where the people pursue pleasure as the serious
+business of life in an atmosphere of exhilarating enjoyment.
+
+ * * * * *
+
+_UNIFORM WITH THIS VOLUME_
+
+THE PRADO
+
+A GUIDE AND HANDBOOK TO THE ROYAL PICTURE GALLERY OF MADRID. ILLUSTRATED
+WITH 221 REPRODUCTIONS FROM PHOTOGRAPHS OF OLD MASTERS. DEDICATED BY
+SPECIAL PERMISSION TO H.R.H. PRINCESS HENRY OF BATTENBERG
+
+
+This volume is an attempt to supplement the accurate but formal notes
+contained in the official catalogue of a picture gallery which is
+considered the finest in the world. It has been said that the day one
+enters the Prado for the first time is an important event like marriage,
+the birth of a child, or the coming into an inheritance; an experience
+of which one feels the effects to the day of one’s death.
+
+The excellence of the Madrid gallery is the excellence of exclusion; it
+is a collection of magnificent gems. Here one becomes conscious of a
+fresh power in Murillo, and is amazed anew by the astonishing apparition
+of Velazquez; here is, in truth, a rivalry of miracles of art.
+
+The task of selecting pictures for reproduction from what is perhaps the
+most splendid gallery of old masters in existence, was one of no little
+difficulty, but it is believed that the collection is representative,
+and that the letterpress will form a serviceable companion to the
+visitor to The Prado.
+
+ * * * * *
+
+_UNIFORM WITH THIS VOLUME_
+
+GRANADA AND THE ALHAMBRA
+
+A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE MOSLEM RULE IN SPAIN, TOGETHER WITH A PARTICULAR
+ACCOUNT OF THE CONSTRUCTION, THE ARCHITECTURE, AND THE DECORATION OF THE
+MOORISH PALACE, WITH 460 ILLUSTRATIONS. DEDICATED BY SPECIAL PERMISSION
+TO H.I.M. THE EMPRESS EUGÉNIE
+
+
+This volume is the third and abridged edition of a work which the author
+was inspired to undertake by the surpassing loveliness of the Alhambra,
+and by his disappointment in the discovery that no such thing as an even
+moderately adequate illustrated souvenir of “this glorious sanctuary of
+Spain” was obtainable. Keenly conscious of the want himself, he essayed
+to supply it, and the result is a volume that has been acclaimed with
+enthusiasm alike by critics, artists, architects, and archæologists.
+
+In his preface to the first edition, Mr. Calvert wrote: “The Alhambra
+may be likened to an exquisite opera which can only be appreciated to
+the full when one is under the spell of its magic influence. But as the
+witchery of an inspired score can be recalled by the sound of an air
+whistled in the street, so--it is my hope--the pale ghost of the Moorish
+fairy-land may live again in the memories of travellers through the
+medium of this pictorial epitome.”
+
+ * * * * *
+
+_UNIFORM WITH THIS VOLUME_
+
+EL GRECO
+
+A BIOGRAPHY AND APPRECIATION. ILLUSTRATED BY REPRODUCTIONS OF OVER 140
+OF HIS PICTURES
+
+
+In a Series such as this, which aims at presenting every aspect of
+Spain’s eminence in art and in her artists, the work of Domenico
+Theotocópuli must be allotted a volume to itself. “El Greco,” as he is
+called, who reflects the impulse, and has been said to constitute the
+supreme glory of the Venetian era, was a Greek by repute, a Venetian by
+training, and a Toledan by adoption. His pictures in the Prado are still
+catalogued among those of the Italian School, but foreigner as he was,
+in his heart he was more Spanish than the Spaniards.
+
+El Greco is typically, passionately, extravagantly Spanish, and with his
+advent, Spanish painting laid aside every trace of Provincialism, and
+stepped forth to compel the interest of the world. Neglected for many
+centuries, and still often misjudged, his place in art is an assured
+one. It is impossible to present him as a colourist in a work of this
+nature, but the author has got together reproductions of no fewer than
+140 of his pictures--a greater number than has ever before been
+published of El Greco’s works.
+
+ * * * * *
+
+_UNIFORM WITH THIS VOLUME_
+
+VELAZQUEZ
+
+A BIOGRAPHY AND APPRECIATION. ILLUSTRATED WITH 142 REPRODUCTIONS FROM
+PHOTOGRAPHS OF HIS MOST CELEBRATED PICTURES
+
+
+Diego Rodriguez de Silva y Velazquez--“our Velazquez,” as Palomino
+proudly styles him--has been made the subject of innumerable books in
+every European language, yet the Editor of this Spanish Series feels
+that it would not be complete without the inclusion of yet another
+contribution to the broad gallery of Velazquez literature.
+
+The great Velazquez, the eagle in art--subtle, simple, incomparable--the
+supreme painter, is still a guiding influence of the art of to-day. This
+greatest of Spanish artists, a master not only in portrait painting, but
+in character and animal studies, in landscapes and historical subjects,
+impressed the grandeur of his superb personality upon all his work.
+Spain, it has been said, the country whose art was largely borrowed,
+produced Velazquez, and through him Spanish art became the light of a
+new artistic life.
+
+The author cannot boast that he has new data to offer, but he has put
+forward his conclusions with modesty; he has reproduced a great deal
+that is most representative of the artist’s work; and he has endeavoured
+to keep always in view his object to present a concise, accurate, and
+readable life of Velazquez.
+
+ * * * * *
+
+_UNIFORM WITH THIS VOLUME_
+
+ROYAL PALACES OF SPAIN
+
+A HISTORICAL AND DESCRIPTIVE ACCOUNT OF THE SEVEN PRINCIPAL PALACES OF
+THE SPANISH KINGS. PROFUSELY ILLUSTRATED
+
+
+Spain is beyond question the richest country in the world in the number
+of its Royal Residences, and while few are without artistic importance,
+all are rich in historical memories. Thus, from the Alcazar at Seville,
+which is principally associated with Pedro the Cruel, to the Retiro,
+built to divert the attention of Philip IV. from his country’s decay;
+from the Escorial, in which the gloomy mind of Philip II. is perpetuated
+in stone, to La Granja, which speaks of the anguish and humiliation of
+Christina before Sergeant Garcia and his rude soldiery; from Aranjuéz to
+Rio Frio, and from El Pardo, darkened by the agony of a good king, to
+Miramar, to which a widowed Queen retired to mourn: all the history of
+Spain, from the splendid days of Charles V. to the present time, is
+crystallised in the Palaces that constitute the patrimony of the Crown.
+
+The Royal Palaces of Spain are open to visitors at stated times, and it
+is hoped that this volume, with its wealth of illustrations, will serve
+the visitor both as a guide and a souvenir.
+
+ * * * * *
+
+_UNIFORM WITH THIS VOLUME_
+
+VALLADOLID, OVIEDO, SEGOVIA, ZAMORA, AVILA AND ZARAGOZA
+
+A HISTORICAL AND DESCRIPTIVE ACCOUNT, WITH 390 ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+
+The glory of Valladolid has departed, but the skeleton remains, and
+attached to its ancient stones are the memories that Philip II. was born
+here, that here Cervantes lived, and Christopher Columbus died. In this
+one-time capital of Spain, in the Plaza Mayor, the fires of the Great
+Inquisition were first lighted, and here Charles V. laid the foundation
+of the Royal Armoury, which was afterwards transferred to Madrid.
+
+More than seven hundred years have passed since Oviedo was the proud
+capital of the Kingdoms of Las Asturias, Leon, and Castile. Segovia,
+though no longer great, has still all the appurtenances of greatness,
+and with her granite massiveness and austerity, she remains an
+aristocrat even among the aristocracy of Spanish cities. Zamora, which
+has a history dating from time almost without date, was the key of Leon
+and the centre of the endless wars between the Moors and the Christians,
+which raged round it from the eighth to the eleventh centuries.
+
+In this volume the author has striven to re-create the ancient greatness
+of these six cities, and has preserved their memories in a wealth of
+excellent and interesting illustrations.
+
+ * * * * *
+
+_UNIFORM WITH THIS VOLUME_
+
+LEON, BURGOS AND SALAMANCA
+
+A HISTORICAL AND DESCRIPTIVE ACCOUNT, WITH 462 ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+
+In Leon, once the capital of the second kingdom in Spain; in Burgos,
+which boasts one of the most magnificent cathedrals in Spain, and the
+custodianship of the bones of the Cid; and in Salamanca, with its
+university, which is one of the oldest in Europe, the author has
+selected three of the most interesting relics of ancient grandeur in
+this country of departed greatness.
+
+Leon to-day is nothing but a large agricultural village, torpid, silent,
+dilapidated; Burgos, which still retains traces of the Gotho-Castilian
+character, is a gloomy and depleting capital: and Salamanca is a city of
+magnificent buildings, a broken hulk, spent by the storms that from time
+to time have devastated her.
+
+Yet apart from the historical interest possessed by these cities, they
+still make an irresistible appeal to the artist and the antiquary. They
+are content with their stories of old-time greatness and their
+cathedrals, and these ancient architectural splendours, undisturbed by
+the touch of a modernising and renovating spirit, continue to attract
+the visitor.
+
+ * * * * *
+
+_UNIFORM WITH THIS VOLUME_
+
+MADRID
+
+A HISTORICAL AND DESCRIPTIVE ACCOUNT OF THE SPANISH CAPITAL, WITH 450
+ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+
+Madrid is at once one of the most interesting and most maligned cities
+in Europe. It stands at an elevation of 2,500 feet above the sea level,
+in the centre of an arid, treeless, waterless, and wind-blown plain; but
+whatever may be thought of the wisdom of selecting a capital in such a
+situation, one cannot but admire the uniqueness of its position, and the
+magnificence of its buildings, and one is forced to admit that, having
+fairly entered the path of progress, Madrid bids fair to become one of
+the handsomest and most prosperous of European cities.
+
+The splendid promenades, the handsome buildings, and the spacious
+theatres combine to make Madrid one of the first cities of the world,
+and the author has endeavoured with the aid of the camera, to place
+every feature and aspect of the Spanish metropolis before the reader.
+Some of the illustrations reproduced here have been made familiar to the
+English public by reason of the interesting and stirring events
+connected with the Spanish Royal Marriage, but the greater number were
+either taken by the author, or are the work of photographers specially
+employed to obtain new views for the purpose of this volume.
+
+ * * * * *
+
+_UNIFORM WITH THIS VOLUME_
+
+GOYA
+
+A BIOGRAPHY AND APPRECIATION. ILLUSTRATED BY REPRODUCTIONS OF 600 OF HIS
+PICTURES
+
+
+The last of the old masters and the first of the moderns, as he has been
+called, Francisco José de Goya y Lucientes is not so familiarised to
+English readers as his genius deserves. He was born at a time when the
+tradition of Velazquez was fading, and the condition of Spanish painting
+was debased almost beyond hope of salvation; he broke through the
+academic tradition of imitation; “he, next to Velazquez, is to be
+accounted as the man whom the Impressionists of our time have to thank
+for their most definite stimulus, their most immediate inspiration.”
+
+The genius of Goya was a robust, imperious, and fulminating genius; his
+iron temperament was passionate, dramatic, and revolutionary; he painted
+a picture as he would have fought a battle. He was an athletic, warlike,
+and indefatigable painter; a naturalist like Velazquez; fantastic like
+Hogarth; eccentric like Rembrandt; the last flame-coloured flash of
+Spanish genius.
+
+It is impossible to reproduce his colouring; but in the reproductions of
+his works the author has endeavoured to convey to the reader some idea
+of Goya’s boldness of style, his mastery of frightful shadows and
+mysterious lights, and his genius for expressing all terrible emotions.
+
+ * * * * *
+
+_UNIFORM WITH THIS VOLUME_
+
+CORDOVA
+
+A HISTORICAL AND DESCRIPTIVE ACCOUNT OF THE ANCIENT CITY WHICH THE
+CARTHAGINIANS STYLED THE “GEM OF THE SOUTH,” WITH 160 ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+
+Gay-looking, vivacious in its beauty, silent, ill-provided, depopulated,
+Cordova was once the pearl of the West, the city of cities, Cordova of
+the thirty suburbs and three thousand mosques; to-day she is no more
+than an overgrown village, but she still remains the most Oriental town
+in Spain.
+
+Cordova, once the centre of European civilisation, under the Moors the
+Athens of the West, the successful rival of Baghdad and Damascus, the
+seat of learning and the repository of the arts, has shrunk to the
+proportions of a third-rate provincial town; but the artist, the
+antiquary and the lover of the beautiful, will still find in its streets
+and squares and patios a mysterious spell that cannot be resisted.
+
+ * * * * *
+
+BY ALBERT F. CALVERT
+
+LIFE OF CERVANTES
+
+A NEW LIFE OF THE GREAT SPANISH AUTHOR TO COMMEMORATE THE TERCENTENARY
+OF THE PUBLICATION OF “DON QUIXOTE,” WITH NUMEROUS PORTRAITS AND
+REPRODUCTIONS FROM EARLY EDITIONS OF “DON QUIXOTE”
+
+Size Crown 8 vo. 150 pp. Price 3/6 net
+
+
+PRESS NOTICES
+
+“A popular and accessible account of the career of Cervantes.”--_Daily
+Chronicle._
+
+“A very readable and pleasant account of one of the great writers of all
+time.”--_Morning Leader._
+
+“Mr. CALVERT is entitled to the gratitude of book-lovers for
+his industrious devotion at one of our greatest literary
+shrines.”--_Birmingham Post._
+
+“It is made trebly interesting by the very complete set of Cervantes’
+portraits it contains, and by the inclusion of a valuable
+bibliography.”--_Black and White._
+
+“We recommend the book to all those to whom Cervantes is more than a
+mere name.”--_Westminster Gazette._
+
+“A most interesting résumé of all facts up to the present time
+known.”--_El Nervion de Bilbao, Spain._
+
+“The most notable work dedicated to the immortal author of _Don Quixote_
+that has been published in England.”--_El Graduador, Spain._
+
+“Although the book is written in English no Spaniard could have written
+it with more conscientiousness and enthusiasm.”--_El Defensor de
+Granada, Spain._
+
+ * * * * *
+
+BY ALBERT F. CALVERT
+
+THE ALHAMBRA
+
+OF GRANADA, BEING A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE MOSLEM RULE IN SPAIN FROM THE
+REIGN OF MOHAMMED THE FIRST TO THE FINAL EXPULSION OF THE MOORS,
+TOGETHER WITH A PARTICULAR ACCOUNT OF THE CONSTRUCTION, THE ARCHITECTURE
+AND THE DECORATION OF THE MOORISH PALACE, WITH 80 COLOURED PLATES AND
+NEARLY 300 BLACK AND WHITE ILLUSTRATIONS (NEW EDITION). DEDICATED BY
+PERMISSION TO H.M. KING ALFONSO XIII.
+
+Size 10 x 7½. Price £2 2s. net
+
+
+PRESS NOTICES
+
+“It is hardly too much to say that this is one of the most magnificent
+books ever issued from the English Press.”--_Building World._
+
+“One is really puzzled where to begin and when to stop in praising the
+illustrations.”--_Bookseller._
+
+“The most complete record of this wonder of architecture which has ever
+been contemplated, much less attempted.”--_British Architect._
+
+“A treasure to the student of decorative art.”--_Morning Advertiser._
+
+“Mr. CALVERT has given us a Book Beautiful.”--_Western Daily Press._
+
+“It is the last word on the subject, no praise is too
+high.”--_Nottingham Express._
+
+“May be counted among the more important art books which have been
+published during recent years.”--_The Globe._
+
+“Has a pride of place that is all its own among the books of the
+month.”--_Review of Reviews._
+
+“Has in many respects surpassed any books on the Alhambra which up to
+the present have appeared in our own country or abroad.”--_El Graduador,
+Spain._
+
+“It is one of the most beautiful books of modern times.”--_Ely Gazette._
+
+“One of the most artistic productions of the year.”--_Publishers’
+Circular._
+
+“The most beautiful book on the Alhambra issued in England.”--_Sphere._
+
+“The standard work on a splendid subject.”--_Daily Telegraph._
+
+“A remarkable masterpiece of book production.”--_Eastern Daily Press._
+
+“A perfect treasure of beauty and delight.”--_Keighley News._
+
+“A magnificent work.”--_Melbourne Age, Australia._
+
+“Immense collection of fine plates.”--_The Times._
+
+“A standard work, the compilation of which would credit a life’s
+labour.”--_Hull Daily Mail._
+
+ * * * * *
+
+BY ALBERT F. CALVERT
+
+MOORISH REMAINS IN SPAIN
+
+BEING A BRIEF RECORD OF THE ARABIAN CONQUEST AND OCCUPATION OF THE
+PENINSULA, WITH A PARTICULAR ACCOUNT OF THE MOHAMMEDAN ARCHITECTURE AND
+DECORATION IN THE CITIES OF CORDOVA, SEVILLE AND TOLEDO, WITH MANY
+COLOURED PLATES, AND OVER 400 BLACK AND WHITE ILLUSTRATIONS, DIAGRAMS,
+ETC., DEDICATED BY PERMISSION TO H.M. KING ALFONSO XIII.
+
+Crown 4to. (7½ × 10 ins.) Price £2 2s. net
+
+
+PRESS NOTICES
+
+“The making of this book must surely have been a veritable labour of
+love; and love’s labour has certainly not been lost.”--_Pall Mall
+Gazette._
+
+“The best age of Moorish architecture in Spain is shown with remarkable
+vividness and vitality.”--_The Scotsman._
+
+“A most gorgeous book.... We cheerfully admit Mr. CALVERT into the ranks
+of those whom posterity will applaud for delightful yet unprofitable
+work.”--_Outlook._
+
+“A large and sumptuous volume.”--_Tribune._
+
+“The illustrations are simply marvels of reproduction.”--_Dundee
+Advertiser._
+
+“One of the books to which a simple literary review cannot pretend to do
+justice.”--_Spectator._
+
+“A special feature of a work of peculiar interest and value are the
+illustrations.”--_Newcastle Chronicle._
+
+“The illustrations are given with a minuteness and faithfulness of
+detail, and colour, which will be particularly appreciated and
+acknowledged by those who are most acquainted with the subject
+themselves.”--_Liverpool Post._
+
+“It is impossible to praise too highly the care with which the
+illustrations have been prepared.”--_Birmingham Daily Post._
+
+“It is illustrated with so lavish a richness of colour that to turn its
+pages gives one at first almost the same impression of splendour as one
+receives in wandering from hall to hall of the Alcazar of Seville; and
+this is probably the highest compliment we could pay to the book or its
+author.”--_Academy._
+
+“It is certainly one of the most interesting books of the
+year.”--_Crown._
+
+“The occasional delicacy of design and harmony of colour can scarcely be
+surpassed ... a valuable and profusely illustrated volume.”--_Guardian._
+
+“An excellent piece of work.”--_The Times._
+
+“Mr. CALVERT has performed a useful work.”--_Daily Telegraph._
+
+“A truly sumptuous volume.”--_The Speaker._
+
+“Mr. CALVERT has given a very complete account of the evolution of
+Moresco art.”--_The Connoisseur._
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[A] This spelling of his name resembles most that used by himself.
+
+[B] The exact contents are as follows:
+
+“AL CARD. FARNESE--Viterbo.
+
+ “A’ di 16 di Nouembre, 1570.
+
+“E’ capitato in Roma un giouane Candiotto discepolo di Titiano, che
+á mio giuditio parmi raro nella pittura; e fra l’altre cose egli ha
+fatto un ritratto da se stesso, che fa stupire tutti questi Pittori di
+Roma. Io vorrei tratenerlo sotto l’ombra de V.S. Illma. et Revma. senza
+spesa altra del vivere, ma solo de una stanza nell Palazzo Farnese per
+qualche poco di tempo, cioé per fin che egli si venghi ad accomodare
+meglio. Pero La prego et supplico sia contenta di scrivere al Conte
+Lodovico suo Maiordomo, che lo provegghi nel detto Palazzo di qualche
+stanza ad alto; che V.S. Illma. fará un’ opera virtuosa degna di Lei, e
+io gliene terro obligo. Et le bascio con reverenza le mani.
+
+“Di V.S. Illma. et Revma. humilissimo servitore.
+
+ “JULIO CLOVIO.”
+
+
+[C] The record of his burial, discovered by Señor de Beruete in the
+register of the parish church of Santo Tomé, is brief: “Libro de
+entierros de Santo Tomé de 1601-1614, en siete del Abril del 1614
+falescio Domeniko Greco. No hizo testamento, recibo los sacramentos, en
+teroso en Santo Domingo el Antigua.”
+
+[D] Two judges were appointed to settle the dispute, which arose from
+the introduction of the three Marys into the picture. The Chapter
+objected to their presence. El Greco’s defence was characteristic
+enough--What did it matter? and, besides, the women were a long way
+off. The judges disagreed; whereupon the dispute was settled by Alezo
+de Montoyo as follows:
+
+“Having seen the said painting which has been executed by the said
+Domeniko, and the appraisements of the judge appointed by both parties,
+and other persons who understand the said painting, its execution and
+admirable finish; and the reasons which the said judges have given;
+and seeing that the said painting is one of the best that I have seen;
+and that, if it were to be estimated for all its valuable qualities,
+it would be valued at a much higher sum, which but few would care to
+pay for it; but, in view of the nature of the times and the price paid
+generally for the paintings of great artists in Castile; and in view
+of, and taking into consideration all the above and all other points
+that were necessary, I find that I must order, and I do order, that for
+the said painting the said Garcia de Loaysa, in the name of the said
+Holy Church, shall give and pay to the said Domeniko Theotokopuli three
+thousand and five hundred reals: and above this sum the said Domeniko
+Theotokopuli cannot ask, nor must he ask, for anything more for the
+said painting; and as regards the judges for the said workers, they
+say that it is improper for the Marys to be introduced into the story;
+as regards this I am sending the declaration of it to some theologians
+versed in such matters, that they may decide upon it.”
+
+[E] This is another rendering of the same picture; and still another is
+in the collection of Señor de Beruete, Madrid.
+
+[F] This picture passed into the collection of the Infanta Doña Isabel
+Farnese, and is now in the Museo del Prado. The ‘Assumption’ in the
+Church of Santo Domingo el Antigua is a poor copy of the original
+picture.
+
+[G] The picture was painted for the altar of St. Maurice, but it was
+rejected by Philip II., and the commission given to a third-rate
+Italian. To-day the picture hangs in the Sala Capitulare.
+
+[H] This likeness is more striking even in another ‘Coronation of the
+Virgin,’ by El Greco, in the collection of Colonel P. Bosch, Madrid.
+
+[I] Some authorities name these saints Sta. Inez and Sta. Feda.
+
+*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 64900 ***
generated by cgit v1.2.3 (git 2.25.1) at 2026-03-17 11:56:46 +0000