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border-bottom: thin dotted gray; } - .quote { font-size: 95%; margin-top: 1.0em; margin-bottom: 1.0em; } - .linegroup .group { margin: 0em auto; } - td.bb { border-bottom: 1px solid black; } - </style> - </head> - <body> - -<div style='text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; font-weight:bold'>The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Kashf al-mahjúb, by `Ali b. `Uthman Al-Jullabi Al-Hujwiri</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online -at <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you -are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the -country where you are located before using this eBook. -</div> - -<table style='min-width:0; padding:0; margin-left:0; border-collapse:collapse'> - <tr><td>Title:</td><td>The Kashf al-mahjúb</td></tr> - <tr><td></td><td>The oldest Persian treatise on Súfiism</td></tr> -</table> - -<div style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Author: `Ali b. `Uthman Al-Jullabi Al-Hujwiri</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Translator: Reynold A. Nicholson</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Release Date: March 11, 2021 [eBook #64786]</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Language: English</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Character set encoding: UTF-8</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Produced by: KD Weeks, Fritz Ohrenschall and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive/Canadian Libraries)</div> - -<div style='margin-top:2em; margin-bottom:4em'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE KASHF AL-MAHJÚB ***</div> - -<div class='pbb'> - <hr class='pb c000' /> -</div> -<div class='tnotes'> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> - <div class='nf-center'> - <div>Transcriber’s Note:</div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c001'>Footnotes have been collected at the end of each chapter, and are -linked for ease of reference.</p> - -<p class='c001'>There is an editorial list of corrections and additions. These, -along with the errors they mention, are retained in this version.</p> - -<p class='c001'>Minor errors, deemed attributable to the printer, have been corrected. -Please see the transcriber’s <a href='#endnote'>note</a> at the end of this text -for details.</p> - -<p class='c001'>The cover image has been enhanced with basic information from the -title page, and, as modified, placed in the public domain.</p> - -<div class='htmlonly'> - -<p class='c001'>Corrections are indicated using an <ins class='correction' title='original'>underline</ins> -highlight. Placing the cursor over the correction will produce the -original text in a small popup.</p> - -<div class='figcenter id001'> -<img src='images/cover.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -</div> - -</div> -<div class='epubonly'> - -<p class='c001'>Corrections are indicated as hyperlinks, which will navigate the -reader to the corresponding entry in the corrections table in the -note at the end of the text.</p> - -</div> - -</div> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c002'> - <div><span class='large'>“<i>E. J. W. GIBB MEMORIAL</i>”</span></div> - <div><span class='large'><i>SERIES.</i></span></div> - <div class='c000'><span class='large'><i>VOL. XVII.</i></span></div> - </div> -</div> - -<div> - <h1 class='c003'>THE KASHF AL-MAḤJÚB</h1> -</div> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c000'> - <div><span class='xlarge'>THE OLDEST PERSIAN TREATISE ON</span></div> - <div><span class='xlarge'>ṢÚFIISM</span></div> - <div class='c000'><span class='small'>BY</span></div> - <div class='c000'><span class='large'>‘ALÍ B. ‘UTHMÁN AL-JULLÁBÍ AL-HUJWÍRÍ</span></div> - <div class='c000'>TRANSLATED FROM THE TEXT OF THE LAHORE EDITION,</div> - <div>COMPARED WITH MSS. IN THE INDIA OFFICE AND</div> - <div>BRITISH MUSEUM.</div> - <div class='c000'><span class='small'>BY</span></div> - <div class='c000'><span class='large'>REYNOLD A. NICHOLSON, <span class='sc'>Litt.D.</span></span></div> - <div class='c000'>LECTURER IN PERSIAN IN THE UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE;</div> - <div>FORMERLY FELLOW OF TRINITY COLLEGE.</div> - <div class='c000'><span class='small'>AND</span></div> - <div class='c000'>PRINTED FOR THE TRUSTEES OF THE</div> - <div>“E. J. W. GIBB MEMORIAL”.</div> - <div class='c000'>VOLUME XVII.</div> - <div class='c000'><span class='sc'>LEYDEN: E. J. BRILL, Imprimerie Orientale.</span></div> - <div><span class='sc'>LONDON: LUZAC & CO., 46 Great Russell Street.</span></div> - <div class='c000'>1911.</div> - </div> -</div> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c002'> - <div><span class='pageno' id='Page_I'>I</span>PRINTED BY</div> - <div>STEPHEN AUSTIN AND SONS, LTD.</div> - <div>HERTFORD.</div> - </div> -</div> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> - <div class='nf-center'> - <div><i>“E. J. W. GIBB MEMORIAL” SERIES.</i></div> - <div class='c004'>PUBLISHED,</div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c005'>1. <i>The</i> Bábar-náma, <i>reproduced in facsimile from a MS. belonging to the late Sir Sálár Jang of Ḥaydarábád, and edited with Preface and Indexes, by Mrs. Beveridge, 1905. (Out of print.)</i></p> - -<p class='c005'>2. <i>An abridged translation of Ibn Isfandiyár’s</i> History of Ṭabaristán, <i>by Edward G. Browne, 1905. Price 8s.</i></p> - -<p class='c005'>3. <i>Translation of al-Khazrají’s</i> History of the Rasúlí Dynasty of Yaman, <i>with introduction by the late Sir J. Redhouse, now edited by E. G. Browne, R. A. Nicholson, and A. Rogers. Vols. I and II of the Translation, 1906, 1907. Price 7s. each. Vol. III, containing the Annotations, 1908. Price 5s. (Vol. IV, containing the Text, in the Press.)</i></p> - -<p class='c005'>4. Umayyads and `Abbásids: <i>being the Fourth Part of Jurjí Zaydán’s</i> -History of Islamic Civilisation, <i>translated by Professor D. S. -Margoliouth, D.Litt., 1907. Price 5s.</i></p> - -<p class='c005'>5. <i>The Travels of</i> Ibn Jubayr, <i>the late Dr. William Wright’s edition of -the Arabic text, revised by the late Professor M. J. de Goeje, 1907. -Price 6s.</i></p> - -<p class='c005'>6. <i>Yáqút’s Dictionary of Learned Men, entitled</i> Irshádu’l-aríb ilá -ma‘rifati’l-adíb, <i>or</i> Mu‘jamu’l-Udabá: <i>edited from the Bodleian MS. -by Professor D. S. Margoliouth, D.Litt. Vols. I, II, 1907, ’09. -Price 8s. each. Vol. III, part 1, 1910. Price 5s. (Further volumes -in preparation.)</i></p> - -<p class='c005'>7. <i>The</i> Tajáribu´l-Umam <i>of Ibn Miskawayh: reproduced in facsimile -from MSS. Nos. 3116-3121 of Áyâ Sofia, with Preface and -Summary by the Principe di Teano. Vol. I (to <span class='fss'>A.H.</span> 37), 1909. -Price 7s. (Further volumes in preparation.)</i></p> - -<p class='c005'>8. <i>The</i> Marzubán-náma <i>of Sa`du´d-Dín-i-Waráwíní, edited by Mírzá -Muḥammad of Qazwín, 1909. Price 8s.</i></p> - -<p class='c005'>9. <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr"><i>Textes persans relatifs à la</i> secte des Ḥouroûfîs <i>publiés, traduits, -et annotés par Clément Huart, suivis d’une étude sur la religion des -Ḥouroûfîs par “Feylesouf Rizá”, 1909. Price 8s.</i></span></p> - -<p class='c005'>10. <i>The</i> Mu`jam fí Ma`áyíri Ash`ári´l-`Ajam <i>of Shams-i-Qays, edited from -the British Museum MS. (Or. 2814) by Edward G. Browne and -Mírzá Muḥammad of Qazwín, 1909. Price 8s.</i></p> - -<p class='c005'>11. <i>The</i> Chahár Maqála <i>of Ni<span class='underline'>dh</span>ámí-i-`Arúḍí-i-Samarqandí, edited, with -notes in Persian, by Mírzá Muḥammad of Qazwín, 1910. Price 8s.</i></p> - -<p class='c005'>12. Introduction à l’Histoire des Mongols <i>de Fadl Allah Rashid ed-Din -par E. Blochet, 1910. Price 8s.</i></p> - -<p class='c005'>13. <i>The</i> Díwán <i>of Ḥassán b. Thábit (d. <span class='fss'>A.H.</span> 54), edited by Hartwig -Hirschfeld, Ph.D., 1910. Price 5s.</i></p> - -<p class='c005'>14. <i>The</i> Ta´ríkh-i-Guzída <i>of Ḥamdu´lláh Mustawfí of Qazwín, reproduced -in facsimile from an old MS., with Introduction, Indices, -etc., by Edward G. Browne. Vol. I. Text.</i> 1910. <i>Price 15s.</i></p> - -<p class='c005'>15. <i>The</i> Earliest History of the Bábís, <i>composed before 1852, by Ḥájji -Mírzá Jání of Káshán, edited from the unique Paris MS. (Suppl. -Persan, 1071) by Edward G. Browne. Price 8s.</i></p> - -<p class='c005'>16. <i>The</i> Ta´ríkh-i-Jabán-gushá <i>of `Alá´u´d-Dín `Aṭá Malik-i-Juwayní, -edited from seven MSS. by Mírzá Muḥammad of Qazwín. Price 8s.</i></p> - -<p class='c005'>17. <i>A translation of the</i> Kashf al-Maḥjúb <i>of `Alí b. `Uthmán al-Jullábí -al-Hujwírí, the oldest Persian manual of Ṣúfiism, by R. A. Nicholson. -Price 8s.</i></p> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> - <div class='nf-center'> - <div>IN PREPARATION.</div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c006'><i>The History of the Mongols, from the</i> Jámi`u´t-Tawáríkh <i>of Rashídu´d-Din -Faḍlu´lláh, beginning with the account of Ogotáy, edited by -E. Blochet, comprising:—</i></p> - -<p class='c007'><i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Tome I: Histoire des tribus turques et mongoles, des ancêtres de -Tchinkkiz-Khan depuis Along-Goa, et de Tchinkkiz-Khan.</span></i></p> - -<p class='c007'><i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Tome II: Histoire des successeurs de Tchinkkiz-Khan, d’Ougédeï -à Témour-Kaan, des fils apanagés de Tchinkkiz-Khan, et des gouverneurs -Mongols de Perse d’Houlagou à Ghazan. (Sous presse.)</span></i></p> - -<p class='c007'><i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Tome III: Histoire de Ghazan, d’Oldjaïtou, et de Abou-Saïd.</span></i></p> -<p class='c006'><i>An abridged translation of the</i> Iḥyá´u´l-Mulúk, <i>a Persian History of -Sístán by Sháh Ḥusayn, from the British Museum MS. (Or. 2779), -by A. G. Ellis.</i></p> - -<p class='c006'><i>The geographical part of the</i> Nuzhatu´l-Qulúb <i>of Ḥamdu´lláh Mustawfí -of Qazwín, with a translation, by G. Le Strange.</i></p> - -<p class='c006'><i>The</i> Futúḥu Miṣr wa´l-Maghrib wa´l-Andalus <i>of Abu´l-Qásim `Abdu´r-Raḥmán -b. `Abdu´lláh b. Abdu´l-Ḥakam al-Qurashí al-Miṣrí -(d. <span class='fss'>A.H.</span> 257), edited by Professor C. C. Torrey.</i></p> - -<p class='c006'><i>The</i> Qábús-náma, <i>edited in the original Persian by E. Edwards.</i></p> - -<p class='c006'>Ta´ríkhu Miṣr, <i>the History of Egypt, by Abú `Umar Muḥammad b. Yúsuf -al-Kindí (d. <span class='fss'>A.H.</span> 350), edited from the unique MS. in the British -Museum (Add. 23,324) by A. Rhuvon Guest. (In the Press.)</i></p> - -<p class='c006'><i>The</i> Ansáb <i>of as-Sam`ání, reproduced in facsimile from the British -Museum MS. (Or. 23,355), with Indices by H. Loewe. (In the Press.)</i></p> - -<p class='c006'><i>The poems of four early Arabic poets. In two parts:—(1) The</i> Díwáns <i>of -`Ámir b. aṭ-Ṭufayl and `Abíd b. al-Abraṣ, edited by Sir Charles -J. Lyall, K.C.S.I.; (2) The</i> Díwáns <i>of aṭ-Ṭufayl b. `Awf and -Ṭirimmáḥ b. Ḥakím, edited by F. Krenkow.</i></p> - -<p class='c006'><i>The</i> Kitábu´l-Raddi `alá ahli ´l-bida`i wal-ahwá´i <i>of Makḥúl b. al-Mufaḍḍal -al-Nasafí (d. <span class='fss'>A.H.</span> 318), edited from the Bodleian MS. -Pocock 271, with introductory Essay on the Sects of Islam, by -G. W. Thatcher, M.A.</i></p> - -<p class='c006'><i>A</i> monograph on the Southern Dialects of Kurdish, <i>by E. B. Soane.</i></p> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c002'> - <div><i>This Volume is one</i></div> - <div><i>of a Series</i></div> - <div><i>published by the Trustees of the</i></div> - <div><i><span class='large'>“E. J. W. GIBB MEMORIAL”.</span></i></div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c001'><i>The Funds of this Memorial are derived from the interest accruing -from a sum of money given by the late MRS. GIBB of Glasgow, to -perpetuate the Memory of her beloved son</i></p> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> - <div class='nf-center'> - <div><span class='large'><i>ELIAS JOHN WILKINSON GIBB,</i></span></div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c008'><i>and to promote those researches into the History, Literature, Philosophy, -and Religion of the Turks, Persians, and Arabs to which, from -his youth upwards, until his premature and deeply lamented death -in his 45th year on December 5, 1901, his life was devoted.</i></p> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> - <div class='nf-center'> - <div><span lang="ar" xml:lang="ar">تِلْكَ آثَارُنَا تَدُلُّ عَلَيْنَا * فَٱنْظُرُوا بَعْدَنَا الي ٱلاَثَارِ</span></div> - </div> -</div> - -<div class='lg-container-b c009'> - <div class='linegroup'> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'>“<i>The worker pays his debt to Death;</i></div> - <div class='line'><i>His work lives on, nay, quickeneth.</i>”</div> - </div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c010'><i>The following memorial verse is contributed by `Abdu´l-Ḥaqq Ḥámid -Bey of the Imperial Ottoman Embassy in London, one of the Founders -of the New School of Turkish Literature, and for many years an -intimate friend of the deceased.</i></p> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> - <div class='nf-center'> - <div><span lang="ar" xml:lang="ar">جمله يارانى وفاسيله ايدركن نطييب</span></div> - <div><span lang="ar" xml:lang="ar">کندی عمرنده وفاگورمدی اول ذاتِ اديب</span></div> - <div><span lang="ar" xml:lang="ar">گنج ايکن اولمش ايدی اوجِ کماله واصل</span></div> - <div><span lang="ar" xml:lang="ar">نه اولوردی ياشامش اولسه ايدی مستر گيب</span></div> - </div> -</div> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c002'> - <div><span class='large'>“<i>E. J. W. GIBB MEMORIAL.</i>”</span></div> - <div class='c000'><i>ORIGINAL TRUSTEES.</i></div> - </div> -</div> - -<div class='lg-container-l'> - <div class='linegroup'> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'>[<i><span class='large'>JANE GIBB</span>, died November 26, 1904</i>],</div> - </div> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'><span class='large'><i>E. G. BROWNE</i>,</span></div> - </div> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'><span class='large'><i>G. LE STRANGE</i>,</span></div> - </div> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'><span class='large'><i>H. F. AMEDROZ</i>,</span></div> - </div> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'><span class='large'><i>A. G. ELLIS</i>,</span></div> - </div> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'><span class='large'><i>R. A. NICHOLSON</i>,</span></div> - </div> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'><span class='large'><i>E. DENISON ROSS</i>,</span></div> - </div> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line in5'><span class='small'><i>AND</i></span></div> - </div> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'><i><span class='large'>IDA W. E. OGILVY GREGORY</span> (formerly GIBB), appointed 1905.</i></div> - </div> - </div> -</div> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> - <div class='nf-center'> - <div><i>CLERK OF THE TRUST.</i></div> - </div> -</div> - -<div class='lg-container-l'> - <div class='linegroup'> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'><i><span class='large'>JULIUS BERTRAM,</span></i></div> - <div class='line in9'><i>14 Suffolk Street, Pall Mall,</i></div> - <div class='line in32'><i>LONDON, S.W.</i></div> - </div> - </div> -</div> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> - <div class='nf-center'> - <div><i>PUBLISHERS FOR THE TRUSTEES.</i></div> - </div> -</div> - -<div class='lg-container-l'> - <div class='linegroup'> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'><span class='large'><i>E. J. BRILL, LEYDEN.</i></span></div> - <div class='line'><span class='large'><i>LUZAC & CO., LONDON.</i></span></div> - </div> - </div> -</div> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c002'> - <div><span class='pageno' id='Page_II'>II</span>CORRECTIONS AND ADDITIONS.</div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c006'>Page 2, penult. <i>For</i> (p. 3) <i>read</i> (p. 1).</p> - -<p class='c006'>p. 3, line 14 and l. 30. <i>For</i> (p. 3) <i>read</i> (p. 1).</p> - -<p class='c006'>p. 4, l. 18. <i>For</i> (p. 3) <i>read</i> (p. 1).</p> - -<p class='c006'>p. 4, l. 26. <i>For</i> just as the veil destroys revelation <i>(mukáshafat) read</i> just as -veiling destroys the unveiled object (<i>mukáshaf</i>).</p> - -<p class='c006'>p. 6, l. 4 and l. 16. <i>For</i> (p. 3) <i>read</i> (p. 1).</p> - -<p class='c006'>p. 51, l. 6. <i>For</i> Parg <i>read</i> Burk <i>or</i> Purg, and correct the note accordingly. -See Guy Le Strange, <i>The Lands of the Eastern Caliphate</i>, p. 292.</p> - -<p class='c006'>p. 54, l. 28. <i>For</i> the infectious cankers of the age <i>read</i> the cankers which -infect age after age.</p> - -<p class='c006'>p. 85, l. 19. For (<i>sáḥib al-qulúb</i>) read (<i>ṣáḥi´l-qulúb</i>). <i>Ṣáḥí</i>, “sober,” is the -antithesis of <i>maghlúb</i>, “enraptured.”</p> - -<p class='c006'>p. 127, l. 17. <i>For</i> <span class='sc'>al-Inṭákí</span> <i>read</i> <span class='sc'>al-Anṭákí</span>.</p> - -<p class='c006'>p. 130, l. 27. Although some writers give “Abu ´l-Ḥasan” as the <i>kunya</i> of -Núrí, the balance of authority is in favour of “Abu ´l-Ḥusayn”.</p> - -<p class='c006'>p. 131, n. 2. <i>Add</i>, See Goldziher in <i>ZDMG.</i>, 61, 75 ff., and a passage in -Yáqút’s <i>Irshád al-Aríb</i>, ed. by Margoliouth, vol. iii, pt. i, 153, 3 ff.; -cited by Goldziher in <i>JRAS.</i> for 1910, p. 888.</p> - -<p class='c006'>p. 140, l. 19. <i>For</i> <span class='sc'>Abú Muḥammad `Abdalláh</span> <i>read</i> <span class='sc'>Abú `Abdalláh</span>.</p> - -<p class='c006'>p. 155, l. 26. <i>Omit</i> <span class='fss'>B.</span> <i>before</i> <span class='sc'>Dulaf</span>.</p> - -<p class='c006'>p. 169, l. 1. <i>Omit</i> <span class='fss'>B.</span> <i>before</i> <span class='sc'>`Alí</span>.</p> - -<p class='c006'>p. 173, l. 11. <i>For</i> Pádsháh-i <i>read</i> Pádisháh-i.</p> - -<p class='c006'>p. 182, l. 26. <i>Sháhmurghí</i> is probably a mistake for <i>siyáh murghí</i>, “a blackbird.” -Cf. my edition of the <i>Tadhkirat al-Awliyá</i>, ii, 259, 23.</p> - -<p class='c006'>p. 257, l. 1. For <i>t`aṭíl</i> read <i>ta`ṭíl</i>.</p> - -<p class='c006'>p. 323, l. 10. <i>For</i> Miṣṣíṣí <i>read</i> Maṣṣíṣí.</p> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_xv'>xv</span> - <h2 class='c011'>CONTENTS.</h2> -</div> - -<table class='table0' summary=''> -<colgroup> -<col width='11%' /> -<col width='73%' /> -<col width='14%' /> -</colgroup> - <tr> - <td class='c012' colspan='2'><span class='small'><span class='sc'>Chapter.</span></span></td> - <td class='c013'><span class='small'><span class='sc'>Pages.</span></span></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'> </td> - <td class='c012'>Translator’s Preface</td> - <td class='c013'><a href='#pref'>xvii-xxiv</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'> </td> - <td class='c012'>Author’s Introduction</td> - <td class='c013'><a href='#intro'>1-9</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>I.</td> - <td class='c012'>On the Affirmation of Knowledge</td> - <td class='c013'><a href='#ch01'>11-18</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>II.</td> - <td class='c012'>On Poverty</td> - <td class='c013'><a href='#ch02'>19-29</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>III.</td> - <td class='c012'>On Ṣúfiism</td> - <td class='c013'><a href='#ch03'>30-44</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>IV.</td> - <td class='c012'>On the Wearing of Patched Frocks</td> - <td class='c013'><a href='#ch04'>45-57</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>V.</td> - <td class='c012'>On the Different Opinions held concerning Poverty and Purity</td> - <td class='c013'><a href='#ch05'>58-61</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>VI.</td> - <td class='c012'>On Blame (<i>Malámat</i>)</td> - <td class='c013'><a href='#ch06'>62-9</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>VII.</td> - <td class='c012'>Concerning their Imáms who belonged to the Companions</td> - <td class='c013'><a href='#ch07'>70-4</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>VIII.</td> - <td class='c012'>Concerning their Imáms who belonged to the House of the Prophet</td> - <td class='c013'><a href='#ch08'>75-80</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>IX.</td> - <td class='c012'>Concerning the People of the Veranda (<i>Ahl-i Ṣuffa</i>)</td> - <td class='c013'><a href='#ch09'>81-2</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>X.</td> - <td class='c012'>Concerning their Imáms who belonged to the Followers (<i>al-Tábi`ún</i>)</td> - <td class='c013'><a href='#ch10'>83-7</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>XI.</td> - <td class='c012'>Concerning their Imáms who lived subsequently to the Followers down to our day</td> - <td class='c013'><a href='#ch11'>88-160</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>XII.</td> - <td class='c012'>Concerning the principal Ṣúfís of recent times</td> - <td class='c013'><a href='#ch12'>161-71</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>XIII.</td> - <td class='c012'>A brief account of the modern Ṣúfís in different countries</td> - <td class='c013'><a href='#ch13'>172-5</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>XIV.</td> - <td class='c012'>Concerning the Doctrines held by the different sects of Ṣúfís</td> - <td class='c013'><a href='#ch14'>176-266</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>XV.</td> - <td class='c012'>The Uncovering of the First Veil: Concerning the Gnosis of God (<i>ma`rifat Allah</i>)</td> - <td class='c013'><a href='#ch15'>267-77</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>XVI.</td> - <td class='c012'>The Uncovering of the Second Veil: Concerning Unification (<i>tawḥíd</i>)</td> - <td class='c013'><a href='#ch16'>278-85</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'><span class='pageno' id='Page_xvi'>xvi</span>XVII.</td> - <td class='c012'>The Uncovering of the Third Veil: Concerning Faith</td> - <td class='c013'><a href='#ch17'>286-90</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>XVIII.</td> - <td class='c012'>The Uncovering of the Fourth Veil: Concerning Purification from Foulness</td> - <td class='c013'><a href='#ch18'>291-9</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>XIX.</td> - <td class='c012'>The Uncovering of the Fifth Veil: Concerning Prayer (<i>al-ṣalát</i>)</td> - <td class='c013'><a href='#ch19'>300-13</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>XX.</td> - <td class='c012'>The Uncovering of the Sixth Veil: Concerning Alms (<i>al-zakát</i>)</td> - <td class='c013'><a href='#ch20'>314-19</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>XXI.</td> - <td class='c012'>The Uncovering of the Seventh Veil: On Fasting (<i>al-ṣawm</i>)</td> - <td class='c013'><a href='#ch21'>320-5</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>XXII.</td> - <td class='c012'>The Uncovering of the Eighth Veil: Concerning the Pilgrimage</td> - <td class='c013'><a href='#ch22'>326-33</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>XXIII.</td> - <td class='c012'>The Uncovering of the Ninth Veil: Concerning Companionship, together with its Rules and Principles</td> - <td class='c013'><a href='#ch23'>334-66</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>XXIV.</td> - <td class='c012'>The Uncovering of the Tenth Veil: explaining their phraseology and the definitions of their terms and the verities of the ideas which are signified</td> - <td class='c013'><a href='#ch24'>367-92</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>XXV.</td> - <td class='c012'>The Uncovering of the Eleventh Veil: Concerning Audition (<i>samá`</i>)</td> - <td class='c013'><a href='#ch25'>393-420</a></td> - </tr> -</table> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_xvii'>xvii</span> - <h2 id='pref' class='c011'>PREFACE.</h2> -</div> - -<p class='c014'>This translation of the most ancient and celebrated Persian -treatise on Ṣúfiism will, I hope, be found useful not only by the -small number of students familiar with the subject at first hand, -but also by many readers who, without being Orientalists -themselves, are interested in the general history of mysticism -and may wish to compare or contrast the diverse yet similar -manifestations of the mystical spirit in Christianity, Buddhism, -and Islam. The origin of Ṣúfiism and its relation to these great -religions cannot properly be considered here, and I dismiss such -questions the more readily because I intend to deal with them -on another occasion. It is now my duty to give some account -of the author of the <i>Kashf al-Maḥjúb</i>, and to indicate the -character of his work.</p> - -<p class='c001'>Abu ´l-Ḥasan `Alí b. `Uthmán b. `Alí al-Ghaznawí al-Jullábí -al-Hujwírí<a id='r1' /><a href='#f1' class='c015'><sup>[1]</sup></a> was a native of Ghazna in Afghanistan.<a id='r2' /><a href='#f2' class='c015'><sup>[2]</sup></a> Of his -life very little is known beyond what he relates incidentally in -the <i>Kashf al-Maḥjúb</i>. He studied Ṣúfiism under Abu ´l-Faḍl -Muḥammad b. al-Ḥasan al-Khuttalí<a id='r3' /><a href='#f3' class='c015'><sup>[3]</sup></a> (p. 166), who was a pupil -of Abu ´l-Ḥasan al-Ḥuṣrí (ob. 371 <span class='fss'>A.H.</span>), and under Abu ´l-`Abbás -Aḥmad b. Muḥammad al-Ashqání or al-Shaqání<a id='r4' /><a href='#f4' class='c015'><sup>[4]</sup></a> (p. 168). He -<span class='pageno' id='Page_xviii'>xviii</span>also received instruction from Abu ´l-Qásim Gurgání<a id='r5' /><a href='#f5' class='c015'><sup>[5]</sup></a> (p. 169) -and Khwája Muẕaffar<a id='r6' /><a href='#f6' class='c015'><sup>[6]</sup></a> (p. 170), and he mentions a great number -of Shaykhs whom he had met and conversed with in the course -of his wanderings. He travelled far and wide through the -Muḥammadan empire from Syria to Turkistán and from the -Indus to the Caspian Sea. Among the countries and places -which he visited were Ádharbáyaján (pp. 57 and 410), the tomb -of Báyazíd at Bisṭám (p. 68), Damascus, Ramla, and Bayt -al-Jinn in Syria (pp. 94, 167, 343), Ṭús and Uzkand (p. 234), -the tomb of Abú Sa`íd b. Abi ´l-Khayr at Mihna (p. 235), Merv -(p. 401), and the Jabal al-Buttam to the east of Samarcand -(p. 407). He seems to have settled for a time in `Iráq, where -he ran deeply into debt (p. 345). It may be inferred from a -passage on p. 364 that he had a short and unpleasant experience -of married life. Finally, according to the <i>Riyáḍ al-Awliyá</i>, he -went to reside at Lahore and ended his days in that city. His -own statement, however, shows that he was taken there as -a prisoner against his will (p. 91), and that in composing the -<i>Kashf al-Maḥjúb</i> he was inconvenienced by the loss of the -books which he had left at Ghazna. The date of his death is -given as 456 <span class='fss'>A.H.</span> (1063-4 <span class='fss'>A.D.</span>) or 464 <span class='fss'>A.H.</span> (1071-2 <span class='fss'>A.D.</span>), but -it is likely that he survived Abu ´l-Qásim al-Qushayrí, who -died in 465 <span class='fss'>A.H.</span> (1072 <span class='fss'>A.D.</span>). Rieu’s observation (<i>Cat. of the -Persian MSS. in the British Museum</i>, i, 343) that the author -classes Qushayrí with the Ṣúfís who had passed away before -the time at which he was writing, is not quite accurate. The -author says (p. 161): “Some of those whom I shall mention in -this chapter are already deceased, and some are still living.” -But of the ten Ṣúfís in question only one, namely, Abu ´l-Qásim -Gurgání, is referred to in terms which leave no doubt that he -was alive when the author wrote. In the <i>Safínat al-Awliyá</i>, -No. 71, it is stated that Abu ´l-Qásim Gurgání died in 450 <span class='fss'>A.H.</span> -If this date were correct, the <i>Kashf al-Maḥjúb</i> must have been -written at least fifteen years before Qushayrí’s death. On the -other hand, my MS. of the <i>Shadharát al-Dhahab</i> records the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_xix'>xix</span>death of Abu ´l-Qásim Gurgání under the year 469 <span class='fss'>A.H.</span>, a date -which appears to me more probable, and in that case the -statement that the author survived Qushayrí may be accepted, -although the evidence on which it rests is mainly negative, for -we cannot lay much stress on the fact that Qushayrí’s name is -sometimes followed by the Moslem equivalent for “of blessed -memory”. I conjecture, then, that the author died between -465 and 469 <span class='fss'>A.H.</span><a id='r7' /><a href='#f7' class='c015'><sup>[7]</sup></a> His birth may be placed in the last decade -of the tenth or the first decade of the eleventh century of our -era, and he must have been in the prime of youth when Sultan -Maḥmúd died in 421 <span class='fss'>A.H.</span> (1030 <span class='fss'>A.D.</span>). The <i>Risála-i Abdáliyya</i>,<a id='r8' /><a href='#f8' class='c015'><sup>[8]</sup></a> -a fifteenth century treatise on the Muḥammadan saints by -Ya`qúb b. `Uthmán al-Ghaznawí, contains an anecdote, for -which it would be hazardous to claim any historical value, to -the effect that al-Hujwírí once argued in Maḥmúd’s presence -with an Indian philosopher and utterly discomfited him by an -exhibition of miraculous powers. Be that as it may, he was -venerated as a saint long after his death, and his tomb at Lahore -was being visited by pilgrims when Bakhtáwar Khán wrote the -<i>Riyáḍ al-Awliyá</i> in the latter half of the seventeenth century.</p> - -<p class='c001'>In the introduction to the <i>Kashf al-Maḥjúb</i> al-Hujwírí complains -that two of his former works had been given to the -public by persons who erased his name from the title-page, -and pretended that they themselves were the authors. In -order to guard against the repetition of this fraud, he has -inserted his own name in many passages of the present work. -His writings, to which he has occasion to refer in the <i>Kashf -al-Maḥjúb</i>, are—</p> - -<p class='c001'>1. A <i>díwán</i> (p. 2).</p> - -<p class='c001'>2. <i>Minháj al-dín</i>, on the method of Ṣúfiism (p. 2). It comprised -a detailed account of the Ahl-i Ṣuffa (p. 80) and a full -biography of Ḥusayn b. Manṣúr al-Ḥalláj (p. 153).</p> - -<p class='c001'><span class='pageno' id='Page_xx'>xx</span>3. <i>Asrár al-khiraq wa ´l-ma´únát</i>, on the patched frocks -of the Ṣúfís (p. 56).</p> - -<p class='c001'>4. <i>Kitáb-i faná ú baqá</i>, composed “in the vanity and rashness -of youth” (p. 60).</p> - -<p class='c001'>5. A work, of which the title is not mentioned, in explanation -of the sayings of Ḥusayn b. Manṣúr al-Ḥalláj (p. 153).</p> - -<p class='c001'>6. <i>Kitáb al-bayán li-ahl al-`iyán</i>, on union with God (p. 259).</p> - -<p class='c001'>7. <i>Baḥr al-qulúb</i> (p. 259).</p> - -<p class='c001'>8. <i>Al-Ri`áyat li-ḥuqúq Allah</i>, on the Divine unity (p. 280).</p> - -<p class='c001'>9. A work, of which the title is not mentioned, on faith -(p. 286).</p> - -<p class='c001'>None of these books has been preserved.</p> - -<p class='c001'>The <i>Kashf al-Maḥjúb</i>,<a id='r9' /><a href='#f9' class='c015'><sup>[9]</sup></a> which belongs to the later years of -the author’s life, and, partly at any rate, to the period of his -residence in Lahore, was written in reply to certain questions -addressed to him by a fellow-townsman, Abú Sa`íd al-Hujwírí. -Its object is to set forth a complete system of Ṣúfiism, not -to put together a great number of sayings by different Shaykhs, -but to discuss and expound the doctrines and practices of the -Ṣúfís. The author’s attitude throughout is that of a teacher -instructing a pupil. Even the biographical section of the -work (pp. 70-175) is largely expository. Before stating his -own view the author generally examines the current opinions -on the same topic and refutes them if necessary. The -discussion of mystical problems and controversies is enlivened -by many illustrations drawn from his personal experience. -In this respect the <i>Kashf al-Maḥjúb</i> is more interesting than -the <i>Risála</i> of Qushayrí, which is so valuable as a collection of -sayings, anecdotes, and definitions, but which follows a somewhat -formal and academic method on the orthodox lines. No -one can read the present work without detecting, behind the -scholastic terminology, a truly Persian flavour of philosophical -speculation.</p> - -<p class='c001'>Although he was a Sunní and a Ḥanafite, al-Hujwírí, like -many Ṣúfís before and after him, managed to reconcile his -<span class='pageno' id='Page_xxi'>xxi</span>theology with an advanced type of mysticism, in which the -theory of “annihilation” (<i>faná</i>) holds a dominant place, but -he scarcely goes to such extreme lengths as would justify us -in calling him a pantheist. He strenuously resists and pronounces -heretical the doctrine that human personality can be -merged and extinguished in the being of God. He compares -annihilation to burning by fire, which transmutes the quality -of all things to its own quality, but leaves their essence -unchanged. He agrees with his spiritual director, al-Khuttalí, -in adopting the theory of Junayd that “sobriety” in the mystical -acceptation of the term is preferable to “intoxication”. He -warns his readers often and emphatically that no Ṣúfís, not -even those who have attained the highest degree of holiness, -are exempt from the obligation of obeying the religious law. -In other points, such as the excitation of ecstasy by music and -singing, and the use of erotic symbolism in poetry, his judgment -is more or less cautious. He defends al-Ḥalláj from the -charge of being a magician, and asserts that his sayings are -pantheistic only in appearance, but condemns his doctrines as -unsound. It is clear that he is anxious to represent Ṣúfiism -as the true interpretation of Islam, and it is equally certain -that the interpretation is incompatible with the text.<a id='r10' /><a href='#f10' class='c015'><sup>[10]</sup></a> Notwithstanding -the homage which he pays to the Prophet we -cannot separate al-Hujwírí, as regards the essential principles -of his teaching, from his older and younger contemporaries, -Abú Sa`íd b. Abi ´l-Khayr and `Abdalláh Anṣárí.<a id='r11' /><a href='#f11' class='c015'><sup>[11]</sup></a> These -three mystics developed the distinctively Persian theosophy -which is revealed in full-blown splendour by Faríd al-dín `Aṭṭár -and Jalál al-dín Rúmí.</p> - -<p class='c001'>The most remarkable chapter in the <i>Kashf al-Maḥjúb</i> is the -fourteenth, “Concerning the Doctrines held by the different -sects of Ṣúfís,” in which the author enumerates twelve mystical -<span class='pageno' id='Page_xxii'>xxii</span>schools and explains the special doctrine of each.<a id='r12' /><a href='#f12' class='c015'><sup>[12]</sup></a> So far as -I know, he is the first writer to do this. Only one of the schools -mentioned by him, namely, that of the Malámatís, seems to -be noticed in earlier books on Ṣúfiism; such brief references -to the other schools as occur in later books, for example in the -<i>Tadhkirat al-Awliyá</i>, are probably made on his authority. -The question may be asked, “Did these schools really exist, or -were they invented by al-Hujwírí in his desire to systematize -the theory of Ṣúfiism?” I see no adequate ground at present -for the latter hypothesis, which involves the assumption that -al-Hujwírí made precise statements that he must have known -to be false. It is very likely, however, that in his account of -the special doctrines which he attributes to the founder of each -school he has often expressed his own views upon the subject -at issue and has confused them with the original doctrine. -The existence of these schools and doctrines, though lacking -further corroboration,<a id='r13' /><a href='#f13' class='c015'><sup>[13]</sup></a> does not seem to me incredible; on -the contrary, it accords with what happened in the case -of the Mu`tazilites and other Muḥammadan schismatics. -Certain doctrines were produced and elaborated by well-known -Shaykhs, who published them in the form of tracts or -were content to lecture on them until, by a familiar process, -the new doctrine became the pre-eminent feature of a particular -school. Other schools might then accept or reject it. In some -instances sharp controversy arose, and the novel teaching gained -so little approval that it was confined to the school of its author -or was embraced only by a small minority of the Ṣúfí brotherhood. -More frequently it would, in the course of time, be -drawn into the common stock and reduced to its proper level. -Dr. Goldziher has observed that Ṣúfiism cannot be regarded -as a regularly organized sect within Islam, and that its dogmas -<span class='pageno' id='Page_xxiii'>xxiii</span>cannot be compiled into a regular system.<a id='r14' /><a href='#f14' class='c015'><sup>[14]</sup></a> That is perfectly -true, but after allowing for all divergences there remains -a fairly definite body of doctrine which is held in common -by Ṣúfís of many different shades and is the result of gradual -agglomeration from many different minds.</p> - -<p class='c001'>It is probable that oral tradition was the main source from -which al-Hujwírí derived the materials for his work. Of extant -treatises on Ṣúfiism he mentions by name only the <i>Kitáb -al-Luma`</i> by Abú Naṣr al-Sarráj, who died in 377 or 378 <span class='fss'>A.H.</span> -This book is written in Arabic and is the oldest specimen -of its class. Through the kindness of Mr. A. G. Ellis, who -has recently acquired the sole copy that is at present known -to Orientalists, I have been able to verify the reading of -a passage quoted by al-Hujwírí (p. 341), and to assure myself -that he was well acquainted with his predecessor’s work. -The arrangement of the <i>Kashf al-Maḥjúb</i> is partially based -on that of the <i>Kitáb al-Luma`</i>, the two books resemble each -other in their general plan, and some details of the former -are evidently borrowed from the latter. Al-Hujwírí refers in -his notice of Ma`rúf al-Karkhí (p. 114) to the biographies of -Ṣúfís compiled by Abú `Abd al-Raḥmán al-Sulamí and -Abu ´l-Qásim al-Qushayrí. Although he does not give the -titles, he is presumably referring to Sulamí’s <i>ṭabaqát Al-ṣúfiyya</i> -and Qushayrí’s <i>Risála</i>.<a id='r15' /><a href='#f15' class='c015'><sup>[15]</sup></a> The <i>Kashf al-Maḥjúb</i> contains a -Persian rendering of some passages in the <i>Risála</i> of Qushayrí, -with whom al-Hujwírí seems to have been personally acquainted. -A citation from `Abdalláh Anṣárí occurs on p. 26.</p> - -<p class='c001'>Manuscripts of the <i>Kashf al-Maḥjúb</i> are preserved in several -European libraries.<a id='r16' /><a href='#f16' class='c015'><sup>[16]</sup></a> It has been lithographed at Lahore, and -Professor Schukovski of St. Petersburg is now, as I understand, -engaged in preparing a critical text. The Lahore edition is -inaccurate, especially in the spelling of names, but most of -<span class='pageno' id='Page_xxiv'>xxiv</span>its mistakes are easy to emend, and the text agrees closely -with two MSS. in the Library of the India Office (Nos. 1773 -and 1774 in Ethé’s <i>Catalogue</i>), with which I have compared it. -I have also consulted a good MS. in the British Museum -(Rieu’s <i>Catalogue</i>, i, 342). The following abbreviations are -used: L. to denote the Lahore edition, <b>I.</b> to denote the India -Office MS. 1773 (early seventeenth century), <b>J.</b> to denote the -India Office MS. 1774 (late seventeenth century), and <b>B.</b> to -denote the British Museum MS. Or. 219 (early seventeenth -century). In my translation I have, of course, corrected the -Lahore text where necessary. While the doubtful passages -are few in number, there are, I confess, many places in which -a considerable effort is required in order to grasp the author’s -meaning and follow his argument. The logic of a Persian -Ṣúfí must sometimes appear to European readers curiously -illogical. Other obstacles might have been removed by means -of annotation, but this expedient, if adopted consistently, would -have swollen the volume to a formidable size.</p> - -<p class='c001'>The English version is nearly complete, and nothing of -importance has been omitted, though I have not hesitated to -abridge when opportunity offered. Arabists will remark an -occasional discrepancy between the Arabic sayings printed -in italics and the translations accompanying them: this is -due to my having translated, not the original Arabic, but the -Persian paraphrase given by al-Hujwírí.</p> - -<div class='c016'><span class='sc'>Reynold A. Nicholson.</span></div> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c002'> - <div><span class='pageno' id='Page_1'>1</span><span class='xlarge'>KASHF AL-MAḤJÚB.</span></div> - </div> -</div> - -<div class='chapter'> - <h2 id='intro' class='c011'>INTRODUCTION.</h2> -</div> - -<p class='c014'><span class='sc'>In the Name of God, the Merciful, the Compassionate.</span></p> - -<p class='c006'><i>O Lord, bestow on us mercy from Thyself and provide for us -a right course of action!</i></p> - -<p class='c006'><i>Praise be to God, who hath revealed the secrets of His kingdom -to His Saints, and hath disclosed the mysteries of His -power to His intimates, and hath shed the blood of Lovers -with the sword of His glory, and hath let the hearts of -Gnostics taste the joy of His communion! He it is that -bringeth dead hearts to life by the radiance of the perception -of His eternity and His majesty, and reanimates them -with the comforting spirit of knowledge by divulging His -Names.</i></p> - -<p class='c006'><i>And peace be upon His Apostle, Muḥammad, and his family and -his companions and his wives!</i></p> - -<p class='c001'>`Alí b. `Uthmán b. `Alí al-Jullábí al-Ghaznawí al-Hujwírí -(may God be well pleased with him!) says as follows:—</p> - -<div class='quote'> - -<p class='c001'>I have asked God’s blessing, and have cleared my heart of -motives related to self, and have set to work in accordance with -your invitation—may God make you happy!—and have firmly -resolved to fulfil all your wishes by means of this book. I have -entitled it “The Revelation of The Mystery”. Knowing what -you desire, I have arranged the book in divisions suitable to -your purpose. Now I pray God to aid and prosper me in its -completion, and I divest myself of my own strength and ability -in word and deed. It is God that gives success.</p> - -</div> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c004'> - <div><span class='pageno' id='Page_2'>2</span><span class='sc'>Section.</span></div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>Two considerations have impelled me to put my name at the -beginning of the book: one particular, the other general.<a id='r17' /><a href='#f17' class='c015'><sup>[17]</sup></a> As -regards the latter, when persons ignorant of this science see -a new book, in which the author’s name is not set down in -several places, they attribute his work to themselves, and thus -the author’s aim is defeated, since books are compiled, composed, -and written only to the end that the author’s name may be kept -alive and that readers and students may pronounce a blessing -on him. This misfortune has already befallen me twice. -A certain individual borrowed my poetical works, of which -there was no other copy, and retained the manuscript in his -possession, and circulated it, and struck out my name which -stood at its head, and caused all my labour to be lost. May -God forgive him! I also composed another book, entitled -“The Highway of Religion” (<i>Minháj al-Dín</i>), on the method -of Ṣúfiism—may God make it flourish! A shallow pretender, -whose words carry no weight, erased my name from the -title page and gave out to the public that he was the author, -notwithstanding that connoisseurs laughed at his assertion. -God, however, brought home to him the unblessedness of -this act and erased <em>his</em> name from the register of those who -seek to enter the Divine portal.</p> - -<p class='c001'>As regards the particular consideration, when people see -a book, and know that its author is skilled in the branch of -science of which it treats, and is thoroughly versed therein, -they judge its merits more fairly and apply themselves more -seriously to read and remember it, so that both author and -reader are better satisfied. The truth is best known to <a id='corr2.28'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='God'>God.</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_2.28'><ins class='correction' title='God'>God.</ins></a></span></p> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c004'> - <div><span class='sc'>Section.</span></div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>In using the words “I have asked God’s blessing” (p. 3), -I wished to observe the respect due to God, who said to His -<span class='pageno' id='Page_3'>3</span>Apostle: “<i>When you read the Koran, take refuge with God from -the stoned Devil</i>” (Kor. xvi, 100). “To ask blessing” means -“to commit all one’s affairs to God and to be saved from the -various sorts of contamination”. The Prophet used to teach his -followers to ask a blessing (<i>istikhárat</i>) just as he taught them -the Koran. When a man recognizes that his welfare does not -depend on his own effort and foresight, but that every good and -evil that happens to him is decreed by God, who knows best -what is salutary for him, he cannot do otherwise than surrender -himself to Destiny and implore God to deliver him from the -wickedness of his own soul.</p> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c004'> - <div><span class='sc'>Section.</span></div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>As to the words “I have cleared my heart of all motives -related to self” (p. 3), no blessing arises from anything in -which selfish interest has a part. If the selfish man succeeds in -his purpose, it brings him to perdition, for “the accomplishment -of a selfish purpose is the key of Hell”; and if he fails, he will -nevertheless have removed from his heart the means of gaining -salvation, for “resistance to selfish promptings is the key of -Paradise”, as God hath said: “<i>Whoso refrains his soul from -lust, verily Paradise shall be his abode</i>” (Kor. lxxix, 40-1). -People act from selfish motives when they desire aught except -to please God and to escape from Divine punishment. In -fine, the follies of the soul have no limit and its manœuvres -are hidden from sight. If God will, a chapter on this subject -will be found at its proper place in the present book.</p> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c004'> - <div><span class='sc'>Section.</span></div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>Now as to the words “I have set to work in accordance -with your invitation, and have firmly resolved to fulfil all -your wishes by means of this book” (p. 3), since you thought -me worthy of being asked to write this book for your instruction, -it was incumbent on me to comply with your request. -Accordingly it behoved me to make an unconditional resolution -<span class='pageno' id='Page_4'>4</span>that I would carry out my undertaking completely. When -anyone begins an enterprise with the intention of finishing it, -he may be excused if imperfections appear in his work; and -for this reason the Prophet said: “The believer’s intention -is better than his performance.” Great is the power of -intention, through which a man advances from one category -to another without any external change. For example, if -anyone endures hunger for a while without having intended -to fast, he gets no recompense (<i>thawáb</i>) for it in the next -world; but if he forms in his heart the intention of fasting, -he becomes one of the favourites of God (<i>muqarrabán</i>). Again, -a traveller who stays for a time in a city does not become a -resident until he has formed the intention to reside there. A -good intention, therefore, is preliminary to the due performance -of every act.</p> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c004'> - <div><span class='sc'>Section.</span></div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>When I said that I had called this book “The Revelation -of the Mystery” (p. 3), my object was that the title of the -book should proclaim its contents to persons of insight. You -must know that all mankind are veiled from the subtlety of -spiritual truth except God’s saints and His chosen friends; -and inasmuch as this book is an elucidation of the Way of -Truth, and an explanation of mystical sayings, and an uplifting -of the veil of mortality, no other title is appropriate to it. -Essentially, unveiling (<i>kashf</i>) is destruction of the veiled -object, just as the veil destroys revelation (<i>mukáshafat</i>), and -just as, for instance, one who is near cannot bear to be far, -and one who is far cannot bear to be near; or as an animal -which is generated from vinegar dies when it falls into any -other substance, while those animals which are generated -from other substances perish if they are put in vinegar. The -spiritual path is hard to travel except for those who were -created for that purpose. The Prophet said: “Everyone finds -easy that for which he was created.” There are two veils: -one is the “veil of covering” (<i>ḥijáb-i rayní</i>), which can never -<span class='pageno' id='Page_5'>5</span>be removed, and the other is the “veil of clouding” (<i>ḥijáb-i -ghayní</i>), which is quickly removed. The explanation is as -follows: one man is veiled from the Truth by his essence -(<i>dhát</i>), so that in his view truth and falsehood are the same. -Another man is veiled from the Truth by his attributes (<i>ṣifat</i>), -so that his nature and heart continually seek the Truth -and flee from falsehood. Therefore the veil of essence, which -is that of “covering” (<i>rayní</i>), is never removed. <i>Rayn</i> is -synonymous with <i>khatin</i> (sealing) and <i>ṭab`</i> (imprinting). Thus -God hath said: “<i>By no means: but their deeds have spread a -covering</i> (rána) <i>over their hearts</i>” (Kor. lxxxiii, 14); then He -made the sense of this manifest and said: “<i>Verily it is all one to -the unbelievers whether thou warnest them or no; they will not -believe</i>” (Kor. ii, 5); then he explained the cause thereof, saying: -“<i>God hath sealed up their hearts</i>” (Kor. ii, 6). But the veil -of attributes, which is that of “clouding” (<i>ghayní</i>), may be -removed at times, for essence does not admit of alteration, -but the alteration of attributes is possible. The Ṣúfí Shaykhs -have given many subtle hints on the subject of <i>rayn</i> and <i>ghayn</i>. -Junayd said: <i>Al-rayn min jumlat al-waṭanát wa ´l-ghayn min -jumlat al-khaṭarát</i>, “<i>Rayn</i> belongs to the class of abiding -things and <i>ghayn</i> to the class of transient things.” <i>Waṭan</i> -is permanent and <i>khaṭar</i> is adventitious. For example, it is -impossible to make a mirror out of a stone, though many -polishers assemble to try their skill on it, but a rusty mirror -can be made bright by polishing; darkness is innate in the -stone, and brightness is innate in the mirror; since the essence -is permanent, the temporary attribute does not endure.</p> - -<p class='c001'>Accordingly, I have composed this book for polishers of -hearts which are infected by the veil of “clouding” but in which -the substance of the light of the Truth is existent, in order that -the veil may be lifted from them by the blessing of reading it, -and that they may find their way to spiritual reality. Those -whose being is compounded of denial of the truth and perpetration -of falsehood will never find their way thither, and this -book will be of no use to them.</p> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c004'> - <div><span class='pageno' id='Page_6'>6</span><span class='sc'>Section.</span></div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>Now with reference to my words “knowing what you desire, -I have arranged the book in divisions suitable to your purpose” -(p. 3), a questioner cannot be satisfied until he makes his -want known to the person whom he interrogates. A question -presupposes a difficulty, and a difficulty is insoluble until its -nature is ascertained. Furthermore, to answer a question in -general terms is only possible when he who asks it has full -knowledge of its various departments and corollaries, but with -a beginner one needs to go into detail, and offer diverse -explanations and definitions; and in this case especially, -seeing that you—God grant you happiness!—desired me to -answer your questions in detail and write a book on the -matter.</p> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c004'> - <div><span class='sc'>Section.</span></div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>I said, “I pray God to aid and prosper me” (p. 3), because -God alone can help a man to do good deeds. When God -assists anyone to perform acts deserving recompense, this is -truly “success given by God” (<i>tawfíq</i>). The Koran and the -Sunna attest the genuineness of <i>tawfíq</i>, and the whole Moslem -community are unanimous therein, except some Mu`tazilites -and Qadarites, who assert that the expression <i>tawfíq</i> is -void of meaning. Certain Ṣúfí Shaykhs have said, <i>Al-tawfíq -huwa ´l-qudrat `ala ´l-ṭá`at `inda ´l-isti`mál</i>, “When a man is -obedient to God he receives from God increased strength.” -In short, all human action and inaction is the act and creation -of God: therefore the strength whereby a man renders obedience -to God is called <i>tawfíq</i>. The discussion of this topic, however, -would be out of place here. Please God, I will now return to -the task which you have proposed, but before entering on it -I will set down your question in its exact form.</p> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c004'> - <div><span class='sc'>Section.</span></div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>The questioner, Abú Sa`íd al-Hujwírí, said: “Explain to -me the true meaning of the Path of Ṣúfiism and the nature -<span class='pageno' id='Page_7'>7</span>of the ‘stations’ (<i>maqámát</i>) of the Ṣúfís, and explain their -doctrines and sayings, and make clear to me their mystical -allegories, and the nature of Divine Love and how it is -manifested in human hearts, and why the intellect is unable -to reach the essence thereof, and why the soul recoils from -the reality thereof, and why the spirit is lulled in the purity -thereof; and explain the practical aspects of Ṣúfiism which -are connected with these theories.”</p> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c004'> - <div><span class='sc'>Answer.</span></div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>The person questioned, `Alí b. `Uthmán al-Jullábí al-Hujwírí—may -God have mercy on him!—says:—</p> - -<p class='c001'>Know that in this our time the science of Ṣúfiism is obsolete, -especially in this country. The whole people is occupied -with following its lusts and has turned its back on the path -of quietism (<i>riḍá</i>), while the <i>`ulamá</i> and those who pretend -to learning have formed a conception of Ṣúfiism which is quite -contrary to its fundamental principles.</p> - -<p class='c001'>High and low alike are content with empty professions: -blind conformity has taken the place of spiritual enthusiasm. -The vulgar say, “We know God,” and the elect, satisfied if -they feel in their hearts a longing for the next world, say, -“This desire is vision and ardent love.” Everyone makes -pretensions, none attains to reality. The disciples, neglecting -their ascetic practices, indulge in idle thoughts, which they call -“contemplation”.</p> - -<p class='c001'>I myself (the author proceeds) have already written several -books on Ṣúfiism, but all to no purpose. Some false pretenders -picked out passages here and there in order to deceive the -public, while they erased and destroyed the rest; others -did not mutilate the books, but left them unread; others read -them, but did not comprehend their meaning, so they copied -the text and committed it to memory and said: “We can -discourse on mystical science.” Nowadays true spiritualism -is as rare as the Philosopher’s Stone (<i>kibrít-i aḥmar</i>); for it -<span class='pageno' id='Page_8'>8</span>is natural to seek the medicine that fits the disease, and -nobody wants to mix pearls and coral with common remedies -like <i>shalíthá</i><a id='r18' /><a href='#f18' class='c015'><sup>[18]</sup></a> and <i>dawá al-misk</i>.<a id='r19' /><a href='#f19' class='c015'><sup>[19]</sup></a> In time past the works -of eminent <i>Ṣúfís</i>, falling into the hands of those who could -not appreciate them, have been used to make lining for -caps or binding for the poems of Abú Nuwás and the -pleasantries of Jáḥiẕ. The royal falcon is sure to get its -wings clipped when it perches on the wall of an old -woman’s cottage. Our contemporaries give the name of -“law” to their lusts, pride and ambition they call “honour -and learning”, hypocrisy towards men “fear of God”, concealment -of anger “clemency”, disputation “discussion”, wrangling -and foolishness “dignity”, insincerity “renunciation”, cupidity -“devotion to God”, their own senseless fancies “divine knowledge”, -the motions of the heart and affections of the animal soul -“divine love”, heresy “poverty”, scepticism “purity”, disbelief -in positive religion (<i>zandaqa</i>) “self-annihilation”, neglect of -the Law of the Prophet “the mystic Path”, evil communication -with time-servers “exercise of piety”. As Abú Bakr al-Wásiṭí -said: “We are afflicted with a time in which there are neither -the religious duties of Islam nor the morals of Paganism nor -the virtues of Chivalry” (<i>aḥlám-i dhawi ´l-ṃuruwwa</i>). And -Mutanabbí says to the same effect:—<a id='r20' /><a href='#f20' class='c015'><sup>[20]</sup></a></p> - -<div class='lg-container-b c009'> - <div class='linegroup'> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'>“<i>God curse this world! What a vile place for any camel-rider to alight in!</i></div> - <div class='line'><i>For here the man of lofty spirit is always tormented.</i>”</div> - </div> - </div> -</div> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c004'> - <div><span class='sc'>Section.</span></div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>Know that I have found this universe an abode of Divine -mysteries, which are deposited in created things. Substances -accidents, elements, bodies, forms, and properties—all these -are veils of Divine mysteries. From the standpoint of -<span class='pageno' id='Page_9'>9</span>Unification (<i>tawḥíd</i>) it is polytheism to assert that any such -veils exist, but in this world everything is veiled, by its -being, from Unification, and the spirit is held captive by -admixture and association with phenomenal being. Hence -the intellect can hardly comprehend those Divine mysteries, -and the spirit can but dimly perceive the marvels of nearness -to God. Man, enamoured of his gross environment, remains -sunk in ignorance and apathy, making no attempt to cast -off the veil that has fallen upon him. Blind to the beauty -of Oneness, he turns away from God to seek the vanities of -this world and allows his appetites to domineer over his -reason, notwithstanding that the animal soul, which the Koran -(xii, 53) describes as “commanding to evil” (<i>ammárat<sup>un</sup> bi -´l-sú´</i>), is the greatest of all veils between God and Man.</p> - -<p class='c001'>Now I will begin and explain to you, fully and lucidly, what -you wish to know concerning the “stations” and the “veils”, -and I will interpret the expressions of the technicologists -(<i>ahl-i ṣaná´i`</i>), and add thereto some sayings of the Shaykhs -and anecdotes about them, in order that your object may be -accomplished and that any learned doctors of law or others -who look into this work may recognize that the Path of -Ṣúfiism has a firm root and a fruitful branch, since all the -Ṣúfí Shaykhs have been possessed of knowledge and have -encouraged their disciples to acquire knowledge and to -persevere in doing so. They have never been addicted to -frivolity and levity. Many of them have composed treatises -on the method of Ṣúfiism which clearly prove that their -minds were filled with divine thoughts.</p> -<hr class='c017' /> -<div class='footnote' id='f1'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r1'>1</a>. Julláb and Hujwír were two suburbs of Ghazna. Evidently he resided for some -time in each of them.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f2'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r2'>2</a>. Notices occur in the <i>Nafaḥát al-Uns</i>, No. 377; the <i>Safínat al-Awliyá</i>, No. 298 -(Ethé’s <i>Cat. of the Persian MSS. in the Library of the India Office</i>, i, col. 304); the -<i>Riyáḍ al-Awliyá</i>, Or. 1745, f. 140<i>a</i> (Rieu’s <i>Cat. of the Persian MSS. in the British -Museum</i>, iii, 975). In the <i>khátimat al-ṭab`</i> on the last page of the Lahore edition -of the <i>Kashf al-Maḥjúb</i> he is called Ḥaḍrat-i Dátá Ganj-bakhsh `Alí al-Hujwírí.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f3'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r3'>3</a>. <i>Nafaḥát</i>, No. 376. Through al-Khuttalí, al-Ḥuṣrí, and Abú Bakr al-Shiblí the -author of the <i>Kashf al-Maḥjúb</i> is spiritually connected with Junayd of Baghdád -(ob. 297 <span class='fss'>A.H.</span>).</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f4'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r4'>4</a>. Ibid., No. 375. The <i>nisba</i> Shaqqání or Shaqání is derived from Shaqqán, -a village near Níshápúr.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f5'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r5'>5</a>. <i>Nafaḥát</i>, No. 367.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f6'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r6'>6</a>. Ibid., No. 368.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f7'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r7'>7</a>. The date 465 <span class='fss'>A.H.</span> is given by Ázád in his biographical work on the famous men -of Balgrám, entitled <i>Ma´áthir al-Kirám</i>.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f8'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r8'>8</a>. See Ethé’s <i>Cat. of the Persian MSS. in the India Office Library</i>, No. 1774 (2). -The author of this treatise does not call al-Hujwírí the <i>brother</i> of Abú Sa`íd b. Abi ´l-Khayr, -as Ethé says, but his <i>spiritual</i> brother (<i>birádar-i ḥaqíqat</i>).</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f9'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r9'>9</a>. Its full title is <i>Kashf al-maḥjúb li-arbáb al-qulúb</i> (Ḥájjí Khalífa, v, 215).</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f10'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r10'>10</a>. The author’s view as to the worthlessness of outward forms of religion is -expressed with striking boldness in his chapter on the Pilgrimage (pp. 326-9).</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f11'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r11'>11</a>. Many passages from the <i>Kashf al-Maḥjúb</i> are quoted, word for word, in Jámí’s -<i>Nafaḥát al-Uns</i>, which is a modernized and enlarged recension of `Abdalláh Anṣárí’s -<i>Ṭabaqát al-Ṣúfiyya</i>.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f12'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r12'>12</a>. A summary of these doctrines will be found in the abstract of a paper on “The -Oldest Persian Manual of Ṣúfiism” which I read at Oxford in 1908 (<i>Trans. of the -Third International Congress for the History of Religions</i>, i, 293-7).</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f13'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r13'>13</a>. Some of al-Hujwírí’s twelve sects reappear at a later epoch as orders of dervishes, -but the pedigree of those orders which trace their descent from ancient Ṣúfís is -usually fictitious.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f14'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r14'>14</a>. <i>JRAS.</i>, 1904, p. 130.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f15'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r15'>15</a>. Cf., however, p. 114, note.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f16'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r16'>16</a>. See Ethé’s <i>Cat. of the Persian MSS. in the India Office Library</i>, i, col. 970, -where other MSS. are mentioned, and Blochet, <i>Cat. des manuscrits persans de la -Bibliothèque Nationale</i>, i, 261 (No. 401).</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f17'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r17'>17</a>. The author’s meaning appears to be that one consideration has a special reference -to connoisseurs and competent persons, while the other has a general reference to the -public at large.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f18'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r18'>18</a>. An electuary used as a remedy for paralysis of the tongue or mouth.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f19'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r19'>19</a>. See Dozy, <cite><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Supplément</span></cite>, under <i>dawá</i>.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f20'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r20'>20</a>. Mutanabbí, ed. by Dieterici, p. 662, l. 4 from foot.</p> -</div> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_11'>11</span> - <h2 id='ch01' class='c011'>CHAPTER I. <br /><span class='sc'>On the Affirmation of Knowledge.</span></h2> -</div> - -<p class='c014'>God hath said, describing the savants (<i>`ulamá</i>): “<i>Of those -who serve God only the savants fear Him</i>” (Kor. xxxv, 25). -The Prophet said: “To seek knowledge is obligatory on every -Moslem man and woman;” and he said also: “Seek knowledge -even in China.” Knowledge is immense and life is short: -therefore it is not obligatory to learn all the sciences, such -as Astronomy and Medicine, and Arithmetic, etc., but only -so much of each as bears upon the religious law: enough -astronomy to know the times (of prayer) in the night, -enough medicine to abstain from what is injurious, enough -arithmetic to understand the division of inheritances and -to calculate the duration of the <i>`idda</i>,<a id='r21' /><a href='#f21' class='c015'><sup>[21]</sup></a> etc. Knowledge is -obligatory only in so far as is requisite for acting rightly. -God condemns those who learn useless knowledge (Kor. ii, -96), and the Prophet said: “I take refuge with Thee from -knowledge that profiteth naught.” Much may be done by -means of a little knowledge, and knowledge should not be -separated from action. The Prophet said: “The devotee -without divinity is like a donkey turning a mill,” because -the donkey goes round and round over its own tracks and -never makes any advance.</p> - -<p class='c001'>Some regard knowledge as superior to action, while others -put action first, but both parties are wrong. Unless action -is combined with knowledge, it is not deserving of recompense. -Prayer, for instance, is not really prayer, unless performed -with knowledge of the principles of purification and those -<span class='pageno' id='Page_12'>12</span>which concern the <i>qibla</i>,<a id='r22' /><a href='#f22' class='c015'><sup>[22]</sup></a> and with knowledge of the nature -of intention. Similarly, knowledge without action is not -knowledge. Learning and committing to memory are acts -for which a man is rewarded in the next world; if he gained -knowledge without action and acquisition on his part, he -would get no reward. Hence two classes of men fall into -error: firstly, those who claim knowledge for the sake of -public reputation but are unable to practise it, and in reality -have not attained it; and secondly, those who pretend that -practice suffices and that knowledge is unnecessary. It is -told of Ibráhím b. Adham that he saw a stone on which was -written, “Turn me over and read!” He obeyed, and found -this inscription: “Thou dost not practise what thou knowest; -why, then, dost thou seek what thou knowest not?” Ánas -b. Málik says: “The wise aspire to know, the foolish to -relate.” He who uses his knowledge as a means of winning -power and honour and wealth is no savant. The highest -pinnacle of knowledge is expressed in the fact that without -it none can know God.</p> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c004'> - <div><span class='sc'>Section.</span></div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>Knowledge is of two kinds: Divine and Human. The -latter is worthless in comparison with the former, because -God’s knowledge is an attribute of Himself, subsisting in -Him, whose attributes are infinite; whereas our knowledge -is an attribute of ourselves, subsisting in us, whose attributes -are finite. Knowledge has been defined as “comprehension -and investigation of the object known”, but the best definition -of it is this: “A quality whereby the ignorant are made wise.” -God’s knowledge is that by which He knows all things existent -and non-existent: He does not share it with Man: it is not -capable of division nor separable from Himself. The proof of -it lies in the disposition of His actions (<i>tartíb-i fi`lash</i>), since -action demands knowledge in the agent as an indispensable -condition. The Divine knowledge penetrates what is hidden -<span class='pageno' id='Page_13'>13</span>and comprehends what is manifest. It behoves the seeker to -Contemplate God in every act, knowing that God sees him and -all that he does.</p> - -<p class='c001'><i>Story.</i> They relate that a leading man in Baṣra went to -his garden. By chance his eye fell upon the beautiful wife -of his gardener. He sent the fellow away on some business -and said to the woman: “Shut the gates.” She replied: -“I have shut them all except one, which I cannot shut.” He -asked: “Which one is that?” “The gate,” said she, “that -is between us and God.” On receiving this answer the man -repented and begged to be forgiven.</p> - -<p class='c001'>Ḥátim al-Aṣamm said: “I have chosen four things to know, -and have discarded all the knowledge in the world besides.” -He was asked: “What are they?” “One,” he answered, “is -this: I know that my daily bread is apportioned to me, -and will neither be increased nor diminished; consequently -I have ceased to seek to augment it. Secondly, I know that -I owe to God a debt which no other person can pay instead -of me; therefore I am occupied with paying it. Thirdly, -I know that there is one pursuing me (i.e. Death) from -whom I cannot escape; accordingly I have prepared myself -to meet him. Fourthly, I know that God is observing me; -therefore I am ashamed to do what I ought not.”</p> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c004'> - <div><span class='sc'>Section.</span></div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>The object of human knowledge should be to know God -and His Commandments. Knowledge of “time” (<i>`ilm-i waqt</i>)<a id='r23' /><a href='#f23' class='c015'><sup>[23]</sup></a>, -and of all outward and inward circumstances of which the -due effect depends on “time”, is incumbent upon everyone. -This is of two sorts: primary and secondary. The external -<span class='pageno' id='Page_14'>14</span>division of the primary class consists in making the Moslem’s -profession of faith, the internal division consists in the -attainment of true cognition. The external division of the -secondary class consists in the practice of devotion, the internal -division consists in rendering one’s intention sincere. The -outward and inward aspects cannot be divorced. The exoteric -aspect of Truth without the esoteric is hypocrisy, and the -esoteric without the exoteric is heresy. So, with regard to -the Law, mere formality is defective, while mere spirituality -is vain.</p> - -<p class='c001'>The Knowledge of the Truth (<i>Ḥaqíqat</i>) has three pillars—</p> - - <ul class='ul_1'> - <li>(1) Knowledge of the Essence and Unity of God. - </li> - <li>(2) Knowledge of the Attributes of God. - </li> - <li>(3) Knowledge of the Actions and Wisdom of God. - </li> - </ul> - -<p class='c001'>The Knowledge of the Law (<i>Sharí`at</i>) also has three -pillars—</p> - - <ul class='ul_1'> - <li>(1) The Koran. - </li> - <li>(2) The Sunna. - </li> - <li>(3) The Consensus (<i>ijmá`</i>) of the Moslem community. - </li> - </ul> - -<p class='c001'>Knowledge of the Divine Essence involves recognition, on -the part of one who is reasonable and has reached puberty, -that God exists externally by His essence, that He is infinite -and not bounded by space, that His essence is not the cause -of evil, that none of His creatures is like unto Him, that -He has neither wife nor child, and that He is the Creator -and Sustainer of all that your imagination and intellect can -conceive.</p> - -<p class='c001'>Knowledge of the Divine Attributes requires you to know -that God has attributes existing in Himself, which are not -He nor a part of Him, but exist in Him and subsist by -Him, e.g. Knowledge, Power, Life, Will, Hearing, Sight, -Speech, etc.</p> - -<p class='c001'>Knowledge of the Divine Actions is your knowledge that -God is the Creator of mankind and of all their actions, that -He brought the non-existent universe into being, that He -<span class='pageno' id='Page_15'>15</span>predestines good and evil and creates all that is beneficial -and injurious.</p> - -<p class='c001'>Knowledge of the Law involves your knowing that God -has sent us Apostles with miracles of an extraordinary nature; -that our Apostle, Muḥammad (on whom be peace!), is a -true Messenger, who performed many miracles, and that -whatever he has told us concerning the Unseen and the Visible -is entirely true.</p> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c004'> - <div><span class='sc'>Section.</span></div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>There is a sect of heretics called Sophists (<i>Súfisṭá´iyán</i>), who -believe that nothing can be known and that knowledge itself -does not exist. I say to them: “You think that nothing -can be known; is your opinion correct or not?” If they -answer “It is correct”, they thereby affirm the reality of -knowledge; and if they reply “It is not correct”, then to -argue against an avowedly incorrect assertion is absurd. -The same doctrine is held by a sect of heretics who are -connected with Ṣúfiism. They say that, inasmuch as nothing -is knowable, their negation of knowledge is more perfect than -the affirmation of it. This statement proceeds from their -folly and stupidity. The negation of knowledge must be -the result either of knowledge or of ignorance. Now it is -impossible for knowledge to deny knowledge; therefore -knowledge cannot be denied except by ignorance, which is -nearly akin to infidelity and falsehood; for there is no -connexion between ignorance and truth. The doctrine in -question is opposed to that of all the Ṣúfí Shaykhs, but is -commonly attributed to the Ṣúfís in general by people who -have heard it and embraced it. I commit them to God, -with Whom it rests whether they shall continue in their error. -If religion takes hold of them, they will behave more discreetly -and will not misjudge the Friends of God in this way and -will look more anxiously to what concerns themselves. -Although some heretics claim to be Ṣúfís in order to conceal -their own foulness under the beauty of others, why should it -<span class='pageno' id='Page_16'>16</span>be supposed that all Ṣúfis are like these pretenders, and that -it is right to treat them all with disdain and contumely? An -individual who wished to pass for learned and orthodox, but -really was devoid of knowledge and religion, once said to -me in the course of debate: “There are twelve heretical -sects, and one of them flourishes amongst those who profess -Ṣúfiism” (<i>mutaṣawwifa</i>). I replied: “If one sect belongs -to us, eleven belong to you; and the Ṣúfís can protect -themselves from one better than you can from eleven.” All -this heresy springs from the corruption and degeneracy of -the times, but God has always kept His Saints hidden from -the multitude and apart from the ungodly. Well said that -eminent spiritual guide, `Alí b. Bundár al-Ṣayrafí<a id='r24' /><a href='#f24' class='c015'><sup>[24]</sup></a>: “The -depravity of men’s hearts is in proportion to the depravity -of the age.”</p> - -<p class='c001'>Now in the following section I will cite some sayings of -the Ṣúfís as an admonition to those sceptics towards whom -God is favourably inclined.</p> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c004'> - <div><span class='sc'>Section.</span></div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>Muḥammad b. Faḍl al-Balkhí says: “Knowledge is of three -kinds—<i>from</i> God, <i>with</i> God, and <i>of</i> God.” Knowledge <i>of</i> God -is the science of Gnosis (<i>`ilm-i ma`rifat</i>), whereby He is known -to all His prophets and saints. It cannot be acquired by -ordinary means, but is the result of Divine guidance and -information. Knowledge <i>from</i> God is the science of the Sacred -Law (<i>`ilm-i sharí`at</i>), which He has commanded and made -obligatory upon us. Knowledge <i>with</i> God is the science of -the “stations” and the “Path” and the degrees of the saints. -Gnosis is unsound without acceptance of the Law, and the Law -is not practised rightly unless the “stations” are manifested. -Abú `Alí Thaqafí<a id='r25' /><a href='#f25' class='c015'><sup>[25]</sup></a> says: <i>Al-`ilm ḥayát al-qalb min al-jahl -wa-núr al-`ayn min al-ẕulmat</i>, “Knowledge is the life of the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_17'>17</span>heart, which delivers it from the death of ignorance: it is the -light of the eye of faith, which saves it from the darkness of -infidelity.” The hearts of infidels are dead, because they are -ignorant of God, and the hearts of the heedless are sick, because -they are ignorant of His Commandments. Abú Bakr Warráq -of Tirmidh says: “Those who are satisfied with disputation -(<i>kalám</i>) about knowledge and do not practise asceticism (<i>zuhd</i>) -become <i>zindíqs</i> (heretics); and those who are satisfied with -jurisprudence (<i>fiqh</i>) and do not practise abstinence (<i>wara`</i>)become wicked.” This means that Unification (<i>tawḥíd</i>), without -works, is predestination (<i>jabr</i>), whereas the assertor of Unification -ought to hold the doctrine of predestination but to act -as though he believed in free will, taking a middle course -between free will and predestination. Such is the true sense -of another saying uttered by the same spiritual guide, viz.: -“Unification is below predestination and above free will.”</p> - -<p class='c001'>Lack of positive religion and of morality arises from -heedlessness (<i>ghaflat</i>). Well said that great master, Yaḥyá -b. Mu`ádh al-Rází: “Avoid the society of three classes of men—heedless -savants, hypocritical Koran-readers, and ignorant -pretenders to Ṣúfiism.” The heedless savants are they who -have set their hearts on worldly gain and paid court to -governors and tyrants, and have been seduced by their own -cleverness to spend their time in subtle disputations, and have -attacked the leading authorities on religion. The hypocritical -Koran-readers are they who praise whatever is done in -accordance with their desire, even if it is bad, and blame -whatever they dislike, even if it is good: they seek to ingratiate -themselves with the people by acting hypocritically. The -ignorant pretenders to Ṣúfiism are they who have never -associated with a spiritual director (<i>pír</i>), nor learned discipline -from a shaykh, but without any experience have thrown -themselves among the people, and have donned a blue mantle -(<i>kabúdí</i>), and have trodden the path of unrestraint.</p> - -<p class='c001'>Abú Yazíd Bisṭámí says: “I strove in the spiritual combat -for thirty years, and I found nothing harder to me than -<span class='pageno' id='Page_18'>18</span>knowledge and its pursuit.” It is more easy for human nature -to walk on fire than to follow the road of knowledge, and an -ignorant heart will more readily cross the Bridge (<i>Ṣiráṭ</i>) -a thousand times than learn a single piece of knowledge; and -the wicked man would rather pitch his tent in Hell than put -one item of knowledge into practice. Accordingly you must -learn knowledge and seek perfection therein. The perfection -of human knowledge is ignorance of Divine knowledge. You -must know enough to know that you do not know. That is -to say, human knowledge is alone possible to Man, and -humanity is the greatest barrier that separates him from -Divinity. As the poet says:—</p> - -<div class='lg-container-b c009'> - <div class='linegroup'> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'><i>Al-`ajzu `an daraki ´l-idráki idráku</i></div> - <div class='line'><i>Wa ´l-waqfu fí ṭuruqi ´l-akhyári ishráku.</i></div> - </div> - </div> -</div> - -<div class='lg-container-b c009'> - <div class='linegroup'> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'>“True perception is to despair of attaining perception,</div> - <div class='line'>But not to advance on the paths of the virtuous is polytheism.”</div> - </div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>He who will not learn and perseveres in his ignorance is -a polytheist, but to the learner, when his knowledge becomes -perfect, the reality is revealed, and he perceives that his -knowledge is no more than inability to know what his end -shall be, since realities are not affected by the names bestowed -upon them.</p> - -<hr class='c017' /> -<div class='footnote' id='f21'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r21'>21</a>. The period within which a woman, who has been divorced or whose husband has -died, may not marry again.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f22'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r22'>22</a>. The point to which a Moslem turns his face when worshipping, viz. the Ka`ba.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f23'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r23'>23</a>. “Time” (<i>waqt</i>) is used by Muḥammadan mystics to denote the spiritual state -in which anyone finds himself, and by which he is dominated at the moment. The -expression <i>`ilm-i waqt</i> occurs again in the notice of Abú Sulaymán al-Dárání -(chapter x, No. 17), where <i>waqt</i> is explained as meaning “the preservation of one’s -spiritual state”. According to a definition given by Sahl b. `Abdallah al-Tustarí, -<i>waqt</i> is “search for knowledge of the state, i.e. the decision (<i>ḥukm</i>) of a man’s state, -which exists between him and God in this world and hereafter”.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f24'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r24'>24</a>. A famous Ṣúfí of Níshápúr, who died in 359 <span class='fss'>A.H.</span> (<i>Nafaḥát</i>, No. 118).</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f25'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r25'>25</a>. Also a native of Níshápúr. He died in 328 <span class='fss'>A.H.</span> (<i>Nafaḥát</i>, No. 248).</p> -</div> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_19'>19</span> - <h2 id='ch02' class='c011'>CHAPTER II. <br /> <span class='sc'>On Poverty.</span></h2> -</div> - -<p class='c014'>Know that Poverty has a high rank in the Way of Truth, -and that the poor are greatly esteemed, as God said: “(Give -alms) <i>unto the poor, who are kept fighting in God’s cause and -cannot go to and fro on the earth; whom the ignorant deem -rich forasmuch as they refrain</i> (from begging).”<a id='r26' /><a href='#f26' class='c015'><sup>[26]</sup></a> And again: -“<i>Their sides are lifted from their beds while they call on their -Lord in fear and hope</i>” (Kor. xxxii, 16). Moreover, the -Prophet chose poverty and said: “O God, make me live lowly -and die lowly and rise from the dead amongst the lowly!” -And he also said: “On the day of Resurrection God will say, -‘Bring ye My loved ones nigh unto Me;’ then the angels will -say, ‘Who are Thy loved ones?’ and God will answer them, -saying, ‘The poor and destitute.’” There are many verses -of the Koran and Traditions to the same effect, which on -account of their celebrity need not be mentioned here. Among -the Refugees (<i>Muhájirín</i>) in the Prophet’s time were poor men -(<i>fuqará</i>) who sat in his mosque and devoted themselves to the -worship of God, and firmly believed that God would give them -their daily bread, and put their trust (<i>tawakkul</i>) in Him. The -Prophet was enjoined to consort with them and take due care -of them; for God said: “<i>Do not repulse those who call on their -Lord in the morning and in the evening, desiring His favour</i>” -(Kor. vi, 52). Hence, whenever the Prophet saw one of them, -he used to say: “May my father and mother be your sacrifice! -since it was for your sakes that God reproached me.”</p> - -<p class='c001'>God, therefore, has exalted Poverty and has made it a special -distinction of the poor, who have renounced all things external -<span class='pageno' id='Page_20'>20</span>and internal, and have turned entirely to the Causer; whose -poverty has become their pride, so that they lamented its going -and rejoiced at its coming, and embraced it and deemed all -else contemptible.</p> - -<p class='c001'>Now, Poverty has a form (<i>rasm</i>) and an essence (<i>ḥaqíqat</i>). -Its form is destitution and indigence, but its essence is fortune -and free choice. He who regards the form rests in the form -and, failing to attain his object, flees from the essence; but -he who has found the essence averts his gaze from all created -things, and, in complete annihilation, seeing only the All-One -he hastens towards the fullness of eternal life (<i>ba-faná-yi kull -andar ru´yat-i kull ba-baqá-yi kull shitáft</i>). The poor man -<i>(faqír)</i> has nothing and can suffer no loss. He does not -become rich by having anything, nor indigent by having -nothing: both these conditions are alike to him in respect of -his poverty. It is permitted that he should be more joyful -when he has nothing, for the Shaykhs have said: “The more -straitened one is in circumstances, the more expansive (cheerful -and happy) is one’s (spiritual) state,” because it is unlucky -for a dervish to have property: if he “imprisons” anything -(<i>dar band kunad</i>) for his own use, he himself is “imprisoned” -in the same proportion. The friends of God live by means -of His secret bounties. Worldly wealth holds them back from -the path of quietism (<i>riḍá</i>).</p> - -<p class='c001'><i>Story.</i> A dervish met a king. The king said: “Ask a boon -of me.” The dervish replied: “I will not ask a boon from one -of my slaves.” “How is that?” said the king. The dervish -said: “I have two slaves who are thy masters: covetousness -and expectation.”</p> - -<p class='c001'>The Prophet said: “Poverty is glorious to those who are -worthy of it.” Its glory consists in this, that the poor man’s -body is divinely preserved from base and sinful acts, and his -heart from evil and contaminating thoughts, because his -outward parts are absorbed in (contemplation of) the manifest -blessings of God, while his inward parts are protected by -invisible grace, so that his body is spiritual (<i>rúḥání</i>) and his -<span class='pageno' id='Page_21'>21</span>heart divine (<i>rabbání</i>). Then no relation subsists between him -and mankind: this world and the next weigh less than a gnat’s -wing in the scales of his poverty: he is not contained in the -two worlds for a single moment.</p> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c004'> - <div><span class='sc'>Section.</span></div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>The Ṣúfí Shaykhs differ in opinion as to whether poverty -or wealth is superior, both being regarded as human attributes; -for true wealth (<i>ghiná</i>) belongs to God, who is perfect in all -His attributes. Yaḥyá b. Mu`ádh al-Rází, Aḥmad b. Abi ´l-Ḥawárí, -Ḥárith al-Muḥásibí, Abu ´l-`Abbás b. `Aṭá, Ruwaym, -Abu ´l-Ḥasan b. Sim`ún,<a id='r27' /><a href='#f27' class='c015'><sup>[27]</sup></a> and among the moderns the Grand -Shaykh Abú Sa`íd Faḍlallah b. Muḥammad al-Mayhaní, all -hold the view that wealth is superior to poverty. They argue -that wealth is an attribute of God, whereas poverty cannot -be ascribed to Him: therefore an attribute common to God -and Man is superior to one that is not applicable to God. -I answer: “This community of designation is merely nominal, -and has no existence in reality: real community involves -mutual resemblance, but the Divine attributes are eternal and -the human attributes are created; hence your proof is false.” -I, who am `Alí b. `Uthmán al-Jullábí, declare that wealth is -a term that may fitly be applied to God, but one to which -Man has no right; while poverty is a term that may properly -be applied to Man, but not to God. Metaphorically a man -is called “rich”, but he is not really so. Again, to give -a clearer proof, human wealth is an effect due to various -causes, whereas the wealth of God, who Himself is the Author -of all causes, is not due to any cause. Therefore there is no -community in regard to this attribute. It is not allowable -to associate anything with God either in essence, attribute, -or name. The wealth of God consists in His independence -of anyone and in His power to do whatsoever He wills: such -He has always been and such He shall be for ever. Man’s -<span class='pageno' id='Page_22'>22</span>wealth, on the other hand, is, for example, a means of -livelihood, or the presence of joy, or the being saved from sin, -or the solace of contemplation; which things are all of -phenomenal nature and subject to change.</p> - -<p class='c001'>Furthermore, some of the vulgar prefer the rich man to -the poor, on the ground that God has made the former -blest in both worlds and has bestowed the benefit of riches -on him. Here they mean by “wealth” abundance of worldly -goods and enjoyment of pleasures and pursuit of lusts. -They argue that God has commanded us to be thankful -for wealth and patient in poverty, i.e. patient in adversity -and thankful in prosperity; and that prosperity is essentially -better than adversity. To this I reply that, when God -commanded us to be thankful for prosperity He made thankfulness -the means of increasing our prosperity; but when -He commanded us to be patient in adversity He made -patience the means of drawing nigh unto Himself. He said: -“<i>Verily, if ye return thanks, I will give you an increase</i>” -(Kor. xiv, 7), and also, “<i>God is with the patient</i>” (Kor. ii, 148).</p> - -<p class='c001'>The Shaykhs who prefer wealth to poverty do not use -the term “wealth” in its popular sense. What they intend -is not “acquisition of a benefit” but “acquisition of the -Benefactor”; to gain union (with God) is a different thing -from gaining forgetfulness (of God). Shaykh Abú Sa`íd<a id='r28' /><a href='#f28' class='c015'><sup>[28]</sup></a>—God -have mercy on him!—says: “Poverty is wealth in God” -(<i>al-faqr huwa ´l-ghiná billáh</i>), i.e. everlasting revelation of -the Truth. I answer to this, that revelation (<i>mukáshafat</i>) -implies the possibility of a veil (<i>ḥijáb</i>); therefore, if the -person who enjoys revelation is veiled from revelation by -the attribute of wealth, he either becomes in need of revelation -or he does not; if he does not, the conclusion is absurd, and -if he does, need is incompatible with wealth; therefore that -term cannot stand. Besides, no one has “wealth in God” -unless his attributes are permanent and his object is invariable; -wealth cannot coincide with the subsistence of an object or -<span class='pageno' id='Page_23'>23</span>with the affirmation of the attributes of human nature, inasmuch -as the essential characteristics of mortality and phenomenal -being are need and indigence. One whose attributes still -survive is not rich, and one whose attributes are annihilated -is not entitled to any name whatever. Therefore “the rich -man is he who is enriched by God” (<i>al-ghaní man aghnáhu -´lláh</i>), because the term “rich in God” refers to the agent -(<i>fá`il</i>), whereas the term “enriched by God” denotes the -person acted upon (<i>maf`úl</i>); the former is self-subsistent, -but the latter subsists through the agent; accordingly self-subsistence -is an attribute of human nature, while subsistence -through God involves the annihilation of attributes. I, then, -who am `Alí b. `Uthmán al-Jullábí, assert that true wealth -is incompatible with the survival (<i>baqá</i>) of any attribute, -since human attributes have already been shown to be -defective and subject to decay; nor, again, does wealth -consist in the annihilation of these attributes, because a -name cannot be given to an attribute that no longer exists, -and he whose attributes are annihilated cannot be called -either “poor” or “rich”; therefore the attribute of wealth -is not transferable from God to Man, and the attribute of -poverty is not transferable from Man to God.</p> - -<p class='c001'>All the Ṣúfí Shaykhs and most of the vulgar prefer poverty -to wealth for the reason that the Koran and the Sunna -expressly declare it to be superior, and herein the majority -of Moslems are agreed. I find, among the anecdotes which -I have read, that on one occasion this question was discussed -by Junayd and Ibn `Aṭá. The latter maintained the superiority -of the rich. He argued that at the Resurrection they would -be called to account for their wealth, and that such an account -(<i>ḥisáb</i>) entails the hearing of the Divine Word, without any -mediation, in the form of reproach (<i>`itáb</i>): and reproach is -addressed by the Beloved to the lover. Junayd answered: -“If He will call the rich to account, He will ask the poor -for their excuse; and asking an excuse is better than calling -to account.” This is a very subtle point. In true love excuse -<span class='pageno' id='Page_24'>24</span>is “otherness” (<i>bégánagí</i>) and reproach is contrary to unity -(<i>yagánagí</i>). Lovers regard both these things as a blemish, -because excuse is made for some disobedience to the command -of the Beloved and reproach is made on the same score; -but both are impossible in true love, for then neither does -the Beloved require an expiation from the lover nor does the -lover neglect to perform the will of the Beloved.</p> - -<p class='c001'>Every man is “poor”, even though he be a prince. Essentially -the wealth of Solomon and the poverty of Solomon are one. -God said to Job in the extremity of his patience, and likewise to -Solomon in the plenitude of his dominion: “<i>Good servant that -thou art</i>!”<a id='r29' /><a href='#f29' class='c015'><sup>[29]</sup></a> When God’s pleasure was accomplished, it made -no difference between the poverty and the wealth of Solomon.</p> - -<p class='c001'>The author says: “I have heard that Abu ´l-Qásim Qushayrí—God -have mercy on him!—said: ‘People have spoken much -concerning poverty and wealth, and have chosen one or the -other for themselves, but I choose whichever state God chooses -for me and keeps me in; if He keeps me rich I will not be -forgetful, and if He wishes me to be poor I will not be covetous -and rebellious.’” Therefore, both wealth and poverty are -Divine gifts: wealth is corrupted by forgetfulness, poverty by -covetousness. Both conceptions are excellent, but they differ in -practice. Poverty is the separation of the heart from all but -God, and wealth is the preoccupation of the heart with that -which does not admit of being qualified. When the heart is -cleared (of all except God), poverty is not better than wealth -nor is wealth better than poverty. Wealth is abundance of -worldly goods and poverty is lack of them: all goods belong to -God: when the seeker bids farewell to property, the antithesis -disappears and both terms are transcended.</p> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c004'> - <div><span class='sc'>Section.</span></div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>All the Ṣúfí Shaykhs have spoken on the subject of poverty. -I will now cite as many of their sayings as it is possible to -include in this book.</p> - -<p class='c001'><span class='pageno' id='Page_25'>25</span>One of the moderns says: <i>Laysa ´l-faqír man khalá min -al-zád: innama ´l-faqír man khalá min al-murád</i>, “The poor -man is not he whose hand is empty of provisions, but he whose -nature is empty of desires.” For example, if God gives him -money and he desires to keep it, then he is rich; and if he -desires to renounce it, he is rich no less, because poverty -consists in ceasing to act on one’s own initiative. Yaḥyá b. -Mu`ádh al-Rází says: <i>Al-faqr khawf al-faqr</i>, “It is a sign of -true poverty that, although one has reached the perfection of -saintship and contemplation and self-annihilation, one should -always be dreading its decline and departure.” And Ruwaym -says: <i>Min na`t al-faqír ḥifṣu sirrihi wa-ṣiyánatu nafsihi wa-adá´u -faríḍatihi</i>, “It is characteristic of the poor man that his heart is -protected from selfish cares, and that his soul is guarded from -contaminations, and that he performs the obligatory duties of -religion:” that is to say, his inward meditations do not -interfere with his outward acts, nor <i>vice versâ</i>; which is a sign -that he has cast off the attributes of mortality. Bishr Ḥáfí -says: <i>Afḍal al-maqámát i`tiqád al-ṣabr `ala ´l-faqr ila ´l-qabr</i>, -“The best of ‘stations’ is a firm resolution to endure poverty -continually.” Now poverty is the annihilation of all “stations”: -therefore the resolution to endure poverty is a sign of regarding -works and actions as imperfect, and of aspiring to annihilate -human attributes. But in its obvious sense this saying -pronounces poverty to be superior to wealth, and expresses -a determination never to abandon it. Sḥiblí says: <i>Al-faqír -man lá yastaghní bi-shay´<sup>in</sup> dúna ´lláh</i>, “The poor man does not -rest content with anything except God,” because he has no -other object of desire. The literal meaning is that you will not -become rich except by Him, and that when you have gained -Him you have become rich. Your being, then, is other than God; -and since you cannot gain wealth except by renouncing “other”, -your “you-ness” is a veil between you and wealth: when that is -removed, you are rich. This saying is very subtle and obscure. -In the opinion of advanced spiritualists (<i>ahl-i ḥaqíqat</i>) it means: -<i>Al-faqr an lá yustaghná `anhu</i>, “Poverty consists in never -<span class='pageno' id='Page_26'>26</span>being independent of poverty.” This is what the Pír, i.e. Master -`Abdalláh Anṣárí<a id='r30' /><a href='#f30' class='c015'><sup>[30]</sup></a>—may God be well-pleased with him!—meant -when he said that our sorrow is everlasting, that our aspiration -never reaches its goal, and that our sum (<i>kulliyyat</i>) -never becomes non-existent in this world or the next, because -for the fruition of anything homogeneity is necessary, but God -has no congener, and for turning away from Him forgetfulness -is necessary, but the dervish is not forgetful. What an endless -task, what a difficult road! The dead (<i>fání</i>) never become -living (<i>báqí</i>), so as to be united with Him; the living never -become dead, so as to approach His presence. All that His -lovers do and suffer is entirely a probation (<i>miḥnat</i>); but in -order to console themselves they have invented a fine-sounding -phraseology (<i>`ibáratí muzakhraf</i>) and have produced “stations” -and “stages” and a “path”. Their symbolic expressions, -however, begin and end in themselves, and their “stations” do -not rise beyond their own <i>genus</i>, whereas God is exempt from -every human attribute and relationship. Abu ´l-Ḥasan Núrí -says: <i>Na`t al-faqír al-sukún `inda ´l-`adam wa ´l-badhl `inda ´l-wujúd</i>; -and he says also: <i>Al-iḍṭiráb `inda ´l-wujúd</i>, “When -he gets nothing he is silent, and when he gets something he -regards another person as better entitled to it than himself, and -therefore gives it away.” The practice enunciated in this saying -is of great importance. There are two meanings: (1) His -quiescence when he gets nothing is satisfaction (<i>riḍá</i>), and his -liberality when he gets something is love (<i>maḥabbat</i>), because -“satisfied” means “accepting a robe of honour” (<i>qábil-i khil`at</i>), -and the robe of honour is a token of proximity (<i>qurbat</i>) whereas -the lover (<i>muḥibb</i>) rejects the robe of honour inasmuch as it is -a token of severance (<i>furqat</i>); and (2) his quiescence when he -gets nothing is expectation of getting something, and when he -has got it, that “something” is other than God: he cannot be -satisfied with anything other than God; therefore he rejects it. -Both these meanings are implicit in the saying of the Grand -<span class='pageno' id='Page_27'>27</span>Shaykh, Abu ´l-Qásim Junayd: <i>Al-faqr khuluww al-qalb `an -al-ashkál</i>, “When his heart is empty of phenomena he is poor.” -Since the existence of phenomena is “other” (than God), rejection -is the only course possible. Shiblí says: <i>Al-faqr baḥr al-balá -wa-balá´uhu kulluhu `izz<sup>un</sup></i>, “Poverty is a sea of trouble, and all -troubles for His sake are glorious.” Glory is a portion of -“other”. The afflicted are plunged in trouble and know -nothing of glory, until they forget their trouble and regard the -Author thereof. Then their trouble is changed into glory, and -their glory into a spiritual state (<i>waqt</i>), and their spiritual state -into love, and their love into contemplation, so that finally the -brain of the aspirant becomes wholly a centre of vision through -the predominance of his imagination: he sees without eye, and -hears without ear. Again, it is glorious for a man to bear the -burden of trouble laid upon him by his Beloved, for in truth -misfortune is glory, and prosperity is humiliation. Glory is that -which makes one present with God, and humiliation is that -which makes one absent from God: the affliction of poverty is -a sign of “presence”, while the delight of riches is a sign of -“absence”. Therefore one should cling to trouble of any -description that involves contemplation and intimacy. Junayd -says: <i>Yá ma`shar al-fuqará innakum tu`rafúna billáh wa-tukra-múna -lilláh fa-´nẕurú kayfa takúnúna ma`a a ´lláh idhá khalawtum -bihi</i>, “O ye that are poor, ye are known through God, and are -honoured for the sake of God: take heed how ye behave when -ye are alone with Him,” i.e. if people call you “poor” and -recognize your claim, see that you perform the obligations of -the path of poverty; and if they give you another name, -inconsistent with what you profess, do not accept it, but fulfil -your professions. The basest of men is he who is thought to be -devoted to God, but really is not; and the noblest is he who is -not thought to be devoted to God, but really is. The former -resembles an ignorant physician, who pretends to cure people, -but only makes them worse, and when he falls ill himself needs -another physician to prescribe for him; and the latter is like -one who is not known to be a physician, and does not concern -<span class='pageno' id='Page_28'>28</span>himself with other folk, but employs his skill in order to -maintain his own health. One of the moderns has said: -<i>Al-faqr `adam<sup>un</sup> bilá wujúd<sup>in</sup></i>, “Poverty is not-being without -existence.” To interpret this saying is impossible, because -what is non-existent does not admit of being explained. On -the surface it would seem that, according to this dictum, poverty -is nothing, but such is not the case; the explanations and -consensus of the Saints of God are not founded on a principle -that is essentially non-existent. The meaning here is not “the -not-being of the essence”, but “the not-being of that which -contaminates the essence”; and all human attributes are -a source of contamination: when that is removed, the result is -annihilation of the attributes (<i>faná-yi ṣifat</i>), which deprives the -sufferer of the instrument whereby he attains, or fails to attain, -his object; but his not-going to the essence (<i>`adam-i rawish -ba-`ayn</i>) seems to him annihilation of the essence and casts him -into perdition.</p> - -<p class='c001'>I have met with some scholastic philosophers who, failing -to understand the drift of this saying, laughed at it and -declared it to be nonsense; and also with certain pretenders -(to Ṣúfiism) who made nonsense of it and were firmly convinced -of its truth, although they had no grasp of the fundamental -principle. Both parties are in the wrong: one ignorantly -denies the truth, and the other makes ignorance a state (of -perfection). Now the expressions “not-being” (<i>`adam</i>) and -“annihilation” (<i>faná</i>), as they are used by Ṣúfís, denote the -disappearance of a blameworthy instrument (<i>álat-i madhmúm</i>) -and disapproved attribute in the course of seeking a praiseworthy -attribute; they do not signify the search for non-reality -(<i>`adam-i ma`ní</i>) by means of an instrument which exists.</p> - -<p class='c001'>Dervishhood in all its meanings is a metaphorical poverty, -and amidst all its subordinate aspects there is a transcendent -principle. The Divine mysteries come and go over the dervish, -so that his affairs are acquired by himself, his actions attributed -to himself, and his ideas attached to himself. But when his -affairs are freed from the bonds of acquisition (<i>kasb</i>), his actions -<span class='pageno' id='Page_29'>29</span>are no more attributed to himself. Then he is the Way, not -the wayfarer, i.e. the dervish is a place over which something -is passing, not a wayfarer following his own will. Accordingly, -he neither draws anything to himself nor puts anything away -from himself: all that leaves any trace upon him belongs to -the essence.</p> - -<p class='c001'>I have seen false Ṣúfís, mere tonguesters (<i>arbáb al-lisán</i>), -whose imperfect apprehension of this matter seemed to deny -the existence of the essence of poverty, while their lack of -desire for the reality of poverty seemed to deny the attributes -of its essence. They called by the name of “poverty” and -“purity” their failure to seek Truth and Reality, and it looked -as though they affirmed their own fancies but denied all else. -Every one of them was in some degree veiled from poverty, -because the conceit of Ṣúfiism (<i>pindár-i ín ḥadíth</i>) betokens -perfection of saintship, and the claim to be suspected of Ṣúfiism -(<i>tawallá-yi tuhmat-i ín ḥadíth</i>) is the ultimate goal, i.e. this -claim belongs only to the state of perfection. Therefore the -seeker has no choice but to journey in their path and to traverse -their “stations” and to know their symbolic expressions, in -order that he may not be a plebeian <i>(`ámmí)</i> among the elect. -Those who are ignorant of general principles (<i>`awámm-i uṣúl</i>) -have no ground to stand on, whereas those who are ignorant -only as regards the derivative branches are supported by the -principles. I have said all this to encourage you to undertake -this spiritual journey and occupy yourself with the due fulfilment -of its obligations.</p> - -<p class='c001'>Now in the chapter on Ṣúfiism I will explain some of the -principles and allegories and mystic sayings of this sect. Then -I will mention the names of their holy men, and afterwards -elucidate the different doctrines held by the Ṣúfi Shaykhs. -In the next place, I will treat of the Verities, Sciences, and -Laws of Ṣúfiism. Lastly, I will set forth their rules of discipline -and the significance of their “stations”, in order that the truth -of this matter may become clear to you and to all my readers.</p> -<hr class='c017' /> -<div class='footnote' id='f26'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r26'>26</a>. Kor. ii, 274.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f27'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r27'>27</a>. See <i>Nafaḥát</i>, No. 291, where his “name of honour” is given as Abu ´l-Ḥusayn.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f28'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r28'>28</a>. See Chapter XII, No. <a href='#XII.5'>5</a>.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f29'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r29'>29</a>. Kor. xxxviii, 29, 44.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f30'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r30'>30</a>. The celebrated mystic of Herát, who died in 481 <span class='fss'>A.H.</span> See Professor Browne’s -<i>Literary History of Persia</i>, vol. ii, p. 269.</p> -</div> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_30'>30</span> - <h2 id='ch03' class='c011'>CHAPTER III. <br /><span class='sc'>On Ṣúfiism.</span></h2> -</div> - -<p class='c014'>God, Almighty and Glorious, has said: “<i>And those who walk -meekly on the earth, and when the ignorant speak to them -answer ‘Peace’</i>,” (shall be rewarded with the highest place in -Paradise).<a id='r31' /><a href='#f31' class='c015'><sup>[31]</sup></a> And the Apostle has said: “He that hears the -voice of Ṣúfís (<i>ahl al-taṣawwuf</i>) and does not say Amen -to their prayer is inscribed before God among the heedless.” -The true meaning of this name has been much discussed -and many books have been composed on the subject. Some -assert that the Ṣúfí is so called because he wears a woollen -garment (<i>jáma´-i ṣúf</i>); others that he is so called because -he is in the first rank (<i>ṣaff-i awwal</i>); others say it is -because the Ṣúfís claim to belong to the <i>Aṣḥáb-i Ṣuffa</i>,<a id='r32' /><a href='#f32' class='c015'><sup>[32]</sup></a> -with whom may God be well-pleased! Others, again, declare -that the name is derived from <i>ṣafá</i> (purity). These explanations -of the true meaning of Ṣúfiism are far from satisfying -the requirements of etymology, although each of them is -supported by many subtle arguments. <i>Ṣafá</i> (purity) is -universally praised, and its opposite is <i>kadar</i>. The Apostle—on -whom be peace!—said: “The <i>ṣafw</i> (pure part, i.e. the -best) of this world is gone, and only its <i>kadar</i> (impurity) -remains.” Therefore, since the people of this persuasion -have purged their morals and conduct, and have sought to -free themselves from natural taints, on that account they -are called Ṣúfís; and this designation of the sect is a proper -name (<i>az asámi-yi a`lám</i>), inasmuch as the dignity of the -Ṣúfís is too great for their transactions (<i>mu`ámalát</i>) to be -hidden, so that their name should need a derivation. In -this age, however, God has veiled most people from Ṣúfiism -<span class='pageno' id='Page_31'>31</span>and from its votaries, and has concealed its mysteries from -their hearts. Accordingly some imagine that it consists -merely in the practice of outward piety without inward -contemplation, and others suppose that it is a form and a -system without essence and root, to such an extent that -they have adopted the view of scoffers (<i>ahl-i hazl</i>) and -theologians (<i>`ulamá</i>), who regard only the external, and have -condemned Ṣùfiism altogether, making no attempt to discover -what it really is. The people in general, blindly conforming -to this opinion, have erased from their hearts the quest for -inward purity and have discarded the tenets of the Ancients -and the Companions of the Prophet. <i>Verily, purity is -characteristic of the Ṣiddíq,<a id='r33' /><a href='#f33' class='c015'><sup>[33]</sup></a> if thou desirest a true Ṣúfí</i>—because -purity (<i>ṣafá</i>) has a root and a branch: its root being -severance of the heart from “others” (<i>aghyár</i>), and its -branch that the heart should be empty of this deceitful -world. Both these are characteristic of the Greatest <i>Ṣiddíq</i>, -(the Caliph) Abú Bakr `Abdalláh b. Abí Quḥáfa, with whom -may God be well-pleased! He is the leader (<i>imám</i>) of all -the folk of this Path.</p> - -<div class='quote'> - -<p class='c001'>[The author then relates how, on Muḥammad’s decease, -when `Umar threatened to decapitate anyone who asserted -that the Prophet was dead, Abú Bakr stepped forth and -cried with a loud voice: “Whoever worships Muḥammad, let -him know that Muḥammad is dead; but whoever worships -Muḥammad’s Lord, let him know that <span class='sc'>He</span> is living and -dieth not.” Those who regarded Muḥammad with the -eye of mortality ceased to venerate him as soon as he -departed from this world, but to those who regarded him -with the eye of reality his presence and absence were alike, -because they attributed both to God; and looked, not at -the particular change which had come to pass, but at the -Author of all change; and venerated Muḥammad only -<span class='pageno' id='Page_32'>32</span>in proportion as God honoured him; and did not attach -their hearts to anyone (except God); and did not open -their eyes to gaze upon mankind, inasmuch as “he that -beholdeth mankind waneth, but he that returneth unto -God reigneth” (<i>man naẕara ila ´l-khalq halak wa-man raja`a -ila ´l-ḥaqq malak</i>). And Abú Bakr showed that his heart -was empty of this deceitful world, for he gave away all -his wealth and his clients (<i>mawálí</i>), and clad himself in -a woollen garment (<i>gilím</i>), and came to the Apostle, who -asked him what he had left for his family. Abú Bakr -replied: “Only God and His Apostle.” All this is characteristic -of the sincere Ṣúfí.]</p> - -</div> - -<p class='c001'>I said that <i>ṣafá</i> (purity) is the opposite of <i>kadar</i> (impurity), -and <i>kadar</i> is one of the qualities of Man. The true Ṣúfí is he -that leaves impurity behind. Thus, human nature (<i>bashariyyat</i>) -prevailed in the women of Egypt as they gazed, enraptured, -on the wondrous beauty of Yúsuf (Joseph), on whom be peace! -But afterwards the preponderance was reversed, until at last -they beheld him with their human nature annihilated (<i>ba-faná-yi -bashariyyat</i>) and cried: “<i>This is no human being</i>” (Kor. xii, 31). -They made him their object and gave expression to their own -state. Hence the Shaykhs of this Path—God have mercy -on them!—have said: <i>Laysa ´l-ṣafá min ṣifat al-bashar li´anna -´l-bashar madar wa´l-madar lá yakhlú min al-kadar</i>, “Purity -is not one of the qualities of Man, for Man is clay, and clay -involves impurity, and Man cannot escape from impurity.” -Therefore purity bears no likeness to acts (<i>af`ál</i>), nor can the -human nature be destroyed by means of effort. The quality -of purity is unrelated to acts and states, and its name is -unconnected with names and nicknames—<i>purity is characteristic -of the lovers</i> (of God), <i>who are suns without cloud</i>—because -purity is the attribute of those who love, and the lover is he -that is dead (<i>fání</i>) in his own attributes and living (<i>báqí</i>) in -the attributes of his Beloved, and their “states” resemble the -clear sun in the opinion of mystics (<i>arbáb-i ḥál</i>). The beloved -<span class='pageno' id='Page_33'>33</span>of God, Muḥammad the Chosen One, was asked concerning -the state of Ḥáritha. He answered: <i>`Abd nawwara ´lláh -qalbahu bi ´l-ímán</i>, “He is a man whose heart is illumined by -the light of faith, so that his face shines like the moon from the -effect thereof, and he is formed by the Divine light.” An -eminent Ṣúfí says: <i>Ḍiyá al-shams wa´l-qamar idha ´shtaraká -namúdhaj<sup>un</sup> min ṣafá al-ḥubb wa ´l-tawḥíd idha ´shtabaká</i>, “The -combination of the light of the sun and moon, when they are -in conjunction, is like the purity of Love and Unification when -these are mingled together.” Assuredly, the light of the sun -and moon is worthless beside the light of the Love and -Unification of God Almighty, and they should not be compared; -but in this world there is no light more conspicuous -than those two luminaries. The eye cannot see the light of -the sun and moon with complete demonstration. During the -sway of the sun and moon it sees the sky, whereas the heart -(<i>dil</i>) sees the empyrean (<i>`arsh</i>) by the light of knowledge and -unification and love, and while still in this world explores the -world to come. All the Shaykhs of this Path are agreed -that when a man has escaped from the captivity of “stations” -(<i>maqámát</i>), and gets rid of the impurity of “states” (<i>aḥwál</i>), -and is liberated from the abode of change and decay, and -becomes endowed with all praiseworthy qualities, he is disjoined -from all qualities. That is to say, he is not held in bondage -by any praiseworthy quality of his own, nor does he regard it, -nor is he made self-conceited thereby. His state is hidden -from the perception of intelligences, and his time is exempt -from the influence of thoughts. His presence (<i>ḥuḍúr</i>) with -God has no end and his existence has no cause. And when -he arrives at this degree, he becomes annihilated (<i>fání</i>) in this -world and in the next, and is made divine (<i>rabbání</i>) in the -disappearance of humanity; and gold and earth are the same -in his eyes, and the ordinances which others find hard to keep -become easy to him.</p> - -<div class='quote'> - -<p class='c001'>[Here follows the story of Ḥáritha, who declared that he -had true faith in God. The Prophet asked: “What is the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_34'>34</span>reality of thy faith?” Ḥáritha replied: “I have cut off and -turned myself away from this world, so that its stones and -its gold and its silver and its clay are equal in my sight. -And I have passed my nights in wakefulness and my days in -thirst until methinks I see the Throne of my Lord manifest, -and the people of Paradise visiting one another, and the -people of Hell wrestling with one another”<a id='r34' /><a href='#f34' class='c015'><sup>[34]</sup></a> (or, according -to an alternative reading: “making sudden attacks on one -another”).<a id='r35' /><a href='#f35' class='c015'><sup>[35]</sup></a> The Prophet said, repeating the words thrice: -“Thou knowest, therefore persevere.”]</p> - -</div> - -<p class='c001'>“Ṣúfí” is a name which is given, and has formerly been -given, to the perfect saints and spiritual adepts. One of the -Shaykhs says: <i>Man ṣaffáhu ´l-ḥubb fa-huwa ṣáf<sup>in</sup> wa-man -ṣaffáhu ´l-ḥabíb fa-huwa Ṣúfiyy<sup>un</sup></i>, “He that is purified by love is -pure, and he that is absorbed in the Beloved and has abandoned -all else is a ‘Ṣúfí’.” The name has no derivation answering to -etymological requirements, inasmuch as Ṣúfiism is too exalted -to have any genus from which it might be derived; for the -derivation of one thing from another demands homogeneity -(<i>mujánasat</i>). All that exists is the opposite of purity (<i>ṣafá</i>), -and things are not derived from their opposites. To Ṣúfís the -meaning of Ṣúfiism is clearer than the sun and does not need -any explanation or indication. Since “Ṣúfí” admits of no -explanation, all the world are interpreters thereof, whether they -recognize the dignity of the name or no at the time when they -learn its meaning. The perfect, then, among them are called -<i>Ṣúfí</i>, and the inferior aspirants (<i>ṭálibán</i>) among them are called -<i>Mutaṣawwif</i>; for <i>taṣawwuf</i> belongs to the form <i>tafa``ul</i>, which -implies “taking trouble” (<i>takalluf</i>),<a id='r36' /><a href='#f36' class='c015'><sup>[36]</sup></a> and is a branch of the -original root. The difference both in meaning and in etymology -<span class='pageno' id='Page_35'>35</span>is evident. <i>Purity (ṣafá) is a saintship with a sign and a relation -(riwáyat)</i>, and <i>Ṣúfiism (taṣawwuf) is an uncomplaining imitation -of purity (ḥikáyat<sup>un</sup> li´l-ṣafá bilá shikáyat).</i> Purity, then, is -a resplendent and manifest idea, and Ṣúfiism is an imitation of -that idea. Its followers in this degree are of three kinds: the -<i>Ṣúfí</i>, the <i>Mutaṣawwif</i>, and the <i>Mustaṣwif</i>. The <i>Ṣúfí</i> is he -that is dead to self and living by the Truth; he has escaped -from the grip of human faculties and has really attained (to -God). The <i>Mutaṣawwif</i> is he that seeks to reach this rank by -means of self-mortification (<i>mujáhadat</i>) and in his search -rectifies his conduct in accordance with their (the Ṣúfís’) -example. The <i>Mustaṣwif</i> is he that makes himself like them -(the Ṣúfís) for the sake of money and wealth and power and -worldly advantage, but has no knowledge of these two things.<a id='r37' /><a href='#f37' class='c015'><sup>[37]</sup></a> -Hence it has been said: <i>Al-mustaṣwif `inda ´l-Ṣúfiyyat ka-´l-dhubáb -wa-`inda ghayrihim ka-´l-dhi´áb</i>, “The <i>Mustaṣwif</i> in the -opinion of the Ṣúfís is as despicable as flies, and his actions are -mere cupidity; others regard him as being like a wolf, and his -speech unbridled (<i>bé afsár</i>), for he only desires a morsel of -carrion.” Therefore the <i>Ṣúfí</i> is a man of union (<i>ṣáḥib wuṣúl</i>), -the <i>Mutaṣawwif</i> a man of principles, (<i>ṣáḥib uṣúl</i>), and the -<i>Mustaṣwif</i> a man of superfluities (<i>ṣáḥib fuḍúl</i>). He that has -the portion of union loses all end and object by gaining his end -and reaching his object; he that has the portion of principle -becomes firm in the “states” of the mystic path, and steadfastly -devoted to the mysteries thereof; but he that has the portion of -superfluity, is left devoid of all (worth having), and sits down at -the gate of formality (<i>rasm</i>), and thereby he is veiled from -reality (<i>ma`ní</i>) and this veil renders both union and principle -invisible to him. The Shaykhs of this persuasion have given -many subtle definitions of Ṣúfiism which cannot all be -enumerated, but we shall mention some of them in this book, -if God will, who is the Author of success.</p> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c004'> - <div><span class='pageno' id='Page_36'>36</span><span class='sc'>Section.</span></div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>Dhu ´l-Nún, the Egyptian, says: <i>Al-Ṣúfí idhá naṭaqa bána -nuṭquhu `an al-ḥaqá´iq wa-in sakata naṭaqat `anhu ´l-jawáriḥ -bi-qaṭ` al-`alá´iq</i>, “The Ṣúfí is he whose language, when he -speaks, is the reality of his state, i.e. he says nothing which -he is not, and when he is silent his conduct explains his -state, and his state proclaims that he has cut all worldly -ties;” i.e. all that he says is based on a sound principle and -all that he does is pure detachment from the world (<i>tajríd</i>); -when he speaks his speech is entirely the Truth, and when -he is silent his actions are wholly “poverty” (<i>faqr</i>). Junayd -says: <i>Al-taṣawwuf na`t<sup>un</sup> uqíma ´l-`abd fíhi qíla na`t<sup>un</sup> li-´l-`abd -am li-´l-ḥaqq faqála na`t al-ḥaqq ḥaqíqat<sup>an</sup> wa-na`t al-`abd -rasm<sup>an</sup></i>, “Ṣúfiism is an attribute wherein is Man’s subsistence.” -They said: “Is it an attribute of God or of mankind?” He -replied: “Its essence is an attribute of God and its formal -system is an attribute of mankind;” i.e. its essence involves -the annihilation of human qualities, which is brought about -by the everlastingness of the Divine qualities, and this is an -attribute of God; whereas its formal system involves on the -part of Man the continuance of self-mortification (<i>mujáhadat</i>), -and this continuance of self-mortification is an attribute of -Man. Or the words may be taken in another sense, namely, -that in real Unification (<i>tawḥíd</i>) there are, correctly speaking, -no human attributes at all, because human attributes are -not constant but are only formal (<i>rasm</i>), having no permanence, -for God is the agent. Therefore they are really the attributes -of God. Thus (to explain what is meant), God commands -His servants to fast, and when they keep the fast He gives -them the name of “faster” (<i>ṣá´im</i>), and <i>nominally</i> this -“fasting” (<i>ṣawm</i>) belongs to Man, but <i>really</i> it belongs to God. -Accordingly God told His Apostle and said: <i>Al-ṣawm lí -wa-ana ajzí bihi</i>, “Fasting is mine,” because all His acts are -His possessions, and when men ascribe things to themselves, -the attribution is formal and metaphorical, not real. And -Abu ´l-Ḥasan Núrí says: <i>Al-taṣawwuf tarku kulli ḥaẕẕ<sup>in</sup></i> -<span class='pageno' id='Page_37'>37</span><i>li-´l-nafs</i>, “Ṣúfiism is the renunciation of all selfish pleasures.” -This renunciation is of two kinds: formal and essential. -For example, if one renounces a pleasure, and finds pleasure -in the renunciation, this is formal renunciation; but if the -pleasure renounces him, then the pleasure is annihilated, and -this case falls under the head of true contemplation (<i>musháhadat</i>). -Therefore renunciation of pleasure is the act of Man, but -annihilation of pleasure is the act of God. The act of Man -is formal and metaphorical, while the act of God is real. -This saying (of Núrí) elucidates the saying of Junayd which -has been quoted above. And Abu ´l-Ḥasan Núrí also says: -<i>Al-Ṣúfiyyat humu ´lladhína ṣafat arwáḥuhum fa-ṣárú fi ´l-ṣaff -al-awwal bayna yadayi ´l-ḥaqq</i>, “The Ṣúfís are they whose -spirits have been freed from the pollution of humanity, -purified from carnal taint, and released from concupiscence, -so that they have found rest with God in the first rank and -the highest degree, and have fled from all save Him.” And -he also says: <i>Al-Ṣúfí alladhí lá yamlik wa-lá yumlak</i>, “The -Ṣúfí is he that has nothing in his possession nor is himself -possessed by anything.” This denotes the essence of -annihilation (<i>faná</i>), since one whose qualities are annihilated -neither possesses nor is possessed, inasmuch as the term -“possession” can properly be applied only to existent things. -The meaning is, that the Ṣúfí does not make his own any -good of this world or any glory of the next world, for he -is not even in the possession and control of himself: he -refrains from desiring authority over others, in order that -others may not desire submission from him. This saying -refers to a mystery of the Ṣúfí’s which they call “complete -annihilation” (<i>faná-yi kullí</i>). If God will, we shall mention -in this work, for your information, the points wherein they -have fallen into error.</p> - -<p class='c001'>Ibn al-Jallá<a id='r38' /><a href='#f38' class='c015'><sup>[38]</sup></a> says: <i>Al-taṣawwuf ḥaqíqat<sup>un</sup> lá rasm lahu</i>, -“Ṣúfiism is an essence without form,” because the form belongs -<span class='pageno' id='Page_38'>38</span>to mankind in respect to their conduct (<i>mu`ámalát</i>), while the -essence thereof is peculiar to God. Since Ṣúfiism consists in -turning away from mankind, it is necessarily without form. -And Abú `Amr Dimashqí says: <i>Al-taṣawwuf ru´yat al-kawn -bi-`ayn al-naqṣ, bal ghaḍḍ al-ṭarf `an al-kawn</i>, “Ṣúfiism is: to -see the imperfection of the phenomenal world (and this shows -that human attributes are still existent), nay, to shut the eye -to the phenomenal world” (and this shows that human -attributes are annihilated; because the objects of sight are -phenomena, and when phenomena disappear, sight also disappears). -Shutting the eye to the phenomenal world leaves -the spiritual vision subsistent, i.e. whoever becomes blind to -self sees by means of God, because the seeker of phenomena -is also a self-seeker, and his action proceeds from and through -himself, and he cannot find any way of escaping from himself. -Accordingly one sees himself to be imperfect, and one shuts -his eye to self and does not see; and although the seer sees -his imperfection, nevertheless his eye is a veil, and he is veiled -by his sight, but he who does not see is not veiled by his -blindness. This is a well-established principle in the Path -of aspirants to Ṣúfiism and mystics (<i>arbáb-i ma`ání</i>), but to -explain it here would be unsuitable. And Abú Bakr Shiblí -says: <i>Al-taṣawwuf shirk<sup>un</sup> li´annahu ṣiyánat al-qalb `an ru´yat -al-ghayr wa-lá ghayr</i>, “Ṣúfiism is polytheism, because it is the -guarding of the heart from the vision of ‘other’, and ‘other’ -does not exist.” That is to say, vision of other (than God) in -affirming the Unity of God is polytheism, and when “other” -has no value in the heart, it is absurd to guard the heart from -remembrance of “other”. And Ḥusrí says: <i>Al-taṣawwuf ṣafá -al-sirr min kudúrat al-mukhálafat</i>, “Ṣúfiism is the heart’s being -pure from the pollution of discord.” The meaning thereof is -that he should protect the heart from discord with God, because -love is concord, and concord is the opposite of discord, and the -lover has but one duty in the world, namely, to keep the commandment -of the beloved; and if the object of desire is one, -how can discord arise? And Muḥammad b. `Alí b. al-Ḥusayn -<span class='pageno' id='Page_39'>39</span>b. `Alí b. Abí Ṭálib—may God be pleased with them all!—says: -<i>Al-taṣawwuf khulq<sup>un</sup> fa-man záda `alayka fi ´l-khulq záda -`alayka fi ´l-taṣawwuf</i>, “Ṣúfiism is goodness of disposition: -he that has the better disposition is the better Ṣúfí.” Now -goodness of disposition is of two kinds: towards God and -towards men. The former is acquiescence in the Divine -decrees, the latter is endurance of the burden of men’s society -for God’s sake. These two aspects refer to the seeker (<i>ṭálib</i>). -God is independent of the seeker’s acquiescence or anger, and -these two qualities depend on consideration of His Unity. -And Abú Muḥammad Murta`ish says: <i>Al-Ṣúfí lá yasbiqu -himmatuhu khaṭwatahu</i>, “The Ṣúfí is he whose thought keeps -pace with his foot,” i.e. he is entirely present: his soul is where -his body is, and his body where his soul is, and his soul where -his foot is, and his foot where his soul is. This is the sign of -presence without absence. Others say, on the contrary: “He -is absent from himself and present with God.” It is not so: -he is present with himself and present with God. The -expression denotes perfect union (<i>jam` al-jam`</i>), because there -can be no absence from self so long as one regards one’s self; -when self-regard has ceased, there is presence (with God) -without absence. In this particular sense the saying closely -resembles that of Shiblí: <i>Al-Ṣúfí lá yará fi ´l-dárayn ma`a -´lláh ghayra ´lláh</i>, “The Ṣúfí is he that sees nothing except -God in the two worlds.” In short, human existence is “other”, -and when a man does not see “other” he does not see himself; -and becomes totally void of self, whether “self” is affirmed -or denied. And Junayd says: <i>Al-taṣawwuf mabniyy<sup>un</sup> `alá -thamán khiṣál al-sakhá wa ´l-riḍá wa ´l-ṣabr wa ´l-ishárat wa -´l-ghurbat wa-labs al-ṣúf wa ´l-siyáḥat wa ´l-faqr amma ´l-sakhá -fa-li-Ibráhím wa-amma ´l-riḍá fa-li-Ismá`íl wa-amma ´l-ṣabr -fa-li-Ayyúb wa-amma ´l-ishárat fa-li-Zakariyyá wa-amma -´l-ghurbat fa-li-Yaḥyá <a id='corr39.33'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='wa-ammá'>wa-amma</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_39.33'><ins class='correction' title='wa-ammá'>wa-amma</ins></a></span> labs al-ṣúf fa-li-Músá wa-amma -´l-siyáḥat fa-li-`Ísá wa-amma ´l-faqr fa-li-Muḥammad -ṣalla ´lláhu `alayhi wa-sallama wa-`alayhim ajma`ín</i>, “Ṣúfiism -is founded on eight qualities exemplified in eight Apostles: -<span class='pageno' id='Page_40'>40</span>the generosity of Abraham, who sacrificed his son; the -acquiescence of Ishmael, who submitted to the command of -God and gave up his dear life; the patience of Job, who -patiently endured the affliction of worms and the jealousy of -the Merciful; the symbolism of Zacharias, to whom God said, -‘<i>Thou shalt not speak unto men for three days save by signs</i>’ -(Kor. iii, 36), and again to the same effect, ‘<i>When he called -upon his Lord with a secret invocation</i>’ (Kor. xix, 2); the -strangerhood of John, who was a stranger in his own country -and an alien to his own kin amongst whom he lived; the -pilgrimhood of Jesus, who was so detached therein from worldly -things that he kept only a cup and a comb—the cup he threw -away when he saw a man drinking water in the palms of his -hands, and the comb likewise when he saw another man using -his fingers instead of a toothpick; the wearing of wool by -Moses, whose garment was woollen; and the poverty of -Muḥammad, to whom God Almighty sent the key of all the -treasures that are upon the face of the earth, saying: ‘Lay -no trouble on thyself, but procure every luxury by means of -these treasures;’ and he answered: ‘O Lord, I desire them -not; keep me one day full-fed and one day hungry.’” These -are very excellent principles of conduct.</p> - -<p class='c001'>And Ḥuṣrí says: <i>Al-Ṣúfí la yújadu ba`da `adamihi wa-lá -yu`damu ba`da wujúdihi</i>, “The Ṣúfí is he whose existence is -without non-existence and his non-existence without existence,” -i.e. he never loses that which he finds, and he never finds that -which he loses. Another meaning is this, that his finding (<i>yáft</i>) -has no not-finding (<i>ná-yáft</i>), and his not-finding has no finding -at any time, so that there is either an affirmation without -negation or a negation without affirmation. The object of all -these expressions is that the Ṣúfí’s state of mortality should -entirely lapse, and that his bodily feelings (<i>shawáhid</i>) should -disappear and his connexion with everything be cut off, in -order that the mystery of his mortality may be revealed and his -various parts united in his essential self, and that he may -subsist through and in himself. The effect of this can be shown -<span class='pageno' id='Page_41'>41</span>in two Apostles: firstly, Moses, in whose existence there was no -non-existence, so that he said: “<i>O Lord, enlarge my breast and -make my affair easy unto me</i>” (Kor. xx, 26, 27); secondly, the -Apostle (Muḥammad), in whose non-existence there was no -existence, so that God said: “<i>Did not We enlarge thy breast?</i>” -(Kor. xciv, 1). The one asked for adornment and sought -honour, but the other was adorned, since he had no request -to make for himself.</p> - -<p class='c001'>And `Alí b. Bundár al-Ṣayrafí of Níshápúr says: <i>Al-taṣawwuf -isqáṭ al-ru´yat li-´l-ḥaqq ẕáhir<sup>an</sup> wa-báṭin<sup>an</sup></i>, “Ṣúfiism is this, that -the Ṣúfí should not regard his own exterior and interior, but -should regard all as belonging to God.” Thus, if you look at -the exterior, you will find an outward sign of God’s blessing, -and, as you look, outward actions will not have the weight even -of a gnat’s wing beside the blessing of God, and you will cease -from regarding the exterior; and again, if you look at the -interior, you will find an inward sign of God’s aid, and, as you -look, inward actions will not turn the scale by a single grain in -comparison with the aid of God, and you will cease from -regarding the interior, and will see that all belongs to God; and -when you see that all is God’s, you will see that you yourself -have nothing.</p> - -<p class='c001'>Muḥammad b. Aḥmad al-Muqrí<a id='r39' /><a href='#f39' class='c015'><sup>[39]</sup></a> says: <i>Al-taṣawwuf istiqámat -al-aḥwál ma`a ´l-ḥaqq</i>, “Ṣúfiism is the maintenance of right -states with God,” i.e. “states” do not seduce the Ṣúfí from his -(right) state, nor cast him into wrong, since he whose heart is -devoted to the Author of states (<i>muḥawwil-i aḥwál</i>) is not cast -down from the rank of rectitude nor hindered from attaining -to the Truth.</p> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c004'> - <div><span class='sc'>Section.</span></div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c010'><i>Maxims of Conduct</i> (<i>mu`ámalát</i>).</p> - -<p class='c001'>Abú Ḥafṣ Ḥaddád of Níshápúr says: <i>Al-taṣawwuf kulluhu -ádáb<sup>un</sup> li-kulli waqt<sup>in</sup> adab<sup>un</sup> wa-li-kulli maqám<sup>in</sup> adab<sup>un</sup> wa-li-kulli -ḥál<sup>in</sup> adab<sup>un</sup> fa-man lazima ádáb al-awqát balagha mablagh</i> -<span class='pageno' id='Page_42'>42</span><i>al-rijál fa-man ḍayya`a ´l-ádáb fa-huwa ba`íd<sup>un</sup> min ḥaythu -yaẕunnu ´l-qurb wa-mardúd<sup>un</sup> min ḥaythu yaẕunnu ´l-qabúl</i>, -“Ṣúfiism consists entirely of behaviour; every time, place, and -circumstance have their own propriety; he that observes the -proprieties of each occasion attains to the rank of holy men; -and he that neglects the proprieties is far removed from the -thought of nearness (to God) and is excluded from imagining -that he is acceptable to God.” The meaning of this is akin to -the dictum of Abu ´l-Ḥasan Núrí: <i>Laysa ´l-taṣawwuf rusúm<sup>an</sup> -wa-lá `ulúm<sup>an</sup> wa-lákinnahu akhláq<sup>un</sup></i>, “Ṣúfiism is not composed -of practices and sciences, but it is morals,” i.e. if it consisted of -practices, it could be acquired by effort, and if it consisted of -sciences, it could be gained by instruction: hence it is morals, -and it is not acquired until you demand from yourself the -principles of morals, and make your actions square with them, -and fulfil their just claims. The distinction between practices -(<i>rusúm</i>) and morals (<i>akhláq</i>) is this, that practices are ceremonial -actions proceeding from certain motives, actions devoid of -reality, so that their form is at variance with their spirit, -whereas morals are praiseworthy actions without ceremony or -motive, actions devoid of pretension, so that their form is in -harmony with their spirit.</p> - -<p class='c001'>Murta`ish says: <i>Al-taṣawwuf ḥusn al-khulq</i>, “Ṣúfiism is good -nature.” This is of three sorts: firstly, towards God, by -fulfilling His Commandments without hypocrisy; secondly, -towards men, by paying respect to one’s superiors and -behaving with kindness to one’s inferiors and with justice -to one’s equals, and by not seeking recompense and justice -from men in general; and thirdly, towards one’s self, by -not following the flesh and the devil. Whoever makes -himself right in these three matters is a good-natured man. -This which I have mentioned agrees with a story told of -`Á´isha the veracious (<i>ṣiddiqa</i>)—may God be well-pleased -with her! She was asked concerning the nature of the -Apostle. “Read from the Koran,” she replied, “for God -has given information in the place where He says: ‘<i>Use</i> -<span class='pageno' id='Page_43'>43</span><i>indulgence and order what is good and turn away from the -ignorant</i>’ (Kor. vii, 198).” And Murta`ish also says: <i>Hádhá -madhhab<sup>un</sup> kulluhu jidd<sup>un</sup> fa-lá takhliṭúhu bi-shay´<sup>in</sup> min -al-hazl</i>, “This religion of Ṣúfiism is wholly earnest, therefore -do not mix jest with it, and do not take the conduct of -formalists (<i>mutarassimán</i>) as a model, and shun those who -blindly imitate them.” When the people see these formalists -among the aspirants to Ṣúfiism in our time, and become -aware of their dancing and singing and visiting the court -of sultans and quarrelling for the sake of a pittance or a -mouthful of food, their belief in the whole body of Ṣúfís is -corrupted, and they say: “These are the principles of Ṣúfiism, -and the tenets of the ancient Ṣúfís were just the same.” -They do not recognize that this is an age of weakness and -an epoch of affliction. Consequently, since greed incites -the sultan to acts of tyranny, and lust incites the savant to -commit adultery and fornication, and ostentation incites -the ascetic to hypocrisy, and vanity incites the Ṣúfí also to -dance and sing—you must know that the evil lies in the -men who hold the doctrines, not in the principles on which -the doctrines are based; and that if some scoffers disguise -their folly in the earnestness of true mystics (<i>aḥrár</i>), the -earnestness of the latter is not thereby turned to folly. And -Abú `Alí Qarmíni<a id='r40' /><a href='#f40' class='c015'><sup>[40]</sup></a> says: <i>Al-taṣawwuf huwa ´l-akhláq al-raḍiyyat</i>, -“Ṣúfiism is good morals.” Approved actions are such -that the creature in all circumstances approves of God, and is -content and satisfied. Abu ´l Ḥasan Núrí says: <i>Al-taṣawwuf -huwa ´l-ḥurriyyat wa-´l-futuwwat wa-tark al-taklíf wa-´l-sakhá -wa-badhl al-dunyá</i>, “Ṣúfiism is liberty, so that a man is -freed from the bonds of desire; and generosity,” i.e. he -is purged from the conceit of generosity; “and abandonment -of useless trouble,” i.e. he does not strive after appurtenances -and rewards; “and munificence,” i.e. he leaves this world to -the people of this world.</p> - -<p class='c001'><span class='pageno' id='Page_44'>44</span>And Abu ´l-Ḥasan Fúshanja<a id='r41' /><a href='#f41' class='c015'><sup>[41]</sup></a>—may God have mercy on -him!—says: <i>Al-taṣawwuf al-yawma ´sm<sup>un</sup> wa-lá ḥaqíqat<sup>un</sup> wa-qad -kána ḥaqíqat<sup>an</sup> wa-la ´sm<sup>an</sup></i>, “To-day Ṣúfiism is a name -without a reality, but formerly it was a reality without a name,” -i.e. in the time of the Companions and the Ancients—may -God have mercy on them!—this name did not exist, but -the reality thereof was in everyone; now the name exists, -but not the reality. That is to say, formerly the practice -was known and the pretence unknown, but nowadays the -pretence is known and the practice unknown.</p> - -<p class='c001'>I have brought together and examined in this chapter -on Ṣúfiism a number of the sayings of the Shaykhs, in order -that this Path may become clear to you—God grant you -felicity!—and that you may say to the sceptics: “What -do you mean by denying the truth of Ṣúfiism?” If they -deny only the name it is no matter, since ideas are unrelated -to things which bear names; and if they deny the essential -ideas, this amounts to a denial of the whole Sacred Law -of the Apostle and his praised qualities. And I enjoin you -in this book—God grant you the felicity with which He has -blessed His Saints!—to hold these ideas in due regard and -satisfy their just claims, so that you may refrain from idle -pretensions and have an excellent belief in the Ṣúfís themselves. -It is God that gives success.</p> -<hr class='c017' /> -<div class='footnote' id='f31'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r31'>31</a>. Kor. xxv, 64.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f32'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r32'>32</a>. See Chapter <a href='#ch09'>IX</a>.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f33'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r33'>33</a>. The name <i>zaddíq</i> (an Aramaic word meaning “righteous”) was given to -the ascetics and spiritual adepts among the Manichæans. Its Arabic equivalent, -<i>siddíq</i>, which means “veracious”, is a term that is frequently applied to Ṣúfís.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f34'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r34'>34</a>. <i>Yataṣára`ún.</i> B. has <i>yata`ádawn</i>, and in marg. <i>yatasára`ún</i>. The true reading -is <i>yata`áwawn</i>, “barking (or ‘growling’) at one another.” Cf. <i>Lisán</i>, xix, 343, 3.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f35'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r35'>35</a>. <i>Yatagháwarún.</i> This is the reading of J., I. has <i>yata`áwarún</i>, L. <i>yata`áwadún</i>, -B. <i>yataghámazún</i>, and in marg. <i>yatafáwazún</i>.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f36'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r36'>36</a>. Examples of this signification of the form <i>tafa``ul</i> are given in Wright’s Arabic -Grammar, vol. i, p. 37, Rem. <i>b</i>.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f37'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r37'>37</a>. Viz., purity (<i>ṣafá</i>) and Ṣúfiism (<i>taṣawwuf</i>).</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f38'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r38'>38</a>. So J. The Lahore edition has Ibn al-Jalálí, I. Ibn al-Jullábí. See Chapter X, -No. <a href='#X.34'>34</a>.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f39'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r39'>39</a>. Died in 366 <span class='fss'>A.H.</span> See <i>Nafaḥát</i>, No. 332.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f40'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r40'>40</a>. IJ. Qazwíní. B. Abú `Alí Kirmánsháhí Qurayshí. The Shaykh in question is -probably Muẕaffar Kirmánsháhí Qarmíní (<i>Nafaḥát</i>, No. 270).</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f41'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r41'>41</a>. Generally written “Fúshanjí”. See <i>Nafaḥát</i>, No. 279.</p> -</div> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_45'>45</span> - <h2 id='ch04' class='c011'>CHAPTER IV. <br /><span class='sc'>On the Wearing of Patched Frocks</span> (<i>Muraqqa`át</i>).</h2> -</div> - -<p class='c014'>Know that the wearing of a <i>muraqqa`a</i> (patched frock) is the -badge of aspirants to Ṣúfiism. The wearing of these garments -is a <i>Sunna</i> (custom of the Prophet), for the Apostle said: -<i>`Alaykum bi-labs al-ṣúf tajidúna ḥaláwat al-ímán fí qulúbikum.</i> -And, further, one of the Companions says: <i>Kána ´l-nabí salla -´lláh `alayhi wa-sallama yalbasu ´l-ṣúf wa-yarkabu ´l-ḥimár.</i> -And, moreover, the Apostle said to `Á´isha: <i>Lá tuḍayyi`i ´l-thawb -ḥattá turaqqi`íhi.</i> He said: “See that ye wear woollen -raiment, that ye may feel the sweetness of faith.” And it is -related that the Apostle wore a garment of wool and rode on -an ass, and that he said to `Á´isha: “O `Á´isha, do not let -the garment be destroyed, but patch it.” `Umar, the son of -Khaṭṭáb, wore, it is said, a <i>muraqqa`a</i> with thirty patches -inserted on it. Of `Umar, too, we are told that he said: “The -best garment is that which gives the least trouble” (<i>ki ma´únat-i -án sabuktar buvad</i>). It is related of the Commander of the -Faithful, `Alí, that he had a shirt of which the sleeves were -level with his fingers, and if at any time he wore a longer shirt -he used to tear off the ends of its sleeves. The Apostle also -was commanded by God to shorten his garments, for God said: -“<i>And purify thy garments</i>” (Kor. lxxiv, 4), i.e. shorten them. -And Ḥasan of Baṣra says: “I saw seventy comrades who fought -at Badr: all of them had woollen garments; and the greatest -<i>Ṣiddíq</i> (Abú Bakr) wore a garment of wool in his detachment -from the world” (<i>tajríd</i>). Ḥasan of Baṣra says further: “I saw -Salmán (al-Fárisí) wearing a woollen frock (<i>gilím</i>) with -patches.” The Commander of the Faithful, `Umar b. al-Khaṭṭáb, -and the Commander of the Faithful, `Alí, and Harim -b. Ḥayyán relate that they saw Uways Qaraní with a woollen -<span class='pageno' id='Page_46'>46</span>garment on which patches were inserted. Ḥasan of Baṣra and -Málik Dínár and Sufyán Thawrí were owners of woollen -patched frocks. And it is related of the Imám Abú Ḥanífa -of Kúfa—this is written in the History of the Shaykhs composed -by Muḥammad b. `Alí Ḥakím Tirmidhí—that he at first clothed -himself in wool and was on the point of retiring from the -world, when he saw in a dream the Apostle, who said: “It -behoves thee to live amidst the people, because thou art the -means whereby my <i>Sunna</i> will be revived.” Then Abú Ḥanífa -refrained from solitude, but he never put on a garment of any -value. And Dáwud Ṭá´í, who was one of the veritable adepts -among the aspirants to Ṣúfiism (<i>yakí az muḥaqqiqán-i -mutaṣawwifa</i>), enjoined the wearing of wool. And Ibráhím -the son of Adham came to visit the most venerable Imám Abú -Ḥanífa, clad in a garment of wool. The latter’s disciples looked -at him with contempt and disparagement, until Abú Ḥanífa -said: “Our lord Ibráhím b. Adham has come.” The disciples -said: “The Imám utters no jests: how has he gained this lordship?” -Abú Ḥanífa replied: “By continual devotion. He has -been occupied in serving God while we have been engaged in -serving our own bodies. Thus he has become our lord.”</p> - -<p class='c001'>It may well be the case that at the present day some persons -wear patched frocks and religious habits (<i>muraqqa`át ú khiraq</i>) -for the sake of public honour and reputation, and that their -hearts belie their external garb; for there may be but one -champion in a host, and in every sect the genuine adepts are -few. People, however, reckon as Ṣúfís all who resemble the -Ṣúfís even in a single rule. The Apostle said: <i>Man tashabbaha -bi-qawm<sup>in</sup> fa-huwa minhum</i>, “He that makes himself akin to -a party either in conduct or in belief, is one of that party.” But -while some regard only the outward forms of their practice, -others direct attention to their spirit of inward purity.</p> - -<p class='c001'>Those who wish to associate with aspirants to Ṣúfiism fall -into four classes: (1) He whose purity, enlightenment, subtlety, -even balance of temperament, and soundness of character -give him insight into the hearts of the Ṣúfís, so that he -<span class='pageno' id='Page_47'>47</span>perceives the nearness of their spiritual adepts to God and -the loftiness of their eminent men. He joins himself to them -in hope of attaining to the same degree, and the beginning of -his novitiate is marked by revelation of “states” (<i>kashf-i -aḥwál</i>), and purgation from desire, and renunciation of self. -(2) He whose health of body and continence of heart and -quiet peace of mind enable him to see their outward practice, -so that he fixes his gaze on their observance of the holy law -and of the different sorts of discipline, and on the excellence -of their conduct: consequently he seeks to associate with them -and give himself up to the practice of piety, and the beginning -of his novitiate is marked by self-mortification (<i>mujáhadat</i>) -and good conduct. (3) He whose humanity and custom of -social intercourse and goodness of disposition cause him to -consider their actions and to see the virtue of their outward -life: how they treat their superiors with respect and their -inferiors with generosity and their equals as comrades, and -how untroubled they are by thoughts of worldly gain and contented -with what they have; he seeks their society, and -renders easy to himself the hard path of worldly ambition, -and makes himself at leisure one of the good. (4) He whose -stupidity and feebleness of soul—his love of power without -merit and of distinction without knowledge—lead him to -suppose that the outward actions of the Ṣúfís are everything. -When he enters their company they treat him kindly and -indulgently, although they are convinced that he is entirely -ignorant of God and that he has never striven to advance -upon the mystic path. Therefore he is honoured by the -people as if he were a real adept and is venerated as if he -were one of God’s saints, but his object is only to assume -their dress and hide his deformity under their piety. He is -like an ass laden with books (Kor. lxxii, 5). In this age -the majority are impostors such as have been described. -Accordingly, it behoves you not to seem to be anything -except what you really are. It is inward glow (<i>ḥurqat</i>) that -makes the Ṣúfí, not the religious habit (<i>khirqat</i>). To the true -<span class='pageno' id='Page_48'>48</span>mystic there is no difference between the mantle (<i>`abá</i>) worn -by dervishes, and the coat (<i>qabá</i>) worn by ordinary people. -An eminent Shaykh was asked why he did not wear -a patched frock (<i>muraqqa`a</i>). He replied: “It is hypocrisy -to wear the garb of the Ṣúfís and not to bear the burdens -which Ṣúfiism entails.” If, by wearing this garb, you wish to -make known to God that you are one of the elect, God knows -that already; and if you wish to show to the people that you -belong to God, should your claim be true, you are guilty of -ostentation; and should it be false, of hypocrisy. The Ṣúfís -are too great to need a special garment for this purpose. -Purity (<i>ṣafá</i>) is a gift from God, whereas wool (<i>ṣúf</i>) is the -clothing of animals. The Ṣúfí Shaykhs enjoined their disciples -to wear patched frocks, and did the same themselves, -in order that they might be marked men, and that all the -people might keep watch over them: thus if they committed -a transgression, every tongue would rebuke them, and if they -wished to sin while clad in this garment, they would be held -back by shame. In short, the <i>muraqqa`a</i> is the garb of God’s -saints. The vulgar use it merely as a means of gaining -worldly reputation and fortune, but the elect prefer contumely -to honour, and affliction to prosperity. Hence it is said -“the <i>muraqqa`a</i> is a garb of happiness for the vulgar, but -a mail-coat (<i>jawshan</i>) of affliction for the elect.” You must -seek what is spiritual, and shun what is external. The -Divine is veiled by the human, and that veil is annihilated -only by passing through the “states” and “stages” of the -mystic Way. Purity (<i>ṣafá</i>) is the name given to such -annihilation. How can he who has gained it choose one -garment rather than another, or take pains to adorn himself -at all? How should he care whether people call him a Ṣúfí -or by some other name?</p> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c004'> - <div><span class='sc'>Section.</span></div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c010'><i>Muraqqa`as</i> should be made with a view to ease and lightness, -and when the original cloth is torn a patch should be inserted. -<span class='pageno' id='Page_49'>49</span>There are two opinions of the Shaykhs as to this matter. -Some hold that it is improper to sew the patch on neatly -and accurately, and that the needle should be drawn through -the cloth at random,<a id='r42' /><a href='#f42' class='c015'><sup>[42]</sup></a> and that no trouble should be taken. -Others again hold that the stitches should be straight and -regular, and that it is part of the practice of the dervishes -to keep the stitches straight and to take pains therein; for -sound practice indicates sound principles.</p> - -<p class='c001'>Now I, who am `Alí b. `Uthmán al-Jullábí, asked the Grand -Shaykh, Abu ´l-Qásim Gurgání at Ṭús, saying: “What is -the least thing necessary for a dervish in order that he may -become worthy of poverty?” He replied: “A dervish must -not have less than three things: first, he must know how -to sew on a patch rightly; second, he must know how to -listen rightly; third, he must know how to set his foot on -the ground rightly.” A number of dervishes were present -with me when he said this. As soon as we came to the door -each one began to apply this saying to his own case, and -some ignorant fellows fastened on it with avidity. “This,” they -cried, “is poverty indeed,” and most of them were hastening -to sew patches on nicely and to set their feet on the ground -correctly; and everyone of them imagined that he knew how -to listen to sayings on Ṣúfiism. Wherefore, since my heart -was devoted to that Sayyid, and I was unwilling that his words -should fall to the ground, I said: “Come, let each of us say -something upon this subject.” So everyone stated his views, -and when my turn came I said: “A right patch is one that is -stitched for poverty, not for show; if it is stitched for poverty, -it is right, even though it be stitched wrong. And a right word -is one that is heard esoterically (<i>ba-ḥál</i>), not wilfully (<i>ba-munyat</i>), -and is applied earnestly, not frivolously, and is -apprehended by life, not by reason. And a right foot is one -that is put on the ground with true rapture, not playfully and -formally.” Some of my remarks were reported to the Sayyid -(Abu ´l-Qásim Gurgání), who said: “`Alí has spoken well—God -<span class='pageno' id='Page_50'>50</span>reward him!” The aim of this sect in wearing patched frocks -is to alleviate the burden of this world and to be sincere in -poverty towards God. It is related in the genuine Traditions -that Jesus, son of Mary—God bless him!—was wearing a -<i>muraqqa`a</i> when he was taken up to heaven. A certain Shaykh -said: “I dreamed that I saw him clad in a woollen patched -frock, and light was shining from every patch. I said: ‘O -Messiah, what are these lights on thy garment?’ He answered: -‘The lights of necessary grace; for I sewed on each of those -patches through necessity, and God Almighty hath turned into -a light every tribulation which He inflicted on my heart.’”</p> - -<p class='c001'>I saw in Transoxania an old man who belonged to the sect -of Malámatís. He neither ate nor wore anything in which -human beings had a hand. His food consisted of things thrown -away by men, such as putrid vegetables, sour gourds, rotten -carrots, and the like. His clothes were made of rags which he -had picked up from the road and washed: of these he had -made a <i>muraqqa`a</i>. And I have heard that among the mystics -of recent times there was an old man of flourishing condition -(<i>qawí ḥál</i>) and of excellent character, living at Marv al-Rúd, -who had sewn so many patches, without taking pains, on his -prayer-rug and cap, that scorpions brought forth their young -in them. And my Shaykh—may God be well pleased with -him!—wore for fifty-one years a single cloak (<i>jubba</i>), on which -he used to sew pieces of cloth without taking any pains. -I have found the following tale among the anecdotes of the -(holy) men of `Iráq. There were two dervishes, one a votary -of the contemplative life (<i>ṣáḥib musháhadat</i>), and the other -a votary of the purgative life (<i>ṣáḥib mujáhadat</i>). The former -never clothed himself except in the pieces of cloth which were -torn off by dervishes in a state of ecstasy (<i>samá`</i>) from their -own garments, while the other used for the same purpose only -the pieces torn off by dervishes who were asking forgiveness: -thus the outward garb of each was in harmony with his inward -disposition. This is observance of the “state” (<i>pás dáshtan-i -ḥál</i>). Shaykh Muḥammad b. Khafíf wore a coarse woollen -<span class='pageno' id='Page_51'>51</span>frock (<i>palás</i>) for twenty years, and every year he used to -undergo four fasts of forty days’ duration (<i>chilla</i>), and every -forty days he would compose a work on the mysteries of the -Sciences of the Divine Verities. In his time there was an old -man,<a id='r43' /><a href='#f43' class='c015'><sup>[43]</sup></a> one of the adepts learned in the Way (<i>Ṭaríqat</i>) and the -Truth (<i>Ḥaqíqat</i>), who resided at Parg<a id='r44' /><a href='#f44' class='c015'><sup>[44]</sup></a> in Fárs and was called -Muḥammad b. Zakariyyá.<a id='r45' /><a href='#f45' class='c015'><sup>[45]</sup></a> He had never worn a <i>muraqqa`a</i>. -Now Shaykh Muḥammad b. Khafíf was asked: “What is -involved in wearing a <i>muraqqa`a</i>, and who is permitted to do -so?” He replied: “It involves those obligations which are -fulfilled by Muḥammad b. Zakariyyá in his white shirt, and the -wearing of such a frock is permitted to him.”</p> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c004'> - <div><span class='sc'>Section.</span></div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>It is not the way of the Ṣúfís to abandon their customs. -If they seldom wear garments of wool at the present day, there -are two reasons for this fact: (1) that wools have deteriorated -(<i>pashmhá shúrída shuda ast</i>) and the animals (which produce -wool) have been carried off from one place to another by -raiders; and (2) that a sect of heretics has adopted the woollen -garment as a badge (<i>shi`ár</i>). And it is praiseworthy to depart -from the badge of heretics, even although one departs at the -same time from a traditional practice (<i>sunna</i>).</p> - -<p class='c001'>To take pains (<i>takalluf</i>) in sewing <i>muraqqa`as</i> is considered -allowable by the Ṣúfís because they have gained a high -reputation among the people; and since many imitate them -and wear <i>muraqqa`as</i>, and are guilty of improper acts, and since -the Ṣúfís dislike the society of others than themselves—for -these reasons they have invented a garb which none but -<span class='pageno' id='Page_52'>52</span>themselves can sew, and have made it a mark of mutual -acquaintance and a badge. So much so that when a certain -dervish came to one of the Shaykhs wearing a garment on -which the patch had been sewn with too wide stitches (<i>khaṭṭ -ba-pahná áwarda búd</i>) the Shaykh banished him from his -presence. The argument is that purity (<i>ṣafá</i>) is founded on -delicacy of nature and fineness of temperament, and undoubtedly -crookedness in one’s nature is not good. It is -natural to disapprove of incorrect actions, just as it is natural -to derive no pleasure from incorrect poetry.</p> - -<p class='c001'>Others, again, do not trouble themselves about clothes at all. -They wear either a religious habit (<i>`abá</i>) or an ordinary coat -(<i>qabá</i>), whichever God may have given them; and if He keeps -them naked, they remain in that state. I, who am `Alí b. -`Uthmán al-Jullábí, approve of this doctrine, and I have -practised it in my journeys. It is related that Aḥmad b. -Khaḍrúya wore a coat when he visited Abú Yazíd, and that -Sháh b. Shujá` wore a coat when he visited Abú Ḥafṣ. This -was not their usual dress, for sometimes they wore a <i>muraqqa`a</i> -and sometimes a woollen garment or a white shirt, as it might -happen. The human soul is habituated to things, and fond -of custom, and when anything has become habitual to the soul -it soon grows natural, and when it has grown natural it becomes -a veil. Hence the Apostle said: <i>Khayr al-ṣiyám ṣawm akhí -Dáwud `alayhi ´l-salám</i>, “The best of fasts is that of my brother -David.” They said: “O Apostle of God, what kind of fast is -that?” He replied: “David used to keep his fast one day and -break it on the next day,” in order that his soul should not -become accustomed either to keeping the fast or to breaking -it, for fear that he might be veiled thereby. And, as regards -this matter, Abú Ḥámid Dústán<a id='r46' /><a href='#f46' class='c015'><sup>[46]</sup></a> of Merv was the most sound. -His disciples used to put a garment on him, but those who -wanted it used to seek him out when he was at leisure and -alone, and divest him of it; and he would never say to the -person who put it on him: “Why do you put it on?” nor to the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_53'>53</span>person who took it off: “Why do you take it off?” Moreover, -at the present day there is at Ghazna—may God protect it!—an -old man with the sobriquet Mu´ayyad, who has no choice -or discrimination with respect to his clothes; and he is sound -in that degree.</p> - -<p class='c001'>Now, as to their garments being mostly blue (<i>kabúd</i>), one -of the reasons is that they have made wandering (<i>siyáḥat</i>) and -travelling the foundation of their Path; and on journeys -a white garment does not retain its original appearance, and -is not easily washed, and besides, everyone covets it. Another -cause is this, that a blue dress is the badge of the bereaved and -afflicted, and the apparel of mourners; and this world is the -abode of trouble, the pavilion of affliction, the den of sorrow, -the house of parting, the cradle of tribulation: the (Ṣúfí) -disciples, seeing that their heart’s desire is not to be gained -in this world, have clad themselves in blue and have sat down -to mourn union (with God). Others behold in the practice -(of devotion) only imperfection, in the heart only evil, in life -only loss of time: therefore they wear blue; for loss (<i>fawt</i>) -is worse than death (<i>mawt</i>). One wears blue for the death -of a dear friend, another for the loss of a cherished hope.</p> - -<p class='c001'>A dervish was asked why he wore blue. He replied: “The -Apostle left three things: poverty, knowledge, and the sword. -The sword was taken by potentates, who misused it; knowledge -was chosen by savants, who were satisfied with merely teaching -it; poverty was chosen by dervishes, who made it a means of -enriching themselves. I wear blue as a sign of mourning for -the calamity of these three classes of men.” Once Murta`ish -was walking in one of the quarters of Baghdád. Being thirsty, -he went to a door and asked for a drink of water. The -daughter of the householder brought him some water in a jug. -Murta`ish was smitten with her beauty and would not leave -the spot until the master of the house came to him. “O sir,” -cried Murta`ish, “she gave me a drink of water and robbed me -of my heart.” The householder replied: “She is my daughter, -and I give her to you in marriage.” So Murta`ish went into -<span class='pageno' id='Page_54'>54</span>the house, and the wedding was immediately solemnized. The -bride’s father, who was a wealthy man, sent Murta`ish to the -bath, where they took off his patched frock (<i>muraqqa`a</i>) and -clothed him in a night-dress. At nightfall he rose to say his -prayers and engage in solitary devotion. Suddenly he called -out, “Bring my patched frock.” They asked, “What ails -you?” He answered, “I heard a voice within, whispering: -‘On account of one disobedient look We have removed thy -<i>muraqqa`a</i>, the garb of piety, from thy body: if thou lookest -again We shall remove the raiment of intimacy from thy -heart.’” Only two kinds of men are fitted to wear the -<i>muraqqa`a</i>: (1) those who are cut off from the world, and (2) -those who feel a longing for the Lord (<i>mushtáqán-i mawlá</i>).</p> - -<p class='c001'>The Ṣúfí Shaykhs observe the following rule. When a novice -joins them, with the purpose of renouncing the world, they -subject him to spiritual discipline for the space of three years. -If he fulfil the requirements of this discipline, well and good; -otherwise, they declare that he cannot be admitted to the -Path (<i>Ṭaríqat</i>). The first year is devoted to service of the -people, the second year to service of God, and the third year -to watching over his own heart. He can serve the people -only when he places himself in the rank of servants and all -other people in the rank of masters, i.e. he must regard all, -without any discrimination, as being better than himself, and -must consider it his duty to serve all alike; not in such -a way as to deem himself superior to those whom he serves, -for this is manifest perdition and evident fraud, and is one of -the infectious cankers of the age (<i>az áfát-i zamána andar -zamána yakí ínast</i>). And he can serve God Almighty only -when he cuts off all his selfish interests relating either to -this world or to the next, and worships God absolutely for -His sake alone, inasmuch as whoever worships God for any -thing’s sake worships himself and not God. And he can -watch over his heart only when his thoughts are collected -and cares are dismissed from his heart, so that in the presence -of intimacy (with God) he preserves his heart from the assaults -<span class='pageno' id='Page_55'>55</span>of heedlessness. When these three qualifications are possessed -by the novice, he may wear the <i>muraqqa`a</i> as a true mystic, not -merely as an imitator of others.</p> - -<p class='c001'>Now as to the person who invests the novice with the -<i>muraqqa`a</i>, he must be a man of rectitude (<i>mustaqím al-ḥál</i>) -who has traversed all the hills and dales of the Path, and tasted -the rapture of “states” and perceived the nature of actions, -and experienced the severity of the Divine majesty and the -clemency of the Divine beauty. Furthermore, he must examine -the state of his disciples and judge what point they will -ultimately reach: whether they will retire (<i>ráji`án</i>), or stand -still (<i>wáqifán</i>), or attain (<i>bálighán</i>). If he knows that some day -they will abandon this Path, he must forbid them to enter upon -it; if they will come to a stand, he must enjoin them to practise -devotion; and if they will reach the goal, he must give them -spiritual nourishment. The Ṣúfí Shaykhs are physicians of -men’s souls. When the physician is ignorant of the patient’s -malady he kills him by his art, because he does not know how -to treat him and does not recognize the symptoms of danger, -and prescribes food and drink unsuitable to his disease. The -Apostle said: “The shaykh in his tribe is like the prophet in -his nation.” Accordingly, as the prophets showed insight in -their call to the people, and kept everyone in his due degree, -so the Shaykh likewise should show insight in his call, and -should give to everyone his proper spiritual food, in order that -the object of his call may be secured.</p> - -<p class='c001'>The adept, then, who has attained the perfection of saintship -takes the right course when he invests the novice with the -<i>muraqqa`a</i> after a period of three years during which he has -educated him in the necessary discipline. In respect of the -qualifications which it demands, the <i>muraqqa`a</i> is comparable -to a winding-sheet (<i>kafan</i>): the wearer must resign all his -hopes of the pleasures of life, and purge his heart of all sensual -delights, and devote his life entirely to the service of God and -completely renounce selfish desires. Then the Director (<i>Pír</i>) -ennobles him by clothing him in that robe of honour, while he -<span class='pageno' id='Page_56'>56</span>on his part fulfils the obligations which it involves, and strives -with all his might to perform them, and deems it unlawful to -satisfy his own wishes.</p> - -<p class='c001'>Many allegories (<i>ishárát</i>) have been uttered concerning the -<i>muraqqa`a</i>. Shaykh Abú Ma`mar of Iṣfahán has written a -book on the subject, and the generality of aspirants to Ṣúfiism -display much extravagance (<i>ghuluww</i>) in this matter. My -aim, however, in the present work is not to relate sayings, but -to elucidate the difficulties of Ṣúfiism. The best allegory concerning -the <i>muraqqa`a</i> is this, that its collar (<i>qabba</i>) is patience, -its two sleeves fear and hope, its two gussets (<i>tiríz</i>) contraction -and dilation, its belt self-abnegation, its hem (<i>kursí</i>)<a id='r47' /><a href='#f47' class='c015'><sup>[47]</sup></a> -soundness in faith, its fringe (<i>faráwíz</i>) sincerity. Better still -is the following: “Its collar is annihilation of intercourse (with -men), its two sleeves are observance (<i>ḥifẕ</i>) and continence -(<i>`iṣmat</i>), its two gussets are poverty and purity, its belt is -persistence in contemplation, its hem (<i>kursí</i>) is tranquillity -in (God’s) presence, and its fringe is settlement in the abode of -union.” When you have made a <i>muraqqa`a</i> like this for your -spiritual self it behoves you to make one for your exterior -also. I have composed a separate book on this subject, entitled -“The Mysteries of Patched Frocks and Means of Livelihood” -(<i>Asrár al-khiraq wa-´l-ma´únát</i>), of which the novice should -get a copy.</p> - -<p class='c001'>If the novice, having donned the <i>muraqqa`a</i>, should be forced -to tear it under compulsion of the temporal authority, this is -permissible and excusable; but should he tear it of free will -and deliberately, then according to the law of the sect he is not -allowed to wear a <i>muraqqa`a</i> in future, and if he do so, he stands -on the same footing as those in our time who are content to -wear <i>muraqqa`as</i> for outward show, with no spiritual meaning. -As regards the rending of garments the true doctrine is this, -that when Ṣúfís pass from one stage to another they immediately -change their dress in thankfulness for having gained a higher -<span class='pageno' id='Page_57'>57</span>stage; but whereas every other garment is the dress of a single -stage, the <i>muraqqa`a</i> is a dress which comprises all the stages -of the Path of poverty and purity, and therefore to discard it -is equivalent to renouncing the whole Path. I have made -a slight allusion to this question, although this is not the proper -place for it, in order to settle the particular point at issue; but, -please God, I will give a detailed explanation of the principle -in the chapter on rending (<i>kharq</i>), and in the revelation of -the mystery of “audition” (<i>samá`</i>). Furthermore, it has been -said that one who invests a novice with the <i>muraqqa`a</i> should -possess such sovereign mystical powers that any stranger on -whom he looks kindly should become a friend, and any sinner -whom he clothes in this garment should become a saint.</p> - -<p class='c001'>Once I was travelling with my Shaykh in Ádharbáyaján, -and we saw two or three persons wearing <i>muraqqa`as</i>, who were -standing beside a wheat-barn and holding up their skirts in the -hope that the farmer would throw them some wheat. On seeing -this the Shaykh exclaimed: “<i>Those are they who have purchased -error at the price of true guidance, but their traffic has not been -profitable</i>” (Kor. ii, 15). I asked him how they had fallen into -this calamity and disgrace. He said: “Their spiritual directors -were greedy to gather disciples, and they themselves are greedy -to collect worldly goods.” It is related of Junayd that he saw -at the Báb al-Ṭáq<a id='r48' /><a href='#f48' class='c015'><sup>[48]</sup></a> a beautiful Christian youth and said: -“O Lord, pardon him for my sake, for Thou hast created him -exceeding fair.” After a while the youth came to Junayd and -made profession of Islam and was enrolled among the saints. -Abú `Alí Siyáh was asked: “Who is permitted to invest novices -with the <i>muraqqa`a</i>?” He replied: “That one who oversees -the whole kingdom of God, so that nothing happens in the -world without his knowledge.”</p> - -<hr class='c017' /> -<div class='footnote' id='f42'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r42'>42</a>. Literally, “in whatever place it raises its head.”</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f43'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r43'>43</a>. This story is related in <i>`Aṭṭár’s Tadhkirat al-Awliyá</i> (pt. ii, p. 125, l. 17 sqq.), -where it is expressly said that the old man was <i>not</i> “learned in the Way”.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f44'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r44'>44</a>. I. in margin has Park. The <i>Nuzhat al-Quhúb</i> gives the name as برک (Bark), -and refers it to a village in the district of Kirmán.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f45'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r45'>45</a>. B., I., and J. have Dhakariyyá (Zakariyya), L. ذكرى. The MSS. of the -<i>Tadhkirat al-Awliyá</i> vary between Dhakírí and ذكرى.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f46'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r46'>46</a>. See <i>Nafaḥát</i>, No. 350.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f47'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r47'>47</a>. This conjectural translation of <i>kursí</i> was suggested to me by Colonel Ranking. -The dictionaries give no explanation of the word as it is used here.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f48'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r48'>48</a>. A gate in the eastern quarter of Baghdád.</p> -</div> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_58'>58</span> - <h2 id='ch05' class='c011'>CHAPTER V. <br /><span class='sc'>On the Different Opinions held concerning Poverty and Purity.</span></h2> -</div> - -<p class='c014'>The Doctors of the Mystic Path are not agreed as to the -respective merits of Poverty (<i>faqr</i>) and Purity (<i>ṣafwat</i>). Some -hold that Poverty is more perfect than Purity. Poverty, they -say, is complete annihilation in which every thought ceases to -exist, and Purity is one of the “stations” (<i>maqámát</i>) of Poverty: -when annihilation is gained, all “stations” vanish into nothing. -This is ultimately the same question as that touching Poverty -and Wealth, which has already been discussed. Those who set -Purity above Poverty say that Poverty is an existent thing -(<i>shay ast mawjúd</i>) and is capable of being named, whereas -Purity is the being pure (<i>ṣafá</i>) from all existing things: <i>ṣafá</i> -is the essence of annihilation (<i>faná</i>), and Poverty is the essence -of subsistence (<i>baqá</i>): therefore Poverty is one of the names -of “stations”, but Purity is one of the names of perfection. -This matter has been disputed at great length in the present -age, and both parties have resorted to far-fetched and amazing -verbal subtleties; but it will be allowed on all sides that Poverty -and Purity are not mere words and nothing else. The disputants -have made up a doctrine out of words and have neglected -to apprehend meanings: they have abandoned discussion of -the Truth. Negation of arbitrary will they call negation of -essence, and affirmation of desire they regard as affirmation -of essence. The Mystic Path is far removed from such idle -fictions. In short, the Saints of God attain to a place where -place no longer exists, where all degrees and “stations” disappear, -and where outward expressions fall off from the underlying -realities, so that neither “spiritual delight” (<i>shurb</i>) is left, -nor “taste” (<i>dhawq</i>), nor “sobriety” (<i>ṣaḥw</i>), nor “effacement” -<span class='pageno' id='Page_59'>59</span>(<i>maḥw</i>). These controversialists, however, seek a forced name -with which to cloak ideas that do not admit of being named or -of being used as attributes; and everyone applies to them whatever -name he thinks most estimable. Now, in dealing with the -ideas themselves, the question of superiority does not arise, but -when names are given to them, one will necessarily be preferred -to another. Accordingly, to some people the name of Poverty -seemed to be superior and of greater worth because it is connected -with renunciation and humility, while others preferred -Purity, and held it the more honourable because it comes nearer -to the notion of discarding all that contaminates and annihilating -all that has a taint of the world. They adopted these -two names as symbols of an inexpressible idea, in order that -they might converse with each other on that subject and make -their own state fully known; and there is no difference of -opinion in this sect (the Ṣúfís), although some use the term -“Poverty” and others the term “Purity” to express the same -idea. With the verbalists (<i>ahl-i `ibárat</i>), on the contrary, who -are ignorant of the true meaning of these ideas, the whole -question is an affair of words. To conclude, whoever has made -that idea his own and fixed his heart upon it, heeds not whether -they call him “Poor” (<i>faqír</i>) or “Pure” (<i>Ṣúfí</i>), since both -these appellations are forced names for an idea that cannot be -brought under any name.</p> - -<p class='c001'>This controversy dates from the time of Abu ´l-Ḥasan Sumnún. -He, on occasions when he was in a state of revelation (<i>kashf</i>) -akin to subsistence (<i>baqá</i>), used to set Poverty above Purity; -and on being asked by spiritualists (<i>arbáb-i ma`ání</i>) why he did -so, he replied: “Inasmuch as I naturally delight in annihilation -and abasement, and no less in subsistence and exaltation, -I prefer Purity to Poverty when I am in a state akin to -annihilation, and Poverty to Purity when I am in a state -akin to subsistence; for Poverty is the name of subsistence -and Purity that of annihilation. In the latter state I annihilate -from myself the sight (consciousness) of subsistence, and in the -former state I annihilate from myself the sight of annihilation, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_60'>60</span>so that my nature becomes dead both to annihilation and to -subsistence.” Now this, regarded as an explanation (<i>`ibárat</i>), -is an excellent saying, but neither annihilation nor subsistence -can be annihilated: every subsistent thing that suffers annihilation -is annihilated from itself, and every annihilated thing that -becomes subsistent is subsistent from itself. Annihilation is -a term of which it is impossible to speak hyperbolically. If -a person says that annihilation is annihilated, he can only be -expressing hyperbolically the non-existence of any vestige of -the idea of annihilation; but so long as any vestige of existence -remains, annihilation has not yet come to pass; and when it -has been attained, the “annihilation” thereof is nothing but -self-conceit flattered by meaningless phrases. In the vanity -and rashness of youth I composed a discourse of this kind, -entitled the “Book of Annihilation and Subsistence” (<i>Kitáb-i -Faná ú Baqá</i>), but in the present work I will set forth the -whole matter with caution, please God the Almighty and -Glorious.</p> - -<p class='c001'>This is the distinction between Purity and Poverty in the -spiritual sense. It is otherwise when Purity and Poverty are -considered in their practical aspect, namely, the denuding one’s -self of worldly things (<i>tajríd</i>) and the casting away of all one’s -possessions. Here the real point is the difference between -Poverty (<i>faqr</i>) and Lowliness (<i>maskanat</i>). Some Shaykhs -assert that the Poor (<i>faqír</i>) are superior to the Lowly (<i>miskín</i>), -because God has said, “<i>the poor who are straitened in the way -of Allah, unable to go to and fro on the earth</i>” (Kor. ii, 274): -the Lowly possess means of livelihood, which the Poor renounce: -therefore Poverty is honour and Lowliness abasement, for, -according to the rule of the Mystic Path, he who possesses -the means of livelihood is base, as the Apostle said: “Woe -befall those who worship the dínár and the dirhem, woe befall -those who worship garments with a nap!” He who renounces -the means of livelihood is honoured, inasmuch as he depends -on God, while he who has means depends on them. Others, -again, declare the Lowly to be superior, because the Apostle -<span class='pageno' id='Page_61'>61</span>said: “Let me live lowly, and let me die lowly, and raise me -from the dead among the lowly!” whereas, speaking of Poverty, -he said, “Poverty is near to being unbelief.” On this account -the Poor are dependent on a means, but the Lowly are -independent. In the domain of Sacred Law, some divines -hold that the Poor are those who have a sufficiency ([<i>s.]áḥib -bulgha</i>), and the Lowly those who are free from worldly -cares (<i>mujarrad</i>); but other divines hold the converse of this -view. Hence the name “Ṣúfí” is given to the Lowly by -followers of the Path (<i>ahl-i maqámát</i>) who adopt the former -opinion: they prefer Purity (<i>ṣafwat</i>) to Poverty. Those Ṣúfís -who accept the latter view prefer Poverty to Purity, for a similar -reason.</p> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_62'>62</span> - <h2 id='ch06' class='c011'>CHAPTER VI. <br /><span class='sc'>On Blame</span> (<i>Malámat</i>).</h2> -</div> - -<p class='c014'>The path of Blame has been trodden by some of the Ṣúfí -Shaykhs. Blame has a great effect in making love sincere. -The followers of the Truth (<i>ahl-i ḥaqq</i>) are distinguished by -their being the objects of vulgar blame, especially the eminent -ones of this community. The Apostle, who is the exemplar -and leader of the adherents of the Truth, and who marches at -the head of the lovers (of God), was honoured and held in good -repute by all until the evidence of the Truth was revealed to -him and inspiration came upon him. Then the people loosed -their tongues to blame him. Some said, “He is a soothsayer;” -others, “He is a poet;” others, “He is a madman;” others, -“He is a liar;” and so forth. And God says, describing the -true believers: “<i>They fear not the blame of anyone; that is the -grace of God which He bestows on whomsoever He pleases; God -is bounteous and wise</i>” (Kor. v, 59). Such is the ordinance of -God, that He causes those who discourse of Him to be blamed -by the whole world, but preserves their hearts from being preoccupied -by the world’s blame. This He does in His jealousy: -He guards His lovers from glancing aside to “other” (<i>ghayr</i>), -lest the eye of any stranger should behold the beauty of their -state; and He guards them also from seeing themselves, lest -they should regard their own beauty and fall into self-conceit -and arrogance. Therefore He hath set the vulgar over them -to loose the tongues of blame against them, and hath made the -“blaming soul” (<i>nafs-i lawwáma</i>) part of their composition, in -order that they may be blamed by others for whatever they do, -and by themselves for doing evil or for doing good imperfectly.</p> - -<p class='c001'>Now this is a firm principle in the Way to God, for in this -Path there is no taint or veil more difficult to remove than -<span class='pageno' id='Page_63'>63</span>self-conceit. God in His kindness hath barred the way of -error against His friends. Their actions, however good, are not -approved by the vulgar, who do not see them as they really -are; and they themselves do not regard their works of mortification, -however numerous, as proceeding from their own strength -and power: consequently they are not pleased with themselves -and are protected from self-conceit. Whoever is approved by -God is disapproved by the vulgar, and whoever is elected -by himself is not among the elect of God. Thus Iblís was -approved by mankind and accepted by the angels, and he was -pleased with himself; but since God was not pleased with him, -their approval only brought a curse upon him. Adam, on the -other hand, was disapproved by the angels, who said: “<i>Wilt -Thou place there</i> [on the earth] <i>one who will do evil therein?</i>” -(Kor. ii, 28), and was not pleased with himself, for he said: -“<i>O Lord, we have done ourselves a wrong</i>” (Kor. vii, 22); but -since God was pleased with him, the disapproval of the angels -and his own displeasure bore the fruit of mercy. Let all men, -therefore, know that those accepted by us are rejected by the -people, and that those accepted by the people are rejected by us. -Hence the blame of mankind is the food of the friends of God, -because it is a token of Divine approval; it is the delight of the -saints of God, because it is a sign of nearness to Him: they -rejoice in it even as other men rejoice in popularity. There is -a Tradition, which the Apostle received from Gabriel, that God -said: “My friends (saints) are under My cloak: save Me, none -knoweth them except My friends.”</p> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c004'> - <div><span class='sc'>Section.</span></div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>Now blame (<i>malámat</i>) is of three kinds: it may result -(1) from following the right way (<i>malámat-i rást raftan</i>), or -(2) from an intentional act (<i>malámat-i qaṣd kardan</i>), or (3) from -abandonment of the law (<i>malámat-i tark kardan</i>). In the first -case, a man is blamed who minds his own business and performs -his religious duties and does not omit any practice of -<span class='pageno' id='Page_64'>64</span>devotion: he is entirely indifferent to the behaviour of the -people towards him. In the second case a man is greatly -honoured by the people and pointed out among them: his -heart inclines to the honour in which he is held, and becomes -attached to those by whom it is bestowed: he wishes to make -himself independent of them and devote himself wholly to God; -therefore he purposely incurs their blame by committing some -act which is offensive to them but which is no violation of -the law: in consequence of his behaviour they wash their hands -of him. In the third case, a man is driven by his natural -infidelity and erroneous beliefs to abandon the sacred law and -abjure its observances, and say to himself, “I am treading the -path of blame:” in this case his behaviour depends on himself -alone.</p> - -<p class='c001'>He who follows the right way and refuses to act hypocritically, -and refrains from ostentation, pays no heed to the -blame of the vulgar, but invariably takes his own course: it is -all one to him what name they call him by. I find among the -anecdotes (of holy men) that one day Shaykh Abú Ṭáhir -Ḥaramí was seen in the bazaar, riding a donkey and attended -by one of his disciples. Some person cried out, “Here comes -that old freethinker!” The indignant disciple rushed at the -speaker, trying to strike him, and the whole bazaar was filled -with tumult. The Shaykh said to his disciple: “If you will be -quiet, I will show you something that will save you from trouble -of this sort.” When they returned home, he bade the disciple -bring a certain box, which contained letters, and told him to -look at them. “Observe,” he said, “how the writers address me. -One calls me ‘the Shaykh of Islam’, another ‘the pure Shaykh’, -another ‘the ascetic Shaykh’, another ‘the Shaykh of the two -Sanctuaries’, and so on. They are all titles, there is no mention -of my name. I am none of these things, but every person gives -me the title which accords with his belief concerning me. If -that poor fellow did the same just now, why should you quarrel -with him?”</p> - -<p class='c001'>He who incurs blame purposely and resigns honour and -<span class='pageno' id='Page_65'>65</span>withdraws from authority is like the Caliph `Uthmán who, -although he possessed four hundred slaves, one day came forth -from his plantation of date-palms carrying a bundle of firewood -on his head. On being asked why he did this, he answered: -“I wish to make trial of myself.” He would not let the dignity -which he enjoyed hinder him from any work. A similar tale -related of the Imám Abú Ḥanífa will be found in this treatise. -And a story is told about Abú Yazíd, that, when he was entering -Rayy on his way from the Ḥijáz, the people of that city ran to -meet him in order that they might show him honour. Their -attentions distracted him and turned his thoughts away from -God. When he came to the bazaar, he took a loaf from his -sleeve and began to eat. They all departed, for it was the -month of Ramaḍán. He said to a disciple who was travelling -with him: “You see! as soon as I perform a single article of the -law,<a id='r49' /><a href='#f49' class='c015'><sup>[49]</sup></a> they all reject me.” In those days it was necessary, for -incurring blame, to do something disapproved or extraordinary; -but in our time, if anyone desires blame, he need only lengthen -a little his voluntary prayers or fulfil the religious practices -which are prescribed: at once everybody will call him a -hypocrite and impostor.</p> - -<p class='c001'>He who abandons the law and commits an irreligious act, and -says that he is following the rule of “blame”, is guilty of -manifest wrong and wickedness and self-indulgence. There -are many in the present age who seek popularity by this means, -forgetting that one must already have gained popularity before -deliberately acting in such a way as to make the people reject -him; otherwise, his making himself unpopular is a mere pretext -for winning popularity. On a certain occasion I was in the -company of one of these vain pretenders. He committed -a wicked act and excused himself by saying that he did it -for the sake of blame. One of the party said, “That is -nonsense.” He heaved a sigh. I said to him: “If you claim -to be a Malámatí and are firm in your belief, this gentleman’s -<span class='pageno' id='Page_66'>66</span>disapproval of what you have done ought to encourage you to -persevere; and since he is seconding you in your chosen course, -why are you so unfriendly and angry with him? Your -behaviour is more like pretence than pursuit of blame. Whoever -claims to be guided by the Truth must give some proof -of his assertion, and the proof consists in observing the <i>Sunna</i> -(Ordinances of the Prophet). You make this claim, and yet -I see that you have failed to perform an obligatory religious -duty. Your conduct puts you outside the pale of Islam.”</p> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c004'> - <div><span class='sc'>Section.</span></div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>The doctrine of Blame was spread abroad in this sect by -the Shaykh of his age, Ḥamdún Qaṣṣár. He has many fine -sayings on the subject. It is recorded that he said: <i>Al-malámat -tark al-salámat</i>, “Blame is the abandonment of welfare.” If -anyone purposely abandons his own welfare and girds himself -to endure misfortune, and renounces his pleasures and familiar -ties, in hope that the glory of God will be revealed to him, -the more he is separated from mankind the more he is united -to God. Accordingly, the votaries of Blame turn their backs -on that thing, namely welfare (<i>salámat</i>), to which the people -of this world turn their faces, for the aspirations of the former -are Unitarian (<i>waḥdání</i>). Aḥmad b. Fátik relates that Ḥusayn -b. Manṣúr, in reply to the question “Who is the Ṣúfí?” said: -“He who is single in essence” (<i>waḥdání al-dhát</i>). Ḥamdún -also said concerning Blame: “It is a hard way for the vulgar -to follow, but I will tell one part thereof: the Malámatí is -characterized by the hope of the Murjites and the fear of the -Qadarites.” This saying has a hidden meaning which demands -explanation. It is the nature of man to be deterred by -popularity more than any other thing from seeking access to -God. Consequently he who fears this danger is always striving -to avoid it, and there are two perils which confront him: -firstly, the fear that he may be veiled from God by the favour -of his fellow-creatures; and secondly, the fear of committing -some act for which the people will blame him and thereby -<span class='pageno' id='Page_67'>67</span>fall into sin. Accordingly, the Malámatí must, in the first -instance, take care to have no quarrel with the people for -what they say of him, either in this world or the next, and -for the sake of his own salvation he must commit some act -which, legally, is neither a great sin (<i>kabíra</i>) nor a trivial -offence (<i>ṣaghíra</i>), in order that the people may reject him. -Hence his fear in matters of conduct is like the fear of the -Qadarites, and his hope in dealing with those who blame -him is like the hope of the Murjites. In true love there is -nothing sweeter than blame, because blame of the Beloved -makes no impression on the lover’s heart: he heeds not what -strangers say, for his heart is ever faithful to the object of -his love.</p> - -<div class='lg-container-b c009'> - <div class='linegroup'> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'>“<i>’Tis sweet to be reviled for passion’s sake.</i>”</div> - </div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>This sect (the Ṣúfís) are distinguished above all creatures -in the universe by choosing to be blamed in the body on -account of the welfare of their souls; and this high degree -is not attained by the Cherubim or any spiritual beings, -nor has it been reached by the ascetics, devotees, and seekers -of God belonging to the nations of antiquity, but it is reserved -for those of this nation who journey on the path of entire -severance from the things of the world.</p> - -<p class='c001'>In my opinion, to seek Blame is mere ostentation, and -ostentation is mere hypocrisy. The ostentatious man purposely -acts in such a way as to win popularity, while the Malámatí -purposely acts in such a way that the people reject him. -Both have their thoughts fixed on mankind and do not pass -beyond that sphere. The dervish, on the contrary, never -even thinks of mankind, and when his heart has been -broken away from them he is as indifferent to their reprobation -as to their favour: he moves unfettered and free. -I once said to a Malámatí of Transoxania, with whom -I had associated long enough to feel at my ease: “O brother, -what is your object in these perverse actions?” He replied: -“To make the people non-existent in regard to myself.” “The -<span class='pageno' id='Page_68'>68</span>people,” I said, “are many, and during a lifetime you will not -be able to make them non-existent in regard to yourself; -rather make yourself non-existent in regard to the people, -so that you may be saved from all this trouble. Some who -are occupied with the people imagine that the people are -occupied with them. If you wish no one to see you, do not -see yourself. Since all your evils arise from seeing yourself, -what business have you with others? If a sick man whose -remedy lies in abstinence seeks to indulge his appetite, he is -a fool.” Others, again, practise the method of Blame from -an ascetic motive: they wish to be despised by the people -in order that they may mortify themselves, and it is their -greatest delight to find themselves wretched and abased. -Ibráhím b. Adham was asked, “Have you ever attained your -desire?” He answered: “Yes, twice; on one occasion I was -in a ship where nobody knew me. I was clad in common -clothes and my hair was long, and my guise was such that -all the people in the ship mocked and laughed at me. Among -them was a buffoon, who was always coming and pulling my -hair and tearing it out, and treating me with contumely after -the manner of his kind. At that time I felt entirely satisfied, -and I rejoiced in my garb. My joy reached its highest pitch -one day when the buffoon rose from his place and <i>super me -minxit</i>. On the second occasion I arrived at a village in -heavy rain, which had soaked the patched frock on my body, -and I was overcome by the wintry cold. I went to a mosque, -but was refused admittance. The same thing happened at -three other mosques where I sought shelter. In despair, as -the cold strengthened its grip on my heart, I entered a bathhouse -and drew my skirt close up to the stove. The smoke -enveloped me and blackened my clothes and my face. Then -also I felt entirely satisfied.”</p> - -<p class='c001'>Once I, `Alí b. `Uthmán al-Jullábí, found myself in a difficulty. -After many devotional exercises undertaken in the hope of -clearing it away, I repaired—as I had done with success on -a former occasion—to the tomb of Abú Yazíd, and stayed -<span class='pageno' id='Page_69'>69</span>beside it for a space of three months, performing every -day three ablutions and thirty purifications in the hope that -my difficulty might be removed. It was not, however; so -I departed and journeyed towards Khurásán. One night -I arrived at a village in that country where there was -a convent (<i>khánaqáh</i>) inhabited by a number of aspirants to -Ṣúfiism. I was wearing a dark-blue frock (<i>muraqqa`-i -khishan</i>), such as is prescribed by the <i>Sunna</i>;<a id='r50' /><a href='#f50' class='c015'><sup>[50]</sup></a> but I had -with me nothing of the Ṣúfí’s regular equipment (<i>álat-i ahl-i -rasm</i>) except a staff and a leathern water-bottle (<i>rakwa</i>). -I appeared very contemptible in the eyes of these Ṣúfís, -who did not know me. They regarded only my external -habit and said to one another, “This fellow is not one of us.” -And so in truth it was: I was not one of them, but I had -to pass the night in that place. They lodged me on a roof, -while they themselves went up to a roof above mine, and set -before me dry bread which had turned green, while I was -drawing into my nostrils the savour of the viands with which -they regaled themselves. All the time they were addressing -derisive remarks to me from the roof. When they finished -the food, they began to pelt me with the skins of the melons -which they had eaten, by way of showing how pleased they -were with themselves and how lightly they thought of me. -I said in my heart: “O Lord God, were it not that they are -wearing the dress of Thy friends, I would not have borne -this from them.” And the more they scoffed at me the -more glad became my heart, so that the endurance of this -burden was the means of delivering me from that difficulty -which I have mentioned; and forthwith I perceived why the -Shaykhs have always given fools leave to associate with them -and for what reason they submit to their annoyance.</p> - -<hr class='c017' /> -<div class='footnote' id='f49'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r49'>49</a>. Abú Yazíd, being at that time on a journey, was not legally bound to observe -the fast.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f50'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r50'>50</a>. I. adds in margin “for travellers”.</p> -</div> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_70'>70</span> - <h2 id='ch07' class='c011'>CHAPTER VII. <br /><span class='sc'>Concerning their Imáms who belonged to the Companions.</span></h2> -</div> - -<p class='c014'>1. <span class='sc'>The Caliph Abú Bakr, the Veracious</span> (<i>al-Ṣiddíq</i>).</p> - -<p class='c001'>He is placed by the Ṣúfí Shaykhs at the head of those who -have adopted the contemplative life (<i>musháhadat</i>), on account -of the fewness of the stories and traditions which he related; -while `Umar is placed at the head of those who have adopted -the purgative life (<i>mujáhadat</i>), because of his rigour and assiduity -in devotion. It is written among the genuine Traditions, and is -well known to scholars, that when Abú Bakr prayed at night -he used to recite the Koran in a low voice, whereas `Umar used -to recite in a loud voice. The Apostle asked Abú Bakr why -he did this. Abú Bakr replied: “He with whom I converse will -hear.” `Umar, in his turn, replied: “I wake the drowsy and -drive away the Devil.” The one gave a token of contemplation, -the other of purgation. Now purgation, compared with contemplation, -is like a drop of water in a sea, and for this reason -the Apostle said that `Umar, the glory of Islam, was only -(equivalent to) a single one of the good deeds of Abú Bakr -(<i>hal anta illá ḥasanat<sup>un</sup> min ḥasanáti Abí Bakr</i>). It is recorded -that Abú Bakr said: “Our abode is transitory, our life therein -is but a loan, our breaths are numbered, and our indolence is -manifest.” By this he signified that the world is too worthless -to engage our thoughts; for whenever you occupy yourself with -what is perishable, you are made blind to that which is eternal: -the friends of God turn their backs on the world and the flesh -which veil them from Him, and they decline to act as if they -were owners of a thing that is really the property of another. -And he said: “O God, give me plenty of the world and make -<span class='pageno' id='Page_71'>71</span>me desirous of renouncing it!” This saying has a hidden -sense, viz.: “First bestow on me worldly goods that I may give -thanks for them, and then help me to abstain from them for -Thy sake, so that I may have the treble merit of thanksgiving -and liberality and abstinence, and that my poverty may be -voluntary, not compulsory.” These words refute the Director -of mystical practice, who said: “He whose poverty is compulsory -is more perfect than he whose poverty is voluntary; -for if it be compulsory, he is the creature (<i>ṣan`at</i>) of poverty, and -if it be voluntary, poverty is his creature; and it is better that -his actions should be free from any attempt to gain poverty for -himself than that he should seek to acquire it by his own effort.” -I say in answer to this: The creature of poverty is most -evidently that person who, while enjoying independence, is -possessed by the desire for poverty, and labours to recover it -from the clutches of the world; not that person who, in the -state of poverty, is possessed by the desire for independence -and has to go to the houses of evildoers and the courts of -governors for the sake of earning money. The creature of -poverty is he who falls from independence to poverty, not he -who, being poor, seeks to become powerful. Abú Bakr is the -foremost of all mankind after the prophets, and it is not -permissible that anyone should take precedence of him, for -he set voluntary poverty above compulsory poverty. This -doctrine is held by all the Ṣúfí Shaykhs except the spiritual -Director whom we have mentioned.</p> - -<p class='c001'>Zuhrí relates that, when Abú Bakr received the oaths of -allegiance as Caliph, he mounted the pulpit and pronounced -an oration, in the course of which he said: “By God, I never -coveted the command nor desired it even for a day or a night, -nor ever asked God for it openly or in secret, nor do I take any -pleasure in having it.” Now, when God causes anyone to -attain perfect sincerity and exalts him to the rank of fixity -(<i>tamkín</i>) he waits for Divine inspiration, that it may guide him; -and according as he is bidden, he will be either a beggar or -a prince, without exercising his own choice and will. Thus -<span class='pageno' id='Page_72'>72</span>Abú Bakr, the Veracious, resigned himself to the will of God -from first to last. Hence the whole sect of Ṣúfís have made -him their pattern in stripping themselves of worldly things, in -fixity (<i>tamkín</i>), in eager desire for poverty, and in longing to -renounce authority. He is the Imám of the Moslems in -general, and of the Ṣúfís in particular.</p> - -<h3 class='c018'>2.<span class='sc'>The Caliph `Umar b. al-Khaṭṭáb.</span></h3> - -<p class='c010'>He was specially distinguished by sagacity and resolution, -and is the author of many fine sayings on Ṣúfiism. The Apostle -said: “The Truth speaks by the tongue of `Umar;” and again, -“There have been inspired relaters (<i>muḥaddath<sup>un</sup></i>) in the -peoples of antiquity, and if there be any such in my people, -it is `Umar.” `Umar said: “Retirement (<i>`uzlat</i>) is a means of -relieving one’s self of bad company.” Retirement is of two -sorts: firstly, turning one’s back on mankind (<i>i`ráḍ az khalq</i>), -and secondly, entire severance from them (<i>inqiṭá` az íshán</i>). -Turning one’s back on mankind consists in choosing a solitary -retreat, and in renouncing the society of one’s fellow-creatures -externally, and in quiet contemplation of the faults in one’s own -conduct, and in seeking release for one’s self from intercourse -with men, and in making all people secure from one’s evil -actions. But severance from mankind is a spiritual state, which -is not connected with anything external. When a person is -severed from mankind in spirit, he knows nothing of created -beings and no thought thereof can take possession of his mind. -Such a person, although he is living among the people, is isolated -from them, and his spirit dwells apart from them. This is -a very exalted station. `Umar followed the right path herein, -for externally he lived among the people as their Commander -and Caliph. His words show clearly that although spiritualists -may outwardly mix with mankind, their hearts always cling to -God and return to Him in all circumstances. They regard any -intercourse they may have with men as an affliction sent by -God; and that intercourse does not divert them from God, since -the world never becomes pure in the eyes of those whom God -<span class='pageno' id='Page_73'>73</span>loves. `Umar said: “An abode which is founded upon affliction -cannot possibly be without affliction.” The Ṣúfís make him -their model in wearing a patched frock (<i>muraqqa`a</i>) and -rigorously performing the duties of religion.</p> - -<h3 class='c018'>3. <span class='sc'>The Caliph `Uthmán b. `Affán.</span></h3> - -<p class='c010'>It is related by `Abdalláh b. Rabáḥ and Abú Qatáda as -follows: “We were with the Commander of the Faithful, -`Uthmán, on the day when his house was attacked. His slaves, -seeing the crowd of rebels gathered at the door, took up arms. -`Uthmán said: ‘Whoever of you does not take up arms is a free -man.’ We went forth from the house in fear of our lives. -Ḥasan b. `Alí met us on the way, and we returned with him to -`Uthmán, that we might know on what business he was going. -After he had saluted `Uthmán and condoled with him he said: -‘O Prince of the Faithful, I dare not draw sword against -Moslems without thy command. Thou art the true Imám. -Give the order and I will defend thee.’ `Uthmán replied: -‘O my cousin, go back to thy house and sit there until God -shall bring His decree to pass. We do not wish to shed -blood.’”</p> - -<p class='c001'>These words betoken resignation in the hour of calamity, -and show that the speaker had attained the rank of friendship -with God (<i>khullat</i>). Similarly, when Nimrod lit a fire and put -Abraham in the sling (<i>pala</i>)<a id='r51' /><a href='#f51' class='c015'><sup>[51]</sup></a> of a catapult, Gabriel came to -Abraham and said, “Dost thou want anything?” He answered, -“From thee, no.” Gabriel said, “Then ask God.” He answered, -“Since He knows in what plight I am I need not ask Him.” -Here `Uthmán was in the position of the Friend (Khalíl)<a id='r52' /><a href='#f52' class='c015'><sup>[52]</sup></a> in -the catapult, and the seditious mob was in the place of the fire, -and Ḥasan was in the place of Gabriel; but Abraham was -saved, while `Uthmán perished. Salvation (<i>naját</i>) is connected -with subsistence (<i>baqá</i>) and destruction (<i>halák</i>) with annihilation -(<i>faná</i>): on this topic something has been said above. The -<span class='pageno' id='Page_74'>74</span>Ṣúfís take `Uthmán as their exemplar in sacrificing life and -property, in resigning their affairs to God, and in sincere -devotion.</p> - -<h3 class='c018'>4. <span class='sc'> The Caliph `Alí b. Abí Ṭálib.</span></h3> - -<p class='c010'>His renown and rank in this Path (of Ṣúfiism) were very -high. He explained the principles (<i>uṣúl</i>) of Divine truth with -exceeding subtlety, so that Junayd said: “`Alí is our Shaykh -as regards the principles and as regards the endurance of -affliction,” i.e. in the theory and practice of Ṣúfiism; for Ṣúfís -call the theory of this Path “principles” (<i>uṣúl</i>), and its practice -consists entirely in the endurance of affliction. It is related -that some one begged `Alí to give him a precept (<i>waṣiyyat</i>). -`Alí replied: “Do not let your wife and children be your chief -cares; for if they be friends of God, God will look after His -friends, and if they are enemies of God, why should you take -care of God’s enemies?” This question is connected with the -severance of the heart from all things save God, who keeps His -servants in whatever state He willeth. Thus Moses left the -daughter of Shu`ayb<a id='r53' /><a href='#f53' class='c015'><sup>[53]</sup></a> in a most miserable plight and committed -her to God; and Abraham took Hagar and Ishmael and -brought them to a barren valley and committed them to God. -Both these prophets, instead of making wife and child their -chief care, fixed their hearts on God. This saying resembles -the answer which `Alí gave to one who asked what is the purest -thing that can be acquired. He said: “It is that which belongs -to a heart made rich by God” (<i>ghaná al-qalb billáh</i>). The -heart that is so enriched is not made poor by having no worldly -goods nor glad by having them. This subject really turns on -the theory regarding poverty and purity, which has been already -discussed. `Alí is a model for the Ṣúfís in respect to the truths -of outward expressions and the subtleties of inward meanings, -the stripping one’s self of all property either of this world or of -the next, and consideration of the Divine providence.</p> - -<hr class='c017' /> -<div class='footnote' id='f51'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r51'>51</a>. Arabic <i>kiffat</i>. See Dozy, <i>Supplément</i>, ii, 476.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f52'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r52'>52</a>. Abraham is called by Moslems “the Friend of God” (<i>al-Khalíl</i>).</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f53'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r53'>53</a>. Moses is said to have married one of the daughters of Shu`ayb. See Kor. xxviii, -22-8, where Shu`ayb, however, is not mentioned by name.</p> -</div> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_75'>75</span> - <h2 id='ch08' class='c011'>CHAPTER VIII. <br /><span class='sc'>Concerning their Imáms who belonged to the House of the Prophet.</span></h2> -</div> - -<h3 class='c018'>1. <span class='sc'>Ḥasan b. `Alí.</span></h3> - -<p class='c010'>He was profoundly versed in Ṣúfiism. He said, by way of -precept: “See that ye guard your hearts, for God knows your -secret thoughts.” “Guarding the heart” consists in not turning -to others (than God) and in keeping one’s secret thoughts from -disobedience to the Almighty. When the Qadarites got the -upper hand, and the doctrine of Rationalism became widely -spread, Ḥasan of Baṣra wrote to Ḥasan b. `Alí begging for -guidance, and asking him to state his opinion on the perplexing -subject of predestination and on the dispute whether men have -any power to act (<i>istiṭá`at</i>). Ḥasan b. `Alí replied that in his -opinion those who did not believe in the determination (<i>qadar</i>) -of men’s good and evil actions by God were infidels, and that -those who imputed their sins to God were miscreants, i.e. the -Qadarites deny the Divine providence, and the Jabarites impute -their sins to God; hence men are free to acquire their actions -according to the power given them by God, and thus our -religion takes the middle course between free-will and predestination. -I have read in the Anecdotes that when Ḥasan b. `Alí -was seated at the door of his house in Kúfa, a Bedouin came -up and reviled him and his father and his mother. Ḥasan rose -and said: “O Bedouin, perhaps you are hungry or thirsty, or -what ails you?” The Bedouin took no heed, but continued to -abuse him. Ḥasan ordered his slave to bring a purse of silver, -and gave it to the fellow, saying: “O Bedouin, excuse me, for -there is nothing else in the house; had there been more, I should -not have grudged it to you.” On hearing this, the Bedouin -<span class='pageno' id='Page_76'>76</span>exclaimed: “I bear witness that thou art the grandson of the -Apostle of God. I came hither to make trial of thy mildness.” -Such are the true saints and Shaykhs who care not whether -they are praised or blamed, and listen calmly to abuse.</p> - -<h3 class='c018'>2. <span class='sc'>Ḥusayn b. `Alí</span></h3> - -<p class='c010'>He is the martyr of Karbalá, and all Ṣúfís are agreed that he -was in the right. So long as the Truth was apparent, he followed -it; but when it was lost he drew the sword and never rested -until he sacrificed his dear life for God’s sake. The Apostle -distinguished him by many tokens of favour. Thus `Umar -b. al-Khaṭṭáb relates that one day he saw the Apostle crawling -on his knees, while Ḥusayn rode on his back holding a string, -of which the other end was in the Apostle’s mouth. `Umar -said: “What an excellent camel thou hast, O father of -`Abdalláh!” The Apostle replied: “What an excellent rider -is he, O `Umar!” It is recorded that Ḥusayn said: “Thy -religion is the kindest of brethren towards thee,” because a -man’s salvation consists in following religion, and his perdition -in disobeying it.</p> - -<h3 class='c018'>3. <span class='sc'>`Alí b. Ḥusayn b. `Alí, called Zayn al-`Ábidín.</span></h3> - -<p class='c010'>He said that the most blessed man in this world and in the -next is he who, when he is pleased, is not led by his pleasure -into wrong, and when he is angry, is not carried by his anger -beyond the bounds of right. This is the character of those who -have attained perfect rectitude (<i>kamál-i mustaqímán</i>). Ḥusayn -used to call him `Alí the Younger (`Alí Aṣghar). When -Ḥusayn and his children were killed at Karbalá, there was -none left except `Alí to take care of the women; and he was -ill. The women were brought unveiled on camels to Yazíd -b. Mu`áwiya—may God curse him, but not his father!—at -Damascus. Some one said to `Alí: “How are ye this morning, -O `Alí and O members of the House of Mercy?” `Alí replied: -“We are in the same position among our people as the people -of Moses among Pharaoh’s folk, who slaughtered their sons -<span class='pageno' id='Page_77'>77</span>and took their women alive; we do not know morning from -evening on account of the reality of our affliction.”</p> - -<div class='quote'> - -<p class='c001'>[The author then relates the well-known story of Hishám -b. `Abd al-Malik’s encounter with `Alí b. Ḥusayn at Mecca—how -the Caliph, who desired to kiss the Black Stone but was -unable to reach it, saw the crowd immediately make way for -`Alí and retire to a respectful distance; how a man of Syria -asked the Caliph to tell him the name of this person who was -held in so great veneration; how Hishám feigned ignorance, -for fear that his partisans should be shaken in allegiance to -himself; and how the poet Farazdaq stepped forward and -recited the splendid encomium beginning—<a id='r54' /><a href='#f54' class='c015'><sup>[54]</sup></a></p> - -<div class='lg-container-b c009'> - <div class='linegroup'> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'>“<i>This is he whose footprint is known to the valley of Mecca,</i></div> - <div class='line'><i>He whom the Temple knows, and the unhallowed territory and the holy ground.</i></div> - <div class='line'><i>This is the son of the best of all the servants of God,</i></div> - <div class='line'><i>This is the pious, the elect, the pure, the eminent.</i>”</div> - </div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>Hishám was enraged and threw Farazdaq into prison. `Alí -sent to him a purse containing 12,000 dirhems; but the poet -returned it, with the message that he had uttered many lies -in the panegyrics on princes and governors which he was -accustomed to compose for money, and that he had addressed -these verses to `Alí as a partial expiation for his sins in that -respect, and as a proof of his affection towards the House of -the Prophet. `Alí, however, begged to be excused from taking -back what he had already given away; and Farazdaq at last -consented to receive the money.]</p> - -</div> - -<h3 class='c018'>4. <span class='sc'>Abú Ja`far Muḥammad b. `Alí b. Ḥusayn al-Báqir.</span></h3> - -<p class='c010'>Some say that his “name of honour” was Abú `Abdalláh. -His nickname was Báqir. He was distinguished for his knowledge -of the abstruse sciences and for his subtle indications as -to the meaning of the Koran. It is related that on one occasion -a king, who wished to destroy him, summoned him to his -<span class='pageno' id='Page_78'>78</span>presence. When Báqir appeared, the king begged his pardon, -bestowed gifts upon him, and dismissed him courteously. On -being asked why he had acted in this manner, the king replied: -“When he came in, I saw two lions, one on his right hand and -one on his left, who threatened to destroy me if I should attempt -to do him any harm.” In his explanation of the verse, “<i>Whosoever -believes in the</i> ṭághút <i>and believes in God</i>” (Kor. ii, 257), -Báqir said: “Anything that diverts thee from contemplation of -the Truth is thy <i>ṭághút</i>.” One of his intimate friends relates -that when a portion of the night had passed and Báqir had -finished his litanies, he used to cry aloud to God: “O my God -and my Lord, night has come, and the power of monarchs has -ceased, and the stars are shining in the sky, and all mankind -are asleep and silent, and the Banú Umayya have gone to rest -and shut their doors and set guards to watch over them; and -those who desired anything from them have forgotten their -business. Thou, O God, art the Living, the Lasting, the Seeing, -the Knowing. Sleep and slumber cannot overtake Thee. He -who does not acknowledge that Thou art such as I have -described is unworthy of Thy bounty. O Thou whom no thing -withholds from any other thing, whose eternity is not impaired -by Day and Night, whose doors of Mercy are open to all who -call upon Thee, and whose entire treasures are lavished on those -who praise Thee: Thou dost never turn away the beggar, and -no creature in earth or heaven can prevent the true believer who -implores Thee from gaining access to Thy court. O Lord, -when I remember death and the grave and the reckoning, how -can I take joy in this world? Therefore, since I acknowledge -Thee to be One, I beseech Thee to give me peace in the hour -of death, without torment, and pleasure in the hour of reckoning, -without punishment.”</p> - -<h3 class='c018'>5. <span class='sc'>Abú Muḥammad Ja`far b. Muḥammad Ṣádiq.</span></h3> - -<p class='c010'>He is celebrated among the Ṣúfí Shaykhs for the subtlety of -his discourse and his acquaintance with spiritual truths, and -he has written famous books in explanation of Ṣúfiism. It is -<span class='pageno' id='Page_79'>79</span>related that he said: “Whoever knows God turns his back on -all else.” The gnostic (<i>`árif</i>) turns his back on “other” (than -God) and is cut off from worldly things, because his knowledge -(<i>ma`rifat</i>) is pure nescience (<i>nakirat</i>), inasmuch as nescience -forms part of his knowledge, and knowledge forms part of his -nescience. Therefore the gnostic is separated from mankind -and from thought of them, and he is joined to God. “Other” -has no place in his heart, that he should pay any heed to them, -and their existence has no worth for him, that he should fix the -remembrance of them in his mind. And it is related that he -said: “There is no right service without repentance, because God -hath put repentance before service, and hath said, <i>Those who -repent and serve</i>” (Kor. ix, 113). Repentance (<i>tawbat</i>) is the -first of the “stations” in this Path, and service (<i>`ibádat</i>) is the -last. When God mentioned the disobedient He called them to -repentance and said, “<i>Repent unto God together</i>” (Kor. xxiv, 31); -but when He mentioned the Apostle He referred to his -“servantship” (<i>`ubúdiyyat</i>), and said, “<i>He revealed to His -servant that which He revealed</i>” (Kor. liii, 10). I have read in -the Anecdotes that Dáwud Ṭá´í came to Ja`far Ṣádiq and said: -“O son of the Apostle of God, counsel me, for my mind is -darkened.” Ja`far replied: “O Abú Sulaymán, thou art the -ascetic of thy time: what need hast thou of counsel from me?” -He answered: “O son of the Apostle, thy family are superior to -all mankind, and it is incumbent on thee to give counsel to all.” -“O Abú Sulaymán,” cried Ja`far, “I am afraid that at the -Resurrection my grandsire will lay hold on me, saying, ‘Why -didst not thou fulfil the obligation to follow in my steps?’ -This is not a matter that depends on authentic and sure affinity -(to Muḥammad), but on good conduct in the presence of the -Truth.” Dáwud Ṭá´í began to weep and exclaimed: “O Lord -God, if one whose clay is moulded with the water of Prophecy, -whose grandsire is the Apostle, and whose mother is Fáṭima -(<i>Batúl</i>)—if such a one is distracted by doubts, who am I that -I should be pleased with my dealings (towards God)?” One -day Ja`far said to his clients: “Come, let us take a pledge that -<span class='pageno' id='Page_80'>80</span>whoever amongst us shall gain deliverance on the Day of -Resurrection shall intercede for all the rest.” They said: “O son -of the Apostle, how canst thou have need of our intercession -since thy grandsire intercedes for all mankind?” Ja`far replied: -“My actions are such that I shall be ashamed to look my -grandsire in the face on the Last Day.” To see one’s faults is -a quality of perfection, and is characteristic of those who are -established in the Divine presence, whether they be prophets, -saints, or apostles. The Apostle said: “When God wishes -a man well, He gives him insight into his faults.” Whoever -bows his head with humility, like a servant, God will exalt his -state in both worlds.</p> - -<p class='c001'>Now I shall mention briefly the People of the Veranda -(<i>Ahl-i Ṣuffa</i>). In a book entitled “The Highway of Religion” -(<i>Minháj al-Dín</i>), which I composed before the present work, -I have given a detailed account of each of them, but here it will -suffice to mention their names and “names of honour”.</p> - -<hr class='c017' /> -<div class='footnote' id='f54'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r54'>54</a>. Twenty-five verses are quoted.</p> -</div> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_81'>81</span> - <h2 id='ch09' class='c011'>CHAPTER IX. <br /><span class='sc'>Concerning the People of the Veranda</span> (<i>Ahl-i Ṣuffa</i>).</h2> -</div> - -<p class='c014'>Know that all Moslems are agreed that the Apostle had -a number of Companions, who abode in his Mosque and engaged -in devotion, renouncing the world and refusing to seek a livelihood. -God reproached the Apostle on their account and said: -“<i>Do not drive away those who call unto their Lord at morn -and eve, desiring His face</i>” (Kor. vi, 52). Their merits are -proclaimed by the Book of God, and in many traditions of the -Apostle which have come down to us. It is related by Ibn -`Abbás that the Apostle passed by the People of the Veranda, -and saw their poverty and their self-mortification and said: -“Rejoice! for whoever of my community perseveres in the -state in which ye are, and is satisfied with his condition, -he shall be one of my comrades in Paradise.” Among the -<i>Ahl-i Ṣuffa</i><a id='r55' /><a href='#f55' class='c015'><sup>[55]</sup></a> were Bilál b. Rabáḥ, Salmán al-Fárisí, Abú `Ubayda -b. al-Jarráḥ, Abu ´l-Yaqẕán `Ammár b. Yásir, `Abdalláh b. -Mas`úd al-Hudhalí, his brother `Utba b. Mas`úd, Miqdád b. -al-Aswad, Khabbáb b. al-Aratt, Ṣuhayb b. Sinán, `Utba b. -Ghazwán, Zayd b. al-Khaṭṭáb, brother of the Caliph `Umar; -Abú Kabsha, the Apostle’s client; Abu ´l-Marthad Kinána b. -<a id='corr82.21'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='al-Ḥuṣayn'>al-Ḥusayn</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_82.21'><ins class='correction' title='al-Ḥuṣayn'>al-Ḥusayn</ins></a></span> al-`Adawí; Sálim, client of Hudhayfa al-Yamání; -`Ukkásha b. Miḥṣan; Mas`úd b. Rabí` al-Fárisí; Abú Dharr -Jundab b. Junáda al-Ghifárí; `Abdalláh b. `Umar; Ṣafwán b. -Bayḍá; Abú Dardá `Uwaym b. `Ámír; Abú Lubába b. `Abd -al-Mundhir; and `Abdalláh b. Badr al-Juhaní.</p> - -<p class='c001'>Shaykh Abú `Abd al-Raḥmán Muḥammad b. al-Ḥusayn -al-Sulamí,<a id='r56' /><a href='#f56' class='c015'><sup>[56]</sup></a> the traditionist (<i>naqqál</i>) of Ṣúfiism and transmitter -<span class='pageno' id='Page_82'>82</span>of the sayings of the Ṣúfí Shaykhs, has written a separate history -of the <i>Ahl-i Ṣuffa</i>, in which he has recorded their virtues and -merits and names and “names of honour”. He has included -among them Misṭaḥ b. Uthátha b. `Abbád, whom I dislike -because he began the slanders about `Á´isha, the Mother of the -Believers. Abú Hurayra, and Thawbán, and Mu`ádh b. al-Ḥárith, -and Sá´ib b. Khallád, and Thábit b. Wadí`at, and Abú `Ísá -`Uwaym b. Sá`ida, and Sálim b. `Umayr b. Thábit, and Abu ´l-Yasar -Ka`b b. `Amr, and Wahb b. Ma`qal, and `Abdalláh b. -Unays, and Ḥajjáj b. `Umar al-Aslamí belonged to the <i>Ahl-i -Ṣuffa</i>. Now and then they had recourse to some means of -livelihood (<i>ta`alluq ba-sababí kardandí</i>), but all of them were -in one and the same degree (of dignity). Verily, the generation -of the Companions was the best of all generations; and they -were the best and most excellent of mankind, since God -bestowed on them companionship with the Apostle and preserved -their hearts from blemish.</p> - -<hr class='c017' /> -<div class='footnote' id='f55'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r55'>55</a>. I have corrected many of the following names, which are erroneously written in -the Persian text, by reference to various Arabic works.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f56'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r56'>56</a>. See Brockelmann, i, 200.</p> -</div> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_83'>83</span> - <h2 id='ch10' class='c011'>CHAPTER X. <br /><span class='sc'>Concerning their Imáms who belonged to the Followers</span> (<i>al-Tábi`ún</i>).</h2> -</div> - -<h3 class='c018'>1. <span class='sc'>Uways al-Qaraní.</span></h3> - -<p class='c010'>He lived in the time of the Apostle, but was prevented from -seeing him, firstly by the ecstasy which overmastered him, and -secondly by duty to his mother. The Apostle said to the -Companions: “There is a man at Qaran, called Uways, who at -the Resurrection will intercede for a multitude of my people, as -many as the sheep of Rabí`a and Muḍar.” Then turning to -`Umar and `Alí, he said: “You will see him. He is a lowly -man, of middle height, and hairy; on his left side there is a -white spot, as large as a dirhem, which is not from leprosy -(<i>pístí</i>), and he has a similar spot on the palm of his hand. -When you see him, give him my greeting, and bid him pray -for my people.” After the Apostle’s death `Umar came to -Mecca, and cried out in the course of a sermon: “O men of -Najd, are there any natives of Qaran amongst you?” They -answered, “Yes”; whereupon `Umar sent for them and asked -them about Uways. They said: “He is a madman who dwells -in solitude and associates with no one. He does not eat what -men eat, and he feels no joy or sorrow. When others smile he -weeps, and when others weep he smiles.” `Umar said: “I wish -to see him.” They replied: “He lives in a desert, far from our -camels.” `Umar and `Alí set out in quest of him. They found -him praying, and waited until he was finished. He saluted -them and showed them the marks on his side and the palm of -his hand. They asked his blessing and gave him the Apostle’s -greeting, and enjoined him to pray for the Moslem people. -After they had stayed with him for a while, he said: “You -<span class='pageno' id='Page_84'>84</span>have taken trouble (to see me); now return, for the Resurrection -is near, when we shall see each other without having to say -farewell. At present I am engaged in preparing for the -Resurrection.” When the men of Qaran came home, they -exhibited great respect for Uways. He left his native place -and came to Kúfa. One day he was seen by Harim b. Ḥayyán, -but after that nobody saw him until the period of civil war. He -fought for `Alí, and fell a martyr at the battle of Ṣiffín.</p> - -<p class='c001'>It is related that he said: “Safety lies in solitude,” because -the heart of the solitary is free from thought of “other”, and -in no circumstances does he hope for anything from mankind. -Let none imagine, however, that solitude (<i>waḥdat</i>) merely -consists in living alone. So long as the Devil associates with -a man’s heart, and sensual passion holds sway in his breast, and -any thought of this world or the next occurs to him in such -a way as to make him conscious of mankind, he is not truly in -solitude; since it is all one whether he takes pleasure in the -thing itself or in the thought of it. Accordingly, the true -solitary is not disturbed by society, but he who is preoccupied -seeks in vain to acquire freedom from thought by secluding -himself. In order to be cut off from mankind one must become -intimate with God, and those who have become intimate with -God are not hurt by intercourse with mankind.</p> - -<h3 class='c018'>2. <span class='sc'>Harim b. Ḥayyán.</span></h3> - -<p class='c010'>He went to visit Uways Qaraní, but on arriving at Qaran he -found that Uways was no longer there. Deeply disappointed, -he returned to Mecca, where he learned that Uways was living -at Kúfa. He repaired thither, but could not discover him for -a long time. At last he set out for Baṣra and on the way he -saw Uways, clad in a patched frock, performing an ablution on -the banks of the Euphrates. As soon as he came up from the -shore of the river and combed his beard, Harim advanced to -meet him and saluted him. Uways said: “Peace be with thee, -O Harim b. Ḥayyán!” Harim cried: “How did you know -that I am Harim?” Uways answered: “My spirit knew thy -<span class='pageno' id='Page_85'>85</span>spirit.” He said to Harim: “Keep watch over thy heart” -(<i>`alayka bi-qalbika</i>), i.e. “Guard thy heart from thoughts of -‘other’”. This saying has two meanings: (1) “Make thy heart -obedient to God by self-mortification”, and (2) “Make thyself -obedient to thy heart”. These are two sound principles. It is -the business of novices (<i>murídán</i>) to make their hearts obedient -to God in order to purge them from familiarity with vain desires -and passions, and sever them from unseemly thoughts, and fix -them on the method of gaining spiritual health, on the keeping -of the commandments, and on contemplation of the signs of -God, so that their hearts may become the shrine of Love. To -make one’s self obedient to one’s heart is the business of adepts -(<i>kámilán</i>), whose hearts God has illumined with the light of -Beauty, and delivered from all causes and means, and invested -with the robe of proximity (<i>qurb</i>), and thereby has revealed to -them His bounties and has chosen them to contemplate Him -and to be near Him: hence He has made their bodies accordant -with their hearts. The former class are masters of their hearts -(<i>ṣáḥib al-qulúb</i>), the latter are under the dominion of their hearts -(<i>maghlúb al-qulúb</i>); the former retain their attributes (<i>báqi ´l-ṣifat</i>), -the latter have lost their attributes (<i>fáni ´l-ṣifat</i>). The -truth of this matter goes back to the words of God: <i>Illá `íbádaka -minhumu ´l-mukhlaṣína</i>, “Except such of them as are Thy -purified (chosen) servants” (Kor. xv, 40). Here some read -<i>mukhliṣína</i> instead of <i>mukhlaṣína</i>. The <i>mukhliṣ</i> (purifying -one’s self) is active, and retains his attributes, but the <i>mukhlaṣ</i> -(purified) is passive, and has lost his attributes. I will explain -this question more fully elsewhere. The latter class, who make -their bodies accordant with their hearts, and whose hearts -abide in contemplation of God, are of higher rank than those -who by their own effort make their hearts comply with the -Divine commandments. This subject has its foundation in -the principles of sobriety (<i>ṣahw</i>) and intoxication (<i>sukr</i>), and -in those of contemplation (<i>musháhadat</i>) and self-mortification -(<i>mujáhadat</i>).</p> - -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_86'>86</span> - <h3 class='c018'><span class='sc'>3. Ḥasan of Baṣra.</span></h3> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>His “name of honour” was Abú `Alí; according to others, -Abú Muḥammad or Abú Sa`íd. He is held in high regard and -esteem by the Ṣúfís. He gave subtle directions relating to the -science of practical religion (<i>`ilm-i mu`ámalat</i>). I have read in -the Anecdotes that a Bedouin came to him and asked him -about patience (<i>ṣabr</i>). Ḥasan replied: “Patience is of two -sorts: firstly, patience in misfortune and affliction; and secondly, -patience to refrain from the things which God has commanded -us to renounce and has forbidden us to pursue.” The Bedouin -said: “Thou art an ascetic; I never saw anyone more ascetic -than thou art.” “O Bedouin!” cried Ḥasan, “my asceticism is -nothing but desire, and my patience is nothing but lack of -fortitude.” The Bedouin begged him to explain this saying, -“for [said he] thou hast shaken my belief.” Ḥasan replied: -“My patience in misfortune and my submission proclaim my -fear of Hell-fire, and this is lack of fortitude (<i>jaza`</i>); and my -asceticism in this world is desire for the next world, and this is -the quintessence of desire. How excellent is he who takes no -thought of his own interest! so that his patience is for God’s -sake, not for the saving of himself from Hell; and his asceticism -is for God’s sake, not for the purpose of bringing himself into -Paradise. This is the mark of true sincerity.” And it is related -that he said: “Association with the wicked produces suspicion -of the good.” This saying is very apt and suitable to the -people of the present age, who all disbelieve in the honoured -friends of God. The reason of their disbelief is that they -associate with pretenders to Ṣúfiism, who have only its external -forms; and perceiving their actions to be perfidious, their -tongues false, their ears listening to idle quatrains, their eyes -following pleasure and lust, and their hearts set on amassing -unlawful or dubious lucre, they fancy that aspirants to Ṣúfiism -behave in the same manner, or that this is the doctrine of the -Ṣúfís themselves, whereas, on the contrary, the Ṣúfís act in -obedience to God, and speak the word of God, and keep the -love of God in their hearts and the voice (<i>samá`</i>) of God in -<span class='pageno' id='Page_87'>87</span>their ears, and the beauty of Divine contemplation in their -eyes, and all their thoughts are fixed on the gaining of holy -mysteries in the place where Vision is vouchsafed to them. If -evildoers have appeared among them and have adopted their -practices, the evil must be referred to those who commit it. -Anyone who associates with the wicked members of a community -does so through his own wickedness, for he would -associate with the good if there were any good in him.</p> - -<h3 class='c018'><span class='sc'>4. Sa`íd b. al-Musayyib.</span></h3> - -<p class='c010'>It is said that he was a man of devout nature who made -a show of hypocrisy, not a hypocrite who pretended to be -devout. This way of acting is approved in Ṣúfiism and is held -laudable by all the Shaykhs. He said: “Be content with -a little of this world while thy religion is safe, even as some -are content with much thereof while their religion is lost,” -i.e. poverty without injury to religion is better than riches with -heedlessness. It is related that when he was at Mecca a man -came to him and said: “Tell me a lawful thing in which there -is nothing unlawful.” He replied: “Praise (<i>dhikr</i>) of God is -a lawful thing in which there is nothing unlawful, and praise -of aught else is an unlawful thing in which there is nothing -lawful,” because your salvation lies in the former and your -perdition in the latter.</p> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_88'>88</span> - <h2 id='ch11' class='c011'>CHAPTER XI. <br /><span class='sc'>Concerning their Imáms who lived subsequently to the Followers</span> (<i>al-Tábi`ún</i>) <span class='sc'>down to our day.</span></h2> -</div> - -<h3 class='c018'><span class='sc'>1. Ḥabíb al-`Ajamí.</span></h3> - -<p class='c010'>His conversion (<i>tawbat</i>) was begun by Ḥasan of Baṣra. At -first he was a usurer and committed all sorts of wickedness, -but God gave him a sincere repentance, and he learned from -Ḥasan something of the theory and practice of religion. His -native tongue was Persian (<i>`ajamí</i>), and he could not speak -Arabic correctly. One evening Ḥasan of Baṣra passed by -the door of his cell. Ḥabíb had uttered the call to prayer -and was standing, engaged in devotion. Ḥasan came in, -but would not pray under his leadership, because Ḥabíb was -unable to speak Arabic fluently or recite the Koran correctly. -The same night, Ḥasan dreamed that he saw God and said -to Him: “O Lord, wherein does Thy good pleasure consist?” -and that God answered: “O Ḥasan, you found My good -pleasure, but did not know its value: if yesternight you had -said your prayers after Ḥabíb, and if the rightness of his -intention had restrained you from taking offence at his pronunciation, -I should have been well pleased with you.” It is -common knowledge among Ṣúfís that when Ḥasan of Baṣra -fled from Ḥajjáj he entered the cell of Ḥabíb. The soldiers -came and said to Ḥabíb: “Have you seen Ḥasan anywhere?” -Ḥabíb said: “Yes.” “Where is he?” “He is in my cell.” -They went into the cell, but saw no one there. Thinking -that Ḥabíb was making fun of them, they abused him and -called him a liar. He swore that he had spoken the truth. -They returned twice and thrice, but found no one, and at last -departed. Ḥasan immediately came out and said to Ḥabíb: -<span class='pageno' id='Page_89'>89</span>“I know it was owing to thy benedictions that God did not -discover me to these wicked men, but why didst thou tell -them I was here?” Ḥabíb replied: “O Master, it was not on -account of my benedictions that they failed to see thee, but -through the blessedness of my speaking the truth. Had I told -a lie, we both should have been shamed.” Ḥabíb was asked: -“With what thing is God pleased?” He answered: “With -a heart which is not sullied by hypocrisy,” because hypocrisy -(<i>nifáq</i>) is the opposite of concord (<i>wifáq</i>), and the state of -being well pleased (<i>riḍá</i>) is the essence of concord. There is -no connexion between hypocrisy and love, and love subsists -in the state of being well pleased (with whatever is decreed -by God). Therefore acquiescence (<i>riḍá</i>) is a characteristic of -God’s friends, while hypocrisy is a characteristic of His enemies. -This is a very important matter. I will explain it in another -place.</p> - -<h3 class='c018'><span class='sc'>2. Málik b. Dínár.</span></h3> - -<p class='c010'>He was a companion of Ḥasan of Baṣra. Dínár was a slave, -and Málik was born before his father’s emancipation. His conversion -began as follows. One evening he had been enjoying -himself with a party of friends. When they were all asleep -a voice came from a lute which they had been playing: -“O Málik! why dost thou not repent?” Málik abandoned his -evil ways and went to Ḥasan of Baṣra, and showed himself -steadfast in repentance. He attained to such a high degree -that once when he was in a ship, and was suspected of stealing -a jewel, he no sooner lifted his eyes to heaven than all the -fishes in the sea came to the surface, every one carrying a jewel -in its mouth. Málik took one of the jewels, and gave it to -the man whose jewel was missing; then he set foot on the -sea and walked until he reached the shore. It is related that -he said: “The deed that I love best is sincerity in doing,” -because an action only becomes an action in virtue of its -sincerity. Sincerity bears the same relation to an action as -the spirit to the body: as the body without the spirit is -<span class='pageno' id='Page_90'>90</span>a lifeless thing, so an action without sincerity is utterly unsubstantial. -Sincerity belongs to the class of internal actions, -whereas acts of devotion belong to the class of external actions: -the latter are completed by the former, while the former derive -their value from the latter. Although a man should keep his -heart sincere for a thousand years, it is not sincerity until his -sincerity is combined with action; and although he should -perform external actions for a thousand years, his actions do -not become acts of devotion until they are combined with -sincerity.</p> - -<h3 class='c018'><span class='sc'>3. Abú Ḥalím Ḥabíb b. Salím<a id='r57' /><a href='#f57' class='c015'><sup>[57]</sup></a> al-Rá`í.</span></h3> - -<p class='c010'>He was a companion of Salmán Fárisí. He related that -the Apostle said: “The believer’s intentions are better than -his acts.” He had flocks of sheep, and his home was on the -bank of the Euphrates. His religious Path (<i>ṭaríq</i>) was retirement -from the world. A certain Shaykh relates as follows: -“Once I passed by him and found him praying, while a wolf -looked after his sheep. I resolved to pay him a visit, since he -appeared to me to have the marks of greatness. When we had -exchanged greetings, I said: ‘O Shaykh! I see the wolf in -accord with the sheep.’ He replied: ‘That is because the -shepherd is in accord with God.’ With those words he held -a wooden bowl under a rock, and two fountains gushed from -the rock, one of milk and one of honey. ‘O Shaykh!’ I cried, -as he bade me drink, ‘how hast thou attained to this degree?’ -He answered: ‘By obedience to Muḥammad, the Apostle of -God. O my son! the rock gave water to the people of Moses,<a id='r58' /><a href='#f58' class='c015'><sup>[58]</sup></a> -although they disobeyed him, and although Moses is not equal -in rank to Muḥammad: why should not the rock give milk -and honey to me, inasmuch as I am obedient to Muḥammad, -who is superior to Moses?’ I said: ‘Give me a word of -counsel.’ He said: ‘Do not make your heart a coffer of -covetousness and your belly a vessel of unlawful things.’”</p> - -<p class='c001'><span class='pageno' id='Page_91'>91</span>My Shaykh had further traditions concerning him, but -I could not possibly set down more than this (<i>andar waqt-i man -ḍíqí búd ú bísh az ín mumkin na-shud</i>), my books having been -left at Ghazna—may God guard it!—while I myself had -become a captive among uncongenial folk (<i>dar miyán-i nájinsán</i>) -in the district of Laháwur, which is a dependency of Múltán. -God be praised both in joy and sorrow!</p> - -<h3 class='c018'><span class='sc'>4. Abú Ḥázim al-Madaní.</span></h3> - -<p class='c010'>He was steadfast in poverty, and thoroughly versed in -different kinds of self-mortification. <a id='corr91.10'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='illegible'>`Amr b.</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_91.10'><ins class='correction' title='illegible'>`Amr b.</ins></a></span> `Uthmán al-Makkí, -who shows great zeal on his behalf (<i>andar amr-i way -ba-jidd báshad</i>), relates that on being asked what he possessed -he answered: “Satisfaction (<i>riḍá</i>) with God and independence -of mankind.” A certain Shaykh went to see him and found -him asleep. When he awoke he said: “I dreamed just now -that the Apostle gave me a message to thee, and bade me -inform thee that it is better to fulfil the duty which is owed -to one’s mother than to make the pilgrimage. Return, therefore, -and try to please her.” The person who tells the story -turned back and did not go to Mecca. This is all that I have -heard about Abú Ḥázim.</p> - -<h3 class='c018'><span class='sc'>5. Muḥammad b. Wási`.</span></h3> - -<p class='c010'>He associated with many of the Followers and with some -of the ancient Shaykhs, and had a perfect knowledge of -Ṣúfiism. It is related that he said: “I never saw anything -without seeing God therein.” This is an advanced stage -(<i>maqám</i>) of Contemplation. When a man is overcome with -love for the Agent, he attains to such a degree that in looking -at His act he does not see the act but the Agent only and -entirely, just as when one looks at a picture and sees only -the painter. The true meaning of these words is the same as -in the saying of Abraham, the Friend of God (<i>Khalíl</i>) and the -Apostle, who said to the sun and moon and stars: “<i>This is my -Lord</i>” (Kor. vi, 76-8), for he was then overcome with longing -<span class='pageno' id='Page_92'>92</span>(<i>shawq</i>), so that the qualities of his beloved appeared to him -in everything that he saw. The friends of God perceive that -the universe is subject to His might and captive to His -dominion, and that the existence of all created things is as -nothing in comparison with the power of the Agent thereof. -When they look thereon with longing, they do not see what -is subject and passive and created, but only the Omnipotent, -the Agent, the Creator. I shall treat of this in the chapter -on Contemplation. Some persons have fallen into error, and -have alleged that the words of Muḥammad b. Wási`, “I saw -God therein,” involve a place of division and descent (<i>makán-i -tajziya ú ḥulúl</i>), which is sheer infidelity, because place is -homogeneous with that which is contained in it, and if anyone -supposes that place is created the contained object must also -be created; or if the latter be eternal the former also must -be eternal: hence this assertion entails two evil consequences, -both of which are infidelity, viz., either that created things are -eternal (<i>qadím</i>) or that the Creator is non-eternal (<i>muḥdath</i>). -Accordingly, when Muḥammad b. Wási` said that he saw God -in things, he meant, as I have explained above, that he saw in -those things the signs and evidences and proofs of God.</p> - -<p class='c001'>I shall discuss in the proper place some subtle points connected -with this question.</p> - -<h3 class='c018'><span class='sc'>6. Abú Ḥanífa Nu`mán b. Thábit al-Kharráz.</span></h3> - -<p class='c010'>He is the Imám of Imáms and the exemplar of the Sunnites. -He was firmly grounded in works of mortification and devotion, -and was a great authority on the principles of Ṣúfiism. At -first he wished to go into seclusion and abandon the society of -mankind, for he had made his heart free from every thought -of human power and pomp. One night, however, he dreamed -that he was collecting the bones of the Apostle from the tomb, -and choosing some and discarding others. He awoke in terror -and asked one of the pupils of Muḥammad b. Sírín<a id='r59' /><a href='#f59' class='c015'><sup>[59]</sup></a> (to interpret -<span class='pageno' id='Page_93'>93</span>the dream). This man said to him: “You will attain a high -rank in knowledge of the Apostle and in preserving his -ordinances (<i>sunnat</i>), so that you will sift what is genuine from -what is spurious.” Another time Abú Ḥanífa dreamed that -the Apostle said to him: “You have been created for the -purpose of reviving my ordinances.” He was the master of -many Shaykhs, e.g. Ibráhím b. Adham and Fuḍayl b. `Iyáḍ -and Dáwud Ṭá´í and Bishr Ḥáfí.</p> - -<p class='c001'>In the reign of the Caliph Manṣúr a plan was formed to -appoint to the office of Cadi one of the following persons: -Abú Ḥanífa, Sufyán Thawrí, Mis`ar b. Kidám, and Shurayḥ. -While they were journeying together to visit Manṣúr, who had -summoned them to his presence, Abú Ḥanífa said to his -companions: “I will reject this office by means of a certain -trick, Mis`ar will feign to be mad, Sufyán will run away, and -Shurayḥ will be made Cadi.” Sufyán fled and embarked in -a ship, imploring the captain to conceal him and save him from -execution. The others were ushered into the presence of the -Caliph. Manṣúr said to Abú Ḥanífa: “You must act as Cadi.” -Abú Ḥanífa replied: “O Commander of the Faithful, I am not -an Arab, but one of their clients; and the chiefs of the Arabs -will not accept my decisions.” Manṣúr said: “This matter has -nothing to do with lineage: it demands learning, and you are -the most eminent doctor of the day.” Abú Ḥanífa persisted -that he was unfit to hold the office. “What I have just said -shows it,” he exclaimed; “for if I have spoken the truth I am -disqualified, and if I have told a falsehood it is not right that -a liar should be judge over Moslems, and that you should -entrust him with the lives, property, and honour of your -subjects.” He escaped in this way. Then Mis`ar came forward -and seized the Caliph’s hand and said: “How are you, and -your children, and your beasts of burden?” “Away with him,” -cried Manṣúr, “he is mad!” Finally, Shurayḥ was told that he -must fill the vacant office. “I am melancholic,” said he, “and -light-witted,” whereupon Manṣúr advised him to drink ptisanes -and potions (<i>`aṣídahá-yi muwáfiq ú nabídhhá-yi muthallath</i>) -<span class='pageno' id='Page_94'>94</span>until his intellect was fully restored. So Shurayḥ was made -Cadi, and Abú Ḥanífa never spoke a word to him again. This -story illustrates not only the sagacity of Abú Ḥanífa, but also -his adherence to the path of righteousness and salvation, and -his determination not to let himself be deluded by seeking -popularity and worldly renown. It shows, moreover, the -soundness of blame (<i>malámat</i>), since all these three venerable -men resorted to some trick in order to avoid popularity. Very -different are the doctors of the present age, who make the -palaces of princes their <i>qibla</i> and the houses of evildoers their -temple.</p> - -<p class='c001'>Once a doctor of Ghazna, who claimed to be a learned divine -and a religious leader, declared it heresy to wear a patched -frock (<i>muraqqa`a</i>). I said to him: “You do not call it heretical -to wear robes of brocade,<a id='r60' /><a href='#f60' class='c015'><sup>[60]</sup></a> which are made entirely of silk and, -besides being in themselves unlawful for men to wear, have been -begged with importunity, which is unlawful, from evildoers -whose property is absolutely unlawful. Why, then, is it heretical -to wear a lawful garment, procured from a lawful place, and -purchased with lawful money? If you were not ruled by inborn -conceit and by the error of your soul, you would express a more -judicious opinion. Women may wear a dress of silk lawfully, -but it is unlawful for men, and only permissible (<i>mubáḥ</i>) for -lunatics. If you acknowledge the truth of both these statements -you are excused (for condemning the patched frock). -God save us from lack of fairness!”</p> - -<p class='c001'>Yaḥyá b. Mu`ádh al-Rází relates as follows: “I dreamed that -I said to the Apostle, ‘O Apostle of God, where shall I seek -thee?’ He answered: ‘In the science of Abú Ḥanífa.’”</p> - -<p class='c001'>Once, when I was in Syria, I fell asleep at the tomb of Bilál -the Muezzin,<a id='r61' /><a href='#f61' class='c015'><sup>[61]</sup></a> and dreamed that I was at Mecca, and that the -Apostle came in through the gate of the Banú Shayba, tenderly -<span class='pageno' id='Page_95'>95</span>clasping an old man to his bosom in the same fashion as people -are wont to carry children; and that I ran to him and kissed -the back of his foot, and stood marvelling who the old man might -be; and that the Apostle was miraculously aware of my secret -thought and said to me, “This is thy Imám and the Imám of -thy countryman,” meaning Abú Ḥanífa. In consequence of -this dream I have great hopes for myself and also for the people -of my country. It has convinced me, moreover, that Abú -Ḥanífa was one of those who, having annihilated their natural -qualities, continue to perform the ordinances of the sacred law, -as appears from the fact that he was carried by the Apostle. -If he had walked by himself, his attributes must have been -subsistent, and such a one may either miss or hit the mark; but -inasmuch as he was carried by the Apostle, his attributes must -have been non-existent while he was sustained by the living -attributes of the Apostle. The Apostle cannot err, and it is -equally impossible that one who is sustained by the Apostle -should fall into error.</p> - -<p class='c001'>When Dáwud Ṭá´í had acquired learning and become a famous -authority, he went to Abú Ḥanífa and said to him: “What shall -I do now?” Abú Ḥanífa replied: “Practise what you have -learned, for theory without practice is like a body without a -spirit.” He who is content with learning alone is not learned, -and the truly learned man is not content with learning alone.</p> - -<p class='c001'>Similarly, Divine guidance (<i>hidáyat</i>) involves self-mortification -(<i>mujáhadat</i>), without which contemplation (<i>musháhadat</i>) is unattainable. -There is no knowledge without action, since -knowledge is the product of action, and is brought forth and -developed and made profitable by the blessings of action. The -two things cannot be divorced in any way, just as the light of -the sun cannot be separated from the sun itself.</p> - -<h3 class='c018'><span class='sc'>7. `Abdalláh b. Mubárak al-Marwazí.</span></h3> - -<p class='c010'>He was the Imám of his time and consorted with many eminent -Shaykhs. He is the author of celebrated works and famous -miracles. The occasion of his conversion is related as follows: -<span class='pageno' id='Page_96'>96</span>He was in love with a girl, and one night in winter he stationed -himself at the foot of the wall of her house, while she came on to -the roof, and they both stayed gazing at each other until daybreak. -When `Abdalláh heard the call to morning prayers he -thought it was time for evening prayers; and only when the sun -began to shine did he discover that he had spent the whole -night in rapturous contemplation of his beloved. He took -warning by this, and said to himself: “Shame on thee, O son of -Mubárak! Dost thou stand on foot all night for thine own -pleasure, and yet become furious when the Imám reads a long -chapter of the Koran?” He repented and devoted himself to -study, and entered upon a life of asceticism, in which he attained -such a high degree that once his mother found him asleep in the -garden, while a great snake was driving the gnats away from him -with a spray of basil which it held in its mouth. Then he left -Merv and lived for some time in Baghdád, associating with the -Ṣúfí Shaykhs, and also resided for some time at Mecca. When -he returned to Merv, the people of the town received him with -friendship and founded for him a professorial chair and a lecture -hall (<i>dars ú majlis nihádand</i>). At that epoch half the population -of Merv were followers of Tradition and the other half -adherents of Opinion, just as at the present day. They called -him <i>Raḍí al-faríqayn</i> because of his agreement with both sides, -and each party claimed him as one of themselves. He built two -convents (<i>ribáṭ</i>) at Merv—one for the followers of Tradition and -one for the followers of Opinion—which have retained their -original constitution down to the present day. Afterwards he -went back to the Ḥijáz and settled at Mecca. On being asked -what wonders he had seen, he replied: “I saw a Christian monk -(<i>ráhib</i>), who was emaciated by self-mortification and bent double -by fear of God. I asked him to tell me the way to God. He -answered, ‘If you knew God, you would know the way to Him.’ -Then he said, ‘I worship Him although I do not know him, -whereas you disobey Him although you know Him,’ i.e. ‘knowledge -entails fear, yet I see that you are confident; and infidelity -entails ignorance, yet I feel fear within <a id='corr96.36'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='myself’.'>myself.’</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_96.36'><ins class='correction' title='myself’.'>myself.’</ins></a></span> I laid this to -<span class='pageno' id='Page_97'>97</span>heart, and it restrained me from many ill deeds.” It is related -that `Abdalláh b. Mubárak said: “Tranquillity is unlawful to -the hearts of the Saints of God,” for they are agitated in this -world by seeking God (<i>ṭalab</i>) and in the next world by rapture -(<i>ṭarab</i>); they are not permitted to rest here, while they are -absent from God, nor there, while they enjoy the presence, -manifestation, and vision of God. Hence this world is even as -the next world in their eyes, and the next world even as this -world, because tranquillity of heart demands two things, either -attainment of one’s aim or indifference to the object of one’s -desire. Since He is not to be attained in this world or the next, -the heart can never have rest from the palpitation of love; and -since indifference is unlawful to those who love Him, the heart -can never have rest from the agitations of seeking Him. This -is a firm principle in the path of spiritual adepts.</p> - -<h3 class='c018'><span class='sc'>8. Abú `Alí al-Fuḍayl b. `Iyáḍ.</span></h3> - -<p class='c010'>He is one of the paupers (<i>ṣa`álík</i>) of the Ṣúfís, and one of -their most eminent and celebrated men. At first he used to -practise brigandage between Merv and Báward, but he was -always inclined to piety, and invariably showed a generous -and magnanimous disposition, so that he would not attack -a caravan in which there was any woman, or take the property -of anyone whose stock was small; and he let the travellers -keep a portion of their property, according to the means of -each. One day a merchant set out from Merv. His friends -advised him to take an escort, but he said to them: “I have -heard that Fuḍayl is a God-fearing man;” and instead of doing -as they wished he hired a Koran-reader and mounted him on -a camel in order that he might read the Koran aloud day and -night during the journey. When they reached the place where -Fuḍayl was lying in ambush, the reader happened to be reciting: -“<i>Is not the time yet come unto those who believe, that their hearts -should humbly submit to the admonition of God?</i>” (Kor. lvii, 15). -Fuḍayl’s heart was softened. He repented of the business in -which he was engaged, and having a written list of those whom -<span class='pageno' id='Page_98'>98</span>he had robbed he satisfied all their claims upon him. Then he -went to Mecca and resided there for some time and became -acquainted with certain saints of God. Afterwards he returned -to Kúfa, where he associated with Abú Ḥanífa. He has handed -down relations which are held in high esteem by Traditionists, -and he is the author of lofty sayings concerning the verities of -Ṣúfiism and Divine Knowledge. It is recorded that he said: -“Whoever knows God as He ought to be known worships Him -with all his might,” because everyone who knows God acknowledges -His bounty and beneficence and mercy, and therefore -loves Him; and since he loves Him he obeys Him so far as he -has the power, for it is not difficult to obey those whom one -loves. Accordingly, the more one loves, the more one is -obedient, and love is increased by true knowledge.<a id='r62' /><a href='#f62' class='c015'><sup>[62]</sup></a> It is related -that he said: “The world is a madhouse, and the people -therein are madmen, wearing shackles and chains.” Lust is our -shackle and sin is our chain.</p> - -<p class='c001'>Faḍl b. Rabí` relates as follows: “I accompanied Hárún -al-Rashíd to Mecca. When we had performed the pilgrimage, -he said to me, ‘Is there any man of God here that I may visit -him?’ I replied, ‘Yes, there is `Abd al-Razzáq Ṣan`ání.’<a id='r63' /><a href='#f63' class='c015'><sup>[63]</sup></a> We -went to his house and talked with him for a while. When we -were about to leave, Hárún bade me ask him whether he had -any debts. He said, ‘Yes,’ and Hárún gave orders that they -should be paid. On coming out, Hárún said to me, ‘O Faḍl, -my heart still desires to see a man greater than this one.’ -I conducted him to Sufyán b. `Uyayna.<a id='r64' /><a href='#f64' class='c015'><sup>[64]</sup></a> Our visit ended in the -same way. Hárún gave orders to pay his debts and departed. -Then he said to me, ‘I recollect that Fuḍayl b. `Iyáḍ is here; -let us go and see him.’ We found him in an upper chamber, -reciting a verse of the Koran. When we knocked at the door, -he cried, ‘Who is there?’ I replied, ‘The Commander of the -Faithful.’ ‘What have I to do with the Commander of the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_99'>99</span>Faithful?’ said he. I said, ‘Is there not an Apostolic Tradition -to the effect that no one shall seek to abase himself in devotion -to God?’ He answered, ‘Yes, but acquiescence in God’s will -(<i>riḍá</i>) is everlasting glory in the opinion of quietists: you see -my abasement, but I see my exaltation.’ Then he came down -and opened the door, and extinguished the lamp and stood -in a corner. Hárún went in and tried to find him. Their -hands met. Fuḍayl exclaimed, ‘Alas! never have I felt -a softer hand: ’t will be very wonderful if it escape from -the Divine torment.’ Hárún began to weep, and wept so -violently that he swooned. When he came to himself, he -said, ‘O Fuḍayl, give me a word of counsel.’ Fuḍayl said: -‘O Commander of the Faithful, thy ancestor (`Abbás) was the -uncle of Muṣṭafá. He asked the Prophet to give him dominion -over men. The Prophet answered, “O my uncle, I will give thee -dominion for one moment over thyself,” i.e. one moment of thy -obedience to God is better than a thousand years of men’s -obedience to thee, since dominion brings repentance on the -Day of Resurrection’ (<i>al-imárat yawm al-qiyámat nadámat</i>). -Hárún said, ‘Counsel me further.’ Fuḍayl continued: ‘When -`Umar b. `Abd al-`Azíz was appointed Caliph, he summoned -Sálim b. `Abdalláh and Rajá b. Ḥayát, and Muḥammad b. -Ka`b al-Quraẕí, and said to them, “What am I to do in this -affliction? for I count it an affliction, although people in general -consider it to be a blessing.” One of them replied: “If thou -wouldst be saved to-morrow from the Divine punishment, -regard the elders of the Moslems as thy fathers, and their young -men as thy brothers, and their children as thy children. The -whole territory of Islam is thy house, and its people are thy -family. Visit thy father, and honour thy brother, and deal -kindly with thy children.“’ Then Fuḍayl said: ‘O Commander -of the Faithful, I fear lest that handsome face of thine fall into -Hell-fire. Fear God, and perform thy obligations to Him better -than this.’ Hárún asked Fuḍayl whether he had any debts. -He answered, ‘Yes, the debt which I owe to God, namely, -obedience to Him; woe is me, if He call me to account for it!’ -<span class='pageno' id='Page_100'>100</span>Hárún said, ‘O Fuḍayl, I am speaking of debts to men.’ He -replied, ‘God be praised! His bounty towards me is great, and -I have no reason to complain of Him to His servants.’ Hárún -offered him a purse of a thousand dinars, saying, ‘Use the -money for some purpose of thine own.’ Fuḍayl said, ‘O Commander -of the Faithful, my counsels have done thee no good. -Here again thou art behaving wrongly and unjustly.’ Hárún -exclaimed, ‘How is that?’ Fuḍayl said, ‘I wish thee to be -saved, but thou wouldst cast me into perdition: is not this -unjust?’ We took leave of him with tears in our eyes, and -Hárún said to me, ‘O Faḍl, Fuḍayl is a king indeed.’”</p> - -<p class='c001'>All this shows his hatred of the world and its people, and -his contempt for its gauds, and his refusal to abase himself -before worldlings for the sake of worldly gain.</p> - -<h3 class='c018'><span class='sc'>9. Abu ´l-Fayḍ Dhu ´l-Nún b. Ibráhím al-Miṣrí.</span></h3> - -<p class='c010'>He was the son of a Nubian, and his name was Thawbán. -He is one of the best of this sect, and one of the most eminent -of their hidden spiritualists (<i>`ayyárán</i>), for he trod the path of -affliction and travelled on the road of blame (<i>malámat</i>). All -the people of Egypt were lost in doubt as to his true state, -and did not believe in him until he was dead. On the night -of his decease seventy persons dreamed that they saw the -Apostle, who said: “I have come to meet Dhu ´l-Nún, the -friend of God.” And after his death the following words were -found inscribed on his forehead: <i>This is the beloved of God, -who died in love of God, slain by God</i>. At his funeral the birds -of the air gathered above his bier, and wove their wings together -so as to shadow it. On seeing this, all the Egyptians felt -remorse and repented of the injustice which they had done -to him. He has many fine and admirable sayings on the -verities of mystical knowledge. He says, for example: “The -gnostic (<i>`árif</i>) is more lowly every day, because he is -approaching nearer to his Lord every moment,” inasmuch -as he thereby becomes aware of the awfulness of the Divine -Omnipotence, and when the majesty of God has taken possession -<span class='pageno' id='Page_101'>101</span>of his heart, he sees how far he is from God and that there is -no way of reaching Him; hence his lowliness is increased. -Thus Moses said, when he conversed with God: “O Lord, -where shall I seek Thee?” God answered: “Among those -whose hearts are broken.” Moses said: “O Lord, no heart -is more broken and despairing than mine.” God answered: -“Then I am where thou art.” Accordingly, anyone who -pretends to know God without lowliness and fear is an ignorant -fool, not a gnostic. The sign of true knowledge is sincerity -of will, and a sincere will cuts off all secondary causes and -severs all ties of relationship, so that nothing remains except -God. Dhu ´l-Nún says: “Sincerity (<i>ṣidq</i>) is the sword of -God on the earth: it cuts everything that it touches.” Now -sincerity regards the Causer, and does not consist in affirmation -of secondary causes. To affirm the latter is to destroy the -principle of sincerity.</p> - -<p class='c001'>Among the stories told of Dhu ´l-Nún I have read that one -day he was sailing with his disciples in a boat on the River -Nile, as is the custom of the people of Egypt when they desire -recreation. Another boat was coming up, filled with merry—makers, -whose unseemly behaviour so disgusted the disciples -that they begged Dhu ´l-Nún to implore God to sink the boat. -Dhu ´l-Nún raised his hands and cried: “O Lord, as Thou -hast given these people a pleasant life in this world, give them -a pleasant life in the next world too!” The disciples were -astonished by his prayer. When the boat came nearer and -those in it saw Dhu ´l-Nún, they began to weep and ask -pardon, and broke their lutes and repented unto God. Dhu ´l-Nún -said to his disciples: “A pleasant life in the next world -is repentance in this world. You and they are all satisfied -without harm to anyone.” He acted thus from his extreme -affection towards the Moslems, following the example of the -Apostle, who, notwithstanding the ill-treatment which he -received from the infidels, never ceased to say: “O God! direct -my people, for they know not.” Dhu ´l-Nún relates that as -he was journeying from Jerusalem to Egypt he saw in the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_102'>102</span>distance some one advancing towards him, and felt impelled -to ask a question. When the person came near he perceived -that it was an old woman carrying a staff (<i>`ukkáza</i><a id='r65' /><a href='#f65' class='c015'><sup>[65]</sup></a>), and -wearing a woollen tunic (<i>jubba</i>). He asked her whence she -came. She answered: “From God.” “And whither goest -thou?” “To God.” Dhu ´l-Nún drew forth a piece of gold -which he had with him and offered it to her, but she shook -her hand in his face and cried: “O Dhu ´l-Nún, the notion -which thou hast formed of me arises from the feebleness of -thy intelligence. I work for God’s sake, and accept nothing -unless from Him. I worship Him alone and take from Him -alone.” With these words she went on her way.</p> - -<p class='c001'>The old woman’s saying that she worked for God’s sake is -a proof of her sincerity in love. Men in their dealings with -God fall into two classes. Some imagine that they work for -God’s sake when they are really working for themselves; and -though their work is not done with any worldly motive, they -desire a recompense in the next world. Others take no thought -of reward or punishment in the next world, any more than of -ostentation and reputation in this world, but act solely from -reverence for the commandments of God. Their love of God -requires them to forget every selfish interest while they do His -bidding. The former class fancy that what they do for the sake -of the next world they do for God’s sake, and fail to recognize -that the devout have a greater self-interest in devotion than the -wicked have in sin, because the sinner’s pleasure lasts only for -a moment, whereas devotion is a delight for ever. Besides, -what gain accrues to God from the religious exercises of mankind, -or what loss from their non-performance? If all the -world acted with the veracity of Abú Bakr, the gain would be -wholly theirs, and if with the falsehood of Pharaoh, the loss -would be wholly theirs, as God hath said: “<i>If ye do good, it is to -yourselves, and if ye do evil, it is to yourselves</i>” (Kor. xvii, 7); -and also: “<i>Whoever exerts himself</i> [in religion] <i>does so for his</i> -<span class='pageno' id='Page_103'>103</span><i>own advantage. Verily, God is independent of created beings</i>” -(Kor. xxix, 5). They seek for themselves an everlasting -kingdom and say, “We are working for God’s sake”; but to -tread the path of love is a different thing. Lovers, in fulfilling -the Divine commandment, regard only the accomplishment of -the Beloved’s will, and have no eyes for anything else.</p> - -<p class='c001'>A similar topic will be discussed in the chapter on Sincerity -(<i>ikhláṣ</i>).</p> - -<h3 class='c018'><span class='sc'>10. Abú Isḥáq Ibráhím b. Adham b. Manṣúr.</span></h3> - -<p class='c010'>He was unique in his Path, and the chief of his contemporaries. -He was a disciple of the Apostle Khiḍr. He met a large -number of the ancient Ṣúfí Shaykhs, and associated with the -Imám Abú Ḥanífa, from whom he learned divinity (<i>`ilm</i>). In -the earlier part of his life he was Prince of Balkh. One day he -went to the chase, and having become separated from his suite -was pursuing an antelope. God caused the antelope to address -him in elegant language and say: “Wast thou created for this, -or wast thou commanded to do this?” He repented, abandoned -everything, and entered on the path of asceticism and abstinence. -He made the acquaintance of Fuḍayl b. `Iyáḍ and Sufyán -Thawrí, and consorted with them. After his conversion he -never ate any food except what he had earned by his own -labour. His sayings on the verities of Ṣúfiism are original and -exquisite. Junayd said: “Ibráhím is the key of the (mystical) -sciences.” It is related that he said: “Take God as thy -companion and leave mankind alone,” i.e. when anyone is -rightly and sincerely turned towards God, the rightness of his -turning towards God requires that he should turn his back on -mankind, inasmuch as the society of mankind has nothing to do -with thoughts of God. Companionship with God is sincerity in -fulfilling His commands, and sincerity in devotion springs from -purity of love, and pure love of God proceeds from hatred of -passion and lust. Whoever is familiar with sensual affections is -separated from God, and whoever is separated from sensual -affections is dwelling with God. Therefore thou art all mankind -<span class='pageno' id='Page_104'>104</span>in regard to thyself: turn away from thyself, and thou hast -turned away from all mankind. Thou dost wrong to turn away -from mankind and towards thyself, and to be concerned with -thyself, whereas the actions of all mankind are determined by -the providence and predestination of God. The outward and -inward rectitude (<i>istiqámat</i>) of the seeker is founded on two -things, one of which is theoretical and the other practical. The -former consists in regarding all good and evil as predestined -by God, so that nothing in the universe passes into a state of -rest or motion until God has created rest or motion in that -thing; the latter consists in performing the command of God, in -rightness of action towards Him, and in keeping the obligations -which he Has imposed. Predestination can never become an -argument for neglecting His commands. True renunciation of -mankind is impossible until thou hast renounced thyself. As -soon as thou hast renounced thyself, all mankind are necessary -for the fulfilment of the will of God; and as soon as thou hast -turned to God, thou art necessary for the accomplishment of -the decree of God. Hence it is not permissible to be satisfied -with mankind. If thou wilt be satisfied with anything except -God, at least be satisfied with another (<i>ghayr</i>) for satisfaction -with another is to regard unification (<i>tawḥíd</i>), whereas satisfaction -with thyself is to affirm the nullity of the Creator (<i>ta`tíl</i>). For -this reason Shaykh Abu ´l-Ḥasan Sáliba<a id='r66' /><a href='#f66' class='c015'><sup>[66]</sup></a> used to say that it is -better for novices to be under the authority of a cat than under -their own authority, because companionship with another is for -God’s sake, while companionship with one’s self is calculated -to foster the sensual affections. This topic will be discussed in -the proper place. Ibráhím b. Adham tells the following story: -“When I reached the desert, an old man came up and said to -me, ‘O Ibráhím, do you know what place this is, and where you -are journeying without provisions and on foot?’ I knew that -he was Satan. I produced from the bosom of my shirt four -<i>dániqs</i>—the price of a basket which I had sold in Kúfa—and -cast them away and made a vow that I would perform a prayer -<span class='pageno' id='Page_105'>105</span>of four hundred genuflexions for every mile that I travelled. -I remained four years in the desert, and God was giving me -my daily bread without any exertion on my part. During that -time Khiḍr consorted with me and taught me the Great Name -of God. Then my heart became wholly empty of ‘other’ -(<i>ghayr</i>).”</p> - -<h3 class='c018'><span class='sc'>11. Bishr b. al-Ḥárith al-Ḥáfí.</span></h3> - -<p class='c010'>He associated with Fuḍayl and was the disciple of his own -maternal uncle, `Alí b. Khashram. He was versed in the -principal, as well as the derivative, sciences. His conversion -began as follows. One day, when he was drunk, he found on -the road a piece of paper on which was written: “<i>In the name -of God, the Compassionate, the Merciful.</i>” He picked it up with -reverence, perfumed it, and laid in a clean place. The same -night he dreamed that God said to him: “O Bishr, as thou hast -made My name sweet, I swear by My glory that I will make -thy name sweet both in this world and the next.” Thereupon -he repented and took to asceticism. So intensely was he -absorbed in contemplation of God that he never put anything -on his feet. When he was asked the reason of this, he said: -“The Earth is His carpet, and I deem it wrong to tread on His -carpet while there is anything between my foot and His carpet.” -This is one of his peculiar practices: in the concentration of his -mind on God a shoe seemed to him a veil (between him and -God). It is related that he said: “Whoever desires to be -honoured in this world and exalted in the next world, let him -shun three things: let him not ask a boon of anyone, nor speak -ill of anyone, nor accept an invitation to eat with anyone.” No -man who knows the way to God will ask a boon of human -beings, since to do so is a proof of his ignorance of God: if he -knew the Giver of all boons, he would not ask a boon from -a fellow-creature. Again, the man who speaks ill of anyone is -criticizing the decree of God, inasmuch as both the individual -himself and his actions are created by God; and on whom can -the blame for an action be thrown except on the agent? This -<span class='pageno' id='Page_106'>106</span>does not apply, however, to the blame which God has commanded -us to bestow upon infidels. Thirdly, as to his saying, -“Do not eat of men’s food,” the reason is that God is the -Provider. If He makes a creature the means of giving you -daily bread, do not regard that creature, but consider that the -daily bread which God has caused to come to you does not -belong to him but to God. If he thinks that it is his, and that -he is thereby conferring a favour on you, do not accept it. In -the matter of daily bread one person does not confer on another -any favour at all, because, according to the opinion of the -orthodox, daily bread is food (<i>ghidhá</i>), although the Mu`tazilites -hold it to be property (<i>milk</i>); and God, not any created being, -nourishes mankind with food. This saying may be explained -otherwise, if it be taken in a profane sense (<i>majáz</i>).</p> - -<h3 class='c018'><span class='sc'>12. Abú Yazíd Ṭayfúr b. `Ísá al-Bisṭámí.</span></h3> - -<p class='c010'>He is the greatest of the Shaykhs in state and dignity, so that -Junayd said: “Abú Yazíd holds the same rank among us as -Gabriel among the angels.” His grandfather was a Magian, and -his father was one of the notables of Bisṭám. He is the author -of many trustworthy relations concerning the Traditions of the -Apostle, and he is one of the ten celebrated Imáms of Ṣúfiism. -No one before him penetrated so deeply into the arcana of this -science. In all circumstances he was a lover of theology and -a venerator of the sacred law, notwithstanding the spurious -doctrine which has been foisted on him by some persons with the -object of supporting their own heresies. From the first, his life -was based on self-mortification and the practice of devotion. It -is recorded that he said: “For thirty years I was active in self-mortification, -and I found nothing harder than to learn divinity -and follow its precepts. But for the disagreement of divines -I should have utterly failed in my endeavour. The disagreement -of divines is a mercy save on the point of Unification.” This is -true indeed, for human nature is more prone to ignorance than -to knowledge, and while many things can be done easily with -<span class='pageno' id='Page_107'>107</span>ignorance, not a single step can be made easily with knowledge. -The bridge of the sacred law is much narrower and -more dangerous than the Bridge (<i>Ṣiráṭ</i>) in the next world. -Therefore it behoves thee so to act in all circumstances that, -if thou shouldst not attain a high degree and an eminent -station, thou mayst at any rate fall within the pale of -the sacred law. Even if thou lose all else, thy practices of -devotion will remain with thee. Neglect of those is the worst -mischief that can happen to a novice.</p> - -<p class='c001'>It is related that Abú Yazíd said: “Paradise hath no value in -the eyes of lovers, and lovers are veiled (from God) by their -love,” i.e. Paradise is created, whereas love is an uncreated -attribute of God. Whoever is detained by a created thing from -that which is uncreated, is without worth and value. Created -things are worthless in the eyes of lovers. Lovers are veiled -by love, because the existence of love involves duality, which -is incompatible with unification (<i>tawḥíd</i>). The way of lovers is -from oneness to oneness, but there is in love this defect, that it -needs a desirer (<i>muríd</i>) and an object of desire (<i>murád</i>). Either -God must be the desirer and Man the desired, or <i>vice versâ</i>. In -the former case, Man’s being is fixed in God’s desire, but if Man -is the desirer and God the object of desire, the creature’s search -and desire can find no way unto Him: in either case the canker -of being remains in the lover. Accordingly, the annihilation of -the lover in the everlastingness of love is more perfect than his -subsistence through the everlastingness of love.</p> - -<p class='c001'>It is related that Abú Yazíd said: “I went to Mecca and saw -a House standing apart. I said, ‘My pilgrimage is not accepted, -for I have seen many stones of this sort.’ I went again, and saw -the House and also the Lord of the House. I said, ‘This is not -yet real unification.’ I went a third time, and saw only the Lord -of the House. A voice in my heart whispered, ‘O Báyazíd, if -thou didst not see thyself, thou wouldst not be a polytheist -(<i>mushrik</i>) though thou sawest the whole universe; and since -thou seest thyself, thou art a polytheist though blind to the -whole universe.’ Thereupon I repented, and once more -<span class='pageno' id='Page_108'>108</span>I repented of my repentance, and yet once more I repented of -seeing my own existence.”</p> - -<p class='c001'>This is a subtle tale concerning the soundness of his state, and -gives an excellent indication to spiritualists.</p> - -<h3 class='c018'><span class='sc'>13. Abú `Abdalláh al-Ḥárith b. Asad al-Muḥásibí.</span></h3> - -<p class='c010'>He was learned in the principal and derivative sciences, and -his authority was recognized by all the theologians of his day. -He wrote a book, entitled <i>Ri`áyat</i>,<a id='r67' /><a href='#f67' class='c015'><sup>[67]</sup></a> on the principles of Ṣúfiism, -as well as many other works. In every branch of learning he -was a man of lofty sentiment and noble mind. He was the -chief Shaykh of Baghdád in his time. It is related that he said: -<i>Al-`ilm bi-ḥarakát al-qulúb fí muṭála`at al-ghuyúb ashraf min -al-`amal bi-ḥarakát al-jawáriḥ</i>, i.e. he who is acquainted with -the secret motions of the heart is better than he who acts with -the motions of the limbs. The meaning is that knowledge -is the place of perfection, whereas ignorance is the place -of search, and knowledge at the shrine is better than -ignorance at the door: knowledge brings a man to perfection, -but ignorance does not even allow him to enter (on the way -to perfection). In reality knowledge is greater than action, -because it is possible to know God by means of knowledge, but -impossible to attain to Him by means of action. If He could -be found by action without knowledge, the Christians and the -monks in their austerities would behold Him face to face and -sinful believers would have no vision of Him. Therefore knowledge -is a Divine attribute and action a human attribute. Some -relaters of this saying have fallen into error by reading <i>al-`amal -bi-ḥarakát al-qulúb</i>,<a id='r68' /><a href='#f68' class='c015'><sup>[68]</sup></a> which is absurd, since human actions have -nothing to do with the motions of the heart. If the author -uses this expression to denote reflection and contemplation of -the inward feelings, it is not strange, for the Apostle said: -“A moment’s reflection is better than sixty years of devotion,” -<span class='pageno' id='Page_109'>109</span>and spiritual actions are in truth more excellent than bodily -actions, and the effect produced by inward feelings and actions -is really more complete than the effect produced by outward -actions. Hence it is said: “The sleep of the sage is an act of -devotion and the wakefulness of the fool is a sin,” because the -sage’s heart is controlled (by God) whether he sleeps or wakes, -and when the heart is controlled the body also is controlled. -Accordingly, the heart that is controlled by the sway of God is -better than the sensual part of Man which controls his outward -motions and acts of self-mortification. It is related that Ḥárith -said one day to a dervish, <i>Kun lilláh wa-illá lá takun</i>, “Be God’s -or be nothing,” i.e. either be subsistent through God or perish -to thine own existence; either be united with Purity (<i>ṣafwat</i>) -or separated by Poverty (<i>faqr</i>); either in the state described by -the words “Bow ye down to Adam” (Kor. ii, 32) or in the state -described by the words “<i>Did there not come over Man a time -when he was not anything worthy of mention?</i>” (Kor. lxxvi, 1). -If thou wilt give thyself to God of thy own free choice, thy -resurrection will be through thyself, but if thou wilt not, then -thy resurrection will be through God.</p> - -<h3 class='c018'><span class='sc'>14. Abú Sulaymán Dáwud b. Nuṣayr al-Ṭá´í.</span></h3> - -<p class='c010'>He was a pupil of Abú Ḥanífa and a contemporary of -Fuḍayl and Ibráhím b. Adham. In Ṣúfiism he was a disciple -of Ḥabíb Rá`í. He was deeply versed in all the sciences and -unrivalled in jurisprudence (<i>fiqh</i>); but he went into seclusion -and turned his back on authority, and took the path of -asceticism and piety. It is related that he said to one of his -disciples: “If thou desirest welfare, bid farewell to this world, -and if thou desirest grace (<i>karámat</i>), pronounce the <i>takbír</i><a id='r69' /><a href='#f69' class='c015'><sup>[69]</sup></a> over -the next world,” i.e. both these are places of veiling (places -which prevent thee from seeing God). Every kind of tranquillity -(<i>farághat</i>) depends on these two counsels. Whoever would be -<span class='pageno' id='Page_110'>110</span>tranquil in body, let him turn his back on this world; and whoever -would be tranquil in heart, let him clear his heart of all -desire for the next world. It is a well-known story that Dáwud -used constantly to associate with Muḥammad b. al-Ḥasan,<a id='r70' /><a href='#f70' class='c015'><sup>[70]</sup></a> but -would never receive the Cadi Abú Yúsuf. On being asked why -he honoured one of these eminent divines but refused to admit -the other to his presence, he replied that Muḥammad b. al-Ḥasan -had become a theologian after being rich and wealthy, -and theology was the cause of his religious advancement and -worldly abasement, whereas Abú Yúsuf had become a theologian -after being poor and despised, and had made theology the -means of gaining wealth and power. It is related that Ma`rúf -Karkhí said: “I never saw anyone who held worldly goods in -less account than Dáwud Ṭá´í; the world and its people had no -value whatsoever in his eyes, and he used to regard dervishes -(<i>fuqará</i>) as perfect although they were corrupt.”</p> - -<h3 class='c018'><span class='sc'>15. Abu ´l-Ḥasan Sarí b. Mughallis al-Saqaṭí.</span></h3> - -<p class='c010'>He was the maternal uncle of Junayd. He was well versed -in all the sciences and eminent in Ṣúfiism, and he was the first -of those who have devoted their attention to the arrangement -of “stations” (<i>maqámát</i>) and to the explanation of spiritual -“states” (<i>aḥwál</i>). Most of the Shaykhs of `Iráq are his pupils. -He had seen Ḥabíb Rá`í and associated with him. He was -a disciple of Ma`rúf Karkhí. He used to carry on the business -of a huckster (<i>saqaṭ-firúsh</i>) in the bazaar at Baghdád. When -the bazaar caught fire, he was told that his shop was burnt. -He replied: “Then I am freed from the care of it.” Afterwards -it was discovered that his shop had not been burnt, although -all the shops surrounding it were destroyed. On seeing this, -Sarí gave all that he possessed to the poor and took the -path of Ṣúfiism. He was asked how the change in him began. -He answered: “One day Ḥabíb Rá`í passed my shop, and -I gave him a crust of bread, telling him to give it to the poor. -<span class='pageno' id='Page_111'>111</span>He said to me, ‘May God reward thee!’ From the day when -I heard this prayer my worldly affairs never prospered again.” -It is related that Sarí said: “O God, whatever punishment -Thou mayst inflict upon me, do not punish me with the -humiliation of being veiled from Thee,” because, if I am not -veiled from Thee, my torment and affliction will be lightened -by the remembrance and contemplation of Thee; but if I am -veiled from Thee, even Thy bounty will be deadly to me. -There is no punishment in Hell more painful and hard to bear -than that of being veiled. If God were revealed in Hell to the -people of Hell, sinful believers would never think of Paradise, -since the sight of God would so fill them with joy that they -would not feel bodily pain. And in Paradise there is no -pleasure more perfect than unveiledness (<i>kashf</i>). If the people -there enjoyed all the pleasures of that place and other pleasures -a hundredfold, but were veiled from God, their hearts would be -utterly broken. Therefore it is the custom of God to let the -hearts of those who love Him have vision of Him always, in -order that the delight thereof may enable them to endure every -tribulation; and they say in their orisons: “We deem all -torments more desirable than to be veiled from Thee. When -Thy beauty is revealed to our hearts, we take no thought of -affliction.”</p> - -<h3 class='c018'><span class='sc'>16. Abú `Alí Shaqíq b. Ibráhím al-Azdí.</span></h3> - -<p class='c010'>He was versed in all the sciences—legal, practical, and -theoretical—and composed many works on various branches -of Ṣúfiism. He consorted with Ibráhím b. Adham and many -other Shaykhs. It is related that he said: “God hath made -the pious living in their death, and hath made the wicked dead -during their lives,” i.e., the pious, though they be dead, yet live, -since the angels utter blessings on their piety until they are -made immortal by the recompense which they receive at the -Resurrection. Hence, in the annihilation wrought by death -they subsist through the everlastingness of retribution. Once -an old man came to Shaqíq and said to him: “O Shaykh, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_112'>112</span>I have sinned much and now wish to repent.” Shaqíq said: -“Thou hast come late.” The old man answered: “No, I have -come soon. Whoever comes before he is dead comes soon, -though he may have been long in coming.” It is said that -the occasion of Shaqíq’s conversion was this, that one year -there was a famine at Balkh, and the people were eating one -another’s flesh. While all the Moslems were bitterly distressed, -Shaqíq saw a youth laughing and making merry in the bazaar. -The people said: “Why do you laugh? Are not you ashamed -to rejoice when everyone else is mourning?” The youth said: -“I have no sorrow. I am the servant of a man who owns -a village as his private property, and he has relieved me of all -care for my livelihood.” Shaqíq exclaimed: “O Lord God, -this youth rejoices so much in having a master who owns -a single village, but Thou art the King of kings, and Thou -hast promised to give us our daily bread; and nevertheless -we have filled our hearts with all this sorrow because we are -engrossed with worldly things.” He turned to God and began -to walk in the way of the Truth, and never troubled himself -again about his daily bread. Afterwards he used to say: “I am -the pupil of a youth; all that I have learned I learned from -him.” His humility led him to say this.</p> - -<h3 class='c018'><span class='sc'>17. Abú Sulaymán `Abd al-Raḥmán b.`Atiyya al-Dárání.</span></h3> - -<p class='c010'>He was held in honour by the Ṣúfís and was (called) the -sweet basil of hearts (<i>rayḥán-i dilhá</i>). He is distinguished by -his severe austerities and acts of self-mortification. He was -versed in the science of “time” (<i>`ilm-i waqt</i>)<a id='r71' /><a href='#f71' class='c015'><sup>[71]</sup></a> and in knowledge -of the cankers of the soul, and had a keen eye for its hidden -snares. He spoke in subtle terms concerning the practice of -devotion, and the watch that should be kept over the heart and -the limbs. It is related that he said: “When hope predominates -over fear, one’s ‘time’ is spoilt,” because “time” is the preservation -of one’s “state” (<i>ḥál</i>), which is preserved only so long as one is -possessed by fear. If, on the other hand, fear predominates -<span class='pageno' id='Page_113'>113</span>over hope, belief in Unity (<i>tawḥíd</i>) is lost, inasmuch as excessive -fear springs from despair, and despair of God is polytheism -(<i>shirk</i>). Accordingly, the maintenance of belief in Unity consists -in right hope, and the maintenance of “time” in right fear, -and both are maintained when hope and fear are equal. Maintenance -of belief in Unity makes one a believer (<i>mu´min</i>), -while maintenance of “time” makes one pious (<i>muṭí`</i>). Hope -is connected entirely with contemplation (<i>musháhadat</i>), in -which is involved a firm conviction (<i>i`tiqád</i>); and fear is connected -entirely with purgation (<i>mujáhadat</i>), in which is involved -an anxious uncertainty (<i>iḍṭiráb</i>). Contemplation is the fruit of -purgation, or, to express the same idea differently, every hope -is produced by despair. Whenever a man, on account of his -actions, despairs of his future welfare, that despair shows him -the way to salvation and welfare and Divine mercy, and opens -to him the door of gladness, and clears away sensual corruptions -from his heart, and reveals to it the Divine mysteries.</p> - -<p class='c001'>Aḥmad b. Abi ´l-Ḥawárí relates that one night, when he was -praying in private, he felt great pleasure. Next day he told -Abú Sulaymán, who replied: “Thou art a weak man, for thou -still hast mankind in view, so that thou art one thing in private -and another in public.” There is nothing in the two worlds -that is sufficiently important to hold man back from God. -When a bride is unveiled to the people, the reason is that -everyone may see her and that she may be honoured the more -through being seen, but it is not proper that she should see -anyone except the bridegroom, since she is disgraced by seeing -anyone else. If all mankind should see the glory of a pious -man’s piety, he would suffer no harm, but if he sees the -excellence of his own piety he is lost.</p> - -<h3 class='c018'><span class='sc'>18. Abú Maḥfúẕ Ma`rúf b. Fírúz al-Karkhí.</span></h3> - -<p class='c010'>He is one of the ancient and principal Shaykhs, and was famed -for his generosity and devoutness. This notice of him should -have come earlier in the book, but I have placed it here in -accordance with two venerable persons who wrote before me, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_114'>114</span>one of them a relater of traditions and the other an independent -authority (<i>ṣáḥib taṣarruf</i>)—I mean Shaykh Abú `Abd al-Raḥmán -al-Sulamí, who in his work adopts the arrangement which -I have followed, and the Master and Imám Abu ´l-Qásimal-Qushayrí, -who has put the notice of Ma`rúf in the same order -in the introductory portion of his book.<a id='r72' /><a href='#f72' class='c015'><sup>[72]</sup></a> I have chosen this -arrangement because Ma`rúf was the master of Sarí Saqaṭí and -the disciple of Dáwud Ṭá´í. At first Ma`rúf was a non-Moslem -(<i>bégána</i>), but he made profession of Islam to `Alí b. Músá -al-Riḍá, who held him in the highest esteem. It is related that -he said: “There are three signs of generosity—to keep faith -without resistance, to praise without being incited thereto by -liberality, and to give without being asked.” In men all these -qualities are merely borrowed, and in reality they belong to -God, who acts thus towards His servants. God keeps unresisting -faith with those who love Him, and although they show -resistance in keeping faith with Him, He only increases His -kindness towards them. The sign of God’s keeping faith is -this, that in eternity past He called His servant to His presence -without any good action on the part of His servant, and that -to-day He does not banish His servant on account of an evil -action. He alone praises without the incitement of liberality, -for He has no need of His servant’s actions, and nevertheless -extols him for a little thing that he has done. He alone gives -without being asked, for He is generous and knows the state -of everyone and fulfils his desire unasked. Accordingly, when -God gives a man grace and makes him noble, and distinguishes -him by His favour, and acts towards him in the three ways -mentioned above, and when that man, as far as lies in his -<span class='pageno' id='Page_115'>115</span>power, acts in the same way towards his fellow-creatures, then -he is called generous and gets a reputation for generosity. -Abraham the Apostle possessed these three qualities in very -truth, as I shall explain in the proper place.</p> - -<h3 class='c018'><span class='sc'>19. Abú `Abd al-Raḥmán Ḥátim b. `Ulwán<a id='r73' /><a href='#f73' class='c015'><sup>[73]</sup></a> al-Aṣamm.</span></h3> - -<p class='c010'>He was one of the great men of Balkh and one of the ancient -Shaykhs of Khurásán, a disciple of Shaqíq and the teacher of -Aḥmad Khaḍrúya. In all his circumstances, from beginning -to end, he never once acted untruthfully, so that Junayd said: -“Ḥátim al-Aṣamm is the veracious one (<i>ṣiddíq</i>) of our time.” -He has lofty sayings on the subtleties of discerning the cankers -of the soul and the weaknesses of human nature, and is the author -of famous works on ethics (<i>`ilm-i mu`ámalát</i>). It is related that -he said: “Lust is of three kinds—lust in eating, lust in speaking, -and lust in looking. Guard thy food by trust in God, thy tongue -by telling the truth, and thine eye by taking example (<i>`ibrat</i>).” -Real trust in God proceeds from right knowledge, for those who -know Him aright have confidence that He will give them their -daily bread, and they speak and look with right knowledge, so -that their food and drink is only love, and their speech is only -ecstasy, and their looking is only contemplation. Accordingly, -when they know aright they eat what is lawful, and when they -speak aright they utter praise (of God), and when they look -aright they behold Him, because no food is lawful except what -He has given and permits to be eaten, and no praise is rightly -offered to anyone in the eighteen thousand worlds except to -Him, and it is not allowable to look on anything in the universe -except His beauty and majesty. It is not lust when thou -receivest food from Him and eatest by His leave, or when thou -speakest of Him by His leave, or when thou seest His actions -by His leave. On the other hand, it <i>is</i> lust when of thy own -will thou eatest even lawful food, or of thy own will thou -speakest even praise of Him, or of thy own will thou lookest -even for the purpose of seeking guidance.</p> - -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_116'>116</span> - <h3 class='c018'><span class='sc'>20. Abú `Abdalláh Muḥammad b. Idrís al-Sháfi`í.</span></h3> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>While he was at Medína he was a pupil of the Imám Málik, -and when he came to `Iráq he associated with Muḥammad -b. al-Ḥasan. He always had a natural desire for seclusion, and -used to seek an intimate comprehension of this way of life, -until a party gathered round him and followed his authority. -One of them was Aḥmad b. Ḥanbal. Then Sháfi`í became -occupied with seeking position and exercising his authority as -Imám, and was unable to retire from the world. At first he -was not favourably disposed towards aspirants to Ṣúfiism, but -after seeing Sulaymán Rá`í and obtaining admission to his -society, he continued to seek the truth wherever he went. It is -related that he said: “When you see a divine busying himself -with indulgences (<i>rukhaṣ</i>) no good thing will come from him,” -i.e. divines are the leaders of all classes of men, and no one may -take precedence of them in any matter, and the way of God -cannot be traversed without precaution and the utmost self-mortification, -and to seek indulgences in divinity is the act of -one who flees from self-mortification and prefers an alleviation -for himself. Ordinary people seek indulgences to keep themselves -within the pale of the sacred law, but the elect practise -self-mortification to feel the fruit thereof in their hearts. Divines -are among the elect, and when one of them is satisfied with -behaving like ordinary people, nothing good will come from -him. Moreover, to seek indulgences is to think lightly of God’s -commandment, and divines love God: a lover does not think -lightly of the command of his beloved.</p> - -<p class='c001'>A certain Shaykh relates that one night he dreamed of the -Prophet and said to him: “O Apostle of God, a tradition has -come down to me from thee that God hath upon the earth -saints of diverse rank (<i>awtád ú awliyá ú abrár</i>).” The Apostle -said that the relater of the tradition had transmitted it correctly, -and in answer to the Shaykh’s request that he might see one -of these holy men, he said: “Muḥammad b. Idrís is one -of them.”</p> - -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_117'>117</span> - <h3 class='c018'><span class='sc'>21. The Imám Aḥmad b. Ḥanbal.</span></h3> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>He was distinguished by devoutness and piety, and was the -guardian of the Traditions of the Apostle. Ṣúfís of all sects -regard him as blessed. He associated with great Shaykhs, -such as Dhu ´l-Nún of Egypt, Bishr al-Ḥáfí, Sarí al-Saqaṭí, -Ma`rúf al-Karkhí, and others. His miracles were manifest and -his intelligence sound. The doctrines attributed to him to-day -by certain Anthropomorphists are inventions and forgeries; he -is to be acquitted of all notions of that sort. He had a firm -belief in the principles of religion, and his creed was approved -by all the divines. When the Mu`tazilites came into power at -Baghdád, they wished to extort from him a confession that the -Koran was created, and though he was a feeble old man they -put him to the rack and gave him a thousand lashes. In spite -of all this he would not say that the Koran was created. While -he was undergoing punishment his <i>izár</i> became untied. His -own hands were fettered, but another hand appeared and tied it. -Seeing this evidence, they let him go. He died, however, of the -wounds inflicted on that occasion. Shortly before his death -some persons visited him and asked what he had to say about -those who flogged him. He answered: “What should I have -to say? They flogged me for God’s sake, thinking that I was -wrong and that they were right. I will not claim redress from -them at the Resurrection for mere blows.” He is the author of -lofty sayings on ethics. When questioned on any point relating -to practice he used to answer the question himself, but if it -was a point of mystical theory (<i>ḥaqá´iq</i>) he would refer the -questioner to Bishr Ḥáfí. One day a man asked him: “What -is sincerity (<i>ikhláṣ</i>)?” He replied: “To escape from the -cankers of one’s actions,” i.e. let thy actions be free from -ostentation and hypocrisy and self-interest. The questioner -then asked: “What is trust (<i>tawakkul</i>)?” Ahmad replied: -“Confidence in God, that He will provide thy daily bread.” -The man asked: “What is acquiescence (<i>riḍá</i>)?” He replied: -“To commit thy affairs to God.” “And what is love -(<i>maḥabbat</i>)?” Ahmad said: “Ask this question of Bishr -<span class='pageno' id='Page_118'>118</span>Ḥáfí, for I will not answer it while he is alive.” Aḥmad b. -Ḥanbal was constantly exposed to persecution: during his life -by the attacks of the Mu`tazilites, and after his death by the -suspicion of sharing the views of the Anthropomorphists. -Consequently the orthodox Moslems are ignorant of his true -state and hold him suspect. But he is clear of all that is -alleged against him.</p> - -<h3 class='c018'><span class='sc'>22. Abu ´l-Ḥasan Aḥmad b. Abi ´l-Ḥawárí.</span></h3> - -<p class='c010'>He was one of the most eminent of the Syrian Shaykhs and -is praised by all the leading Ṣúfís. Junayd said: “Aḥmad -b. Abi ´l-Ḥawárí is the sweet basil of Syria (<i>rayḥánat al-Shám</i>).” -He was the pupil of Abú Sulaymán Dárání, and associated -with Sufyán b. `Uyayna and Marwán b. Mu`áwiya the Koran-reader -(<i>al-Qárí</i>).<a id='r74' /><a href='#f74' class='c015'><sup>[74]</sup></a> He had been a wandering devotee (<i>sayyáḥ</i>). -It is related that he said: “This world is a dunghill and a -place where dogs gather; and one who lingers there is less than -a dog, for a dog takes what he wants from it and goes, but the -lover of the world never departs from it or leaves it at any -time,” At first he was a student and attained the rank of the -Imáms, but afterwards he threw all his books into the sea, and -said: “Ye were excellent guides, but it is impossible to occupy -one’s self with a guide after one has reached the goal,” because -a guide is needed only so long as the disciple is on the road: -when the shrine comes into sight the road and the gate are -worthless. The Shaykhs have said that Aḥmad did this in the -state of intoxication (<i>sukr</i>). In the mystic Path he who says -“I have arrived” has gone astray. Since arriving is non-accomplishment, -occupation is (superfluous) trouble, and freedom -from occupation is idleness, and in either case the principle of -union (<i>wuṣúl</i>) is non-existence, for both occupation and its -opposite are human qualities. Union and separation alike -depend on the eternal will and providence of God. Hence it is -<span class='pageno' id='Page_119'>119</span>impossible to attain to union with Him. The terms “nearness” -and “neighbourhood” are not applicable to God. A man is -united to God when God holds him in honour, and separated -from God when God holds him in contempt. I, `Alí b. `Uthmán -al-Jullábí, say that possibly that eminent Shaykh in using the -word “union” (<i>wuṣúl</i>) may have meant “discovery of the way -to God”, for the way to God is not found in books; and when -the road lies plain before one no explanation is necessary. -Those who have attained true knowledge have no use for -speech, and even less for books. Other Shaykhs have done -the same thing as Aḥmad b. Abi ´l-Ḥawárí, for example the -Grand Shaykh Abú Sa`íd Faḍlalláh b. Muḥammad al-Mayhaní, -and they have been imitated by a number of formalists whose -only object is to gratify their indolence and ignorance. It -would seem that those noble Shaykhs acted as they did from -the desire of severing all worldly ties and making their hearts -empty of all save God. This, however, is proper only in the -intoxication of commencement (<i>ibtidá</i>) and in the fervour of -youth. Those who have become fixed (<i>mutamakkin</i>) are not -veiled (from God) by the whole universe: how, then, by a sheet -of paper? It may be said that the destruction of a book signifies -the impossibility of expressing the real meaning (of an idea). -In that case the same impossibility should be predicated of the -tongue, because spoken words are no better than written ones. -I imagine that Aḥmad b. Abi ´l-Ḥawárí, finding no listener in -his fit of ecstasy, wrote down an explanation of his feelings on -pieces of paper, and having amassed a large quantity, did not -regard them as suitable to be divulged and accordingly cast -them into the water. It is also possible that he had collected -many books, which diverted him from his devotional practices, -and that he got rid of them for this reason.</p> - -<h3 class='c018'><span class='sc'>23. Abú Ḥámid Aḥmad b. Khaḍrúya al-Balkhí.</span></h3> - -<p class='c010'>He adopted the path of blame (<i>malámat</i>) and wore a soldier’s -dress. His wife, Fáṭima, daughter of the Amír of Balkh, was -renowned as a Ṣúfí. When she desired to repent (of her former -<span class='pageno' id='Page_120'>120</span>life), she sent a message to Aḥmad bidding him ask her in -marriage of her father. Aḥmad refused, whereupon she sent -another message in the following terms: “O Aḥmad, I thought -you would have been too manly to attack those who travel on -the way to God. Be a guide (<i>ráhbar</i>), not a brigand (<i>ráhbur</i>).” -Aḥmad asked her in marriage of her father, who gave her to -him in the hope of receiving his blessing. Fáṭima renounced -all traffic with the world and lived in seclusion with her husband. -When Aḥmad went to visit Báyazíd she accompanied him, and -on seeing Báyazíd she removed her veil and talked to him -without embarrassment. Aḥmad became jealous and said to -her: “Why dost thou take this freedom with Báyazíd?” She -replied: “Because you are my natural spouse, but he is my -religious consort; through you I come to my desire, but -through him to God. The proof is that he has no need of -my society, whereas to you it is necessary.” She continued -to treat Báyazíd with the same boldness, until one day he -observed that her hand was stained with henna and asked her -why. She answered: “O Báyazíd, so long as you did not see -my hand and the henna I was at my ease with you, but now -that your eye has fallen on me our companionship is unlawful.” -Then Aḥmad and Fáṭima came to Níshápúr and abode there. -The people and Shaykhs of Níshápúr were well pleased with -Aḥmad. When Yaḥyá b. Mu`ádh al-Rází passed through -Níshápúr on his way from Rayy to Balkh, Aḥmad wished to -give him a banquet, and consulted with Fáṭima as to what -things were required. She told him to procure so many oxen -and sheep, such and such a quantity of sweet herbs, condiments, -candles, and perfumes, and added, “We must also kill twenty -donkeys.” Aḥmad said: “What is the sense of killing donkeys?” -“Oh!” said she, “when a noble comes as guest to the house -of a noble the dogs of the quarter have something too.” -Báyazíd said of her: “Whoever wishes to see a man disguised -in women’s clothes, let him look at Fáṭima!” And -Abú Ḥafṣ Ḥaddád says: “But for Aḥmad b. Khaḍrúya -generosity would not have been displayed.” He has lofty -<span class='pageno' id='Page_121'>121</span>sayings to his credit, and faultless utterances (<i>anfás-i muhadhdhab</i>), -and is the author of famous works in every branch -of ethics and of brilliant discourses on mysticism. It is related -that he said: “The way is manifest and the truth is clear, and -the shepherd has uttered his call; after this if anyone loses -himself, it is through his own blindness,” i.e., it is wrong to seek -the way, since the way to God is like the blazing sun; do thou -seek thyself, for when thou hast found thyself thou art come to -thy journey’s end, inasmuch as God is too manifest to admit -of His being sought. He is recorded to have said: “Hide the -glory of thy poverty,” i.e., do not say to people, “I am a -dervish,” lest thy secret be discovered, for it is a great grace -bestowed on thee by God. It is related that he said: “A dervish -invited a rich man to a repast in the month of Ramaḍán, and -there was nothing in his house except a loaf of dry bread. -On returning home the rich man sent to him a purse of gold. -He sent it back, saying, ‘This serves me right for revealing my -secret to one like you.’ The genuineness of his poverty led him -to act thus.”</p> - -<h3 class='c018'><span class='sc'>24. Abú Turáb `Askar b. al-Ḥusayn al-Nakhshabí al-Nasafí.</span></h3> - -<p class='c010'>He was one of the chief Shaykhs of Khurásán, and was -celebrated for his generosity, asceticism, and devoutness. He -performed many miracles, and experienced marvellous adventures -without number in the desert and elsewhere. He was -one of the most noted travellers among the Ṣúfís, and used to -cross the deserts in complete disengagement from worldly things -(<i>ba-tajríd</i>). His death took place in the desert of Baṣra. After -many years had elapsed he was found standing erect with his -face towards the Ka`ba, shrivelled up, with a bucket in front -of him and a staff in his hand; and the wild beasts had not -touched him or come near him. It is related that he said: -“The food of the dervish is what he finds, and his clothing -is what covers him, and his dwelling-place is wherever he -alights,” i.e. he does not choose his own food or his own dress, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_122'>122</span>or make a home for himself. The whole world is afflicted by -these three items, and personal initiative therein keeps us in -a state of distraction (<i>mashghúlí</i>) while we make efforts to -procure them. This is the practical aspect of the matter, but -in a mystical sense the food of the dervish is ecstasy, and -his clothing is piety, and his dwelling-place is the Unseen, -for God hath said, “<i>If they stood firm in the right path, We -should water them with abundant rain</i>” (Kor. lxxii, 16); and -again, “<i>and fair apparel; but the garment of piety, that is -better</i>” (Kor. vii, 25); and the Apostle said, “Poverty is to -dwell in the Unseen.”</p> - -<h3 class='c018'><span class='sc'>25. Abú Zakariyyá Yaḥyá b. Mu`ádh al-Rází.</span></h3> - -<p class='c010'>He was perfectly grounded in the true theory of hope in God, -so that Ḥuṣrí says: “God had two Yaḥyás, one a prophet and -the other a saint. Yaḥyá b. Zakariyyá trod the path of fear so -that all pretenders were filled with fear and despaired of their -salvation, while Yaḥyá b. Mu`ádh trod the path of hope so that -he tied the hands of all pretenders to hope.” They said to -Ḥuṣrí: “The state of Yaḥyá b. Zakariyyá is well known, but -what was the state of Yaḥyá b. Mu`ádh?” He replied: “I have -been told that he was never in the state of ignorance (<i>jáhiliyyat</i>) -and never committed any of the greater sins (<i>kabíra</i>).” In the -practice of devotion he showed an intense perseverance which -was beyond the power of anyone else. One of his disciples said -to him: “O Shaykh, thy station is the station of hope, but thy -practice is the practice of those who fear.” Yaḥyá answered: -“Know, my son, that to abandon the service of God is to go -astray.” Fear and hope are the two pillars of faith. It is -impossible that anyone should fall into error through practising -either of them. Those who fear engage in devotion through -fear of separation (from God), and those who hope engage in it -through hope of union (with God). Without devotion neither -fear nor hope can be truly felt, but when devotion is there this -fear and hope are altogether metaphorical; and metaphors -(<i>`ibárat</i>) are useless where devotion (<i>`ibádat</i>) is required. -<span class='pageno' id='Page_123'>123</span>Yaḥyá is the author of many books, fine sayings, and original -precepts. He was the first of the Shaykhs of this sect, after -the Orthodox Caliphs, to mount the pulpit. I am very fond -of his sayings, which are delicately moulded and pleasant to the -ear and subtle in substance and profitable in devotion. It is -related that he said: “This world is an abode of troubles -(<i>ashghál</i>) and the next world is an abode of terrors (<i>ahwál</i>), -and Man never ceases to be amidst troubles or terrors until he -finds rest either in Paradise or in Hell-fire.” Happy the soul -that has escaped from troubles and is secure from terrors, and -has detached its thoughts from both worlds, and has attained -to God! Yaḥyá held the doctrine that wealth is superior to -poverty. Having contracted many debts at Rayy, he set out -for Khurásán. When he arrived at Balkh the people of that -city detained him for some time in order that he might discourse -to them, and they gave him a hundred thousand dirhems. On -his way back to Rayy he was attacked by brigands, who seized -the whole sum. He came in a destitute condition to Níshápúr, -where he died. He was always honoured and held in respect -by the people.</p> - -<h3 class='c018'><span class='sc'>26. Abú Ḥafṣ `Amr b. Sálim<a id='r75' /><a href='#f75' class='c015'><sup>[75]</sup></a> al-Níshápúrí al-Ḥaddádí.</span><a id='r76' /><a href='#f76' class='c015'><sup>[76]</sup></a></h3> - -<p class='c010'>He was an eminent Ṣúfí, who is praised by all the Shaykhs. -He associated with Abú `Abdalláh al-Abíwardí and Aḥmad -b. Khaḍrúya. Sháh Shujá` came from Kirmán to visit him. -He did not know Arabic, and when he went to Baghdád to -visit the Shaykhs there, his disciples said to one another: -“It is a great shame that the Grand Shaykh of Khurásán -should need an interpreter to make him understand what -they say.” However, when he met the Shaykhs of Baghdád, -including Junayd, in the Shúníziyya Mosque, he conversed -with them in elegant Arabic, so that they despaired of rivalling -his eloquence. They asked him: “What is generosity?” He -<span class='pageno' id='Page_124'>124</span>said: “Let one of you begin and declare what it is.” Junayd -said: “In my opinion generosity consists in not regarding your -generosity and in not referring it to yourself.” Abú Ḥafṣ -replied: “How well the Shaykh has spoken! but in my opinion -generosity consists in doing justice and in not demanding -justice.” Junayd said to his disciples: “Rise! for Abú Ḥafṣ -has surpassed Adam and all his descendants (in generosity).” -His conversion is related as follows. He was enamoured of -a girl, and on the advice of his friends sought help from -a certain Jew living in the city (<i>sháristán</i>) of Níshápúr. -The Jew told him that he must perform no prayers for forty -days, and not praise God or do any good deed or form any -good intention; he would then devise a means whereby Abú -Ḥafṣ should gain his desire. Abú Ḥafṣ complied with these -instructions, and after forty days the Jew made a talisman as -he had promised, but it proved ineffectual. He said: “You -have undoubtedly done some good deed. Think!” Abú -Ḥafṣ replied that the only good thing of any sort that he -had done was to remove a stone which he found on the road -lest some one might stumble on it. The Jew said to him: -“Do not offend that God who has not let such a small act -of yours be wasted though you have neglected His commands -for forty days.” Abú Ḥafṣ repented, and the Jew became -a Moslem.</p> - -<p class='c001'>Abú Ḥafṣ continued to ply the trade of a blacksmith until -he went to Báward and took the vows of discipleship to Abú -`Abdalláh Báwardí. One day, after his return to Níshápúr, -he was sitting in his shop listening to a blind man who was -reciting the Koran in the bazaar. He became so absorbed -in listening that he put his hand into the fire and, without -using the pincers, drew out a piece of molten iron from the -furnace. On seeing this the apprentice fainted. When Abú -Ḥafṣ came to himself he left his shop and no longer earned -his livelihood. It is related that he said: “I left work and -returned to it; then work left me and I never returned to -it again,” because when anyone leaves a thing by one’s own act -<span class='pageno' id='Page_125'>125</span>and effort, the leaving of it is no better than the taking of -it, inasmuch as all acquired acts (<i>aksáb</i>) are contaminated, -and derive their value from the spiritual influence which flows -from the Unseen without effort on our part; which influence, -wherever it descends, is united with the choice of Man and -loses its pure spirituality. Therefore Man cannot properly -take or leave anything; it is God who in His providence -gives and takes away, and Man only takes what God has -given or leaves what God has taken away. Though a disciple -should strive a thousand years to win the favour of God, it -would be worth less than if God received him into favour for -a single moment, since everlasting future happiness is involved -in the favour of past eternity, and Man has no means of -escape except by the unalloyed bounty of God. Honoured, -then, is he from whose state the Causer has removed all -secondary causes.</p> - -<h3 class='c018'><span class='sc'>27. Abú Ṣáliḥ Ḥamdún b. Aḥmad b. `Umára al-Qaṣṣár.</span></h3> - -<p class='c010'>He belonged to the ancient Shaykhs, and was one of those -who were scrupulously devout. He attained the highest rank -in jurisprudence and divinity, in which sciences he was a follower -of Thawrí.<a id='r77' /><a href='#f77' class='c015'><sup>[77]</sup></a> In Ṣúfiism he was a disciple of Abú Turáb -Nakhshabí and `Alí Naṣrábádí. When he became renowned -as a theologian, the Imáms and notables of Níshápúr urged -him to mount the pulpit and preach to the people, but he -refused, saying: “My heart is still attached to the world, and -therefore my words will make no impression on the hearts of -others. To speak unprofitable words is to despise theology -and deride the sacred law. Speech is permissible to him alone -whose silence is injurious to religion, and whose speaking -would remove the injury.” On being asked why the sayings -of the early Moslems were more beneficial than those of his -contemporaries to men’s hearts, he replied: “Because they -<span class='pageno' id='Page_126'>126</span>discoursed for the glory of Islam and the salvation of souls -and the satisfaction of the Merciful God, whereas we discourse -for the glory of ourselves and the quest of worldly gain and -the favour of mankind.” Whoever speaks in accordance with -God’s will and by Divine impulsion, his words have a force -and vigour that makes an impression on the wicked, but if -anyone speaks in accordance with his own will, his words are -weak and tame and do not benefit his hearers.</p> - -<h3 class='c018'><span class='sc'>28. Abu ´l-Sarí Manṣúr b. `Ammár.</span></h3> - -<p class='c010'>He belonged to the school of `Iráq, but was approved by -the people of Khurásán. His sermons were unequalled for -beauty of language and elegance of exposition. He was learned -in all the branches of divinity, in traditions, sciences, principles, -and practices. Some aspirants to Ṣúfiism exaggerate his -merits beyond measure. It is related that he said: “Glory -be to Him who hath made the hearts of gnostics vessels of -praise (<i>dhikr</i>), and the hearts of ascetics vessels of trust -(<i>tawakkul</i>), and the hearts of those who trust (<i>mutawakkilín</i>) -vessels of acquiescence (<i>riḍá</i>), and the hearts of dervishes -(<i>fuqará</i>) vessels of contentment, and the hearts of worldlings -vessels of covetousness!” It is worth while to consider that -whereas God has placed in every member of the body and -in every sense a homogeneous quality, e.g., in the hands that -of seizing, in the feet that of walking, in the eye seeing, in -the ear hearing, He has placed in each individual heart -a diverse quality and a different desire, so that one is the seat -of knowledge, another of error, another of contentment, another -of covetousness, and so on: hence the marvels of Divine -action are in nothing manifested more clearly than in human -hearts. And it is related that he said: “All mankind may -be reduced to two types—the man who knows himself, and -whose business is self-mortification and discipline, and the -man who knows his Lord, and whose business is to serve and -worship and please Him.” Accordingly, the worship of the -former is discipline (<i>riyáḍat</i>), while the worship of the latter -<span class='pageno' id='Page_127'>127</span>is sovereignty (<i>riyásat</i>): the former practises devotion in order -that he may attain a high degree, but the latter practises -devotion having already attained all. What a vast difference -between the two! One subsists in self-mortification (<i>mujáhadat</i>), -the other in contemplation (<i>musháhadat</i>). And it is -related that he said: “There are two classes of men: those -who have need of God—and they hold the highest rank -from the standpoint of the sacred law—and those who pay -no regard to their need of God, because they know that God -has provided for their creation and livelihood and death and -life and happiness and misery: they need God alone, and -having him are independent of all else.” The former, through -seeing their own need, are veiled from seeing the Divine -providence, whereas the latter, through not seeing their own -need, are unveiled and independent. The former enjoy felicity, -but the latter enjoy the Giver of felicity.</p> - -<h3 class='c018'><span class='sc'>29. Abú `Abdalláh Aḥmad b. `Áṣim al-Inṭákí.</span></h3> - -<p class='c010'>He lived to a great age and associated with the ancient -Shaykhs, and was acquainted with those who belonged to -the third generation after the Prophet (<i>atbá` al-tábi`ín</i>). He -was a contemporary of Bishr and Sarí, and a pupil of Ḥárith -Muḥásibí. He had seen Fuḍayl and consorted with him. It -is related that he said: “The most beneficial poverty is that -which you regard as honourable, and with which you are well -pleased,” i.e., the honour of the vulgar consists in affirmation -of secondary causes, but the honour of the dervish consists -in denying secondary causes and in affirming the Causer, -and in referring everything to Him, and in being well pleased -with His decrees. Poverty is the non-existence of secondary -causes, whereas wealth is the existence of secondary causes. -Poverty detached from a secondary cause is with God, and -wealth attached to a secondary cause is with itself. Therefore -secondary causes involve the state of being veiled (from God), -while their absence involves the state of unveiledness. This -is a clear explanation of the superiority of poverty to wealth.</p> - -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_128'>128</span> - <h3 class='c018'><span class='sc'>30. Abú Muḥammad `Abdalláh b. Khubayq.</span></h3> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>He was an ascetic and scrupulously devout. He has related -trustworthy traditions, and in jurisprudence, as well as in the -practice and theory of divinity, he followed the doctrine of -Thawrí, with whose pupils he had associated. It is recorded -that he said: “Whoever desires to be living in his life, let him -not admit covetousness to dwell in his heart,” because the -covetous man is dead in the toils of his covetousness, which is -like a seal on his heart; and the sealed heart is dead. Blessed -is the heart that dies to all save God and lives through God, -inasmuch as God has made His praise (<i>dhikr</i>) the glory of -men’s hearts, and covetousness their disgrace; and to this -effect is the saying of `Abdalláh b. Khubayq: “God created -men’s hearts to be the homes of His praise, but they have -become the homes of lust; and nothing can clear them of lust -except an agitating fear or a restless desire.” Fear and desire -(<i>shawq</i>) are the two pillars of faith. When faith is settled in the -heart, praise and contentment accompany it, not covetousness -and heedlessness. Lust and covetousness are the result of -shunning the society of God. The heart that shuns the society -of God knows nothing of faith, since faith is intimate with God -and averse to associate with aught else.</p> - -<h3 class='c018'><span class='sc'>31. Abu ´l-Qásim al-Junayd b. Muḥammad b. al-Junayd al-Baghdádí.</span></h3> - -<p class='c010'>He was approved by externalists and spiritualists alike. He -was perfect in every branch of science, and spoke with authority -on theology, jurisprudence, and ethics. He was a follower of -Thawrí. His sayings are lofty and his inward state perfect, so -that all Ṣúfís unanimously acknowledge his leadership. His -mother was the sister of Sarí Saqaṭí, and Junayd was the -disciple of Sarí. One day Sarí was asked whether the rank of -a disciple is ever higher than that of his spiritual director. -He replied: “Yes; there is manifest proof of this: the rank -of Junayd is above mine.” It was the humility and insight of -Sarí that caused him to say this. As is well known, Junayd -<span class='pageno' id='Page_129'>129</span>refused to discourse to his disciples so long as Sarí was alive, -until one night he dreamed that the Apostle said to him: -“O Junayd, speak to the people, for God hath made thy words -the means of saving a multitude of mankind.” When he -awoke the thought occurred to him that his rank was superior -to that of Sarí, since the Apostle had commanded him to preach. -At daybreak Sarí sent a disciple to Junayd with the following -message: “You would not discourse to your disciples when -they urged you to do so, and you rejected the intercession of -the Shaykhs of Baghdád and my personal entreaty. Now that -the Apostle has commanded you, obey his orders.” Junayd -said: “That fancy went out of my head. I perceived that Sarí -was acquainted with my outward and inward thoughts in all -circumstances, and that his rank was higher than mine, since he -was acquainted with my secret thoughts, whereas I was ignorant -of his state. I went to him and begged his pardon, and asked -him how he knew that I had dreamed of the Apostle. He -answered: ‘I dreamed of God, who told me that He had sent -the Apostle to bid you preach.’” This anecdote contains a clear -indication that spiritual directors are in every case acquainted -with the inward experiences of their disciples.</p> - -<p class='c001'>It is related that he said: “The speech of the prophets gives -information concerning presence (<i>ḥuḍúr</i>), while the speech of -the saints (<i>ṣiddíqín</i>) alludes to contemplation (<i>musháhadat</i>).” -True information is derived from sight, and it is impossible to -give true information of anything that one has not actually -witnessed, whereas allusion (<i>ishárat</i>) involves reference to -another thing. Hence the perfection and ultimate goal of -the saints is the beginning of the state of the prophets. The -distinction between prophet (<i>nabí</i>) and saint (<i>walí</i>), and the -superiority of the former to the latter, is plain, notwithstanding -that two heretical sects declare the saints to surpass the -prophets in excellence. It is related that he said: “I was -eagerly desirous of seeing Iblís. One day, when I was standing -in the mosque, an old man came through the door and turned -his face towards me. Horror seized my heart. When he came -<span class='pageno' id='Page_130'>130</span>near I said to him, ‘Who art thou? for I cannot bear to look -on thee, or think of thee.’ He answered, ‘I am he whom you -desired to see.’ I exclaimed, ‘O accursed one! what hindered -thee from bowing down to Adam?’ He answered, ‘O Junayd, -how can you imagine that I should bow down to anyone -except God?’ I was amazed at his saying this, but a secret -voice whispered: ‘Say to him, <i>Thou liest. Hadst thou been -an obedient servant thou wouldst not have transgressed His -command.</i>’ Iblís heard the voice in my heart. He cried out -and said, ‘By God, you have burnt me!’ and vanished.” This -story shows that God preserves His saints in all circumstances -from the guile of Satan. One of Junayd’s disciples bore him -a grudge, and after leaving him returned one day with the -intention of testing him. Junayd was aware of this and said, -replying to his question: “Do you want a formal or a spiritual -answer?” The disciple said: “Both.” Junayd said: “The -formal answer is that if you had tested yourself you would -not have needed to test me. The spiritual answer is that -I depose you from your saintship.” The disciple’s face immediately -turned black. He cried, “The delight of certainty -(<i>yaqín</i>) is gone from my heart,” and earnestly begged to be -forgiven, and abandoned his foolish self-conceit. Junayd said -to him: “Did not you know that God’s saints possess mysterious -powers? You cannot endure their blows.” He cast a breath -at the disciple, who forthwith resumed his former purpose and -repented of criticizing the Shaykhs.</p> - -<h3 class='c018'>32. <span class='sc'> Abu ´l-Ḥasan Aḥmad b. Muḥammad al-Núrí.</span></h3> - -<p class='c010'>He has a peculiar doctrine in Ṣúfiism and is the model of -a number of aspirants to Ṣúfiism, who follow him and are -called Núrís. The whole body of aspirants to Ṣúfiism is -composed of twelve sects, two of which are condemned -(<i>mardúd</i>), while the remaining ten are approved (<i>maqbúl</i>). The -latter are the Muḥásibís, the Qaṣṣárís, the Ṭayfúrís, the Junaydís, -the Núrís, the Sahlís, the Ḥakímís, the Kharrázís, the Khafífís, -and the Sayyárís. All these assert the truth and belong to the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_131'>131</span>mass of orthodox Moslems. The two condemned sects are, -firstly, the Ḥulúlís,<a id='r78' /><a href='#f78' class='c015'><sup>[78]</sup></a> who derive their name from the doctrine -of incarnation (<i>ḥulúl</i>) and incorporation (<i>imtizáj</i>), and with -whom are connected the Sálimí sect of anthropomorphists;<a id='r79' /><a href='#f79' class='c015'><sup>[79]</sup></a> -and secondly, the Ḥallájís, who have abandoned the sacred law -and have adopted heresy, and with whom are connected the -Ibáḥatís<a id='r80' /><a href='#f80' class='c015'><sup>[80]</sup></a> and the Fárisís.<a id='r81' /><a href='#f81' class='c015'><sup>[81]</sup></a> I shall include in this book -a chapter on the twelve sects and shall explain their different -doctrines.</p> - -<p class='c001'>Núrí took a praiseworthy course in rejecting flattery and -indulgence and in being assiduous in self-mortification. It is -related that he said: “I came to Junayd and found him seated -in the professorial chair (<i>muṣaddar</i>). I said to him: ‘O Abu ´l-Qásim, -thou hast concealed the truth from them and they have -put thee in the place of honour; but I have told them the -truth and they have pelted me with stones,’” because flattery is -compliance with one’s desire and sincerity is opposition to it, -and men hate anyone who opposes their desires and love -anyone who complies with their desires. Núrí was the -companion of Junayd and the disciple of Sarí. He had -associated with many Shaykhs, and had met Aḥmad b. Abi ´l-Ḥawárí. -He is the author of subtle precepts and fine sayings -on various branches of the mystical science. It is related that -he said: “Union with God is separation from all else, and -separation from all else is union with Him,” i.e., anyone -whose mind is united with God is separated from all besides, -and <i>vice versâ</i>: therefore union of the mind with God is -separation from the thought of created things, and to be -rightly turned away from phenomena is to be rightly turned -towards God. I have read in the Anecdotes that once Núrí -stood in his chamber for three days and nights, never moving -<span class='pageno' id='Page_132'>132</span>from his place or ceasing to wail. Junayd went to see him and -said: “O Abu ´l-Ḥasan, if thou knowest that crying aloud to -God is of any use, tell me, in order that I too may cry aloud; -but if thou knowest that it avails naught, surrender thyself -to acquiescence in God’s will, in order that thy heart may -rejoice.” Núrí stopped wailing and said: “Thou teachest me -well, O Abu ´l-Qásim!” It is related that he said: “The -two rarest things in our time are a learned man who practises -what he knows and a gnostic who speaks from the reality of -his state,” i.e., both learning and gnosis are rare, since learning -is not learning unless it is practised, and gnosis is not gnosis -unless it has reality. Núrí referred to his own age, but these -things are rare at all times, and they are rare to-day. Anyone -who should occupy himself in seeking for learned men and -gnostics would waste his time and would not find them. Let -him be occupied with himself in order that he may see learning -everywhere, and let him turn from himself to God in order that -he may see gnosis everywhere. Let him seek learning and -gnosis in himself, and let him demand practice and reality from -himself. It is related that Núrí said: “Those who regard -things as determined by God turn to God in everything,” -because they find rest in regarding the Creator, not created -objects, whereas they would always be in tribulation if they -considered things to be the causes of actions. To do so is -polytheism, for a cause is not self-subsistent, but depends on -the Causer. When they turn to Him they escape from trouble.</p> - -<h3 class='c018'>33. <span class='sc'> Abú `Uthmán Sa`íd b. Ismá`íl al-Ḥírí.</span></h3> - -<p class='c010'>He is one of the eminent Ṣúfís of past times. At first he -associated with Yaḥyá b. Mu`ádh; then he consorted for -a while with Sháh Shujá` of Kirmán, and accompanied him -to Níshápúr on a visit to Abú Ḥafṣ, with whom he remained to -the end of his life. It is related on trustworthy authority that -he said: “In my childhood I was continually seeking the Truth, -and the externalists inspired me with a feeling of abhorrence. -I perceived that the sacred law concealed a mystery under the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_133'>133</span>superficial forms which are followed by the vulgar. When -I grew up I happened to hear a discourse by Yaḥyá b. Mu`ádh -of Rayy, and I found there the mystery that was the object -of my search. I continued to associate with Yaḥyá until, on -hearing reports of Sháh Shujá` Kirmání from a number of -persons who had been in his company, I felt a longing to -visit him. Accordingly I quitted Rayy and set out for Kirmán. -Sháh Shujá`, however, would not admit me to his society. -‘You have been nursed,’ said he, ‘in the doctrine of hope -(<i>rajá</i>), on which Yaḥyá takes his stand. No one who has -imbibed this doctrine can tread the path of purgation, because -a mechanical belief in hope produces indolence.’ I besought -him earnestly, and lamented and stayed at his door for twenty -days. At length he admitted me, and I remained in his society -until he took me with him to visit Abú Ḥafṣ at Níshápúr. On -this occasion Sháh Shujá` was wearing a coat (<i>qabá</i>). When -Abú Ḥafṣ saw him he rose from his seat and advanced to meet -him, saying, ‘I have found in the coat what I sought in the -cloak (<i>`abá</i>).’ During our residence in Níshápúr I conceived -a strong desire to associate with Abú Ḥafṣ, but was restrained -from devoting myself to attendance on him by my respect for -Sháh Shujá`. Meanwhile I was imploring God to make it -possible for me to enjoy the society of Abú Ḥafṣ without -hurting the feelings of Sháh Shujá`, who was a jealous man; -and Abú Ḥafṣ was aware of my wishes. On the day of our -departure I dressed myself for the journey, although I was -leaving my heart with Abú Ḥafṣ. Abú Ḥafṣ said familiarly -to Sháh Shujá`, ‘I am pleased with this youth; let him stay -here.’ Sháh Shujá` turned to me and said, ‘Do as the Shaykh -bids thee.’ So I remained with Abú Ḥafṣ and experienced -many wonderful things in his company.” God caused Abú -`Uthmán to pass through three “stations” by means of three -spiritual directors, and these “stations”, which he indicated as -belonging to them, he also made his own: the “station” of -hope through associating with Yaḥyá, the “station” of jealousy -through associating with Sháh Shujá`, and the “station” of -<span class='pageno' id='Page_134'>134</span>affection (<i>shafaqat</i>) through associating with Abú Ḥafṣ. It is -allowable for a disciple to associate with five or six or more -directors and to have a different “station” revealed to him by -each one of them, but it is better that he should not confuse his -own “station” with theirs. He should point to their perfection -in that “station” and say: “I gained this by associating with -them, but they were superior to it.” This is more in accordance -with good manners, for spiritual adepts have nothing to do with -“stations” and “states”.</p> - -<p class='c001'>To Abú `Uthmán was due the divulgation of Ṣúfiism in -Níshápúr and Khurásán. He consorted with Junayd, Ruwaym, -Yúsuf b. al-Ḥusayn, and Muḥammad b. Faḍl al-Balkhí, and no -Shaykh ever derived as much spiritual advantage from his -directors as he did. The people of Níshápúr set up a pulpit -that he might discourse to them on Ṣúfiism. He is the author -of sublime treatises on various branches of this science. It is -related that he said: “It behoves one whom God hath honoured -with gnosis not to dishonour himself by disobedience to God.” -This refers to actions acquired by Man and to his continual -effort to keep the commandments of God, because, even though -you recognize that it is worthy of God not to dishonour by -disobedience anyone whom He has honoured with gnosis, yet -gnosis is God’s gift and disobedience is Man’s act. It is -impossible that one who is honoured with God’s gift should -be dishonoured by his own act. God honoured Adam with -knowledge: He did not dishonour him on account of his sin.</p> - -<h3 id='X.34' class='c018'>34. <span class='sc'> Abú `Abdalláh Aḥmad b. Yaḥyá al-Jallá.</span></h3> - -<p class='c010'>He associated with Junayd and Abu ´l-Ḥasan Núrí and other -great Shaykhs. It is recorded that he said: “The mind of the -gnostic is fixed on his Lord; he does not pay attention to -anything else,” because the gnostic knows nothing except -gnosis, and since gnosis is the whole capital of his heart, his -thoughts are entirely bent on vision (of God), for distraction -of thought produces cares, and cares keep one back from God. -He tells the following story: “One day I saw a beautiful -<span class='pageno' id='Page_135'>135</span>Christian boy. I was amazed at his loveliness and stood still -opposite him. Junayd passed by me. I said to him, ‘O master, -will God burn a face like this in Hell-fire?’ He answered: -‘O my son, this is a trick of the flesh, not a look by which one -takes warning. If you look with due consideration, the same -marvel is existent in every atom of the universe. You will soon -be punished for this want of respect.’ When Junayd turned -away from me I immediately forgot the Koran, and it did not -come back to my memory until I had for years implored God -to help me and had repented of my sin. Now I dare not pay -heed to any created object or waste my time by looking at -things.”</p> - -<h3 class='c018'>35. <span class='sc'> Abú Muḥammad Ruwaym b. Aḥmad.</span></h3> - -<p class='c010'>He was an intimate friend of Junayd. In jurisprudence he -followed Dáwud.<a id='r82' /><a href='#f82' class='c015'><sup>[82]</sup></a> and he was deeply versed in the sciences -relating to the interpretation and reading of the Koran. He -was famed for the loftiness of his state and the exaltedness of -his station, and for his journeys in detachment from the world -(<i>tajríd</i>), and for his severe austerities. Towards the end of his -life he hid himself among the rich and gained the Caliph’s -confidence, but such was the perfection of his spiritual rank that -he was not thereby veiled from God. Hence Junayd said: -“We are devotees occupied (with the world), and Ruwaym is -a man occupied (with the world) who is devoted (to God).” -He wrote several works on Ṣúfiism, one of which, entitled -<i>Ghalaṭ al-Wájidín</i>,<a id='r83' /><a href='#f83' class='c015'><sup>[83]</sup></a> deserves particular mention. I am -exceedingly fond of it. One day he was asked, “How are -you?” He replied: “How is he whose religion is his lust -and whose thought is (fixed on) his worldly affairs, who is -neither a pious God-fearing man nor a gnostic and one of -God’s elect?” This refers to the vices of the soul that is -subject to passion and regards lust as its religion. Sensual -men consider anyone to be devout who complies with their -<span class='pageno' id='Page_136'>136</span>inclinations, even though he be a heretic, and anyone to be -irreligious who thwarts their desires, even though he be a -pietist. This is a widely spread disease at the present time. -God save us from associating with any such person! Ruwaym -doubtless gave this answer in reference to the inward state of -the questioner, which he truly diagnosed, or it may be that -God had temporarily allowed him to fall into that condition, -and that he described himself as he then was in reality.</p> - -<h3 class='c018'>36. <span class='sc'>Abú Ya`qúb Yúsuf b. al-Ḥusayn al-Rází.</span></h3> - -<p class='c010'>He was one of the ancient Shaykhs and great Imáms of his -age. He was a disciple of Dhu ´l-Nún the Egyptian, and -consorted with a large number of Shaykhs and performed -service to them all. It is related that he said: “The meanest -of mankind is the covetous dervish and he who loves his -beloved, and the noblest of them is the veracious (<i>al-ṣiddíq</i>).” -Covetousness renders the dervish ignominious in both worlds, -because he is already despicable in the eyes of worldlings, and -only becomes more despicable if he builds any hopes on -them. Wealth with honour is far more perfect than poverty -with disgrace. Covetousness causes the dervish to incur the -imputation of sheer mendacity. Again, he who loves his beloved -is the meanest of mankind, since the lover acknowledges himself -to be very despicable in comparison with his beloved and -abases himself before her, and this also is the result of desire. -So long as Zulaykhá desired Yúsuf, she became every day more -mean: when she cast desire away, God gave her beauty and -youth back to her. It is a law that when the lover advances, -the beloved retires. If the lover is satisfied with love alone, -then the beloved draws near. In truth, the lover has honour -only while he has no desire for union. Unless his love diverts -him from all thought of union or separation, his love is weak.</p> - -<h3 class='c018'>37. <span class='sc'> Abu ´l-Ḥasan Sumnún b. `Abdalláh al-Khawwáṣ.</span></h3> - -<p class='c010'>He was held in great esteem by all the Shaykhs. They -called him Sumnún the Lover (<i>al-Muḥibb</i>), but he called -<span class='pageno' id='Page_137'>137</span>himself Sumnún the Liar (<i>al-Kadhdháb</i>). He suffered much -persecution at the hands of Ghulám al-Khalíl,<a id='r84' /><a href='#f84' class='c015'><sup>[84]</sup></a> who had made -himself known to the Caliph and courtiers by his pretended -piety and Ṣúfiism. This hypocrite spoke evil of the Shaykhs -and dervishes, hoping to bring about their banishment from -Court and to establish his own power. Fortunate indeed were -Sumnún and those Shaykhs to have only one adversary of -this sort. In the present day there are a hundred Ghulám -al-Khalíls for every true spiritualist, but what matter? Carrion -is fit food for vultures. When Sumnún gained eminence and -popularity in Baghdád, Ghulám al-Khalíl began to intrigue. -A woman had fallen in love with Sumnún and made proposals -to him, which he refused. She went to Junayd, begging him -to advise Sumnún to marry her. On being sent away by -Junayd, she came to Ghulám al-Khalíl and accused Sumnún -of having attempted her virtue. He listened eagerly to her -slanders, and induced the Caliph to command that Sumnún -should be put to death. When the Caliph was about to give -the word to the executioner his tongue stuck in his throat. -The same night he dreamed that his empire would last no -longer than Sumnún’s life. Next day he asked his pardon -and restored him to favour. Sumnún is the author of lofty -sayings and subtle indications concerning the real nature of -love. On his way from the Ḥijáz the people of Fayd -requested him to discourse to them about this subject. He -mounted the pulpit, but while he was speaking all his hearers -departed. Sumnún turned to the lamps and said: “I am -speaking to you.” Immediately all the lamps collapsed and -broke into small bits. It is related that he said: “A thing -can be explained only by what is more subtle than itself: -there is nothing subtler than love: by what, then, shall love -<span class='pageno' id='Page_138'>138</span>be explained?” The meaning of this is that love cannot be -explained because explanation is an attribute of the explainer. -Love is an attribute of the Beloved, therefore no explanation -of its real nature is possible.</p> - -<h3 class='c018'>38. <span class='sc'> Abu ´l-Fawáris Sháh Shujá` al-Kirmání.</span></h3> - -<p class='c010'>He was of royal descent. He associated with Abú Turáb -Nakhshabí and many other Shaykhs. Something has been -said of him in the notice of Abú `Uthmán al-Ḥírí. He composed -a celebrated treatise on Ṣúfiism as well as a book -entitled <i>Mir´át al-Ḥukamá</i>.<a id='r85' /><a href='#f85' class='c015'><sup>[85]</sup></a> It is recorded that he said: -“The eminent have eminence until they see it, and the saints -have saintship until they see it,” i.e., whoever regards his -eminence loses its reality, and whoever regards his saintship -loses its reality. His biographers relate that for forty years -he never slept; then he fell asleep and dreamed of God. -“O Lord,” he cried, “I was seeking Thee in nightly vigils, -but I have found Thee in sleep.” God answered: “O Sháh, -you have found Me by means of those nightly vigils: if you -had not sought Me there, you would not have found Me here.”</p> - -<h3 class='c018'>39. <span class='sc'>`Amr b. `Uthmán al-Makkí.</span></h3> - -<p class='c010'>He was one of the principal Ṣúfís, and is the author of -celebrated works on the mystical sciences. He became a -disciple of Junayd after he had seen Abú Sa`íd Kharráz and -had associated with Nibájí.<a id='r86' /><a href='#f86' class='c015'><sup>[86]</sup></a> He was the Imám of his age -in theology. It is related that he said: “Ecstasy does not -admit of explanation, because it is a secret between God and -the true believers.” Let men seek to explain it as they will, -their explanation is not that secret, inasmuch as all human -power and effort is divorced from the Divine mysteries. It -is said that when `Amr came to Iṣfahán a young man -associated with him against the wish of his father. The -young man fell into a sickness. One day the Shaykh with -<span class='pageno' id='Page_139'>139</span>a number of friends came to visit him. He begged the -Shaykh to bid the singer (<i>qawwál</i>) chant a few verses, whereupon -`Amr desired the singer to chant—</p> - -<div class='lg-container-b c009'> - <div class='linegroup'> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'><i>Má lí mariḍtu wa-lam ya`udní `á´id</i></div> - <div class='line'><i>Minkum wa-yamraḍu `abdukum fa-a`údu.</i></div> - </div> - </div> -</div> - -<div class='lg-container-b c009'> - <div class='linegroup'> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'>“How is it that when I fell ill none of you visited me,</div> - <div class='line'>Though I visit your slave when he falls ill?”</div> - </div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c019'>On hearing this the invalid left his bed and sat down, and -the violence of his malady was diminished. He said: “Give -me some more.” So the singer chanted—</p> - -<div class='lg-container-b c009'> - <div class='linegroup'> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'><i>Wa-ashaddu min maraḍí `alayya ṣudúdukum</i></div> - <div class='line'><i>Wa-ṣudúdu `abdikumú `alayya shadídu.</i></div> - </div> - </div> -</div> - -<div class='lg-container-b c009'> - <div class='linegroup'> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'>“Your neglect is more grievous to me than my sickness;</div> - <div class='line'>It would grieve me to neglect your slave.”</div> - </div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c019'>The young man’s sickness departed from him. His father -permitted him to associate with `Amr and repented of the -suspicion which he had harboured in his heart, and the youth -became an eminent Ṣúfí.</p> - -<h3 class='c018'>40. <span class='sc'>Abú Muḥammad Sahl b. `Abdalláh al-Tustarí.</span></h3> - -<p class='c010'>His austerities were great and his devotions excellent. He -has fine sayings on sincerity and the defects of human actions. -The formal divines say that he combined the Law and the -Truth (<i>jama`a bayn al-sharí`at wa ´l-ḥaqíqat</i>). This statement -is erroneous, for the two things have never been divided. The -Law is the Truth, and the Truth is the Law. Their assertion -is founded on the fact that the sayings of this Shaykh are more -intelligible and easy to apprehend than is sometimes the case. -Inasmuch as God has joined the Law to the Truth, it is -impossible that His saints should separate them. If they be -separated, one must inevitably be rejected and the other -accepted. Rejection of the Law is heresy, and rejection of the -Truth is infidelity and polytheism. Any (proper) separation -between them is made, not to establish a difference of meaning, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_140'>140</span>but to affirm the Truth, as when it is said: “The words <i>there -is no god save Allah</i> are Truth, and the words <i>Muḥammad is -the Apostle of Allah</i> are Law.” No one can separate the one -from the other without impairing his faith, and it is vain to -wish to do so. In short, the Law is a branch of the Truth: -knowledge of God is Truth, and obedience to His command is -Law. These formalists deny whatever does not suit their fancy, -and it is dangerous to deny one of the fundamental principles -of the Way to God. Praise be to Allah for the faith which He -has given us! And it is related that he said: “The sun does -not rise or set upon anyone on the face of the earth who is -not ignorant of God, unless he prefers God to his own soul and -spirit and to his present and future life,” i.e., if anyone cleaves -to self-interest, that is a proof that he is ignorant of God, -because knowledge of God requires abandonment of forethought -(<i>tadbír</i>), and abandonment of forethought is resignation (<i>taslím</i>), -whereas perseverance in forethought arises from ignorance of -predestination.</p> - -<h3 class='c018'>41. <span class='sc'>Abú Muḥammad `Abdalláh Muḥammad b. al-Faḍl al-Balkhí.</span></h3> - -<p class='c010'>He was approved by the people of `Iráq as well as by those -of Khurásán. He was a pupil of Aḥmad b. Khaḍrúya, and -Abú `Uthmán of Ḥíra had a great affection for him. Having -been expelled from Balkh by fanatics on account of his love -of Ṣúfiism, he went to Samarcand, where he passed his life. -It is related that he said: “He that has most knowledge of -God is he that strives hardest to fulfil His commandments, and -follows most closely the custom of His Prophet.” The nearer -one is to God the more eager one is to do His bidding, and the -farther one is from God the more averse one is to follow His -Apostle. It is related that he said: “I wonder at those who cross -deserts and wildernesses to reach His House and Sanctuary, -because the traces of His prophets are to be found there: why -do not they cross their own passions and lusts to reach their -hearts, where they will find the traces of their Lord?” That -<span class='pageno' id='Page_141'>141</span>is to say, the heart is the seat of knowledge of God and is -more venerable than the Ka`ba, to which men turn in devotion. -Men are ever looking towards the Ka`ba, but God is ever -looking towards the heart. Wherever the heart is, my Beloved -is there; wherever His decree is, my desire is there; wherever -the traces of my prophets<a id='r87' /><a href='#f87' class='c015'><sup>[87]</sup></a> are, the eyes of those whom I love -are directed there.</p> - -<h3 class='c018'>42. <span class='sc'>Abú `Abdalláh Muḥammad b. `Alí al-Tirmidhí.</span></h3> - -<p class='c010'>He is the author of many excellent books which, by their -eloquence, declare the miracles vouchsafed to him, e.g., the -<i>Khatm al-Wiláyat</i>,<a id='r88' /><a href='#f88' class='c015'><sup>[88]</sup></a> the <i>Kitáb al-Nahj</i>,<a id='r89' /><a href='#f89' class='c015'><sup>[89]</sup></a> the <i>Nawádir al-Uṣúl</i>,<a id='r90' /><a href='#f90' class='c015'><sup>[90]</sup></a> -and many more, such as the <i>Kitáb al-Tawḥíd</i><a id='r91' /><a href='#f91' class='c015'><sup>[91]</sup></a> and the <i>Kitáb -`Adháb al-Qabr</i><a id='r92' /><a href='#f92' class='c015'><sup>[92]</sup></a>: it would be tedious to mention them all. -I hold him in great veneration and am entirely devoted to -him. My Shaykh said: “Muḥammad is a union pearl that -has no like in the whole world.” He has also written works -on the formal sciences, and is a trustworthy authority for the -traditions of the Prophet which he related. He began a -commentary on the Koran, but did not live long enough to -finish it. The completed portion is widely circulated among -theologians. He studied jurisprudence with an intimate friend -of Abú Ḥanífa. The inhabitants of Tirmidh call him -Muḥammad Ḥakím, and the Ḥakímís, a Ṣúfí sect in that -region, are his followers. Many remarkable stories are told of -him, as for instance that he associated with the Apostle Khiḍr. -His disciple, Abú Bakr Warráq, relates that Khiḍr used to visit -him every Sunday, and that they conversed with each other. -It is recorded that he said: “Anyone who is ignorant of the -nature of servantship (<i>`ubúdiyyat</i>) is yet more ignorant of the -nature of lordship (<i>rubúbiyyat</i>),” i.e., whoever does not know -the way to knowledge of himself does not know the way to -<span class='pageno' id='Page_142'>142</span>knowledge of God, and whoever does not recognize the contamination -of human qualities does not recognize the purity of -the Divine attributes, inasmuch as the outward is connected -with the inward, and he who claims to possess the former -without the latter makes an absurd assertion. Knowledge of -the nature of lordship depends on having right principles of -servantship, and is not perfect without them. This is a very -profound and instructive saying. It will be fully explained in -the proper place.</p> - -<h3 class='c018'>43. <span class='sc'>Abú Bakr Muḥammad b. `Umar al-Warráq.</span></h3> - -<p class='c010'>He was a great Shaykh and ascetic. He had seen Aḥmad -b. Khaḍrúya and associated with Muḥammad b. `Alí. He -is the author of books on rules of discipline and ethics. -The Ṣúfí Shaykhs have called him “The Instructor of the -Saints” (<i>mu´addib al-awliyá</i>). He relates the following story: -“Muḥammad b. `Alí handed to me some of his writings with -the request that I should throw them into the Oxus. I had -not the heart to do so, but placed them in my house and came -to him and told him that I had carried out his order. He -asked me what I had seen. I replied, ‘Nothing.‘ He said, -‘You have not obeyed me; return and throw them into the -river.’ I returned, doubting the promised sign, and cast them -into the river. The waters parted and a chest appeared, with -its lid open. As soon as the papers fell into it, the lid closed -and the waters joined again and the chest vanished. I went -back to him and told him what had occurred. He answered, -‘Now you have thrown them in.’ I begged him to explain the -mystery. He said: ‘I composed a work on theology and -mysticism which could hardly be comprehended by the intellect. -My brother Khiḍr desired it of me, and God bade the waters -bring it to him.’”</p> - -<p class='c001'>It is related that Abú Bakr Warráq said: “There are three -classes of men—divines (<i>`ulamá</i>) and princes (<i>umará</i>) and -dervishes (<i>fuqará</i>). When the divines are corrupt, piety and -religion are vitiated; when the princes are corrupt, men’s -<span class='pageno' id='Page_143'>143</span>livelihood is spoiled; and when the dervishes are corrupt, men’s -morals are depraved.” Accordingly, the corruption of the divines -consists in covetousness, that of the princes in injustice, and that -of the dervishes in hypocrisy. Princes do not become corrupt -until they turn their backs on divines, and divines do not become -corrupt until they associate with princes, and dervishes do not -become corrupt until they seek ostentation, because the injustice -of princes is due to want of knowledge, and the covetousness of -divines is due to want of piety, and the hypocrisy of dervishes -is due to want of trust in God.</p> - -<h3 id='XI.44' class='c018'>44. <span class='sc'>Abú Sa`id Aḥmad b. `Ísá al-Kharráz.</span></h3> - -<p class='c010'>He was the first who explained the doctrine of annihilation -(<i>faná</i>) and subsistence (<i>baqá</i>). He is the author of brilliant -compositions and sublime sayings and allegories. He had met -Dhu ´l-Nún of Egypt, and associated with Bishr and Sarí. It -is related that concerning the words of the Apostle, “Hearts -are naturally disposed to love him who acts kindly towards -them,” he said: “Oh! I wonder at him who sees none acting -kindly towards him except God, how he does not incline to -God with his whole being,” inasmuch as true beneficence -belongs to the Lord of phenomenal objects and is conferred -only upon those who have need of it; how can he who needs -beneficence from others bestow it upon anyone? God is the -King and Lord of all and hath need of none. Recognizing this, -the friends of God behold in every gift and benefit the Giver -and Benefactor. Their hearts are wholly taken captive by love -of Him and turned away from everything else.</p> - -<h3 class='c018'>45. <span class='sc'>Abu ´l-Ḥasan `Alí b. Muḥammad al-Iṣfahání.</span></h3> - -<p class='c010'>According to others, his name is `Alí b. Sahl. He was -a great Shaykh. Junayd and he wrote exquisite letters to one -another, and `Amr b. `Uthmán Makkí went to Iṣfahán to visit -him. He consorted with Abú Turáb and Junayd. He followed -a praiseworthy Path in Ṣúfiism and one that was peculiarly his -own. He was adorned with acquiescence in God’s will and -<span class='pageno' id='Page_144'>144</span>self-discipline, and was preserved from mischiefs and contaminations. -He spoke eloquently on the theory and practice -of mysticism, and lucidly explained its difficulties and symbolical -allusions. It is related that he said: “Presence (<i>ḥuḍúr</i>) is better -than certainty (<i>yaqín</i>), because presence is an abiding state -(<i>waṭanát</i>), whereas certainty is a transient one (<i>khaṭarát</i>),” -i.e., presence makes its abode in the heart and does not admit -forgetfulness, while certainty is a feeling that comes and goes: -hence those who are “present” (<i>ḥáḍirán</i>) are in the sanctuary, -and those who have certainty (<i>múqinán</i>) are only at the gate. -The subject of “absence” and “presence” will be discussed in -a separate chapter of this book.</p> - -<p class='c001'>And he said also: “From the time of Adam to the Resurrection -people cry, ‘The heart, the heart!’ and I wish that -I might find some one to describe what the heart is or how it -is, but I find none. People in general give the name of ‘heart’ -(<i>dil</i>) to that piece of flesh which belongs to madmen and -ecstatics and children, who really are without heart (<i>bédil</i>). -What, then, is this heart, of which I hear only the name?” -That is to say, if I call intellect the heart, it is not the heart; -and if I call spirit the heart, it is not the heart; and if I call -knowledge the heart, it is not the heart. All the evidences of -the Truth subsist in the heart, yet only the name of it is to be -found.</p> - -<h3 class='c018'>46. <span class='sc'>Abu ´l-Ḥasan Muḥammad b. Ismá`íl Khayr al-Nassáj.</span></h3> - -<p class='c010'>He was a great Shaykh, and in his time discoursed with -eloquence on ethics and preached excellent sermons. He died -at an advanced age. Both Shiblí and Ibráhím Khawwáṣ were -converted in his place of meeting. He sent Shiblí to Junayd, -wishing to observe the respect due to the latter. He was a pupil -of Sarí, and was contemporary with Junayd and Abu ´l-Ḥasan -Núrí. Junayd held him in high regard, and Abú Ḥamza of -Baghdád treated him with the utmost consideration. It is -related that he was called Khayr al-Nassáj from the following -<span class='pageno' id='Page_145'>145</span>circumstance. He left Sámarrá, his native town, with the -intention of performing the pilgrimage. At the gate of Kúfa, -which lay on his route, he was seized by a weaver of silk, who -cried out: “You are my slave, and your name is Khayr.” -Deeming this to come from God, he did not contradict the -weaver, and remained many years in his employment. Whenever -his master said “Khayr!” he answered, “At thy service” -(<i>labbayk</i>), until the man repented of what he had done and said -to Khayr: “I made a mistake; you are not my slave.” So he -departed and went to Mecca, where he attained to such a degree -that Junayd said: “Khayr is the best of us” (<i>Khayr khayruná</i>). -He used to prefer to be called Khayr, saying: “It is not right -that I should alter a name which has been bestowed on me by -a Moslem.” They relate that when the hour of his death -approached, it was time for the evening prayer. He opened his -eyes and looked at the Angel of Death and said: “Stop! God -save thee! Thou art only a servant who has received His -orders, and I am the same. That which thou art commanded -to do (viz. to take my life) will not escape thee, but that which -I am commanded to do (viz. to perform the evening prayer) -will escape me: therefore let me do as I am bidden, and then -do as thou art bidden.” He then called for water and cleansed -himself, and performed the evening prayer and gave up his -life. On the same night he was seen in a dream and was -asked: “What has God done to thee?” He answered: “Do -not ask me of this, but I have gained release from your world.”</p> - -<p class='c001'>It is related that he said in his place of meeting: “God hath -expanded the breasts of the pious with the light of certainty, -and hath opened the eyes of the possessors of certainty with -the light of the verities of faith.” Certainty is indispensable to -the pious, whose hearts are expanded with the light of certainty, -and those who have certainty cannot do without the verities of -faith, inasmuch as their intellectual vision consists in the light -of faith. Accordingly, where faith is certainty is there, and -where certainty is piety is there, for they go hand in hand -with each other.</p> - -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_146'>146</span> - <h3 class='c018'>47. <span class='sc'>Abú Ḥamza al-Khurásání.</span></h3> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>He is one of the ancient Shaykhs of Khurásán. He -associated with Abú Turáb, and had seen Kharráz.<a id='r93' /><a href='#f93' class='c015'><sup>[93]</sup></a> He was -firmly grounded in trust in God (<i>tawakkul</i>). It is a well-known -story that one day he fell into a pit. After three days -had passed a party of travellers approached. Abú Ḥamza said -to himself: “I will call out to them.” Then he said: “No; it -is not good that I seek aid from anyone except God, and -I shall be complaining of God if I tell them that my God -has cast me into a pit and implore them to rescue me.” When -they came up and saw an open pit in the middle of the road, -they said: “For the sake of obtaining Divine recompense -(<i>thawáb</i>) we must cover this pit lest anyone should fall into -it.” Abú Ḥamza said: “I became deeply agitated and -abandoned hope of life. After they blocked the mouth of the -pit and departed, I prayed to God and resigned myself to die, -and hoped no more of mankind. When night fell I heard -a movement at the top of the pit. I looked attentively. The -mouth of the pit was open, and I saw a huge animal like -a dragon, which let down its tail. I knew that God had sent it -and that I should be saved in this way. I took hold of its tail -and it dragged me out. A heavenly voice cried to me, ‘This -is an excellent escape of thine, O Abú Ḥamza! We have -saved thee from death by means of a death’” (i.e. a deadly -monster).</p> - -<p class='c001'>He was asked, “Who is the stranger (<i>gharíb</i>)?” He replied, -“He who shuns society,” because the dervish has no home or -society either in this world or the next, and when he is dissociated -from phenomenal existence he shuns everything, and -then he is a stranger; and this is a very lofty degree.</p> - -<h3 class='c018'>48. <span class='sc'> Abu ´l-`Abbás Aḥmad b. Masrúq.</span></h3> - -<p class='c010'>He was one of the great men of Khurásán, and the Saints of -God are unanimously agreed that he was one of the <i>Awtád</i>. He -<span class='pageno' id='Page_147'>147</span>associated with the <i>Quṭb</i>, who is the pivot of the universe. On -being asked to say who the <i>Quṭb</i> was, he did not declare his -name but hinted that Junayd was that personage. He had -done service to the Forty who possess the rank of fixity -(<i>ṣáḥib tamkín</i>) and received instruction from them. It is related -that he said: “If anyone takes joy in aught except God, his joy -produces sorrow, and if anyone is not intimate with the service -of his Lord, his intimacy produces loneliness (<i>waḥshat</i>),” i.e., -all save Him is perishable, and whoever rejoices in what is -perishable, when that perishes becomes stricken with sorrow; -and except His service all else is vain, and when the vileness -of created objects is made manifest, his intimacy (with them) -is wholly turned to loneliness: hence, the sorrow and loneliness -of the entire universe consist in regarding that which is other -(than God).</p> - -<h3 class='c018'>49. <span class='sc'>Abú `Abdalláh Muḥammad<a id='r94' /><a href='#f94' class='c015'><sup>[94]</sup></a> b. Ismá`íl al-Maghribí.</span></h3> - -<p class='c010'>In his time he was an approved teacher and a careful guardian -of his disciples. Both Ibráhím Khawwáṣ and Ibráhím Shaybání -were pupils of his. He has lofty sayings and shining evidences, -and he was perfectly grounded in detachment from this world. -It is related that he said: “I never saw anyone more just than -the world: if you serve her she will serve you, and if you leave -her she will leave you,” i.e. as long as you seek her she will -seek you, but when you turn away from her and seek God she -will flee from you, and worldly thoughts will no more cling to -your heart.</p> - -<h3 class='c018'>50. <span class='sc'>Abú `Alí al-Ḥasan b. `Alí al-Júzajání.</span></h3> - -<p class='c010'>He wrote brilliant works on the science of ethics and the -detection of spiritual cankers. He was a pupil of Muḥammad -b. `Alí al-Tirmidhí, and a contemporary of Abú Bakr Warráq. -Ibráhím Samarqandí was a pupil of his. It is related that -he said: “All mankind are galloping on the race-courses of -<span class='pageno' id='Page_148'>148</span>heedlessness, relying upon idle fancies, while they suppose themselves -to be versed in the Truth and to be speaking from Divine -revelation.” This saying alludes to natural self-conceit and to -the pride of the soul. Men, though they are ignorant, have -a firm belief in their ignorance, especially ignorant Ṣúfí’s, who -are the vilest creatures of God, just as wise Ṣúfís are the noblest. -The latter possess the Truth and are without conceit, whereas -the former possess conceit and are without the Truth. They -graze in the fields of heedlessness and imagine that it is the field -of saintship. They rely on fancy and suppose it to be certainty. -They go about with form and think it is reality. They speak -from their own lust and think it is a Divine revelation. This -they do because conceit is not expelled from a man’s head save -by vision of the majesty or the beauty of God: for in the -manifestation of His beauty they see Him alone, and their -conceit is annihilated, while in the revelation of His majesty -they do not see themselves, and their conceit does not intrude.</p> - -<h3 class='c018'>51. <span class='sc'>Abú Muḥammad Aḥmad b. al-Ḥusayn al-Jurayrí.</span></h3> - -<p class='c010'>He was an intimate friend of Junayd, and also associated with -Sahl b. `Abdalláh. He was learned in every branch of science -and was the Imám of his day in jurisprudence, besides being -well acquainted with theology. His rank in Ṣúfiism was such -that Junayd said to him: “Teach my pupils discipline and train -them!” He succeeded Junayd and sat in his chair. It is -related that he said: “The permanence of faith and the subsistence -of religions and the health of bodies depend on three -qualities: satisfaction (<i>iktifá</i>) and piety (<i>ittiqá</i>) and abstinence -(<i>iḥtimá</i>): if one is satisfied with God, his conscience becomes -good; and if one guards himself from what God has forbidden, -his character becomes upright; and if one abstains from what -does not agree with him, his constitution is brought into good -order. The fruit of satisfaction is pure knowledge of God, and -the result of piety is excellence of moral character, and the end -of abstinence is equilibrium of constitution.” The Apostle said, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_149'>149</span>“He that prays much by night, his face is fair by day,” and he -also said that the pious shall come at the Resurrection “with -resplendent faces on thrones of light”.</p> - -<h3 class='c018'>52. <span class='sc'>Abu ´l-`Abbás Aḥmad b. Muḥammad b. Sahl al-Ámulí.</span></h3> - -<p class='c010'>He was always held in great respect by his contemporaries. -He was versed in the sciences of Koranic exegesis and criticism, -and expounded the subtleties of the Koran with an eloquence -and insight peculiar to himself. He was an eminent pupil of -Junayd, and had associated with Ibráhím Máristání. Abú -Sa`íd Kharráz regarded him with the utmost veneration, and -used to declare that no one deserved the name of Ṣúfí except -him. It is related that he said: “Acquiescence in natural -habits prevents a man from attaining to the exalted degrees -of spirituality,” because natural dispositions are the instruments -and organs of the sensual part (<i>nafs</i>), which is the centre of -“veiling” (<i>ḥijáb</i>) whereas the spiritual part (<i>ḥaqíqat</i>) is the -centre of revelation. Natural dispositions become attached to -two things: firstly, to this world and its accessories, and -secondly, to the next world and its circumstances: to the -former in virtue of homogeneousness, and to the latter -through imagination and in virtue of heterogeneousness and -non-cognition. Therefore they are attached to the notion of the -next world, not to its true idea, for if they knew it in reality, -they would break off connexion with this world, and nature -would then have lost all her power and spiritual things would -be revealed. There can be no harmony between the next -world and human nature until the latter is annihilated, because -“in the next world is that which the heart of man never -conceived”. The worth (<i>khaṭar</i>) of the next world lies in the -fact that the way to it is full of danger (<i>khaṭar</i>). A thing that -only comes into one’s thoughts (<i>khawáṭir</i>) has little worth; -and inasmuch as the imagination is incapable of knowing the -reality of the next world, how can human nature become -familiar with the true idea (<i>`ayn</i>) thereof? It is certain that -<span class='pageno' id='Page_150'>150</span>our natural faculties can be acquainted only with the notion -(<i>pindásht</i>) of the next world.</p> - -<h3 class='c018'>53. <span class='sc'>Abu ´l-Mughíth al-Ḥusayn b. Manṣúr al-Ḥalláj.</span></h3> - -<p class='c010'>He was an enamoured and intoxicated votary of Ṣúfiism. -He had a strong ecstasy and a lofty spirit. The Ṣúfí Shaykhs -are at variance concerning him. Some reject him, while others -accept him. Among the latter class are `Amr b. `Uthmán al-Makkí, -Abú Ya`qúb Nahrajúrí, Abú Ya`qúb Aqṭa`, `Alí b. Sahl -Iṣfahání, and others. He is accepted, moreover, by Ibn `Aṭá, -Muḥammad b. Khafíf, Abu ´l-Qásim Naṣrábádí, and all the -moderns. Others, again, suspend their judgment about him, -e.g. Junayd and Shiblí and Jurayrí and Ḥuṣrí. Some accuse -him of magic and matters coming under that head, but in our -days the Grand Shaykh Abú Sa`íd b. Abi ´l-Khayr and Shaykh -Abu ´l-Qásim Gurgání and Shaykh Abu ´l-`Abbás Shaqání -looked upon him with favour, and in their eyes he was a great -man. The Master Abu ´l-Qásim Qushayrí remarks that if -al-Ḥalláj was a genuine spiritualist he is not to be banned on -the ground of popular condemnation, and if he was banned by -Ṣúfiism and rejected by the Truth he is not to be approved on -the ground of popular approval. Therefore we leave him to -the judgment of God, and honour him according to the tokens -of the Truth which we have found him to possess. But of all -these Shaykhs only a few deny the perfection of his merit and -the purity of his spiritual state and the abundance of his -ascetic practices. It would be an act of dishonesty to omit his -biography from this book. Some persons pronounce his outward -behaviour to be that of an infidel, and disbelieve in him and -charge him with trickery and magic, and suppose that Ḥusayn -b. Manṣúr Ḥalláj is that heretic of Baghdád who was the master -of Muḥammad b. Zakariyyá<a id='r95' /><a href='#f95' class='c015'><sup>[95]</sup></a> and the companion of Abú Sa`íd -the Carmathian; but this Ḥusayn whose character is in dispute -was a Persian and a native of Bayḍá, and his rejection by the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_151'>151</span>Shaykhs was due, not to any attack on religion and doctrine, -but to his conduct and behaviour. At first he was a pupil of -Sahl b. `Abdalláh, whom he left, without asking permission, in -order to attach himself to `Amr b. `Uthmán Makkí. Then he -left `Amr b. `Uthmán, again without asking permission, and -sought to associate with Junayd, but Junayd would not receive -him. This is the reason why he is banned by all the Shaykhs. -Now, one who is banned on account of his conduct is not banned -on account of his principles. Do you not see that Shiblí said: -“Al-Ḥalláj and I are of one belief, but my madness saved me, -while his intelligence destroyed him”? Had his religion been -suspected, Shiblí would not have said: “Al-Ḥalláj and I are of -one belief.” And Muḥammad b. Khafíf said: “He is a divinely -learned man” (<i>`álim-i rabbání</i>). Al-Ḥalláj is the author of -brilliant compositions and allegories and polished sayings in -theology and jurisprudence. I have seen fifty works by him -at Baghdád and in the neighbouring districts, and some in -Khúzistán and Fárs and Khurásán. All his sayings are like -the first visions of novices; some of them are stronger, some -weaker, some easier, some more unseemly than others. When -God bestows a vision on anyone, and he endeavours to -describe what he has seen with the power of ecstasy and the -help of Divine grace, his words are obscure, especially if he -expresses himself with haste and self-admiration: then they -are more repugnant to the imaginations, and incomprehensible -to the minds, of those who hear them, and then people say, -“This is a sublime utterance,” either believing it or not, but -equally ignorant of its meaning whether they believe or deny. -On the other hand, when persons of true spirituality and insight -have visions, they make no effort to describe them, and do not -occupy themselves with self-admiration on that account, and -are careless of praise and blame alike, and are undisturbed by -denial and belief.</p> - -<p class='c001'>It is absurd to charge al-Ḥalláj with being a magician. -According to the principles of Muḥammadan orthodoxy, magic -is real, just as miracles are real; but the manifestation of magic -<span class='pageno' id='Page_152'>152</span>in the state of perfection is infidelity, whereas the manifestation -of miracles in the state of perfection is knowledge of God -(<i>ma`rifat</i>), because the former is the result of God’s anger, while -the latter is the corollary of His being well pleased. I will -explain this more fully in the chapter on the affirmation of -miracles. By consent of all Sunnites who are endowed with -perspicacity, no Moslem can be a magician and no infidel can -be held in honour, for contraries never meet. Ḥusayn, as long -as he lived, wore the garb of piety, consisting in prayer and -praise of God and continual fasts and fine sayings on the subject -of Unification. If his actions were magic, all this could not -possibly have proceeded from him. Consequently, they must -have been miracles, and miracles are vouchsafed only to a true -saint. Some orthodox theologians reject him on the ground -that his sayings are pantheistic (<i>ba-ma`ni-yi imtizáj ú ittiḥád</i>), -but the offence lies solely in the expression, not in the meaning. -A person overcome with rapture has not the power of expressing -himself correctly; besides, the meaning of the expression may -be difficult to apprehend, so that people mistake the writer’s -intention, and repudiate, not his real meaning, but a notion -which they have formed for themselves. I have seen at Baghdád -and in the adjoining districts a number of heretics who pretend -to be the followers of al-Ḥalláj and make his sayings an -argument for their heresy (<i>zandaqa</i>) and call themselves Ḥallájís. -They spoke of him in the same terms of exaggeration (<i>ghuluww</i>) -as the Ráfiḍís (Shí`ites) apply to `Alí. I will refute their doctrines -in the chapter concerning the different Ṣúfí sects. In conclusion, -you must know that the sayings of al-Ḥalláj should not be taken -as a model, inasmuch as he was an ecstatic (<i>maghlúb andar ḥál-i -khud</i>), not firmly settled (<i>mutamakkin</i>), and a man needs to be -firmly settled before his sayings can be considered authoritative. -Therefore, although he is dear to my heart, yet his “path” is -not soundly established on any principle, and his state is not -fixed in any position, and his experiences are largely mingled -with error. When my own visions began I derived much -support from him, that is to say, in the way of evidences -<span class='pageno' id='Page_153'>153</span>(<i>baráhín</i>). At an earlier time I composed a book in explanation -of his sayings and demonstrated their sublimity by proofs and -arguments. Furthermore, in another work, entitled <i>Minháj</i>, -I have spoken of his life from beginning to end; and now -I have given some account of him in this place. How can -a doctrine whose principles require to be corroborated with so -much caution be followed and imitated? Truth and idle fancy -never agree. He is continually seeking to fasten upon some -erroneous theory. It is related that he said: <i>Al-alsinat mustanṭiqát -taḥta nuṭqihá mustahlikát</i>,<a id='r96' /><a href='#f96' class='c015'><sup>[96]</sup></a> i.e. “speaking tongues are the -destruction of silent hearts”. Such expressions are entirely -mischievous. Expression of the meaning of reality is futile. -If the meaning exists it is not lost by expression, and if it is -non-existent it is not created by expression. Expression only -produces an unreal notion and leads the student mortally astray -by causing him to imagine that the expression is the real -meaning.</p> - -<h3 class='c018'>54. <span class='sc'> Abú Isḥáq Ibráhím b. Aḥmad al-Khawwáṣ.</span></h3> - -<p class='c010'>He attained a high degree in the doctrine of trust in God -(<i>tawakkul</i>). He met many Shaykhs, and many signs and -miracles were vouchsafed to him. He is the author of excellent -works on the ethics of Ṣúfiism. It is related that he said: “All -knowledge is comprised in two sentences: ‘do not trouble yourself -with anything that is done for you, and do not neglect -anything that you are bound to do for yourself,’” i.e., do not -trouble yourself with destiny, for what is destined from eternity -will not be changed by your efforts, and do not neglect His -commandment, for you will be punished if you neglect it. He -was asked what wonders he had seen. “Many wonders,” he -replied, “but the most wonderful was that the Apostle Khiḍr -begged me to let him associate with me, and I refused. Not -that I desired any better companion, but I feared that I should -depend on him rather than on God, and that my trust in God -<span class='pageno' id='Page_154'>154</span>would be impaired by consorting with him, and that in -consequence of performing a work of supererogation I should -fail to perform a duty incumbent on me.” This is the degree -of perfection.</p> - -<h3 class='c018'>55. <span class='sc'> Abú Ḥamza al-Baghdádí al-Bazzáz.</span></h3> - -<p class='c010'>He was one of the principal Ṣúfí scholastic theologians -(<i>mutakallimán</i>). He was a pupil of Ḥárith Muḥásibí, and -associated with Sarí and was contemporary with Núrí and -Khayr Nassáj. He used to preach in the Ruṣáfa mosque at -Baghdád. He was versed in Koranic exegesis and criticism, -and related Apostolic Traditions on trustworthy authority. It -was he who was with Núrí when the latter was persecuted and -when God delivered the Ṣúfís from death. I will tell this story -in the place where Núrí’s doctrine is explained. It is recorded -that Abú Ḥamza said: “If thy ‘self’ (<i>nafs</i>) is safe from thee, -thou hast done all that is due to it; and if mankind are safe -from thee, thou hast paid all that is due to them,” i.e., there are -two obligations, one which thou owest to thy “self” and one -which thou owest to others. If thou refrain thy “self” from -sin and seek for it the path of future salvation, thou hast -fulfilled thy obligation towards it; and if thou make others -secure from thy wickedness and do not wish to injure them, -thou hast fulfilled thy obligation towards them. Endeavour -that no evil may befall thy “self” or others from thee: then -occupy thyself with fulfilling thy obligation to God.</p> - -<h3 class='c018'>56. <span class='sc'>Abú Bakr Muḥammad b. Músá al-Wásiṭí.</span></h3> - -<p class='c010'>He was a profound theosophist, praiseworthy in the eyes of -all the Shaykhs. He was one of the early disciples of Junayd. -His abstruse manner of expression caused his sayings to be -regarded with suspicion by formalists (<i>ẕáḥiriyán</i>). He found -peace in no city until he came to Merv. The inhabitants of -Merv welcomed him on account of his amiable disposition—for -he was a virtuous man—and listened to his sayings; and he -passed his life there. It is related that he said: “Those who -remember their praise of God (<i>dhikr</i>) are more heedless than -<span class='pageno' id='Page_155'>155</span>those who forget their praise,” because if anyone forgets the -praise, it is no matter; but it does matter if he remembers -the praise and forgets God. Praise is not the same thing as the -object of praise. Neglect of the object of praise combined with -thought of the praise approximates to heedlessness more closely -than neglect of the praise without thought. He who forgets, in -his forgetfulness and absence, does not think that he is present -(with God), but he who remembers, in his remembrance and -absence from the object of praise, thinks that he is present (with -God). Accordingly, to think that one is present when one is -not present comes nearer to heedlessness than to be absent -without thinking that one is present, for conceit (<i>pindásht</i>) is -the ruin of those who seek the Truth. The more conceit, -the less reality, and <i>vice versâ</i>. Conceit really springs from the -suspiciousness (<i>tuhmat</i>) of the intellect, which is produced by the -insatiable desire (<i>nahmat</i>) of the lower soul; and holy aspiration -(<i>himmat</i>) has nothing in common with either of these qualities. -The fundamental principle of remembrance of God (<i>dhikr</i>) is -either in absence (<i>ghaybat</i>) or in presence (<i>ḥuḍúr</i>). When -anyone is absent from himself and present with God, that state -is not presence, but contemplation (<i>musháhadat</i>); and when -anyone is absent from God and present with himself, that state -is not remembrance of God (<i>dhikr</i>), but absence; and absence is -the result of heedlessness (<i>ghaflat</i>). The truth is best known -to God.</p> - -<h3 class='c018'>57. <span class='sc'>Abú Bakr b. Dulaf b. Jaḥdar al-Shiblí.</span></h3> - -<p class='c010'>He was a great and celebrated Shaykh. He had a blameless -spiritual life and enjoyed perfect communion with God. He -was subtle in the use of symbolism, wherefore one of the moderns -says: “The wonders of the world are three: the symbolical -utterances (<i>ishárát</i>) of Shiblí, and the mystical sayings (<i>nukat</i>) -of Murta`ish, and the anecdotes (<i>ḥikáyát</i>) of Ja`far.“<a id='r97' /><a href='#f97' class='c015'><sup>[97]</sup></a> At first -he was chief chamberlain to the Caliph, but he was converted -in the assembly-room (<i>majlis</i>) of Khayr al-Nassáj and became -<span class='pageno' id='Page_156'>156</span>a disciple of Junayd. He made the acquaintance of a large -number of Shaykhs. It is related that he explained the verse -”<i>Tell the believers to refrain their eyes</i>” (Kor. xxiv, 30) as follows: -“O Muḥammad, tell the believers to refrain their bodily eyes -from what is unlawful, and to refrain their spiritual eyes from -everything except God,” i.e. not to look at lust and to have no -thought except the vision of God. It is a mark of heedlessness -to follow one’s lusts and to regard unlawful things, and the -greatest calamity that befalls the heedless is that they are -ignorant of their own faults; for anyone who is ignorant here -shall also be ignorant hereafter: “<i>Those who are blind in this -world shall be blind in the next world</i>” (Kor. xvii, 74). In truth, -until God clears the desire of lust out of a man’s heart the -bodily eye is not safe from its hidden dangers, and until God -establishes the desire of Himself in a man’s heart the spiritual -eye is not safe from looking at other than Him.</p> - -<p class='c001'>It is related that one day when Shiblí came into the bazaar, -the people said, “This is a madman.” He replied: “You think -I am mad, and I think you are sensible: may God increase my -madness and your sense!” i.e., inasmuch as my madness is the -result of intense love of God, while your sense is the result of -great heedlessness, may God increase my madness in order that -I may become nearer and nearer to Him, and may He increase -your sense in order that you may become farther and farther -from Him. This he said from jealousy (<i>ghayrat</i>) that anyone -should be so beside one’s self as not to separate love of God -from madness and not to distinguish between them in this -world or the next.</p> - -<h3 class='c018'>58. <span class='sc'> Abú Muḥammad Ja`far b. Nuṣayr al-Khuldí.</span></h3> - -<p class='c010'>He is the well-known biographer of the Saints. One of the -most eminent and oldest of Junayd’s pupils, he was profoundly -versed in the various branches of Ṣúfiism and paid the utmost -respect to the Shaykhs. He has many sublime sayings. In -order to avoid spiritual conceit, he attributed to different -persons the anecdotes which he composed in illustration of -<span class='pageno' id='Page_157'>157</span>each topic. It is related that he said: “Trust in God is -equanimity whether you find anything or no,” i.e., you are -not made glad by having daily bread or sorrowful by not -having it, because it is the property of the Lord, who has -a better right than you either to preserve or to destroy: do -not interfere, but let the Lord dispose of His own. Ja`far -relates that he went to Junayd and found him suffering from -a fever. “O Master,” he cried, “tell God in order that He may -restore thee to health.” Junayd said: “Last night I was about -to tell Him, but a voice whispered in my heart, ‘Thy body -belongs to Me: I keep it well or ill, as I please. Who art -thou, that thou shouldst interfere with My property.’”</p> - -<h3 class='c018'>59. <span class='sc'>Abú `Alí Muḥammad b. al-Qásim al-Rúdbárí.</span></h3> - -<p class='c010'>He was a great Ṣúfí and of royal descent. Many signs and -virtues were vouchsafed to him. He discoursed lucidly on the -arcana of Ṣúfiism. It is related that he said: “He who desires -(<i>muríd</i>) desires for himself only what God desires for him, and -he who is desired (<i>murád</i>) does not desire anything in this -world or the next except God.” Accordingly, he who is satisfied -with the will of God must abandon his own will in order that he -may desire, whereas the lover has no will of his own that he -should have any object of desire. He who desires God desires -only what God desires, and he whom God desires desires only -God. Hence satisfaction (<i>riḍá</i>) is one of the “stations” -(<i>maqámát</i>) of the beginning, and love (<i>maḥabbat</i>) is one of the -“states” (<i>aḥwál</i>) of the end. The “stations” are connected -with the realization of servantship (<i>`ubúdiyyat</i>), while ecstasy -(<i>mashrab</i>) leads to the corroboration of Lordship (<i>rubúbiyyat</i>). -This being so, the desirer (<i>muríd</i>) subsists in himself, and the -desired (<i>murád</i>) subsists in God.</p> - -<h3 class='c018'>60. <span class='sc'>Abu ´l-`Abbás Qásim b. al-Mahdí<a id='r98' /><a href='#f98' class='c015'><sup>[98]</sup></a> al-Sayyárí.</span></h3> - -<p class='c010'>He associated with Abú Bakr Wásiṭí and derived instruction -from many Shaykhs. He was the most accomplished (<i>aẕraf</i>) -of the Ṣúfís in companionship (<i>ṣuḥbat</i>) and the most sparing -<span class='pageno' id='Page_158'>158</span>(<i>azhad</i>) of them in friendship (<i>ulfat</i>). He is the author of lofty -sayings and praiseworthy compositions. It is related that he -said: “Unification (<i>al-tawḥíd</i>) is this: that nothing should occur -to your mind except God.” He belonged to a learned and -influential family of Merv. Having inherited a large fortune -from his father, he gave the whole of it in return for two of -the Apostle’s hairs. Through the blessing of those hairs God -bestowed on him a sincere repentance. He fell into the -company of Abú Bakr Wásiṭí, and attained such a high degree -that he became the leader of a Ṣúfí sect. When he was on the -point of death, he gave directions that those hairs should be -placed in his mouth. His tomb is still to be seen at Merv, and -people come thither to seek what they desire; and their prayers -are granted.</p> - -<h3 class='c018'>61. <span class='sc'>Abú `Abdalláh Muḥammad b. Khafíf.</span></h3> - -<p class='c010'>He was the Imám of his age in diverse sciences. He was -renowned for his mortifications and for his convincing elucidation -of mystical truths. His spiritual attainments are clearly -shown by his compositions. He was acquainted with Ibn `Aṭá -and Shiblí and Ḥusayn b. Manṣúr and Jurayrí, and associated -at Mecca with Abú Ya`qúb Nahrajúrí. He made excellent -journeys in detachment from the world (<i>tajríd</i>). He was of -royal descent, but God bestowed on him repentance, so that he -turned his back on the glories of this world. He is held in high -esteem by spiritualists. It is related that he said: “Unification -consists in turning away from nature,” because the natures of -mankind are all veiled from the bounties and blind to the -beneficence of God. Hence no one can turn to God until he -has turned away from nature, and the “natural” man (<i>ṣáḥib -ṭab`</i>) is unable to apprehend the reality of Unification, which is -revealed to you only when you see the corruption of your -own nature.</p> - -<h3 class='c018'>62. <span class='sc'>Abú `Uthmán Sa`íd b. Sallám al-Maghribí.</span></h3> - -<p class='c010'>He was an eminent spiritualist of the class who have attained -“fixity” (<i>ahl-i tamkín</i>), and was profoundly versed in various -<span class='pageno' id='Page_159'>159</span>departments of knowledge. He practised austerities, and is -the author of many notable sayings and excellent proofs concerning -the observation of spiritual blemishes (<i>ru´yat-i áfát</i>). -It is related that he said: “Whenever anyone prefers association -with the rich to sitting with the poor God afflicts him with -spiritual death.” The terms “association” (<i>ṣuḥbat</i>) and “sitting -with” (<i>mujálasat</i>) are employed, because a man turns away from -the poor only when he has sat with them, not when he has -associated with them; for there is no turning away in association. -When he leaves off sitting with the poor in order to -associate with the rich, his heart becomes dead to supplication -(<i>niyáz</i>) and his body is caught in the toils of covetousness (<i>áz</i>). -Since the result of turning away from <i>mujálasat</i> is spiritual -death, how should there be any turning away from <i>ṣuḥbat</i>? -The two terms are clearly distinguished from each other in -this saying.</p> - -<h3 id='XI.63' class='c018'><span class='sc'> 63.Abu ´l-Qásim Ibráhím b. Muḥammad b. Maḥmúd al-Naṣrábádí.</span></h3> - -<p class='c010'>He was like a king in Níshápúr, save that the glory of kings -is in this world, while his was in the next world. Original -sayings and exalted signs were vouchsafed to him. Himself -a pupil of Shiblí, he was the master of the later Shaykhs of -Khurásán. He was the most learned and devout man of his -age. It is recorded that he said: “Thou art between two -relationships: one to Adam, the other to God. If thou claim -relationship to Adam, thou wilt enter the arenas of lust and the -places of corruption and error; for by this claim thou seekest to -realize thy humanity (<i>bashariyyat</i>). God hath said: ‘<i>Verily, he -was unjust and foolish</i>’ (Kor. xxxiii, 72). If, however, thou -claim relationship to God, thou wilt enter the stations of -revelation and evidence and protection (from sin) and saintship; -for by this claim thou seekest to realize thy servantship -(<i>`ubúdiyyat</i>). God hath said: ‘<i>The servants of the Merciful are -those who walk on the earth meekly</i>’ (Kor. xxv, 64).“ Relationship -to Adam ends at the Resurrection, whereas the relationship -<span class='pageno' id='Page_160'>160</span>of being a servant of God subsists always and is unalterable. -When a man refers himself to himself or to Adam, the utmost -that he can reach is to say: ”<i>Verily, I have injured myself</i>“ -(Kor. xxviii, 15); but when he refers himself to God, the son -of Adam is in the same case as those of whom God hath said: -”<i>O My servants, there is no fear for you this day</i>” (Kor. xliii, 68).</p> - -<h3 id='XI.64' class='c018'>64. <span class='sc'>Abu ´l-Ḥasan `Alí b. Ibráhím al-Ḥuṣrí.</span></h3> - -<p class='c010'>He is one of the great Imáms of the Ṣúfís and was unrivalled -in his time. He has lofty sayings and admirable explanations -in all spiritual matters. It is related that he said: “Leave me -alone in my affliction! Are not ye children of Adam, whom -God formed with His own hand and breathed a spirit into -him and caused the angels to bow down to him? Then He -commanded him to do something, and he disobeyed. If the -first of the wine-jar is dregs, what will its last be?” That is to -say: “When a man is left to himself he is all disobedience, but -when Divine favour comes to his help he is all love. Now -regard the beauty of Divine favour and compare with it the -ugliness of thy behaviour, and pass thy whole life in this.”</p> - -<p class='c010'>I have mentioned some of the ancient Ṣúfís whose example -is authoritative. If I had noticed them all and had set forth -their lives in detail and had included the anecdotes respecting -them, my purpose would not have been accomplished, and this -book would have run to great length. Now I will add some -account of the modern Ṣúfís.</p> -<hr class='c017' /> -<div class='footnote' id='f57'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r57'>57</a>. L. Aslam.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f58'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r58'>58</a>. Kor. vii, 160.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f59'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r59'>59</a>. A well-known divine, who died in 110 <span class='fss'>A.H.</span> See Ibn Khallikán, No. 576. An -extant work on the interpretation of dreams is attributed to him (Brockelmann, i, 66).</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f60'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r60'>60</a>. The text has <i>jáma-i ḥashíshí ú díbaqí</i>. Apparently the former word should be -written “<i>khashíshí</i>”. It is described in Vullers’s Persian Dictionary as “a kind of -garment”.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f61'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r61'>61</a>. Bilál b. Rabáḥ, the Prophet’s Muezzin, was buried at Damascus.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f62'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r62'>62</a>. Here the author relates two anecdotes illustrating the devotion of Muḥammad.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f63'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r63'>63</a>. He died in 211 <span class='fss'>A.H.</span> See Ibn Khallikán, No. 409.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f64'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r64'>64</a>. Died in 168 <span class='fss'>A.H.</span> See Ibn Khallikán, No. 266.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f65'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r65'>65</a>. According to a marginal gloss in I, <i>`ukkáza</i> is a tripod on which a leathern -water-bottle is suspended.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f66'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r66'>66</a>. See <i>Nafaḥát</i>, No. 347, where he is called Abu ´l-Ḥusayn Sáliba.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f67'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r67'>67</a>. Its full title is <i>Ri`áyat li-ḥuqúq <a id='corr108.1.1'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='Alláh'>Allah</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_108.1.1'><ins class='correction' title='Alláh'>Allah</ins></a></span></i>, “The observance of what is due to God.”</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f68'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r68'>68</a>. This reading is given in the <i>Ṭabaqát al-Ṣúfiyya</i> of Abú `Abd al-Raḥmán -al-Sulamí (British Museum MS., Add. 18,520, f. 13<i>a</i>).</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f69'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r69'>69</a>. The <i>takbír</i>, i.e. the words <i>Allah akbar</i>, “God is most great,” is pronounced four -times in Moslem funeral prayers.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f70'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r70'>70</a>. Muḥammad b. al-Ḥasan and Abú Yúsuf were celebrated lawyers of the Ḥanafite -school. See Brockelmann, i, 171.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f71'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r71'>71</a>. See note on p. <a href='#f23'>13</a>.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f72'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r72'>72</a>. This statement is not accurate. The notice of Ma`rúf Karkhí is the fourth in -Qushayrí’s list of biographies at the beginning of his treatise on Ṣúfiism, and stands -between the notices of Fuḍayl b. `Iyáḍ and Sarí Saqaṭí. In the <i>Ṭabaqát al-Ṣúfiyya</i>, -by Abú `Abd al-Raḥmán al-Sulamí, the notice of Ma`rúf comes tenth in order, but -occupies the same position as it does here in so far as it is preceded by the article on -Abú Sulaymán Dárání and is followed by the article on Ḥátim al-Aṣamm. It -appears from the next sentence that al-Hujwírí intended to place the life of Ma`rúf -between those of Dáwud Ṭá´í and Sarí Saqaṭí (Nos. 14 and 15), but neither of the -two above-mentioned authorities has adopted this arrangement.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f73'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r73'>73</a>. LIJ. have عنوان [**Arabic] علوان.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f74'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r74'>74</a>. Marwán b. Mu`áwiya al-Fazárí of Kúfa died in 193 <span class='fss'>A.H.</span> See Dhahabí’s -<i>Ṭabaqát al-Ḥuffáẕ</i>, ed. by Wüstenfeld, p. 63, No. 44. Al-Qárí is probably a mistranscription -of al-Fazárí.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f75'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r75'>75</a>. <i>Nafaḥát</i>, No. 44, has “Salama”. Qushayrí calls him `Umar b. Maslama.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f76'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r76'>76</a>. So LIJ. B. has “al-Ḥaddád”, which is the form generally used by his -biographers.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f77'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r77'>77</a>. The words <i>madhhab-i Thawrí dásht</i> may refer either to Abú Thawr Ibráhím -b. Khálid, a pupil of al-Sháfi`í, who died in 246 <i>A.H.</i>, or to Sufyán al-Thawrí. -See Ibn Khallikán, No. 143.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f78'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r78'>78</a>. B. has “the Ḥulmánís”, i.e. the followers of Abú Ḥulmán of Damascus. See -Shahristání, Haarbrücker’s translation, ii, 417.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f79'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r79'>79</a>. The Sálimís are described (ibid.) as “a number of scholastic theologians -(<i>mutakallimún</i>) belonging to Baṣra”.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f80'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r80'>80</a>. “Ibáḥatí” or “Ibáḥí” signifies “one who regards everything as permissible”.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f81'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r81'>81</a>. See the <a href='#XIV.11'>eleventh</a> section of the fourteenth chapter.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f82'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r82'>82</a>. Dáwud of Iṣfahán, the founder of the Ẓáhirite school (Brockelmann, i, 183).</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f83'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r83'>83</a>. i.e. “The Error of Ecstatic Persons”.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f84'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r84'>84</a>. Abú `Abdalláh Aḥmad b. Muḥammad b. Ghálib b. Khálid al-Baṣrí al-Báhilí, -generally known as Ghulám Khalíl, died in 275 <span class='fss'>A.H.</span> He is described by Abu ´l-Maḥásin -(<i>Nujúm</i>, ii, 79, 1 ff.) as a traditionist, ascetic, and saint. According to -the <i>Tadhkirat al-Awliyá</i> (ii, 48, 4 ff.), he represented to the Caliph that Junayd, -Núrí, Shiblí, and other eminent Ṣúfís were freethinkers and heretics, and urged him -to put them to death.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f85'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r85'>85</a>. i.e. “The Mirror of the Sages”.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f86'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r86'>86</a>. Sa`íd (Abú `Abdalláh) b. Yazíd al-Nibájí. See <i>Nafaḥát</i>, No. 86.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f87'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r87'>87</a>. So in all the texts.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f88'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r88'>88</a>. “The Seal of Saintship.”</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f89'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r89'>89</a>. “The Book of the Highway.”</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f90'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r90'>90</a>. “Choice Principles.”</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f91'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r91'>91</a>. “The Book <a id='corr141.5.1'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='missing'>of</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_141.5.1'><ins class='correction' title='missing'>of</ins></a></span> Unification.”</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f92'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r92'>92</a>. “The Book of the Torment of the Tomb.”</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f93'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r93'>93</a>. See No. <a href='#XI.44'>44</a>.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f94'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r94'>94</a>. LB. have “Aḥmad”.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f95'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r95'>95</a>. The famous physician Abú Bakr Muḥammad b. Zakariyyá al-Rází, who died -about 320 <span class='fss'>A.H.</span> See Brockelmann, i, 233.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f96'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r96'>96</a>. Literally, “The tongues desire to speak, (but) under their speech they desire -to perish.”</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f97'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r97'>97</a>. See No. #58:.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f98'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r98'>98</a>. <i>Nafaḥát</i>, No. 167, has “Qásim b. al-Qásim al-Mahdí”.</p> -</div> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_161'>161</span> - <h2 id='ch12' class='c011'>CHAPTER XII. <br /><span class='sc'>Concerning the principal Ṣúfís of recent times.</span></h2> -</div> - -<p class='c014'>You must know that in our days there are some persons who -cannot endure the burden of discipline (<i>riyáḍat</i>) and seek -authority (<i>riyásat</i>) without discipline, and think that all Ṣúfís -are like themselves; and when they hear the sayings of those -who have passed away and see their eminence and read of their -devotional practices they examine themselves, and finding that -they are far inferior to the Shaykhs of old they no longer -attempt to emulate them, but say: “We are not as they, and -there is none like them in our time.” Their assertion is absurd, -for God never leaves the earth without a proof (<i>ḥujjat</i>) or the -Moslem community without a saint, as the Apostle said: “One -sect of my people shall continue in goodness and truth until the -hour of the Resurrection.” And he said also: “There shall -always be in my people forty who have the nature of Abraham.”</p> - -<p class='c001'>Some of those whom I shall mention in this chapter are -already deceased, and some are still living.</p> - -<h3 class='c018'>1. <span class='sc'>Abu ´l-`Abbás Aḥmad b. Muḥammad al-Qaṣṣáb.</span></h3> - -<p class='c010'>He associated with the leading Shaykhs of Transoxania. He -was famed for his lofty spiritual endowments, his true sagacity, -his abundant evidences, ascetic practices, and miracles. Abú -`Abdalláh Khayyáṭí, the Imám of Ṭabaristán, says of him: “It -is one of God’s bounties that He has made a person who was -never taught able to answer our questions about any difficulty -touching the principles of religion and the subtleties of Unification.” -Although Abu ´l-Abbás Qaṣṣáb was illiterate (<i>ummí</i>), he -discoursed in sublime fashion concerning the science of Ṣúfiism -and theology. I have heard many stories of him, but my rule -in this book is brevity. One day a camel, with a heavy burden, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_162'>162</span>was going through the market-place at Ámul, which is always -muddy. The camel fell and broke its leg. While the lad in -charge of it was lamenting and lifting his hands to implore the -help of God, and the people were about to take the load off its -back, the Shaykh passed by, and asked what was the matter. -On being informed, he seized the camel’s bridle and turned his -face to the sky and said: “O Lord! make the leg of this camel -whole. If Thou wilt not do so, why hast Thou let my heart be -melted by the tears of a lad?” The camel immediately got up -and went on its way.</p> - -<p class='c001'>It is stated that he said: “All mankind, whether they will or -no, must reconcile themselves to God, or else they will suffer -pain,” because, when you are reconciled to Him in affliction, you -see only the Author of affliction, and the affliction itself does -not come; and if you are not reconciled to Him, affliction comes -and your heart is filled with anguish. God having predestined -our satisfaction and dissatisfaction, does not alter His predestination: -therefore our satisfaction with His decrees is a part -of our pleasure. Whenever anyone reconciles himself to Him, -that man’s heart is rejoiced; and whenever anyone turns away -from Him, that man is distressed by the coming of destiny.</p> - -<h3 class='c018'>2. <span class='sc'>Abú `Alí Ḥasan b. Muḥammad al-Daqqáq.</span></h3> - -<p class='c010'>He was the leading authority in his department (of science) -and had no rival among his contemporaries. He was lucid in -exposition and eloquent in speech as regards the revelation of -the way to God. He had seen many Shaykhs and associated -with them. He was a pupil of Naṣrábádi<a id='r99' /><a href='#f99' class='c015'><sup>[99]</sup></a> and used to be -a preacher (<i>tadhkír kardí</i>). It is related that he said: “Whoever -becomes intimate with anyone except God is weak in his -(spiritual) state, and whoever speaks of anyone except God is -false in his speech,” because intimacy with anyone except God -springs from not knowing God sufficiently, and intimacy with -Him is friendlessness in regard to others, and the friendless man -does not speak of others.</p> - -<p class='c001'><span class='pageno' id='Page_163'>163</span>I heard an old man relate that one day he went to the -place where al-Daqqáq held his meetings, with the intention -of asking him about the state of those who trust in God -(<i>mutawakkilán</i>). Al-Daqqáq was wearing a fine turban manufactured -in Ṭabaristán, which the old man coveted. He said -to al-Daqqáq: “What is trust in God?” The Shaykh replied: -“To refrain from coveting people’s turbans.” With these words -he flung his turban in front of the questioner.</p> - -<h3 class='c018'>3. <span class='sc'>Abu ´l-Ḥasan `Alí b. Aḥmad al-Khurqání.</span></h3> - -<p class='c010'>He was a great Shaykh and was praised by all the Saints in -his time. Shaykh Abú Sa`íd visited him, and they conversed -with each other on every topic. When he was about to take -leave he said to al-Khurqání: “I choose you to be my -successor.” I have heard from Ḥasan Mu´addib, who was the -servant of Abú Sa`íd, that when Abú Sa`íd came into the -presence of al-Khurqání, he did not speak another word, but -listened and only spoke by way of answering what was said by -the latter. Ḥasan asked him why he had been so silent. He -replied: “One interpreter is enough for one theme.” And -I heard the Master, Abu ´l-Qásim Qushayrí, say: “When I came -to Khurqán, my eloquence departed and I no longer had any -power to express myself, on account of the veneration with -which that spiritual director inspired me; and I thought that -I had been deposed from my own saintship.”</p> - -<p class='c001'>It is related that he said: “There are two ways, one wrong -and one right. The wrong way is Man’s way to God, and the -right way is God’s way to Man. Whoever says he has attained -to God has not attained; but when anyone says that he has -been made to attain to God, know that he has really attained.” -It is not a question of attaining or not attaining, and of -salvation or non-salvation, but one of being <i>caused</i> to attain or -not to attain, and of being <i>given</i> salvation or being not given -salvation.</p> - -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_164'>164</span> - <h3 class='c018'>4. <span class='sc'>Abú `Abdalláh Muḥammad b. `Alí, generally known as al-Dástání.</span></h3> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>He resided at Bisṭám. He was learned in various branches -of science, and is the author of polished discourses and fine -symbolical indications. He found an excellent successor in -Shaykh Sahlagí, who was the Imám of those parts. I have -heard from Sahlagí some of his spiritual utterances (<i>anfás</i>), -which are very sublime and admirable. He says, for example: -“Unification, coming from thee, is existent (<i>mawjúd</i>), but thou -in unification art non-existent (<i>mafqúd</i>),” i.e. unification, when -it proceeds from thee, is faultless (<i>durust</i>), but thou art faulty -in unification, because thou dost not fulfil its requirements. The -lowest degree in unification is the negation of thy personal -control over anything that thou hast, and the affirmation of -thy absolute submission to God in all thy affairs. Shaykh -Sahlagí relates as follows: “Once the locusts came to Bisṭám -in such numbers that every tree and field was black with them. -The people cried aloud for help. The Shaykh asked me: -‘What is all this pother?’ I told him that the locusts had -come and that the people were distressed in consequence. He -rose and went up to the roof and looked towards heaven. The -locusts immediately began to fly away. By the hour of the -afternoon prayer not one was left, and nobody lost even a blade -of grass.”</p> - -<h3 id='XII.5' class='c018'>5. <span class='sc'>Abú Sa`íd Faḍlalláh b. Muḥammad al-Mayhaní.</span></h3> - -<p class='c010'>He was the sultan of his age and the ornament of the -Mystic Path. All his contemporaries were subject to him, -some through their sound perception, and some through their -excellent belief, and some through the strong influence of their -spiritual feelings. He was versed in the different branches -of science. He had a wonderful religious experience and an -extraordinary power of reading men’s secret thoughts. Besides -this he had many remarkable powers and evidences, of which the -effects are manifest at the present day. In early life he left Mihna -(Mayhana) and came to Sarakhs in order to study. He attached -<span class='pageno' id='Page_165'>165</span>himself to Abú `Alí Záhir, from whom he learned in one day as -much as is contained in three lectures, and he used to spend in -devotion the three days that he had saved in this manner. The -saint of Sarakhs at that time was Abu ´l-Faḍl Ḥasan. One day, -when Abú Sa`íd was walking by the river of Sarakhs, Abu ´l-Faḍl -met him and said: “Your way is not that which you -are taking: take your own way.” The Shaykh did not attach -himself to him, but returned to his native town and engaged in -asceticism and austerities until God opened to him the door of -guidance and raised him to the highest rank. I heard the -following story from Shaykh Abú Muslim Fárisí: “I had -always,” he said, “been on unfriendly terms with the Shaykh. -Once I set out to pay him a visit. My patched frock was so -dirty that it had become like leather. When I entered his -presence, I found him sitting on a couch, dressed in a robe of -Egyptian linen. I said to myself: ‘This man claims to be -a dervish (<i>faqír</i>) with all these worldly encumbrances (<i>`alá´iq</i>), -while I claim to be a dervish with all this detachment from the -world (<i>tajríd</i>). How can I agree with this man?’ He read -my thoughts, and raising his head cried: ‘O Abú Muslim, -in what <i>díwán</i> have you found that the name of dervish is -applied to anyone whose heart subsists in the contemplation -of God?’ i.e. those who contemplate God are rich in God, -whereas dervishes (<i>fuqará</i>) are occupied with self-mortification. -I repented of my conceit and asked God to pardon me for such -an unseemly thought.”</p> - -<p class='c001'>And it is related that he said: “Ṣúfiism is the subsistence of -the heart with God without any mediation.” This alludes to -contemplation (<i>musháhadat</i>), which is violence of love, and -absorption of human attributes in realizing the vision of God, -and their annihilation by the everlastingness of God. I will -discuss the nature of contemplation in the chapter which treats -of the Pilgrimage.</p> - -<p class='c001'>On one occasion Abú Sa`íd set out from Níshápúr towards -Ṭús. While he was passing through a mountainous ravine his -feet felt cold in his boots. A dervish who was then with him -<span class='pageno' id='Page_166'>166</span>says: “I thought of tearing my waist-cloth (<i>fúṭa</i>) into two -halves and wrapping them round his feet; but I could not -bring myself to do it, as my <i>fúṭa</i> was a very fine one. When -we arrived at Ṭús I attended his meeting and asked him to -tell me the difference between suggestions of the Devil (<i>waswás</i>) -and Divine inspiration (<i>ilhám</i>). He answered: ‘It was a Divine -inspiration that urged you to tear your <i>fúṭa</i> into two pieces for -the sake of warming my feet; and it was a diabolic suggestion -that hindered you from doing so.’” He performed a whole series -of miracles of this kind which are wrought by spiritual adepts.</p> - -<h3 class='c018'>6. <span class='sc'>Abu ´l-Faḍl Muḥammad b. al-Ḥasan al-Khuttalí.</span></h3> - -<p class='c010'>He is the teacher whom I follow in Ṣúfiism. He was versed -in the science of Koranic exegesis and in traditions (<i>riwáyát</i>). -In Ṣúfiism he held the doctrine of Junayd. He was a pupil of -Ḥuṣrí<a id='r100' /><a href='#f100' class='c015'><sup>[100]</sup></a> and a companion of Sírawání, and was contemporary -with Abú `Amr Qazwíní and Abu ´l-Ḥasan b. Sáliba. He spent -sixty years in sincere retirement from the world, for the most -part on Mount Lukám. He displayed many signs and proofs -(of saintship), but he did not wear the garb or adopt the -external fashions of the Ṣúfís, and he used to treat formalists -with severity. I never saw any man who inspired me with greater -awe than he did. It is related that he said: “The world is but -a single day, in which we are fasting,” i.e., we get nothing from -it, and are not occupied with it, because we have perceived its -corruption and its “veils” and have turned our backs upon it. -Once I was pouring water on his hands in order that he might -purify himself. The thought occurred to me: “Inasmuch as -everything is predestined, why should free men make themselves -the slaves of spiritual directors in the hope of having -miracles vouchsafed to them?” The Shaykh said: “O my son, -I know what you are thinking. Be assured that there is a cause -for every decree of Providence. When God wishes to bestow -a crown and a kingdom on a guardsman’s son (<i>`awán-bacha</i>), -He gives him repentance and employs him in the service of one -<span class='pageno' id='Page_167'>167</span>of His friends, in order that this service may be the means of -his obtaining the gift of miracles.” Many such fine sayings he -uttered to me every day. He died at Bayt al-Jinn, a village -situated at the head of a mountain pass between Bániyás<a id='r101' /><a href='#f101' class='c015'><sup>[101]</sup></a> and -the river of Damascus. While he lay on his death-bed, his head -resting on my bosom (and at that time I was feeling hurt, as -men often do, by the behaviour of a friend of mine), he said to -me: “O my son, I will tell thee one article of belief which, if -thou holdest it firmly, will deliver thee from all troubles. -Whatever good or evil God creates, do not in any place or -circumstance quarrel with His action or be aggrieved in thy -heart.” He gave no further injunction, but yielded up his soul.</p> - -<h3 class='c018'>7. <span class='sc'>Abu ´l-Qásim `Abd al-Karím b. Hawázin al-Qushayrí.</span></h3> - -<p class='c010'>In his time he was a wonder. His rank is high and his -position is great, and his spiritual life and manifold virtues are -well known to the people of the present age. He is the author -of many fine sayings and exquisite works, all of them profoundly -theosophical, in every branch of science. God rendered his -feelings and his tongue secure from anthropomorphism (<i>ḥashw</i>). -I have heard that he said: “The Ṣúfí is like the disease called -<i>birsám</i>, which begins with delirium and ends in silence; for -when you have attained ‘fixity’ you are dumb.“ Ṣúfiism -(<i>ṣafwat</i>) has two sides: ecstasy (<i>wajd</i>) and visions (<i>numúd</i>). -Visions belong to novices, and the expression of such visions -is delirium (<i>hadhayán</i>). Ecstasy belongs to adepts, and the -expression of ecstasy, while the ecstasy continues, is impossible. -So long as they are only seekers they utter lofty aspirations, -which seem delirium even to those who aspire (<i>ahl-i himmat</i>), -but when they have attained they cease, and no more express -anything either by word or sign. Similarly, since Moses was -a beginner (<i>mubtadí</i>) all his desire was for vision of God; he -expressed his desire and said, ”<i>O Lord, show me that I may -behold Thee</i>” (Kor. vii, 139). This expression of an unattained -<span class='pageno' id='Page_168'>168</span>desire seemed like delirium. Our Apostle, however, was an -adept (<i>muntahí</i>) and firmly established (<i>mutamakkin</i>). When -his person arrived at the station of desire his desire was annihilated, -and he said, “I cannot praise Thee duly.”</p> - -<h3 class='c018'>8. <span class='sc'>Abu ´l-`Abbás Aḥmad b. Muḥammad al-Ashqání.</span></h3> - -<p class='c010'>He was an Imám in every branch of the fundamental and -derivative sciences, and consummate in all respects. He had -met a great number of eminent Ṣúfís. His doctrine was based -on “annihilation” (<i>faná</i>), and his recondite manner of expression -was peculiarly his own; but I have seen some fools who -imitated it and adopted his ecstatic phrases (<i>shaṭḥhá</i>). It is -not laudable to imitate even a spiritual meaning: mark, then, -how wrong it must be to imitate a mere expression! I was -very intimate with him, and he had a sincere affection for me. -He was my teacher in some sciences. During my whole life -I have never seen anyone, of any sect, who held the religious -law in greater veneration than he. He was detached from all -created things, and only an Imám of profound insight could -derive instruction from him, on account of the subtlety of his -theological expositions. He always had a natural disgust of -this world and the next, and was constantly exclaiming: -<i>Ashtahí `adam<sup>an</sup> lá wujúd lahu</i>, “I long for a non-existence -that has no existence.” And he used to say in Persian: -“Every man has an impossible desire, and I too have an -impossible desire, which I surely know will never be realized, -namely, that God should bring me to a non-existence that -will never return to existence.” He wished this because -“stations” and miracles are all centres of veiling (i.e. they -veil man from God). Man has fallen in love with that which -veils him. Non-existence in desire of vision is better than -taking delight in veils. Inasmuch as Almighty God is a -Being that is not subject to not-being, what loss would His -kingdom suffer if I become a nonentity that shall never be -endowed with existence? This is a sound principle in a real -annihilation.</p> - -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_169'>169</span> - <h3 class='c018'><span class='sc'>9. Abu ´l-Qásim b. `Alí b. `Abdalláh al-Gurgání</span> <br /> (may God prolong his life for the benefit of us and of all Moslems!).</h3> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>In his time he was unique and incomparable. His beginning -(<i>ibtidá</i>) was very excellent and strong, and his journeys were -performed with punctilious observance (of the sacred law). At -that time the hearts of all initiates (<i>ahl-i dargáh</i>) were -turned towards him, and all seekers (<i>ṭálibán</i>) had a firm belief -in him. He possessed a marvellous power of revealing the -inward experiences of novices (<i>kashf-i wáqi`a-i murídán</i>), and -he was learned in various branches of knowledge. All his -disciples are ornaments of the society in which they move. -Please God, he will have an excellent successor, whose authority -the whole body of Ṣúfís will recognize, namely, Abú `Alí al-Faḍl -b. Muḥammad al-Fármadhí (may God lengthen his -days!),<a id='r102' /><a href='#f102' class='c015'><sup>[102]</sup></a> who has not omitted to fulfil his duty towards his -master, and has turned his back on all (worldly) things, and -through the blessings of that (renunciation) has been made -by God the spiritual mouthpiece (<i>zabán-i ḥál</i>) of that venerable -Shaykh.</p> - -<p class='c001'>One day I was seated in the Shaykh’s presence and was -recounting to him my experiences and visions, in order that -he might test them, for he had unrivalled skill in this. He -was listening kindly to what I said. The vanity and enthusiasm -of youth made me eager to relate those matters, and the -thought occurred to me that perhaps the Shaykh, in his -novitiate, did not enjoy such experiences, or he would not -show so much humility towards me and be so anxious to -inquire concerning my spiritual state. The Shaykh perceived -what I was thinking. “My dear friend,” he said, “you must -know that my humility is not on account of you or your -experiences, but is shown towards Him who brings experiences -to pass. They are not peculiar to yourself, but common to all -seekers of God.” On hearing him say this I was utterly taken -<span class='pageno' id='Page_170'>170</span>aback. He saw my confusion and said: “O my son, Man -has no further relation to this Path except that, when he is -attached to it, he imagines that he has found it, and when he -is deposed from it he clothes his imagination in words. Hence -both his negation and his affirmation, both his non-existence -and existence, are imagination. Man never escapes from the -prison of imagination. It behoves him to stand like a slave -at the door and put away from himself every relation (<i>nisbat</i>) -except that of manhood and obedience.” Afterwards I had -much spiritual conversation with him, but if I were to enter -upon the task of setting forth his extraordinary powers my -purpose would be defeated.</p> - -<h3 class='c018'>10. <span class='sc'>Abú Aḥmad al-Muẕaffar b. Aḥmad b. Ḥamdán.</span></h3> - -<p class='c010'>While he was seated on the cushion of authority (<i>riyásat</i>), -God opened to him the door of this mystery (<i>Ṣúfiism</i>) and -bestowed on him the crown of miracles. He spoke eloquently -and discoursed with sublimity on annihilation and subsistence -(<i>faná ú baqá</i>). The Grand Shaykh, Abú Sa`íd, said: “I was -led to the court (of God) by the way of servantship (<i>bandagí</i>), -but Khwája Muẕaffar was conducted thither by the way of lordship -and dominion (<i>khwájagí</i>),” i.e. “I attained contemplation -(<i>musháhadat</i>) by means of self-mortification (<i>mujáhadat</i>), whereas -he came from contemplation to self-mortification”. I have heard -that he said: “That which great mystics have discovered by -traversing deserts and wildernesses I have gained in the seat of -power and pre-eminence (<i>bálish ú ṣadr</i>).” Some foolish and -conceited persons have attributed this saying of his to arrogance, -but it is never arrogant to declare one’s true state, especially -when the speaker is a spiritualist. At the present time Muẕaffar -has an excellent and honoured successor in Khwája Aḥmad. -One day, when I was in his company, a certain pretender of -Níshápúr happened to use the expression: “He becomes -annihilated and then becomes subsistent.” Khwája Muẕaffar -said: “How can subsistence (<i>baqá</i>) be predicated of annihilation -(<i>faná</i>)? Annihilation means ‘not-being’, while subsistence -<span class='pageno' id='Page_171'>171</span>refers to ‘being’: each term negates the other. We know what -annihilation is, but when it is not, if it becomes ‘being’, its -identity (<i>`ayn</i>) is lost. Essences are not capable of annihilation. -Attributes, however, can be annihilated, and so can secondary -causes. Therefore, when attributes and secondary causes are -annihilated, the Object invested with attributes and the Author -of secondary causes continues to subsist: His essence does not -admit of annihilation.” I do not recollect the precise words in -which Muẕaffar expressed his meaning, but this was the purport -of them. Now I will explain more clearly what he intended, -in order that it may be more generally understood. A man’s -will (<i>ikhtiyár</i>) is an attribute of himself, and he is veiled by his -will from the will of God. Therefore a man’s attributes veil -him from God. Necessarily, the Divine will is eternal and -the human will phenomenal, and what is eternal cannot be -annihilated. When the Divine will in regard to a man becomes -subsistent (<i>baqá yábad</i>), his will is annihilated and his personal -initiative disappears. But God knows best.</p> - -<p class='c001'>One day I came into his presence, when the weather was -extremely hot, wearing a traveller’s dress and with my hair in -disorder. He said to me: “Tell me what you wish at this -moment.” I replied that I wished to hear some music (<i>samá`</i>). -He immediately sent for a singer (<i>qawwál</i>) and a number of -musicians. Being young and enthusiastic and filled with the -ardour of a novice, I became deeply agitated as the strains of -the music fell on my ear. After a while, when my transports -subsided, he asked me how I liked it. I told him that I had -enjoyed it very much. He answered: “A time will come when -this music will be no more to you than the croaking of a raven. -The influence of music only lasts so long as there is no -contemplation, and as soon as contemplation is attained music -has no power. Take care not to accustom yourself to this, lest -it grow part of your nature and keep you back from higher -things.”</p> - -<hr class='c017' /> -<div class='footnote' id='f99'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r99'>99</a>. See Chapter XI, No. <a href='#XI.63'>63</a>.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f100'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r100'>100</a>. See Chapter XI, No. <a href='#XI.64'>64</a>.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f101'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r101'>101</a>. L. Bániyán, IJ. Mániyán.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f102'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r102'>102</a>. <i>Nafaḥát</i>, No. 428.</p> -</div> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_172'>172</span> - <h2 id='ch13' class='c011'>CHAPTER XIII. <br /><span class='sc'>A brief account of the modern Ṣúfís in different countries.</span></h2> -</div> - -<p class='c014'>I have not space enough to give biographies of them all, and -if I omit some the object of this book will not be accomplished. -Now, therefore, I will mention only the names of individual -Ṣúfís and leading spiritualists who have lived in my time or are -still alive, excluding the formalists (<i>ahl-i rusúm</i>).</p> - -<h3 class='c018'>1. <span class='sc'>Syria and `Iráq.</span></h3> - -<p class='c010'>Shaykh Zakí b. al-`Alá was an eminent Shaykh. I found -him to be like a flash of love. He was endowed with wonderful -signs and evidences.</p> - -<p class='c001'>Shaykh Abú Ja`far Muḥammad b. al-Miṣbáḥ al-Ṣaydalání -was one of the principal aspirants to Ṣúfiism. He discoursed -eloquently on theosophy and had a great fondness for Ḥusayn -b. Manṣúr (al-Ḥalláj), some of whose works I have read to him.</p> - -<p class='c001'>Shaykh Abu ´l-Qásim Suddí<a id='r103' /><a href='#f103' class='c015'><sup>[103]</sup></a> was a director who mortified -himself and led an excellent spiritual life. He cared tenderly -for dervishes and had a goodly belief in them.</p> - -<h3 class='c018'>2. <span class='sc'>Fárs.</span></h3> - -<p class='c010'>The Grand Shaykh, Abu ´l-Ḥasan b. Sáliba,<a id='r104' /><a href='#f104' class='c015'><sup>[104]</sup></a> spoke with the -utmost elegance on Ṣúfiism and with extreme lucidity on -Unification (<i>tawḥíd</i>). His sayings are well known.</p> - -<p class='c001'>The Shaykh and Director (<i>murshid</i>) Abú Isḥáq b. Shahriyár -was one of the most venerable Ṣúfís and had complete authority.</p> - -<p class='c001'>Shaykh Abu ´l-Ḥasan `Alí b. Bakrán was a great <i>mutaṣawwif</i>, -and Shaykh Abú Muslim was highly esteemed in his time.</p> - -<p class='c001'><span class='pageno' id='Page_173'>173</span>Shaykh Abu ´l-Fatḥ b. Sáliba is an excellent and hopeful -successor to his father.</p> - -<p class='c001'>Shaykh Abú Ṭálib was a man enraptured by the words of -the Truth.</p> - -<p class='c001'>I have seen all these except the Grand Shaykh, Abú Isḥáq.</p> - -<h3 class='c018'><span class='sc'> 3.Quhistán, Ádharbáyaján, Ṭabaristán, and Kish.</span><a id='r105' /><a href='#f105' class='c015'><sup>[105]</sup></a></h3> - -<p class='c010'>Shaykh Faraj,<a id='r106' /><a href='#f106' class='c015'><sup>[106]</sup></a> known as Akhí Zanjání, was a man of -excellent disposition and admirable doctrine.</p> - -<p class='c001'>Shaykh Badr al-Dín is one of the great men of this sect, and -his good deeds are many.</p> - -<p class='c001'>Pádsháh-i Tá´ib was profoundly versed in mysticism.</p> - -<p class='c001'>Shaykh Abú `Abdalláh Junaydí was a revered director.</p> - -<p class='c001'>Shaykh Abú Ṭáhir Makshúf was one of the eminent of -that time.</p> - -<p class='c001'>Khwája Ḥusayn Simnán is an enraptured and hopeful man.</p> - -<p class='c001'>Shaykh Sahlagí was one of the principal Ṣúfí paupers (<i>ṣa`álík</i>).</p> - -<p class='c001'>Aḥmad, son of Shaykh Khurqání, was an excellent successor -to his father.</p> - -<p class='c001'>Adíb Kumandí was one of the chief men of the time.</p> - -<h3 class='c018'>4. <span class='sc'>Kirmán.</span></h3> - -<p class='c010'>Khwája `Alí b. al-Ḥusayn al-Sírgání was the wandering -devotee (<i>sayyáḥ</i>) of his age and made excellent journeys. His -son, Ḥakím, is held in honour.</p> - -<p class='c001'>Shaykh Muḥammad b. Salama was among the eminent of the -time. Before him there have been hidden saints of God, and -hopeful youths and striplings are still to be found.</p> - -<h3 class='c018'>5. <span class='sc'>Khurásán</span> (where now is the shadow of God’s favour).</h3> - -<p class='c010'>The Shaykh and Mujtahid Abu ´l-`Abbás was the heart of -spiritualism (<i>sirr-i ma`ání</i>) and had a goodly life.</p> - -<p class='c001'>Khwája Abú Ja`far Muḥammad b. `Alí al-Ḥawárí is one of -the eminent theosophists of this sect.</p> - -<p class='c001'>Khwája Abú Ja`far Turshízí was highly esteemed.</p> - -<p class='c001'><span class='pageno' id='Page_174'>174</span>Khwája Maḥmúd of Níshápúr was regarded as an authority -by his contemporaries. He was eloquent in discourse.</p> - -<p class='c001'>Shaykh Muḥammad Ma`shúq had an excellent spiritual state -and was aglow with love.</p> - -<p class='c001'>Khwája Rashíd Muẕaffar, the son of Abú Sa`íd, will, it may -be hoped, become an example to all Ṣúfís and a point to which -their hearts will turn.</p> - -<p class='c001'>Khwája Shaykh Aḥmad Ḥammádí of Sarakhs was the -champion of the time. He was in my company for a while, -and I witnessed many wondrous experiences that he had.</p> - -<p class='c001'>Shaykh Aḥmad Najjár Samarqandí, who resided at Merv, -was the sultan of his age.</p> - -<p class='c001'>Shaykh Abu ´l-Ḥasan `Alí b. Abí `Alí al-Aswad was an -excellent successor to his father, and was unique in the -sublimity of his aspiration and the sagacity of his intelligence.</p> - -<p class='c001'>It would be difficult to mention all the Shaykhs of Khurásán. -I have met three hundred in that province alone who had such -mystical endowments that a single man of them would have -been enough for the whole world. This is due to the fact that -the sun of love and the fortune of the Ṣúfí Path is in the -ascendant in Khurásán.</p> - -<h3 class='c018'>6. <span class='sc'>Transoxiana.</span></h3> - -<p class='c010'>The Khwája and Imám, honoured by high and low, Abú -Ja`far Muḥammad b. al-Ḥusayn<a id='r107' /><a href='#f107' class='c015'><sup>[107]</sup></a> al-Ḥaramí, is an ecstatic -(<i>mustami`</i>) and enraptured man, who has a great affection -towards the seekers of God.</p> - -<p class='c001'>Khwája Abú Muḥammad Bángharí<a id='r108' /><a href='#f108' class='c015'><sup>[108]</sup></a> had an excellent spiritual -life, and there was no weakness in his devotional practices.</p> - -<p class='c001'>Aḥmad Íláqí was the Shaykh of his time. He renounced -forms and habits.</p> - -<p class='c001'>Khwája `Árif was unparalleled in his day.</p> - -<p class='c001'>`Alí b. Isḥáq was venerated and had an eloquent tongue.</p> - -<p class='c001'>I have seen all these Shaykhs and ascertained the “station” -of each of them. They were all profound theosophists.</p> - -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_175'>175</span> - <h3 class='c018'><span class='sc'> 7.Ghazna.</span></h3> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>Abu ´l-Faḍl b. al-Asadí was a venerable director, with -brilliant evidences and manifest miracles. He was like a flash -of the fire of love. His spiritual life was based on concealment -(<i>talbís</i>).</p> - -<p class='c001'>Ismá`íl al-Sháshí was a highly esteemed director. He followed -the path of “blame” (<i>malámat</i>).</p> - -<p class='c001'>Shaykh Sálár-i Ṭabarí was one of the Ṣúfí divines and had -an excellent state.</p> - -<p class='c001'>Shaykh Abú `Abdalláh Muḥammad b. al-Ḥakím, known as -Muríd, was a God-intoxicated man, and was not rivalled by -any contemporary in his own line. His state was hidden from -the vulgar, but his signs and evidences were conspicuous, and -his state was better in companionship (<i>ṣuḥbat</i>) than in casual -meeting (<i>dídár</i>).</p> - -<p class='c001'>Shaykh Sa`íd b. Abí Sa`íd al-`Ayyár was a recorder (<i>ḥáfiẕ</i>) of -Apostolic Traditions. He had seen many Shaykhs and was -a man of powerful spirituality and great knowledge, but he took -the way of concealment and did not exhibit his true character.</p> - -<p class='c001'>Khwája Abu ´l-`Alá `Abd al-Raḥím b. Aḥmad al-Sughdí is -honoured by all Ṣúfís, and my heart is well-disposed towards -him. His spiritual state is excellent, and he is acquainted with -various branches of science.</p> - -<p class='c001'>Shaykh Awḥad Qaswarat b. Muḥammad al-Jardízí has a -boundless affection for Ṣúfís and holds every one of them in -reverence. He has seen many Shaykhs.</p> - -<p class='c001'>In consequence of the firm convictions of the people and -divines of Ghazna, I have good hope that hereafter persons -will appear in whom we shall believe, and that those wretches -(<i>parágandagán</i>) who have found their way into this city and -have made the externals of Ṣúfiism abominable will be cleared -out, so that Ghazna will once more become the abode of saints -and venerable men.</p> - -<hr class='c017' /> -<div class='footnote' id='f103'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r103'>103</a>. IJ. Sudsí, B. Sundusí.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f104'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r104'>104</a>. See <i>Nafaḥát</i>, No. 347, where he is called Abu ´l-Ḥusayn Sáliba.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f105'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r105'>105</a>. B. Kumish.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f106'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r106'>106</a>. The texts have فرح[**Arabic] or فرخ[**Arabic], but see <i>Nafaḥát</i>, No. 171.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f107'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r107'>107</a>. IJ. Al-Ḥasan.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f108'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r108'>108</a>. This <i>nisba</i> is variously written “Bángharí” and “Báyghazí”.</p> -</div> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_176'>176</span> - <h2 id='ch14' class='c011'>CHAPTER XIV. <br /><span class='sc'>Concerning the Doctrines held by the different sects of Ṣúfís.</span></h2> -</div> - -<p class='c014'>I have already stated, in the notice of Abu ´l-Ḥasan Núrí, -that the Ṣúfís are divided into twelve sects, of which two -are reprobated and ten are approved. Every one of these -ten sects has an excellent system and doctrine as regards -both purgation (<i>mujáhadat</i>) and contemplation (<i>musháhadat</i>). -Although they differ from each other in their devotional -practices and ascetic disciplines, they agree in the fundamentals -and derivatives of the religious law and Unification. Abú -Yazíd said: “The disagreement of divines is a mercy except -as regards the detachment (<i>tajríd</i>)<a id='r109' /><a href='#f109' class='c015'><sup>[109]</sup></a> of Unification”; and -there is a famous tradition to the same effect. The real -essence of Ṣúfiism lies amidst the traditions (<i>akhbár</i>) of the -Shaykhs, and is divided only metaphorically and formally. -Therefore I will briefly divide their sayings in explanation -of Ṣúfiism and unfold the main principle on which the -doctrine of each one of them is based, in order that the -student may readily understand this matter.</p> - -<h3 class='c018'><span class='sc'> 1.The Muḥásibís.</span></h3> - -<p class='c010'>They are the followers of Abú `Abdalláh Ḥárith b. Asad -al-Muḥásibí, who by consent of all his contemporaries was -a man of approved spiritual influence and mortified passions -(<i>maqbúl al-nafas ú maqtúl al-nafs</i>), versed in theology, jurisprudence, -and mysticism. He discoursed on detachment from -the world and Unification, while his outward and inward -dealings (with God) were beyond reproach. The peculiarity -of his doctrine is this, that he does not reckon satisfaction -<span class='pageno' id='Page_177'>177</span>(<i>riḍá</i>) among the “stations” (<i>maqámát</i>), but includes it in -the “states” (<i>aḥwál</i>). He was the first to hold this view, -which was adopted by the people of Khurásán. The people of -`Iráq, on the contrary, asserted that satisfaction is one of the -“stations”, and that it is the extreme of trust in God (<i>tawakkul</i>). -The controversy between them has gone on to the present day.<a id='r110' /><a href='#f110' class='c015'><sup>[110]</sup></a></p> - -<h4 class='c020'><i>Discourse on the true nature of Satisfaction and the explanation of this doctrine.</i></h4> - -<p class='c010'>In the first place I will establish the true nature of -satisfaction and set forth its various kinds; then, secondly, -I will explain the real meaning of “station” (<i>maqám</i>) and -“state” (<i>ḥál</i>) and the difference between them.</p> - -<p class='c001'>Satisfaction is of two kinds: (<i>a</i>) the satisfaction of God -with Man, and (<i>b</i>) the satisfaction of Man with God. Divine -satisfaction really consists in God’s willing that Man should -be recompensed (for his good works) and in His bestowing -grace (<i>karámat</i>) upon him. Human satisfaction really consists -in Man’s performing the command of God and submitting to -His decree. Accordingly, the satisfaction of God precedes -that of Man, for until Man is divinely aided he does not -submit to God’s decree and does not perform His command, -because Man’s satisfaction is connected with God’s satisfaction -and subsists thereby. In short, human satisfaction is equanimity -(<i>istiwá-yi dil</i>) towards Fate, whether it withholds or bestows, -and spiritual steadfastness (<i>istiqámat</i>) in regarding events, -whether they be the manifestation of Divine Beauty (<i>jamál</i>) -or of Divine Majesty (<i>jalál</i>), so that it is all one to a man -whether he is consumed in the fire of wrath or illuminated -by the light of mercy, because both wrath and mercy are -evidences of God, and whatever proceeds from God is good -in His eyes. The Commander of the Faithful, Husayn b. `Alí, -was asked about the saying of Abú Dharr Ghifárí: “I love -poverty better than riches, and sickness better than health.” -<span class='pageno' id='Page_178'>178</span>Ḥusayn replied: “God have mercy on Abú Dharr! but I say -that whoever surveys the excellent choice made by God for -him does not desire anything except what God has chosen -for him.” When a man sees God’s choice and abandons his -own choice, he is delivered from all sorrow. This, however, -does not hold good in absence from God (<i>ghaybat</i>); it requires -presence with God (<i>ḥuḍúr</i>), because “satisfaction expels -sorrows and cures heedlessness”, and purges the heart of -thoughts relating to other than God and frees it from the -bonds of tribulation; for it is characteristic of satisfaction to -deliver (<i>rahánídan</i>).</p> - -<p class='c001'>From the standpoint of ethics, satisfaction is the acquiescence -of one who knows that giving and withholding are in God’s -knowledge, and firmly believes that God sees him in all circumstances. -There are four classes of quietists: (1) those who are -satisfied with God’s gift (<i>`aṭá</i>), which is gnosis (<i>ma`rifat</i>); -(2) those who are satisfied with happiness (<i>nu`má</i>), which is this -world; (3) those who are satisfied with affliction (<i>balá</i>), which -consists of diverse probations; and (4) those who are satisfied -with being chosen (<i>iṣṭifá</i>), which is love (<i>maḥabbat</i>). He who -looks away from the Giver to the gift accepts it with his soul, -and when he has so accepted it trouble and grief vanish from -his heart. He who looks away from the gift to the Giver loses -the gift and treads the path of satisfaction by his own effort. -Now effort is painful and grievous, and gnosis is only realized -when its true nature is divinely revealed; and inasmuch as -gnosis, when sought by effort, is a shackle and a veil, such gnosis -is non-cognition (<i>nakirat</i>). Again, he who is satisfied with this -world, without God, is involved in destruction and perdition, -because the whole world is not worth so much that a friend of -God should set his heart on it or that any care for it should -enter his mind. Happiness is happiness only when it leads to -the Giver of happiness; otherwise, it is an affliction. Again, he -who is satisfied with the affliction that God sends is satisfied -because in the affliction he sees the Author thereof and can -endure its pain by contemplating Him who sent it; nay, he -<span class='pageno' id='Page_179'>179</span>does not account it painful, such is his joy in contemplating -his Beloved. Finally, those who are satisfied with being chosen -by God are His lovers, whose existence is an illusion alike in -His anger and His satisfaction; whose hearts dwell in the -presence of Purity and in the garden of Intimacy; who have -no thought of created things and have escaped from the bonds -of “stations” and “states” and have devoted themselves to the -love of God. Their satisfaction involves no loss, for satisfaction -with God is a manifest kingdom.</p> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c004'> - <div><span class='sc'>Section.</span></div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>It is related in the Traditions that Moses said: “O God, show -me an action with which, if I did it, Thou wouldst be satisfied.” -God answered: “Thou canst not do that, O Moses!” Then -Moses fell prostrate, worshipping God and supplicating Him, -and God made a revelation to him, saying: “O son of `Imrán, -My satisfaction with thee consists in thy being satisfied with -My decree,” i.e. when a man is satisfied with God’s decrees it -is a sign that God is satisfied with him.</p> - -<p class='c001'>Bishr Ḥáfí asked Fuḍayl b. `Iyáḍ whether renunciation (<i>zuhd</i>) -or satisfaction was better. Fuḍayl replied: “Satisfaction, because -he who is satisfied does not desire any higher stage,” i.e. there -is above renunciation a stage which the renouncer desires, but -there is no stage above satisfaction that the satisfied man should -wish for it. Hence the shrine is superior to the gate. This -story shows the correctness of Muḥásibí’s doctrine, that satisfaction -belongs to the class of “states” and Divine gifts, not to -the stages that are acquired (by effort). It is possible, however, -that the satisfied man should have a desire. The Apostle used -to say in his prayers: “O God, I ask of Thee satisfaction after -the going forth of Thy ordinance (<i>al-riḍá ba`d al-qaḍá</i>),” -i.e. “keep me in such a condition that when the ordinance comes -to me from Thee, Destiny may find me satisfied with its coming”. -Here it is affirmed that satisfaction properly is posterior to the -advent of Destiny, because, if it preceded, it would only be -a resolution to be satisfied, which is not the same thing as actual -<span class='pageno' id='Page_180'>180</span>satisfaction. Abu ´l-`Abbás b. `Aṭá says: “Satisfaction is this, -that the heart should consider the eternal choice of God on -behalf of His creature,” i.e. whatever befalls him, he should -recognize it as the eternal will of God and His past decree, and -should not be distressed, but should accept it cheerfully. Ḥárith -Muḥásibí, the author of the doctrine, says: “Satisfaction is the -quiescence (<i>sukún</i>) of the heart under the events which flow -from the Divine decrees.” This is sound doctrine, because the -quiescence and tranquillity of the heart are not qualities acquired -by Man, but are Divine gifts. And as an argument for the view -that satisfaction is a “state”, not a “station”, they cite the story -of `Utba al-Ghulám, who one night did not sleep, but kept -saying: “If Thou chastise me I love Thee, and if Thou have -mercy on me I love Thee,” i.e. “the pain of Thy chastisement -and the pleasure of Thy bounty affect the body alone, whereas -the agitation of love resides in the heart, which is not injured -thereby”. This corroborates the view of Muḥásibí. Satisfaction -is the result of love, inasmuch as the lover is satisfied with what -is done by the Beloved. Abú `Uthmán Ḥírí says: “During the -last forty years God has never put me in any state that I disliked, -or transferred me to another state that I resented.” This -indicates continual satisfaction and perfect love. The story of -the dervish who fell into the Tigris is well known. Seeing that -he could not swim, a man on the bank cried out to him: “Shall -I tell some one to bring you ashore?” The dervish said, “No.” -“Then do you wish to be drowned?” “No.” “What, then, -do you wish?” The dervish replied: “That which God wishes. -What have I to do with wishing?”</p> - -<p class='c001'>The Ṣúfí Shaykhs have uttered many sayings on satisfaction, -which differ in phraseology but agree in the two principles that -have been mentioned.</p> - -<h4 class='c020'><i>The distinction between a “State”</i> (ḥál) <i>and a “Station”</i> (maqám).</h4> - -<p class='c010'>You must know that both these terms are in common use -among Ṣúfís, and it is necessary that the student should be -<span class='pageno' id='Page_181'>181</span>acquainted with them. I must discuss this matter here, although -it does not belong to the present chapter.</p> - -<p class='c001'>“Station” (<i>maqám</i>) denotes anyone’s “standing” in the Way of -God, and his fulfilment of the obligations appertaining to that -“station” and his keeping it until he comprehends its perfection -so far as lies in a man’s power. It is not permissible that he -should quit his “station” without fulfilling the obligations thereof. -Thus, the first “station” is repentance (<i>tawbat</i>), then comes -conversion (<i>inábat</i>), then renunciation (<i>zuhd</i>), then trust in God -(<i>tawakkul</i>), and so on: it is not permissible that anyone should -pretend to conversion without repentance, or to renunciation -without conversion, or to trust in God without renunciation.</p> - -<p class='c001'>“State” (<i>ḥál</i>), on the other hand, is something that descends -from God into a man’s heart, without his being able to repel -it when it comes, or to attract it when it goes, by his own effort. -Accordingly, while the term “station” denotes the way of the -seeker, and his progress in the field of exertion, and his rank -before God in proportion to his merit, the term “state” -denotes the favour and grace which God bestows upon the -heart of His servant, and which are not connected with any -mortification on the latter’s part. “Station” belongs to the -category of acts, “state” to the category of gifts. Hence the -man that has a “station” stands by his own self-mortification, -whereas the man that has a “state” is dead to “self” and stands -by a “state” which God creates in him.</p> - -<p class='c001'>Here the Shaykhs are at variance. Some hold that a “state” -may be permanent, while others reject this view. Ḥárith -Muḥásibí maintained that a “state” may be permanent. He -argued that love and longing and “contraction” (<i>qabḍ</i>) and -“expansion” (<i>basṭ</i>) are “states”: if they cannot be permanent, -then the lover would not be a lover, and until a man’s “state” -becomes his attribute (<i>ṣifat</i>) the name of that “state” is not -properly applied to him. It is for this reason that he holds -satisfaction to be one of the “states”, and the same view is -indicated by the saying of Abú `Uthmán: “During the last -forty years God has never put me in a ‘state’ that I disliked.” -<span class='pageno' id='Page_182'>182</span>Other Shaykhs deny that a “state” can be permanent. Junayd -says: “‘States’ are like flashes of lightning: their permanence -is merely a suggestion of the lower soul (<i>nafs</i>).” Some have -said, to the same effect: “‘States’ are like their name,” -i.e. they vanish almost as soon as they descend (<i>taḥillu</i>) on -the heart. Whatever is permanent becomes an attribute, and -attributes subsist in an object which must be more perfect -than the attributes themselves; and this reduces the doctrine -that “states” are permanent to an absurdity. I have set forth -the distinction between “state” and “station” in order that -you may know what is signified by these terms wherever they -occur in the phraseology of the Ṣúfís or in the present work.</p> - -<p class='c001'>In conclusion, you must know that satisfaction is the end -of the “stations” and the beginning of the “states”: it is -a place of which one side rests on acquisition and effort, and -the other side on love and rapture: there is no “station” -above it: at this point mortifications (<i>mujáhadát</i>) cease. -Hence its beginning is in the class of things acquired by -effort, its end in the class of things divinely bestowed. -Therefore it may be called either a “station” or a “state”.</p> - -<p class='c001'>This is the doctrine of Muḥásibí as regards the theory of -Ṣúfiism. In practice, however, he made no difference, except -that he used to warn his pupils against expressions and acts -which, though sound in principle, might be thought evil. For -example, he had a “king-bird” (<i>sháhmurghí</i>), which used to -utter a loud note. One day Abú Ḥamza of Baghdád, who -was Ḥárith’s pupil and an ecstatic man, came to see him. -The bird piped, and Abú Ḥamza gave a shriek. Ḥárith rose -up and seized a knife, crying, “Thou art an infidel,” and would -have killed him if the disciples had not separated them. Then -he said to Abú Ḥamza: “Become a Moslem, O miscreant!” -The disciples exclaimed: “O Shaykh, we all know him to be -one of the elect saints and Unitarians: why does the Shaykh -regard him with suspicion?” Ḥárith replied: “I do not -suspect him: his opinions are excellent, and I know that he -is a profound Unitarian, but why should he do something -<span class='pageno' id='Page_183'>183</span>which resembles the actions of those who believe in incarnation -(<i>ḥulúliyán</i>) and has the appearance of being derived from -their doctrine? If a senseless bird pipes after its fashion, -capriciously, why should he behave as though its note were -the voice of God? God is indivisible, and the Eternal does -not become incarnate, or united with phenomena or commingled -with them.” When Abú Ḥamza perceived the -Shaykh’s insight, he said: “O Shaykh, although I am right -in theory, nevertheless, since my action resembled the actions -of heretics, I repent and withdraw.”</p> - -<p class='c001'>May God keep my conduct above suspicion! But this is -impossible when one associates with worldly formalists whose -enmity is aroused by anyone who does not submit to their -hypocrisy and sin.</p> - -<h3 class='c018'>2. <span class='sc'>The Qaṣṣárís.</span></h3> - -<p class='c010'>They are the followers of Abú Ṣáliḥ Ḥamdún b. Aḥmad -b. `Umára al-Qaṣṣár, a celebrated divine and eminent Ṣúfí. -His doctrine was the manifestation and divulgation of “blame” -(<i>malámat</i>). He used to say: “God’s knowledge of thee is -better than men’s knowledge,” i.e. thy dealings with God in -private should be better than thy dealings with men in public, -for thy preoccupation with men is the greatest veil between -thee and God. I have given some account of al-Qaṣṣár in -the chapter on “Blame”. He relates the following story: -“One day, while I was walking in the river-bed in the Ḥíra -quarter of Níshápúr, I met Núḥ, a brigand famous for his -generosity, who was the captain of all the brigands of Níshápúr. -I said to him, ‘O Núḥ, what is generosity?’ He replied, ‘My -generosity or yours?’ I said, ‘Describe both.’ He replied: -‘I put off the coat (<i>qabá</i>) and wear a patched frock and -practise the conduct appropriate to that garment, in order -that I may become a Ṣúfí and refrain from sin because of -the shame that I feel before God; but you put off the patched -frock in order that you may not be deceived by men, and that -men may not be deceived by thee: accordingly, my generosity -<span class='pageno' id='Page_184'>184</span>is formal observance of the religious law, while your generosity -is spiritual observance of the Truth.’” This is a very sound -principle.</p> - -<h3 class='c018'>3. <span class='sc'>The Ṭayfúrís.</span></h3> - -<p class='c010'>They are the followers of Abú Yazíd Ṭayfúr b. Ísá b. Surúshán -al-Bisṭámí, a great and eminent Ṣúfí. His doctrine is rapture -(<i>ghalabat</i>) and intoxication (<i>sukr</i>). Rapturous longing for God -and intoxication of love cannot be acquired by human beings, -and it is idle to claim, and absurd to imitate, anything that lies -beyond the range of acquisition. Intoxication is not an attribute -of the sober, and Man has no power of drawing it to himself. -The intoxicated man is enraptured and pays no heed to created -things, that he should manifest any quality involving conscious -effort (<i>taklif</i>). The Ṣúfí Shaykhs are agreed that no one is -a proper model for others unless he is steadfast (<i>mustaqím</i>) and -has escaped from the circle of “states”; but there are some -who allow that the way of rapture and intoxication may -be trodden with effort, because the Apostle said: “Weep, or -else make as though ye wept!” Now, to imitate others for the -sake of ostentation is sheer polytheism, but it is different when -the object of the imitator is that God may perchance raise him -to the rank of those whom he has imitated, in accordance with -the saying of the Apostle: “Whoever makes himself like -unto a people is one of them.” And one of the Shaykhs said: -“Contemplations (<i>musháhadát</i>) are the result of mortifications -(<i>mujáhadát</i>).” My own view is that, although mortifications -are always excellent, intoxication and rapture cannot be -acquired at all; hence they cannot be induced by mortifications, -which in themselves never become a cause of intoxication. -I will now set forth the different opinions of the Shaykhs concerning -the true nature of intoxication (<i>sukr</i>) and sobriety -(<i>ṣaḥw</i>), in order that difficulties may be removed.</p> - -<h4 class='c020'><i>Discourse on Intoxication and Sobriety.</i></h4> - -<p class='c010'>You must know that “intoxication” and “rapture” are terms -used by spiritualists to denote the rapture of love for God, while -<span class='pageno' id='Page_185'>185</span>the term “sobriety” expresses the attainment of that which is -desired. Some place the former above the latter, and some -hold the latter to be superior. Abú Yazíd and his followers -prefer intoxication to sobriety. They say that sobriety involves -the fixity and equilibrium of human attributes, which are the -greatest veil between God and Man, whereas intoxication -involves the destruction of human attributes, like foresight and -choice, and the annihilation of a man’s self-control in God, so -that only those faculties survive in him that do not belong to -the human <i>genus</i>; and they are the most complete and perfect. -Thus David was in the state of sobriety; an act proceeded from -him which God attributed to him and said, “<i>David killed -Goliath</i>” (Kor. ii, 252): but our Apostle was in the state of -intoxication; an act proceeded from him which God attributed -to Himself and said, “<i>Thou didst not throw, when thou threwest, -but God threw</i>” (Kor. viii, 17). How great is the difference -between these two men! The attribution of a man’s act to -God is better than the attribution of God’s act to a man, for in -the latter case the man stands by himself, while in the former -case he stands through God.</p> - -<p class='c001'>Junayd and his followers prefer sobriety to intoxication. -They say that intoxication is evil, because it involves the -disturbance of one’s normal state and loss of sanity and self-control; -and inasmuch as the principle of all things is sought -either by way of annihilation or subsistence, or of effacement or -affirmation, the principle of verification cannot be attained -unless the seeker is sane. Blindness will never release anyone -from the bondage and corruption of phenomena. The fact that -people remain in phenomena and forget God is due to their not -seeing things as they really are; for if they saw, they would -escape. Seeing is of two kinds: he who looks at anything sees -it either with the eye of subsistence (<i>baqá</i>) or with the eye of -annihilation (<i>faná</i>). If with the eye of subsistence, he perceives -that the whole universe is imperfect in comparison with his -own subsistence, for he does not regard phenomena as self-subsistent; -and if he looks with the eye of annihilation, he -<span class='pageno' id='Page_186'>186</span>perceives that all created things are non-existent beside the -subsistence of God. In either case he turns away from -created things. On this account the Apostle said in his -prayer: “O God, show us things as they are,” because whoever -thus sees them finds rest. Now, such vision cannot be -properly attained except in the state of sobriety, and the -intoxicated have no knowledge thereof. For example, Moses -was intoxicated; he could not endure the manifestation of one -epiphany, but fell in a swoon (Kor. vii, 139): but our Apostle -was sober; he beheld the same glory continuously, with ever-increasing -consciousness, all the way from Mecca, until he stood -at the space of two bow-lengths from the Divine presence -(Kor. liii, 9).</p> - -<p class='c001'>My Shaykh, who followed the doctrine of Junayd, used to say -that intoxication is the playground of children, but sobriety is -the death-field of men. I say, in agreement with my Shaykh, -that the perfection of the state of the intoxicated man is sobriety. -The lowest stage in sobriety consists in regarding the powerlessness -of humanity: therefore, a sobriety that appears to be evil -is better than an intoxication that is really evil. It is related -that Abú `Uthmán Maghribí, in the earlier part of his life, -passed twenty years in retirement, living in deserts where he -never heard the sound of a human voice, until his frame was -wasted and his eyes became as small as the eye of a sack-needle. -After twenty years he was commanded to associate with mankind. -He resolved to begin with the people of God who dwelt -beside His Temple, since by doing so he would gain a greater -blessing. The Shaykhs of Mecca were aware of his coming and -went forth to meet him. Finding him so changed that he hardly -seemed to be a human creature, they said to him: “O Abú -`Uthmán, tell us why you went and what you saw and what you -gained and wherefore you have come back.” He replied: “I -went because of intoxication, and I saw the evil of intoxication, -and I gained despair, and I have come back on account of -weakness.” All the Shaykhs said: “O Abú `Uthmán, it is not -lawful for anyone after you to explain the meaning of sobriety -<span class='pageno' id='Page_187'>187</span>and intoxication, for you have done justice to the whole matter -and have shown forth the evil of intoxication.”</p> - -<p class='c001'>Intoxication, then, is to fancy one’s self annihilated while the -attributes really subsist; and this is a veil. Sobriety, on the -other hand, is the vision of subsistence while the attributes are -annihilated; and this is actual revelation. It is absurd for -anyone to suppose that intoxication is nearer to annihilation -than sobriety is, for intoxication is a quality that exceeds -sobriety, and so long as a man’s attributes tend to increase he -is without knowledge; but when he begins to diminish them, -seekers (of God) have some hope of him.</p> - -<p class='c001'>It is related that Yaḥyá b. Mu`ádh wrote to Abú Yazíd: -“What do you say of one who drinks a single drop of the ocean -of love and becomes intoxicated?” Báyazíd wrote in reply: -“What do you say of one who, if all the oceans in the world -were filled with the wine of love, would drink them all and still -cry for more to slake his thirst?” People imagine that Yahyá -was speaking of intoxication, and Báyazíd of sobriety, but the -opposite is the case. The man of sobriety is he who is unable -to drink even one drop, and the man of intoxication is he who -drinks all and still desires more. Wine being the instrument of -intoxication, but the enemy of sobriety, intoxication demands -what is homogeneous with itself, whereas sobriety takes no -pleasure in drinking.</p> - -<p class='c001'>There are two kinds of intoxication: (1) with the wine of -affection (<i>mawaddat</i>) and (2) with the cup of love (<i>maḥabbat</i>). -The former is “caused” (<i>ma`lúl</i>), since it arises from regarding -the benefit (<i>ni`mat</i>); but the latter has no cause, since it arises -from regarding the benefactor (<i>mun`im</i>). He who regards the -benefit sees through himself and therefore sees himself, but he -who regards the benefactor sees through Him and therefore -does not see himself, so that, although he is intoxicated, his -intoxication is sobriety.</p> - -<p class='c001'>Sobriety also is of two kinds: sobriety in heedlessness -(<i>ghaflat</i>) and sobriety in love (<i>maḥabbat</i>). The former is the -greatest of veils, but the latter is the clearest of revelations. -<span class='pageno' id='Page_188'>188</span>The sobriety that is connected with heedlessness is really -intoxication, while that which is linked with love, although -it be intoxication, is really sobriety. When the principle (<i>aṣl</i>) -is firmly established, sobriety and intoxication resemble one -another, but when the principle is wanting, both are baseless. -In short, where true mystics tread, sobriety and intoxication -are the effect of difference (<i>ikhtiláf</i>), and when the Sultan -of Truth displays his beauty, both sobriety and intoxication -appear to be intruders (<i>ṭufaylí</i>), because the boundaries of both -are joined, and the end of the one is the beginning of the -other, and beginning and end are terms that imply separation, -which has only a relative existence. In union all separations -are negated, as the poet says—</p> - -<div class='lg-container-b c009'> - <div class='linegroup'> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'>“<i>When the morning-star of wine rises,</i></div> - <div class='line'><i>The drunken and the sober are as one.</i>”</div> - </div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>At Sarakhs there were two spiritual directors, namely, -Luqmán and Abu ´l-Faḍl Ḥasan. One day Luqmán came -to Abu ´l-Faḍl and found him with a piece (of manuscript) -in his hand. He said: “O Abu ´l-Faḍl, what are you seeking -in this paper?” Abu ´l-Faḍl replied: “The same thing as -you are seeking without a paper.” Luqmán said: “Then why -this difference?” Abu ´l-Faḍl answered: “You see a difference -when you ask me what I am seeking. Become sober from -intoxication and get rid of sobriety, in order that the difference -may be removed from you and that you may know what you -and I are in search of.”</p> - -<p class='c001'>The Ṭayfúrís and Junaydís are at variance to the extent -which has been indicated. As regards ethics, the doctrine of -Báyazíd consists in shunning companionship and choosing -retirement from the world, and he enjoined all his disciples -to do the same. This is a praiseworthy and laudable Path.</p> - -<h3 class='c018'>4. <span class='sc'>The Junaydís.</span></h3> - -<p class='c010'>They are the followers of Abu ´l-Qásim al-Junayd b. -Muḥammad, who in his time was called the Peacock of the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_189'>189</span>Divines (<i>Ṭá´ús al-`Ulamá</i>). He is the chief of this sect and -the Imám of their Imáms. His doctrine is based on sobriety -and is opposed to that of the Ṭayfúrís, as has been explained. -It is the best known and most celebrated of all doctrines, and -all the Shaykhs have adopted it, notwithstanding that there -is much difference in their sayings on the ethics of Ṣúfiism. -Want of space forbids me to discuss it further in this book: -those who wish to become better acquainted with it must -seek information elsewhere.</p> - -<p class='c001'>I have read in the Anecdotes that when Ḥusayn b. Manṣúr -(al-Ḥalláj) in his rapture broke off all relations with `Amr b. -`Uthmán (al-Makkí) and came to Junayd, Junayd asked him -for what purpose he had come to him. Ḥusayn said: “For -the purpose of associating with the Shaykh.” Junayd replied: -“I do not associate with madmen. Association demands -sanity; if that is wanting, the result is such behaviour as -yours in regard to Sahl b. `Abdalláh Tustarí and `Amr.” -Ḥusayn said: “O Shaykh, sobriety and intoxication are two -attributes of Man, and Man is veiled from his Lord until -his attributes are annihilated.” “O son of Manṣúr,” said -Junayd, “you are in error concerning sobriety and intoxication. -The former denotes soundness of one’s spiritual state in -relation to God, while the latter denotes excess of longing -and extremity of love, and neither of them can be acquired -by human effort. O son of Manṣúr, in your words I see much -foolishness and nonsense.”</p> - -<h3 class='c018'>5. <span class='sc'>The Núrís.</span></h3> - -<p class='c010'>They are the followers of Abu ´l-Ḥasan Aḥmad b. Muḥammad -Núrí, one of the most eminent and illustrious Ṣúfí divines. -The principle of his doctrine is to regard Ṣúfiism (<i>taṣawwuf</i>) -as superior to poverty (<i>faqr</i>). In matters of conduct he -agrees with Junayd. It is a peculiarity of his “path” that in -companionship (<i>ṣuḥbat</i>) he prefers his companion’s claim to -his own, and holds companionship without preference (<i>íthár</i>) -to be unlawful. He also holds that companionship is obligatory -<span class='pageno' id='Page_190'>190</span>on dervishes, and that retirement (<i>`uzlat</i>) is not praiseworthy, -and that everyone is bound to prefer his companion to himself. -It is related that he said: “Beware of retirement! for it is in -connexion with Satan; and cleave to companionship, for therein -is the satisfaction of the Merciful God.”</p> - -<p class='c001'>Now I will explain the true nature of preference, and when -I come to the chapter on companionship and retirement I will -set forth the mysteries of the subject in order to make it -more generally instructive.</p> - -<h4 class='c020'><i>Discourse on Preference</i> (íthár).</h4> - -<p class='c010'>God said: “<i>And they prefer them to themselves, although they -are indigent</i>” (Kor. lix, 9). This verse was revealed concerning -the poor men among the Companions in particular. The -true nature of preference consists in maintaining the rights -of the person with whom one associates, and in subordinating -one’s own interest to the interest of one’s friend, and in taking -trouble upon one’s self for the sake of promoting his happiness, -because preference is the rendering of help to others, and the -putting into practice of that which God commanded to His -Apostle: “<i>Use indulgence and command what is just and turn -away from the ignorant</i>” (Kor. vii, 198). This will be explained -more fully in the chapter on the rules of companionship.</p> - -<p class='c001'>Now, preference is of two kinds: firstly, in companionship, as -has been mentioned; and secondly, in love. In preferring the -claim of one’s companion there is a sort of trouble and effort, -but in preferring the claim of one’s beloved there is nothing -but pleasure and delight. It is well known that when Ghulám -al-Khalíl persecuted the Ṣúfís, Núrí and Raqqám and Abú -Ḥamza were arrested and conveyed to the Caliph’s palace. -Ghulám al-Khalíl urged the Caliph to put them to death, -saying that they were heretics (<i>zanádiqa</i>), and the Caliph -immediately gave orders for their execution. When the -executioner approached Raqqám, Núrí rose and offered himself -in Raqqám’s place with the utmost cheerfulness and submission. -All the spectators were astounded. The executioner said: -<span class='pageno' id='Page_191'>191</span>“O young man, the sword is not a thing that people desire to -meet so eagerly as you have welcomed it; and your turn -has not yet arrived.” Núrí answered: “Yes; my doctrine is -founded on preference. Life is the most precious thing in -the world: I wish to sacrifice for my brethren’s sake the few -moments that remain. In my opinion, one moment of this -world is better than a thousand years of the next world, -because this is the place of service (<i>khidmat</i>) and that is the -place of proximity (<i>qurbat</i>), and proximity is gained by -service.” The tenderness of Núrí and the fineness of his -saying astonished the Caliph (who was informed by a courier -of what had passed) to such a degree, that he suspended -the execution of the three Ṣúfís and charged the chief Cadi, -Abu ´l-`Abbás b. `Alí, to inquire into the matter. The Cadi, -having taken them to his house and questioned them concerning -the ordinances of the Law and the Truth, found them perfect, -and felt remorse for his indifference to their fate. Then Núrí -said: “O Cadi, though you have asked all these questions, -you have not yet asked anything to the point, for God has -servants who eat through Him, and drink through Him, and -sit through Him, and live through Him, and abide in contemplation -of Him: if they were cut off from contemplating -Him they would cry out in anguish.” The Cadi was amazed -at the subtlety of his speech and the soundness of his state. -He wrote to the Caliph: “If the Ṣúfís are heretics, who in -the world is a Unitarian?” The Caliph called them to his -presence and said: “Ask a boon.” They replied: “The only -boon we ask of thee is that thou shouldst forget us, and -neither make us thy favourites nor banish us from thy court, -for thy favour and displeasure are alike to us.” The Caliph -wept and dismissed them with honour.</p> - -<p class='c001'>It is related that Náfi`<a id='r111' /><a href='#f111' class='c015'><sup>[111]</sup></a> said: “Ibn `Umar<a id='r112' /><a href='#f112' class='c015'><sup>[112]</sup></a> desired to eat -a fish. I sought through the town, but did not find one until -several days had passed. Having procured it, I gave orders -<span class='pageno' id='Page_192'>192</span>that it should be placed on a cake of bread and presented it -to him. I noticed an expression of joy on his face as he received -it, but suddenly a beggar came to the door of his house and -he ordered the fish to be given to him. The servant said: -‘O master, you have been desiring a fish for several days; let -us give the beggar something else.’ Ibn `Umar replied: ‘This -fish is unlawful to me, for I have put it out of my mind on -account of a Tradition which I heard from the Apostle: -<i>Whenever anyone feels a desire and repels it and prefers another -to himself, he shall be forgiven</i>.’“</p> - -<p class='c001'>I have read in the Anecdotes that ten dervishes lost their -way in the desert and were overtaken by thirst. They had -only one cup of water, and everyone preferred the claim of -the others, so that none of them would drink and they all died -except one, who then drank it and found strength to escape. -Some person said to him: “Had you not drunk, it would -have been better.” He replied: “The Law obliged me to drink; -if I had not, I should have killed myself and been punished -on that account.” The other said: “Then did your friends -kill themselves?” “No,” said the dervish; “they refused to -drink in order that their companions might drink, but when -I alone survived I was legally obliged to drink.”<a id='r113' /><a href='#f113' class='c015'><sup>[113]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c001'>Among the Israelites there was a devotee who had served -God for four hundred years. One day he said: “O Lord, if -Thou hadst not created these mountains, wandering for religion’s -sake (<i>siyáḥat</i>) would have been easier for Thy servants.” The -Divine command came to the Apostle of that time to say to -the devotee: “What business have you to interfere in My -kingdom? Now, since you have interfered, I blot your name -from the register of the blest and inscribe it in the register -of the damned.” On hearing this, the devotee trembled with -joy and bowed to the ground in thanksgiving. The Apostle -<span class='pageno' id='Page_193'>193</span>said: “O fool, it is not necessary to bow down in thanksgiving -for damnation.” “My thanksgiving,” the devotee replied: “is -not for damnation, but because my name is at least inscribed -in one of His registers. But, O Apostle, I have a boon to -ask. Say unto God, ‘Since Thou wilt send me to Hell, make -me so large that I may take the place of all sinful Unitarians, -and let them go to Paradise.’” God commanded the Apostle -to tell the devotee that the probation which he had undergone -was not for the purpose of humiliating him, but to reveal him -to the people, and that on the Day of Resurrection both he -and those for whom he had interceded would be in Paradise.</p> - -<p class='c001'>I asked Aḥmad Ḥammádí of Sarakhs what was the beginning -of his conversion. He replied: “Once I set out from Sarakhs -and took my camels into the desert and stayed there for a considerable -time. I was always wishing to be hungry and was -giving my portion of food to others, and the words of God—<a id='corr193.17'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='“They'>‘<i>They</i></ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_193.17'><ins class='correction' title='“They'>‘<i>They</i></ins></a></span> -<i>prefer them to themselves, although they are</i> <a id='corr193.18'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='indigent”'><i>indigent</i>’</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_193.18'><ins class='correction' title='indigent”'><i>indigent</i>’</ins></a></span> -(Kor. lix, 9)—were ever fresh in my mind; and I had a firm -belief in the Ṣúfís. One day a hungry lion came from the -desert and killed one of my camels and retired to some rising -ground and roared. All the wild beasts in the neighbourhood, -hearing him roar, gathered round him. He tore the camel to -pieces and went back to the higher ground without having -eaten anything. The other beasts—foxes, jackals, wolves, etc.—began -to eat, and the lion waited until they had gone away. -Then he approached in order to eat a morsel, but seeing a lame -fox in the distance he withdrew once more until the new-comer -had eaten his fill. After that, he came and ate a morsel. -As he departed he spoke to me, who had been watching from -afar, and said: ‘O Aḥmad, to prefer others to one’s self in the -matter of food is an act only worthy of dogs: a <i>man</i> sacrifices -his life and his soul.’ When I saw this evidence I renounced -all worldly occupations, and that was the beginning of my -conversion.”</p> - -<p class='c001'>Ja`far Khuldí says: “One day, when Abu ´l-Ḥasan Núrí was -praying to God in solitude I went to overhear him, for he -<span class='pageno' id='Page_194'>194</span>was very eloquent. He was saying, ‘O Lord, in Thy eternal -knowledge and power and will Thou dost punish the people -of Hell, whom Thou hast created; and if it be Thy inexorable -will to make Hell full of mankind, Thou art able to fill that -Hell and all its limbos with me alone and to send them to -Paradise.’ I was amazed by his speech, but I dreamed that -some one came to me and said: ‘God bids thee tell Abu ´l-Ḥasan -that he has been forgiven on account of his compassion for -God’s creatures and his reverence for God.’”</p> - -<p class='c001'>He was called Núrí because when he spoke in a dark room -the whole room was illuminated by the light (<i>núr</i>) of his -spirituality. And by the light of the Truth he used to read -the inmost thoughts of his disciples, so that Junayd said: -“Abu ´l-Ḥasan is the spy on men’s hearts (<i>jásús al-qulúb</i>).“</p> - -<p class='c001'>This is his peculiar doctrine. It is a sound principle, and -one of great importance in the eyes of those who have insight. -Nothing is harder to a man than spiritual sacrifice (<i>badhl-i -rúḥ</i>) and to refrain from the object of his love, and God hath -made this sacrifice the key of all good, as He said: ”<i>Ye -shall never attain to righteousness until ye give in alms of that -which ye love</i>” (Kor. iii, 86). When a man’s spirit is sacrificed, -of what value are his wealth and his health and his frock -and his food? This is the foundation of Ṣúfiism. Some one -came to Ruwaym and asked him for direction. Ruwaym -said: “O my son, the whole affair consists in spiritual -sacrifice. If you are able for this, it is well; if not, do not -occupy yourself with the futilities (<i>turrahát</i>) of the Ṣúfís,” -i.e. all except this is futile; and God said: “<i>Do not call -dead those who are slain in the way of God. Nay, they are -living</i>” (Kor. ii, 149). Eternal life is gained by spiritual -sacrifice and by renunciation of self-interest in fulfilling God’s -commandment and by obedience to His friends. But from the -standpoint of gnosis (<i>ma`rifat</i>) preference and free choice are -separation (<i>tafriqat</i>), and real preference consists in union with -God, for the true basis of self-interest is self-abandonment. -So long as the seeker’s progress is connected with acquisition -<span class='pageno' id='Page_195'>195</span>(<i>kasb</i>) it is pernicious, but when the attracting influence (<i>jadhb</i>) -of the Truth manifests its dominion all his actions are confounded, -and he loses all power of expression; nor can any -name be applied to him or any description be given of him -or anything be imputed to him. On this subject Shiblí says -in verse—</p> - -<div class='lg-container-b c009'> - <div class='linegroup'> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'>“<i>I am lost to myself and unconscious,</i></div> - <div class='line'><i>And my attributes are annihilated.</i></div> - <div class='line'><i>To-day I am lost to all things:</i></div> - <div class='line'><i>Naught remains but a forced expression.</i>”</div> - </div> - </div> -</div> - -<h3 class='c018'>6. <span class='sc'>The Sahlís.</span></h3> - -<p class='c010'>They are the followers of Sahl b. `Abdalláh of Tustar, a great -and venerable Ṣúfí, who has been already mentioned. His -doctrine inculcates endeavour and self-mortification and ascetic -training, and he used to bring his disciples to perfection in -self-mortification (<i>mujáhadat</i>). It is related in a well-known -anecdote that he said to one of his disciples: “Strive to say -continuously for one day, ‘O Allah! O Allah! O Allah!’ and -do the same next day and the day after that,” until he became -habituated to saying those words. Then he bade him repeat -them at night also, until they became so familiar that he -uttered them even during his sleep. Then he said: “Do -not repeat them any more, but let all your faculties be -engrossed in remembering God.” The disciple did this, until -he became absorbed in the thought of God. One day, when -he was in his house, a piece of wood fell on his head and -broke it. The drops of blood which trickled to the ground -bore the legend “Allah! Allah! Allah!”</p> - -<p class='c001'>The “path” of the Sahlís is to educate disciples by acts of -self-mortification, and austerities; that of the Ḥamdúnís<a id='r114' /><a href='#f114' class='c015'><sup>[114]</sup></a> is to -serve and reverence dervishes; and that of the Junaydís is to -keep watch over one’s spiritual state (<i>muráqaba-i báṭin</i>).</p> - -<p class='c001'><span class='pageno' id='Page_196'>196</span>The object of all austerities and acts of self-mortification is -resistance to the lower soul (<i>nafs</i>), and until a man knows -his lower soul his austerities are of no use to him. Now, -therefore, I will explain the knowledge and true nature of -the lower soul, and in the next place I will lay down the -doctrine concerning self-mortification and its principles.</p> - -<h4 class='c020'><i>Discourse touching the true nature of the Lower Soul</i> (nafs) <i>and the meaning of Passion</i> (hawá).</h4> - -<p class='c010'>You must know that <i>nafs</i>, etymologically, is the essence -and reality of anything, but in popular language it is used to -denote many contradictory meanings, e.g. “spirit”, “virility” -(<i>muruwwat</i>), “body”, and “blood”. The mystics of this sect, -however, are agreed that it is the source and principle of -evil, but while some assert that it is a substance (<i>`ayn</i>) -located in the body, as the spirit (<i>rúḥ</i>) is, others hold it to -be an attribute of the body, as life is. But they all agree -that through it base qualities are manifested and that it is -the immediate cause of blameworthy actions. Such actions -are of two kinds, namely, sins (<i>ma`áṣí</i>) and base qualities -(<i>akhláq-i daní</i>), like pride, envy, avarice, anger, hatred, etc., -which are not commendable in law and reason. These -qualities can be removed by discipline (<i>riyáḍat</i>): e.g., sins -are removed by repentance. Sins belong to the class of -external attributes, whereas the qualities above mentioned -belong to the class of internal attributes. Similarly, discipline -is an external act, and repentance is an internal attribute. -A base quality that appears <i>within</i> is purged by excellent -outward attributes, and one that appears <i>without</i> is purged -by laudable inward attributes. Both the lower soul and the -spirit are subtle things (<i>laṭá´if</i>) existing in the body, just as -devils and angels and Paradise and Hell exist in the universe; -but the one is the seat of good, while the other is the seat -of evil. Hence, resistance to the lower soul is the chief of -all acts of devotion and the crown of all acts of self-mortification, -and only thereby can Man find the way to -<span class='pageno' id='Page_197'>197</span>God, because submission to the lower soul involves his -destruction and resistance to it involves his salvation.<a id='r115' /><a href='#f115' class='c015'><sup>[115]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c001'>Now, every attribute needs an object whereby it subsists, -and knowledge of that attribute, namely, the soul, is not -attained save by knowledge of the whole body, which knowledge -in turn demands an explanation of the qualities of -human nature (<i>insániyyat</i>) and the mystery thereof, and is -incumbent upon all seekers of the Truth, because whoever is -ignorant of himself is yet more ignorant of other things; and -inasmuch as a man is bound to know God, he must first -know himself, in order that by rightly perceiving his own -temporality he may recognize the eternity of God, and may -learn the everlastingness of God through his own perishableness. -The Apostle said: “He who knows himself already -knows his Lord,” i.e., if he knows himself as perishable he -knows God as everlasting, or if he knows himself as humble -he knows God as Almighty, or if he knows himself as a -servant he knows God as the Lord. Therefore one who -does not know himself is debarred from knowledge of all -things.</p> - -<p class='c001'>As regards the knowledge of human nature and the various -opinions held on that topic, some Moslems assert that Man -is nothing but spirit (<i>rúḥ</i>), of which this body is the cuirass -and temple and residence, in order to preserve it from being -injured by the natural humours (<i>ṭabáyi`</i>), and of which the -attributes are sensation and intelligence. This view is false, -because a body from which the soul (<i>ján</i>) has departed is still -called “a human being” (<i>insán</i>); if the soul is joined with it -it is “a live human being”, and if the soul is gone it is “a dead -human being”. Moreover, a soul is located in the bodies of -animals, yet they are not called “human beings”. If the spirit -(<i>rúḥ</i>) were the cause of human nature, it would follow that -<span class='pageno' id='Page_198'>198</span>the principle of human nature must exist in every creature -possessed of a soul (<i>ján-dárí</i>); which is a proof of the falsity -of their assertion. Others, again, have stated that the term -“human nature” is applicable to the spirit and the body -together, and that it no longer applies when one is separated -from the other; e.g., when two colours, black and white, are -combined on a horse, it is called “piebald” (<i>ablaq</i>), whereas -the same colours, apart from each other, are called “black” -and “white”. This too is false, in accordance with God’s word: -“<i>Did there not come over Man a space of time during which he -was not a thing worthy of mention?</i>” (Kor. lxxvi, 1): in this -verse Man’s clay, without soul—for the soul had not yet been -joined to his body—is called “Man”. Others aver that “Man” -is an atom, centred in the heart, which is the principle of all -human attributes. This also is absurd, for if anyone is killed -and his heart is taken out of his body he does not lose the -name of “human being”; moreover, it is agreed that the heart -was not in the human body before the soul. Some pretenders -to Ṣúfiism have fallen into error on this subject. They declare -that “Man” is not that which eats and drinks and suffers -decay, but a Divine mystery, of which this body is the vesture, -situated in the interfusion of the natural humours (<i>imtizáj-i -ṭab`</i>) and in the union (<i>ittiḥád</i>) of body and spirit. To this -I reply, that by universal consent the name of “human being” -belongs to sane men and mad, and to infidels and immoral -and ignorant persons, in whom there is no such “mystery” -and who suffer decay and eat and drink; and that there is not -anything called “Man” in the body, either while it exists or -after it has ceased to exist. God Almighty has given the -name of “Man” to the sum of the substances which He -compounded in us, excluding those things which are not to -be found in some human beings, e.g. in the verses “<i>And We -have created Man of the choicest clay</i>,” etc. (Kor. xxiii, 12-14). -Therefore, according to the word of God, who is the most -veracious of all who speak the Truth, this particular form, with -all its ingredients and with all the changes which it undergoes, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_199'>199</span>is “Man”. In like manner, certain Sunnís have said that Man -is a living creature whose form has these characteristics, and -that death does not deprive him of this name, and that he is -endowed with a definite physiognomy (<i>ṣúrat-i ma`húd</i>) and -a distinct organ (<i>álat-i mawsúm</i>) both externally and internally. -By “a definite physiognomy” they mean that he has either -good or ill health, and by “a distinct organ” that he is either -mad or sane. It is generally allowed that the more sound -(<i>ṣaḥíḥ</i>) a thing is, the more perfect it is in constitution. You -must know, then, that in the opinion of mystics the most -perfect composition of Man includes three elements, viz. spirit, -soul, and body; and that each of these has an attribute which -subsists therein, the attribute of spirit being intelligence, of -soul, passion, and of body, sensation. Man is a type of the -whole universe. The universe is the name of the two worlds, -and in Man there is a vestige of both, for he is composed of -phlegm, blood, bile, and melancholy, which four humours -correspond to the four elements of this world, viz. water, earth, -air, and fire, while his soul (<i>ján</i>), his lower soul (<i>nafs</i>), and his -body correspond to Paradise, Hell, and the place of Resurrection. -Paradise is the effect of God’s satisfaction, and Hell is the -result of His anger. Similarly, the spirit of the true believer -reflects the peace of knowledge, and his lower soul the error -which veils him from God. As, at the Resurrection, the -believer must be released from Hell before he can reach -Paradise and attain to real vision and pure love, so in this -world he must escape from his lower soul before he can attain -to real discipleship (<i>irádat</i>), of which the spirit is the principle, -and to real proximity (to God) and gnosis. Hence, whoever -knows Him in this world and turns away from all besides -and follows the highway of the sacred law, at the Resurrection -he will not see Hell and the Bridge (<i>Ṣiráṭ</i>). In short, the -believer’s spirit calls him to Paradise, of which it is a type -in this world, and his lower soul calls him to Hell, of which -it is a type in this world. Therefore it behoves those who -seek God never to relax their resistance to the lower soul, in -<span class='pageno' id='Page_200'>200</span>order that thereby they may reinforce the spirit and the -intelligence, which are the home of the Divine mystery.</p> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c004'> - <div><span class='sc'>Section.</span></div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>As regards what has been said by the Shaykhs concerning -the lower soul, Dhu ´l-Nún the Egyptian says: “Vision of -the lower soul and its promptings is the worst of veils,” -because obedience to it is disobedience to God, which is the -origin of all veils. Abú Yazíd Bisṭámí says: “The lower -soul is an attribute which never rests save in falsehood,” -i.e. it never seeks the Truth. Muḥammad b. `Alí al-Tirmidhí -says: “You wish to know God while your lower soul subsists -in you; but your lower soul does not know itself, how should -it know another?” Junayd says: “To fulfil the desires of -your lower soul is the foundation of infidelity,” because the -lower soul is not connected with, and is always striving to -turn away from, the pure truth of Islam; and he who turns -away denies, and he who denies is an alien (<i>bégána</i>). Abú -Sulaymán Dárání says: “The lower soul is treacherous and -hindering (one who seeks to please God); and resistance to it -is the best of actions.”</p> - -<p class='c001'>Now I come to my main purpose, which is to set forth -the doctrine of Sahl concerning the mortification and discipline -of the lower soul, and to explain its true nature.</p> - -<h4 class='c020'><i>Discourse on the Mortification of the Lower Soul.</i></h4> - -<p class='c010'>God has said: “<i>Those who strive to the utmost</i> (jáhadú) <i>for -Our sake, We will guide them into Our ways</i>” (Kor. xxix, 69). -And the Prophet said: “The (<i>mujáhid</i>) is he who struggles -with all his might against himself (<i>jáhada nafsahu</i>) for God’s -sake.” And he also said: “We have returned from the lesser -war (<i>al-jihád al-aṣghar</i>) to the greater war <a id='corr200.27'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='(al-jihád al-akbar)'>(<i>al-jihád al-akbar</i>)”</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_200.27'><ins class='correction' title='(al-jihád al-akbar)'>(<i>al-jihád al-akbar</i>)”</ins></a></span>. -On being asked, “What is the greater war?” he replied, -“It is the struggle against one’s self” (<i>mujáhadat al-nafs</i>). -Thus the Apostle adjudged the mortification of the lower -soul to be superior to the Holy War against unbelievers, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_201'>201</span>because the former is more painful. You must know, then, -that the way of mortification is plain and manifest, for it is -approved by men of all religions and sects, and is observed -and practised by the Ṣúfís in particular; and the term “mortification” -(<i>mujáhadat</i>) is current among Ṣúfís of every class, -and the Shaykhs have uttered many sayings on this topic. -Sahl b. `Abdalláh Tustarí carries the principle to an extreme -point. It is related that he used to break his fast only once -in fifteen days, and he ate but little food in the course of his -long life. While all mystics have affirmed the need of -mortification, and have declared it to be an indirect means -(<i>asbáb</i>) of attaining contemplation (<i>musháhadat</i>), Sahl asserted -that mortification is the direct cause (<i>`illat</i>) of the latter, and -he attributed to search (<i>ṭalab</i>) a powerful effect on attainment -(<i>yáft</i>), so that he even regarded the present life, spent in -search, as superior to the future life of fruition. “If,” he said, -“you serve God in this world, you will attain proximity to -Him in the next world: without that service there would not -be this proximity: it follows that self-mortification, practised -with the aid of God, is the direct cause of union with God.” -Others, on the contrary, hold that there is no direct cause of -union with God, and whoever attains to God does so by -Divine grace (<i>faḍl</i>), which is independent of human actions. -Therefore, they argue, the object of mortification is to correct -the vices of the lower soul, not to attain real proximity, -and inasmuch as mortification is referred to Man, while contemplation -is referred to God, it is impossible that one should -be caused by the other. Sahl, however, cites in favour of -his view the words of God: “<i>Those who strive to the utmost -for Our sake, We will guide them into Our ways</i>” (Kor. xxix, 69), -i.e. whoever mortifies himself will attain to contemplation. -Furthermore, he contends that inasmuch as the books revealed -to the Prophets, and the Sacred Law, and all the religious -ordinances imposed on mankind involve mortification, they -must all be false and vain if mortification were not the cause -of contemplation. Again, both in this world and the next, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_202'>202</span>everything is connected with principles and causes. If it is -maintained that principles have no causes, there is an end of -all law and order: neither can religious obligations be justified -nor will food be the cause of repletion and clothes the cause -of warmth. Accordingly, to regard actions as being caused -is Unification (<i>tawḥíd</i>), and to rebut this is Nullification (<i>ta`ṭíl</i>). -He who asserts it is proving the existence of contemplation, -and he who denies it is denying the existence of contemplation. -Does not training (<i>riyáḍat</i>) alter the animal qualities of a wild -horse and substitute human qualities in their stead, so that -he will pick up a whip from the ground and give it to his -master, or will roll a ball with his foot? In the same way, -a boy without sense and of foreign race is taught by training -to speak Arabic, and take a new language in exchange for -his mother tongue; and a savage beast is trained to go away -when leave is given to it, and to come back when it is called, -preferring captivity to freedom.<a id='r116' /><a href='#f116' class='c015'><sup>[116]</sup></a> Therefore, Sahl and his -followers argue, mortification is just as necessary for the -attainment of union with God as diction and composition -are necessary for the elucidation of ideas; and as one is led -to knowledge of the Creator by assurance that the universe -was created in time, so one is led to union with God by -knowledge and mortification of the lower soul.</p> - -<p class='c001'>I will now state the arguments of the opposing party. They -maintain that the verse of the Koran (xxix, 69) cited by Sahl -is a <i>hysteron proteron</i>, and that the meaning of it is, “Those -whom We guide into Our ways strive to the utmost for Our -sake.” And the Apostle said: “Not one of you shall be saved -by his works.” “O Apostle,” they cried, “not even thou?” -“Not even I,” he said, “unless God encompass me with -His mercy.” Now, mortification is a man’s act, and his act -cannot possibly become the cause of his salvation, which -depends on the Divine Will, as God hath said: “<i>Whomsoever -God wishes to lead aright, He will open his breast to receive</i> -<span class='pageno' id='Page_203'>203</span><i>Islam, but whomsoever He wishes to lead astray, He will make -his breast strait and narrow</i>” (Kor. vi, 125). By affirming His -will, He denies the (effect of the) religious ordinances which -have been laid upon mankind. If mortification were the cause -of union Iblís would not have been damned, or if neglect of -mortification were the cause of damnation Adam would never -have been blessed. The result hangs on predestined grace -(<i>`ináyat</i>), not on abundance of mortification. It is not the case -that he who most exerts himself is the most secure, but that -he who has most grace is nearest to God. A monk worshipping -in his cell may be far from God, and a sinner in the tavern -may be near to Him. The noblest thing in the world is -the faith of a child who is not subject to the religious law -(<i>mukallaf</i>) and in this respect belongs to the same category -as madmen: if, then, mortification is not the cause of the -noblest of all gifts, no cause is necessary for anything that -is inferior.</p> - -<p class='c001'>I, `Alí b. `Uthmán al-Jullábí, say that the difference between -the two parties in this controversy lies in expression (<i>`ibárat</i>). -One says, “He who seeks shall find,” and the other says, “He -who finds shall seek.” Seeking is the cause of finding, but -it is no less true that finding is the cause of seeking. The -one party practises mortification for the purpose of attaining -contemplation, and the other party practises contemplation -for the purpose of attaining mortification. The fact is that -mortification stands in the same relation to contemplation -as Divine blessing (<i>tawfíq</i>), which is a gift from God, to -obedience (<i>ṭá`at</i>): as it is absurd to seek obedience without -Divine blessing, so it is absurd to seek Divine blessing -without obedience, and as there can be no mortification without -contemplation, so there can be no contemplation without -mortification. Man is guided to mortification by a flash of the -Divine Beauty, and inasmuch as that flash is the cause of the -existence of mortification, Divine guidance (<i>hidáyat</i>) precedes -mortification.</p> - -<p class='c001'>Now, as regards the argument of Sahl and his followers -<span class='pageno' id='Page_204'>204</span>that failure to affirm mortification involves the denial of all -the religious ordinances which have come down in the books -revealed to the Prophets, this statement requires correction. -Religious obligations (<i>taklíf</i>) depend on Divine guidance -(<i>hidáyat</i>), and acts of mortification only serve to affirm the -proofs of God, not to effect real union with Him. God has -said: “<i>And though We had sent down the angels unto them and -the dead had spoken unto them and We had gathered before them -all things together, they would not have believed unless God had -so willed</i>” (Kor. vi, 111), for the cause of belief is Our will, -not evidences or mortification. Accordingly, the revelations -of the Prophets and the ordinances of religion are a means -(<i>asbáb</i>) of attaining to union, but are not the cause (<i>`illat</i>) of -union. So far as religious obligations are concerned, Abú -Bakr was in the same position as Abú Jahl, but Abú Bakr, -having justice and grace, attained, whereas Abú Jahl, having -justice without grace, failed. Therefore the cause of attainment -is attainment itself, not the act of seeking attainment, for if -the seeker were one with the object sought the seeker would -be one, and in that case he would not be a seeker, because he -who has attained is at rest, which the seeker cannot be.</p> - -<p class='c001'>Again, in reference to their argument that the qualities of -a horse are altered by mortification, you must know that -mortification is only a means of bringing out qualities that are -already latent in the horse but do not appear until he has been -trained. Mortification will never turn a donkey into a horse -or a horse into a donkey, because this involves a change of -identity; and since mortification has not the power of transforming -identity it cannot possibly be affirmed in the presence -of God.</p> - -<p class='c001'>Over that spiritual director, namely, Sahl, there used to pass -a mortification of which he was independent and which, while -he was in the reality thereof, he was unable to express in -words. He was not like some who have made it their religion -to talk about mortification without practising it. How absurd -that what ought to consist wholly in action should become -<span class='pageno' id='Page_205'>205</span>nothing but words! In short, the Ṣúfís are unanimous in -recognizing the existence of mortification and discipline, but -hold that it is wrong to pay regard to them. Those who deny -mortification do not mean to deny its reality, but only to deny -that any regard should be paid to it or that anyone should be -pleased with his own actions in the place of holiness, inasmuch -as mortification is the act of Man, while contemplation is a state -in which one is kept by God, and a man’s actions do not begin -to have value until God keeps him thus. The mortification of -those whom God loves is the work of God in them without -choice on their part: it overwhelms and melts them away; but -the mortification of ignorant men is the work of themselves in -themselves by their own choice: it perturbs and distresses them, -and distress is due to evil. Therefore, do not speak of thine -own actions while thou canst avoid it, and never in any -circumstances follow thy lower soul, for it is thy phenomenal -being that veils thee from God. If thou wert veiled by one act -alone, thou mightest be unveiled by another, but since thy whole -being is a veil thou wilt not become worthy of subsistence -(<i>baqá</i>) until thou art wholly annihilated. It is related in a well—known -anecdote that Ḥusayn b. Manṣúr (al-Ḥalláj) came to -Kúfa and lodged in the house of Muḥammad b. al-Ḥusayn al-`Alawí. -Ibráhím Khawwáṣ also came to Kúfa, and, having heard -of al-Ḥalláj, went to see him. Al-Ḥalláj said: “O Ibráhím, -during these forty years of your connexion with Ṣúfiism, what -have you gained from it?” Ibráhím answered: “I have made -the doctrine of trust in God (<i>tawakkul</i>) peculiarly my own.” -Al-Ḥalláj said: “You have wasted your life in cultivating your -spiritual nature: what has become of annihilation in Unification -(<i>al-faná fi ´l-tawḥíd</i>)?” i.e. “trust in God is a term denoting -your conduct towards God and your spiritual excellence in -regard to relying on Him: if a man spends his whole life in -remedying his spiritual nature, he will need another life for -remedying his material nature, and his life will be lost before he -has found a trace or vestige of God”. And a story is told of -Shaykh Abú `Alí Siyáh of Merv, that he said: “I saw my lower -<span class='pageno' id='Page_206'>206</span>soul in a form resembling my own, and some one had seized it -by its hair and gave it into my hands. I bound it to a tree and -was about to destroy it, when it cried out, ‘O Abú `Alí, do not -trouble yourself. I am God’s army (<i>lashkar-i khudáyam</i>): you -cannot reduce me to naught.’” And it is related concerning -Muḥammad b. `Ulyán of Nasá, an eminent companion of -Junayd, that he said: “In my novitiate, when I had become -aware of the corruptions of the lower soul and acquainted with -its places of ambush, I always felt a violent hatred of it in my -heart. One day something like a young fox came forth from -my throat, and God caused me to know that it was my lower -soul. I cast it under my feet, and at every kick that I gave it, -it grew bigger. I said: ‘Other things are destroyed by pain and -blows: why dost thou increase?’ It replied: ‘Because I was -created perverse: that which is pain to other things is pleasure -to me, and their pleasure is my pain.’” Shaykh Abu ´l-`Abbás -Shaqání, who was the Imám of his time, said: “One day I came -into my house and found a yellow dog lying there, asleep. -Thinking it had come in from the street, I was about to turn it -out. It crept under my skirt and vanished.” Shaykh Abu ´l-Qásim -Gurgání, who to-day is the Quṭb—may God prolong -his life!—relates, speaking of his novitiate, that he saw his lower -soul in the form of a snake. A dervish said: “I saw my lower -soul in the shape of a mouse. ‘Who art thou?’ I asked. It -answered: ‘I am the destruction of the heedless, for I urge -them to evil, and the salvation of those who love God, for if -I were not with them in my corruption they would be puffed -up with pride in their purity.’”</p> - -<p class='c001'>All these stories prove that the lower soul is a real substance -(<i>`ayní</i>), not a mere attribute, and that it has attributes which -we clearly perceive. The Apostle said: “Thy worst enemy -is thy lower soul, which is between thy two sides.” When -you have obtained knowledge of it you recognize that it can -be mastered by discipline, but that its essence and substance -do not perish. If it is rightly known and under control, the -seeker need not care though it continues to exist in him. -<span class='pageno' id='Page_207'>207</span>Hence the purpose of mortifying the lower soul is to destroy -its attributes, not to annihilate its reality. Now I will discuss -the true nature of passion and the renunciation of lusts.</p> - -<h4 class='c020'><i>Discourse on the true nature of Passion</i> (hawá).</h4> - -<p class='c010'>You must know that, according to the opinion of some, -passion is a term applied to the attributes of the lower soul, but, -according to others, a term denoting the natural volition (<i>irádat-i -ṭab`</i>) whereby the lower soul is controlled and directed, just as -the spirit is controlled by the intelligence. Every spirit that is -devoid of the faculty of intelligence is imperfect, and similarly -every lower soul that is devoid of the faculty of passion is -imperfect. Man is continually being called by intelligence -and passion into contrary ways. If he obeys the call of -intelligence he attains to faith, but if he obeys the call of -passion he arrives at error and infidelity. Therefore passion -is a veil and a false guide, and man is commanded to resist -it. Passion is of two kinds: (1) desire of pleasure and lust, -and (2) desire of worldly honour and authority. He who -follows pleasure and lust haunts taverns, and mankind are -safe from his mischief, but he who desires honour and authority -lives in cells (<i>ṣawámi`</i>) and monasteries, and not only has -lost the right way himself but also leads others into error. -One whose every act depends on passion, and who finds -satisfaction in following it, is far from God although he be -with you in a mosque, but one who has renounced and -abandoned it is near to God although he be in a church. -Ibráhím Khawwáṣ relates this anecdote: “Once I heard that -in Rúm there was a monk who had been seventy years in -a monastery. I said to myself: ‘Wonderful! Forty years -is the term of monastic vows: what is the state of this man -that he has remained there for seventy years?’ I went to -see him. When I approached, he opened a window and said -to me: ‘O Ibráhím, I know why you have come. I have -not stayed here for seventy years because of monastic vows, -but I have a dog foul with passion, and I have taken my -<span class='pageno' id='Page_208'>208</span>abode in this monastery for the purpose of guarding the dog -(<i>sagbání</i>), and preventing it from doing harm to others.’ On -hearing him say this I exclaimed: ‘O Lord, Thou art able -to bestow righteousness on a man even though he be involved -in sheer error.’ He said to me: ‘O Ibráhím, how long will -you seek men? Go and seek yourself, and when you have -found yourself keep watch over yourself, for this passion clothes -itself every day in three hundred and sixty diverse garments -of godhead and leads men astray.’“</p> - -<p class='c001'>In short, the devil cannot enter a man’s heart until he -desires to commit a sin: but when a certain quantity of -passion appears, the devil takes it and decks it out and -displays it to the man’s heart; and this is called diabolic -suggestion (<i>waswás</i>). It begins from passion, and in reference -to this fact God said to Iblís when he threatened to seduce -all mankind: ”<i>Verily, thou hast no power over My servants</i>” -(Kor. xv, 42), for the devil in reality is a man’s lower soul -and passion. Hence the Apostle said: “There is no one -whom his devil (i.e. his passion) has not subdued except -`Umar, for he has subdued his devil.” Passion is mingled -as an ingredient in the clay of Adam; whoever renounces it -becomes a prince and whoever follows it becomes a captive. -Junayd was asked: “What is union with God?” He replied: -“To renounce passion,” for of all the acts of devotion by -which God’s favour is sought none has greater value than -resistance to passion, because it is easier for a man to destroy -a mountain with his nails than to resist passion. I have -read in the Anecdotes that Dhu ´l-Nún the Egyptian said: -“I saw a man flying through the air, and asked him how -he had attained to this degree. He answered: ‘I set my -feet on passion (<i>hawá</i>) in order that I might ascend into -the air (<i>hawá</i>).’” It is related that Muḥammad b. Faḍl -al-Balkhí said: “I marvel at one who goes with his passion -into God’s House and visits Him: why does not he trample -on his passion that he may attain to Him?”</p> - -<p class='c001'>The most manifest attribute of the lower soul is lust (<i>shahwat</i>). -<span class='pageno' id='Page_209'>209</span>Lust is a thing that is dispersed in different parts of the human -body, and is served by the senses. Man is bound to guard all -his members from it, and he shall be questioned concerning the -acts of each. The lust of the eye is sight, that of the ear is -hearing, that of the nose is smell, that of the tongue is speech, -that of the palate is taste, that of the body (<i>jasad</i>) is touch, -and that of the mind is thought (<i>andíshídan</i>). It behoves the -seeker of God to spend his whole life, day and night, in ridding -himself of these incitements to passion which show themselves -through the senses, and to pray God to make him such that this -desire will be removed from his inward nature, since whoever is -afflicted with lust is veiled from all spiritual things. If anyone -should repel it by his own exertions, his task would be long and -painful. The right way is resignation (<i>taslím</i>). It is related -that Abú `Alí Siyáh of Merv said: “I had gone to the bath -and in accordance with the custom of the Prophet I was using -a razor (<i>pubis tondendæ causâ</i>). I said to myself: ‘O Abú `Alí, -amputate this member which is the source of all lusts and keeps -thee afflicted with so much evil.’ A voice in my heart whispered: -‘O Abú `Alí, wilt thou interfere in My kingdom? Are not all -thy limbs equally at My disposal? If thou do this, I swear by -My glory that I will put a hundredfold lust and passion in every -hair in that place.’”</p> - -<p class='c001'>Although a man has no power over what is vicious in his -constitution, he can get an attribute changed by Divine aid and -by resigning himself to God’s will and by divesting himself of -his own power and strength. In reality, when he resigns himself, -God protects him; and through God’s protection he comes -nearer to annihilating the evil than he does through self-mortification, -since flies are more easily driven away with an -umbrella (<i>mikanna</i>) than with a fly-whisk (<i>midhabba</i>). Unless -Divine protection is predestined to a man, he cannot abstain -from anything by his own exertion, and unless God exerts -Himself towards a man, that man’s exertion is of no use. All -acts of exertion fall under two heads: their object is either to -avert the predestination of God or to acquire something in spite -<span class='pageno' id='Page_210'>210</span>of predestination; and both these objects are impossible. It is -related that when Shiblí was ill, the physician advised him to be -abstinent. “From what shall I abstain?” said he, “from that -which God bestows upon me, or from that which He does not -bestow? It is impossible to abstain from the former, and the -latter is not in my hands.” I will discuss this question carefully -on another occasion.</p> - -<h3 class='c018'>7. <span class='sc'>The Ḥakímís.</span></h3> - -<p class='c010'>They are the followers of Abú `Abdalláh Muḥammad b. `Alí -al-Ḥakím al-Tirmidhí, who was one of the religious leaders -of his time and the author of many works on every branch -of exoteric and esoteric science. His doctrine was based on -saintship (<i>wiláyat</i>), and he used to explain the true nature -of saintship and the degrees of the saints and the observance -of the proper arrangement of their ranks.</p> - -<p class='c001'>As the first step towards understanding his doctrine, you -must know that God has saints (<i>awliyá</i>), whom He has chosen -out of mankind, and whose thoughts He has withdrawn from -worldly ties and delivered from sensual temptations; and He -has stationed each of them in a particular degree, and has -opened unto them the door of these mysteries. Much might -be said on this topic, but I must briefly set forth several points -of capital importance.</p> - -<h4 class='c020'><i>Discourse on the Affirmation of Saintship</i> (wiláyat).</h4> - -<p class='c010'>You must know that the principle and foundation of Ṣúfiism -and knowledge of God rests on saintship, the reality of which -is unanimously affirmed by all the Shaykhs, though every one -has expressed himself in different language. The peculiarity -of Muḥammad b. `Alí (al-Ḥakím) lies in the fact that he applied -this term to the theory of Ṣúfiism.</p> - -<p class='c001'><i>Waláyat</i> means, etymologically, “power to dispose” (<i>taṣarruf</i>), -and <i>wiláyat</i> means “possession of command” (<i>imárat</i>). <i>Waláyat</i> -also means “lordship” (<i>rubúbiyyat</i>); hence God hath said: “<i>In -this case the lordship</i> (al-waláyat) <i>belongs to God who is the</i> -<span class='pageno' id='Page_211'>211</span><i>Truth</i>” (Kor. xviii, 42), because the unbelievers seek His -protection and turn unto Him and renounce their idols. And -<i>wiláyat</i> also means “love” (<i>maḥabbat</i>). <i>Walí</i> may be the form -<i>fa`íl</i> with the meaning of <i>maf`úl</i>, as God hath said: “<i>And He -takes charge of</i> (yatawallá) <i>the righteous</i>” (Kor. vii, 195), for God -does not leave His servant to his own actions and attributes, -but keeps him under His protection. And <i>walí</i> may be the -form <i>fa`íl</i>, equivalent to <i>fá`il</i>, with an intensive force, because -a man takes care (<i>tawallí kunad</i>) to obey God and constantly -to fulfil the obligations that he owes to Him. Thus <i>walí</i> in -the active meaning is “one who desires” (<i>muríd</i>), while in the -passive meaning it denotes “one who is the object of God’s -desire” (<i>murád</i>). All these meanings, whether they signify the -relation of God to Man or that of Man to God, are allowable, -for God may be the protector of His friends, inasmuch as He -promised His protection to the Companions of the Apostle, -and declared that the unbelievers had no protector (<i>mawlá</i>).<a id='r117' /><a href='#f117' class='c015'><sup>[117]</sup></a> -And, moreover, He may distinguish them in an exclusive way -by His friendship, as He hath said, “<i>He loves them and they -love Him</i>” (Kor. v, 59), so that they turn away from the favour -of mankind: He is their friend (<i>walí</i>) and they are His friends -(<i>awliyá</i>). And He may confer on one a “friendship” (<i>wiláyat</i>) -that enables him to persevere in obedience to Him, and keeps -him free from sin, and on another a “friendship” that empowers -him to loose and bind, and makes his prayers answered and his -aspirations effectual, as the Apostle said: “There is many a one -with dirty hair, dust-stained, clad in two old garments, whom -men never heed; but if he were to swear by God, God would -verify his oath.” It is well known that in the Caliphate of -`Umar b. al-Khaṭṭáb, the Nile, in accordance with its usual -habit, ceased to flow; for in the time of Paganism they used -annually to adorn a maiden and throw her into the river to -make it flow again. `Umar therefore wrote on a piece of -paper: “O river, if thou hast stopped of thy own will, thou -<span class='pageno' id='Page_212'>212</span>doest wrong, and if by command of God, `Umar bids thee flow.“ -When this paper was thrown in, the Nile resumed its course.</p> - -<p class='c001'>My purpose in discussing saintship and affirming its reality -is to show you that the name of saint (<i>walí</i>) is properly -applied to those in whom the above-mentioned qualities are -actually present (<i>ḥál</i>) and not merely reputed (<i>qál</i>). Certain -Shaykhs formerly composed books on this subject, but they -became rare and soon disappeared. Now I will commend to -you the explanation given by that venerable spiritual director -who is the author of the doctrine—for my own belief in it is -greater—in order that much instruction may be gained, not -only by yourself, but also by every seeker of Ṣúfiism who -may have the good fortune to read this book.</p> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c004'> - <div><span class='sc'>Section.</span></div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>You must know that the word <i>walí</i> is current among the -vulgar, and is to be found in the Koran and the Apostolic -Traditions: e.g., God hath said, ”<i>Verily, on the friends</i> -(awliyá) <i>of God no fear shall come, and they shall not grieve</i>“ -(Kor. x, 63); and again, ”<i>God is the friend</i> (walí) <i>of those who -believe</i>” (Kor. ii, 258). And the Apostle said: “Among the -servants of God there are some whom the prophets and martyrs -deem happy.” He was asked: “Who are they? Describe -them to us that perchance we may love them.” He replied: -“Those who love one another, through God’s mercy, without -wealth and without seeking a livelihood: their faces are -luminous, and they sit on thrones of light; they are not afraid -when men are afraid, nor do they grieve when men grieve.” -Then he recited: “<i>Verily, on the friends of God no fear shall -come, and they shall not grieve</i>” (Kor. x, 63). Furthermore, -the Apostle said that God said: “He who hurts a saint (<i>walí</i>) -has allowed himself to make war on Me.”</p> - -<p class='c001'>These passages show that God has saints (<i>awliyá</i>) whom -He has specially distinguished by His friendship and whom He -has chosen to be the governors of His kingdom and has -marked out to manifest His actions and has peculiarly favoured -<span class='pageno' id='Page_213'>213</span>with diverse kinds of miracles (<i>karámát</i>) and has purged of -natural corruptions and has delivered from subjection to their -lower soul and passion, so that all their thoughts are of Him -and their intimacy is with Him alone. Such have been in -past ages, and are now, and shall be hereafter until the Day -of Resurrection, because God has exalted this (Moslem) -community above all others and has promised to preserve the -religion of Muḥammad. Inasmuch as the traditional and -intellectual proofs of this religion are to be found among the -divines (<i>`ulamá</i>), it follows that the visible proof is to be found -among the Saints and elect of God. Here we have two parties -opposed to us, namely, the Mu`tazilites and the rank and file -of the Anthropomorphists (<i>Ḥashwiyya</i>). The Mu`tazilites deny -that one Moslem is specially privileged more than another; -but if a saint is not specially privileged, neither is a prophet -specially privileged; and this is infidelity. The vulgar Anthropomorphists -allow that special privileges may be conferred, but -assert that such privileged persons no longer exist, although -they did exist in the past. It is all the same, however, whether -they deny the past or the future, since one side of denial is no -better than another.</p> - -<p class='c001'>God, then, has caused the prophetic evidence (<i>burhán-i -nabawí</i>) to remain down to the present day, and has made the -Saints the means whereby it is manifested, in order that the -signs of the Truth and the proof of Muḥammad’s veracity may -continue to be clearly seen. He has made the Saints the -governors of the universe; they have become entirely devoted -to His business, and have ceased to follow their sensual -affections. Through the blessing of their advent the rain falls -from heaven, and through the purity of their lives the plants -spring up from the earth, and through their spiritual influence -the Moslems gain victories over the unbelievers. Among them -there are four thousand who are concealed and do not know -one another and are not aware of the excellence of their state, -but in all circumstances are hidden from themselves and from -mankind. Traditions have come down to this effect, and the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_214'>214</span>sayings of the Saints proclaim the truth thereof, and I myself—God -be praised!—have had ocular experience (<i>khabar-i `iyán</i>) -of this matter. But of those who have power to loose and to -bind and are the officers of the Divine court there are three -hundred, called <i>Akhyár</i>, and forty, called <i>Abdál</i>, and seven, -called <i>Abrár</i>, and four, called <i>Awtád</i>, and three, called <i>Nuqabá</i>, -and one, called <i>Quṭb</i> or <i>Ghawth</i>. All these know one another -and cannot act save by mutual consent.</p> - -<p class='c001'>Here the vulgar may object to my assertion that they know -one another to be saints, on the ground that, if such is the case, -they must be secure as to their fate in the next world. I reply -that it is absurd to suppose that knowledge of saintship involves -security. A believer may have knowledge of his faith and -yet not be secure: why should not the same hold good of -a saint who has knowledge of his saintship? Nevertheless, it -is possible that God should miraculously cause the saint to -know his security in regard to the future life, while maintaining -him in a state of spiritual soundness and preserving him from -disobedience. The Shaykhs differ on this question for the -reason which I have explained. Those belonging to the four -thousand who are concealed do not admit that the saint can -know himself to be such, whereas those of the other class take -the contrary view. Each opinion is supported by many lawyers -and scholastics. Abú Isḥáq Isfará´iní<a id='r118' /><a href='#f118' class='c015'><sup>[118]</sup></a> and some of the ancients -hold that a saint is ignorant of his saintship, while Abú Bakr -b. Fúrak<a id='r119' /><a href='#f119' class='c015'><sup>[119]</sup></a> and others of the past generation hold that he is -conscious of it. I ask the former party, what loss or evil does -a saint suffer by knowing himself? If they allege that he is -conceited when he knows himself to be a saint, I answer that -Divine protection is a necessary condition of saintship, and one -who is protected from evil cannot fall into self-conceit. It is -a very common notion (<i>sukhan-i sakht `ámiyána</i>) that a saint, -to whom extraordinary miracles (<i>karámát</i>) are continually -vouchsafed, does not know himself to be a saint or these -<span class='pageno' id='Page_215'>215</span>miracles to be miracles. Both parties have adherents among -the common people, but opinion is of no account.</p> - -<p class='c001'>The Mu`tazilites, however, deny special privileges and -miracles, which constitute the essence of saintship. They affirm -that all Moslems are friends (<i>awliyá</i>) of God when they are -obedient to Him, and that anyone who fulfils the ordinances -of the Faith and denies the attributes and vision of God and -allows believers to be eternally damned in Hell and acknowledges -only such obligations as are imposed by Reason, without -regard to Revelation, is a “friend” (<i>walí</i>). All Moslems agree -that such a person is a “friend”, but a friend of the Devil. -The Mu`tazilites also maintain that, if saintship involved -miracles, all believers must have miracles vouchsafed to them, -because they all share in faith (<i>ímán</i>), and if they share in -what is fundamental they must likewise share in what is -derivative. They say, further, that miracles may be vouchsafed -both to believers and to infidels, e.g. when anyone is -hungry or fatigued on a journey some person may appear in -order to give him food or mount him on an animal for riding. -If it were possible, they add, for anyone to traverse a great -distance in one night, the Apostle must have been that man; -yet, when he set out for Mecca, God said, “<i>And they</i> (the -animals) <i>carry your burdens to a land which ye would not have -reached save with sore trouble to yourselves</i>” (Kor. xvi, 7). -I reply: “Your arguments are worthless, for God said, ‘<i>Glory to -Him who transported His servant by night from the sacred -mosque to the farther mosque</i>’” (Kor. xvii, 1). Miracles are -special, not general; but it would have been a general instance -if all the Companions had been miraculously conveyed to -Mecca, and this would have destroyed all the principles of -faith in the unseen. Faith is a general term, applicable to -the righteous and the wicked alike, whereas saintship is special. -The journey of the Companions to Mecca falls under the former -category, but inasmuch as the case of the Apostle was a special -one, God conveyed him in one night from Mecca to Jerusalem, -and thence to a space of two bow-lengths from the Divine -<span class='pageno' id='Page_216'>216</span>presence; and he returned ere the night was far spent. Again, -to deny special privileges is manifestly unreasonable. As in -a palace there are chamberlains, janitors, grooms, and viziers, -who, although they are equally the king’s servants, are not -equal in rank, so all believers are equal in respect of their -faith, but some are obedient, some wise, some pious, and some -ignorant.</p> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c004'> - <div><span class='sc'>Section.</span></div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>The Shaykhs, every one, have given hints as to the true -meaning of saintship. Now I will bring together as many of -these selected definitions as possible.</p> - -<p class='c001'>Abú `Alí Júzajání says: “The saint is annihilated in his own -state and subsistent in the contemplation of the Truth: he cannot -tell anything concerning himself, nor can he rest with anyone -except God,” because a man has knowledge only of his own -state, and when all his states are annihilated he cannot tell -anything about himself; and he cannot rest with anyone else, -to whom he might tell his state, because to communicate one’s -hidden state to another is to reveal the secret of the Beloved, -which cannot be revealed except to the Beloved himself. -Moreover, in contemplation it is impossible to regard aught -except God: how, then, can he be at rest with mankind? -Junayd said: “The saint hath no fear, because fear is the -expectation either of some future calamity or of the eventual -loss of some object of desire, whereas the saint is the son of -his time (<i>ibn waqtihi</i>): he has no future that he should fear -anything; and as he hath no fear so he hath no hope, since -hope is the expectation either of gaining an object of desire -or of being relieved from a misfortune, and this belongs to -the future; nor does he grieve, because grief arises from the -rigour of time, and how should he feel grief who is in the -radiance of satisfaction (<i>riḍá</i>) and the garden of concord -(<i>muwáfaqat</i>)?” The vulgar imagine this saying to imply that, -inasmuch as the saint feels neither fear nor hope nor grief, he -has security (<i>amn</i>) in their place; but he has not security, for -<span class='pageno' id='Page_217'>217</span>security arises from not seeing that which is hidden, and from -turning one’s back on “time”; and this (absence of security) -is characteristic of those who pay no regard to their humanity -(<i>bashariyyat</i>) and are not content with attributes. Fear and -hope and security and grief all refer to the interests of the -lower soul, and when that is annihilated satisfaction (<i>riḍá</i>) -becomes an attribute of Man, and when satisfaction has been -attained his states become steadfast (<i>mustaqím</i>) in vision of -the Author of states (<i>muḥawwil</i>), and his back is turned on -all states. Then saintship is revealed to his heart and its -meaning is made clear to his inmost thoughts. Abú `Uthmán -Maghribí says: “The saint is sometimes celebrated (<i>mashhúr</i>), -but he is not seduced (<i>maftún</i>),” and another says: “The saint -is sometimes hidden (<i>mastúr</i>), but he is not celebrated.” -Seduction consists in falsehood: inasmuch as the saint must -be veracious, and miracles cannot possibly be performed by -a liar, it follows that the saint is incapable of being seduced. -These two sayings refer to the controversy whether the saint -knows himself to be such: if he knows, he is celebrated, and -if he does not know, he is seduced; but the explanation of -this is tedious. It is related that Ibráhím b. Adham asked -a certain man whether he desired to be one of God’s saints, -and on his replying “Yes”, said: “Do not covet anything in -this world or the next, and devote thyself entirely to God, -and turn to God with all thy heart.” To covet this world -is to turn away from God for the sake of that which is -transitory, and to covet the next world is to turn away from -God for the sake of that which is everlasting: that which is -transitory perishes and its renunciation becomes naught, but -that which is everlasting cannot perish, hence its renunciation -also is imperishable. Abú Yazíd was asked: “Who is a saint?” -He answered: “That one who is patient under the command -and prohibition of God,” because the more a man loves God -the more does his heart revere what He commands and the -farther is his body from what He forbids. It is related that -Abú Yazíd said: “Once I was told that a saint of God was -<span class='pageno' id='Page_218'>218</span>in such and such a town. I set out to visit him. When -I arrived at his mosque he came forth from his chamber and -spat on the floor of the mosque. I turned back without -saluting him, and said to myself: ‘A saint must keep the -religious law in order that God may keep him in his spiritual -state. Had this man been a saint his respect for the mosque -would have prevented him from spitting on its floor, or God -would have preserved him from marring the grace vouchsafed -to him.’ The same night I dreamed that the Apostle said -to me, ‘O Abú Yazíd, the blessing of that which thou hast -done is come to thee.’ Next day I attained to this degree -which ye behold.” And I have heard that a man who came -to visit Shaykh Abú Sa`íd entered the mosque with his left -foot foremost. The Shaykh gave orders that he should be -dismissed, saying: “He who does not know how to enter the -house of the Friend is not suitable for us.” Some heretics -who have adopted this perilous doctrine assert that service of -God (<i>khidmat</i>) is necessary only while one is becoming a saint, -but that after one has become a saint service is abolished. -This is clearly wrong. There is no “station” on the way to -the Truth where any obligation of service is abolished. I will -explain this matter fully in its proper place.</p> - -<h4 class='c020'><i>Discourse on the Affirmation of Miracles</i> (karámát).</h4> - -<p class='c010'>You must know that miracles may be vouchsafed to a saint -so long as he does not infringe the obligations of the religious -law. Both parties of the orthodox Moslems agree on this point, -nor is it intellectually impossible, because such miracles are -a species of that which is predestined by God, and their -manifestation does not contradict any principle of the religious -law, nor, on the other hand, is it repugnant to the mind to -conceive them as a genus. A miracle is a token of a saint’s -veracity, and it cannot be manifested to an impostor except -as a sign that his pretensions are false. It is an extraordinary -act (<i>fi`lí náqiḍ-i `ádat</i>), performed while he is still subject to the -obligations of religion; and whoever is able, through knowledge -<span class='pageno' id='Page_219'>219</span>given him by God, to distinguish by the method of deduction -what is true from what is false, he too is a saint. Some Sunnís -maintain that miracles are established, but not to the degree -of an evidentiary miracle (<i>mu`jizat</i><a id='r120' /><a href='#f120' class='c015'><sup>[120]</sup></a>): they do not admit, for -example, that prayers may be answered and fulfilled, and so -forth, contrary to custom. I ask in reply: “What do you -consider wrong in the performance by a true saint, while he -is subject to religious obligations, of an act which violates -custom?” If they say that it is not a species of that which -is predestined by God, this statement is erroneous; and if they -say that it is a species of that which is predestined, but that its -performance by a true saint involves the annulment of prophecy -and the denial of special privileges to the prophets, this -assertion also is inadmissible, since the saint is specially -distinguished by miracles (<i>karámát</i>) and the prophet by -evidentiary miracles (<i>mu`jizát</i>); and inasmuch as the saint is -a saint and the prophet is a prophet, there is no likeness -between them to justify such precaution. The pre-eminence -of the prophets depends on their exalted rank and on their -being preserved from the defilement of sin, not on miracles or -evidentiary miracles or acts which violate custom. All the -prophets are equal so far as they all have the power of working -such miracles (<i>i`jáz</i>), but some are superior to others in degree. -Since, then, notwithstanding this equality in regard to their -actions, some prophets are superior to others, why should not -miracles (<i>karámát</i>) which violate custom be vouchsafed also to -the saints, although the prophets are superior to them? And -since, in the case of the prophets, an act which violates custom -does not cause one of them to be more exalted or more -specially privileged than another, so, in the case of the saints, -a similar act does not cause a saint to be more specially -privileged than a prophet, i.e. the saints do not become like in -kind (<i>hamsán</i>) to the prophets. This proof will clear away, for -reasonable men, any difficulties that this matter may have -<span class='pageno' id='Page_220'>220</span>presented to them. “But suppose,” it may be said, “that -a saint whose miracles violate custom should claim to be -a prophet.” I reply that this is impossible, because saintship -involves veracity, and he who tells a falsehood is no saint. -Moreover, a saint who pretends to prophesy casts an imputation -on (the genuineness of) evidentiary miracles, which is infidelity. -Miracles (<i>karámát</i>) are vouchsafed only to a pious -believer, and falsehood is impiety. That being so, the miracles -of the saint confirm the evidence of the prophet. There is no -difficulty in reconciling the two classes of miracles. The -apostle establishes his prophecy by establishing the reality of -evidentiary miracles, while the saint, by the miracles which he -performs, establishes both the prophecy of the apostle and his -own saintship. Therefore the veracious saint says the same -thing as the veracious prophet. The miracles of the former are -identical with the evidentiary miracles of the latter. A believer, -seeing the miracles of a saint, has more faith in the veracity of -the prophet, not more doubt, because there is no contradiction -between the claims made by them. Similarly, in law, when -a number of heirs are agreed in their claim, if one of them -establishes his claim the claim of the others is established; but -not so if their claims are contradictory. Hence, when a prophet -adduces evidentiary miracles as evidence that his prophecy is -genuine, and when his claim is confirmed by a saint, it is -impossible that any difficulty should arise.</p> - -<h4 class='c020'><i>Discourse on the difference between Evidentiary Miracles</i> (mu`jizát) <i>and Miracles</i> (karámát).</h4> - -<p class='c010'>Inasmuch as it has been shown that neither class of miracles -can be wrought by an impostor, we must now distinguish more -clearly between them. <i>Mu`jizát</i> involve publicity and <i>karámát</i> -secrecy, because the result of the former is to affect others, -while the latter are peculiar to the person by whom they are -performed. Again, the doer of <i>mu`jizát</i> is quite sure that he has -wrought an extraordinary miracle, whereas the doer of <i>karámát</i> -cannot be sure whether he has really wrought a miracle or -<span class='pageno' id='Page_221'>221</span>whether he is insensibly deceived (<i>istidráj</i>). He who performs -<i>mu`jizát</i> has authority over the law, and in arranging it he -denies or affirms, according as God commands him, that he is -insensibly deceived.<a id='r121' /><a href='#f121' class='c015'><sup>[121]</sup></a> On the other hand, he who performs -<i>karámát</i> has no choice but to resign himself (to God’s will) and -to accept the ordinances that are laid upon him, because the -<i>karámát</i> of a saint are never in any way incompatible with the -law laid down by a prophet. It may be said: “If evidentiary -miracles are the proof of a prophet’s veracity, and if nevertheless -you assert that miracles of the same kind may be performed by -one who is not a prophet, then they become ordinary events -(<i>mu`tád</i>): therefore your proof of the reality of <i>mu`jizát</i> annuls -your argument establishing the reality of <i>karámát</i>.” I reply: -“This is not the case. The <i>karámat</i> of a saint is identical with, -and displays the same evidence as, the <i>mu`jizat</i> of a prophet: -the quality of <i>i`jáz</i> (inimitability) exhibited in the one instance -does not impair the same quality in the other instance.” When -the infidels put Khubayb on the gallows at Mecca, the Apostle, -who was then seated in the mosque at Medína, saw him and -told the Companions what was being done to him. God also -lifted the veil from the eyes of Khubayb, so that he saw the -Apostle and cried, “Peace be with thee!” and God caused -the Apostle to hear his salutation, and caused Khubayb to hear -the Apostle’s answer. Now, the fact that the Apostle at Medína -saw Khubayb at Mecca was an evidentiary miracle, and the fact -that Khubayb at Mecca saw the Apostle at Medína was likewise -an extraordinary act. Accordingly there is no difference -between absence in time and absence in space; for Khubayb’s -miracle (<i>karámat</i>) was wrought when he was absent from the -Apostle in space, and the miracles of later days were wrought -by those who were absent from the Apostle in time. This is -a clear distinction and a manifest proof that <i>karámát</i> cannot -possibly be in contradiction with <i>i`jáz</i> (miracles performed by -a prophet). <i>Karámát</i> are not established unless they bear -testimony to the truth of one who has performed a <i>mu`jizat</i>, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_222'>222</span>and they are not vouchsafed except to a pious believer who -bears such testimony. <i>Karámát</i> of Moslems are an extraordinary -miracle (<i>mu`jizat</i>) of the Apostle, for as his law is -permanent so must his proof (<i>ḥujjat</i>) also be permanent. The -saints are witnesses to the truth of the Apostle’s mission, and it -is impossible that a miracle (<i>karámat</i>) should be wrought by -an unbeliever (<i>bégána</i>).</p> - -<p class='c001'>On this topic a story is related of Ibráhím Khawwáṣ, which is -very apposite here. Ibráhím said: “I went down into the -desert in my usual state of detachment from worldly things -(<i>tajríd</i>). After I had gone some distance a man appeared and -begged me to let him be my companion. I looked at him and -was conscious of a feeling of repugnance. He said to me: -‘O Ibráhím, do not be vexed. I am a Christian, and one of -the Ṣábians among them. I have come from the confines of -Rúm in the hope of being thy companion.’ When I knew that -he was an unbeliever, I regained my equanimity, and felt it -more easy to take him as my companion and to fulfil my -obligations towards him. I said: ‘O monk, I fear that thou -wilt suffer from want of meat and drink, for I have nothing -with me.’ ‘O Ibráhím,’ said he, ‘is thy fame in the world so -great, and art thou still concerned about meat and drink?’ -I marvelled at his boldness and accepted him as my companion -in order to test his claim. After journeying seven days and -nights we were overtaken by thirst. He stopped and cried: -‘O Ibráhím, they trumpet thy praise throughout the world. -Now let me see what privileges of intimacy (<i>gustákhíhá</i>) thou -hast in this court (i.e. to what extent thou art a favourite with -God), for I can endure no more.’ I laid my head on the earth -and cried: ‘O Lord, do not shame me before this unbeliever, -who thinks well of me!’ When I raised my head I saw a dish -on which were placed two loaves of bread and two cups of -water. We ate and drank and went on our way. After seven -days had passed I resolved to test him ere he should again -put me to the proof. ‘O monk,’ I said, ‘now it is thy turn. -Let me see the fruits of thy mortification.’ He laid his head -<span class='pageno' id='Page_223'>223</span>on the earth and muttered something. Immediately a dish -appeared containing four loaves and four cups of water. I was -amazed and grieved, and I despaired of my state. ‘This has -appeared,’ I said, ‘for the sake of an unbeliever: how can -I eat or drink thereof?’ He bade me taste, but I refused, -saying, ‘Thou art not worthy of this, and it is not in harmony -with thy spiritual condition. If I regard it as a miracle -(<i>karámat</i>), miracles are not vouchsafed to unbelievers; and if -I regard it as a contribution (<i>ma`únat</i>) from thee, I must -suspect thee of being an impostor.’ He said: ‘Taste, O Ibráhím! -I give thee joy of two things: firstly, of my conversion to -Islam (here he uttered the profession of faith), and secondly, -of the great honour in which thou art held by God.’ ‘How -so?’ I asked. He answered: ‘I have no miraculous powers, -but my shame on account of thee made me lay my head on -the earth and beg God to give me two loaves and two cups -of water if the religion of Muḥammad is true, and two more -loaves and cups if Ibráhím Khawwáṣ is one of God’s saints.’” -Then Ibráhím ate and drank, and the man who had been -a monk rose to eminence in Islam.</p> - -<p class='c001'>Now, this violation of custom, although attached to the -<i>karámat</i> of a saint, is identical with the evidentiary miracles -which are wrought by prophets, but it is rare that in a prophet’s -absence an evidence should be vouchsafed to another person, or -that in the presence of a saint some portion of his miraculous -powers should be transferred to another person. In fact, the end -of saintship is only the beginning of prophecy. That monk was -one of the hidden (saints), like Pharaoh’s magicians. Ibráhím -confirmed the Prophet’s power to violate custom, and his companion -also was endeavouring both to confirm prophecy and to -glorify saintship; a purpose which God in His eternal providence -fulfilled. This is a clear difference between <i>karámat</i> and <i>i`jáz</i>. -The manifestation of miracles to the saints is a second miracle, -for they ought to be kept secret, not intentionally divulged. -My Shaykh used to say that if a saint reveals his saintship and -claims to be a saint, the soundness of his spiritual state is not -<span class='pageno' id='Page_224'>224</span>impaired thereby, but if he takes pains to obtain publicity he is -led astray by self-conceit.</p> - -<h4 class='c020'><i>Discourse on the performance of miracles belonging to the evidentiary class by those who pretend to godship.</i></h4> - -<p class='c010'>The Shaykhs of this sect and all orthodox Moslems are -agreed that an extraordinary act resembling a prophetic miracle -(<i>mu`jizat</i>) may be performed by an unbeliever, in order that by -means of his performance he may be shown beyond doubt to be -an impostor. Thus, for example, Pharaoh lived four hundred -years without once falling ill; and when he climbed up to any -high ground the water followed him, and stopped when he -stopped, and moved when he moved. Nevertheless, intelligent -men did not hesitate to deny his pretensions to godship, -inasmuch as every intelligent person acknowledges that God is -not incarnate (<i>mujassam</i>) and composite (<i>murakkab</i>). You will -judge by analogy the wondrous acts related of Shaddád, who was -the lord of Iram, and Nimrod. Similarly, we are told on trustworthy -authority that in the last days Dajjál will come and will -claim godship, and that two mountains will go with him, one on -his right hand and the other on his left; and that the mountain -on his right hand will be the place of felicity, and the mountain -on his left hand will be the place of torment; and that he will -call the people to himself and will punish those who refuse to -join him. But though he should perform a hundredfold amount -of such extraordinary acts, no intelligent person would doubt -the falsity of his claim, for it is well known that God does not -sit on an ass and is not blind. Such things fall under the -principle of Divine deception (<i>istidráj</i>). So, again, one who -falsely pretends to be an apostle may perform an extraordinary -act, which proves him an impostor, just as a similar act performed -by a true apostle proves him genuine. But no such act -can be performed if there be any possibility of doubt or any -difficulty in distinguishing the true claimant from the impostor, -for in that case the principle of allegiance (<i>bay`at</i>) would be -nullified. It is possible, moreover, that something of the same -<span class='pageno' id='Page_225'>225</span>kind as a miracle (<i>karámat</i>) may be performed by a pretender to -saintship who, although his conduct is bad, is blameless in his -religion, inasmuch as by that miraculous act he confirms the -truth of the Apostle and manifests the grace of God vouchsafed -to him and does not attribute the act in question to his own -power. One who speaks the truth, without evidence, in the -fundamental matter of faith (<i>ímán</i>), will always speak the -truth, with evidence and firm belief, in the matter of saintship, -because his belief is of the same quality as the belief of the saint; -and though his actions do not square with his belief, his claim of -saintship is not demonstrably contradicted by his evil conduct, -any more than his claim of faith could be. In fact, miracles -(<i>karámát</i>) and saintship are Divine gifts, not things acquired by -Man, so that human actions (<i>kasb</i>) cannot become the cause of -Divine guidance.</p> - -<p class='c001'>I have already said that the saints are not preserved from -sin (<i>ma`ṣúm</i>), for sinlessness belongs to the prophets, but -they are protected (<i>maḥfúẕ</i>) from any evil that involves the -denial of their saintship; and the denial of saintship, after -it has come into being, depends on something inconsistent -with faith, namely, apostasy (<i>riddat</i>): it does not depend on -sin. This is the doctrine of Muḥammad b. `Alí Ḥakím of -Tirmidh, and also of Junayd, Abu ´l-Ḥasan Núrí, Ḥárith -Muḥásibí, and many other mystics (<i>ahl-i ḥaqá´iq</i>). But those -who attach importance to conduct (<i>ahl-i mu`ámalát</i>), like -Sahl b. `Abdalláh of Tustar, Abú Sulaymán Dárání, Ḥamdún -Qaṣṣár, and others, maintain that saintship involves unceasing -obedience (<i>ṭá`at</i>), and that when a great sin (<i>kabíra</i>) occurs to -the mind of a saint he is deposed from his saintship. Now, -as I have stated before, there is a consensus of opinion -(<i>ijmá`</i>) among Moslems that a great sin does not put -anyone outside the pale of faith; and one saintship (<i>wiláyat</i>) -is no better than another. Therefore, since the saintship of -knowledge of God (<i>ma`rifat</i>), which is the foundation of all -miracles vouchsafed by Divine grace (<i>karámathá</i>), is not lost -through sin, it is impossible that what is inferior to that in -<span class='pageno' id='Page_226'>226</span>excellence and grace (<i>karámat</i>) should disappear because of -sin. The controversy among the Shaykhs on this matter has -run to great length, and I do not intend to record it here.</p> - -<p class='c001'>It is most important, however, that you should know with -certainty in what state this miraculous grace is manifested -to the saint: in sobriety or intoxication, in rapture (<i>ghalabat</i>) -or composure (<i>tamkín</i>). I have fully explained the meaning -of intoxication and sobriety in my account of the doctrine -of Abú Yazíd. He and Dhu ´l-Nún the Egyptian and -Muḥammad b. Khafíf and Ḥusayn b. Manṣúr (al-Ḥalláj) and -Yaḥyá b. Mu`ádh Rází and others hold that miracles are not -vouchsafed to a saint except when he is in the state of -intoxication, whereas the miracles of the prophets are wrought -in the state of sobriety. Hence, according to their doctrine, -this is a clear distinction between <i>mu`jizát</i> and <i>karámát</i>, for -the saint, being enraptured, pays no heed to the people and -does not call upon them to follow him, while the prophet, -being sober, exerts himself to attain his object and challenges -the people to rival what he has done. Moreover, the prophet -may choose whether he will manifest or conceal his extraordinary -powers, but the saints have no such choice; sometimes -a miracle is not granted to them when they desire it, -and sometimes it is bestowed when they do not desire it, -for the saint has no propaganda, so that his attributes should -be subsistent, but he is hidden and his proper state is to -have his attributes annihilated. The prophet is a man of law -(<i>ṣáḥib shar`</i>), and the saint is a man of inward feeling (<i>ṣáḥib -sirr</i>). Accordingly, a miracle (<i>karámat</i>) will not be manifested -to a saint unless he is in a state of absence from himself and -bewilderment, and unless his faculties are entirely under the -control of God. While saints are with themselves and maintain -the state of humanity (<i>bashariyyat</i>), they are veiled; but when -the veil is lifted they are bewildered and amazed through -realizing the bounties of God. A miracle cannot be manifested -except in the state of unveiledness (<i>kashf</i>), which is the rank -of proximity (<i>qurb</i>); and whoever is in that state, to him -<span class='pageno' id='Page_227'>227</span>worthless stones appear even as gold. This is the state of -intoxication with which no human being, the prophets alone -excepted, is permanently endowed. Thus, one day, Ḥáritha -was transported from this world and had the next world -revealed to him; he said: “I have cut myself loose from this -world, so that its stones and its gold and its silver and its -clay are all one to me.” Next day he was seen tending asses, -and on being asked what he was doing, he said: “I am trying -to get the food that I need.” Therefore, the saints, while they -are sober, are as ordinary men, but while they are intoxicated -their rank is the same as that of the prophets, and the whole -universe becomes like gold unto them. Shiblí says—</p> - -<div class='lg-container-b c009'> - <div class='linegroup'> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'>“<i>Gold wherever we go, and pearls</i></div> - <div class='line'><i>Wherever we turn, and silver in the waste.</i>”</div> - </div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>I have heard the Master and Imám Abu ´l-Qásim Qushayrí -say: “Once I asked Ṭábarání about the beginning of his -spiritual experience. He told me that on one occasion he -wanted a stone from the river-bed at Sarakhs. Every stone -that he touched turned into a gem, and he threw them all -away.” This was because stones and gems were the same to -him, or rather, gems were of less value, since he had no desire -for them. And I have heard Khwája Imám Khazá´iní at -Sarakhs relate as follows: “In my boyhood I went to a certain -place to get mulberry leaves for silkworms. When it was -midday I climbed a tree and began to shake the branches. -While I was thus employed Shaykh Abu ´l-Faḍl b. al-Ḥasan -passed by, but he did not see me, and I had no doubt that -he was beside himself and that his heart was with God. -Suddenly he raised his head and cried with the boldness of -intimacy: ‘O Lord, it is more than a year since Thou hast -given me a small piece of silver (<i>dángí</i>) that I might have -my hair cut. Is this the way to treat Thy friends?’ No -sooner had he spoken than I saw all the leaves and boughs -and roots of the trees turned to gold. Abu ´l-Faḍl exclaimed: -‘How strange! The least hint that I utter is a backsliding -<span class='pageno' id='Page_228'>228</span>(<i>hama ta`ríḍ-i má í`ráḍ ast</i>). One cannot say a word to Thee -for the sake of relieving one’s mind.’” It is related that -Shiblí cast four hundred dínárs into the Tigris. When asked -what he was doing, he replied: “Stones are better in the -water.” “But why,” they said, “don’t you give the money -to the poor?” He answered: “Glory to God! what plea -can I urge before Him if I remove the veil from my own -heart only to place it on the hearts of my brother Moslems? -It is not religious to wish them worse than myself.” All -these cases belong to the state of intoxication, which I have -already explained.</p> - -<p class='c001'>On the other hand, Junayd and Abu ´l-`Abbás Sayyárí and -Abú Bakr Wásiṭí and Muḥammad b. `Alí of Tirmidh, the -author of the doctrine, hold that miracles are manifested in -the state of sobriety and composure (<i>ṣaḥw ú tamkín</i>), not in -the state of intoxication. They argue that the saints of God -are the governors of His kingdom and the overseers of the -universe, which God has committed absolutely to their charge: -therefore their judgments must be the soundest of all, and -their hearts must be the most tenderly disposed of all towards -the creatures of God. They are mature (<i>rasídagán</i>); and -whereas agitation and intoxication are marks of inexperience, -with maturity agitation is transmuted into composure. Then, -and only then, is one a saint in reality, and only then are -miracles genuine. It is well known among Ṣúfís that every -night the <i>Awtád</i> must go round the whole universe, and if -there should be any place on which their eyes have not fallen, -next day some imperfection will appear in that place; and -they must then inform the <i>Quṭb</i>, in order that he may fix -his attention on the weak spot, and that by his blessing the -imperfection may be removed. As regards the assertion that -gold and earth are one to the saint, this indifference is a sign -of intoxication and failure to see truly. More excellent is the -man of true sight and sound perception, to whom gold is gold -and earth is earth, but who recognizes the evil of the former -and says: “O yellow ore! O white ore! beguile some one -<span class='pageno' id='Page_229'>229</span>else, for I am aware of your corruptedness.” He who sees -the corruptedness of gold and silver perceives them to be -a veil (between himself and God), and God will reward him -for having renounced them. Contrariwise, he to whom gold -is even as earth is not made perfect by renouncing earth. -Ḥáritha, being intoxicated, declared that stones and gold were -alike to him, but Abú Bakr, being sober, perceived the evil of -laying hands on worldly wealth, and knew that God would -reward him for rejecting it. Therefore he renounced it, and -when the Apostle asked him what he had left for his family he -answered, “God and His Apostle.” And the following story is -related by Abú Bakr Warráq of Tirmidh: “One day Muḥammad -b. `Alí (al-Ḥakím) said that he would take me somewhere. -I replied: ‘It is for the Shaykh to command.’ Soon after we -set out I saw an exceedingly dreadful wilderness, and in the -midst thereof a golden throne placed under a green tree beside -a fountain of running water. Seated on the throne was a person -clad in beautiful raiment, who rose when Muḥammad b. `Alí -approached, and bade him sit on the throne. After a while, -people came from every side until forty were gathered together. -Then Muḥammad b. `Alí waved his hand, and immediately food -appeared from heaven, and we ate. Afterwards Muḥammad -b. <a id='corr229.23'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='Alí'>`Alí</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_229.23'><ins class='correction' title='Alí'>`Alí</ins></a></span> asked a question of a man who was present, and he -in reply made a long discourse of which I did not understand -a single word. At last the Shaykh begged leave and took his -departure, saying to me: ‘Go, for thou art blest.’ On our -return to Tirmidh, I asked him what was that place and who -was that man. He told me that the place was the Desert of -the Israelites (<i>tíh-i Baní Isrá´íl</i>) and that the man was the -<i>Quṭb</i> on whom the order of the universe depends. ‘O Shaykh,’ -I said, ‘how did we reach the Desert of the Israelites from -Tirmidh in such a brief time?’ He answered: ‘O Abú -Bakr, it is thy business to arrive (<i>rasídan</i>), not to ask -questions (<i>pursídan</i>).’“ This is a mark, not of intoxication, -but of sanity.</p> - -<p class='c001'>Now I will mention some miracles and stories of the Ṣúfís, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_230'>230</span>and link thereto certain evidence which is to be found in the -Book (the Koran).</p> - -<h4 class='c020'><i>Discourse concerning their Miracles.</i></h4> - -<p class='c010'>The reality of miracles having been established by logical -argument, you must now become acquainted with the evidence -of the Koran and the genuine Traditions of the Apostle. Both -Koran and Tradition proclaim the reality of miracles and -extraordinary acts wrought by saints. To deny this is to deny -the authority of the sacred texts. One example is the text, -”<i>And We caused the clouds to overshadow you and the manna -and the quails to descend upon you</i>” (Kor. ii, 54). If any sceptic -should assert that this was an evidentiary miracle (<i>mu`jizat</i>) -of Moses, I raise no objection, because all the miracles of the -saints are an evidentiary miracle of Muḥammad; and if he -says that this miracle was wrought in the absence of Moses, -although it occurred in his time, and that therefore it was not -necessarily wrought by him, I reply that the same principle -holds good in the case of Moses, when he quitted his people -and went to Mount Sinai, as in the case of Muḥammad; for -there is no difference between being absent in time and being -absent in space. We are also told of the miracle of Áṣaf b. -Barkhiyá, who brought the throne of Bilqís to Solomon in the -twinkling of an eye (Kor. xxvii, 40). This cannot have been -a <i>mu`jizat</i>, for Áṣaf was not an apostle; had it been a <i>mu`jizat</i>, -it must have been wrought by Solomon: therefore it was -a <i>karámat</i>. We are told also of Mary that whenever Zacharias -went into her chamber he found winter fruits in summer and -summer fruits in winter, so that he said: “<i>‘Whence hadst thou -this?’ She answered, ‘It is from God’</i>” (Kor. iii, 32). Everyone -admits that Mary was not an apostle. Furthermore, we have -the story of the men of the cave (<i>aṣḥáb al-kahf</i>), how their dog -spoke to them, and how they slept and turned about in the -cave (Kor. xviii, 17). All these were extraordinary acts, and -since they certainly were not a <i>mu`jizat</i>, they must have been -a <i>karámat</i>. Such miracles (<i>karámat</i>) may be, for example, the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_231'>231</span>answering of prayers through the accomplishment of wishes -conceived by one who is subject to the religious law (<i>ba-ḥuṣúl-i -umúr-i mawhúm andar zamán-i taklíf</i>), or the traversing of -great distances in a short time, or the appearance of food from -an unaccustomed place, or power to read the thoughts of -others, etc.</p> - -<p class='c001'>Among the genuine Traditions is the story of the cave -(<i>ḥadíth al-ghár</i>), which is told as follows. One day the -Companions of the Apostle begged him to relate to them some -marvellous tale of the ancient peoples. He said: “Once three -persons were going to a certain place. At eventide they took -shelter in a cave, and while they were asleep a rock fell from -the mountain and blocked the mouth of the cave. They said -to one another, ‘We shall never escape from here unless we -make our disinterested actions plead for us before God.’ So -one of them began: ‘I had a father and mother and I had no -worldly goods except a goat, whose milk I used to give to -them; and every day I used to gather a bundle of firewood -and sell it and spend the money in providing food for them -and myself. One night I came home rather late, and before -I milked the goat and steeped their food in the milk they had -fallen asleep. I kept the bowl in my hand and stood there, -without having eaten anything, until morning, when they awoke -and ate; then I sat down.’ ‘O Lord’ (he continued), ‘if I speak -the truth concerning this matter, send us deliverance and come -to our aid!’” The Apostle said: “Thereupon the rock moved -a little and a crevice appeared. The next man said: ‘There -was a beautiful blind girl, with whom I was deeply in love, -but she would not listen to my suit. I managed to send to -her a hundred and twenty dínárs with a promise that she -should keep the money if she would be mine for one night. -When she came the fear of God seized my heart. I turned -from her and let her keep the money.’ He added, ‘O God, -if I speak the truth, deliver us!’” The Apostle said: “Then -the rock moved a little further and the crevice widened, but -they could not yet go forth. The third man said: ‘I had some -<span class='pageno' id='Page_232'>232</span>labourers working for me. When the work was done they all -received their wages except one, who disappeared. With his -wages I bought a sheep. Next year there were two, and in the -year after that there were four, and they soon became a large -flock. After several years the labourer returned and asked -me for his wages. I said to him, “Go and take all these -sheep; they are your property.” He thought I must be -mocking him, but I assured him that it was true, and he went -off with the whole flock.’ The narrator added, ‘O Lord, if -I speak the truth, deliver us!’” “He had scarcely finished,” -said the Apostle, “when the rock moved away from the mouth -of the cave and let the three men come forth.”<a id='r122' /><a href='#f122' class='c015'><sup>[122]</sup></a> It is related -that Abú Sa`íd Kharráz said: “For a long time I used to -eat only once in three days. I was journeying in the desert, -and on the third day I felt weak through hunger. A voice -from heaven cried to me, ‘Dost thou prefer food that will -quiet thy lower nature, or an expedient that will enable thee -to overcome thy weakness without food?’ I replied, ‘O God, -give me strength!’ Then I rose and travelled twelve stages -<span class='pageno' id='Page_233'>233</span>without meat or drink.” It is well known that at the present -day the house of Sahl b. `Abdalláh at Tustar is called the -House of the Wild Beasts (<i>bayt al-sibá`</i>), and the people of -Tustar are agreed that many wild beasts used to come to him, -and that he fed and tended them. Abu ´l-Qásim of Merv tells -the following story: “As I was walking on the seashore with -Abú Sa`íd Kharráz, I saw a youth clad in a patched frock and -carrying a bucket (<i>rakwa</i>), to which an ink-bottle was fastened. -Kharráz said: ‘When I look at this youth he seems to be one -of the adepts (<i>rasídagán</i>), but when I look at his ink-bottle -I think he is a student. Let me question him.’ So he accosted -the youth and said, ‘What is the way to God?’ The youth -answered: ‘There are two ways to God: the way of the vulgar -and the way of the elect. Thou hast no knowledge of the latter, -but the way of the vulgar, which thou pursuest, is to regard -thine own actions as the cause of attaining to God, and to -suppose that an ink-bottle is one of the things that interfere -with attainment.’” Dhu ´l-Nún the Egyptian says: “Once -I embarked in a ship voyaging from Egypt to Jidda. Among -the passengers was a youth wearing a patched frock. I was -eager to be his companion, but he inspired me with such awe -that I did not venture to address him, for his spiritual state -was very exalted and he was constantly engaged in devotion. -One day a certain man lost a purse of jewels, and suspicion -fell on this youth. They were about to maltreat him, but -I said, ‘Let me question him courteously.’ I told him that -he was suspected of theft and that I had saved him from -maltreatment. ‘And now,’ I said, ‘what is to be done?’ He -looked towards Heaven and spoke a few words. The fishes -came to the surface of the sea, each with a jewel in its mouth. -He took a jewel and gave it to his accuser; then he set his -foot on the water and walked away. Thereupon the real thief -dropped the purse, and the people in the ship repented.” -Ibráhím Raqqí<a id='r123' /><a href='#f123' class='c015'><sup>[123]</sup></a> is related to have said: “In my novitiate -I set out to visit Muslim Maghribí. I found him in his mosque, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_234'>234</span>acting as precentor. He pronounced <i>al-ḥamd</i> incorrectly. I said -to myself, ‘My trouble has been wasted.’ Next day, when I was -going to the bank of the Euphrates to perform the religious -ablution, I saw a lion asleep on the road. I turned back, and -was faced by another lion which had been following me. -Hearing my cry of despair, Muslim came forth from his cell. -When the lions saw him they humbled themselves before him. -He took the ear of each one and rubbed it, saying, ‘O dogs -of God, have not I told you that you must not interfere -with my guests?’ Then he said to me: ‘O Abú Isḥáq, thou -hast busied thyself with correcting thy exterior for the sake -of God’s creatures, hence thou art afraid of them; but it has -been my business to correct my interior for God’s sake, hence -His creatures are afraid of me.’” One day my Shaykh set out -from Bayt al-Jinn to Damascus. Heavy rain had begun to -fall, and I was walking with difficulty in the mire. I noticed -that the Shaykh’s shoes and clothes were perfectly dry. On -my pointing this out to him, he said: “Yes; God has preserved -me from mud ever since I put unquestioning trust in Him and -guarded my interior from the desolation of cupidity.” Once an -experience occurred to me which I could not unravel. I set -out to visit Shaykh Abu `l-Qásim Gurgání at Ṭús. I found -him alone in his chamber in the mosque, and he was expounding -precisely the same difficulty to a pillar, so that I was answered -without having asked the question. “O Shaykh,” I cried, “to -whom art thou saying this?” He replied: “O son, God just -now caused this pillar to speak and ask me this question.” In -Farghána, at a village called Ashlátak,<a id='r124' /><a href='#f124' class='c015'><sup>[124]</sup></a> there was an old man, -one of the <i>Awtád</i> of the earth. His name was Báb `Umar<a id='r125' /><a href='#f125' class='c015'><sup>[125]</sup></a>—all -the dervishes in that country give the title of Báb to their -great Shaykhs—and he had an old wife called Fáṭima. I went -from Uzkand to see him. When I entered his presence he said: -“Why have you come?” I replied: “In order that I might -see the Shaykh in person and that he might look on me -with kindness.” He said: “I have been seeing you continually -<span class='pageno' id='Page_235'>235</span>since such and such a day, and I wish to see you as long as -you are not removed from my sight.” I computed the day -and year: it was the very day on which my conversion began. -The Shaykh said: “To traverse distance (<i>sipardan-i masáfat</i>) -is child’s play: henceforth pay visits by means of thought -(<i>himmat</i>); it is not worth while to visit any person (<i>shakhṣ</i>), -and there is no virtue in bodily presence (<i>ḥuḍúr-i ashbáḥ</i>).” -Then he bade Fáṭima bring something to eat. She brought -a dish of new grapes, although it was not the season for them, -and some fresh ripe dates, which cannot possibly be procured -in Farghána. On another occasion, while I was sitting alone, -as is my custom, beside the tomb of Shaykh Abú Sa`íd at -Mihna, I saw a white pigeon fly under the cloth (<i>fúṭa</i>) covering -the sepulchre. I supposed that the bird had escaped from its -owner, but when I looked under the cloth nothing was to be -seen. This happened again next day, and also on the third -day. I was at a loss to understand it, until one night I dreamed -of the saint and asked him about my experience. He answered: -“That pigeon is my good conduct (<i>ṣafá-yi mu`ámalat</i>), which -comes every day to my tomb to feast with me (<i>ba-munádamat-i -man</i>).”<a id='r126' /><a href='#f126' class='c015'><sup>[126]</sup></a> I might adduce many more of these tales without -exhausting them, but my purpose in this book is to establish -the principles of Ṣúfiism. As regards derivatives and matters -of conduct books have been compiled by the traditionists -(<i>naqqálán</i>), and these topics are disseminated from the pulpit -by preachers (<i>mudhakkirán</i>). Now I will give, in one or two -sections, an adequate account of certain points bearing on the -present discussion, in order that I may not have to return to -it again.</p> - -<h4 class='c020'><i>Discourse on the Superiority of the Prophets to the Saints.</i></h4> - -<p class='c010'>You must know that, by universal consent of the Ṣúfí -Shaykhs, the saints are at all times and in all circumstances -subordinate to the prophets, whose missions they confirm. -<span class='pageno' id='Page_236'>236</span>The prophets are superior to the saints, because the end of -saintship is only the beginning of prophecy. Every prophet -is a saint, but some saints are not prophets. The prophets are -constantly exempt from the attributes of humanity, while the -saints are so only temporarily; the fleeting state (<i>ḥál</i>) of -the saint is the permanent station (<i>maqám</i>) of the prophet; -and that which to the saints is a station (<i>maqám</i>) is to the -prophets a veil (<i>ḥijáb</i>). This view is held unanimously by -the Sunní divines and the Ṣúfí mystics, but it is opposed by -a sect of the Ḥashwiyya—the Anthropomorphists (<i>mujassima</i>) -of Khurásán—who discourse in a self-contradictory manner -concerning the principles of Unification (<i>tawḥíd</i>), and who, -although they do not know the fundamental doctrine of Ṣúfiism, -call themselves saints. Saints they are indeed, but saints of -the Devil. They maintain that the saints are superior to the -prophets, and it is a sufficient proof of their error that they -declare an ignoramus to be more excellent than Muḥammad, -the Chosen of God. The same vicious opinion is held by -another sect of Anthropomorphists (<i>mushabbiha</i>), who pretend -to be Ṣúfís, and admit the doctrines of the incarnation of God -and His descent (into the human body) by transmigration -(<i>intiqál</i>), and the division (<i>tajziya</i>) of His essence. I will -treat fully of these matters when I give my promised account -of the two reprobated sects (of Ṣúfís). The sects to which -I am now referring claim to be Moslems, but they agree with -the Brahmans in denying special privileges to the prophets; -and whoever believes in this doctrine becomes an infidel. -Moreover, the prophets are propagandists and Imáms, and the -saints are their followers, and it is absurd to suppose that the -follower of an Imám is superior to the Imám himself. In short, -the lives, experiences, and spiritual powers of all the saints -together appear as nothing compared with one act of a true -prophet, because the saints are seekers and pilgrims, whereas -the prophets have arrived and have found and have returned -with the command to preach and to convert the people. If -any one of the above-mentioned heretics should urge that an -<span class='pageno' id='Page_237'>237</span>ambassador sent by a king is usually inferior to the person -to whom he is sent, as e.g. Gabriel is inferior to the Apostles, -and that this is against my argument, I reply that an -ambassador sent to a single person should be inferior to -him, but when an ambassador is sent to a large number -of persons or to a people, he is superior to them, as the -Apostles are superior to the nations. Therefore one moment -of the prophets is better than the whole life of the saints, -because when the saints reach their goal they tell of contemplation -(<i>musháhadat</i>) and obtain release from the veil of -humanity (<i>bashariyyat</i>), although they are essentially men. -On the other hand, contemplation is the first step of the -apostle; and since the apostle’s starting-place is the saint’s -goal, they cannot be judged by the same standard. Do not -you perceive that, according to the unanimous opinion of all -the saints who seek God, the station of union (<i>jam`</i>) belongs -to the perfection of saintship? Now, in this station, a man -attains such a degree of rapturous love that his intelligence -is enraptured in gazing upon the act of God (<i>fi`l</i>), and in -his longing for the Divine Agent (<i>fá`il</i>) he regards the whole -universe as that and sees nothing but that. Thus Abú `Alí -Rúdbárí says: “Were the vision of that which we serve to -vanish from us, we should lose the name of servantship -(<i>`ubúdiyyat</i>)” for we derive the glory of worship (<i>`ibádat</i>) -solely from vision of Him. This is the beginning of the -state of the prophets, inasmuch as separation (<i>tafriqa</i>) is -inconceivable in relation to them. They are entirely in the -essence of union, whether they affirm or deny, whether they -approach or turn away, whether they are at the beginning -or at the end. Abraham, in the beginning of his state, -looked on the sun and said: “<i>This is my Lord</i>,” and he -looked on the moon and stars and said: “<i>This is my Lord</i>” -(Kor. vi, 76-8), because his heart was overwhelmed by the -Truth and he was united in the essence of union. Therefore -he saw naught else, or if he saw aught else he did not see -it with the eye of “otherness” (<i>ghayr</i>), but with the eye of -<span class='pageno' id='Page_238'>238</span>union (<i>jam`</i>), and in the reality of that vision he disavowed -his own and said: “<i>I love not those that set</i>” (Kor. vi, 76). -As he began with union, so he ended with union. Saintship -has a beginning and an end, but prophecy has not. The -prophets were prophets from the first, and shall be to the -last, and before they existed they were prophets in the knowledge -and will of God. Abú Yazíd was asked about the state -of the prophets. He replied: “Far be it from me to say! -We have no power to judge of them, and in our notions of -them we are wholly ourselves. God has placed their denial -and affirmation in such an exalted degree that human vision -cannot reach unto it.” Accordingly, as the rank of the saints -is hidden from the perception of mankind, so the rank of the -prophets is hidden from the judgment of the saints. Abú -Yazíd was the proof (<i>ḥujjat</i>) of his age, and he says: “I saw -that my spirit (<i>sirr</i>) was borne to the heavens. It looked at -nothing and gave no heed, though Paradise and Hell were -displayed to it, for it was freed from phenomena and veils. -Then I became a bird, whose body was of Oneness and whose -wings were of Everlastingness, and I continued to fly in the -air of the Absolute (<i>huwiyyat</i>), until I passed into the sphere -of Purification (<i>tanzíh</i>), and gazed upon the field of Eternity -(<i>azaliyyat</i>) and beheld there the tree of Oneness. When -I looked I myself was all those. I cried: ‘O Lord, with my -egoism (<i>maní-yi man</i>) I cannot attain to Thee, and I cannot -escape from my selfhood. What am I to do?’ God spake: -‘O Abú Yazíd, thou must win release from thy “thou-ness” -by following My beloved i.e. (Muḥammad). Smear thine eyes -with the dust of his feet and follow him continually.‘” This -is a long narrative. The Ṣúfís call it the Ascension (<i>mi`ráj</i>) -of Báyazíd;<a id='r127' /><a href='#f127' class='c015'><sup>[127]</sup></a> and the term “ascension” denotes proximity to -God (<i>qurb</i>). The ascension of prophets takes place outwardly -and in the body, whereas that of saints takes place inwardly -and in the spirit. The body of an apostle resembles the heart -<span class='pageno' id='Page_239'>239</span>and spirit of a saint in purity and nearness to God. This is -a manifest superiority. When a saint is enraptured and -intoxicated he is withdrawn from himself by means of a -spiritual ladder and brought near to God; and as soon as he -returns to the state of sobriety all those evidences have taken -shape in his mind and he has gained knowledge of them. -Accordingly, there is a great difference between one who is -carried thither in person and one who is carried thither only -in thought (<i>fikrat</i>), for thought involves duality.</p> - -<h4 class='c020'><i>Discourse on the Superiority of the Prophets and Saints to the Angels.</i></h4> - -<p class='c010'>The whole community of orthodox Moslems and all the Ṣúfí -Shaykhs agree that the prophets and such of the saints as are -guarded from sin (<i>maḥfúẕ</i>) are superior to the angels. The -opposite view is held by the Mu`tazilites, who declare that the -angels are superior to the prophets, being of more exalted rank, -of more subtle constitution, and more obedient to God. I reply -that this is not as you imagine, for an obedient body, an exalted -rank, and a subtle constitution cannot be causes of superiority, -which belongs only to those on whom God has bestowed -it. Iblís had all the qualities that you mention, yet he is -universally acknowledged to have become accursed. The -superiority of the prophets is indicated by the fact that God -commanded the angels to worship Adam; for the state of one -who is worshipped is higher than the state of the worshipper. -If they argue that, just as a true believer is superior to the Ka`ba, -an inanimate mass of stone, although he bows down before it, so -the angels may be superior to Adam, although they bowed down -before him, I reply: “No one says that a believer bows down -to a house or an altar or a wall, but all say that he bows -down to God, and it is admitted by all that the angels bowed -down to Adam (Kor. ii, 32). How, then, can the Ka`ba be -compared to Adam? A traveller may worship God on the back -of the animal which he is riding, and he is excused if his face -be not turned towards the Ka`ba; and, in like manner, one who -<span class='pageno' id='Page_240'>240</span>has lost his bearings in a desert, so that he cannot tell the -direction of the Ka`ba, will have done his duty in whatever -direction he may turn to pray. The angels offered no excuse -when they bowed down to Adam, and the one who made an -excuse for himself became accursed.” These are clear proofs to -any person of insight.</p> - -<p class='c001'>Again, the angels are equal to the prophets in knowledge of -God, but not in rank. The angels are without lust, covetousness, -and evil; their nature is devoid of hypocrisy and guile, and -they are instinctively obedient to God; whereas lust is an -impediment in human nature; and men have a propensity -to commit sins and to be impressed by the vanities of this -world; and Satan has so much power over their bodies that he -circulates with the blood in their veins; and closely attached -to them is the lower soul (<i>nafs</i>), which incites them to all -manner of wickedness. Therefore, one whose nature has all -these characteristics and who, in spite of the violence of his lust, -refrains from immorality, and notwithstanding his covetousness -renounces this world, and, though his heart is still tempted by -the Devil, turns back from sin and averts his face from sensual -depravity in order to occupy himself with devotion and persevere -in piety and mortify his lower soul and contend against the -Devil, such a one is in reality superior to the angel who is not -the battle-field of lust, and is naturally without desire of food -and pleasures, and has no care for wife and child and kinsfolk, -and need not have recourse to means and instruments, and is -not absorbed in corrupt ambitions. A Gabriel, who worships -God so many thousands of years in the hope of gaining a robe -of honour, and the honour bestowed on him was that of acting as -Muḥammad’s groom on the night of the Ascension—how should -he be superior to one who disciplines and mortifies his lower -soul by day and night in this world, until God looks on him with -favour and grants to him the grace of seeing Himself and -delivers him from all distracting thoughts? When the pride of -the angels passed all bounds, and every one of them vaunted the -purity of his conduct and spoke with an unbridled tongue -<span class='pageno' id='Page_241'>241</span>in blame of mankind, God resolved that He would show to -them their real state. He therefore bade them choose three -of the chief among them, in whom they had confidence, to go to -the earth and be its governors and reform its people. So three -angels were chosen, but before they came to the earth one of -them perceived its corruption and begged God to let him return. -When the other two arrived on the earth God changed their -nature so that they felt a desire for food and drink and were -inclined to lust, and God punished them on that account, and -the angels were forced to recognize the superiority of mankind -to themselves.<a id='r128' /><a href='#f128' class='c015'><sup>[128]</sup></a> In short, the elect among the true believers are -superior to the elect among the angels, and the ordinary -believers are superior to the ordinary angels. Accordingly -those men who are preserved (<i>ma`ṣúm</i>) and protected (<i>maḥfúẕ</i>) -from sin are more excellent than Gabriel and Michael, and -those who are not thus preserved are better than the Recording -Angels (<i>ḥafaẕa</i>) and the noble Scribes (<i>kirám-i kátibín</i>).</p> - -<p class='c001'>Something has been said on this subject by every one of the -Shaykhs. God awards superiority to whom He pleases, over -whom He pleases. You must know that saintship is a Divine -mystery which is revealed only through conduct (<i>rawish</i>). -A saint is known only to a saint. If this matter could be made -plain to all reasonable men it would be impossible to distinguish -the friend from the foe or the spiritual adept from the careless -worldling. Therefore God so willed that the pearl of His love -should be set in the shell of popular contempt and be cast into -the sea of affliction, in order that those who seek it may hazard -their lives on account of its preciousness and dive to the bottom -of this ocean of death, where they will either win their desire or -bring their mortal state to an end.</p> - -<h3 class='c018'><span class='sc'> 8.The Kharrázís.</span></h3> - -<p class='c010'>They are the followers of Abú Sa`íd Kharráz, who wrote -brilliant works on Ṣúfiism and attained a high degree in -<span class='pageno' id='Page_242'>242</span>detachment from the world. He was the first to explain the -state of annihilation and subsistence (<i>faná ú baqá</i>), and he -comprehended his whole doctrine in these two terms. Now -I will declare their meaning and show the errors into which -some have fallen in this respect, in order that you may know -what his doctrine is and what the Ṣúfís intend when they -employ these current expressions.</p> - -<h4 class='c020'><i>Discourse on Subsistence</i> (baqá) <i>and Annihilation</i> (faná).</h4> - -<p class='c010'>You must know that annihilation and subsistence have one -meaning in science and another meaning in mysticism, and that -formalists (<i>ẕáhiriyán</i>) are more puzzled by these words than by -any other technical terms of the Ṣúfís. Subsistence in its -scientific and etymological acceptation is of three kinds: -(1) a subsistence that begins and ends in annihilation, e.g. this -world, which had a beginning and will have an end, and is now -subsistent; (2) a subsistence that came into being and will -never be annihilated, viz. Paradise and Hell and the next world -and its inhabitants; (3) a subsistence that always was and -always will be, viz. the subsistence of God and His eternal -attributes. Accordingly, knowledge of annihilation lies in -your knowing that this world is perishable, and knowledge -of subsistence lies in your knowledge that the next world is -everlasting.</p> - -<p class='c001'>But the subsistence and annihilation of a state (<i>ḥál</i>) denotes, -for example, that when ignorance is annihilated knowledge is -necessarily subsistent, and that when sin is annihilated piety -is subsistent, and that when a man acquires knowledge of his -piety his forgetfulness (<i>ghaflat</i>) is annihilated by remembrance -of God (<i>dhikr</i>), i.e., when anyone gains knowledge of God and -becomes subsistent in knowledge of Him he is annihilated from -(entirely loses) ignorance of Him, and when he is annihilated -from forgetfulness he becomes subsistent in remembrance of -Him, and this involves the discarding of blameworthy attributes -and the substitution of praiseworthy attributes. A different -signification, however, is attached to the terms in question by -<span class='pageno' id='Page_243'>243</span>the elect among the Ṣúfís. They do not refer these expressions -to “knowledge” (<i>`ilm</i>) or to “state” (<i>ḥál</i>), but apply them solely -to the degree of perfection attained by the saints who have -become free from the pains of mortification and have escaped -from the prison of “stations” and the vicissitude of “states”, and -whose search has ended in discovery, so that they have seen all -things visible, and have heard all things audible, and have -discovered all the secrets of the heart; and who, recognizing -the imperfection of their own discovery, have turned away from -all things and have purposely become annihilated in the object -of desire, and in the very essence of desire have lost all desires -of their own, for when a man becomes annihilated from his -attributes he attains to perfect subsistence, he is neither near -nor far, neither stranger nor intimate, neither sober nor -intoxicated, neither separated nor united; he has no name, -or sign, or brand, or mark.</p> - -<p class='c001'>In short, real annihilation from anything involves consciousness -of its imperfection and absence of desire for it, not merely that -a man should say, when he likes a thing, “I am subsistent -therein,” or when he dislikes it, that he should say, “I am -annihilated therefrom”; for these qualities are characteristic of -one who is still seeking. In annihilation there is no love or -hate, and in subsistence there is no consciousness of union or -separation. Some wrongly imagine that annihilation signifies -loss of essence and destruction of personality, and that subsistence -indicates the subsistence of God in Man; both these notions -are absurd. In India I had a dispute on this subject with -a man who claimed to be versed in Koranic exegesis and -theology. When I examined his pretensions I found that he -knew nothing of annihilation and subsistence, and that he -could not distinguish the eternal from the phenomenal. Many -ignorant Ṣúfís consider that total annihilation (<i>faná-yi kulliyyat</i>) -is possible, but this is a manifest error, for annihilation of the -different parts of a material substance (<i>ṭínatí</i>) can never take -place. I ask these ignorant and mistaken men: “What do -you mean by this kind of annihilation?” If they answer, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_244'>244</span>“Annihilation of substance” (<i>faná-yi `ayn</i>), that is impossible; -and if they answer, “Annihilation of attributes,” that is only -possible in so far as one attribute may be annihilated through -the subsistence of another attribute, both attributes belonging -to Man; but it is absurd to suppose that anyone can subsist -through the attributes of another individual. The Nestorians -of Rúm and the Christians hold that Mary annihilated by self-mortification -all the attributes of humanity (<i>awṣáf-i násútí</i>) and -that the Divine subsistence became attached to her, so that she -was made subsistent through the subsistence of God, and that -Jesus was the result thereof, and that he was not originally -composed of the stuff of humanity, because his subsistence is -produced by realization of the subsistence of God; and that, -in consequence of this, he and his mother and God are all -subsistent through one subsistence, which is eternal and an -attribute of God. All this agrees with the doctrine of the -anthropomorphistic sects of the Ḥashwiyya, who maintain that -the Divine essence is a <i>locus</i> of phenomena (<i>maḥall-i ḥawádith</i>) -and that the Eternal may have phenomenal attributes. I ask -all who proclaim such tenets: “What difference is there between -the view that the Eternal is the <i>locus</i> of the phenomenal and the -view that the phenomenal is the <i>locus</i> of the Eternal, or between -the assertion that the Eternal has phenomenal attributes and -the assertion that the phenomenal has eternal attributes?” -Such doctrines involve materialism (<i>dahr</i>) and destroy the -proof of the phenomenal nature of the universe, and compel -us to say that both the Creator and His creation are eternal -or that both are phenomenal, or that what is created may -be commingled with what is uncreated, and that what is -uncreated may descend into what is created. If, as they cannot -help admitting, the creation is phenomenal, then their Creator -also must be phenomenal, because the <i>locus</i> of a thing is like -its substance; if the <i>locus</i> (<i>maḥall</i>) is phenomenal, it follows -that the contents of the <i>locus</i> (<i>ḥáll</i>) are phenomenal too. In -fine, when one thing is linked and united and commingled with -another, both things are in principle as one.</p> - -<p class='c001'><span class='pageno' id='Page_245'>245</span>Accordingly, our subsistence and annihilation are attributes -of ourselves, and resemble each other in respect of their being -our attributes. Annihilation is the annihilation of one attribute -through the subsistence of another attribute. One may speak, -however, of an annihilation that is independent of subsistence, -and also of a subsistence that is independent of annihilation: -in that case annihilation means “annihilation of all remembrance -of other”, and subsistence means “subsistence of the -remembrance of God” (<i>baqá-yi dhikr-i ḥaqq</i>). Whoever is -annihilated from his own will subsists in the will of God, -because thy will is perishable and the will of God is everlasting: -when thou standest by thine own will thou standest -by annihilation, but when thou art absolutely controlled by the -will of God thou standest by subsistence. Similarly, the power -of fire transmutes to its own quality anything that falls into it, -and surely the power of God’s will is greater than that of fire; -but fire affects only the quality of iron without changing its -substance, for iron can never become fire.</p> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c004'> - <div><span class='sc'>Section.</span></div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>All the Shaykhs have given subtle indications on this -subject. Abú Sa’íd Kharráz, the author of the doctrine, says: -“Annihilation is annihilation of consciousness of manhood -(<i>`ubúdiyyat</i>), and subsistence is subsistence in the contemplation -of Godhead (<i>iláhiyyat</i>),” i.e., it is an imperfection to be conscious -in one’s actions that one is a man, and one attains to real -manhood (<i>bandagí</i>) when one is not conscious of them, but is -annihilated so as not to see them, and becomes subsistent -through beholding the action of God. Hence all one’s actions -are referred to God, not to one’s self, and whereas a man’s -actions that are connected with himself are imperfect, those -which are attached to him by God are perfect. Therefore, -when anyone becomes annihilated from things that depend on -himself, he becomes subsistent through the beauty of Godhead. -Abú Ya`qúb Nahrajúrí says: “A man’s true servantship -(<i>`ubúdiyyat</i>) lies in annihilation and subsistence,” because no -<span class='pageno' id='Page_246'>246</span>one is capable of serving God with sincerity until he renounces -all self-interest: therefore to renounce humanity (<i>ádamiyyat</i>) -is annihilation, and to be sincere in servantship is subsistence. -And Ibráhím b. Shaybán says: “The science of annihilation -and subsistence turns on sincerity (<i>ikhláṣ</i>) and unity (<i>wáḥid—iyyat</i>) -and true servantship; all else is error and heresy,” -i.e., when anyone acknowledges the unity of God he feels -himself overpowered by the omnipotence of God, and one who -is overpowered (<i>maghlúb</i>) is annihilated in the might of his -vanquisher; and when his annihilation is rightly fulfilled on -him, he confesses his weakness and sees no resource except -to serve God, and tries to gain His satisfaction (<i>riḍá</i>). And -whoever explains these terms otherwise, i.e. annihilation as -meaning “annihilation of substance” and subsistence as -meaning “subsistence of God (in Man)”, is a heretic and -a Christian, as has been stated above.</p> - -<p class='c001'>Now I, `Alí b. `Uthmán al-Jullábí, declare that all these -sayings are near to each other in meaning, although they differ -in expression; and their real gist is this, that annihilation -comes to a man through vision of the majesty of God and -through the revelation of Divine omnipotence to his heart, so -that in the overwhelming sense of His majesty this world and -the next world are obliterated from his mind, and “states” -and “stations” appear contemptible in the sight of his aspiring -thought, and what is shown to him of miraculous grace vanishes -into nothing: he becomes dead to reason and passion alike, -dead even to annihilation itself; and in that annihilation of -annihilation his tongue proclaims God, and his mind and -body are humble and abased, as in the beginning when -Adam’s posterity were drawn forth from his loins without -admixture of evil and took the pledge of servantship to God -(Kor. vii, 171).</p> - -<p class='c001'>Such are the principles of annihilation and subsistence. -I have discussed a portion of the subject in the chapter on -Poverty and Ṣúfiism, and wherever these terms occur in the -present work they bear the meaning which I have explained.</p> - -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_247'>247</span> - <h3 class='c018'><span class='sc'> 9.The Khafífís.</span></h3> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>They are the followers of Abú `Abdalláh Muḥammad b. -Khafíf of Shíráz, an eminent mystic in his time and the author -of celebrated treatises on various branches of Ṣúfiism. He was -a man of great spiritual influence, and was not led by his lusts. -I have heard that he contracted four hundred marriages. This -was due to the fact that he was of royal descent, and that -after his conversion the people of Shíráz paid great court to -him, and the daughters of kings and nobles desired to marry -him for the sake of the blessing which would accrue to them. -He used to comply with their wishes, and then divorce them -before consummation of the marriage. But in the course of his -life forty wives, who were strangers to him (<i>bégána</i>), two or -three at a time, used to serve him as bed-makers (<i>khádimán-i -firásh</i>), and one of them—she was the daughter of a vizier—lived -with him for forty years. I have heard from Abu ´l-Ḥasan -`Alí b. Bakrán of Shíráz that one day several of his wives were -gathered together, and each one was telling some story about -him. They all agreed <i>sese nunquam eum vidisse libidini -obsequentem</i>. Hitherto each of them had believed that she was -peculiarly treated in this respect, and when they learned that -the Shaykh’s behaviour was the same towards them all, they -were astonished and doubted whether such was truly the case. -Accordingly, they sent two of their number to question the -vizier’s daughter, who was his favourite, as to his dealings with -her. She replied: “When the Shaykh wedded me and I was -informed that he would visit me that night, I prepared a fine -repast and adorned myself assiduously. As soon as he came -and the food was brought in, he called me to him and looked -for a while first at me and then at the food. Then he took my -hand and drew it into his sleeve. From his breast to his navel -there were fifteen knots (<i>`aqd</i>) growing out of his belly. He -said, ‘Ask me what these are’; so I asked him and he replied, -‘They are knots made by the tribulation and anguish of my -abstinence in renouncing a face like this and viands like these.’ -<span class='pageno' id='Page_248'>248</span>He said no more, but departed; and that is all my intimacy -with him.”</p> - -<p class='c001'>The form of his doctrine in Ṣúfiism is “absence” (<i>ghaybat</i>) -and “presence” (<i>ḥuḍúr</i>). I will explain it as far as possible.</p> - -<h4 class='c020'><i>Discourse on Absence</i> (ghaybat) <i>and Presence</i> (ḥuḍúr).</h4> - -<p class='c010'>These terms, although apparently opposed to each other, -express the same meaning from different points of view. -“Presence” is “presence of the heart”, as a proof of intuitive -faith (<i>yaqín</i>), so that what is hidden from it has the same force -as what is visible to it. “Absence” is “absence of the heart -from all things except God” to such an extent that it becomes -absent from itself and absent even from its absence, so that it no -longer regards itself; and the sign of this state is withdrawal -from all formal authority (<i>ḥukm-i rusúm</i>), as when a prophet is -divinely preserved from what is unlawful. Accordingly, absence -from one’s self is presence with God, and <i>vice versâ</i>. God is -the lord of the human heart: when a divine rapture (<i>jadhbat</i>) -overpowers the heart of the seeker, the absence of his heart -becomes equivalent to its presence (with God); partnership -(<i>shirkat</i>) and division (<i>qismat</i>) disappear, and relationship -to “self” comes to an end, as one of the Shaykhs has said in -verse—</p> - -<div class='lg-container-b c009'> - <div class='linegroup'> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'>“<i>Thou art the Lord of my heart,</i></div> - <div class='line'><i>Without any partner: how, then, can it be divided?</i>”</div> - </div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>Inasmuch as God is sole lord of the heart, He has absolute -power to keep it absent or present as He will, and, in regard to -the essence of the case, this is the whole argument for the -doctrine of His favourites; but when a distinction is made, the -Shaykhs hold various opinions on the subject, some preferring -“presence” to “absence”, while others declare that “absence” is -superior to “presence”. There is the same controversy as that -concerning sobriety and intoxication, which I have explained -above; but these terms indicate that the human attributes -are still subsistent, whereas “absence” and “presence” indicate -<span class='pageno' id='Page_249'>249</span>that the human attributes are annihilated: therefore the latter -terms are in reality more sublime. “Absence” is preferred to -“presence” by Ibn `Aṭá, Ḥusayn b. Manṣúr (al-Ḥalláj), Abú -Bakr Shiblí, Bundár b. al-Ḥusayn, Abú Ḥamza of Baghdád, -Sumnún Muḥibb, and a number of the Shaykhs of `Iráq. -They say: “Thou thyself art the greatest of all veils between -thee and God: when thou hast become absent from thyself, the -evils implicit in thy being are annihilated in thee, and thy state -undergoes a fundamental change: the ‘stations’ of novices -become a veil to thee, and the ‘states’ of those who seek God -become a source of mischief to thee; thine eye is closed to -thyself and to all that is other than God, and thy human -attributes are consumed by the flame of proximity to God -(<i>qurbat</i>). This is the same state of ‘absence’ in which God -drew thee forth from the loins of Adam, and caused thee to hear -His exalted word, and distinguished thee by the honorary robe -of Unification and the garment of contemplation; so long as -thou wert absent from thyself, thou wert present with God -face to face, but when thou becamest present with thine own -attributes, thou becamest absent from thy proximity to God. -Therefore thy ‘presence’ is thy perdition. This is the meaning -of God’s word, ‘<i>And now are ye come unto us alone, as We -created you at first</i>’” (Kor. vi, 94). On the other hand, Ḥárith -Muḥásibí, Junayd, Sahl b. `Abdalláh, Abú Ja`far Ḥaddád,<a id='r129' /><a href='#f129' class='c015'><sup>[129]</sup></a> -Ḥamdún Qaṣṣár, Abú Muḥammad Jurayrí, Ḥuṣrí, Muḥammad -b. Khafíf, who is the author of the doctrine, and others hold -that “presence” is superior to “absence”. They argue that -inasmuch as all excellences are bound up with “presence”, and -as “absence” from one’s self is a way leading to “presence” -with God, the way becomes an imperfection after you have -arrived at the goal. “Presence” is the fruit of “absence”, but -what light is to be found in “absence” without “presence”? -A man must needs renounce heedlessness in order that, by -means of this “absence”, he may attain to “presence”; and -<span class='pageno' id='Page_250'>250</span>when he has attained his object, the means by which he attained -it has no longer any worth.</p> - -<div class='lg-container-b c009'> - <div class='linegroup'> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'>“<i>The ‘absent’ one is not he who is absent from his country,</i></div> - <div class='line'><i>But he who is absent from all desire.</i></div> - <div class='line'><i>The ‘present’ one is not he who hath no desire,</i></div> - <div class='line'><i>But he who hath no heart (no thought of worldly things),</i></div> - <div class='line'><i>So that his desire is ever fixed on God.</i>”</div> - </div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>It is a well-known story that one of the disciples of -Dhu ´l-Nún set out to visit Abú Yazíd. When he came to -Abú Yazíd’s cell and knocked at the door Abú Yazíd said: -“Who art thou, and whom dost thou wish to see?” He -answered: “Abú Yazíd.” Abú Yazíd said: “Who is Abú -Yazíd, and where is he, and what thing is he? I have been -seeking Abú Yazíd for a long while, but I have not found him.” -When the disciple returned to Dhu ´l-Nún and told him what -had passed, Dhu ´l-Nún said: “My brother Abú Yazíd is lost -with those who are lost in God.” A certain man came to -Junayd and said: “Be present with me for a moment that -I may speak to thee.” Junayd answered: “O young man, -you demand of me something that I have long been seeking. -For many years I have been wishing to become present with -myself a moment, but I cannot; how, then, can I become -present with you just now?” Therefore, “absence” involves -the sorrow of being veiled, while “presence” involves the joy -of revelation, and the former state can never be equal to the -latter. Shaykh Abú Sa`íd says on this subject—</p> - -<div class='lg-container-b c009'> - <div class='linegroup'> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'><i>Taqashsha`a ghaymu ´l-hajri `an qamari ´l-ḥubbi</i></div> - <div class='line'><i>Wa-asfara núru ´l-ṣubḥi `an ẕulmati ´l-ghaybi.</i></div> - </div> - </div> -</div> - -<div class='lg-container-b c009'> - <div class='linegroup'> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'>“The clouds of separation have been cleared away from the moon of love,</div> - <div class='line'>And the light of morning has shone forth from the darkness of the Unseen.”</div> - </div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>The distinction made by the Shaykhs between these two -terms is mystical, and on the surface merely verbal, for they -<span class='pageno' id='Page_251'>251</span>seem to be approximately the same. To be present with God -is to be absent from one’s self—what is the difference?—and -one who is not absent from himself is not present with God. -Thus, forasmuch as the impatience of Job in his affliction did -not proceed from himself, but on the contrary he was then -absent from himself, God did not distinguish his impatience -from patience, and when he cried, “<i>Evil hath befallen me</i>” -(Kor. xxi, 83), God said, “<i>Verily, he was patient</i>.” This is -evidently a judgment founded on the essential nature of the -case (<i>ḥukm ba-`ayn</i>). It is related that Junayd said: “For -a time I was such that the inhabitants of heaven and earth wept -over my bewilderment (<i>ḥayrat</i>); then, again, I became such that -I wept over their absence (<i>ghaybat</i>); and now my state is such -that I have no knowledge either of them or of myself.” This -is an excellent indication of “presence”.</p> - -<p class='c001'>I have briefly explained the meaning of “presence” and -“absence” in order that you may be acquainted with the -doctrine of the Khafífís, and may also know in what sense -these terms are used by the Ṣúfís.</p> - -<h3 class='c018'>10. <span class='sc'>Sayyárís.</span></h3> - -<p class='c010'>They are the followers of Abu ´l-`Abbás Sayyárí, the Imám -of Merv. He was learned in all the sciences and associated -with Abú Bakr Wásiṭí. At the present day he has numerous -followers in Nasá and Merv. His school of Ṣúfiism is the only -one that has kept its original doctrine unchanged, and the cause -of this fact is that Nasá and Merv have never been without -some person who acknowledged his authority and took care -that his followers should maintain the doctrine of their founder. -The Sayyárís of Nasá carried on a discussion with those of -Merv by means of letters, and I have seen part of this -correspondence at Merv; it is very fine. Their expositions -are based on “union” (<i>jam`</i>) and “separation” (<i>tafriqa</i>). -These words are common to all scientists and are employed -by specialists in every branch of learning as a means of -rendering their explanations intelligible, but they bear different -<span class='pageno' id='Page_252'>252</span>meanings in each case. Thus, in arithmetic <i>jam`</i> denotes the -addition and <i>tafriqa</i> the subtraction of numbers; in grammar -<i>jam`</i> is the agreement of words in derivation, while <i>tafriqa</i> is the -difference in meaning; in law <i>jam`</i> is analogy (<i>qiyás</i>) and <i>tafriqa</i> -the characteristics of an authoritative text (<i>ṣifát-i nuṣṣ</i>), or -<i>jam`</i> is the text and <i>tafriqa</i> the analogy; in divinity <i>jam`</i> -denotes the essential and <i>tafriqa</i> the formal attributes of God.<a id='r130' /><a href='#f130' class='c015'><sup>[130]</sup></a> -But the Ṣúfís do not use these terms in any of the significations -which I have mentioned. Now, therefore, I will explain the -meaning attached to them by the Ṣúfís and the various opinions -of the Shaykhs on this subject.</p> - -<h4 class='c020'><i>Discourse on Union</i> (jam`) <i>and Separation</i> (tafriqa).</h4> - -<p class='c010'>God united all mankind in His call, as He says, “<i>And God -calls to the abode of peace</i>”; then He separated them in respect -of Divine guidance, and said, “<i>and guides whom He willeth into -the right way</i>” (Kor. x, 26). He called them all, and banished -some in accordance with the manifestation of His will; He -united them all and gave a command, and then separated -them, rejecting some and leaving them without succour, but -accepting others and granting to them Divine aid; then once -more he united a certain number and separated them, giving to -some immunity from sin and to others a propensity towards -evil. Accordingly the real mystery of union is the knowledge -and will of God, while separation is the manifestation of -that which He commands and forbids: e.g., He commanded -Abraham to behead Ishmael, but willed that he should not -do so; and He commanded Iblís to worship Adam, but willed -the contrary; and He commanded Adam not to eat the corn, -but willed that he should eat it; and so forth. Union is that -which He unites by His attributes, and separation is that which -He separates by His acts. All this involves cessation of human -volition and affirmation of the Divine will so as to exclude all -personal initiative. As regards what has been said on the -subject of union and separation, all the Sunnís, except the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_253'>253</span>Mu`tazilites, are in agreement with the Ṣúfí Shaykhs, but at -this point they begin to diverge, some applying the terms in -question to the Divine Unity (<i>tawḥíd</i>), some to the Divine -attributes, and some to the Divine acts. Those who refer to -the Divine Unity say that there are two degrees of union, -one in the attributes of God and the other in the attributes -of Man. The former is the mystery of Unification (<i>tawḥíd</i>), -in which human actions have no part whatever; the latter -denotes acknowledgment of the Divine Unity with sincere -conviction and unfailing resolution. This is the opinion of -Abú `Alí Rúdbárí. Those, again, who refer these terms to the -Divine attributes say that union is an attribute of God, and -separation an act of God in which Man does not co-operate, -because God has no rival in Godhead. Therefore union can be -referred only to His substance and attributes, for union is -equality in the fundamental matter (<i>al-taswiyat fi ´l-aṣl</i>), and no -two things are equal in respect of eternity except His substance -and His attributes, which, when they are separated by expository -analysis (<i>`ibárat ú tafṣíl</i>), are not united. This means that God -has eternal attributes, which are peculiar to Him and subsist -through Him; and that He and His attributes are not two, for -His Unity does not admit difference and number. On this -ground, union is impossible except in the sense indicated above.</p> - -<p class='c001'>Separation in predicament (<i>al-tafriqat fi ´l-ḥukm</i>) refers to -the actions of God, all of which are separate in this respect. -The predicament of one is being (<i>wujúd</i>); of another, not-being -(<i>`adam</i>), but a not-being that is capable of being; of another, -annihilation (<i>faná</i>), and of another subsistence (<i>baqá</i>). There -are some, again, who refer these terms to knowledge (<i>`ilm</i>) and -say that union is knowledge of the Divine Unity and separation -knowledge of the Divine ordinances: hence theology is union -and jurisprudence is separation. One of the Shaykhs has said, -to the same effect: “Union is that on which theologians -(<i>ahl al-`ilm</i>) are agreed, and separation is that on which they -differ.” Again, all the Ṣúfí mystics, whenever they use the -term “separation” in the course of their expositions and -<span class='pageno' id='Page_254'>254</span>indications, attach to it the meaning of “human actions” -(<i>makásib</i>), e.g. self-mortification, and by “union” they signify -“divine gifts” (<i>mawáhib</i>), e.g. contemplation. Whatever is -gained by means of mortification is “separation”, and whatever -is solely the result of Divine favour and guidance is “union”. -It is Man’s glory that, while his actions exist and mortification -is possible, he should escape by God’s goodness from the -imperfection of his own actions, and should find them to be -absorbed in the bounties of God, so that he depends entirely on -God and commits all his attributes to His charge and refers all -his actions to Him and none to himself, as Gabriel told the -Apostle that God said: “My servant continually seeks access to -Me by means of works of supererogation until I love him; and -when I love him, I am his ear and his eye and his hand and his -heart and his tongue: through Me he hears and sees and speaks -and grasps,” i.e., in remembering Me he is enraptured by the -remembrance (<i>dhikr</i>) of Me, and his own “acquisition” (<i>kasb</i>) is -annihilated so as to have no part in his remembrance, and My -remembrance overpowers his remembrance, and the relationship -of humanity (<i>ádamiyyat</i>) is entirely removed from his -remembrance: then My remembrance is his remembrance, and -in his rapture he becomes even as Abú Yazíd in the hour when -he said: “Glory to me! how great is my majesty!” These -words were the outward sign of his speech, but the speaker was -God. Similarly, the Apostle said: “God speaks by the tongue -of `Umar.” The fact is that when the Divine omnipotence -manifests its dominion over humanity, it transports a man out -of his own being, so that his speech becomes the speech of God. -But it is impossible that God should be mingled (<i>imtizáj</i>) with -created beings or made one (<i>ittiḥád</i>) with His works or become -incarnate (<i>ḥáll</i>) in things: God is exalted far above that, and -far above that which the heretics ascribe to Him.</p> - -<p class='c001'>It may happen, then, that God’s love holds absolute sway -over the heart of His servant, and that his reason and natural -faculties are too weak to sustain its rapture and intensity, and -that he loses all control of his power to act (<i>kasb</i>). This state -<span class='pageno' id='Page_255'>255</span>is called “union”.<a id='r131' /><a href='#f131' class='c015'><sup>[131]</sup></a> Herewith are connected all extraordinary -miracles (<i>i`jáz</i>) and acts of miraculous grace (<i>karámát</i>). All -ordinary actions are “separation”, and all acts which violate -custom are “union”. God bestows these miracles on His -prophets and saints, and refers His actions to them and theirs -to Himself, as He hath said: “<i>Verily, they who swear fealty -unto thee, swear fealty unto God</i>” (Kor. xlviii, 10), and again: -“<i>Whosoever obeys the Apostle has obeyed God</i>” (Kor. iv, 82). -Accordingly, His saints are united (<i>mujtami`</i>) by their inward -feelings (<i>asrár</i>) and separated (<i>muftariq</i>) by their outward -behaviour, so that their love of God is strengthened by the -internal union, and the right fulfilment of their duty as servants -of God is assured by their external separation. A certain great -Shaykh says—</p> - -<div class='lg-container-b c009'> - <div class='linegroup'> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'>“<i>I have realized that which is within me, and my tongue hath conversed with Thee in secret,</i></div> - <div class='line'><i>And we are united in one respect, but we are separated in another.</i></div> - <div class='line'><i>Although awe has hidden Thee from the glances of mine eye,</i></div> - <div class='line'><i>Ecstasy has made Thee near to my inmost parts.</i>”<a id='r132' /><a href='#f132' class='c015'><sup>[132]</sup></a></div> - </div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>The state of being inwardly united he calls “union”, and the -secret conversation of the tongue he calls “separation”; then -he indicates that both union and separation are in himself, and -attributes the basis (<i>qá`ida</i>) of them to himself. This is very -subtle.</p> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c004'> - <div><span class='sc'>Section.</span></div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>Here I must notice a matter of controversy between us and -those who maintain that the manifestation of union is the -denial of separation, because the two terms contradict each -<span class='pageno' id='Page_256'>256</span>other, and that when anyone passes under the absolute sway -of Divine guidance he ceases to act and to mortify himself. -This is sheer nullification (<i>ta`ṭíl</i>), for a man must never cease to -practise devotion and mortify himself as long as he has the -possibility and power of doing so. Moreover, union is not -apart from separation, as light is apart from the sun, and -accident from substance, and attribute from object: therefore, -neither is self-mortification apart from Divine guidance, nor -the Truth from the Law, nor discovery from search. But -mortification may precede or follow Divine guidance. In the -former case a man’s tribulation is increased, because he is in -“absence” (<i>ghaybat</i>), while in the latter case he has no trouble -or pain, because he is in “presence” (<i>haḍrat</i>). Those to whom -negation is the source (<i>mashrab</i>) of actions, and to whom it -seems to be the substance (<i>`ayn</i>) of action, commit a grave -error. A man, however, may attain such a degree that he -regards all his qualities as faulty and defective, for when he -sees that his praiseworthy qualities are vicious and imperfect, -his blameworthy qualities will necessarily appear more vicious. -I adduce these considerations because some ignorant persons, -who have fallen into an error that is closely akin to infidelity, -assert that no result whatever depends upon our exertion, and -that inasmuch as our actions and devotions are faulty and our -mortifications are imperfect a thing left undone is better than -a thing done. To this argument I reply: “You are agreed in -supposing that everything done by us has an energy (<i>fi`l</i>), and -you declare that our energies are a centre of defect and a source -of evil and corruption: consequently you must also suppose -that things left undone by us have an energy; and since in -both cases there is an energy involving defect, how can you -regard that which we leave undone as better than that which -we do?” This notion evidently is a noxious delusion. Here we -have an excellent criterion to distinguish the believer from the -infidel. Both agree that their energies are inherently defective, -but the believer, in accordance with God’s command, deems -a thing done to be better than a thing left undone, while the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_257'>257</span>infidel, in accordance with his denial of the Creator (<i>t`aṭíl</i>), -deems a thing left undone to be better than a thing done.</p> - -<p class='c001'>Union, then, involves this—that, although the imperfection of -separation is recognized, its authority (<i>ḥukm</i>) should not be let -go; and separation involves this—that, although one is veiled -from the sight of union, he nevertheless thinks that separation -is union. Muzayyin the Elder<a id='r133' /><a href='#f133' class='c015'><sup>[133]</sup></a> says in this sense: “Union is -the state of privilege (<i>khuṣúṣiyyat</i>) and separation is the state -of a servant (<i>`ubúdiyyat</i>), these states being indissolubly -combined with each other,” because it is a work of the -privileged state to fulfil the duties of servantship; therefore, -although the tediousness and painfulness of self-mortification -and personal effort may be removed from one who performs all -that is required of him in this respect, it is impossible that the -substance (<i>`ayn</i>) of self-mortification and religious obligation -should be removed from anyone, even though he be in the -essence of union, unless he has an evident excuse that is -generally acknowledged by the authority of the religious law. -Now I will explain this matter in order that you may better -understand it.</p> - -<p class='c001'>Union is of two kinds: (1) sound union (<i>jam`-i salámat</i>), and -(2) broken union (<i>jam`-i taksír</i>). Sound union is that which -God produces in a man when he is in the state of rapture and -ecstasy, and when God causes him to receive and fulfil His -commandments and to mortify himself. This was the state -of Sahl b. `Abdalláh and Abú Ḥafṣ Ḥaddád and Abu ´l-`Abbás -Sayyárí, the author of the doctrine. Abú Yazíd of Bisṭám, -Abú Bakr Shiblí, Abu ´l-Ḥasan Ḥuṣrí, and a number of great -Shaykhs were continually in a state of rapture until the hour of -prayer arrived; then they returned to consciousness, and after -performing their prayers became enraptured again. While thou -art in the state of separation, thou art thou, and thou fulfillest -the command of God; but when God transports thee He has -the best right to see that thou performest His command, for -two reasons: firstly, in order that the token of servantship may -<span class='pageno' id='Page_258'>258</span>not be removed from thee, and secondly, in order that He may -keep His promise that He will never let the law of Muḥammad -be abrogated. “Broken union” (<i>jam`-i taksír</i>) is this: that -a man’s judgment becomes distraught and bewildered, so that -it is like the judgment of a lunatic: then he is either excused -from performing his religious obligations or rewarded (<i>mashkúr</i>) -for performing them; and the state of him who is rewarded is -sounder than the state of him who is excused.</p> - -<p class='c001'>You must know, in short, that union does not involve any -peculiar “station” (<i>maqám</i>) or any peculiar “state” (<i>ḥál</i>), for -union is the concentration of one’s thoughts (<i>jam`-i himmat</i>) -upon the object of one’s desire. According to some the -revelation of this matter takes place in the “stations” -(<i>maqámát</i>), according to others in the “states” (<i>aḥwál</i>), and -in either case the desire of the “united” person (<i>ṣáḥib jam`</i>) is -attained by negating his desire. This holds good in everything, -e.g., Jacob concentrated his thoughts on Joseph, so that he had -no thought but of him; and Majnún concentrated his thoughts -on Laylá, so that he saw only her in the whole world, and -all created things assumed the form of Laylá in his eyes. -One day, when Abú Yazíd was in his cell, some one came -and asked: “Is Abú Yazíd here?” He answered: “Is anyone -here except God?” And a certain Shaykh relates that -a dervish came to Mecca and remained in contemplation of -the Ka`ba for a whole year, during which time he neither ate -nor drank, nor slept, nor cleansed himself, because of the -concentration of his thoughts upon the Ka`ba, which thereby -became the food of his body and the drink of his soul. The -principle in all these cases is the same, viz. that God divided -the one substance of His love and bestows a particle thereof, -as a peculiar gift, upon every one of His friends in proportion -to their enravishment with Him; then He lets down upon that -particle the shrouds of humanity and nature and temperament -and spirit, in order that by its powerful working it may -transmute to its own quality all the particles that are attached -to it, until the lover’s clay is wholly converted into love, and all -<span class='pageno' id='Page_259'>259</span>his actions and looks become so many indispensable conditions -of love. This state is named “union” alike by those who -regard the inward meaning and those who regard the outward -expression. Ḥusayn b. Manṣúr (al-Ḥalláj) says in this sense:</p> - -<div class='lg-container-b c009'> - <div class='linegroup'> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'>“<i>Thy will be done, O my Lord and Master!</i></div> - <div class='line'><i>Thy will be done, O my purpose and meaning!</i></div> - <div class='line'><i>O essence of my being, O goal of my desire,</i></div> - <div class='line'><i>O my speech and my hints and my gestures!</i></div> - <div class='line'><i>O all of my all, O my hearing and my sight,</i></div> - <div class='line'><i>O my whole and my element and my particles!</i>”</div> - </div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>Therefore, to one whose qualities are only borrowed from -God, it is a disgrace to affirm his own existence, and an act -of dualism (<i>zunnár</i>) to pay any heed to the phenomenal -universe; and all created objects are despicable to his soaring -thought. Some have been led by their dialectical subtlety and -their admiration of phraseology to speak of “the union of -union” (<i>jam` al-jam`</i>). This is a good expression as phrases -go, but if you consider the meaning, it is better not to predicate -union of union, because the term “union” cannot properly be -applied except to separation. Before union can be united it -must first have been separated, whereas the fact is that union -does not change its state. The expression, therefore, is liable -to be misunderstood, because one who is “united” does not -look forth from himself to what is above or to what is below -him. Do not you perceive that when the two worlds were -displayed to the Apostle on the night of the Ascension he paid -no heed to anything? He was in “union”, and one who is -“united” does not behold “separation”. Hence God said: -“<i>His gaze swerved not, nor did it stray</i>” (Kor. liii, 17). In my -early days I composed a book on this subject and entitled it -<i>Kitáb al-bayán li-ahl al-`iyán</i>,<a id='r134' /><a href='#f134' class='c015'><sup>[134]</sup></a> and I have also discussed the -matter at length in the <i>Baḥr al-qulúb</i><a id='r135' /><a href='#f135' class='c015'><sup>[135]</sup></a> in the chapter on -<span class='pageno' id='Page_260'>260</span>“Union”. I will not now burden my readers by adding to what -I have said here.</p> - -<p class='c001'>This sketch of the doctrine of the Sayyárís concludes my -account of those Ṣúfí sects which are approved and follow the -path of true theosophy. I now turn to the opinions of those -heretics who have connected themselves with the Ṣúfís and -have adopted Ṣúfiistic phraseology as a means of promulgating -their heresy. My aim is to expose their errors in order that -novices may not be deceived by their pretensions and may -guard themselves from mischief.</p> - -<h3 id='XIV.11' class='c018'>11. <span class='sc'>The Ḥulúlís.</span></h3> - -<p class='c010'>Of those two reprobate sects which profess to belong to -Ṣúfiism and make the Ṣúfís partners in their error, one follows -Abú Ḥulmán of Damascus.<a id='r136' /><a href='#f136' class='c015'><sup>[136]</sup></a> The stories which his adherents -relate of him do not agree with what is written about him in -the books of the Shaykhs, for, while the Ṣúfís regard him as -one of themselves, these sectaries impute to him the doctrines -of incarnation (<i>ḥulúl</i>) and commixture (<i>imtizáj</i>) and transmigration -of spirits (<i>naskh-i arwáḥ</i>). I have seen this statement -in the book of Muqaddasí,<a id='r137' /><a href='#f137' class='c015'><sup>[137]</sup></a> who attacks him; and the same -notion of him has been formed by theologians, but God knows -best what is the truth. The other sect refer their doctrine to -Fáris,<a id='r138' /><a href='#f138' class='c015'><sup>[138]</sup></a> who pretends to have derived it from Ḥusayn b. Manṣúr -(al-Ḥalláj), but he is the only one of Ḥusayn’s followers who -holds such tenets. I saw Abú Ja`far Ṣaydalání<a id='r139' /><a href='#f139' class='c015'><sup>[139]</sup></a> with four -thousand men, dispersed throughout `Iráq, who were Ḥallájís; -and they all cursed Fáris on account of this doctrine. Moreover, -in the compositions of al-Ḥalláj himself there is nothing -but profound theosophy.</p> - -<p class='c001'><span class='pageno' id='Page_261'>261</span>I, `Alí b. `Uthmán al-Jullábí, say that I do not know who -Fáris and Abú Hulmán were or what they said, but anyone who -holds a doctrine conflicting with Unification and true theosophy -has no part in religion at all. If religion, which is the root, -is not firmly based, Ṣúfiism, which is the branch and offspring -of religion, must with more reason be unsound, for it is inconceivable -that miracles and evidences should be manifested -except to religious persons and Unitarians. All the errors -of these sectaries are in regard to the spirit (<i>rúḥ</i>). Now, -therefore, I will explain its nature and principles according -to the Sunní canon, and in the course of my explanation I will -notice the erroneous and delusive opinions of the heretics in -order that your faith may be strengthened thereby.</p> - -<h4 class='c020'><i>Discourse on the Spirit</i> (al-rúḥ).</h4> - -<p class='c010'>You must know that knowledge concerning the existence -of the spirit is intuitive (<i>darúrí</i>), and the intelligence is unable -to apprehend its (the spirit’s) nature. Every Moslem divine -and sage has expressed some conjectural opinion on this point, -which has also been debated by unbelievers of various sorts. -When the unbelievers of Quraysh, prompted by the Jews, sent -Naḍr b. al-Ḥárith to question the Apostle concerning the -nature and essence of the spirit, God in the first place affirmed -its substance and said, “<i>And they will ask thee concerning the -spirit</i>”; then He denied its eternity, saying, “<i>Answer, ‘The -spirit belongs to that which</i> (i.e. the creation of which) <i>my Lord -commanded’</i>” (Kor. xvii, 87). And the Apostle said: “The -spirits are hosts gathered together: those that know one -another agree, and those that do not know one another -disagree.” There are many similar proofs of the existence -of the spirit, but they contain no authoritative statement as -to its nature. Some have said that the spirit is the life -whereby the body lives, a view which is also held by a number -of scholastic philosophers. According to this view the spirit is -an accident (<i>`araḍ</i>), which at God’s command keeps the body -alive, and from which proceed conjunction, motion, cohesion. -<span class='pageno' id='Page_262'>262</span>and similar accidents by which the body is changed from one -state to another. Others, again, declare that the spirit is not -life, but that life does not exist without it, just as the spirit -does not exist without the body, and that the two are never -found apart, because they are inseparable, like pain and the -knowledge of pain. According to this view also the spirit is -an accident, like life. All the Ṣúfí Shaykhs, however, and -most orthodox Moslems hold that the spirit is a substance, -and not an attribute; for, so long as it is connected with the -body, God continually creates life in the body, and the life of -Man is an attribute and by it he lives, but the spirit is -deposited in his body and may be separated from him while -he is still living, as in sleep. But when it leaves him, -intelligence and knowledge can no longer remain with him, -for the Apostle has said that the spirits of martyrs are in the -crops of birds: consequently it must be a substance; and the -Apostle has said that the spirits are hosts (<i>junúd</i>), and hosts -are subsistent (<i>báqí</i>), and no accident can subsist, for an -accident does not stand by itself.</p> - -<p class='c001'>The spirit, then, is a subtle body (<i>jismí laṭíf</i>), which comes -and goes by the command of God. On the night of the -Ascension, when the Apostle saw in Heaven Adam, Joseph, -Moses, Aaron, Jesus, and Abraham, it was their spirits that he -saw; and if the spirit were an accident, it would not stand by -itself so as to become visible, for it would need a <i>locus</i> in -substances, and substances are gross (<i>kathíf</i>). Accordingly, it -has been ascertained that the spirit is subtle and corporeal -(<i>jasím</i>), and being corporeal, it is visible, but visible only to the -eye of intelligence (<i>chashm-i dil</i>). And spirits may reside in -the crops of birds or may be armies that move to and fro, as -the Apostolic Traditions declare.</p> - -<p class='c001'>Here we are at variance with the heretics, who assert that the -spirit is eternal (<i>qadím</i>), and worship it, and regard it as the -sole agent and governor of things, and call it the uncreated -spirit of God, and aver that it passes from one body to another. -No popular error has obtained such wide acceptance as this -<span class='pageno' id='Page_263'>263</span>doctrine, which is held by the Christians, although they express -it in terms that appear to conflict with it, and by all the Indians, -Tibetans, and Chinese, and is supported by the consensus -of opinion among the Shí`ites, Carmathians, and Ismá`ílís -(<i>Báṭiniyán</i>), and is embraced by the two false sects abovementioned. -All these sectaries base their belief on certain -propositions and bring forward proofs in defence of their -assertion. I ask them this question: “What do you mean by -‘eternity’ (<i>qidam</i>)? Do you mean the pre-existence of a non-eternal -thing, or an eternal thing that never came into being?” -If they mean the pre-existence of a non-eternal thing, then -there is no difference between us in principle, for we too say -that the spirit is non-eternal (<i>muḥdath</i>), and that it existed -before the body, as the Apostle said: “God created the spirits -two thousand years before the bodies.” Accordingly, the spirit -is one sort of God’s creatures, and He joins it to another sort -of His creatures, and in joining them together He produces -life through His predestination. But the spirit cannot pass from -body to body, because, just as a body cannot have two lives, -so a spirit cannot have two bodies. If these facts were not -affirmed in Apostolic Traditions by an Apostle who speaks -the truth, and if the matter were considered purely from the -standpoint of a reasonable intelligence, then the spirit would -be life and nothing else, and it would be an attribute, not -a substance. Now suppose, on the other hand, they say that -the spirit is an eternal thing that never came into being. In -this case, I ask: “Does it stand by itself or by something -else?” If they say, “By itself,” I ask them, “Is God its -world (<i>`álam</i>) or not?” If they answer that God is not its -world, they affirm the existence of two eternal beings, which is -contrary to reason, for the eternal is infinite, and the essence of -one eternal being would limit the other. But if they answer -that God is its world, then I say that God is eternal and His -creatures are non-eternal: it is impossible that the eternal -should be commingled with the non-eternal or made one with -it, or become immanent in it, or that the non-eternal should be -<span class='pageno' id='Page_264'>264</span>the place of the eternal or that the eternal should carry it; -for whatever is joined to anything must be like that to which -it is joined, and only homogeneous things are capable of being -united and separated. And if they say that the spirit does not -stand by itself, but by something else, then it must be either -an attribute (<i>ṣifat</i>) or an accident (<i>`araḍ</i>). If it is an accident, -it must either be in a <i>locus</i> or not. If it is in a <i>locus</i>, its <i>locus</i> -must be like itself, and neither can be called eternal; and to -say that it has no <i>locus</i> is absurd, for an accident cannot stand -by itself. If, again, they say that the spirit is an eternal -attribute—and this is the doctrine of the Ḥulúhs and those -who believe in metempsychosis (<i>tanásukhiyán</i>)—and call it an -attribute of God, I reply that an eternal attribute of God -cannot possibly become an attribute of His creatures; for, if -His life could become the life of His creatures, similarly His -power could become their power; and inasmuch as an attribute -stands by its object, how can an eternal attribute stand by -a non-eternal object? Therefore, as I have shown, the eternal -has no connexion with the non-eternal, and the doctrine of the -heretics who affirm this is false. The spirit is created and is -under God’s command. Anyone who holds another belief is -in flagrant error and cannot distinguish what is non-eternal -from what is eternal. No saint, if his saintship be sound, can -possibly be ignorant of the attributes of God. I give praise -without end to God, who hath guarded us from heresies and -dangers, and hath bestowed on us intelligence to examine and -refute them by our arguments, and hath given us faith in order -that we may know Him. When men who see only the exterior -hear stories of this kind from theologians, they imagine that -this is the doctrine of all aspirants to Ṣúfiism. They are -grossly mistaken and utterly deceived, and the consequence is -that they are blinded to the beauty of our mystic knowledge -and to the loveliness of Divine saintship and to the flashes of -spiritual illumination, because eminent Ṣúfís regard popular -applause and popular censure with equal indifference.</p> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c004'> - <div><span class='pageno' id='Page_265'>265</span><span class='sc'>Section.</span></div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>One of the Shaykhs says: “The spirit in the body is like fire -in fuel; the fire is created (<i>makhlúq</i>) and the coal is made -(<i>maṣnú`</i>).” Nothing can be described as eternal except the -essence and attributes of God. Abú Bakr Wásiṭí has discoursed -on the spirit more than any of the Ṣúfí Shaykhs. It is related -that he said: “There are ten stations (<i>maqámát</i>) of spirits: -(1) the spirits of the sincere (<i>mukhliṣán</i>), which are imprisoned -in a darkness and know not what will befall them; (2) the -spirits of pious men (<i>pársá-mardán</i>), which in the heaven of this -world rejoice in the fruits of their actions and take pleasure in -devotions, and walk by the strength thereof; (3) the spirits of -disciples (<i>murídán</i>), which are in the fourth heaven and dwell -with the angels in the delights of veracity, and in the shadow -of their good works; (4) the spirits of the beneficent (<i>ahl-i -minan</i>) which are hung in lamps of light from the Throne of -God, and their food is mercy, and their drink is favour and -proximity; (5) the spirits of the faithful (<i>ahl-i wafá</i>), which -thrill with joy in the veil of purity and the station of electness -(<i>iṣṭifá</i>); (6) the spirits of martyrs (<i>shahídán</i>), which are in -Paradise in the crops of birds, and go where they will in its -gardens early and late; (7) the spirits of those who yearn -(<i>mushtáqán</i>), which stand on the carpet of respect (<i>adab</i>) clad -in the luminous veils of the Divine attributes; (8) the spirits of -gnostics (<i>`árifán</i>), which, in the precincts of holiness, listen at -morn and eve to the word of God and see their places in -Paradise and in this world; (9) the spirits of lovers (<i>dústán</i>), -which have become absorbed in contemplation of the Divine -beauty and the station of revelation (<i>kashf</i>), and perceive -nothing but God and rest content with no other thing; -(10) the spirits of dervishes, which have found favour with -God in the abode of annihilation, and have suffered a transformation -of quality and a change of state.”</p> - -<p class='c001'>It is related concerning the Shaykhs that they have seen the -spirit in different shapes, and this may well be, because, as -I have said, it is created, and a subtle body (<i>jismí laṭíf</i>) is -<span class='pageno' id='Page_266'>266</span>necessarily visible. God shows it to every one of His servants, -when and as it pleases Him.</p> - -<p class='c001'>I, `Alí b. `Uthmán al-Jullábí, declare that our life is wholly -through God, and our stability is through Him, and our being -kept alive is the act of God in us, and we live through His -creation, not through His essence and attributes. The doctrine -of the animists (<i>rúḥiyán</i>) is entirely false. Belief in the -eternity of the spirit is one of the grave errors which prevail -among the vulgar, and is expressed in different ways, e.g. they -use the terms “soul” and “matter” (<i>nafs ú hayúlá</i>), or “light” -and “darkness” (<i>núr ú ẕulmat</i>), and those Ṣúfí impostors speak -of “annihilation” and “subsistence” (<i>faná ú baqá</i>), or “union” -and “separation” (<i>jam` ú tafriqa</i>), or adopt similar phrases as -a fair mask for their infidelity. But the Ṣúfís abjure these -heretics, for the Ṣúfís hold that saintship and true love of God -depend on knowledge of Him, and anyone who does not know -the eternal from the non-eternal is ignorant in what he says, -and the intelligent pay no attention to what is said by the -ignorant. Now I will unveil the portals of the practice and -theory of the Ṣúfís, furnishing my explanation with evident -proofs, in order that you may the more easily comprehend my -meaning, and that any sceptic possessed of insight may be led -back into the right way, and that I may thereby gain a blessing -and a Divine reward.</p> - -<hr class='c017' /> -<div class='footnote' id='f109'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r109'>109</a>. i.e. the detachment of all phenomenal attributes from the Unity of God.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f110'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r110'>110</a>. According to Qushayrí (105, 21 ff.) the `Iráqís held the doctrine which is here -ascribed to the Khurásánís, and <i>vice versâ</i>.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f111'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r111'>111</a>. A well-known traditionist, who died about 120 <span class='fss'>A.H.</span></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f112'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r112'>112</a>. `Abdalláh, son of the Caliph `Umar.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f113'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r113'>113</a>. Here follow two stories illustrating the same topic: the first relates how `Alí -slept in the Prophet’s bed on the night of the latter’s emigration from Mecca, when -the infidels were seeking to slay him; the second, how on the battle-field of Uḥud -the wounded Moslems, though parched with thirst, preferred to die rather than -drink the water which their comrades asked for.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f114'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r114'>114</a>. The followers of Ḥamdún al-Qaṣṣár, who are generally called Qaṣṣárís.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f115'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r115'>115</a>. Here the author cites Kor. lxxix, 40, 41; ii, 81 (part of the verse); xii, 53; and -the Traditions: “When God wishes well unto His servant He causes him to see the -faults of his soul,” and “God said to David, ‘O David, hate thy soul, for My love -depends on thy hatred of it.’”</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f116'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r116'>116</a>. Here follows an account of the mortification which the Prophet imposed on -himself.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f117'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r117'>117</a>. Kor. xlvii, 12.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f118'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r118'>118</a>. See Ibn Khallikán, No. 4.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f119'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r119'>119</a>. See Ibn Khallikán, No. 621; Brockelmann, i, 166.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f120'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r120'>120</a>. The name <i>mu`jizat</i> is given to a miracle performed by a prophet, while one -performed by a saint is called <i>karámat</i>.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f121'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r121'>121</a>. B. omits the words “that he is insensibly deceived”.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f122'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r122'>122</a>. Here follow (1) a Tradition, related by Abú Hurayra, of three infants who were -miraculously endowed with speech: (<i>a</i>) Jesus, (<i>b</i>) a child who exculpated the monk -Jurayj (George) when he was falsely accused by a harlot, (<i>c</i>) a child who divined the -characters of a horseman and a woman. (2) A story of Zá´ida, the handmaid of the -Caliph `Umar: how a knight descended from heaven and gave her a message from -Riḍwán, the keeper of Paradise, to the Prophet; and how, when she could not lift -a bundle of firewood from a rock on which she had laid it, the Prophet bade the rock -go with her and carry the firewood to `Umar’s house. (3) A story of `Alá b. al-Ḥaḍramí, -who, having been sent on a warlike expedition by the Prophet, walked -dry-shod across a river with his company. (4) A story of `Abdalláh b. `Umar, at -whose bidding a lion decamped and left the way open for a party of travellers. -(5) A story of a man who was seen sitting in the air, and when Abraham asked him -by what means he had obtained such power, replied that he had renounced the world -and that God had bestowed on him an aerial dwelling-place where he was not -disturbed by any thought of mankind. (6) A story of the Caliph `Umar, who was -on the point of being killed by a Persian, when two lions suddenly appeared and -caused the assassin to desist. (7) A story of Khálid b. Walíd, who said “Bismillah” -and drank a deadly poison, which did him no harm. (8) A story, related by Ḥasan -of Baṣra, of a negro who turned the walls of a tavern into gold. (9) A story, related -by Ibráhím b. Adham, of a shepherd who smote a rock with his staff and caused water -to gush forth. (10) A story of a cup which pronounced the words “Glory to God” -in the hearing of Abú Dardá and Salmán Fárisí.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f123'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r123'>123</a>. Died in 326 <span class='fss'>A.H.</span> See Abu ´l-Maḥásin, <i>Nujúm</i>, ii, 284, 13.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f124'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r124'>124</a>. L. سلاتک. IJ. اسلاتک.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f125'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r125'>125</a>. See <i>Nafaḥát</i>, No. 351.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f126'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r126'>126</a>. Here the author tells the story, which has already been related (p. 142 <i>supra</i>), -of Abú Bakr Warráq, who was commanded by Muḥammad b. `Alí of Tirmidh to -throw some of the latter’s mystical writings into the Oxus.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f127'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r127'>127</a>. A full account of Báyazíd’s ascension is given in the <i>Tadhkirat al-Awliyá</i>, -i, 172 ff.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f128'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r128'>128</a>. See Kor. ii, 96 ff.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f129'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r129'>129</a>. <i>Nafaḥát</i>, No. 201.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f130'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r130'>130</a>. For the distinction between <i>ṣifát-i dhát</i> and <i>ṣifát-i fi`l</i> see Dozy, <i>Supplément</i>, ii, 810.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f131'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r131'>131</a>. Here the author illustrates the meaning of “union” and “separation” by the -action of Muḥammad when he threw gravel in the eyes of the unbelievers at Badr, -and by that of David when he slew Goliath. See p. <a href='#Page_185'>185</a> <i>supra</i>.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f132'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r132'>132</a>. The last words are corrupt and unmetrical in all the texts. I have found the -true reading, من الأَحْشآءِ دانى, in a MS. of the <i>Kitáb al-Luma`</i> by Abú Naṣr -al-Sarráj, which has recently come into the possession of Mr. A. G. Ellis.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f133'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r133'>133</a>. <i>Nafaḥát</i>, No. 188.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f134'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r134'>134</a>. “The Book of Exposition for Persons of Intuition.”</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f135'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r135'>135</a>. “The Sea of Hearts.”</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f136'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r136'>136</a>. See note, p. <a href='#f78'>131</a>.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f137'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r137'>137</a>. The <i>nisba</i> Muqaddasí or Maqdisí belongs to a number of Moslem writers. I do -not know which of them is intended here.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f138'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r138'>138</a>. See <i>Nafaḥát</i>, No. 178.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f139'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r139'>139</a>. This person, whom the author has already mentioned at the beginning of -Chapter XIII, is not identical with the Ṣúfí of the same name who was a contemporary -of Junayd (<i>Nafaḥát</i>, No. 197).</p> -</div> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_267'>267</span> - <h2 id='ch15' class='c011'>CHAPTER XV. <br /><span class='sc'>The Uncovering of the First Veil: Concerning the Gnosis of God</span> (<i>ma`rifat Allah</i>).</h2> -</div> - -<p class='c014'>The Apostle said: “If ye knew God as He ought to be -known, ye would walk on the seas, and the mountains would -move at your call.” Gnosis of God is of two kinds: cognitional -(<i>`ilmí</i>) and emotional (<i>ḥálí</i>). Cognitional gnosis is the foundation -of all blessings in this world and in the next, for the most -important thing for a man at all times and in all circumstances -is knowledge of God, as God hath said: “<i>I only created the genii -and mankind that they might serve Me</i>” (Kor. li, 56), i.e. that -they might know Me. But the greater part of men neglect this -duty, except those whom God hath chosen and whose hearts -He hath vivified with Himself. Gnosis is the life of the heart -through God, and the turning away of one’s inmost thoughts -from all that is not God. The worth of everyone is in -proportion to gnosis, and he who is without gnosis is worth -nothing. Theologians, lawyers, and other classes of men give -the name of gnosis (<i>ma`rifat</i>) to right cognition (<i>`ilm</i>) of God, -but the Ṣúfí Shaykhs call right feeling (<i>ḥál</i>) towards God by -that name. Hence they have said that gnosis (<i>ma`rifat</i>) is -more excellent than cognition (<i>`ilm</i>), for right feeling (<i>ḥál</i>) is -the result of right cognition, but right cognition is not the same -thing as right feeling, i.e. one who has not cognition of God is -not a gnostic (<i>`árif</i>), but one may have cognition of God -without being a gnostic. Those of either class who were -ignorant of this distinction engaged in useless controversy, and -the one party disbelieved in the other party. Now I will -explain the matter in order that both may be instructed.</p> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c004'> - <div><span class='pageno' id='Page_268'>268</span><span class='sc'>Section.</span></div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>You must know that there is a great difference of opinion -touching the gnosis and right cognition of God. The Mu`tazilites -assert that gnosis is intellectual and that only a reasonable -person (<i>`áqil</i>) can possibly have it. This doctrine is disproved -by the fact that madmen, within Islam, are deemed to have -gnosis, and that children, who are not reasonable, are deemed -to have faith. Were the criterion of gnosis an intellectual one, -such persons must be without gnosis, while unbelievers could -not be charged with infidelity, provided only that they were -reasonable beings. If reason were the cause of gnosis, it would -follow that every reasonable person must know God, and that -all who lack reason must be ignorant of Him; which is -manifestly absurd. Others pretend that demonstration (<i>istidlál</i>) -is the cause of knowledge of God, and that such knowledge is -not gained except by those who deduce it in this manner. The -futility of this doctrine is exemplified by Iblís, for he saw -many evidences, such as Paradise, Hell, and the Throne of -God, yet they did not cause him to have gnosis. God hath said -that knowledge of Him depends on His will (Kor. vi, 111). -According to the view of orthodox Moslems, soundness of -reason and regard to evidences are a means (<i>sabab</i>) to gnosis, -but not the cause (<i>`illat</i>) thereof: the sole cause is God’s will -and favour, for without His favour (<i>`ináyat</i>) reason is blind. -Reason does not even know itself: how, then, can it know -another? Heretics of all sorts use the demonstrative method, -but the majority of them do not know God. On the other hand, -whenever one enjoys the favour of God, all his actions are so -many tokens of gnosis; his demonstration is search (<i>ṭalab</i>), and -his neglect of demonstration is resignation to God’s will -(<i>taslím</i>); but, in reference to perfect gnosis, resignation is no -better than search, for search is a principle that cannot be -neglected, while resignation is a principle that excludes the -possibility of agitation (<i>iḍṭiráb</i>), and these two principles do not -essentially involve gnosis. In reality Man’s only guide and -enlightener is God. Reason and the proofs adduced by reason -<span class='pageno' id='Page_269'>269</span>are unable to direct anyone into the right way. If the infidels -were to return from the place of Judgment to this world, they -would bring their infidelity back with them (cf. Kor. vi, 28). -When the Commander of the Faithful, `Alí, was asked concerning -gnosis, he said: “I know God by God, and I know -that which is not God by the light of God.” God created the -body and committed its life to the spirit (<i>ján</i>), and He created -the soul (<i>dil</i>) and committed its life to Himself. Hence, -inasmuch as reason and human faculties and evidences have no -power to make the body live, they cannot make the soul live, as -God hath said: “<i>Shall he who was dead and whom We have -restored to life and to whom We have given a light whereby he -may walk among men...?</i>” (Kor. vi, 122), i.e. “I am the -Creator of the light in which believers are illumined”. It is God -that opens and seals the hearts of men (Kor. xxxix, 23; ii, 6): -therefore He alone is able to guide them. Everything except -Him is a cause or a means, and causes and means cannot -possibly indicate the right way without the favour of the -Causer. He it is that imposes the obligation of piety, which is -essentially gnosis; and those on whom that obligation is laid, -so long as they are in the state of obligation, neither bring it -upon themselves nor put it away from themselves by their own -choice: therefore Man’s share in gnosis, unless God makes him -know, is mere helplessness. Abu ´l-Ḥasan Núrí says: “There -is none to point out the way to God except God Himself: -knowledge is sought only for due performance of His worship.” -No created being is capable of leading anyone to God. Those -who rely on demonstration are not more reasonable than was -Abú Ṭálib, and no guide is greater than was Muḥammad; yet -since Abú Ṭálib was preordained to misery, the guidance of -Muḥammad did not avail him. The first step of demonstration -is a turning away from God, because demonstration involves the -consideration of some other thing, whereas gnosis is a turning -away from all that is not God. Ordinary objects of search are -found by means of demonstration, but knowledge of God is -extraordinary. Therefore, knowledge of Him is attained only -<span class='pageno' id='Page_270'>270</span>by unceasing bewilderment of the reason, and His favour is not -procured by any act of human acquisition, but is miraculously -revealed to men’s hearts. What is not God is phenomenal -(<i>muḥdath</i>), and although a phenomenal being may reach another -like himself he cannot reach his Creator and acquire Him -while he exists, for in every act of acquisition he who makes the -acquisition is predominant and the thing acquired is under his -power. Accordingly, the miracle is not that reason should be -led by the act to affirm the existence of the Agent, but that -a saint should be led by the light of the Truth to deny his own -existence. The knowledge gained is in the one case a matter of -logic, in the other it becomes an inward experience. Let those -who deem reason to be the cause of gnosis consider what reason -affirms in their minds concerning the substance of gnosis, for -gnosis involves the negation of whatever is affirmed by reason, -i.e. whatever notion of God can be formed by reason, God is in -reality something different. How, then, is there any room for -reason to arrive at gnosis by means of demonstration? Reason -and imagination are homogeneous, and where <i>genus</i> is affirmed -gnosis is denied. To infer the existence of God from intellectual -proofs is assimilation (<i>tashbíh</i>), and to deny it on the same -grounds is nullification (<i>ta`ṭíl</i>). Reason cannot pass beyond -these two principles, which in regard to gnosis are agnosticism, -since neither of the parties professing them is Unitarian -(<i>muwaḥḥid</i>).</p> - -<p class='c001'>Therefore, when reason is gone as far as possible, and the -souls of His lovers must needs search for Him, they rest -helplessly without their faculties, and while they so rest they -grow restless and stretch their hands in supplication and seek -a relief for their souls; and when they have exhausted every -manner of search in their power, the power of God becomes -theirs, i.e. they find the way from Him to Him, and are eased of -the anguish of absence and set foot in the garden of intimacy -and win to rest. And reason, when it sees that the souls have -attained their desire, tries to exert its control, but fails; and -when it fails it becomes distraught; and when it becomes -<span class='pageno' id='Page_271'>271</span>distraught it abdicates. Then God clothes it in the garment of -service (<i>khidmat</i>) and says to it: “While thou wert independent -thou wert veiled by thy faculties and their exercise, and when -these were annihilated thou didst fail, and having failed thou -didst attain.” Thus it is the allotted portion of the soul to be -near unto God, and that of the reason is to do His service. -God causes Man to know Him through Himself with a knowledge -that is not linked to any faculty, a knowledge in which -the existence of Man is merely metaphorical. Hence to the -gnostic egoism is utter perfidy; his remembrance of God is -without forgetfulness, and his gnosis is not empty words but -actual feeling.</p> - -<p class='c001'>Others, again, declare that gnosis is the result of inspiration -(<i>ilhám</i>). This also is impossible, because gnosis supplies -a criterion for distinguishing truth from falsehood, whereas the -inspired have no such criterion. If one says, “I know by -inspiration that God is in space,” and another says, “I know -by inspiration that He is not in space,” one of these contradictory -statements must be true, but a proof is necessary in -order to decide where the truth lies. Consequently, this -view, which is held by the Brahmans and the inspirationists -(<i>ilhámiyán</i>), falls to the ground. In the present age I have met -a number of persons who carried it to an extreme and who -connected their own position with the doctrine of religious men, -but they are altogether in error, and their assertion is repugnant -to all reasonable Moslems and unbelievers. If it be said that -whatever conflicts with the sacred law is not inspiration, I reply -that this argument is fundamentally unsound, because, if -inspiration is to be judged and verified by the standard of the -sacred law, then gnosis does not depend on inspiration, but on -law and prophecy and Divine guidance.</p> - -<p class='c001'>Others assert that knowledge of God is intuitive (<i>ḍarúrí</i>). -This also is impossible. Everything that is known in this way -must be known in common by all reasonable men, and inasmuch -as we see that some reasonable men deny the existence of God -and hold the doctrines of assimilation (<i>tashbíh</i>) and nullification -<span class='pageno' id='Page_272'>272</span>(<i>ta`ṭíl</i>), it is proved that knowledge of God is not intuitive. -Moreover, if it were so, the principle of religious obligation -(<i>taklíf</i>) would be destroyed, for that principle cannot possibly -be applied to objects of intuitive knowledge, such as one’s self, -the heaven and the earth, day and night, pleasure and pain, etc., -concerning the existence of which no reasonable man can have -any doubt, and which he must know even against his will. But -some aspirants to Ṣúfiism, considering the absolute certainty -(<i>yaqín</i>) which they feel, say: “We know God intuitively,” -giving the name of intuition to this certainty. Substantially -they are right, but their expression is erroneous, because -intuitive knowledge cannot be exclusively restricted to those -who are perfect; on the contrary, it belongs to all reasonable -men. Furthermore, it appears in the minds of living creatures -without any means or evidence, whereas the knowledge of God -is a means (<i>sababí</i>). But Master Abú `Alí Daqqáq and Shaykh -Abú Sahl Ṣu`lúkí<a id='r140' /><a href='#f140' class='c015'><sup>[140]</sup></a> and his father, who was a leading religious -authority at Níshápúr, maintain that the beginning of gnosis is -demonstrative and that its end is intuitive, just as technical -knowledge is first acquired and finally becomes instinctive. -“Do not you perceive,” they say, “that in Paradise knowledge -of God becomes intuitive? Why should it not become intuitive -in this world too? And the Apostles, when they heard the -word of God, either immediately or from the mouth of an angel -or by revelation, knew Him intuitively.” I reply that the -inhabitants of Paradise know God intuitively in Paradise, -because in Paradise no religious obligation is imposed, and -the Apostles have no fear of being separated from God at the -last, but enjoy the same security as those who know Him -intuitively. The excellence of gnosis and faith lies in their -being hidden; when they are made visible, faith becomes -compulsory (<i>jabr</i>), and there is no longer any free will in regard -to its visible substance (<i>`ayn</i>), and the foundations of the religious -law are shaken, and the principle of apostasy is annulled, so -<span class='pageno' id='Page_273'>273</span>that Bal`am<a id='r141' /><a href='#f141' class='c015'><sup>[141]</sup></a> and Iblís and Barṣíṣá<a id='r142' /><a href='#f142' class='c015'><sup>[142]</sup></a> cannot properly be described -as infidels, for it is generally allowed that they had knowledge -of God. The gnostic, while he remains a gnostic, has no fear of -being separated from God; separation is produced by the loss -of gnosis, but intuitive knowledge cannot conceivably be lost. -This doctrine is full of danger to the vulgar. In order that you -may avoid its evil consequences you must know that Man’s -knowledge and his gnosis of God depend entirely on the -information and eternal guidance of the Truth. Man’s certainty -in gnosis may be now greater and now less, but the principle of -gnosis is neither increased nor diminished, since in either case -it would be impaired. You must not let blind conformity enter -into your knowledge of God, and you must know Him through -His attributes of perfection. This can be attained only through -the providence and favour of God, who has absolute control of -our minds. If He so will, He makes one of His actions a guide -that shows us the way to Himself, and if He will otherwise, He -makes that same action an obstacle that prevents us from -reaching Him. Thus Jesus was to some a guide that led them -to gnosis, but to others he was an obstacle that hindered them -from gnosis; the former party said, “This is the servant of -God,” and the latter said, “This is the son of God.” Similarly, -some were led to God by idols and by the sun and moon, while -others were led astray. Such guides are a means of gnosis, but -not the immediate cause of it, and one means is no better than -another in relation to Him who is the author of them all. The -gnostic’s affirmation of a means is a sign of dualism (<i>zunnár</i>), -and regard to anything except the object of knowledge is -polytheism (<i>shirk</i>). When a man is doomed to perdition in the -Preserved Tablet, nay, in the will and knowledge of God, how -can any proof and demonstration lead him aright? The most -high God, as He pleases and by whatever means He pleases, -shows His servant the way to Himself and opens to him the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_274'>274</span>door of gnosis, so that he attains to a degree where the very -essence of gnosis appears alien (<i>ghayr</i>) and its attributes become -noxious to him, and he is veiled by his gnosis from the object -known and realizes that his gnosis is a pretension (<i>da`wá</i>). -Dhu `l-Nún the Egyptian says: “Beware lest thou make -pretensions to gnosis,” and it has been said in verse—</p> - -<div class='lg-container-b c009'> - <div class='linegroup'> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'>“<i>The gnostics pretend to knowledge,</i></div> - <div class='line'><i>But I avow ignorance: that is my knowledge.</i>”</div> - </div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c019'>Therefore do not claim gnosis, lest thou perish in thy pretension, -but cleave to the reality thereof, that thou mayest be saved. -When anyone is honoured by the revelation of the Divine -majesty, his existence becomes a plague to him and all his -attributes a source of corruption. He who belongs to God and -to whom God belongs is not connected with anything in the -universe. The real gist of gnosis is to recognize that to God is -the kingdom. When a man knows that all possessions are in -the absolute control of God, what further business has he with -mankind, that he should be veiled from God by them or by -himself? All such veils are the result of ignorance. As soon -as ignorance is annihilated, they vanish, and this life is made -equal in rank to the life hereafter.</p> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c004'> - <div><span class='sc'>Section.</span></div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>Now, for instruction’s sake, I will mention some of the -numerous sayings which the Shaykhs have uttered on this -subject.</p> - -<p class='c001'>`Abdalláh b. Mubárak says: “Gnosis consists in not being -astonished by anything,” because astonishment arises from an -act exceeding the power of the doer, and inasmuch as God is -omnipotent it is impossible that a gnostic should be astonished -by His acts. If there be any room for astonishment, one must -needs marvel that God exalts a handful of earth to such a -degree that it receives His commands, and a drop of blood to -such an eminence that it discourses of love and knowledge of -Him, and seeks vision of Him, and desires union with Him. -<span class='pageno' id='Page_275'>275</span>Dhu ´l-Nún the Egyptian says: “Gnosis is in reality God’s -providential communication of the spiritual light to our inmost -hearts,” i.e., until God, in His providence, illuminates the heart -of Man and keeps it from contamination, so that all created -things have not even the worth of a mustard-seed in his heart, -the contemplation of Divine mysteries, both inward and outward, -does not overwhelm him with rapture; but when God -has done this, his every look becomes an act of contemplation -(<i>musháhadat</i>). Shiblí says: “Gnosis is continual amazement -(<i>ḥayrat</i>).” Amazement is of two kinds: (1) amazement at -the essence and (2) amazement at the quality. The former is -polytheism and infidelity, because no gnostic can possibly be in -doubt concerning the essential nature of God; but the latter is -gnosis, because the quality of God lies beyond reason’s scope. -Hence a certain one said: “O Guide of the amazed, increase -my amazement!” In the first place, he affirmed the existence -of God and the perfection of His attributes, and recognized that -He is the object of men’s search and the accomplisher of their -prayers and the author of their amazement; then he asked for -increase of amazement and recognized that in seeking God the -reason has no alternative between amazement and polytheism. -This sentiment is very fine. It may be, again, that knowledge -of God’s being involves amazement at one’s own being, because -when a man knows God he sees himself entirely subdued by -the Divine omnipotence; and since his existence depends on -God and his non-existence proceeds from God, and his rest and -motion are produced by the power of God, he becomes amazed, -saying: “Who and what am I?” In this sense the Apostle -said: “He who knows himself has come to know his Lord,” -i.e. he who knows himself to be annihilated knows God to -be eternally subsistent. Annihilation destroys reason and all -human attributes, and when the substance of a thing is not -accessible to reason it cannot possibly be known without -amazement. Abú Yazíd said: “Gnosis consists in knowing -that the motion and rest of mankind depend on God,” and that -without His permission no one has the least control of His -<span class='pageno' id='Page_276'>276</span>kingdom, and that no one can perform any action until He -creates the ability to act and puts the will to act in his heart, -and that human actions are metaphorical and that God is the -real agent. Muḥammad b. Wási` says, describing the gnostic: -“His words are few and his amazement perpetual,” because -only finite things admit of being expressed in words, and since -the infinite cannot be expressed it leaves no resource except -perpetual amazement. Shiblí says: “Real gnosis is the inability -to attain gnosis,” i.e. inability to know a thing, to the real -nature of which a man has no clue except the impossibility of -attaining it. Therefore, in attaining it, he will rightly take no -credit to himself, because inability (<i>`ajz</i>) is search, and so long -as he depends on his own faculties and attributes, he cannot -properly be described by that term; and when these faculties -and attributes depart, then his state is not inability, but -annihilation. Some pretenders, while affirming the attributes of -humanity and the subsistence of the obligation to decide with -sound judgment (<i>taklíf ba-ṣiḥḥat-i khiṭáb</i>) and the authority -maintained over them by God’s proof, declare that gnosis is -impotence, and that they are impotent and unable to attain -anything. I reply: “In search of what thing have you become -so helpless?” Impotence (<i>`ajz</i>) has two signs, which are not to -be found in you: firstly, the annihilation of the faculties of -search, and secondly, the manifestation of the glory of God -(<i>tajallí</i>). Where the annihilation of the faculties takes place, -there is no outward expression (<i>`ibárat</i>); and where the glory -of God is revealed, no clue can be given and no discrimination -is conceivable. Hence one who is impotent does not know -that he is so, or that the state attributed to him is called -impotence. How should he know this? Impotence is other -than God, and the affirmation of knowledge of other than God -is not gnosis; and so long as there is room in the heart for -aught except God, or the possibility of expressing aught except -God, true gnosis has not been attained. The gnostic is not -a gnostic until he turns aside from all that is not God. Abú -Ḥafṣ Ḥaddád says: “Since I have known God, neither truth -<span class='pageno' id='Page_277'>277</span>nor falsehood has entered my heart.” When a man feels desire -and passion he turns to the soul (<i>dil</i>) in order that it may guide -him to the lower soul (<i>nafs</i>), which is the seat of falsehood; -and when he finds the evidence of gnosis, he also turns to the -soul in order that it may guide him to the spirit, which is -the source of truth and reality. But when aught except God -enters the soul, the gnostic, if he turns to it, commits an act of -agnosticism. There is a great difference between one who -turns to the soul and one who turns to God. Abú Bakr Wásiṭí -says: “He who knows God is cut off from all things, nay, he is -dumb and abject (<i>kharisa wa-´nqama`a</i>),” i.e. he is unable to -express anything and all his attributes are annihilated. So the -Apostle, while he was in the state of absence, said: “I am the -most eloquent of the Arabs and non-Arabs”; but when he was -borne to the presence of God, he said: “I know not how to -utter Thy praise.” Answer came: “O Muḥammad, if thou -speakest not, I will speak; if thou deemest thyself unworthy to -praise Me, I will make the universe thy deputy, that all its -atoms may praise Me in thy name.”</p> - -<hr class='c017' /> -<div class='footnote' id='f140'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r140'>140</a>. See <i>Nafaḥát</i>, No. 373.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f141'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r141'>141</a>. See Baydáwí on Kor. vii, 174.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f142'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r142'>142</a>. See Goldziher & Landberg, <i>Die Legende vom Mönch Barṣīṣā</i> (1896), and -M. Hartmann, <i>Der heilige Barṣīṣā</i> in <i>Der Islamische Orient</i> (1905), i, 23-8.]</p> -</div> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_278'>278</span> - <h2 id='ch16' class='c011'>CHAPTER XVI. <br /><span class='sc'>The Uncovering of the Second Veil: Concerning Unification</span> (<i>tawḥíd</i>).</h2> -</div> - -<p class='c014'>God said, “<i>Your God is one</i>” (Kor. xvi, 23); and again, -“<i>Say, ‘God is one’</i>” (Kor. cxii, 1). And the Apostle said: -“Long ago there was a man who did no good work except that -he pronounced God to be one. When he was dying he said to -his folk: ‘After my death burn me and gather my ashes and -on a windy day throw half of them into the sea, and scatter -half of them to the winds of the earth, that no trace of me may -be left.’ As soon as he died and this was done, God bade the -air and the water keep the ashes which they had received until -the Resurrection; and when He raises that man from the dead, -He will ask him why he caused himself to be burnt, and he will -reply: ‘O Lord, from shame of Thee, for I was a great sinner,’ -and God will pardon him.”</p> - -<p class='c001'>Real unification (<i>tawḥíd</i>) consists in asserting the unity of -a thing and in having a perfect knowledge of its unity. Inasmuch -as God is one, without any sharer in His essence and -attributes, without any substitute, without any partner in His -actions, and inasmuch as Unitarians (<i>muwaḥḥidán</i>) have -acknowledged that He is such, their knowledge of unity is -called unification.</p> - -<p class='c001'>Unification is of three kinds: (1) God’s unification of God, -i.e. His knowledge of His unity; (2) God’s unification of His -creatures, i.e. His decree that a man shall pronounce Him to -be one, and the creation of unification in his heart; (3) men’s -unification of God, i.e. their knowledge of the unity of God. -Therefore, when a man knows God he can declare His unity -and pronounce that He is one, incapable of union and separation, -not admitting duality; that His unity is not a number so as to -<span class='pageno' id='Page_279'>279</span>be made two by the predication of another number; that He is -not finite so as to have six directions; that He has no space, -and that He is not in space, so as to require the predication of -space; that He is not an accident, so as to need a substance, -nor a substance, which cannot exist without another like itself, -nor a natural constitution (<i>ṭab`í</i>), in which motion and rest -originate, nor a spirit so as to need a frame, nor a body so -as to be composed of limbs; and that He does not become -immanent (<i>ḥáll</i>) in things, for then He must be homogeneous -with them; and that He is not joined to anything, for then -that thing must be a part of Him; and that He is free from -all imperfections and exalted above all defects; and that He -has no like, so that He and His creature should make two; and -that He has no child whose begetting would necessarily cause -Him to be a stock (<i>aṣl</i>); and that His essence and attributes -are unchangeable; and that He is endowed with those attributes -of perfection which believers and Unitarians affirm, and which -He has described Himself as possessing; and that He is -exempt from those attributes which heretics arbitrarily impute -to Him; and that He is Living, Knowing, Forgiving, Merciful, -Willing, Powerful, Hearing, Seeing, Speaking, and Subsistent; -and that His knowledge is not a state (<i>ḥál</i>) in Him, nor His -power solidly planted (<i>ṣalábat</i>) in Him, nor His hearing and -sight detached (<i>mutajarrid</i>) in Him, nor His speech divided in -Him; and that He together with His attributes exists from -eternity; and that objects of cognition are not outside of His -knowledge, and that entities are entirely dependent on His -will; and that He does that which He has willed, and wills -that which He has known, and no creature has cognisance -thereof; and that His decree is an absolute fact, and that -His friends have no resource except resignation; and that He -is the sole predestinator of good and evil, and the only being -that is worthy of hope or fear; and that He creates all benefit -and injury; and that He alone gives judgment, and His -judgment is all wisdom; and that no one has any possibility -of attaining unto Him; and that the inhabitants of Paradise -<span class='pageno' id='Page_280'>280</span>shall behold Him; and that assimilation (<i>tashbíh</i>) is inadmissible; -and that such terms as “confronting” and “seeing -face to face” (<i>muqábalat ú muwájahat</i>) cannot be applied to -His being; and that His saints may enjoy the contemplation -(<i>musháhadat</i>) of Him in this world.</p> - -<p class='c001'>Those who do not acknowledge Him to be such are guilty of -impiety. I, `Alí b. `Uthmán al-Jullábí, said at the beginning -of this chapter that unification consists in declaring the unity of -a thing, and that such a declaration cannot be made without -knowledge. The Sunnís have declared the unity of God with -true comprehension, because, seeing a subtle work and a unique -act, they recognized that it could not possibly exist by itself, -and finding manifest evidences of origination (<i>ḥudúth</i>) in every -thing, they perceived that there must be an Agent who brought -the universe into being—the earth and heaven and sun and -moon and land and sea and all that moves and rests and their -knowledge and speech and life and death. For all these an -artificer was indispensable. Accordingly, the Sunnís, rejecting -the notion that there are two or three artificers, declared -themselves satisfied with a single artificer who is perfect, living, -knowing, almighty, and unpartnered. And inasmuch as an act -requires at least one agent, and the existence of two agents for -one act involves the dependence of one on the other, it follows -that the Agent is unquestionably and certainly one. Here we -are at variance with the dualists, who affirm light and darkness, -and with the Magians, who affirm Yazdán and Ahriman, and -with the natural philosophers (<i>ṭabá´i`iyán</i>), who affirm nature -and potentiality (<i>quwwat</i>), and with the astronomers (<i>falakiyán</i>), -who affirm the seven planets, and with the Mu`tazilites, who -affirm creators and artificers without end. I have briefly refuted -all these vain opinions in a book, entitled <i>Al-Ri`áyat li-ḥuqúq -Allah</i>,<a id='r143' /><a href='#f143' class='c015'><sup>[143]</sup></a> to which or to the works of the ancient theologians -I must refer anyone who desires further information. Now -I will turn to the indications which the Shaykhs have given on -this subject.</p> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c004'> - <div><span class='pageno' id='Page_281'>281</span><span class='sc'>Section.</span></div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>It is related that Junayd said: “Unification is the separation -of the eternal from that which was originated in time,” i.e. you -must not regard the eternal as a <i>locus</i> of phenomena, or -phenomena as a <i>locus</i> of the eternal; and you must know -that God is eternal and that you are phenomenal, and that -nothing of your <i>genus</i> is connected with Him, and that nothing -of His attributes is mingled in you, and that there is no -homogeneity between the eternal and the phenomenal. This is -contrary to the above-mentioned doctrine of those who hold the -spirit to be eternal. When the eternal is believed to descend -into phenomena, or phenomena to be attached to the eternal, -no proof remains of the eternity of God and the origination of -the universe; and this leads to materialism (<i>madhhab-i dahriyán</i>). -In all the actions of phenomena there are proofs of unification -and evidences of the Divine omnipotence and signs which -establish the eternity of God, but men are too heedless to -desire only Him or to be content only with keeping Him in -remembrance. Ḥusayn b. Manṣúr (al-Ḥalláj) says: “The first -step in unification is the annihilation of separation (<i>tafríd</i>),” -because separation is the pronouncement that one has become -separated from imperfections (<i>áfát</i>), while unification is the -declaration of a thing’s unity: therefore in isolation (<i>fardániyyat</i>) -it is possible to affirm that which is other than God, and this -quality may be ascribed to others besides God; but in unity -(<i>waḥdániyyat</i>) it is not possible to affirm other than God, and -unity may not be ascribed to anything except Him. Accordingly, -the first step in unification is to deny (that God has) a partner -(<i>sharík</i>) and to put admixture (<i>mizáj</i>) aside, for admixture on -the way (to God) is like seeking the highway with a lamp -(<i>mizáj andar minháj chún ṭalab-i minháj báshad ba-siráj</i>). And -Ḥuṣrí says: “Our principles in unification are five: the removal -of phenomenality, and the affirmation of eternity, and departure -from familiar haunts, and separation from brethren, and forgetfulness -of what is known and unknown.” The removal of -phenomenality consists in denying that phenomena have any -<span class='pageno' id='Page_282'>282</span>connexion with unification or that they can possibly attain to His -holy essence; and the affirmation of eternity consists in being -convinced that God always existed, as I have already explained -in discussing the saying of Junayd; and departure from familiar -haunts means, for the novice, departure from the habitual -pleasures of the lower soul and the forms of this world, and for -the adept, departure from lofty stations and glorious states and -exalted miracles (<i>karámát</i>); and separation from brethren -means turning away from the society of mankind and turning -towards the society of God, since any thought of other than -God is a veil and an imperfection, and the more a man’s -thoughts are associated with other than God the more is he -veiled from God, because it is universally agreed that unification -is the concentration of thoughts (<i>jam`-i himam</i>), whereas to -be content with other than God is a sign of dispersion of -thought (<i>tafriqa-i himmat</i>); and forgetfulness of a thing which -is known or unknown means the unification of that thing, -for unification denies whatever the knowledge of mankind -affirms about it; and whatever their ignorance affirms about -it is merely contrary to their knowledge, for ignorance is not -unification, and knowledge of the reality of unification cannot -be attained without denying the personal initiative (<i>taṣarruf</i>) -in which knowledge and ignorance consist. A certain Shaykh -relates: “While Ḥuṣrí was speaking to an audience, I fell -asleep and dreamed that two angels came down from Heaven -and listened for some time to his discourse. Then one said -to the other, ‘What this man says is the theory (<i>`ilm</i>) of -unification, not unification itself (<i>`ayn</i>).’ When I awoke he -was explaining unification. He looked at me and said, -‘O So-and-so, it is impossible to speak of unification except -theoretically.’” It is related that Junayd said: “Unification -is this, that one should be a figure (<i>shakhṣ</i>) in the hands of -God, a figure over which His decrees pass according as He -in His omnipotence determines, and that one should be sunk -in the seas of His unity, self-annihilated and dead alike to -the call of mankind to him and his answer to them, absorbed -<span class='pageno' id='Page_283'>283</span>by the reality of the Divine unity in true proximity, and lost -to sense and action, because God fulfils in him what He -hath willed of him, namely, that his last state should become -his first state, and that he should be as he was before he -existed.” All this means that the Unitarian in the will of -God has no more a will of his own, and in the unity of God -no regard to himself, so that he becomes like an atom as he -was in the eternal past when the covenant of unification was -made, and God answered the question which He Himself -had asked, and that atom was only the object of His speech.<a id='r144' /><a href='#f144' class='c015'><sup>[144]</sup></a> -Mankind have no joy in such a one that they should call -him to anything, and he has no friendship with anyone -that he should respond to their call. This saying indicates -the annihilation of human attributes and perfect resignation -to God in the state when a man is overpowered by the -revelation of His majesty, so that he becomes a passive -instrument and a subtle substance that feels nothing, and his -body is a repository for the mysteries of God, to whom his -speech and actions are attributed; but, unconscious of all as -he is, he remains subject to the ordinances of the religious -law, to the end that the proof of God may be established. -Such was the Apostle when on the night of the Ascension -he was borne to the station of proximity; he desired that -his body should be destroyed and his personality be dissolved, -but God’s purpose was to establish His proof. He bade the -Apostle remain in the state that he was in; whereupon he -gained strength and displayed the existence of God from out -of his own non-existence and said, “I am not as one of you. -Verily, I pass the night with my Lord, and he gives me food -and drink”; and he also said, “I am with God in a state in -which none of the cherubim nor any prophet is capable of -being contained with me.” It is related that Sahl b. `Abdalláh -said: “Unification is this, that you should recognize that the -essence of God is endowed with knowledge, that it is not -comprehensible nor visible to the eye in this world, but that -<span class='pageno' id='Page_284'>284</span>it exists in the reality of faith, infinite, incomprehensible, -non-incarnate; and that He will be seen in the next world, -outwardly and inwardly in His kingdom and His power; -and that mankind are veiled from knowledge of the ultimate -nature of His essence; and that their hearts know Him, but -their intellects cannot reach unto Him; and that believers -shall behold Him with their (spiritual) eyes, without comprehending -His infinity.” This saying includes all the principles -of unification. And Junayd said: “The noblest saying concerning -unification is that of Abú Bakr: ‘Glory to God, who -has not vouchsafed to His creatures any means of attaining -unto knowledge of Him except through impotence to attain -unto knowledge of Him.’” Many have mistaken the meaning -of these words of Abú Bakr and suppose that impotence to -attain to gnosis is the same thing as agnosticism. This is -absurd, because impotence refers only to an existing state, -not to a state that is non-existent. For example, a dead -man is not incapable of life, but he cannot be alive while he -is dead; and a blind man is not incapable of seeing, but he -cannot see while he is blind. Therefore, a gnostic is not -incapable of gnosis so long as gnosis is existent, for in that -case his gnosis resembles intuition. The saying of Abú Bakr -may be brought into connexion with the doctrine of Abú -Sahl Ṣu`lúkí and Master Abú `Alí Daqqáq, who assert that -gnosis is acquired in the first instance, but finally becomes -intuitive. The possessor of intuitive knowledge is compelled -and incapable of putting it away or drawing it to himself. -Hence, according to what Abú Bakr says, unification is the -act of God in the heart of His creature. Shiblí says: -“Unification veils the Unitarian from the beauty of Oneness,” -because unification is said to be the act of Man, and an act -of Man does not cause the revelation of God, and in the -reality of revelation that which does not cause revelation is -a veil. Man with all his attributes is other than God, for if -his attributes are accounted Divine, then he himself must be -accounted Divine, and then Unitarian, unification, and the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_285'>285</span>One become, all three, causes of the existence of one another; -and this is precisely the Christian Trinity. If any attribute -prevents the seeker of God from annihilating himself in -unification, he is still veiled by that attribute, and while he -is veiled he is not a Unitarian, for all except God is vanity. -This is the interpretation of “There is no god but God”.<a id='r145' /><a href='#f145' class='c015'><sup>[145]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c001'>The Shaykhs have discussed at large the terms by which -unification is denoted. Some say that it is an annihilation -that cannot properly be attained unless the attributes subsist, -while others say that it has no attribute whatever except -annihilation. The analogy of union and separation (<i>jam` ú -tafriqa</i>) must be applied to this question in order that it may -be understood. I, `Alí b. `Uthmán al-Jullábí, declare that -unification is a mystery revealed by God to His servants, -and that it cannot be expressed in language at all, much less -in high-sounding phrases. The explanatory terms and those -who use them are other than God, and to affirm what is -other than God in unification is to affirm polytheism.</p> - -<hr class='c017' /> -<div class='footnote' id='f143'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r143'>143</a>. “The Observance of what is due to God.”</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f144'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r144'>144</a>. Kor. vii, 171.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f145'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r145'>145</a>. Here the author cites an anecdote of Ibráhím al-Khawwáṣ and al-Ḥalláj which -has been related above. See p. <a href='#Page_205'>205</a>.</p> -</div> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_286'>286</span> - <h2 id='ch17' class='c011'>CHAPTER XVII. <br /><span class='sc'>The Uncovering of the Third Veil: Concerning Faith</span> (<i>ímán</i>).</h2> -</div> - -<p class='c014'>The Apostle said: “Faith is belief in God and His angels -and His (revealed) books.” Etymologically, faith (<i>ímán</i>) -means verification (<i>taṣdíq</i>). Concerning its principles in their -application to the religious law there is great discussion and -controversy. The Mu`tazilites hold that faith includes all acts -of devotion, theoretical as well as practical: hence they say -that sin puts a man outside the pale of faith. The Khárijites, -who call a man an infidel because he commits a sin, are of -the same opinion. Some declare that faith is simply a verbal -profession, while others say it is only knowledge of God, and -a party of Sunní scholastics assert that it is mere verification. -I have written a separate work explaining this subject, but -my present purpose is to establish what the Ṣúfí Shaykhs -believe. They are divided on this question in the same way -as the lawyers of the two opposite sects. Some of them, -e.g. Fuḍayl b. `Iyáḍ and Bishr Ḥáfí and Khayr al-Nassáj and -Sumnún al-Muḥibb and Abú Ḥamza of Baghdád and Muḥammad -Jurayrí and a great number of others, hold that faith is verbal -profession and verification and practice; but others, e.g. Ibráhím -b. Adham and Dhu ´l-Nún the Egyptian and Abú Yazíd of -Bisṭám and Abú Sulaymán Dárání and Ḥárith Muḥásibí and -Junayd and Sahl b. `Abdalláh of Tustar and Shaqíq of Balkh -and Ḥátim Aṣamm and Muḥammad b. al-Faḍl of Balkh and -a number besides, hold that faith is verbal profession and -verification. Some lawyers, i.e. Málik and Sháfi`í and Aḥmad -b. Ḥanbal, maintain the former view, while the latter opinion -is supported by Abú Ḥanífa and Ḥusayn b. Faḍl of Balkh -<span class='pageno' id='Page_287'>287</span>and the followers of Abú Ḥanífa, such as Muḥammad b. al-Ḥasan, -Dáwud Ṭá´í, and Abú Yúsuf. The difference between -them is entirely one of expression and is devoid of substance, -as I will now briefly explain, in order that no one may be -charged with contradicting the principle of faith because he -takes the one view or the other in this dispute.</p> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c004'> - <div><span class='sc'>Section.</span></div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>You must know that the orthodox Moslems and the Ṣúfís -are agreed that faith has a principle (<i>aṣl</i>) and a derivative -(<i>far`</i>), the principle being verification in the heart, and the -derivative being observance of the (Divine) command. Now -the Arabs commonly and customarily transfer the name of -a principle to a derivative by way of metaphor, e.g. they call -the light of the sun “the sun”. In this sense the former of -the two parties mentioned above apply the name of faith to -that obedience (<i>ṭá`at</i>) by which alone a man is made secure -from future punishment. Mere verification (i.e. belief), without -performance of the Divine commands, does not involve security. -Therefore, since security is in proportion to obedience, and -obedience together with verification and verbal profession is -the cause of security, they bestowed on obedience the name -of faith. The other party, however, asserted that gnosis, not -obedience, is the cause of security. Obedience, they said, is -of no avail without gnosis, whereas one who has gnosis but -lacks obedience will be saved at the last, although it depends -on the will of God whether he shall be pardoned by Divine -grace or through the intercession of the Apostle, or whether -he shall be punished according to the measure of his sin and -then be delivered from Hell and transported to Paradise. -Therefore, since those who have gnosis, although they are -sinners, by reason of their gnosis do not remain for ever in -Hell, while those who have only works without gnosis do not -enter Paradise, it follows that here obedience is not the cause -of security. The Apostle said: “None of you shall be saved -by his works.” Hence in reality, without any controversy -<span class='pageno' id='Page_288'>288</span>among Moslems, faith is gnosis and acknowledgment and -acceptance of works. Whoever knows God knows Him by -one of His attributes, and the most elect of His attributes -are of three kinds: those connected with His beauty (<i>jamál</i>) -and with His majesty (<i>jalál</i>) and with His perfection (<i>kamál</i>). -His perfection is not attainable except by those whose perfection -is established and whose imperfection is banished. -There remain beauty and majesty. Those whose evidence in -gnosis is the beauty of God are always longing for vision, and -those whose evidence is His majesty are always abhorring their -own attributes and their hearts are stricken with awe. Now -longing is an effect of love, and so is abhorrence of human -attributes, because the lifting of the veil of human attributes -is the very essence of love. Therefore faith and gnosis are -love, and obedience is a sign of love. Whoever denies this -neglects the command of God and knows nothing of gnosis. -This evil is manifest among the aspirants to Ṣúfiism at the -present day. Some heretics, seeing their excellence and persuaded -of their high degree, imitate them and say: “Trouble -only lasts while you do not know God: as soon as you know -Him, all the labour of obedience is removed from the body.” -But they are wrong. I reply that when you know Him, the -heart is filled with longing and His command is held in greater -veneration than before. I admit that a pious man may reach -a point where he is relieved from the irksomeness of obedience -through the increase of Divine aid (<i>tawfíq</i>), so that he performs -without trouble what is troublesome to others; but this result -cannot be achieved without a longing that produces violent -agitation. Some, again, say that faith comes entirely from -God, while others say that it springs entirely from Man. This -has long been a matter of controversy among the people in -Transoxania. To assert that faith comes entirely from God -is sheer compulsion (<i>jabr</i>), because Man must then have no -choice; and to assert that it springs entirely from Man is pure -free-will, for Man does not know God except through the -knowledge that God gives him. The doctrine of unification -<span class='pageno' id='Page_289'>289</span>is less than compulsion and more than free-will. Similarly, -faith is really the act of Man joined to the guidance of God, -as God hath said: “<i>Whomsoever God wishes to lead aright, -He will open his breast to receive Islam; and whomsoever He -wishes to lead astray, He will make his breast strait and -narrow</i>” (Kor. vi, 125). On this principle, inclination to believe -(<i>girawish</i>) is the guidance of God, while belief (<i>girawídan</i>) is -the act of Man. The signs of belief are these: in the heart, -holding firmly to unification; in the eye, refraining from -forbidden sights and looking heedfully on evidences; in the -ear, listening to His word; in the belly, being empty of what -is unlawful; in the tongue, veracity. Hence those persons -(who assert that faith comes entirely from God) maintain that -gnosis and faith may increase and diminish, which is generally -admitted to be false, for if it were true, then the object of -gnosis must also be liable to increase and diminution. -Accordingly, the increase and diminution must be in the -derivative, which is the act; and it is generally agreed that -obedience may diminish and increase. This does not please -the anthropomorphists (<i>ḥashwiyán</i>) who imitate the two parties -mentioned above, for some of them hold that obedience is an -element of faith, while others declare that faith is a verbal -profession and nothing else. Both these doctrines are unjust.</p> - -<p class='c001'>In short, faith is really the absorption of all human attributes -in the search of God. This must be unanimously acknowledged -by all believers. The might of gnosis overwhelms the attributes -of agnosticism, and where faith exists agnosticism is banished, -for, as it is said: “A lamp is of no use when the dawn -rises.” God hath said: “<i>Kings, when they enter a city, ruin -it</i>” (Kor. xxvii, 34). When gnosis is established in the heart -of the gnostic, the empire of doubt and scepticism and -agnosticism is utterly destroyed, and the sovereignty of gnosis -subdues his senses and passions so that in all his looks and acts -and words he remains within the circle of its authority. I have -read that when Ibráhím Khawwáṣ was asked concerning the -reality of faith, he replied: “I have no answer to this question -<span class='pageno' id='Page_290'>290</span>just now, because whatever I say is a mere expression, and it -behoves me to answer by my actions; but I am setting out for -Mecca: do thou accompany me that thou mayest be answered.” -The narrator continues: “I consented. As we journeyed -through the desert, every day two loaves and two cups of -water appeared. He gave one to me and took the other for -himself. One day an old man rode up to us and dismounted -and conversed with Ibráhím for a while; then he left us. -I asked Ibráhím to tell me who he was. He replied: ‘This is -the answer to thy question.’ ‘How so?’ I asked. He said: -‘This was Khiḍr, who begged me to let him accompany me, -but I refused, for I feared that in his company I might put -confidence in him instead of in God, and then my trust in God -(<i>tawakkul</i>) would have been vitiated. Real faith is trust in -God.’” And Muḥammad b. Khafíf says: “Faith is the belief -of the heart in that knowledge which comes from the Unseen,” -because faith is in that which is hidden, and it can be attained -only through Divine strengthening of one’s certainty, which is -the result of knowledge bestowed by God.</p> - -<p class='c001'>Now I will come to matters of practice and will explain their -difficulties.</p> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_291'>291</span> - <h2 id='ch18' class='c011'>CHAPTER XVIII. <br /><span class='sc'>The Uncovering of the Fourth Veil: Concerning Purification from Foulness.</span></h2> -</div> - -<p class='c014'>After faith, the first thing incumbent on everyone is purification -(<i>ṭahárat</i>) and the performance of prayer, i.e. to cleanse -the body from filth and pollution, and to wash the three -members,<a id='r146' /><a href='#f146' class='c015'><sup>[146]</sup></a> and to wipe the head with water as the law -prescribes, or to use sand in the absence of water or in severe -illness. Purification is of two kinds: outward and inward. -Thus prayer requires purification of the body, and gnosis requires -purification of the heart. As, in the former case, the water -must be clean, so in the latter case unification must be pure -and belief undefiled. The Ṣúfís are always engaged in purification -outwardly and in unification inwardly. The Apostle -said to one of his Companions: “Be constant in ablution, -that thy two guardian angels may love thee,” and God hath -said: “<i>God loves those who often repent and those who purify -themselves</i>” (Kor. ii, 222). And the Apostle used to say in -his invocations: “O God, purify my heart from hypocrisy.” -Even consciousness of the miraculous grace (<i>karámát</i>) vouchsafed -to him he regarded as an affirmation of other than God, -for in unification it is hypocrisy (<i>nifáq</i>) to affirm other than -God. So long as a disciple’s eye is obscured by a single -atom of the miracles of the Shaykhs, from the standpoint of -perfection that atom is a potential veil (between him and God). -Hence Abú Yazíd said: “The hypocrisy of gnostics is better -than the sincerity of disciples,” i.e. that which is a “station” -(<i>maqám</i>) to the novice is a veil to the adept. The novice -desires to gain miracles, but the adept desires to gain the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_292'>292</span>Giver of miracles. In short, the affirmation of miracles, or of -anything that involves the sight of other than God, appears -hypocrisy to the people of the Truth (the Ṣúfís). Accordingly, -what is noxious to the friends of God is a means of deliverance -for all sinners, and what is noxious to sinners is a means of -salvation for all infidels, because, if infidels knew, as sinners -know, that their sins are displeasing to God, they would all be -saved from infidelity; and if sinners knew, as the friends of God -know, that all their actions are defective, they would all be -saved from sin and purged of contamination. Therefore, -outward and inward purification must go together; e.g., when -a man washes his hands he must wash his heart clean of -worldliness, and when he puts water in his mouth he must -purify his mouth from the mention of other than God, and -when he washes his face he must turn away from all familiar -objects and turn towards God, and when he wipes his head -he must resign his affairs to God, and when he washes his feet -he must not form the intention of taking his stand on anything -except according to the command of God. Thus he will be -doubly purified. In all religious ordinances the external is -combined with the internal; e.g. in faith, the tongue’s profession -with the heart’s belief. The method of spiritual purification is -to reflect and meditate on the evil of this world and to perceive -that it is false and fleeting, and to make the heart empty of it. -This result can be attained only by much self-mortification -(<i>mujáhadat</i>), and the most important act of mortification is to -observe the external rules of discipline (<i>ádáb-i ẕáhir</i>) assiduously -in all circumstances. It is related that Ibráhím Khawwáṣ said: -“I desire God to give me an everlasting life in this world, in -order that, while mankind are engrossed in the pleasures of the -world and forget God, I may observe the rules of religion -amidst the affliction of the world and remember God.” And -it is related that Abú Ṭáhir Ḥaramí lived forty years at Mecca, -and went outside of the sacred territory whenever he purified -himself, because he would not pour the water which he had -used for that purpose on ground that God had called His. -<span class='pageno' id='Page_293'>293</span>When Ibráhím Khawwáṣ was ill of dysentery in the congregational -mosque at Rayy, he performed sixty complete -ablutions in the course of a day and night, and he died in the -water. Abú `Alí Rúdbárí was for some time afflicted with -distracting thoughts (<i>waswás</i>) in purification. “One day,” he -said, “I went into the sea at dawn and stayed there till sunrise. -During that interval my mind was troubled. I cried out: -‘O God, restore me to spiritual health!’ A voice answered -from the sea: ‘Health consists in knowledge.’” It is related -that when Sufyán Thawrí was dying, he purified himself sixty -times for one prayer and said: “I shall at least be clean when -I leave this world.” They relate of Shiblí that one day he -purified himself with the intention of entering the mosque. He -heard a voice cry: “Thou hast washed thy outward self, but -where is thy inward purity?” He turned back and gave away -all that he possessed, and during a year he put on no more -clothes than were necessary for prayer. Then he came to -Junayd, who said to him: “O Abú Bakr, that was a very -beneficial purification which you have performed; may God -always keep you purified!” After that, Shiblí engaged in -continual purification. When he was dying and could no -longer purify himself, he made a sign to one of his disciples -that he should purify him. The disciple did so, but forgot to -let the water flow through his beard (<i>takhlíl-i maḥásin</i>). Shiblí -was unable to speak. He seized the disciple’s hand and -pointed to his beard, whereupon the rite was duly performed. -And it is also related of him that he said: “Whenever I have -neglected any rule of purification, some vain conceit has always -arisen in my heart.” And Abú Yazíd said: “Whenever -a thought of this world occurs to my mind, I perform a purification -(<i>ṭaháratí</i>); and whenever a thought of the next world -occurs to me, I perform a complete ablution (<i>ghuslí</i>),” because -this world is non-eternal (<i>muḥdath</i>), and the result of thinking -of it is legal impurity (<i>ḥadath</i>), whereas the next world is the -place of absence and repose (<i>ghaybat ú árám</i>), and the result -of thinking of it is pollution (<i>janábat</i>): hence legal impurity -<span class='pageno' id='Page_294'>294</span>involves purification and pollution involves total ablution. One -day Shiblí purified himself. When he came to the door of the -mosque a voice whispered in his heart: “Art thou so pure that -thou enterest My house with this boldness?” He turned back, -but the voice asked: “Dost thou turn back from My door? -Whither wilt thou go?” He uttered a loud cry. The voice -said: “Dost thou revile me?” He stood silent. The voice -said: “Dost thou pretend to endure My affliction?” Shiblí -exclaimed: “O God, I implore Thee to help me against -Thyself.”</p> - -<p class='c001'>The Ṣúfí Shaykhs have fully discussed the true meaning of -purification, and have commanded their disciples not to cease -from purifying themselves both outwardly and inwardly. He -who would serve God must purify himself outwardly with -water, and he who would come nigh unto God must purify -himself inwardly with repentance. Now I will explain the -principles of repentance (<i>tawbat</i>) and its corollaries.</p> - -<h4 class='c020'><i>Chapter concerning Repentance and its Corollaries.</i></h4> - -<p class='c010'>You must know that repentance (<i>tawbat</i>) is the first station -of pilgrims on the way to the Truth, just as purification -(<i>ṭahárat</i>) is the first step of those who desire to serve God. -Hence God hath said: “<i>O believers, repent unto God with -a sincere repentance</i>” (Kor. lxvi, 8). And the Apostle said, -“There is nothing that God loves more than a youth who -repents”; and he also said, “He who repents of sin is even -as one who has no sin”; then he added, “When God loves -a man, sin shall not hurt him,” i.e. he will not become an -infidel on account of sin, and his faith will not be impaired. -Etymologically <i>tawbat</i> means “return”, and <i>tawbat</i> really -involves the turning back from what God has forbidden -through fear of what He has commanded. The Apostle said: -“Penitence is the act of returning” (<i>al-nadam al-tawbat</i>). -This saying comprises three things which are involved in -<i>tawbat</i>, namely, (1) remorse for disobedience, (2) immediate -abandonment of sin, and (3) determination not to sin again. -<span class='pageno' id='Page_295'>295</span>As repentance (<i>tawbat</i>) involves these three conditions, so -contrition (<i>nadámat</i>) may be due to three causes: (1) fear of -Divine chastisement and sorrow for evil actions, (2) desire -of Divine favour and certainty that it cannot be gained by -evil conduct and disobedience, (3) shame before God. In the -first case the penitent is <i>tá´ib</i>, in the second case he is <i>muníb</i>, -in the third case he is <i>awwáb</i>. Similarly, <i>tawbat</i> has three -stations, viz., <i>tawbat</i>, through fear of Divine punishment; -<i>inábat</i>, through desire of Divine reward; and <i>awbat</i>, for the -sake of keeping the Divine command. <i>Tawbat</i> is the station -of the mass of believers, and implies repentance from great -sins (<i>kabírat</i>);<a id='r147' /><a href='#f147' class='c015'><sup>[147]</sup></a> and <i>inábat</i> is the station of the saints and -favourites of God (<i>awliyá ú muqarrabán</i>);<a id='r148' /><a href='#f148' class='c015'><sup>[148]</sup></a> and <i>awbat</i> is the -station of the prophets and apostles.<a id='r149' /><a href='#f149' class='c015'><sup>[149]</sup></a> <i>Tawbat</i> is to return -from great sins to obedience; <i>inábat</i> is to return from minor -sins to love; and <i>awbat</i> is to return from one’s self to God. -Repentance (<i>tawbat</i>) has its origin in the stern prohibitions -of God and in the heart’s being aroused from the slumber of -heedlessness. When a man considers his evil conduct and -abominable deeds he seeks deliverance therefrom, and God -makes it easy for him to repent and leads him back to the -sweetness of obedience. According to the opinion of orthodox -Moslems and all the Ṣúfí Shaykhs, a man who has repented -of one sin may continue to commit other sins and nevertheless -receive Divine recompense for having abstained from that one -sin; and it may be that through the blessing of that recompense -he will abstain from other sins. But the Bahshamí<a id='r150' /><a href='#f150' class='c015'><sup>[150]</sup></a> sect of the -Mu`tazilites hold that no one can properly be called repentant -unless he avoids all great sins, a doctrine which is absurd, -because a man is not punished for the sins that he does not -commit, but if he renounces a certain kind of sin he has no -fear of being punished for sins of that particular kind: -consequently, he is repentant. Similarly, if he performs some -<span class='pageno' id='Page_296'>296</span>religious duties and neglects others, he will be rewarded for -those which he performed and will be punished for those -which he neglected. Moreover, if anyone should have repented -of a sin which he has not the means of committing at the -moment, he is repentant, because through that past repentance -he has gained contrition (<i>nadámat</i>), which is a fundamental -part of repentance (<i>tawbat</i>), and at the moment he has turned -his back on that kind of sin and is resolved not to commit -it again, even though he should have the power and means -of doing so at some future time. As regards the nature and -property of repentance, the Ṣúfí Shaykhs hold diverse opinions. -Sahl b. `Abdalláh (al-Tustarí) and others believe that repentance -consists in not forgetting your sins, but always regretting them, -so that, although you have many good works to your credit, -you will not be pleased with yourself on that account; since -remorse for an evil action is superior to good works, and one -who never forgets his sins will never become conceited. -Junayd and others take the opposite view, that repentance -consists in forgetting the sin. They argue that the penitent -is a lover of God, and the lover of God is in contemplation -of God, and in contemplation it is wrong to remember sin, -for remembrance of sin is a veil between God and those who -contemplate Him. This controversy goes back to the difference -of opinion concerning mortification (<i>mujáhadat</i>) and contemplation -(<i>musháhadat</i>), which has been discussed in my -account of the doctrine of the Sahlís. Those who hold the -penitent to be self-dependent regard his forgetfulness of sin -as heedlessness, while those who hold that he is dependent -on God deem his remembrance of sin to be polytheism. -Moses, while his attributes were subsistent, said, “<i>I repent -towards Thee</i>” (Kor. vii, 140), but the Apostle, while his -attributes were annihilated, said, “I cannot tell Thy praise.” -Inasmuch as it behoves the penitent not to remember his -own selfhood, how should he remember his sin? Indeed, -remembrance of sin is a sin, for sin is an occasion of turning -away from God, and so is the remembrance of it or the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_297'>297</span>forgetting of it, since both remembrance and forgetfulness -are connected with one’s self. Junayd says: “I have read -many books, but I have never found anything so instructive -as this verse:—</p> - -<div class='lg-container-b c009'> - <div class='linegroup'> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'>‘<i>Idhá qultu má adhnabtu qálat mujíbat<sup>an</sup></i></div> - <div class='line'><i>ḥayátuka dhanb<sup>un</sup> lá yuqásu bihi dhanbu.</i>’</div> - </div> - </div> -</div> - -<div class='lg-container-b c009'> - <div class='linegroup'> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'>When I say: ‘What is my sin?’ she says in reply:</div> - <div class='line'>‘Thy existence is a sin with which no other sin can be compared.’“</div> - </div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c019'>In short, repentance is a Divine strengthening and sin is a -corporeal act: when contrition (<i>nadámat</i>) enters the heart the -body has no means of expelling it; and as in the beginning no -human act can expel repentance, so in the end no human act -can maintain it. God hath said: ”<i>And He turned</i> (tába) <i>unto -him</i> (Adam), <i>for He is the Disposer towards repentance</i> (al—tawwáb), -<i>the Merciful</i>” (Kor. ii, 35). The Koran contains many -texts to the same effect, which are too well known to require -citation.</p> - -<p class='c001'>Repentance is of three kinds: (1) from what is wrong to -what is right, (2) from what is right to what is more right, -(3) from selfhood to God. The first kind is the repentance of -ordinary men; the second kind is the repentance of the elect; -and the third kind of repentance belongs to the degree of Divine -love (<i>maḥabbat</i>). As regards the elect, it is impossible that -they should repent of sin. Do not you perceive that all the -world feel regret for having lost the vision of God? Moses -desired that vision and repented (Kor. vii, 140), because he -asked for it with his own volition (<i>ikhtiyár</i>), for in love personal -volition is a taint. The people thought he had renounced the -vision of God, but what he really renounced was his personal -volition. As regards those who love God, they repent not only -of the imperfection of a station below the station to which they -have attained, but also of being conscious of any “station” or -“state” whatsoever.</p> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c004'> - <div><span class='pageno' id='Page_298'>298</span><span class='sc'>Section.</span></div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>Repentance does not necessarily continue after the resolution -not to return to sin has been duly made. A penitent who in -those circumstances returns to sin has in principle earned the -Divine reward for repentance. Many novices of this sect (the -Ṣúfís) have repented and gone back to wickedness and then -once more, in consequence of an admonition, have returned to -God. A certain Shaykh relates that he repented seventy times -and went back to sin on every occasion, until at the seventy-first -time he became steadfast. And Abú `Amr b. Nujayd<a id='r151' /><a href='#f151' class='c015'><sup>[151]</sup></a> -tells the following story: “As a novice, I repented in the -assembly-room of Abú `Uthmán Ḥírí and persevered in my -repentance for some while. Then I fell into sin and left the -society of that spiritual director, and whenever I saw him from -afar my remorse caused me to flee from his sight. One day -I met him unexpectedly. He said to me: ‘O son, do not -associate with your enemies unless you are sinless (<i>ma`ṣúm</i>), -for an enemy will see your faults and rejoice. If you must sin, -come to us, that we may bear your affliction.’ On hearing -his words, I felt surfeited with sin and my repentance was -established.” A certain man, having repented of sin, returned -to it and then repented once more. “How will it be,” he said, -“if I now turn to God?” A heavenly voice answered, saying: -“Thou didst obey Me and I recompensed thee, then thou didst -abandon Me and I showed indulgence towards thee; and if -thou wilt return to Me, I will receive thee.”</p> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c004'> - <div><span class='sc'>Section.</span></div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>Dhu ´l-Nún the Egyptian says: “Ordinary men repent of -their sins, but the elect repent of their heedlessness,” because -ordinary men shall be questioned concerning their outward -behaviour, but the elect shall be questioned concerning the real -nature of their conduct. Heedlessness, which to ordinary men -is a pleasure, is a veil to the elect. Abú Ḥafṣ Ḥaddád says: -<span class='pageno' id='Page_299'>299</span>“Man has no part in repentance, because repentance is from -God to Man, not from Man to God.” According to this -saying, repentance is not acquired by Man, but is one of -God’s gifts, a doctrine which is closely akin to that of Junayd. -Abu ´l-Ḥasan Búshanjí says: “When you feel no delight in -remembering a sin, that is repentance,” because the recollection -of a sin is accompanied either by regret or by desire: one who -regrets that he has committed a sin is repentant, whereas one -who desires to commit a sin is a sinner. The actual sin is not -so evil as the desire of it, for the act is momentary, but the -desire is perpetual. Dhu ´l-Nún the Egyptian says: “There -are two kinds of repentance, the repentance of return (<i>tawbat -al-inábat</i>) and the repentance of shame (<i>tawbat al-istiḥyá</i>): -the former is repentance through fear of Divine punishment, -the latter is repentance through shame of Divine clemency.” -The repentance of fear is caused by revelation of God’s majesty, -while the repentance of shame is caused by vision of God’s -beauty. Those who feel shame are intoxicated, and those who -feel fear are sober.</p> - -<hr class='c017' /> -<div class='footnote' id='f146'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r146'>146</a>. The face, hands, and feet.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f147'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r147'>147</a>. Cf. Kor. lxvi, 8.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f148'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r148'>148</a>. Cf. Kor. l, 32.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f149'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r149'>149</a>. Cf. Kor. xxxviii, 44.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f150'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r150'>150</a>. Text, قهشميان. See Shahristání, Haarbrücker’s translation, i, 80.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f151'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r151'>151</a>. <i>Nafaḥát</i>, No. 281.</p> -</div> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_300'>300</span> - <h2 id='ch19' class='c011'>CHAPTER XIX. <br /><span class='sc'>The Uncovering of the Fifth Veil: Concerning Prayer</span> (<i>al-ṣalát</i>).</h2> -</div> - -<p class='c014'>Etymologically, prayer (<i>namáz</i>) means remembrance (of God) -and submissiveness (<i>dhikr ú inqiyád</i>), but in the correct usage -of lawyers the term is specially applied to the five prayers -which God has ordered to be performed at five different times, -and which involve certain preliminary conditions, viz.: (1) purification -outwardly from filth and inwardly from lust; (2) that -one’s outward garment should be clean and one’s inner garment -undefiled by anything unlawful; (3) that the place where one -purifies one’s self should be outwardly free from contamination -and inwardly free from corruptness and sin; (4) turning towards -the <i>qibla</i>, the outward <i>qibla</i> being the Ka`ba and the inward -<i>qibla</i> being the Throne of God, by which is meant the mystery -of Divine contemplation; (5) standing outwardly in the state of -power (<i>qudrat</i>) and inwardly in the garden of proximity to -God (<i>qurbat</i>); (6) sincere intention to approach unto God; -(7) saying “<i>Allah akbar</i>” in the station of awe and annihilation, -and standing in the abode of union, and reciting the Koran -distinctly and reverently, and bowing the head with humility, -and prostrating one’s self with abasement, and making the -profession of faith with concentration, and saluting with -annihilation of one’s attributes. It is recorded in the Traditions -that when the Apostle prayed, there was heard within him -a sound like the boiling of a kettle. And when `Alí was about -to pray, his hair stood on end and he trembled and said: “The -hour has come to fulfil a trust which the heavens and the -earth were unable to bear.”<a id='r152' /><a href='#f152' class='c015'><sup>[152]</sup></a></p> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c004'> - <div><span class='pageno' id='Page_301'>301</span><span class='sc'>Section.</span></div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>Prayer is a term in which novices find the whole way to God, -from beginning to end, and in which their stations (<i>maqámát</i>) -are revealed. Thus, for novices, purification takes the place of -repentance, and dependence on a spiritual director takes the -place of ascertaining the <i>qibla</i>, and standing in prayer takes -the place of self-mortification, and reciting the Koran takes the -place of inward meditation (<i>dhikr</i>), and bowing the head takes -the place of humility, and prostration takes the place of self-knowledge, -and profession of faith takes the place of intimacy -(<i>uns</i>), and salutation takes the place of detachment from the -world and escape from the bondage of “stations”. Hence, when -the Apostle became divested of all feelings of delight (<i>mashárib</i>) -in complete bewilderment, he used to say: “O Bilál, comfort us -by the call to prayer.” The Ṣúfí Shaykhs have discussed this -matter and each of them occupies a position of his own. Some -hold that prayer is a means of obtaining “presence” with God -(<i>ḥudúr</i>), and others regard it as a means of obtaining “absence” -(<i>ghaybat</i>); some who have been “absent” become “present” in -prayer, while others who have been “present” become “absent”. -Similarly, in the next world where God is seen, some, who are -“absent”, when they see God shall become “present”, and <i>vice -versâ</i>. I, `Alí b. `Uthmán al-Jullábí, assert that prayer is -a Divine command and is not a means of obtaining either -“presence” or “absence”, because a Divine command is not -a means to anything. The cause of “presence” is “presence” -itself, and the cause of “absence” is “absence” itself. If prayer -were the cause or means of “presence”, it could be performed -only by one who was “present”, and if it were the cause of -“absence”, one who was “absent” would necessarily become -“present” by neglecting to perform it. But inasmuch as it must -be performed by all, whether they be “present” or “absent”, -prayer is sovereign in its essence and independent.</p> - -<p class='c001'>Prayer is mostly performed and prescribed by those who are -engaged in self-mortification or who have attained to steadfastness -(<i>istiqámat</i>). Thus the Shaykhs order their disciples to -<span class='pageno' id='Page_302'>302</span>perform four hundred bowings in prayer during a day and -night, that their bodies may be habituated to devotion; and the -steadfast likewise perform many prayers in thanksgiving for -the favour which God has bestowed upon them. As regards -those who possess “states” (<i>arbáb-i aḥwál</i>), their prayers, in -the perfection of ecstasy, correspond to the “station” of union, -so that through their prayers they become united; or again, -when ecstasy is withdrawn, their prayers correspond to the -“station” of separation, so that thereby they become separated. -The former, who are united in their prayers, pray by day and -night and add supererogatory prayers to those which are -incumbent on them, but the latter, who are separated, perform -no more prayers than they need. The Apostle said: “In -prayer lies my delight,” because prayer is a source of joy to the -steadfast. When the Apostle was brought nigh unto God on -the night of the Ascension, and his soul was loosed from the -fetters of phenomenal being, and his spirit lost consciousness of -all degrees and stations, and his natural powers were annihilated, -he said, not of his own will, but inspired by longing: “O God, -do not transport me to yonder world of affliction! Do not -throw me under the sway of nature and passion!” God -answered: “It is My decree that thou shalt return to the world -for the sake of establishing the religious law, in order that -I may give thee there what I have given thee here.” When he -returned to this world, he used to say as often as he felt -a longing for that exalted station: “O Bilál, comfort us by the -call to prayer!” Thus to him every time of prayer was an -Ascension and a new nearness to God. Sahl b. `Abdalláh says: -“It is a sign of a man’s sincerity that he has an attendant angel -who urges him to pray when the hour of prayer is come, and -wakes him if he be asleep.” This mark (of sincerity) was -apparent in Sahl himself, for although he had become palsied -in his old age he used to recover the use of his limbs whenever -the hour of prayer arrived; and after having performed his -prayers he was unable to move from his place. One of the -Shaykhs says: “Four things are necessary to him who prays: -<span class='pageno' id='Page_303'>303</span>annihilation of the lower soul (<i>nafs</i>), loss of the natural powers, -purity of the inmost heart, and perfect contemplation.” Annihilation -of the lower soul is to be attained only by concentration -of thought; loss of the natural powers only by affirmation of -the Divine majesty, which involves the destruction of all that is -other than God; purity of the inmost heart only by love; and -perfect contemplation only by purity of the inmost heart. It is -related that Ḥusayn b. Manṣúr (al-Ḥalláj) used to lay upon -himself the obligation of performing four hundred bowings of -prayer in a day and a night. On being asked why he took so -much trouble in the high degree which he enjoyed, he answered: -“Pain and pleasure indicate your feelings, but those whose -attributes are annihilated feel no effect either of pleasure or of -pain. Beware lest you call remissness maturity and desire of -the world search for God.” A certain man relates: “I was -praying behind Dhu ´l-Nún. When he began to pronounce the -<i>takbír</i>, he cried ‘<i>Allah akbar</i>’ and fell in a swoon like a lifeless -body.” Junayd, after he had grown old, did not omit any item -of the litanies (<i>awrád</i>) of his youth. When he was urged to -refrain from some of these supererogatory acts of devotion to -which his strength was unequal, he replied that he could not -abandon at the last those exercises which had been the means -of his acquiring spiritual welfare at the first. It is well known -that the angels are ceaselessly engaged in worship, because they -are spiritual and have no lower soul (<i>nafs</i>). The lower soul -deters men from obedience, and the more it is subdued the -more easy does the performance of worship become; and when -it is entirely annihilated, worship becomes the food and drink of -Man, even as it is the food and drink of the angels. `Abdalláh -b. Mubárak says: “In my boyhood I remember seeing a female -ascetic who was bitten by a scorpion in forty places while she -was praying, but no change of expression was visible in her -countenance. When she had finished, I said: ‘O mother, why -didst not thou fling the scorpion away from thee?’ She -answered: ‘Ignorant boy! dost thou deem it right that while -I am engaged in God’s business I should attend to my own?’”</p> - -<p class='c001'><span class='pageno' id='Page_304'>304</span>Abu ´l-Khayr Aqṭa`<a id='r153' /><a href='#f153' class='c015'><sup>[153]</sup></a> had a gangrene in his foot. The -physicians declared that his foot must be amputated, but he -would not allow this to be done. His disciples said: “Cut it -off while he is praying, for at that time he is unconscious.” -The physicians acted on this advice. When Abu ´l-Khayr -finished his prayers he found that his foot had been amputated.<a id='r154' /><a href='#f154' class='c015'><sup>[154]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c001'>Some Ṣúfís perform obligatory acts of devotion openly, but -conceal those which are supererogatory in order that they may -escape from ostentation (<i>riyá</i>). Anyone (they say) who desires -that others should take notice of his religious practices becomes -a hypocrite; and if he says that although other people see -his devotions he himself is unconscious of them, that too is -hypocrisy. Other Ṣúfís, however, exhibit both their obligatory -and supererogatory acts of devotion, on the ground that -ostentation is unreal and piety real: therefore, it is absurd to -hide reality for the sake of unreality. “Do not let any thought -of ostentation (they say) enter your heart, and worship God -wherever you will.” The Shaykhs have observed the true -spirit of the rules of devotional practice, and have enjoined -their disciples to do the same. One of them says: “I travelled -for forty years, and during that time I did not miss a single -public service of prayer, but was in some town every Friday.”</p> - -<p class='c001'>The corollaries of prayer belong to the stations of love, of -which I will now set forth the principles in full.</p> - -<h4 class='c020'><i>Chapter concerning Love and matters connected therewith.</i></h4> - -<p class='c010'>God hath said, “<i>O believers, whosoever among you apostatize -from their religion, God will assuredly bring in their stead -a people whom He will love and who will love Him</i>” (Kor. v, 59); -and He hath also said, “<i>Some men take idols beside God and -love them as they love God, but the believers love God best</i>” -(Kor. ii, 160). And the Apostle said: “I heard Gabriel say -<span class='pageno' id='Page_305'>305</span>that God said, ‘Whoever despises any of My friends has -declared war against Me. I do not hesitate in anything as -I hesitate to seize the soul of My faithful servant who dislikes -death and whom I dislike to hurt, but he cannot escape -therefrom; and no means whereby My servant seeks My -favour is more pleasing to Me than the performance of the -obligations which I have laid upon him; and My servant -continuously seeks My favour by works of supererogation until -I love him, and when I love him I am his hearing and his sight -and his hand and his helper.’” And the Apostle also said, -“God loves to meet those who love to meet Him, and dislikes -to meet those who dislike to meet Him”; and again, “When -God loves a man He says to Gabriel, ‘O Gabriel, I love such -and such a one, so do thou love him’; then Gabriel loves him -and says to the dwellers in Heaven, ‘God loves such and such -a one,’ and they love him too; then he bestows on him favour -in the earth, so that he is loved by the inhabitants of the earth; -and as it happens with regard to love, so does it happen with -regard to hate.”</p> - -<p class='c001'><i>Maḥabbat</i> (love) is said to be derived from <i>ḥibbat</i>, which are -seeds that fall to the earth in the desert. The name <i>ḥubb</i> (love) -was given to such desert seeds (<i>ḥibb</i>), because love is the source -of life just as seeds are the origin of plants. As, when the seeds -are scattered in the desert, they become hidden in the earth, -and rain falls upon them and the sun shines upon them and cold -and heat pass over them, yet they are not corrupted by the -changing seasons, but grow up and bear flowers and give fruit, -so love, when it takes its dwelling in the heart, is not corrupted -by presence or absence, by pleasure or pain, by separation or -union. Others say that <i>maḥabbat</i> is derived from <i>ḥubb</i>, meaning -“a jar full of stagnant water”, because when love is collected in -the heart and fills it, there is no room there for any thought -except of the beloved, as Shiblí says: “Love is called <i>maḥabbat</i> -because it obliterates (<i>tamḥú</i>) from the heart everything except -the beloved.” Others say that <i>maḥabbat</i> is derived from <i>ḥubb</i>, -meaning “the four conjoined pieces of wood on which a water-jug -<span class='pageno' id='Page_306'>306</span>is placed, because a lover lightly bears whatever his beloved -metes out to him—honour or disgrace, pain or pleasure, fair -treatment or foul”. According to others, <i>maḥabbat</i> is derived -from <i>ḥabb</i>, the plural of <i>ḥabbat</i>, and <i>ḥabbat</i> is the core of the -heart, where love resides. In this case, <i>maḥabbat</i> is called by -the name of its dwelling-place, a principle of which there are -numerous examples in Arabic. Others derive it from <i>ḥabáb</i>, -“bubbles of water and the effervescence thereof in a heavy -rainfall,” because love is the effervescence of the heart in longing -for union with the beloved. As the body subsists through the -spirit, so the heart subsists through love, and love subsists -through vision of, and union with, the beloved. Others, again, -declare that <i>ḥubb</i> is a name applied to pure love, because the -Arabs call the pure white of the human eye <i>ḥabbat al-insán</i>, -just as they call the pure black (core) of the heart <i>ḥabbat -al-qalb</i>: the latter is the seat of love, the former of vision. -Hence the heart and the eye are rivals in love, as the poet says:</p> - -<div class='lg-container-b c009'> - <div class='linegroup'> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'>“<i>My heart envies mine eye the pleasure of seeing,</i></div> - <div class='line'><i>And mine eye envies my heart the pleasure of meditating.</i>”</div> - </div> - </div> -</div> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c004'> - <div><span class='sc'>Section.</span></div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>You must know that the term “love” (<i>maḥabbat</i>) is used by -theologians in three significations. Firstly, as meaning restless -desire for the object of love, and inclination and passion, in -which sense it refers only to created beings and their mutual -affection towards one another, but cannot be applied to God, -who is exalted far above anything of this sort. Secondly, as -meaning God’s beneficence and His conferment of special -privileges on those whom He chooses and causes to attain the -perfection of saintship and peculiarly distinguishes by diverse -kinds of His miraculous grace. Thirdly, as meaning praise -which God bestows on a man for a good action (<i>thaná-yi jamíl</i>).<a id='r155' /><a href='#f155' class='c015'><sup>[155]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c001'>Some scholastic philosophers say that God’s love, which He -has made known to us, belongs to those traditional attributes, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_307'>307</span>like His face and His hand and His settling Himself firmly on -His throne (<i>istiwá</i>), of which the existence from the standpoint -of reason would appear to be impossible if they had not been -proclaimed as Divine attributes in the Koran and the Sunna. -Therefore we affirm them and believe in them, but suspend our -own judgment concerning them. These scholastics mean to -deny that the term “love” can be applied to God in all the -senses which I have mentioned. I will now explain to you the -truth of this matter.</p> - -<p class='c001'>God’s love of Man is His good will towards him and His -having mercy on him. Love is one of the names of His will -(<i>irádat</i>), like “satisfaction”, “anger”, “mercy”, etc., and His -will is an eternal attribute whereby He wills His actions. In -short, God’s love towards Man consists in showing much favour -to him, and giving him a recompense in this world and the next, -and making him secure from punishment and keeping him safe -from sin, and bestowing on him lofty “states” and exalted -“stations” and causing him to turn his thoughts away from all -that is other than God. When God peculiarly distinguishes -anyone in this way, that specialization of His will is called love. -This is the doctrine of Ḥárith Muḥásibí and Junayd and a large -number of the Ṣúfí Shaykhs as well as of the lawyers belonging -to both the sects; and most of the Sunní scholastics hold the -same opinion. As regards their assertion that Divine love is -“praise given to a man for a good action” (<i>thaná-yi jamíl bar -banda</i>), God’s praise is His word (<i>kalám</i>), which is uncreated; -and as regards their assertion that Divine love means -“beneficence”, His beneficence consists in His actions. Hence -the different views are substantially in close relation to each -other.</p> - -<p class='c001'>Man’s love towards God is a quality which manifests itself in -the heart of the pious believer, in the form of veneration and -magnification, so that he seeks to satisfy his Beloved and -becomes impatient and restless in his desire for vision of Him, -and cannot rest with anyone except Him, and grows familiar -with the remembrance (<i>dhikr</i>) of Him, and abjures the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_308'>308</span>remembrance of everything besides. Repose becomes unlawful -to him and rest flees from him. He is cut off from -all habits and associations, and renounces sensual passion and -turns towards the court of love and submits to the law of love -and knows God by His attributes of perfection. It is impossible -that Man’s love of God should be similar in kind to the love of -His creatures towards one another, for the former is desire to -comprehend and attain the beloved object, while the latter is -a property of bodies. The lovers of God are those who devote -themselves to death in nearness to Him, not those who seek -His nature (<i>kayfiyyat</i>), because the seeker stands by himself, -but he who devotes himself to death (<i>mustahlik</i>) stands by his -Beloved; and the truest lovers are they who would fain die -thus, and are overpowered, because a phenomenal being has no -means of approaching the Eternal save through the omnipotence -of the Eternal. He who knows what is real love feels no more -difficulties, and all his doubts depart. Love, then, is of two -kinds—(1) the love of like towards like, which is a desire -instigated by the lower soul and which seeks the essence -(<i>dhát</i>) of the beloved object by means of sexual intercourse; -(2) the love of one who is unlike the object of his love and who -seeks to become intimately attached to an attribute of that -object, e.g. hearing without speech or seeing without eye. And -believers who love God are of two kinds—(1) those who regard -the favour and beneficence of God towards them, and are led -by that regard to love the Benefactor; (2) those who are so -enraptured by love that they reckon all favours as a veil -(between themselves and God) and by regarding the Benefactor -are led to (consciousness of) His favours. The latter way is the -more exalted of the two.</p> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c004'> - <div><span class='sc'>Section.</span></div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>Among the Ṣúfí Shaykhs Sumnún al-Muḥibb holds a peculiar -doctrine concerning love. He asserts that love is the foundation -and principle of the way to God, that all “states” and “stations” -are stages of love, and that every stage and abode in which the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_309'>309</span>seeker may be admits of destruction, except the abode of love, -which is not destructible in any circumstances so long as the -way itself remains in existence. All the other Shaykhs agree -with him in this matter, but since the term “love” is current and -well known, and they wished the doctrine of Divine love to -remain hidden, instead of calling it “love” they gave it the -name of “purity” (<i>ṣafwat</i>), and the lover they called “Ṣúfí”; or -they used the word “poverty” (<i>faqr</i>) to denote the renunciation -of the lover’s personal will in his affirmation of the Beloved’s will, -and they called the lover “poor” (<i>faqír</i>). I have explained the -theory of “purity” and “poverty” in the beginning of this book.</p> - -<p class='c001'>`Amr b. `Uthmán Makkí says in the <i>Kitáb-i Maḥabbat</i><a id='r156' /><a href='#f156' class='c015'><sup>[156]</sup></a> -that God created the souls (<i>dilhá</i>) seven thousand years -before the bodies and kept them in the station of proximity -(<i>qurb</i>), and that he created the spirits (<i>jánhá</i>) seven thousand -years before the souls and kept them in the degree of -intimacy (<i>uns</i>), and that he created the hearts (<i>sirrhá</i>) seven -thousand years before the spirits and kept them in the degree -of union (<i>waṣl</i>), and revealed the epiphany of His beauty to -the heart three hundred and sixty times every day and -bestowed on it three hundred and sixty looks of grace, and -He caused the spirits to hear the word of love and manifested -three hundred and sixty exquisite favours of intimacy to the -soul, so that they all surveyed the phenomenal universe and -saw nothing more precious than themselves and were filled -with vanity and pride. Therefore God subjected them to -probation: He imprisoned the heart in the spirit and the -spirit in the soul and the soul in the body; then He mingled -reason (<i>`aql</i>) with them, and sent prophets and gave commands; -then each of them began to seek its original station. God -ordered them to pray. The body betook itself to prayer, -the soul attained to love, the spirit arrived at proximity to -God, and the heart found rest in union with Him. The -explanation of love is not love, because love is a feeling (<i>ḥál</i>), -and feelings are never mere words (<i>qál</i>). If the whole world -<span class='pageno' id='Page_310'>310</span>wished to attract love, they could not; and if they made the -utmost efforts to repel it, they could not. Love is a Divine -gift, not anything that can be acquired.</p> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c004'> - <div><span class='sc'>Section.</span></div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>Concerning excessive love (<i>`ishq</i>) there is much controversy -among the Shaykhs. Some Ṣúfís hold that excessive love -towards God is allowable, but that it does not proceed from -God. Such love, they say, is the attribute of one who is -debarred from his beloved, and Man is debarred from God, -but God is not debarred from Man: therefore Man may love -God excessively, but the term is not applicable to God. -Others, again, take the view that God cannot be the object -of Man’s excessive love, because such love involves a passing -beyond limits, whereas God is not limited. The moderns -assert that excessive love, in this world and the next, is -properly applied only to the desire of attaining the essence, -and inasmuch as the essence of God is not attainable, the -term (<i>`ishq</i>) is not rightly used in reference to Man’s love -towards God, although the terms “love” (<i>maḥabbat</i>) and -“pure love” (<i>ṣafwat</i>) are correct. They say, moreover, that -while love (<i>maḥabbat</i>) may be produced by hearing, excessive -love (<i>`ishq</i>) cannot possibly arise without actual vision: -therefore it cannot be felt towards God, who is not seen in -this world. The essence of God is not attainable or perceptible, -that Man should be able to feel excessive love towards Him; -but Man feels love (<i>maḥabbat</i>) towards God, because God, -through His attributes and actions, is a gracious benefactor -to His friends. Since Jacob was absorbed in love (<i>maḥabbat</i>) -for Joseph, from whom he was separated, his eyes became -bright and clear as soon as he smelt Joseph’s shirt; but since -Zulaykhá was ready to die on account of her excessive love -(<i>`ishq</i>) for Joseph, her eyes were not opened until she was -united with him. It has also been said that excessive love -is applicable to God, on the ground that neither God nor -excessive love has any opposite.</p> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c004'> - <div><span class='pageno' id='Page_311'>311</span><span class='sc'>Section.</span></div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>I will now mention a few of the innumerable indications -which the Ṣúfí Shaykhs have given as to the true nature of -love. Master Abu ´l-Qásim Qushayrí says: “Love is the -effacement of the lover’s attributes and the establishment of -the Beloved’s essence,” i.e. since the Beloved is subsistent -(<i>báqí</i>) and the lover is annihilated (<i>fání</i>) the jealousy of -love requires that the lover should make the subsistence of -the Beloved absolute by negating himself, and he cannot -negate his own attributes except by affirming the essence of -the Beloved. No lover can stand by his own attributes, for -in that case he would not need the Beloved’s beauty; but -when he knows that his life depends on the Beloved’s beauty, -he necessarily seeks to annihilate his own attributes, which -veil him from his Beloved; and thus in love for his Friend -he becomes an enemy to himself. It is well known that the -last words of Ḥusayn b. Manṣúr (al-Ḥalláj) on the scaffold -were <i>Ḥasb al-wájid ifrád al-wáḥid</i>, “It is enough for the -lover that he should make the One single,” i.e. that his -existence should be cleared away from the path of love and -that the dominion of his lower soul should be utterly destroyed. -Abú Yazíd Bisṭámí says: “Love consists in regarding your -own much as little and your Beloved’s little as much.” This -is how God Himself deals with His servants, for He calls -“little” that which He has given to them in this world -(Kor. iv, 79), but calls their praise of Him “much”—“<i>the -men and women who praise God much</i>” (Kor. xxxiii, 35)—in -order that all His creatures may know that He is the -real Beloved, because nothing is little that God bestows on -Man, and all is little that Man offers to God. Sahl b. -`Abdalláh al-Tustarí says: “Love consists in embracing acts -of obedience (<i>mu`ánaqat al-ṭá`át</i>) and in avoiding acts of -disobedience,” because a man performs the command of his -beloved more easily in proportion to the strength of love -in his heart. This is a refutation of those heretics who -<span class='pageno' id='Page_312'>312</span>declare that a man may attain to such a degree of love that -obedience is no longer required of him, a doctrine which is -sheer heresy. It is impossible that any person, while his -understanding is sound, should be relieved of his religious -obligations, because the law of Muḥammad will never be -abrogated, and if one such person may be thus relieved -why not all? The case of persons overcome with rapture -(<i>maghlúb</i>) and idiots (<i>ma`túh</i>) is different. It is possible, -however, that God in His love should bring a man to such -a degree that it costs him no trouble to perform his religious -duties, because the more one loves Him who gives the command -the less trouble will he have in executing it. When -the Apostle abandoned himself entirely to devotion both by -day and night, so that his blessed feet became swollen, God -said: “<i>We have not sent down the Koran to thee in order -that thou shouldst be miserable</i>” (Kor. xx, 1). And it is also -possible that one should be relieved of the consciousness of -performing the Divine command, as the Apostle said: “Verily, -a veil is drawn over my heart, and I ask forgiveness of God -seventy times daily,” i.e. he asked to be forgiven for his -actions, because he was not regarding himself and his actions, -that he should be pleased with his obedience, but was paying -regard to the majesty of God’s command and was thinking -that his actions were not worthy of God’s acceptance. Sumnún -Muḥibb says: “The lovers of God have borne away the glory -of this world and the next, for the Prophet said, ‘A man is -with the object of his love.’” Therefore they are with God -in both worlds, and those who are with God can do no wrong. -The glory of this world is God’s being with them, and the -glory of the next world is their being with God. Yaḥyá -b. Mu`ádh al-Rází says: “Real love is neither diminished by -unkindness nor increased by kindness and bounty,” because -in love both kindness and unkindness are causes, and the -cause of a thing is reduced to nothing when the thing itself -actually exists. A lover delights in the affliction that his -beloved makes him suffer, and having love he regards kindness -<span class='pageno' id='Page_313'>313</span>and unkindness with the same indifference. The story is well -known how Shiblí was supposed to be insane and was confined -in a madhouse. Some persons came to visit him. “Who are -you?” he asked. They answered: “Thy friends,” whereupon -he pelted them with stones and put them to flight. Then he -said: “Had you been my friends, you would not have fled -from my affliction.”</p> - -<hr class='c017' /> -<div class='footnote' id='f152'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r152'>152</a>. Here the author cites a description given by Ḥátim al-Aṣamm of his manner -of praying.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f153'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r153'>153</a>. <i>Nafaḥát</i>, No. 259.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f154'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r154'>154</a>. Here follows a story, already related in the notice of Abú Bakr (p. 70), -concerning the different manner in which Abú Bakr and `Umar recited the Koran -when they performed their prayers.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f155'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r155'>155</a>. Cf. Qushayrí (Cairo, 1318 <span class='fss'>A.H.</span>), 170, 14 sqq.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f156'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r156'>156</a>. “The Book of Love.”</p> -</div> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_314'>314</span> - <h2 id='ch20' class='c011'>CHAPTER XX. <br /><span class='sc'>The Uncovering of the Sixth Veil: Concerning Alms</span> (<i>al-zakát</i>).</h2> -</div> - -<p class='c014'>Alms is one of the obligatory ordinances of the faith. It -becomes due on the completion of a benefit; e.g., two hundred -dirhems constitute a complete benefit (<i>ni`matí tamám</i>), and -anyone who is in possession of that sum ought to pay five -dirhems; or if he possesses twenty dínárs he ought to pay half -a dínár; or if he possesses five camels he ought to pay one -sheep, and so forth. Alms is also due on account of dignity -(<i>jáh</i>), because that too is a complete benefit. The Apostle said: -“Verily, God has made it incumbent upon you to pay the -alms of your dignity, even as He has made it incumbent -upon you to pay the alms of your property”; and he said -also: “Everything has its alms, and the alms of a house is -the guest-room.”</p> - -<p class='c001'>Alms is really thanksgiving for a benefit received, the thanks -being similar in kind to the benefit. Thus health is a great -blessing, for which every limb owes alms. Therefore healthy -persons ought to occupy all their limbs with devotion and -not yield them to pleasure and pastime, in order that the -alms due for the blessing of health may be fully paid. -Moreover, there is an alms for every spiritual blessing, namely, -outward and inward acknowledgment of that blessing in -proportion to its worth. Thus, when a man knows that the -blessings bestowed upon him by God are infinite, he should -render infinite thanks by way of alms. The Ṣúfís do not -consider it praiseworthy to give alms on account of worldly -blessings, because they disapprove of avarice, and a man -must needs be extremely avaricious to keep two hundred -dirhems in his possession for a whole year and then give -<span class='pageno' id='Page_315'>315</span>away five dirhems in alms. Since it is the custom of the -generous to lavish their wealth, and since they are disposed -to be liberal, how should almsgiving be incumbent upon them?</p> - -<p class='c001'>I have read in the Anecdotes that a certain formal theologian, -wishing to make trial of Shiblí, asked him what sum ought -to be given in alms. Shiblí replied: “Where avarice is present -and property exists, five dirhems out of every two hundred -dirhems, and half a dínár out of every twenty dínárs. That -is according to thy doctrine; but according to mine, a man -ought not to possess anything, in which case he will be saved -from the trouble of giving alms.” The divine asked: “Whose -authority do you follow in this matter?” Shiblí said: “The -authority of Abú Bakr the Veracious, who gave away all -that he possessed, and on being asked by the Apostle what -he had left behind for his family, answered, ‘God and His -Apostle.’” And it is related that `Alí said in an ode—</p> - -<div class='lg-container-b c009'> - <div class='linegroup'> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'>“<i>Almsgiving is not incumbent on me,</i></div> - <div class='line'><i>For how can a generous man be required to give alms?</i>”</div> - </div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>But it is absurd for anyone to cultivate ignorance and to -say that because he has no property he need not be acquainted -with the theory of almsgiving. To learn and obtain knowledge -is an essential obligation, and to profess one’s self independent -of knowledge is mere infidelity. It is one of the evils of the -present age that many who pretend to be pious dervishes -reject knowledge in favour of ignorance. The author says: -“Once I was giving devotional instruction to some novices -in Ṣúfiism and was discussing the chapter on the poor-rate of -camels (<i>ṣadaqat al-ibil</i>) and explaining the rules in regard to -she-camels that have entered on their third or second or fourth -year (<i>bint-i labún ú bint-i makháḍ ú ḥiqqa</i>). An ignorant -fellow, tired of listening to my discourse, rose and said: -‘I have no camels: what use is this knowledge to me?’ -I answered: ‘Knowledge is necessary in taking alms no less -than in giving alms: if anyone should give you a she-camel -in her third year and you should accept her, you ought to -<span class='pageno' id='Page_316'>316</span>be informed on this point; and even though one has no -property and does not want to have any property, he is not -thereby relieved from the obligation of knowledge.’”</p> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c004'> - <div><span class='sc'>Section.</span></div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>Some of the Ṣúfí Shaykhs have accepted alms, while others -have declined to do so. Those whose poverty is voluntary -(<i>ba-ikhtiyár</i>) belong to the latter class. “We do not amass -property,” they say, “therefore we need not give alms; nor -will we accept alms from worldlings, lest they should have -the upper hand (<i>yad-i `ulyá</i>) and we the lower (<i>yad-i suflá</i>).“ -But those who in their poverty are under Divine compulsion -(<i>muḍtarr</i>) accept alms, not for their own wants but with the -purpose of relieving a brother Moslem of his obligation. In -this case the receiver of alms, not the giver, has the upper -hand; otherwise, the words of God, ”<i>And He accepteth the -alms</i>” (Kor. ix, 105), are meaningless, and the giver of alms -must be superior to the receiver, a belief which is utterly -false. No; the upper hand belongs to him who takes something -from a brother Moslem in order that the latter may -escape from a heavy responsibility. Dervishes are not of -this world (<i>dunyá´í</i>), but of the next world (<i>`uqbá´í</i>), and if -a dervish fails to relieve a worldling of his responsibility, -the worldling will be held accountable and punished at the -Resurrection for having neglected to fulfil his obligation. -Therefore God afflicts the dervish with a slight want in order -that worldlings may be able to perform what is incumbent -upon them. The upper hand is necessarily the hand of the -dervish who receives alms in accordance with the requirement -of the law, because it behoves him to take that which -is due to God. If the hand of the recipient were the lower -hand, as some anthropomorphists (<i>ahl-i ḥashw</i>) declare, then -the hands of the Apostles, who often received alms due to -God and delivered it to the proper authority, must have been -lower (than the hands of those who gave the alms to them). -This view is erroneous; its adherents do not see that the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_317'>317</span>Apostles received alms in consequence of the Divine command. -The religious Imáms have acted in the same manner -as the Apostles, for they have always received payments due -to the public treasury. Those are in the wrong who assert -that the hand of the receiver is the lower and that of the -giver is the higher.</p> - -<p class='c001'><i>Chapter on Liberality and Generosity.</i></p> - -<p class='c001'>In the opinion of theologians liberality (<i>júd</i>) and generosity -(<i>sakhá</i>), when regarded as human attributes, are synonymous; -but God, although He is called liberal (<i>jawád</i>), is not called -generous (<i>sakhí</i>), because He has not called Himself by the -latter name, nor is He so called in any Apostolic Tradition. -All orthodox Moslems are agreed that it is not allowable to -apply to God any name that is not proclaimed in the Koran -and the Sunna: thus He may be called knowing (<i>`álim</i>), but -not intelligent (<i>`áqil</i>) or wise (<i>faqíh</i>), although the three -terms bear the same signification. Hence God is called -liberal, since that name is accompanied by His blessing; -and He is not called generous, since that name lacks His -blessing. Men have made a distinction between liberality -(<i>júd</i>) and generosity (<i>sakhá</i>), and have said that the generous -man discriminates in his liberality, and that his actions are -connected with a selfish motive (<i>gharaḍ</i>) and a cause (<i>sabab</i>). -This is a rudimentary stage in liberality, for the liberal man -does not discriminate, and his actions are devoid of self-interest -and without any secondary cause. These two qualities were -exhibited by two Apostles, viz., Abraham, the Friend of God -(<i>Khalíl</i>), and Muḥammad, the Beloved of God (<i>Ḥabíb</i>). It is -related in the genuine Traditions that Abraham was accustomed -not to eat anything until a guest came to him. Once, after -three days had passed without the arrival of a guest, a fire—worshipper -appeared at the door, but Abraham, on hearing who -he was, refused to give him entertainment. God reproached -him on this account, saying: “Wilt not thou give a piece of -bread to one whom I have nourished for seventy years?” -<span class='pageno' id='Page_318'>318</span>But Muḥammad, when the son of Ḥátim visited him, spread -his own mantle on the ground for him and said: “Honour -the noble chieftain of a people when he comes to you.” -Abraham’s position was generosity, but our Apostle’s was -liberality.</p> - -<p class='c001'>The best rule in this matter is set forth in the maxim that -liberality consists in following one’s first thought, and that -it is a sign of avarice when the second thought prevails over -the first; for the first thought is unquestionably from God. -I have read that at Níshápúr there was a merchant who used -regularly to attend the meetings held by Shaykh Abú Sa`íd. -One day a dervish who was present begged the Shaykh to -give him something. The merchant had a dínár and a small -piece of clipped money (<i>quráḍa</i>). His first thought was: -“I will give the dínár,” but on second thoughts he gave the -clipped piece. When the Shaykh finished his discourse the -merchant asked: “Is it right for anyone to contend with -God?” The Shaykh answered: “You contended with Him: -He bade you give the dínár, but you gave the clipping.” -I have also read that Shaykh Abú `Abdalláh Rúdbárí came -to the house of a disciple in his absence, and ordered that -all the effects in the house should be taken to the bazaar. -When the disciple returned he was delighted that the Shaykh -had behaved with such freedom, but he said nothing. His -wife, however, tore off her dress and flung it down, saying: -“This belongs to the effects of the house.” The husband -exclaimed: “You are doing more than is necessary and -showing self-will.” “O husband,” said she, “what the Shaykh -did was the result of his liberality: we too must exert ourselves -(<i>takalluf kuním</i>) to display liberality.” “Yes,” replied the -husband, “but if we allow the Shaykh to be liberal, that is -real liberality in us, whereas liberality, regarded as a human -quality, is forced and unreal.” A disciple ought always to -sacrifice his property and himself in obedience to the command -of God. Hence Sahl b. `Abdalláh (al-Tustarí) said: “The -Ṣúfí’s blood may be shed with impunity, and his property -<span class='pageno' id='Page_319'>319</span>may be seized.” I have heard the following story of Shaykh -Abú Muslim Fárisí: “Once (he said) I set out with a number -of people for the Ḥijáz. In the neighbourhood of Ḥulwán -we were attacked by Kurds, who stripped us of our patched -frocks. We offered no resistance. One man, however, became -greatly excited, whereupon a Kurd drew his scimitar and -killed him, notwithstanding our entreaties that his life might -be spared. On our asking why he had killed him he answered: -‘Because he is no Ṣúfí and acts disloyally in the company -of saints: such a one is better dead.’ We said: ‘How so?’ -He replied: ‘The first step in Ṣúfiism is liberality. This -fellow, who was so desperately attached to these rags that -he quarrelled with his own friends, how should he be a Ṣúfí? -His own friends, I say, for it is a long time since we have -been doing as you do, and plundering you and stripping -you of worldly encumbrances.’”<a id='r157' /><a href='#f157' class='c015'><sup>[157]</sup></a> A man came to the house -of Ḥasan b. `Alí and said that he owed four hundred dirhems. -Ḥasan gave him four hundred dínárs and went into the house, -weeping. They asked him why he wept. He answered: “I have -been remiss in making inquiry into the circumstances of this -man, and have reduced him to the humiliation of begging.” -Abú Sahl Ṣu`lúkí never put alms into the hand of a dervish, -and always used to lay on the ground anything that he gave. -“Worldly goods,” he said, “are too worthless to be placed in -the hand of a Moslem, so that my hand should be the upper -and his the lower.”<a id='r158' /><a href='#f158' class='c015'><sup>[158]</sup></a> I once met a dervish to whom a Sultan -had sent three hundred drachms of pure gold. He went to -a bath-house, and gave the whole sum to the superintendent -and immediately departed. I have already discussed the subject -of liberality in the chapter on preference (<i>íthár</i>), where I have -dealt with the doctrine of the Núrís.</p> - -<hr class='c017' /> -<div class='footnote' id='f157'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r157'>157</a>. Here follows a story of `Abdalláh b. Ja`far and an Abyssinian slave, who let -a dog eat the whole of his daily portion of food.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f158'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r158'>158</a>. Here the author relates three short anecdotes illustrating the liberality of -Muḥammad.</p> -</div> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_320'>320</span> - <h2 id='ch21' class='c011'>CHAPTER XXI. <br /><span class='sc'>The Uncovering of the Seventh Veil: On Fasting</span> (<i>al-ṣawm</i>).</h2> -</div> - -<p class='c014'>God hath said: “<i>O believers, fasting is prescribed unto you</i>” -(Kor. ii, 179). And the Apostle said that he was informed -by Gabriel that God said: “Fasting is mine, and I have the -best right to give recompense for it” (<i>al-ṣawm lí wa-ana ajzá -bihi</i>),<a id='r159' /><a href='#f159' class='c015'><sup>[159]</sup></a> because the religious practice of fasting is a mystery -unconnected with any external thing, a mystery in which none -other than God participates: hence its recompense is infinite. -It has been said that mankind enter Paradise through God’s -mercy, and that their rank therein depends on their religious -devotion, and that their abiding therein for ever is the recompense -of their fasting, because God said: “I have the best right -to give recompense for it.” Junayd said: “Fasting is half of -the Way.” I have seen Shaykhs who fasted without intermission, -and others who fasted only during the month of -Ramaḍán: the former were seeking recompense, and the latter -were renouncing self-will and ostentation. Again, I have seen -others who fasted and were not conscious of anyone and ate only -when food was set before them. This is more in accordance -with the Sunna. It is related that the Apostle came to `Á´isha -and Ḥafṣa, who said to him: “We have kept some dates and -butter (<i>ḥays</i>) for thee.” “Bring it,” said he; “I was intending -to fast, but I will fast another day instead.” I have seen others -who fasted on the “white days” (from the 13th to the 15th of -every month), and on the ten (last nights) of the blessed month -(Ramaḍán), and also during Rajab, Sha`bán, and Ramaḍán. -Others I have seen who observed the fast of David, which the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_321'>321</span>Apostle called the best of fasts, i.e. they fasted one day and -broke their fast the next day. Once I came into the presence -of Shaykh Aḥmad Bukhárí. He had a dish of sweetmeat -(<i>ḥalwá</i>) before him, from which he was eating, and he made -a sign to me that I should do the same. As is the way of -young men, I answered (without consideration) that I was -fasting. He asked why. I said: “In conformity with such -and such a one.” He said: “It is not right for human beings -to conform with human beings.” I was about to break my fast, -but he said: “Since you wish to be quit of conformity with -him, do not conform with me, for I too am a human being.” -Fasting is really abstinence, and this includes the whole method -of Ṣúfiism (<i>ṭaríqat</i>). The least degree in fasting is hunger, -which is God’s food on earth, and is universally commended -in the eye of the law and of reason. One month’s continual -fasting is incumbent on every reasonable Moslem who has -attained to manhood. The fast begins on the appearance of -the moon of Ramaḍán, and continues until the appearance of -the moon of Shawwál, and for every day a sincere intention -and firm obligation are necessary. Abstinence involves many -obligations, e.g., keeping the belly without food and drink, and -guarding the eye from lustful looks, and the ear from listening -to evil speech about anyone in his absence, and the tongue from -vain or foul words, and the body from following after worldly -things and disobedience to God. One who acts in this manner -is truly keeping his fast, for the Apostle said to a certain man, -“When you fast, let your ear fast and your eye and your tongue -and your hand and every limb;” and he also said, “Many -a one has no good of his fasting except hunger and thirst.”</p> - -<p class='c001'>I dreamed that I saw the Apostle and asked him to give me -a word of counsel, and that he replied: “Imprison thy tongue -and thy senses.” To imprison the senses is complete self-mortification, -because all kinds of knowledge are acquired -through the five senses: sight, hearing, taste, smell, and touch. -Four of the senses have a particular <i>locus</i>, but the fifth, namely -touch, is spread over the whole body. Everything that becomes -<span class='pageno' id='Page_322'>322</span>known to human beings passes through these five doors, except -intuitive knowledge and Divine inspiration, and in each sense -there is a purity and an impurity; for, just as they are open to -knowledge, reason, and spirit, so they are open to imagination -and passion, being organs which partake of piety and sin and of -felicity and misery. Therefore it behoves him who is keeping -a fast to imprison all the senses in order that they may return -from disobedience to obedience. To abstain only from food -and drink is child’s play. One must abstain from idle pleasures -and unlawful acts, not from eating lawful food. I marvel at -those who say that they are keeping a voluntary fast and yet -fail to perform an obligatory duty. Not to commit sin is -obligatory, whereas continual fasting is an apostolic custom -(which may be observed or neglected). When a man is -divinely protected from sin all his circumstances are a fast. -It is related by Abú Ṭalḥa al-Málikí that Sahl b. `Abdalláh -of Tustar was fasting on the day of his birth and also on the -day of his death, because he was born in the forenoon and -tasted no milk until the evening prayer, and on the day of his -decease he was keeping a fast. But continual fasting (<i>rúza-i -wiṣál</i>) has been forbidden by the Apostle, for when he fasted -continually, and his Companions conformed with him in that -respect, he forbade them, saying: “I am not as one of you: -I pass the night with my Lord, who gives me food and drink.” -The votaries of self-mortification assert that this prohibition -was an act of indulgence, not a veto declaring such fasts to -be unlawful, and others regard them as being contrary to the -Sunna, but the fact is that continuance (<i>wiṣál</i>) is impossible, -because the day’s fast is interrupted by night or, at any rate, -does not continue beyond a certain period. It is related that -Sahl b. `Abdalláh of Tustar used to eat only once in fifteen -days, and when the month of Ramaḍán arrived he ate nothing -until the Feast, and performed four hundred bowings in prayer -every night. This exceeds the limit of human endurance, and -cannot be accomplished by anyone without Divine aid, which -itself becomes his nourishment. It is well known that Shaykh -<span class='pageno' id='Page_323'>323</span>Abú Naṣr Sarráj,<a id='r160' /><a href='#f160' class='c015'><sup>[160]</sup></a> the author of the <i>Luma`</i>,<a id='r161' /><a href='#f161' class='c015'><sup>[161]</sup></a> who was surnamed -the Peacock of the Poor (<i>Ṭá´ús al-fuqará</i>), came to Baghdád in -the month of Ramaḍán, and was given a private chamber in the -Shúníziyya mosque, and was appointed to preside over the -dervishes until the Feast. During the nightly prayers of -Ramaḍán (<i>taráwíḥ</i>) he recited the whole Koran five times. -Every night a servant brought a loaf of bread to his room. -When he departed, on the day of the Feast, the servant found -all the thirty loaves untouched. `Alí b. Bakkár relates that -Ḥafṣ Miṣṣísí ate nothing in Ramaḍán except on the fifteenth -day of that month. We are told that Ibráhím Adham fasted -from the beginning to the end of Ramaḍán, and, although it -was the month of Tammúz (July), worked every day as -a harvester and gave his wages to the dervishes, and prayed -from nightfall to daybreak; they watched him closely and saw -that he neither ate nor slept. It is said that Shaykh Abú -`Abdalláh Khafíf during his life kept forty uninterrupted fasts -of forty days, and I have met with an old man who used -annually to keep two fasts of forty days in the desert. I was -present at the death-bed of Dánishmand Abú Muḥammad -Bángharí; he had tasted no food for eighty days and had -not missed a single occasion of public worship. At Merv -there were two spiritual directors; one was called Mas`úd and -the other was Shaykh Abú `Alí Siyáh. Mas`úd sent a message -to Abú `Alí, saying: “How long shall we make empty -pretensions? Come, let us sit fasting for forty days.” Abú -`Alí replied: “No; let us eat three times a day and nevertheless -require only one purification during these forty days.” -The difficulties of this question are not yet removed. Ignorant -persons conclude that continuance in fasting is possible, while -physicians allege that such a theory is entirely baseless. I will -now explain the matter in full. To fast continuously, without -infringing the Divine command, is a miracle (<i>karámat</i>). -Miracles have a special, not a general, application: if they -were vouchsafed to all, faith would be an act of necessity -<span class='pageno' id='Page_324'>324</span>(<i>jabr</i>) and gnostics would not be recompensed on account of -gnosis. The Apostle wrought evidentiary miracles (<i>mu`jizát</i>) -and therefore divulged his continuance in fasting; but he -forbade the saints (<i>ahl-i karámat</i>) to divulge it, because -a <i>karámat</i> involves concealment, whereas a <i>mu`jizat</i> involves -revelation. This is a clear distinction between the miracles -performed by Apostles and those performed by saints, and -will be sufficient for anyone who is divinely guided. The -forty days’ fasts (<i>chilla</i>) of the saints are derived from the fast -of Moses (Kor. vii, 138). When the saints desire to hear the -word of God spiritually, they remain fasting for forty days. -After thirty days have passed they rub their teeth; then they -fast ten days more, and God speaks to their hearts, because -whatever the prophets enjoy openly the saints may enjoy -secretly. Now, hearing the word of God is not compatible -with the subsistence of the natural temperament: therefore the -four humours must be deprived of food and drink for forty days -in order that they may be utterly subdued, and that the purity -of love and the subtlety of the spirit may hold absolute sway.</p> - -<h4 class='c020'><i>Chapter on Hunger and matters connected with it.</i></h4> - -<p class='c010'>Hunger sharpens the intelligence and improves the mind -and health. The Apostle said: “Make your bellies hungry -and your livers thirsty and your bodies naked, that perchance -your hearts may see God in this world.” Although hunger -is an affliction to the body, it illumines the heart and purifies -the soul, and leads the spirit into the presence of God. To -eat one’s fill is an act worthy of a beast. One who cultivates -his spiritual nature by means of hunger, in order to devote -himself entirely to God and detach himself from worldly ties, -is not on the same level with one who cultivates his body by -means of gluttony, and serves his lusts. “The men of old -ate to live, but ye live to eat.” For the sake of a morsel of -food Adam fell from Paradise, and was banished far from the -neighbourhood of God.</p> - -<p class='c001'>He whose hunger is compulsory is not really hungry, because -<span class='pageno' id='Page_325'>325</span>one who desires to eat after God has decreed the contrary -is virtually eating; the merit of hunger belongs to him who -abstains from eating, not to him who is debarred from eating. -Kattání<a id='r162' /><a href='#f162' class='c015'><sup>[162]</sup></a> says: “The novice shall sleep only when he is -overpowered by slumber, and speak only when he must, and -eat only when he is starving.” According to some, starvation -(<i>fáqa</i>) involves abstention from food for two days and nights; -others say three days and nights, or a week, or forty days, -because true mystics believe that a sincere man (<i>ṣádiq</i>) is only -once hungry in forty days; his hunger merely serves to keep -him alive, and all hunger besides is natural appetite and vanity. -You must know that all the veins in the bodies of gnostics -are evidences of the Divine mysteries, and that their hearts -are tenanted by visions of the Most High. Their hearts are -doors opened in their breasts, and at these doors are stationed -reason and passion: reason is reinforced by the spirit, and -passion by the lower soul. The more the natural humours are -nourished by food, the stronger does the lower soul become, -and the more impetuously is passion diffused through the -members of the body; and in every vein a different kind of -veil (<i>ḥijábí</i>) is produced. But when food is withheld from the -lower soul it grows weak, and the reason gains strength, and -the mysteries and evidences of God become more visible, -until, when the lower soul is unable to work and passion is -annihilated, every vain desire is effaced in the manifestation -of the Truth, and the seeker of God attains to the whole of -his desire. It is related that Abu ´l-`Abbás Qaṣṣáb said: “My -obedience and disobedience depend on two cakes of bread: -when I eat I find in myself the stuff of every sin, but when -I abstain from eating I find in myself the foundation of every -act of piety.” The fruit of hunger is contemplation of God -(<i>musháhadat</i>), of which the forerunner is mortification (<i>mujáhadat</i>). -Repletion combined with contemplation is better than -hunger combined with mortification, because contemplation is -the battle-field of men, whereas mortification is the playground -of children.</p> - -<hr class='c017' /> -<div class='footnote' id='f159'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r159'>159</a>. The usual reading is <i>ajzí</i>, “I give recompense,” but the Persian translation, -<i>ba-jazá-yi án man awlátaram</i>, is equivalent to <i>ana ajzá bihi</i>.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f160'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r160'>160</a>. <i>Nafaḥát</i>, No. 353.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f161'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r161'>161</a>. “Brilliancies.” <i>Naf.</i> entitles it لمعه.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f162'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r162'>162</a>. <i>Nafahát</i>, No. 215.</p> -</div> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_326'>326</span> - <h2 id='ch22' class='c011'>CHAPTER XXII. <br /><span class='sc'>The Uncovering of the Eighth Veil: Concerning the Pilgrimage.</span></h2> -</div> - -<p class='c014'>The pilgrimage (<i>ḥajj</i>) is binding on every Moslem of sound -mind who is able to perform it and has reached manhood. It -consists in putting on the pilgrim’s garb at the proper place, -in standing on `Arafát, in circumambulating the Ka`ba, and in -running between Ṣafá and Marwa. One must not enter the -sacred territory without being clad as a pilgrim (<i>bé iḥrám</i>). -The sacred territory (<i>ḥaram</i>) is so called because it contains -the Station of Abraham (<i>Maqám-i Ibráhím</i>). Abraham had -two stations: the station of his body, namely, Mecca, and the -station of his soul, namely, friendship (<i>khullat</i>). Whoever seeks -his bodily station must renounce all lusts and pleasures and put -on the pilgrim’s garb and clothe himself in a winding-sheet -(<i>kafan</i>) and refrain from hunting lawful game, and keep all his -senses under strict control, and be present at `Arafát and go -thence to Muzdalifa and Mash`ar al-Ḥarám, and pick up stones -and circumambulate the Ka`ba and visit Miná and stay there -three days and throw stones in the prescribed manner and cut -his hair and perform the sacrifice and put on his (ordinary) -clothes. But whoever seeks his spiritual station must renounce -familiar associations and bid farewell to pleasures and take -no thought of other than God (for his looking towards the -phenomenal world is interdicted); then he must stand on -the `Arafát of gnosis (<i>ma`rifat</i>) and from there set out for the -Muzdalifa of amity (<i>ulfat</i>) and from there send his heart to -circumambulate the temple of Divine purification (<i>tanzíh</i>), and -throw away the stones of passion and corrupt thoughts in -the Miná of faith, and sacrifice his lower soul on the altar of -mortification and arrive at the station of friendship (<i>khullat</i>). -<span class='pageno' id='Page_327'>327</span>To enter the bodily station is to be secure from enemies -and their swords, but to enter the spiritual station is to be -secure from separation (from God) and its consequences.<a id='r163' /><a href='#f163' class='c015'><sup>[163]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c001'>Muḥammad b. al-Faḍl says: “I wonder at those who seek -His temple in this world: why do not they seek contemplation -of Him in their hearts? The temple they sometimes attain -and sometimes miss, but contemplation they might enjoy always. -If they are bound to visit a stone, which is looked at only once -a year, surely they are more bound to visit the temple of the -heart, where He may be seen three hundred and sixty times in -a day and night. But the mystic’s every step is a symbol of -the journey to Mecca, and when he reaches the sanctuary he -wins a robe of honour for every step.” Abú Yazíd says: “If -anyone’s recompense for worshipping God is deferred until -to-morrow he has not worshipped God aright to-day,” for the -recompense of every moment of worship and mortification is -immediate. And Abú Yazíd also says: “On my first pilgrimage -I saw only the temple; the second time, I saw both the temple -and the Lord of the temple; and the third time I saw the Lord -alone.” In short, where mortification is, there is no sanctuary: -the sanctuary is where contemplation is. Unless the whole -universe is a man’s trysting-place where he comes nigh unto -God and a retired chamber where he enjoys intimacy with God, -he is still a stranger to Divine love; but when he has vision -the whole universe is his sanctuary.</p> - -<div class='lg-container-b c009'> - <div class='linegroup'> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'>“<i>The darkest thing in the world is the Beloved’s house without the Beloved.</i>”</div> - </div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>Accordingly, what is truly valuable is not the Ka`ba, but -contemplation and annihilation in the abode of friendship, of -which things the sight of the Ka`ba is indirectly a cause. -But we must recognize that every cause depends on the author -of causes (<i>musabbib</i>), from whatever hidden place the providence -of God may appear, and whencesoever the desire of the -seeker may be fulfilled. The object of mystics (<i>mardán</i>) in -<span class='pageno' id='Page_328'>328</span>traversing wildernesses and deserts is not the sanctuary itself, -for to a lover of God it is unlawful to look upon His sanctuary. -No; their object is mortification in a longing that leaves them -no rest, and eager dissolution in a love that has no end. -A certain man came to Junayd. Junayd asked him whence -he came. He replied: “I have been on the pilgrimage.” -Junayd said: “From the time when you first journeyed from -your home have you also journeyed away from all sins?” -He said: “No.” “Then,” said Junayd, “you have made no -journey. At every stage where you halted for the night did -you traverse a station on the way to God?” He said: “No.” -“Then,” said Junayd, “you have not trodden the road stage -by stage. When you put on the pilgrim’s garb at the proper -place did you discard the attributes of humanity as you cast -off your ordinary clothes?” “No.” “Then you have not -put on the pilgrim’s garb. When you stood on `Arafát did -you stand one instant in contemplation of God?” “No.” -“Then you have not stood on `Arafát. When you went to -Muzdalifa and achieved your desire did you renounce all sensual -desires?” “No.” “Then you have not gone to Muzdalifa. When -you circumambulated the Temple did you behold the immaterial -beauty of God in the abode of purification?” “No.” “Then -you have not circumambulated the Temple. When you ran -between Ṣafá and Marwa did you attain to the rank of -purity (<i>ṣafá</i>) and virtue (<i>muruwwat</i>)?” “No.” “Then you -have not run. When you came to Miná did all your wishes -(<i>munyathá</i>) cease?” “No.” “Then you have not yet visited -Miná. When you reached the slaughter-place and offered -sacrifice did you sacrifice the objects of sensual desire?” -“No.” “Then you have not sacrificed. When you threw the -stones did you throw away whatever sensual thoughts were -accompanying you?” “No.” “Then you have not yet thrown -the stones, and you have not yet performed the pilgrimage. -Return and perform the pilgrimage in the manner which I have -described in order that you may arrive at the station of -Abraham.” Fuḍayl b. `Iyáḍ says: “I saw at Mount `Arafát -<span class='pageno' id='Page_329'>329</span>a youth who stood silent with bowed head while all the people -were praying aloud, and I asked him why he did not pray -like them. He answered that he was in great distress, having -lost the spiritual state (<i>waqtí</i>) which he formerly enjoyed, -and that he could by no means cry aloud unto God. I said: -‘Pray, in order that through the blessings of this multitude -God may accomplish thy desire.’ He was about to lift up -his hands and pray, when suddenly he uttered a shriek and -died on the spot.” Dhu ´l-Nún the Egyptian says: “At Miná -I saw a young man sitting quietly while the people were -engaged in the sacrifices. I looked at him to see what he -was doing. He cried: ‘O God, all the people are offering -sacrifice. I wish to sacrifice my lower soul to Thee; do Thou -accept it.’ Having spoken, he pointed with his forefinger to -his throat and fell dead—may God have mercy on him!”</p> - -<p class='c001'>Pilgrimages, then, are of two kinds: (1) in absence (from -God) and (2) in presence (of God). Anyone who is absent -from God at Mecca is in the same position as if he were absent -from God in his own house, and anyone who is present with -God in his own house is in the same position as if he were -present with God at Mecca. Pilgrimage is an act of mortification -(<i>mujáhadat</i>) for the sake of obtaining contemplation -(<i>musháhadat</i>), and mortification does not become the direct -cause of contemplation, but is only a means to it. Therefore, -inasmuch as a means has no further effect on the reality of -things, the true object of pilgrimage is not to visit the Ka`ba, -but to obtain contemplation of God.</p> - -<p class='c001'><i>Chapter on Contemplation.</i></p> - -<p class='c001'>The Apostle said: “Make your bellies hungry and your livers -thirsty and leave the world alone, that perchance ye may see -God with your hearts”; and he also said, “Worship God as -though thou sawest Him, for if thou dost not see Him, yet He -sees thee.” God said to David: “Dost thou know what is -knowledge of Me? It is the life of the heart in contemplation -of Me.” By “contemplation” the Ṣúfís mean spiritual vision of -<span class='pageno' id='Page_330'>330</span>God in public and private, without asking how or in what -manner. Abu ´l-`Abbás b. `Aṭá says in reference to the words -of God: “<i>As to those who say, ‘Our Lord is God,’ and who -become steadfast</i>” (Kor. xli, 30), i.e. “they say ‘Our Lord is -God’ in self-mortification and they ‘become steadfast’ on the -carpet of contemplation”.</p> - -<p class='c001'>There are really two kinds of contemplation. The former -is the result of perfect faith (<i>ṣihhat-i yaqín</i>), the latter of -rapturous love, for in the rapture of love a man attains to such -a degree that his whole being is absorbed in the thought of -his Beloved and he sees nothing else. Muḥammad b. Wási` -says: “I never saw anything without seeing God therein,” -i.e. through perfect faith. This vision is from God to His -creatures. Shiblí says: “I never saw anything except God,” -i.e. in the rapture of love and the fervour of contemplation. -One sees the act with his bodily eye and, as he looks, beholds -the Agent with his spiritual eye; another is rapt by love of -the Agent from all things else, so that he sees only the Agent. -The one method is demonstrative (<i>istidlálí</i>), the other is ecstatic -(<i>jadhbí</i>). In the former case, a manifest proof is derived from -the evidences of God; in the latter case, the seer is enraptured -and transported by desire: evidences and verities are a veil to -him, because he who knows a thing does not reverence aught -besides, and he who loves a thing does not regard aught -besides, but renounces contention with God and interference -with Him in His decrees and His acts. God hath said of the -Apostle at the time of his Ascension: “<i>His eyes did not swerve -or transgress</i>” (Kor. liii, 17), on account of the intensity of his -longing for God. When the lover turns his eye away from -created things, he will inevitably see the Creator with his -heart. God hath said: “<i>Tell the believers to close their eyes</i>” -(Kor. xxiv, 30), i.e. to close their bodily eyes to lusts and -their spiritual eyes to created things. He who is most sincere -in self-mortification is most firmly grounded in contemplation -for inward contemplation is connected with outward mortification. -Sahl b. `Abdalláh of Tustar says: “If anyone shuts his -<span class='pageno' id='Page_331'>331</span>eye to God for a single moment, he will never be rightly -guided all his life long,” because to regard other than God is -to be handed over to other than God, and one who is left at -the mercy of other than God is lost. Therefore the life of -contemplatives is the time during which they enjoy contemplation -(<i>musháhadat</i>): time spent in seeing ocularly (<i>mu`áyanat</i>) -they do not reckon as life, for that to them is really death. -Thus, when Abú Yazíd was asked how old he was, he replied: -“Four years.” They said: “How can that be?” He answered: -“I have been veiled (from God) by this world for seventy years, -but I have seen Him during the last four years: the period -in which one is veiled does not belong to one’s life.” Shiblí -cried in his prayers: “O God, hide Paradise and Hell in Thy -unseen places, that Thou mayest be worshipped disinterestedly.” -One who is forgetful of God nevertheless worships Him, through -faith, because human nature has an interest in Paradise; but -inasmuch as the heart has no interest in loving God, one who -is forgetful of God is debarred from contemplating Him. The -Apostle told `Á´isha that he did not see God on the night of -the Ascension, but Ibn `Abbás relates that the Apostle told -him that he saw God on that occasion. Accordingly, this -remains a matter of controversy; but in saying that he did -not see God the Apostle was referring to his bodily eye, -whereas in saying the contrary he was referring to his spiritual -eye. Since `Á´isha was a formalist and Ibn `Abbás a spiritualist, -the Apostle spoke with each of them according to their insight. -Junayd said: “If God should say to me, ‘Behold Me,’ I should -reply, ‘I will not behold Thee,’ because in love the eye is other -(than God) and alien: the jealousy of other-ness would prevent -me from beholding Him. Since in this world I was wont to -behold Him without the mediation of the eye, how should -I use such mediation in the next world?“</p> - -<div class='lg-container-b c009'> - <div class='linegroup'> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'>”<i>Truly, I envy mine eye the sight of Thee,</i></div> - <div class='line'><i>And I close mine eye when I look on Thee.</i>”</div> - </div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>Junayd was asked: “Do you wish to see God?” He said: -<span class='pageno' id='Page_332'>332</span>“No.” They asked why. He answered: “When Moses wished, -he did not see Him, and when Muḥammad did not wish, he -saw Him.” Our wishing is the greatest of the veils that hinder -us from seeing God, because in love the existence of self-will is -disobedience, and disobedience is a veil. When self-will vanishes -in this world, contemplation is attained, and when contemplation -is firmly established, there is no difference between this world -and the next. Abú Yazíd says: “God has servants who would -apostatize if they were veiled from Him in this world or in the -next,” i.e. He sustains them with perpetual contemplation and -keeps them alive with the life of love; and when one who enjoys -revelation is deprived of it, he necessarily becomes an apostate. -Dhu ´l-Nún says: “One day, when I was journeying in Egypt, -I saw some boys who were throwing stones at a young man. -I asked them what they wanted of him. They said: ‘He is -mad.’ I asked how his madness showed itself, and they told -me that he pretended to see God. I turned to the young man -and inquired whether he had really said this. He answered: -‘I say that if I should not see God for one moment, I should -remain veiled and should not be obedient towards Him.’” -Some Ṣúfís have fallen into the mistake of supposing that -spiritual vision and contemplation represent such an idea -(<i>ṣúratí</i>) of God as is formed in the mind by the imagination -either from memory or reflection. This is utter anthropomorphism -(<i>tashbíh</i>) and manifest error. God is not finite that -the imagination should be able to define Him or that the -intellect should comprehend His nature. Whatever can be -imagined is homogeneous with the intellect, but God is not -homogeneous with any <i>genus</i>, although in relation to the -Eternal all phenomenal objects—subtle and gross alike—are -homogeneous with each other notwithstanding their mutual -contrariety. Therefore contemplation in this world resembles -vision of God in the next world, and since the Companions of -the Apostle (<i>aṣḥáb</i>) are unanimously agreed that vision is -possible hereafter, contemplation is possible here. Those who -tell of contemplation either in this or the other world only say -<span class='pageno' id='Page_333'>333</span>that it is possible, not that they have enjoyed or now enjoy it, -because contemplation is an attribute of the heart (<i>sirr</i>) and -cannot be expressed by the tongue except metaphorically. -Hence silence ranks higher than speech, for silence is a sign -of contemplation (<i>musháhadat</i>), whereas speech is a sign of -ocular testimony (<i>shahádat</i>). Accordingly the Apostle, when -he attained proximity to God, said: “I cannot tell Thy praise,” -because he was in contemplation, and contemplation in the -degree of love is perfect unity (<i>yagánagí</i>), and any outward -expression in unity is other-ness (<i>bégánagí</i>). Then he said: -“Thou hast praised Thyself,” i.e. Thy words are mine, and Thy -praise is mine, and I do not deem my tongue capable of -expressing what I feel. As the poet says:</p> - -<div class='lg-container-b c009'> - <div class='linegroup'> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'>“<i>I desired my beloved, but when I saw him</i></div> - <div class='line'><i>I was dumbfounded and possessed neither tongue nor eye.</i>”</div> - </div> - </div> -</div> - -<hr class='c017' /> -<div class='footnote' id='f163'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r163'>163</a>. Here follows the story of Abraham and Nimrod which has occurred before, p. 73.</p> -</div> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_334'>334</span> - <h2 id='ch23' class='c011'>CHAPTER XXIII. <br /><span class='sc'>The Uncovering of the Ninth Veil: Concerning Companionship, together with its Rules and Principles.</span></h2> -</div> - -<p class='c014'>The Apostle said: “Good manners (<i>ḥusn al-adab</i>) are a part -of faith.” And he also said: “My Lord corrected me (<i>addabaní</i>) -and gave me an excellent correction.” You must know that -the seemliness and decorum of all religious and temporal -affairs depends on rules of discipline (<i>ádáb</i>), and that every -station in which the various classes of mankind are placed has -its own particular rule. Among men good manners consist -in the observance of virtue (<i>muruwwat</i>); as regards religion -they consist in the observance of the Apostolic custom (<i>sunna</i>); -and as regards love they consist in the observance of respect -(<i>ḥurmat</i>). These three categories are connected with each -other, because one who is without virtue does not comply with -the custom of the Apostle, and whoever fails to comply with -the custom of the Apostle does not observe due respect. In -matters of conduct the observance of discipline is the result -of reverence for the object of desire; and reverence for God -and His ordinances springs from fear of God (<i>taqwá</i>). Anyone -who disrespectfully tramples on the reverence that is due to -the evidences of God has no part or lot in the Path of -Ṣúfiism; and in no case are rules of discipline neglected by -seekers of God, because they are habituated to such rules, -and habit is second nature. It is impossible that a living -creature should be divested of its natural humours: therefore, -so long as the human body remains in existence men are -bound to keep the rules of obedience to God, sometimes -with effort (<i>takalluf</i>) and sometimes without effort: with effort -when they are ‘sober’, but when they are ‘intoxicated’ God -<span class='pageno' id='Page_335'>335</span>sees that they keep the rules. A person who neglects the rules -cannot possibly be a saint, for “good manners are characteristic -of those whom God loves”. When God vouchsafes a miracle -to anyone, it is a proof that He causes him to fulfil the duties -of religion. This is opposed to the view of some heretics, -who assert that when a man is overpowered by love he is no -longer subject to obedience. I will set forth this matter more -lucidly in another place.</p> - -<p class='c001'>Rules of discipline are of three kinds. Firstly, those which -are observed towards God in unification (<i>tawḥíd</i>). Here the -rule is that one must guard one’s self in public and private -from any disrespectful act, and behave as though one were -in the presence of a king. It is related in the genuine -Traditions that one day the Apostle was sitting with his legs -drawn in (<i>páy gird</i>). Gabriel came and said: “O Muḥammad, -sit as servants do in their master’s presence.” Ḥárith Muḥásibí -is said never to have leaned his back against a wall, by day -or night, for forty years, and never to have sat except on his -knees. On being asked why he gave himself so much trouble -he replied: “I am ashamed to sit otherwise than as a servant -while I am contemplating God.” I, `Alí b. `Uthmán al-Jullábí, -was once in a village called Kamand,<a id='r164' /><a href='#f164' class='c015'><sup>[164]</sup></a> at the extremity of -Khurásán. There I saw a well-known and very excellent -man, whose name is Adíb-i Kamandí. For twenty years -he had never sat down except in his prayers, when he was -pronouncing the profession of faith. I inquired the reason -of this, and he answered that he had not yet attained such -a degree that he should sit while contemplating God. Abú -Yazíd was asked by what means he had gained so high -spiritual rank. He answered: “By good companionship with -God,” i.e. by keeping the rules of discipline and behaving in -private as in public. All human beings ought to learn from -Zulaykhá how to observe good manners in contemplating -the object of their adoration, for when she was alone with -Joseph and besought him to consent to her wishes, she first -<span class='pageno' id='Page_336'>336</span>covered up the face of her idol in order that it might not -witness her want of propriety. And when the Apostle was -borne to Heaven at the Ascension, his observance of discipline -restrained him from paying any regard either to this world -or to the next.</p> - -<p class='c001'>The second kind of discipline is that which is observed towards -one’s self in one’s conduct, and which consists in avoiding, -when one is in one’s own company, any act that would be -improper in the company of one’s fellow-creatures or of God, -e.g., one must not utter an untruth by declaring one’s self to -be what one is not, and one must eat little in order that one -may seldom go to the lavatory, and one must not look at -anything which it is not decent for others to see. It is related -that `Alí never beheld his own nakedness, because he was -ashamed to see in himself what he was forbidden to see in -others.</p> - -<p class='c001'>The third kind of discipline is that which is observed in -social intercourse with one’s fellow-creatures. The most -important rule for such intercourse is to act well, and to -observe the custom of the Apostle at home and abroad.</p> - -<p class='c001'>These three sorts of discipline cannot be separated from one -another. Now I will set them forth in detail as far as possible, -in order that you and all my readers may follow them more -easily.</p> - -<h4 class='c020'><i>Chapter on Companionship and matters connected therewith.</i></h4> - -<p class='c010'>God hath said: “<i>Verily, the merciful God will bestow love on -those who believe and do good works</i>” (Kor. xix, 96), i.e., He -will love them and cause them to be loved, because they do -their duty towards their brethren and prefer them to themselves. -And the Apostle said: “Three things render thy brother’s -love toward thee sincere: that thou shouldst salute him when -thou meetest him, and that thou shouldst make room for -him when he sits beside thee, and that thou shouldst call -him by the name that he likes best.” And God said, “<i>The -believers are brethren: therefore reconcile your two brethren</i>” -<span class='pageno' id='Page_337'>337</span>(Kor. xlix, 10); and the Apostle said, “Get many brethren, -for your Lord is bashful (<i>ḥayí</i>) and kind: He will be ashamed -to punish His servant in the presence of his brethren on the -Day of Resurrection.”</p> - -<p class='c001'>But companionship must be for God’s sake, not for the -purpose of gratifying the lower soul or any selfish interest, -in order that a man may be divinely rewarded for observing -the rules of companionship. Málik b. Dínár said to his son-in-law, -Mughíra b. Shu`ba: “If you derive no religious benefit -from a brother and friend, abandon his society, that you may -be saved,” i.e. associate either with one who is superior or with -one who is inferior to yourself. In the former case you will -derive benefit from him, and in the latter case the benefit will -be mutual, since each will learn something from the other. -Hence the Apostle said, “It is the whole of piety to instruct -one who is ignorant;” and Yaḥyá b. Mu`ádh (al-Rází) said, -“He is a bad friend to whom you need to say, ‘Remember me -in thy prayers’” (because a man ought always to pray for -anyone with whom he has associated even for a moment); and -he is a bad friend with whom you cannot live except on condition -of flattering him (because candour is involved in the -principle of companionship); and he is a bad friend to whom -you need to apologize for a fault that you have committed -(because apologies are made by strangers, and in companionship -it is wrong to be on such terms). The Apostle said: “A man -follows the religion of his friend: take heed, therefore, with -whom you form a friendship.” If he associates with the good, -their society will make him good, although he is bad; and if -he associates with the wicked, he will be wicked, although he is -good, because he will be consenting to their wickedness. It -is related that a man said, while he was circumambulating the -Ka`ba, “O God, make my brethren good!” On being asked -why he did not implore a boon for himself in such a place, he -replied: “I have brethren to whom I shall return; if they are -good, I shall be good with them, and if they are wicked, I shall -be wicked with them.”</p> - -<p class='c001'><span class='pageno' id='Page_338'>338</span>The Ṣúfí Shaykhs demand from each other the fulfilment of -the duties of companionship and enjoin their disciples to require -the same, so that amongst them companionship has become -like a religious obligation. The Shaykhs have written many -books explaining the rules of Ṣúfí companionship; e.g., Junayd -composed a work entitled <i>Taṣḥíḥ al-irádat</i>,<a id='r165' /><a href='#f165' class='c015'><sup>[165]</sup></a> and Aḥmad b. -Khaḍrúya of Balkh another, entitled <i>Al-Ri`áyat bi-ḥuqúq</i><a id='r166' /><a href='#f166' class='c015'><sup>[166]</sup></a> -<i>Allah</i>,<a id='r167' /><a href='#f167' class='c015'><sup>[167]</sup></a> and Muḥammad b. `Alí of Tirmidh another, entitled -<i>Ádáb al-murídín</i>.<a id='r168' /><a href='#f168' class='c015'><sup>[168]</sup></a> Other exhaustive treatises on this subject -have been written by Abu ´l-Qásim al-Ḥakím,<a id='r169' /><a href='#f169' class='c015'><sup>[169]</sup></a> Abú Bakr -al-Warráq, Sahl b. `Abdalláh (al-Tustarí), Abú `Abd al-Raḥmán -al-Sulamí, and Master Abu ´l-Qásim Qushayrí. All those -writers are great authorities on Ṣúfiism, but I desire that my -book should enable anyone who possesses it to dispense with -other books and, as I said in the preface, be sufficient in itself -for you and for all students of the Ṣúfí doctrine. I will now -classify in separate chapters their various rules of discipline -relating to conduct.</p> - -<h4 class='c020'><i>Chapter concerning the Rules of Companionship.</i></h4> - -<p class='c010'>Since you have perceived that the most important thing for -the novice is companionship, the fulfilment of its obligations is -necessarily incumbent on him. Solitude is fatal to the novice, -for the Apostle said, “Satan is with the solitary, but he is -farther away from two who are together;” and God hath said, -“<i>There is no private discourse among three persons but God is the -fourth of them</i>” (Kor. lviii, 8). I have read in the Anecdotes -that a disciple of Junayd imagined that he had attained to the -degree of perfection, and that it was better for him to be alone. -Accordingly he went into retirement and withdrew from the -society of his brethren. At nightfall a camel used to appear, -and he was told that it would take him to Paradise; on -<span class='pageno' id='Page_339'>339</span>mounting it, he was conveyed to a pleasant demesne, with -beautiful inhabitants and delicious viands and flowing streams, -where he stayed till dawn; then he fell asleep, and on waking -found himself at the door of his cell. These experiences filled -him with pride and he could not refrain from boasting of them. -When Junayd heard the story he hastened to the disciple’s cell, -and having received from him a full account of what had -passed, said to him: “To-night, when you come to that place, -remember to say thrice, ‘There is no strength or power but in -God, the High, the Great.’” The same night he was carried -off as usual, and though in his heart he did not believe Junayd, -by way of trial he repeated those words thrice. The crew -around him shrieked and vanished, and he found himself seated -on a dunghill in the midst of rotten bones. He acknowledged -his fault and repented and returned to companionship.</p> - -<p class='c001'>The principle of the Ṣúfís in companionship is that they -should treat everyone according to his degree. Thus they treat -old men with respect, like fathers; those of their own sort with -agreeable familiarity, like brothers; and young men with -affection, like sons. They renounce hate, envy, and malice, -and do not withhold sincere admonition from anyone. In -companionship it is not permissible to speak evil of the absent, -or to behave dishonestly, or to deny one another on account -of any word or deed, because a companionship which is begun -for God’s sake should not be cut short by human words or acts. -The author says: “I asked the Grand Shaykh Abu ´l-Qásim -Gurgání what obligations were involved in companionship. -He replied: ‘It involves this, that you should not seek your -own interest; all the evils of companionship arise from selfishness. -Solitude is better for a selfish man. He who neglects -his own interests and looks after the interests of his companion -hits the mark in companionship.’” A certain dervish relates -as follows: “Once I set out from Kúfa to visit Mecca. On -the way I met Ibráhím Khawwáṣ and begged him to let me -accompany him. He said: ‘In companionship it is necessary -that one should command and the other should obey: which -<span class='pageno' id='Page_340'>340</span>do you choose?’ I answered: ‘You be the commander.’ He -said: ‘Now do not fail to comply with my orders.’ When we -arrived at the halting-place, he bade me sit down, and himself -drew water from the well and, since the weather was cold, he -gathered sticks and kindled a fire, and whenever I attempted -to do anything he told me to sit down. At nightfall it began -to rain heavily. He took off his patched frock and held it over -my head all night. I was ashamed, but could not say a word -on account of the condition imposed on me. When morning -came, I said: ‘To-day it is my turn to be commander.’ He -said: ‘Very well.’ As soon as we reached the halting-place, -he began to perform the same menial offices as before, and on -my telling him not to disobey my orders he retorted that it -was an act of disobedience to let one’s self be served by one’s -commander. He continued to behave in this way until we -arrived at Mecca; then I felt so ashamed that I fled from him. -He espied me, however, at Miná and said to me: ‘O son, when -you associate with dervishes see that you treat them in the -same fashion as I treated you.’”</p> - -<p class='c001'>Dervishes are divided into two classes: residents (<i>muqímán</i>) -and travellers (<i>musáfirán</i>). According to the custom of the -Shaykhs, the travelling dervishes should regard the resident -ones as superior to themselves, because they go to and fro in -their own interest, while the resident dervishes have settled -down in the service of God: in the former is the sign of search, -in the latter is the token of attainment; hence those who have -found and settled down are superior to those who are still -seeking. Similarly, the resident dervishes ought to regard -the travelling ones as superior to themselves, because they are -laden with worldly encumbrances, while the travelling dervishes -are unencumbered and detached from the world. Again, old -men should prefer to themselves the young, who are newer to -the world and whose sins are less numerous; and young -men should prefer to themselves the old, who have outstripped -them in devotion and service.</p> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c004'> - <div><span class='pageno' id='Page_341'>341</span><span class='sc'>Section.</span></div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>Culture (<i>adab</i>) really means “the collection of virtuous -qualities”, though in ordinary language anyone is called -“cultured” (<i>adíb</i>) who is acquainted with Arabic philology and -grammar. But the Ṣúfís define culture as “dwelling with praiseworthy -qualities”, and say that it means “to act with propriety -towards God in public and private”; if you act thus, you are -“cultured”, even if you are a foreigner (i.e. a non-Arab), and if -not, you are the opposite. Those who have knowledge are in -every case more honoured than those who have intelligence. -A certain Shaykh was asked: “What does culture involve?” -He said: ”I will answer you by quoting a definition which I have -heard, ‘If you speak, your speech will be sincere, and if you act, -your actions will be true.’ An excellent distinction has been -made by Shaykh Abú Naṣr Sarráj, the author of the <i>Luma`</i>, -who says: “As regards culture (<i>adab</i>), there are three classes -of mankind. Firstly, worldlings, whose culture mainly consists -in eloquence and rhetoric and learning and knowledge of the -nightly conversations (<i>asmár</i><a id='r170' /><a href='#f170' class='c015'><sup>[170]</sup></a>) of kings and Arabic poetry. -Secondly, the religious, whose culture chiefly consists in -disciplining the lower soul and correcting the limbs and -observing the legal ordinances and renouncing lusts. Thirdly, -the elect (i.e. the Ṣúfís), whose culture consists for the most part -in spiritual purity and keeping watch over their hearts and -fulfilling their promises and guarding the ‘state’ in which they -are and paying no heed to extraneous suggestions and behaving -with propriety in the positions of search (for God), in the states -of presence (with God), and in the stations of proximity (to -God).” This saying is comprehensive. The different matters -which it includes are discussed in several places in this book.</p> - -<h4 class='c020'><i>Chapter on the Rules of Companionship affecting Residents.</i></h4> - -<p class='c010'>Dervishes who choose to reside, and not to travel, are bound -to observe the following rules of discipline. When a traveller -<span class='pageno' id='Page_342'>342</span>comes to them, they must meet him joyfully and receive him -with respect and treat him like an honoured guest and freely set -before him whatever food they have, modelling their behaviour -upon that of Abraham. They must not inquire whence he has -come or whither he is going or what is his name, but must deem -that he has come from God and is going to God and that his -name is “servant of God”; then they must see whether he -desires to be alone or in company: if he prefers to be alone, -they must give him an empty room, and if he prefers company, -they must consort with him unceremoniously in a friendly and -sociable manner. When he lays his head on his pillow at night -the resident dervish ought to offer to wash his feet, but if the -traveller should not allow him to do this and should say that -he is not accustomed to it, the resident must not insist, for fear -of causing him annoyance. Next day, he must offer him a bath -and take him to the cleanest bath available and save his clothes -from (becoming dirty in) the latrines of the bath, and not permit -a strange attendant to wait upon him, but wait upon him -zealously in order to make him clean of all stains, and scrape -(<i>bikhárad</i>) his back and rub his knees and the soles of his feet -and his hands: more than this he is not obliged to do. And -if the resident dervish has sufficient means, he should provide -a new garment for his guest; otherwise, he need not trouble -himself, but he should clean his guest’s clothes so that he may -put them on when he comes out of the bath. If the traveller -remains two or three days, he should be invited to visit any -spiritual director or Imám who may be in the town, but he -must not be compelled to pay such visits against his inclination, -because those who seek God are not always masters of their -own feelings; e.g., Ibráhím Khawwáṣ on one occasion refused -to accompany Khiḍr, who desired his society, for he was unwilling -that his feelings should be engaged by anyone except -God. Certainly it is not right that a resident dervish should -take a traveller to salute worldly men or to attend their entertainments, -sick-beds, and funerals; and if a resident hopes to -make travellers an instrument of mendicancy (<i>álat-i gadá´í</i>) and -<span class='pageno' id='Page_343'>343</span>conduct them from house to house, it would be better for him -to refrain from serving them instead of subjecting them to -humiliation. Among all the troubles and inconveniences that -I have suffered when travelling none was worse than to be -carried off time after time by ignorant servants and impudent -dervishes of this sort and conducted from the house of such and -such a Khwája to the house of such and such a Dihqán, while, -though apparently complaisant, I felt a great dislike to go with -them. I then vowed that, if ever I became resident, I would -not behave towards travellers with this impropriety. Nothing -derived from associating with ill-mannered persons is more -useful than the lesson that you must endure their disagreeable -behaviour and must not imitate it. On the other hand, if -a travelling dervish becomes at his ease (<i>munbasiṭ</i>) with a -resident and stays for some time and makes a worldly demand, -the resident is bound immediately to give him what he wants; -but if the traveller is an impostor and low-minded, the resident -must not act meanly in order to comply with his impossible -requirements, for this is not the way of those who are devoted -to God. What business has a dervish to associate with devotees -if he needs worldly things? Let him go to the market and buy -and sell, or let him be a soldier at the sultan’s court. It is -related that, while Junayd and his pupils were sitting occupied -in some ascetic discipline, a travelling dervish came in. They -exerted themselves to entertain him and placed food before -him. He said: “I want such and such a thing besides this.” -Junayd said to him: “You must go to the bazaar, for you are -a man of the market, not of the mosque and the cell.” Once -I set out from Damascus with two dervishes to visit Ibn -al-Mu`allá,<a id='r171' /><a href='#f171' class='c015'><sup>[171]</sup></a> who was living in the country near Ramla. On -the way we arranged that each of us should think of the -matter concerning which we were in doubt, in order that that -venerable director might tell us our secret thoughts and solve -our difficulties. I said to myself: “I will desire of him the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_344'>344</span>poems and intimate supplications (<i>munáját</i>) of Ḥusayn b. Manṣúr -(al-Ḥalláj).” One of my companions said, “I will desire him -to pray that my disease of the spleen (<i>ṭiḥál</i>) may become -better;” and the other said, “I will wish for sweetmeat of -different colours” (<i>ḥalwá-yi ṣábúní</i>). As soon as we arrived, -Ibn al-Mu`allá commanded that a manuscript of the poems and -supplications of Ḥusayn should be presented to me, and laid his -hand on the belly of the invalid so that his illness was assuaged, -and said to the other dervish: “Parti-coloured sweetmeat is -eaten by soldiers (<i>`awánán</i>); you are dressed as a saint, and the -dress of a saint does not accord with the appetite of a soldier. -Choose one or the other.”</p> - -<p class='c001'>In short, the resident is not obliged to pay attention to the -travelling dervish unless the latter’s attention is paid entirely -to God. If he is devoted to his own interests, it is impossible -that another should help him to gratify his selfishness, for -dervishes are guides (<i>ráhbarán</i>), not brigands (<i>ráhburán</i>), to -each other. So long as anyone perseveres in a selfish demand, -his friend ought to resist it, but when he renounces it, then his -friend ought to satisfy it. In the Traditions of the Apostle -it is related that he made a brotherhood between Salmán -(al-Fárisí) and Abú Dharr Ghifárí, both of whom were leading -men among the People of the Veranda (<i>ahl-i ṣuffa</i>) and eminent -spiritualists. One day, when Salmán came to visit Abú Dharr -at his house, Abú Dharr’s wife complained to him that her -husband neither ate by day nor slept by night. Salmán told -her to fetch some food, and said to Abú Dharr: “O brother, -I desire thee to eat, since this fasting is not incumbent on thee.” -Abú Dharr complied. And at night Salmán said: “O brother, -I beg thee to sleep: thy body and thy wife have a claim upon -thee, as well as thy Lord.” Next day Abú Dharr went to the -Apostle, who said: “I say the same thing as Salmán said -yesterday: verily, thy body has a claim upon thee.” Inasmuch -as Abú Dharr had renounced his selfish pleasures, Salmán -persuaded him to gratify them. Whatever you do on this -principle is sound and impregnable. Once, in the territories -<span class='pageno' id='Page_345'>345</span>of `Iráq, I was restlessly occupied (<i>tápákí míkardam</i>) in seeking -wealth and squandering it, and I had run largely into debt. -Everyone who wanted anything turned to me, and I was -troubled and at a loss to know how I could accomplish their -desires. An eminent person wrote to me as follows: “Beware -lest you distract your mind from God by satisfying the wishes -of those whose minds are engrossed in vanity. If you find -anyone whose mind is nobler than your own, you may justly -distract your mind in order to give peace to his. Otherwise, -do not distract yourself, since God is sufficient for His servants.” -These words brought me instant relief.</p> - -<p class='c001'><i>Chapter concerning their Rules in Travel.</i></p> - -<p class='c001'>When a dervish chooses to travel, not to reside, he ought to -observe the following rules. In the first place, he must travel -for God’s sake, not for pleasure, and as he journeys outwardly, -so he should flee inwardly from his sensual affections; and he -must always keep himself in a state of purity and not neglect -his devotions; and his object in travelling must be either -pilgrimage or war (against infidels) or to see a (holy) site or to -derive instruction or to seek knowledge or to visit a venerable -person, a Shaykh, or the tomb of a saint; otherwise his journey -will be faulty. And he cannot do without a patched frock and -a prayer-rug and a bucket and a rope and a pair of shoes -(<i>kafsh</i>) or clogs (<i>na`layn</i>) and a staff: the patched frock to -cover his nakedness, the prayer-rug to pray on, the bucket to -cleanse himself with, and the staff to protect him from attacks -and for other purposes. Before stepping on the prayer-rug he -must put on his shoes or clogs in a state of purity. If anyone -carries other articles, for the sake of keeping the Sunna -(Apostolic custom), such as a comb and nail-scissors and -a needle and a little box of antimony (<i>mukḥula</i>), he does -right. If, however, anyone provides himself with more utensils -than those which have been mentioned, we have to consider in -what station he is: if he is a novice every article will be -a shackle and a stumbling-block and a veil to him, and will -<span class='pageno' id='Page_346'>346</span>afford him the means of showing self-conceit, but if he is -a firmly grounded adept he may carry all these articles and -more. I heard the following story from Shaykh Abú Muslim -Fáris b. Ghálib al-Fárisí. “One day (he said) I paid a visit -to Shaykh Abú Sa`íd b. Abi ´l-Khayr Faḍlalláh b. Muḥammad. -I found him sleeping on a couch with four cushions (<i>takhtí -chahár-bálish</i>), one of his legs thrown across the other; and he -was dressed in fine Egyptian linen (<i>diqqí Miṣrí</i>). My garment -was so dirty that it resembled leather, and my body was -emaciated by austerities. On looking at Abú Sa`íd a feeling -of scepticism overcame me. I said to myself: ‘He is a dervish, -and so am I, yet he is in all this luxury and I in this sore -tribulation.’ He immediately divined my thoughts and was -aware of my vainglory. ‘O Abú Muslim,’ said he, ‘in what -díwán have you read that a self-conceited man is a dervish? -Since I see God in all things, God sets me on a throne, and -since you see yourself in everything, God keeps you in -affliction: my lot is contemplation, while yours is mortification. -These are two stations on the Way to God, but God is far aloof -from them both, and a dervish is dead to all stations and free -from all states.’ On hearing these words my senses forsook -me, and the whole world grew dark in my eyes. When I came -to myself I repented, and he accepted my repentance. Then -I said: ‘O Shaykh, give me leave to depart, for I cannot bear -the sight of thee.’ He answered, ‘O Abú Muslim, you speak -the truth;’ then he quoted this verse:—</p> - -<div class='lg-container-b c009'> - <div class='linegroup'> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'>‘<i>That which my ear was unable to hear by report</i></div> - <div class='line'><i>My eye beheld actually all at once.</i>’”</div> - </div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>The travelling dervish must always observe the custom of -the Apostle, and when he comes to the house of a resident -he should enter his presence respectfully and greet him; and -he should first take off the shoe on his left foot, as the Apostle -did; and when he puts his shoes on, he should first put on -the shoe belonging to his right foot; and he should wash his -right foot before his left; and he should perform two bowings -<span class='pageno' id='Page_347'>347</span>of the head by way of salutation (in prayer) and then occupy -himself with attending to the (religious) duties incumbent on -dervishes. He must not in any case interfere with the residents, -or behave immoderately towards anyone, or talk of the hardships -which he may have suffered in travelling, or discourse -on theology, or tell anecdotes, or recite traditions in company, -for all this is a sign of self-conceit. He must be patient when -he is vexed by fools and must tolerate their irksomeness for -God’s sake, for in patience there are many blessings. If -residents or their servants bid him go with them to salute or -visit the townspeople, he must acquiesce if he can, but in his -heart he ought to dislike paying such marks of respect to -worldlings, although he should excuse the behaviour of his -brethren who act thus. He must take care not to trouble -them by making any unreasonable demand, and he must not -drag them to the court of high officials with the purpose of -seeking an idle pleasure for himself. Travelling, as well as -resident, dervishes must always, in companionship, endeavour -to please God, and must have a good belief in each other, and -not speak ill of any comrade face to face with him or behind -his back, because true mystics in regarding the act see the -Agent, and inasmuch as every human being, of whatever -description he may be—faulty or faultless, veiled or illuminated—belongs -to God and is His creature, to quarrel with a human -act is to quarrel with the Divine Agent.</p> - -<p class='c001'><i>Chapter concerning their Rules in Eating.</i></p> - -<p class='c001'>Men cannot dispense with nourishment, but moral virtue -requires that they should not eat or drink in excess. Sháfi`í -says: “He who thinks about that which goes into his belly -is worth only that which comes out of it.” Nothing is more -hurtful to a novice in Ṣúfiism than eating too much. I have -read in the Anecdotes that Abú Yazíd was asked why he -praised hunger so highly. He answered: “Because if Pharaoh -had been hungry he would not have said, ‘I am your Supreme -Lord,’ and if Qárún (Korah) had been hungry he would not -<span class='pageno' id='Page_348'>348</span>have been rebellious.” Tha`laba<a id='r172' /><a href='#f172' class='c015'><sup>[172]</sup></a> was praised by all so long -as he was hungry, but when he ate his fill he displayed -hypocrisy. Sahl b. `Abdalláh (al-Tustarí) said: “In my judgment, -a belly full of wine is better than one full of lawful food.” -On being asked the reason of this he said: “When a man’s -belly is filled with wine, his intellect is stupefied and the -flame of lust is quenched, and people are secure from his -hand and tongue; but when his belly is filled with lawful -food he desires foolishness, and his lust waxes great and his -lower soul rises to seek her pleasures.” The Shaykhs have -said, describing the Ṣúfís: “They eat like sick men, and sleep -like shipwrecked men, and speak like one whose children -have died.”</p> - -<p class='c001'>It is an obligatory rule that they should not eat alone, but -should unselfishly share their food with one another; and -when seated at table they should not be silent, and should -begin by saying “In God’s name”; and they should not put -anything down or lift anything up in such a way as to offend -their comrades, and they should dip the first mouthful in salt, -and should deal fairly by their friends. Sahl b. `Abdalláh -(al-Tustarí) was asked about the meaning of the verse: “<i>Verily -God enjoins justice and beneficence</i>” (Kor. xvi, 92). He replied: -“Justice consists in dealing fairly with one’s friend in regard -to a morsel of food, and beneficence consists in deeming -him to have a better claim to that morsel than yourself.” My -Shaykh used to say: “I am astonished at the impostor who -declares that he has renounced the world, and is anxious -about a morsel of food.” Furthermore, the Ṣúfí should eat -with his right hand and should look only at his own morsel, -and while eating he should not drink unless he is extremely -thirsty, and if he drinks he should drink only as much as -will moisten his liver. He should not eat large mouthfuls, -and should chew his food well and not make haste; otherwise -he will be acting contrary to the custom of the Apostle, and -<span class='pageno' id='Page_349'>349</span>will probably suffer from indigestion (<i>tukhama</i>). When he -has finished eating, he should give praise to God and wash -his hands. If two or three or more persons belonging to -a community of dervishes go to a dinner and eat something -without informing their brethren, according to some Shaykhs -this is unlawful and constitutes a breach of companionship, -but some hold it to be allowable when a number of persons -act thus in union with each other, and some allow it in the -case of a single person, on the ground that he is not obliged -to deal fairly when he is alone but when he is in company; -consequently, being alone, he is relieved of the obligations -of companionship and is not responsible for his act. Now, -the most important principle in this matter is that the invitation -of a dervish should not be refused, and that the invitation of -a rich man should not be accepted. Dervishes ought not to -go to the houses of rich men or beg anything of them: such -conduct is demoralizing for Ṣúfís, because worldlings are not -on confidential terms (<i>maḥram</i>) with the dervish. Much -wealth, however, does not make a man “rich” (<i>dunyá-dár</i>), nor -does little wealth make him “poor”. No one who acknowledges -that poverty is better than riches is “rich”, even though he -be a king; and anyone who disbelieves in poverty is “rich”, -even though he be reduced to want. When a dervish attends -a party he should not constrain himself either to eat or not -to eat, but should behave in accordance with his feelings at the -time (<i>bar ḥukm-i waqt</i>). If the host is a congenial person -(<i>maḥram</i>), it is right that a married man (<i>muta´ahhil</i>) should -condone a fault; and if the host is uncongenial, it is not allowable -to go to his house. But in any case it is better not to commit -a fault, for Sahl b. `Abdalláh (al-Tustarí) says: “Backsliding -is abasement” (<i>al-zillat dhillat</i>).</p> - -<p class='c001'><i>Chapter concerning their Rules in Walking.</i></p> - -<p class='c001'>God hath said: “<i>And the servants of the Merciful are they -who walk on the earth meekly</i>” (Kor. xxv, 64). The seeker of -God, as he walks, should know at each step he makes whether -<span class='pageno' id='Page_350'>350</span>that step is against God or of God: if it is against God, he -must ask for pardon, and if it is of God, he must persevere -in it, that it may be increased. One day Dáwud Ṭá´í had taken -some medicine. They said to him: “Go into the court of this -house for a little while, in order that the good result of the -medicine may become apparent.” He replied: “I am ashamed -that on the Day of Judgment God should ask me why I made -a few steps for my own selfish pleasure. God Almighty hath -said: ‘<i>And their feet shall bear witness of that which they -used to commit</i>’“ (Kor. xxxvi, 65). Therefore the dervish -should walk circumspectly, with his head bowed in meditation -(<i>muráqabat</i>), and not look in any direction but in front. If any -person meets him on the way, he must not draw himself back -from him for the sake of saving his dress, for all Moslems are -clean, and their clothes too; such an act is mere conceit and -self-ostentation. If, however, the person who meets him is an -unbeliever, or manifestly filthy, he may turn from him unobtrusively. -And when he walks with a number of people, he -must not attempt to go in front of them, since that is an excess -of pride; nor must he attempt to go behind them, since that -is an excess of humility, and humility of which one is conscious -is essentially pride. He must keep his clogs and shoes as clean -as he can by day in order that God, through the blessings -thereof, may keep his clothes (clean) by night. And when one -or more dervishes are with anyone, he should not stop on the -way (to talk) with any person, nor should he tell that person to -wait for him. He should walk quietly and should not hurry, -else his walk will resemble that of the covetous; nor should he -walk slowly, for then his walk will resemble that of the proud; -and he should take steps of the full length (<i>gám-i tamám nihad</i>). -In fine, the walk of the seeker of God should always be of such -a description that if anyone should ask him whither he is going -he should be able to answer decisively: ”<i>Verily, I am going to -my Lord: He will direct me</i>” (Kor. xxxvii, 97). Otherwise his -walking is a curse to him, because right steps (<i>khaṭawát</i>) proceed -from right thoughts (<i>khaṭarát</i>): accordingly if a man’s thoughts -<span class='pageno' id='Page_351'>351</span>are concentrated on God, his feet will follow his thoughts. It -is related that Abú Yazíd said: “The inconsiderate walk -(<i>rawish-i bé muráqabat</i>) of a dervish is a sign that he is heedless -(of God), because all that exists is attained in two steps: one -step away from self-interest and the other step firmly planted -on the commandments of God.” The walk of the seeker is -a sign that he is traversing a certain distance, and since proximity -to God is not a matter of distance, what can the seeker do but -cut off his feet in the abode of rest?</p> - -<p class='c001'><i>Chapter concerning their Rules of Sleeping in travel and at home.</i></p> - -<p class='c001'>There is a great difference of opinion among the Shaykhs on -this subject. Some hold that it is not permissible for a novice -to sleep except when he is overpowered by slumber, for the -Apostle said: “Sleep is the brother of Death,” and inasmuch as -life is a benefit conferred by God, whereas death is an affliction, -the former must be more excellent than the latter. And it is -related that Shiblí said: “God looked upon me and said, ‘He -who sleeps is heedless, and he who is heedless is veiled.’” -Others, again, hold that a novice may sleep at will and even -constrain himself to sleep after having performed the Divine -commands, for the Apostle said: “The Pen does not record -(evil actions) against the sleeper until he awakes, or against -the boy until he reaches puberty, or against the madman until -he recovers his wits.” When a man is asleep, people are secure -from his mischief and he is deprived of his personal volition and -his lower soul is prevented from gaining its desires and the -Recording Angels cease to write; his tongue makes no false -assertion and speaks no evil of the absent, and his will places -no hope in conceit and ostentation; “he does not possess for -himself either bane or boon or death or life or resurrection.” -Hence Ibn `Abbás says: “Nothing is more grievous to Iblís -than a sinner’s sleep; whenever the sinner sleeps, Iblís says, -‘When will he wake and rise up that he may disobey God?’” -This was a point of controversy between Junayd and `Alí b. -<span class='pageno' id='Page_352'>352</span>Sahl al-Iṣfahání. The latter wrote to Junayd a very fine epistle, -which I have heard, to the effect that sleep is heedlessness and -rest is a turning away from God: the lover must not sleep or -rest by day or by night, otherwise he will lose the object of his -desire and will forget himself and his state and will fail to attain -to God, as God said to David, “O David, he who pretends to -love Me and sleeps when night covers him is a liar.” Junayd -said in his reply to that letter: “Our wakefulness consists in -our acts of devotion to God, whereas our sleep is God’s act -towards us: that which proceeds from God to us without our -will is more perfect than that which proceeds from us to God -with our will. Sleep is a gift which God bestows on those who -love Him.” This question depends on the doctrine of sobriety -and intoxication, which has been fully discussed above. It is -remarkable that Junayd, who was himself a “sober” man, here -supports intoxication. Seemingly, he was enraptured at the -time when he wrote and his temporary state may have expressed -itself by his tongue; or, again, it may be that the opposite is -the case and that sleep is actually sobriety, while wakefulness -is actually intoxication, because sleep is an attribute of humanity, -and a man is “sober” so long as he is in the shadow of his -attributes: wakefulness, on the other hand, is an attribute of -God, and when a man transcends his own attribute he is -enraptured. I have met with a number of Shaykhs who agree -with Junayd in preferring sleep to wakefulness, because the -visions of the saints and of most of the apostles occurred during -sleep. And the Apostle said: “Verily, God takes pride in the -servant who sleeps while he prostrates himself in prayer; and -He says to His angels, ‘Behold My servant, whose spirit is -in the abode of secret conversation (<i>najwá</i>) while his body is on -the carpet of worship.’” The Apostle also said: “Whoever -sleeps in a state of purification, his spirit is permitted to circumambulate -the Throne and prostrate itself before God.” I have -read in the Anecdotes that Sháh Shujá` of Kirmán kept awake -for forty years. One night he fell asleep and saw God, and -afterwards he used always to sleep in hope of seeing the same -<span class='pageno' id='Page_353'>353</span>vision. This is the meaning of the verse of Qays of the Banú -`Ámir<a id='r173' /><a href='#f173' class='c015'><sup>[173]</sup></a>—</p> - -<div class='lg-container-b c009'> - <div class='linegroup'> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'>“<i>Truly I wish to sleep, although I am not drowsy,</i></div> - <div class='line'><i>That perchance thy beloved image may encounter mine.</i>”</div> - </div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>Other Shaykhs whom I have seen agree with `Alí b. Sahl -in preferring wakefulness to sleep, because the apostles received -their revelations and the saints their miracles while they were -awake. One of the Shaykhs says: “If there were any good -in sleep there would be sleep in Paradise,” i.e., if sleep were -the cause of love and proximity to God, it would follow that -there must be sleep in Paradise, which is the dwelling-place -of proximity; since neither sleep nor any veil is in Paradise, -we know that sleep is a veil. Those who are fond of subtleties -(<i>arbáb-i láṭá´if</i>) say that when Adam fell asleep in Paradise -Eve came forth from his left side, and Eve was the source of -all his afflictions. They say also that when Abraham told -Ishmael that he had been ordered in a dream to sacrifice him, -Ishmael replied: “This is the punishment due to one who -sleeps and forgets his beloved. If you had not fallen asleep -you would not have been commanded to sacrifice your son.” -It is related that Shiblí every night used to place in front of -him a bowl of salt water and a needle for applying collyrium, -and whenever he was about to fall asleep he would dip the -needle in the salt water and draw it along his eyelids. I, `Alí -b. `Uthmán al-Jullábí, have met with a spiritual director who -used to sleep after finishing the performance of his obligatory -acts of devotion; and I have seen Shaykh Aḥmad Samarqandí, -who was living at Bukhárá: during forty years he had never -slept at night, but he used to sleep a little in the daytime. -This question turns on the view taken of life and death. -Those who prefer death to life must prefer sleep to waking, -while those who prefer life to death must prefer waking to -sleep. Merit belongs, not to the man who forces himself to -keep awake, but to the man who is kept awake. The Apostle, -whom God chose and whom He raised to the highest rank, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_354'>354</span>did not force himself either to sleep or to wake. God commanded -him, saying: “<i>Rise and pray during the night, except -a small part: half thereof or less</i>” (Kor. lxxiii, 2-3). Similarly, -merit does not belong to the man who forces himself to sleep, -but only to the man who is put to sleep. The Men of the -Cave did not constrain themselves to sleep or to wake, but -God threw slumber upon them and nourished them without -their will. When a man attains to such a degree that his will -no longer exists, and his hand is withdrawn from everything, -and his thoughts are averted from all except God, it matters -not whether he is asleep or awake: in either case he is full -of honour. Now, as regards the sleep of the novice, he ought -to deem that his first sleep is his last, and repent of his sins -and satisfy all who have a claim against him; and he ought -to perform a comely purification and sleep on his right side, -facing the <i>qibla</i>; and having set his worldly affairs in order, -he ought to give thanks for the blessing of Islam, and make -a vow that if he should wake again he will not return to sin. -One who has set his affairs in order while he is awake has -no fear of sleep or of death. A well-known story is told of -a certain spiritual director, that he used to visit an Imám -who was engrossed in maintaining his dignity and was a prey -to self-conceit, and that he used to say to him: “O So-and-so, -you must die.” This offended the Imám, for “why (he said) -should this beggar be always repeating these words to me?” -One day he answered: “I will begin to-morrow.” Next day -when the spiritual director came in the Imám said to him: -“O So-and-so, you must die.” He put down his prayer-rug -and spread it out, and laid his head on it and exclaimed, -“I am dead,” and immediately yielded up his soul. The -Imám took warning, and perceived that this spiritual director -had been bidding him prepare for death, as he himself had -done. My Shaykh used to enjoin his disciples not to sleep -unless overpowered by slumber, and when they had once -awaked not to fall asleep again, since a second sleep is unlawful -and unprofitable to those who seek God.</p> - -<p class='c001'><span class='pageno' id='Page_355'>355</span><i>Chapter concerning their Rules in Speech and Silence.</i></p> - -<p class='c001'>God hath commanded His servants to speak well, e.g. to -acknowledge His lordship and to praise Him and to call -mankind to His court. Speech is a great blessing conferred -on Man by God, and thereby is Man distinguished from all -other things. Some interpreters of the text, “<i>We have honoured -the sons of Adam</i>” (Kor. xvii, 72), explain it as meaning “by -the gift of speech”. Nevertheless, in speech there are also -great evils, for the Apostle said: “The worst that I fear for -my people is the tongue.” In short, speech is like wine: it -intoxicates the mind, and those who begin to have a taste -for it cannot abstain from it. Accordingly, the Ṣúfís, knowing -that speech is harmful, never spoke except when it was -necessary, i.e. they considered the beginning and end of their -discourse; if the whole was for God’s sake, they spoke; otherwise -they kept silence, because they firmly believed that God -knows our secret thoughts (cf. Kor. xliii, 80). The Apostle -said: “He who keeps silence is saved.” In silence there are -many advantages and spiritual favours (<i>futúḥ</i>), and in speech -there are many evils. Some Shaykhs have preferred silence -to speech, while others have set speech above silence. Among -the former is Junayd, who said: “Expressions are wholly -pretensions, and where realities are established pretensions -are idle.” Sometimes it is excusable not to speak although -one has the will to do so, i.e. fear becomes an excuse for not -speaking in spite of one’s having the will and the power to -speak; and refusal to speak of God does not impair the -essence of gnosis. But at no time is a man excused for mere -pretension devoid of reality, which is the principle of hypocrites. -Pretension without reality is hypocrisy, and reality without -pretension is sincerity, because “he who is grounded in -eloquence needs no tongue to communicate with his Lord”. -Expressions only serve to inform another than God, for God -Himself requires no explanation of our circumstances, and -others than God are not worth so much that we should occupy -ourselves with them. This is corroborated by the saying of -<span class='pageno' id='Page_356'>356</span>Junayd, “He who knows God is dumb,” for in actual vision -(<i>`iyán</i>) exposition (<i>bayán</i>) is a veil. It is related that Shiblí -rose up in Junayd’s meeting-place and cried aloud, “O my -object of desire!” and pointed to God. Junayd said: “O Abú -Bakr, if God is the object of your desire, why do you point to -Him, who is independent of this? And if the object of your -desire is another, God knows what you say: why do you -speak falsely?” Shiblí asked God to pardon him for having -uttered those words.</p> - -<p class='c001'>Those who put speech above silence argue that we are -commanded by God to set forth our circumstances, for the -pretension subsists in the reality, and <i>vice versâ</i>. If a man -continues for a thousand years to know God in his heart and -soul, but has not confessed that he knows God, he is virtually -an infidel unless his silence has been due to compulsion. God -has bidden all believers give Him thanks and praise and -rehearse His bounties, and He has promised to answer the -prayers of those who invoke Him. One of the Shaykhs has -said that whoever does not declare his spiritual state is without -any spiritual state, since the state proclaims itself.</p> - -<div class='lg-container-b c009'> - <div class='linegroup'> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'>“<i>The tongue of the state</i> (lisán al-ḥál) <i>is more eloquent than my tongue,</i></div> - <div class='line'><i>And my silence is the interpreter of my question</i>.”</div> - </div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>I have read in the Anecdotes that one day when Abú Bakr -Shiblí was walking in the Karkh quarter of Baghdád he heard -an impostor saying: “Silence is better than speech.” Shiblí -replied: “Thy silence is better than thy speech, but my speech -is better than my silence, because thy speech is vanity and -thy silence is an idle jest, whereas my silence is modesty and -my speech is knowledge.” I, `Alí b. `Uthmán al-Jullábí, declare -that there are two kinds of speech and two kinds of silence: -speech is either real or unreal, and silence is either fruition or -forgetfulness. If one speaks truth, his speech is better than -his silence, but if one speaks falsehood, his silence is better -than his speech. “He who speaks hits the mark or misses it, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_357'>357</span>but he who is made to speak is preserved from transgression.” -Thus Iblís said, “<i>I am better than he</i>” (Kor. xxxviii, 77), but -Adam was made to say, “<i>O Lord, we have done wrong unto -ourselves</i>” (Kor. vii, 22). The missionaries (<i>dá`iyán</i>) of this -sect are permitted or compelled to speak, and shame or -helplessness strikes them dumb: “he whose silence is shame, -his speech is life.” Their speech is the result of vision, and -speech without vision appears to them despicable. They prefer -silence to speech so long as they are with themselves, but -when they are beside themselves their words are written on -the hearts of men. Hence that spiritual director said: “He -whose silence to God is gold, his speech to another than God -is gilt.” The seeker of God, who is absorbed in servantship, -must be silent, in order that the adept, who proclaims Lordship, -may speak, and by his utterances may captivate the hearts -of his disciples. The rule in speaking is not to speak unless -bidden, and then only of the thing that is bidden; and the -rule in silence is not to be ignorant or satisfied with ignorance -or forgetful. The disciple must not interrupt the speech of -spiritual directors, or let his personal judgment intrude therein, -or use far-fetched expressions in answering them. He must -never tell a lie, or speak ill of the absent, or offend any Moslem -with that tongue which has made the profession of faith and -acknowledged the unity of God. He must not address -dervishes by their bare names or speak to them until they ask -a question. It behoves the dervish, when he is silent, not to -be silent in falsehood, and when he speaks, to speak only the -truth. This principle has many derivatives and innumerable -refinements, but I will not pursue the subject, lest my book -should become too long.</p> - -<p class='c001'><i>Chapter concerning their Rules in Asking.</i></p> - -<p class='c001'>God hath said: “<i>They ask not men with importunity</i>” -(Kor. ii, 274). Any one of them who asks should not be -repulsed, for God said to the Apostle: “<i>Do not drive away -the beggar</i>” (Kor. xciii, 10). As far as possible they should -<span class='pageno' id='Page_358'>358</span>beg of God only, for begging involves turning away from -God to another, and when a man turns away from God there -is danger that God may leave him in that predicament. I have -read that a certain worldling said to Rábi`a `Adawiyya<a id='r174' /><a href='#f174' class='c015'><sup>[174]</sup></a>: -“O Rábi`a, ask something of me that I may procure what -you wish.” “O sir,” she replied, “I am ashamed to ask anything -of the Creator of the world; how, then, should I not -be ashamed to ask anything of a fellow-creature?” It is -related that in the time of Abú Muslim, the head of the -(`Abbásid) propaganda, an innocent dervish was seized on -suspicion of theft, and was imprisoned at Chahár Ṭáq.<a id='r175' /><a href='#f175' class='c015'><sup>[175]</sup></a> -On the same night Abú Muslim dreamed that the Apostle -came to him and said: “God has sent me to tell you that -one of His friends is in your prison. Arise and set him free.” -Abú Muslim leapt from his bed, and ran with bare head and -feet to the prison gate, and gave orders to release the dervish, -and begged his pardon and bade him ask a boon. “O prince,” -he replied, “one whose Master rouses Abú Muslim at midnight, -and sends him to deliver a poor dervish from affliction—how -should that one ask a boon of others?” Abú Muslim began -to weep, and the dervish went on his way. Some, however, -hold that a dervish may beg of his fellow-creatures, since -God says: “<i>They ask not men with importunity</i>,” i.e. they -may ask but not importune. The Apostle begged for the -sake of providing for his companions, and he said to us: -“Seek your wants from those whose faces are comely.”</p> - -<p class='c001'>The Ṣúfí Shaykhs consider begging to be permissible in -three cases. Firstly, with the object of freeing one’s mind -from preoccupation, for, as they have said, we should not -attach so much importance to two cakes of bread that we -should spend the whole day and night in expecting them; -and when we are starving we want nothing else of God, -because no anxiety is so engrossing as anxiety on account -of food. Therefore, when the disciple of Shaqíq visited -<span class='pageno' id='Page_359'>359</span>Báyazíd, and in answer to Báyazíd’s question as to the state -of Shaqíq informed him that he was entirely disengaged from -mankind, and was putting all his trust in God, Báyazíd said: -“When you return to Shaqíq, tell him to beware of again -testing God with two loaves: if he is hungry, let him beg of -his fellow-creatures and have done with the cant of trust in -God.” Secondly, it is permissible to beg with the object of -training the lower soul. The Ṣúfís beg in order that they -may endure the humiliation of begging, and may perceive -what is their worth in the eyes of other men, and may not -be proud. When Shiblí came to Junayd, Junayd said to him: -“O Abú Bakr, your head is full of conceit, because you are -the son of the Caliph’s principal chamberlain and the governor -of Sámarrá. No good will come from you until you go to -the market and beg of everyone whom you see, that you -may know your true worth.” Shiblí obeyed. He begged in -the market for three years, with ever decreasing success. One -day, having gone through the whole market and got nothing, -he returned to Junayd and told him. Junayd said: “Now, -Abú Bakr, you see that you have no worth in the eyes of -men: do not fix your heart on them. This matter (i.e. begging) -is for the sake of discipline, not for the sake of profit.” It is -related that Dhu ´l-Nún the Egyptian said: “I had a friend -who was in accord with God. After his death I saw him in -a dream, and asked him how God had dealt with him. He -answered that God had forgiven him. I asked him: ‘On -account of what virtue?’ He replied that God raised him -to his feet and said: ‘My servant, you suffered with patience -much contumely and tribulation from base and avaricious -men, to whom you stretched out your hands: therefore I forgive -you.’” Thirdly, they beg from mankind because of their -reverence for God. They recognize that all worldly possessions -belong to God, and they regard all mankind as His agents, -from whom—not from God Himself—they beg anything that -is for the benefit of the lower soul; and in the eyes of one -who beholds his own want, the servant that makes a petition -<span class='pageno' id='Page_360'>360</span>to an agent is more reverent and obedient than he that makes -a petition to God. Therefore, their begging from another is -a sign of presence and of turning towards God, not a sign of -absence and of turning away from Him. I have read that -Yaḥyá b. Mu`ádh (al-Rází) had a daughter, who one day -asked her mother for something. “Ask it of God,” said the -mother. “I am ashamed,” the girl replied, “to ask a material -want from Him. What you give me is His too and is my -allotted portion.” The rules of begging are as follows: If -you beg unsuccessfully you should be more cheerful than -when you succeed, and you should not regard any human -creature as coming between God and yourself. You should -not beg of women or market-folk (<i>aṣḥáb-i aswáq</i>), and you -should not tell your secret to anyone unless you are sure that -his money is lawful. As far as possible you should beg unselfishly, -and should not use the proceeds for worldly show -and for housekeeping, or convert them into property. You -should live in the present, and let no thought of the morrow -enter your mind, else you will incur everlasting perdition. You -should not make God a springe to catch alms, and you should -not display piety in order that more alms may be given to -you on account of your piety. I once met an old and venerable -Ṣúfí, who had lost his way in the desert and came, hunger-stricken, -into the market-place at Kúfa with a sparrow perched -on his hand, crying: “Give me something for the sake of -this sparrow!” The people asked him why he said this. He -replied: “It is impossible that I should say ‘Give me something -for God’s sake!’ One must employ the intercession -of an insignificant creature to obtain worldly goods.“</p> - -<p class='c001'>This is but a small part of the obligations involved in begging. -I have abridged the topic for fear of being tedious.</p> - -<p class='c001'><i>Chapter concerning their Rules in Marriage and Celibacy and -matters connected therewith.</i></p> - -<p class='c001'>God hath said: ”<i>They</i> (women) <i>are a garment unto you and -ye are a garment unto them</i>” (Kor. ii, 183). And the Apostle -<span class='pageno' id='Page_361'>361</span>said: “Marry, that ye may multiply; for I will vaunt you -against all other nations on the Day of Resurrection, even in -respect of the still-born.” And he said also: “The women who -bring the greatest blessing are they who cost least to maintain, -whose faces are comeliest, and whose dowries are cheapest.” -Marriage is permitted to all men and women, and is obligatory -on those who cannot abstain from what is unlawful, and is -a <i>sunna</i> (i.e. sanctioned by the custom of the Apostle) for those -who are able to support a family. Some of the Ṣúfí Shaykhs -hold marriage to be desirable as a means of quelling lust, and -acquisition (of sustenance) to be desirable as a means of freeing -the mind from anxiety. Others hold that the object of marriage -is procreation; for, if the child dies before its father, it will -intercede for him (before God), and if the father dies first, the -child will remain to pray for him.<a id='r176' /><a href='#f176' class='c015'><sup>[176]</sup></a> The Apostle said: “Women -are married for four things: wealth, nobility, beauty, and religion. -Do ye take one that is religious, for, after Islam, there is nothing -that profits a man so much as a believing and obedient wife -who gladdens him whenever he looks on her.” And the Apostle -said: “Satan is with the solitary,” because Satan decks out -lust and presents it to their minds. No companionship is equal -in reverence and security to marriage, when husband and wife -are congenial and well-suited to each other, and no torment -and anxiety is so great as an uncongenial wife. Therefore the -dervish must, in the first place, consider what he is doing and -picture in his mind the evils of celibacy and of marriage, in -order that he may choose the state of which he can more easily -overcome the evils. The evils of celibacy are two: (1) the -neglect of an Apostolic custom, (2) the fostering of lust in the -heart and the danger of falling into unlawful ways. The evils -of marriage are also two: (1) the preoccupation of the mind -with other than God, (2) the distraction of the body for the -sake of sensual pleasure. The root of this matter lies in retirement -and companionship. Marriage is proper for those who -<span class='pageno' id='Page_362'>362</span>prefer to associate with mankind, and celibacy is an ornament -to those who seek retirement from mankind. The Apostle said: -“Go: the recluses (<i>al-mufarridún</i>) have preceded you.” And -Ḥasan of Baṣra says: “The lightly burdened shall be saved and -the heavily laden shall perish.” Ibráhím Khawwáṣ relates the -following story: “I went to a certain village to visit a reverend -man who lived there. When I entered his house I saw that -it was clean, like a saint’s place of worship. In its two corners -two niches (<i>miḥráb</i>) had been made; the old man was seated -in one of them, and in the other niche an old woman was sitting, -clean and bright: both had become weak through much -devotion. They showed great joy at my coming, and I stayed -with them for three days. When I was about to depart I asked -the old man, ‘What relation is this chaste woman to you?’ -He answered, ‘She is my cousin and my wife.’ I said, ‘During -these three days your intercourse with one another has been -very like that of strangers.’ ‘Yes,’ said he, ‘it has been so for -five and sixty years.’ I asked him the cause of this. He replied: -‘When we were young we fell in love, but her father would not -give her to me, for he had discovered our fondness for each -other. I bore this sorrow for a long while, but on her father’s -death my father, who was her uncle, gave me her hand. On -the wedding-night she said to me: “You know what happiness -God has bestowed upon us in bringing us together and taking -all fear away from our hearts. Let us therefore to-night refrain -from sensual passion and trample on our desires and worship -God in thanksgiving for this happiness.” I said, “It is well.” -Next night she bade me do the same. On the third night -I said, “Now we have given thanks for two nights for your -sake; to-night let us worship God for my sake.” Five and sixty -years have passed since then, and we have never touched one -another, but spend all our lives in giving thanks for our -happiness.’” Accordingly, when a dervish chooses companionship, -it behoves him to provide his wife with lawful food and -pay her dowry out of lawful property, and not indulge in sensual -pleasure so long as any obligation towards God, or any part of -<span class='pageno' id='Page_363'>363</span>His commandments, is unfulfilled. And when he performs his -devotions and is about to go to bed, let him say, as in secret -converse with God: “O Lord God, Thou hast mingled lust with -Adam’s clay in order that the world may be populated, and -Thou in Thy knowledge hast willed that I should have this -intercourse. Cause it to be for the sake of two things: firstly, -to guard that which is unlawful by means of that which is -lawful; and secondly, vouchsafe to me a child, saintly and -acceptable, not one who will divert my thoughts from Thee.” -It is related that a son was born to Sahl b. `Abdalláh al-Tustarí. -Whenever the child asked his mother for food, she used to bid -him ask God, and while he went to the niche (<i>miḥráb</i>) and -bowed himself in prayer, she used secretly to give him what -he wanted, without letting him know that his mother had given -it to him. Thus he grew accustomed to turn unto God. One -day he came back from school when his mother was absent, -and bowed himself in prayer. God caused the thing that he -sought to appear before him. When his mother came in she -asked, “Where did you get this?” He answered, “From the -place whence it comes always.”</p> - -<p class='c001'>The practice of an Apostolic rule of life must not lead the -dervish to seek worldly wealth and unlawful gain or preoccupy -his heart, for the dervish is ruined by the destruction of his -heart, just as the rich man is ruined by the destruction of his -house and furniture; but the rich man can repair his loss, -while the dervish cannot. In our time it is impossible for -anyone to have a suitable wife, whose wants are not excessive -and whose demands are not unreasonable. Therefore many -persons have adopted celibacy and observe the Apostolic -Tradition: “The best of men in latter days will be those who -are light of back,” i.e. who have neither wife nor child. It is -the unanimous opinion of the Shaykhs of this sect that the -best and most excellent Ṣúfís are the celibates, if their hearts -are uncontaminated and if their natures are not inclined to -sins and lusts. The vulgar, in gratifying their lusts, appeal -to the Apostle’s saying, that the three things he loved in the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_364'>364</span>world were scent, women, and prayer, and argue that since he -loved women marriage must be more excellent than celibacy. -I reply: “The Apostle also said that he had two trades, namely, -poverty (<i>faqr</i>) and the spiritual combat (<i>jihád</i>): why, then, do -ye shun these things? If he loved that (viz. marriage), this -(viz. celibacy) was his trade. Your desires have a greater -propensity to the former, but it is absurd, on that ground, to -say that he loves what you desire. Anyone who follows his -desires for fifty years and supposes that he is following the -practice of the Apostle is in grave error.” A woman was the -cause of the first calamity that overtook Adam in Paradise, -and also of the first quarrel that happened in this world, -i.e. the quarrel of Abel and Cain. A woman was the cause of -the punishment inflicted on the two angels (Hárút and Márút); -and down to the present day all mischiefs, worldly and religious -have been caused by women. After God had preserved me -for eleven years from the dangers of matrimony, it was my -destiny to fall in love with the description of a woman whom -I had never seen, and during a whole year my passion so -absorbed me that my religion was near being ruined, until at -last God in His bounty gave protection to my wretched heart -and mercifully delivered me. In short, Ṣúfiism was founded -on celibacy; the introduction of marriage brought about a -change. There is no flame of lust that cannot be extinguished -by strenuous effort, because, whatever vice proceeds from -yourself, you possess the instrument that will remove it: -another is not necessary for that purpose. Now the removal -of lust may be effected by two things, one of which involves -self-constraint (<i>takalluf</i>) while the other lies outside the sphere -of human action and mortification. The former is hunger, the -latter is an agitating fear or a true love, which is collected by -the dispersion of (sensual) thoughts: a love which extends its -empire over the different parts of the body and divests all the -senses of their sensual quality. Aḥmad Ḥammádí of Sarakhs, -who went to Transoxania and lived there, was a venerable -man. On being asked whether he desired to marry, he -<span class='pageno' id='Page_365'>365</span>answered: “No, because I am either absent from myself or -present with myself: when I am absent, I have no consciousness -of the two worlds; and when I am present, I keep my lower -soul in such wise that when it gets a loaf of bread it thinks -that it has got a thousand houris. It is a great thing to -occupy the mind: let it be anxious about whatsoever you will.” -Others, again, recommend that neither state (marriage or -celibacy) should be regarded with predilection, in order that -we may see what the decree of Divine providence will bring -to light: if celibacy be our lot, we should strive to be chaste, -and if marriage be our destiny, we should comply with the -custom of the Apostle and strive to clear our hearts (of worldly -anxieties). When God ordains celibacy unto a man, his -celibacy should be like that of Joseph, who, although he was -able to satisfy his desire for Zulaykhá, turned away from her -and busied himself with subduing his passion and considering -the vices of his lower soul at the moment when Zulaykhá was -alone with him. And if God ordains marriage unto a man, -his marriage should be like that of Abraham, who by reason -of his absolute confidence in God put aside all care for his -wife; and when Sarah became jealous he took Hagar and -brought her to a barren valley and committed her to the care -of God. Accordingly, a man is not ruined by marriage or by -celibacy, but the mischief consists in asserting one’s will and -in yielding to one’s desires. The married man ought to -observe the following rules. He should not leave any act of -devotion undone, or let any “state” be lost or any “time” be -wasted. He should be kind to his wife and should provide -her with lawful expenses, and he should not pay court to -tyrants and governors with the object of meeting her expenses. -He should behave thus, in order that, if a child is born, it may -be such as it ought to be. A well-known story is told of -Aḥmad b. Ḥarb of Níshápúr, that one day, when he was -sitting with the chiefs and nobles of Níshápúr who had come -to offer their respects to him, his son entered the room, drunk, -playing a guitar, and singing, and passed by insolently without -<span class='pageno' id='Page_366'>366</span>heeding them. Aḥmad, perceiving that they were put out of -countenance, said: “What is the matter?” They replied: -“We are ashamed that this lad should pass by you in such -a state.” Aḥmad said: “He is excusable. One night my -wife and I partook of some food that was brought to us from -a neighbour’s house. That same night this son was begotten, -and we fell asleep and let our devotions go. Next morning -we inquired of our neighbour as to the source of the food that -he had sent to us, and we found that it came from a wedding-feast -in the house of a government official.” The following -rules should be observed by the celibate. He must not see -what is improper to see or think what is improper to think, -and he must quench the flames of lust by hunger and guard -his heart from this world and from preoccupation with -phenomena, and he must not call the desire of his lower soul -“knowledge” or “inspiration”, and he must not make the -wiles (<i>bu ´l-`ajabí</i>) of Satan a pretext (for sin). If he acts -thus he will be approved in Ṣúfiism.</p> - -<hr class='c017' /> -<div class='footnote' id='f164'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r164'>164</a>. Kumand, according to <i>Nafaḥát</i>, No. 379.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f165'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r165'>165</a>. “The Rectification of Discipleship.”</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f166'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r166'>166</a>. So all the texts, instead of the correct <i>li-ḥuqúq</i>.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f167'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r167'>167</a>. “The Observance of what is due to God.”</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f168'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r168'>168</a>. “Rules of Conduct for Disciples.”</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f169'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r169'>169</a>. <i>Nafaḥát</i>, No. 129.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f170'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r170'>170</a>. Another reading is <i>asmá</i>, “names,” but I find <i>asmár</i> in the MS. of the <i>Kitáb -al-Luma`</i> belonging to Mr. A. G. Ellis, where this passage occurs on f. 63<i>a.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f171'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r171'>171</a>. I. Ibn al-`Alá.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f172'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r172'>172</a>. See Bayḍáwí on Kor. ix, 76.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f173'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r173'>173</a>. Generally known as Majnún, the lover of Laylá. See Brockelmann, i, 48.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f174'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r174'>174</a>. <i>Nafaḥát</i>, No. 578; Ibn Khallikán, No. 230.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f175'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r175'>175</a>. A village, mentioned by Ibn al-Athír (x, 428, 24), in the vicinity of Baghdád.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f176'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r176'>176</a>. Here a story is told of the Caliph `Umar, who asked Umm Kulthúm, the -Prophet’s granddaughter, in marriage from her father `Alí.</p> -</div> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_367'>367</span> - <h2 id='ch24' class='c011'>CHAPTER XXIV. <br /> <span class='sc'>The Uncovering of the Tenth Veil: explaining their phraseology and the definitions of their terms and the verities of the ideas which are signified.</span></h2> -</div> - -<p class='c014'>Those employed in every craft and business, while discussing -its mysteries with one another, make use of certain words and -expressions of which the meaning is known only to themselves. -Such expressions are invented for a double purpose: firstly, -in order to facilitate the understanding of difficulties and bring -them nearer to the comprehension of the novice; and secondly, -in order to conceal the mysteries of that science from the -uninitiated. The Ṣúfís also have technical terms for the -purpose of expressing the matter of their discourse and in -order that they may reveal or disguise their meaning as they -please. I will now explain some of these terms and distinguish -between the significations attached to various pairs of words.</p> - -<p class='c001'><i>Ḥál</i> and <i>Waqt</i>.</p> - -<p class='c001'><i>Waqt</i> (time) is a term with which Ṣúfís are familiar, and -concerning which much has been said by the Shaykhs, but my -object is to establish the truth, not to give long explanations. -<i>Waqt</i> is that whereby a man becomes independent of the past -and the future, as, for example, when an influence from God -descends into his soul and makes his heart collected (<i>mujtami`</i>) -he has no memory of the past and no thought of that which -is not yet come. All people fail in this, and do not know -what our past has been or what our future will be, except the -possessors of <i>waqt</i>, who say: “Our knowledge cannot -apprehend the future and the past, and we are happy with -God in the present (<i>andar waqt</i>). If we occupy ourselves -<span class='pageno' id='Page_368'>368</span>with to-morrow, or let any thought of it enter our minds, we -shall be veiled (from God), and a veil is a great distraction -(<i>parágandagí</i>).” It is absurd to think of the unattainable. -Thus Abú Sa`íd Kharráz says: “Do not occupy your precious -time except with the most precious of things, and the most -precious of human things is the state of being occupied between -the past and the future.” And the Apostle said: “I have -a time (<i>waqt</i>) with God, in which none of the cherubim nor -any prophet rivals me,” that is to say, “in which the eighteen -thousand worlds do not occur to my mind and have no worth -in my eyes.” Therefore, on the night of the Ascension, when -the kingdom of earth and heaven was arrayed before him in -all its beauty, he did not look at anything (Kor. liii, 17), for -Muṣṭafá was noble (<i>`azíz</i>), and the noble are not engrossed save -by that which is noble. The “times” (<i>awqát</i>) of the Unitarian -are two: one in the state of loss (<i>faqd</i>) and one in the state -of gain (<i>wajd</i>), one in the place of union and one in the place -of separation. At both these times he is overpowered (<i>maqhúr</i>), -because both his union and his separation are effected by God -without such volition or acquisition on his part as would make -it possible to invest him with any attribute. When a man’s -power of volition is cut off from him, whatever he does or -experiences is the result of “time” (<i>waqt</i>). It is related that -Junayd said: ”I saw a dervish in the desert, sitting under -a mimosa-tree in a hard and uncomfortable spot, and asked -him what made him sit there so still. He answered: ‘I had -a “time” and lost it here; now I am sitting and mourning.’ -I inquired how long he had been there. He answered: ‘Twelve -years. Will not the Shaykh offer up a prayer (<i>himmatí kunad</i>) -on my behalf, that perchance I may find my “time” again?’ -I left him,” said Junayd, ”and performed the pilgrimage and -prayed for him. My prayer was granted. On my return -I found him seated in the same place. ‘Why,’ I said, ‘do -you not go from here, since you have obtained your wish?’ -He replied: ‘O Shaykh, I settled myself in this place of -desolation where I lost my capital: is it right that I should -<span class='pageno' id='Page_369'>369</span>leave the place where I have found my capital once more and -where I enjoy the society of God? Let the Shaykh go in -peace, for I will mix my dust with the dust of this spot, that -I may rise at the Resurrection from this dust which is the -abode of my delight.’ No man can attain to the reality of -“time” by exerting his choice, for “time” is a thing that does -not come within the scope of human acquisition, that it should -be gained by effort, nor is it sold in the market, that anyone -should give his life in exchange for it, and the will has no -power either to attract or to repel it. The Shaykhs have said, -“Time is a cutting sword,” because it is characteristic of -a sword to cut, and “time” cuts the root of the future and the -past, and obliterates care of yesterday and to-morrow from the -heart. The sword is a dangerous companion: either it makes -its master a king or it destroys him. Although one should -pay homage to the sword and carry it on one’s own shoulder -for a thousand years, in the moment of cutting it does not -discriminate between its master’s neck and the neck of another. -Violence (<i>qahr</i>) is its characteristic, and violence will not -depart from it at the wish of its master.</p> - -<p class='c001'><i>Ḥál</i> (state) is that which descends upon “time” (<i>waqt</i>) and -adorns it, as the spirit adorns the body. <i>Waqt</i> has need of <i>ḥál</i>, -for <i>waqt</i> is beautified by <i>ḥál</i> and subsists thereby. When the -owner of <i>waqt</i> comes into possession of <i>ḥál</i>, he is no more -subject to change and is made steadfast (<i>mustaqím</i>) in his state; -for, when he has <i>waqt</i> without <i>ḥál</i>, he may lose it, but when -<i>ḥál</i> attaches itself to him, all his state (<i>rúzgár</i>) becomes <i>waqt</i>, -and that cannot be lost: what seems to be coming and going -(<i>ámad shud</i>) is really the result of becoming and manifestation -(<i>takawwun ú ẕuhúr</i>), just as, before this, <i>waqt</i> descended on -him who has it. He who is in the state of becoming (<i>mutakawwin</i>) -may be forgetful, and on him who is thus forgetful -<i>ḥál</i> descends and <i>waqt</i> is made stable (<i>mutamakkin</i>); for the -possessor of <i>waqt</i> may become forgetful, but the possessor of -<i>ḥál</i> cannot possibly be so. The tongue of the possessor of <i>ḥál</i> -is silent concerning his <i>ḥál</i>, but his actions proclaim the reality -<span class='pageno' id='Page_370'>370</span>of his <i>ḥál</i>. Hence that spiritual director said: “To ask about -<i>ḥál</i> is absurd,” because <i>ḥál</i> is the annihilation of speech (<i>maqál</i>). -Master Abú `Alí Daqqáq says: “If there is joy or woe in this -world or the next world, the portion of <i>waqt</i> is that (feeling) -in which thou art.” But <i>ḥál</i> is not like this; when <i>ḥál</i> comes -on a man from God, it banishes all these feelings from his -heart. Thus Jacob was a possessor of <i>waqt</i>: now he was -blinded by separation, now he was restored to sight by union, -now he was mourning and wailing, now he was calm and joyful. -But Abraham was a possessor of <i>ḥál</i>: he was not conscious of -separation, that he should be stricken with grief, nor of union, -that he should be filled with joy. The sun and moon and stars -contributed to his <i>ḥál</i>, but he, while he gazed, was independent -of them: whatever he looked on, he saw only God, and he said: -“<i>I love not them that set</i>” (Kor. vi, 76). Accordingly, the world -sometimes becomes a hell to the possessor of <i>waqt</i>, because he -is contemplating absence (<i>ghaybat</i>) and his heart is distressed -by the loss of his beloved; and sometimes his heart is like -a Paradise in the blessedness of contemplation, and every -moment brings to him a gift and a glad message from God. -On the other hand, it makes no difference to the possessor of -<i>ḥál</i> whether he is veiled by affliction or unveiled by happiness; -for he is always in the place of actual vision (<i>`iyán</i>). <i>Ḥál</i> is an -attribute of the object desired (<i>murád</i>), while <i>waqt</i> is the rank -of the desirer (<i>muríd</i>). The latter is with himself in the pleasure -of <i>waqt</i>, the former with God in the delight of <i>ḥál</i>. How far -apart are the two degrees!</p> - -<p class='c001'><i>Maqám</i> and <i>Tamkín</i>, and the difference between them.</p> - -<p class='c001'><i>Maqám</i> (station) denotes the perseverance of the seeker in -fulfilling his obligations towards the object of his search with -strenuous exertion and flawless intention. Everyone who -desires God has a station (<i>maqám</i>), which, in the beginning -of his search, is a means whereby he seeks God. Although the -seeker derives some benefit from every station through which -he passes, he finally rests in one, because a station and the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_371'>371</span>quest thereof involve contrivance and design (<i>tarkíb ú ḥíla</i>), -not conduct and practice (<i>rawish ú mu`ámalat</i>). God hath said: -“<i>None of us but hath a certain station</i>” (Kor. xxxvii, 164). The -station of Adam was repentance (<i>tawbat</i>), that of Noah was -renunciation (<i>zuhd</i>), that of Abraham was resignation (<i>taslím</i>), -that of Moses was contrition (<i>inábat</i>), that of David was sorrow -(<i>ḥuzn</i>), that of Jesus was hope (<i>rajá</i>), that of John (the Baptist) -was fear (<i>khawf</i>), and that of our Apostle was praise (<i>dhikr</i>). -They drew something from other sources by which they abode, -but each of them returned at last to his original station. In -discussing the doctrine of the Muḥásibís, I gave a partial -explanation of the stations and distinguished between <i>ḥál</i> and -<i>maqám</i>. Here, however, it is necessary to make some further -remarks on this subject. You must know that the Way to God -is of three kinds: (1) <i>maqám</i>, (2) <i>ḥál</i>, (3) <i>tamkín</i>. God sent -all the prophets to explain the Way and to elucidate the -principle of the different stations. One hundred and twenty-four -thousand apostles, and a few over that number, came -with as many stations. On the advent of our Apostle a <i>ḥál</i> -appeared to those in each station and attained a pitch where -all human acquisition was left behind, until religion was made -perfect unto men, as God hath said: “<i>To-day I have perfected -your religion for you and have completed My bounty unto you</i>” -(Kor. v, 5); then the <i>tamkín</i> (steadfastness) of the steadfast -appeared; but if I were to enumerate every <i>ḥál</i> and explain -every <i>maqám</i>, my purpose would be defeated.</p> - -<p class='c001'><i>Tamkín</i> denotes the residence of spiritual adepts in the abode -of perfection and in the highest grade. Those in stations can -pass on from their stations, but it is impossible to pass beyond -the grade of <i>tamkín</i>, because <i>maqám</i> is the grade of beginners, -whereas <i>tamkín</i> is the resting-place of adepts, and <i>maqámát</i> -(stations) are stages on the way, whereas <i>tamkín</i> is repose -within the shrine. The friends of God are absent (from themselves) -on the way and are strangers (to themselves) in the -stages: their hearts are in the presence (of God), and in the -presence every instrument is evil and every tool is (a token of) -<span class='pageno' id='Page_372'>372</span>absence (from God) and infirmity. In the epoch of Paganism -the poets used to praise men for noble deeds, but they did not -recite their panegyric until some time had elapsed. When -a poet came into the presence of the person whom he had -celebrated, he used to draw his sword and hamstring his camel -and then break his sword, as though to say: “I needed a camel -to bring me from a far distance to thy presence, and a sword -to repel the envious who would have hindered me from paying -homage to thee: now that I have reached thee, I kill my camel, -for I will never depart from thee again; and I break my sword, -for I will not admit into my mind the thought of being severed -from thy court.” Then, after a few days, he used to recite his -poem. Similarly, when Moses attained to <i>tamkín</i>, God bade -him put off his shoes and cast away his staff (Kor. xx, 12), -these being articles of travel and Moses being in the presence -of God. The beginning of love is search, but the end is rest: -water flows in the river-bed, but when it reaches the ocean -it ceases to flow and changes its taste, so that those who desire -water avoid it, but those who desire pearls devote themselves -to death and fasten the plummet of search to their feet and -plunge headlong into the sea, that they may either gain the -hidden pearl or lose their dear lives. And one of the Shaykhs -says: “<i>Tamkín</i> is the removal of <i>talwín</i>.” <i>Talwín</i> also is -a technical term of the Ṣúfís, and is closely connected in -meaning with <i>tamkín</i>, just as <i>ḥál</i> is connected with <i>maqám</i>. -The signification of <i>talwín</i> is change and turning from one -state to another, and the above-mentioned saying means that -he who is steadfast (<i>mutamakkin</i>) is not vacillating (<i>mutaraddid</i>), -for he has carried all that belongs to him into the presence of -God and has erased every thought of other than God from his -mind, so that no act that passes over him alters his outward -predicament and no state changes his inward predicament. -Thus Moses was subject to <i>talwín</i>: he fell in a swoon (Kor. -vii, 139) when God revealed His glory to Mount Sinai; but -Muḥammad was steadfast: he suffered no change, although he -was in the very revelation of glory from Mecca to a space of -<span class='pageno' id='Page_373'>373</span>two bow-lengths from God; and this is the highest grade. Now -<i>tamkín</i> is of two kinds—one referring to the dominant influence -of God (<i>sháhid-i ḥaqq</i>), and the other referring to the dominant -influence of one’s self (<i>sháhid-i khud</i>). He whose <i>tamkín</i> is -of the latter kind retains his attributes unimpaired, but he -whose <i>tamkín</i> is of the former kind has no attributes; and -the terms effacement (<i>maḥw</i>), sobriety (<i>ṣaḥw</i>), attainment (<i>laḥq</i>), -destruction (<i>maḥq</i>),<a id='r177' /><a href='#f177' class='c015'><sup>[177]</sup></a> annihilation (<i>faná</i>), subsistence (<i>baqá</i>), being -(<i>wujúd</i>), and not-being (<i>`adam</i>) are not properly applied to one -whose attributes are annihilated, because a subject is necessary -for the maintenance of these qualities, and when the subject is -absorbed (<i>mustaghriq</i>) he loses the capacity for maintaining them.</p> - -<h4 class='c020'><i>Muḥáḍarat</i> and <i>Mukáshafat</i>, and the difference between them.</h4> - -<p class='c010'><i>Muḥáḍarat</i> denotes the presence of the heart in the subtleties -of demonstration (<i>bayán</i>), while <i>mukáshafat</i> denotes the presence -of the spirit (<i>sirr</i>) in the domain of actual vision (<i>`iyán</i>). -<i>Muḥáḍarat</i> refers to the evidences of God’s signs (<i>áyát</i>), and -<i>mukáshafat</i> to the evidences of contemplation (<i>musháhadát</i>). -The mark of <i>muḥáḍarat</i> is continual meditation upon God’s -signs, while the mark of <i>mukáshafat</i> is continual amazement -at God’s infinite greatness. There is a difference between one -who meditates upon the Divine acts and one who is amazed -at the Divine majesty: the one is a follower of friendship, the -other is a companion of love. When the Friend of God -(Abraham) looked on the kingdom of heaven and meditated -on the reality of its existence, his heart was made “present” -(<i>ḥáḍir</i>) thereby: through beholding the act he became a seeker -of the Agent; his “presence” (<i>ḥuḍúr</i>) made the act a proof -of the Agent, and in perfect gnosis he exclaimed: “<i>I turn my -face with true belief unto Him who created the heavens and the -earth</i>” (Kor. vi, 79). But when the Beloved of God (Muḥammad) -was borne to Heaven he shut his eyes from the sight of -all things; he saw neither God’s act nor created beings -<span class='pageno' id='Page_374'>374</span>nor himself, but the Agent was revealed to him, and in that -revelation (<i>kashf</i>) his desire increased: in vain he sought vision, -proximity, union; in proportion as the exemption (<i>tanzíh</i>) of -his Beloved (from all such conceptions) became more manifest -to him the more did his desire increase; he could neither turn -back nor go forward, hence he fell into amazement. Where -friendship was, amazement seemed infidelity, but where love -was, union was polytheism, and amazement became the sole -resource, because in friendship the object of amazement was -being (<i>hastí</i>), and such amazement is polytheism, but in love -the object of amazement was nature and quality (<i>chigúnagí</i>), -and this amazement is unification (<i>tawḥíd</i>). In this sense -Shiblí used always to say: “O Guide of the amazed, increase -my amazement!” for in contemplation (of God) the greater -one’s amazement the higher one’s degree. The story of Abú -Sa`íd Kharráz and Ibráhím b. Sa`d `Alawí<a id='r178' /><a href='#f178' class='c015'><sup>[178]</sup></a> is well known—how -they saw a friend of God on the seashore and asked him “What -is the Way to God?” and how he answered that there are two -ways to God, one for the vulgar and one for the elect. When -they desired him to explain this he said: “The way of the -vulgar is that on which you are going: you accept for some -cause and you decline for some cause; but the way of the elect -is to see only the Causer, and not to see the cause.” The true -meaning of these anecdotes has already been set forth.</p> - -<h4 class='c020'><i>Qabḍ</i> and <i>Basṭ</i>, and the difference between them.</h4> - -<p class='c010'><i>Qabḍ</i> (contraction) and <i>basṭ</i> (expansion) are two involuntary -states which cannot be induced by any human act or banished -by any human exertion. God hath said: “<i>God contracts and -expands</i>” (Kor. ii, 246). <i>Qabḍ</i> denotes the contraction of the -heart in the state of being veiled (<i>ḥijáb</i>), and <i>basṭ</i> denotes the -expansion of the heart in the state of revelation (<i>kashf</i>). Both -states proceed from God without effort on the part of Man. -The <i>qabḍ</i> of gnostics is like the fear of novices, and the <i>basṭ</i> -of gnostics is like the hope of novices. This is the sense in -<span class='pageno' id='Page_375'>375</span>which the Ṣúfís use the terms <i>qabḍ</i> and <i>basṭ</i>. Some Shaykhs -hold that <i>qabḍ</i> is superior in degree to <i>basṭ</i>, for two reasons: -(1) it is mentioned before <i>basṭ</i> in the Koran, (2) <i>qabḍ</i> involves -dissolution and oppression, whereas <i>basṭ</i> involves nutrition and -favour: it is undoubtedly better to dissolve one’s humanity -and oppress one’s lower soul than to foster and favour them, -since they are the greatest veil (between Man and God). -Others, again, hold that <i>basṭ</i> is superior to <i>qabḍ</i>. The fact, -they say, that <i>qabḍ</i> is mentioned before <i>basṭ</i> in the Koran shows -the superiority of <i>basṭ</i>, for the Arabs are accustomed to mention -in the first place that which is inferior in merit, e.g. God hath -said: “<i>There is one of them who injures his own soul, and one who -keeps the middle way, and one who outstrips the others in good -works by the permission of God</i>” (Kor. xxxv, 29). Moreover, -they argue that in <i>basṭ</i> there is joy and in <i>qabḍ</i> grief; gnostics -feel joy only in union with the object of knowledge, and grief -only in separation from the object of desire, therefore rest in -the abode of union is better than rest in the abode of separation. -My Shaykh used to say that both <i>qabḍ</i> and <i>basṭ</i> are the result -of one spiritual influence, which descends from God on Man, -and either fills the heart with joy and subdues the lower soul -or subdues the heart and fills the lower soul with joy; in the -latter case contraction (<i>qabḍ</i>) of the heart is expansion (<i>basṭ</i>) -of the lower soul, and in the former case expansion of the heart -is contraction of the lower soul. He who interprets this matter -otherwise is wasting his breath. Hence Báyazíd said: “The -contraction of hearts consists in the expansion of souls, and -the expansion of hearts in the contraction of souls.” The -contracted soul is guarded from injury, and the expanded heart -is restrained from falling into defect, because jealousy is the -rule in love, and contraction is a sign of God’s jealousy; and -it is necessary that lovers should reproach one another, and -expansion is a sign of mutual reproach. It is a well-known -tradition that John wept ever since he was born, while Jesus -smiled ever since he was born, because John was in contraction -and Jesus in expansion. When they met John used to say, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_376'>376</span>“O Jesus, hast thou no fear of being cut off (from God)?” and -Jesus used to say, “O John, hast thou no hope of God’s mercy? -Neither thy tears nor my smiles will change the eternal decree -of God.”</p> - -<p class='c001'><i>Uns</i> and <i>Haybat</i>, and the difference between them.</p> - -<p class='c001'><i>Uns</i> (intimacy) and <i>haybat</i> (awe) are two states of the -dervishes who travel on the Way to God. When God manifests -His glory to a man’s heart so that His majesty (<i>jalál</i>) predominates, -he feels awe (<i>haybat</i>), but when God’s beauty -(<i>jamál</i>) predominates he feels intimacy (<i>uns</i>): those who feel -awe are distressed, while those who feel intimacy are rejoiced. -There is a difference between one who is burned by His -majesty in the fire of love and one who is illuminated by His -beauty in the light of contemplation. Some Shaykhs have -said that <i>haybat</i> is the degree of gnostics and <i>uns</i> the degree -of novices, because the farther one has advanced in the presence -of God and in divesting Him of attributes the more his heart -is overwhelmed with awe and the more averse he is to intimacy, -for one is intimate with those of one’s own kind, and intimacy -with God is inconceivable, since no homogeneity or resemblance -can possibly exist between God and Man. If intimacy is -possible, it is possible only with the praise (<i>dhikr</i>) of Him, -which is something different from Himself, because that is -an attribute of Man; and in love, to be satisfied with another -than the Beloved is falsehood and pretension and self-conceit. -<i>Haybat</i>, on the other hand, arises from contemplating greatness, -which is an attribute of God, and there is a vast difference -between one whose experience proceeds from himself through -himself and one whose experience proceeds from the annihilation -of himself through the subsistence of God. It is related -that Shiblí said: “For a long time I used to think that I was -rejoicing in the love of God and was intimate with contemplation -of Him: now I know that intimacy is impossible -except with a congener.” Some, however, allege that <i>haybat</i> -is a corollary of separation and punishment, while <i>uns</i> is the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_377'>377</span>result of union and mercy; therefore the friends of God must -be guarded from the consequences of <i>haybat</i> and be attached -to <i>uns</i>, for <i>uns</i> involves love, and as homogeneity is impossible -in love (of God), so it is impossible in <i>uns</i>. My Shaykh used -to say: ”I wonder at those who declare intimacy with God -to be impossible, after God has said, ‘<i>Verily My servants</i>,’ and -‘<i>Say to My servants</i>’, and ‘<i>When My servants shall ask thee</i>’, -and ‘<i>O My servants, no fear shall come on you this day, and ye -shall not grieve</i>’ (Kor. xliii, 68). A servant of God, seeing this -favour, cannot fail to love Him, and when he has loved he will -become intimate, because awe of one’s beloved is estrangement -(<i>bégánagí</i>), whereas intimacy is oneness (<i>yagánagí</i>). It is -characteristic of men to become intimate with their benefactors, -and inasmuch as God has conferred on us so great benefits -and we have knowledge of Him, it is impossible that we should -talk of awe.” I, `Alí b. `Uthmán al-Jullábí, say that both parties -in this controversy are right, because the power of <i>haybat</i> is -exerted upon the lower soul and its desires, and tends to -annihilate human nature, while the power of <i>uns</i> is exerted -upon the heart and tends to foster gnosis in the heart. Therefore -God annihilates the souls of those who love Him by -revealing His majesty and endows their hearts with everlasting -life by revealing His beauty. The followers of annihilation -(<i>faná</i>) regard <i>haybat</i> as superior, but the followers of subsistence -(<i>baqá</i>) prefer <i>uns</i>.</p> - -<p class='c001'><i>Qahr</i> and <i>Luṭf</i>, and the difference between them.</p> - -<p class='c001'>These two expressions are used by the Ṣúfís in reference to -their own state. By <i>qahr</i> (violence) they signify the reinforcement -given to them by God in annihilating their desires and -in restraining the lower soul from its concupiscence; and by -<i>luṭf</i> (kindness) they signify God’s help towards the subsistence -of their hearts and towards the continuance of contemplation -and towards the permanence of ecstasy in the degree of steadfastness -(<i>istiqámat</i>). The adherents of <i>luṭf</i> say Divine grace -(<i>karámat</i>) is the attainment of one’s desire, but the others say -<span class='pageno' id='Page_378'>378</span>that Divine grace is this—that God through His will should -restrain a man from his own will and should overpower him -with will-lessness (<i>bémurádí</i>), so that if he were thirsty and -plunged into a river, the river would become dry. It is related -that in Baghdád were two eminent dervishes, the one a believer -in <i>qahr</i> and the other a believer in <i>luṭf</i>, who were always -quarrelling and each preferring his own state to that of his -neighbour. The dervish who preferred <i>luṭf</i> set out for Mecca -and entered the desert, but never reached his destination. No -news of him was heard for many years, but at last he was seen -by a traveller on the road between Mecca and Baghdád. -“O my brother,” he said, “when you return to `Iráq tell my -friend at Karkh that if he wishes to see a desert, with all -its hardships, like Karkh of Baghdád, with all its marvels, -let him come here, for this desert is Karkh to me!” When -the traveller arrived at Karkh he delivered this message to -the other dervish, who said: “On your return, tell him that -there is no superiority in the fact that the desert has been -made like Karkh to him, in order that he may not flee from -the court (of God); the superiority lies in the fact that Karkh, -with all its wondrous opulence, has been made to me like -a painful desert, and that nevertheless I am happy here.” -And it is related that Shiblí said, in his secret converse with -God: “O Lord, I will not turn from Thee, although Thou -shouldst make the heaven a collar for my neck and the earth -a shackle for my foot and the whole universe athirst for my -blood.” My Shaykh used to say: “One year a meeting of -the saints of God took place in the midst of the desert, and -I accompanied my spiritual director, Ḥuṣrí, to that spot. -I saw some of them approaching on camels, some borne on -thrones, and some flying, but Ḥuṣrí paid no heed to them. -Then I saw a youth with torn shoes and a broken staff. His -feet could scarcely support him, and his head was bare and -his body emaciated. As soon as he appeared Ḥuṣrí sprang -up and ran to meet him and led him to a lofty seat. This -astonished me, and afterwards I questioned the Shaykh about -<span class='pageno' id='Page_379'>379</span>the youth. He replied: ‘He is one of God’s saints who does -not follow saintship, but saintship follows him; and he pays -no attention to miracles (<i>karámát</i>).’” In short, what we -choose for ourselves is noxious to us. I desire only that God -should desire for me, and therein preserve me from the evil -thereof and save me from the wickedness of my soul. If He -keep me in <i>qahr</i> I do not wish for <i>luṭf</i>, and if He keep me in -<i>luṭf</i> I do not wish for <i>qahr</i>. I have no choice beyond His -choice.</p> - -<p class='c001'><i>Nafy</i> and <i>Ithbát</i>, and the difference between them.</p> - -<p class='c001'>The Shaykhs of this Path give the names of <i>nafy</i> (negation) -and <i>ithbát</i> (affirmation) to the effacement of the attributes of -humanity by the affirmation of Divine aid (<i>ta´yíd</i>). By negation -they signify the negation of the attributes of humanity, and -by affirmation they mean the affirmation of the power of the -Truth, because effacement (<i>maḥw</i>) is total loss, and total -negation is applicable only to the attributes; for negation of the -essence is impossible while the Universal (<i>kulliyyat</i>) subsists. -It is necessary, therefore, that blameworthy attributes should -be negated by the affirmation of praiseworthy qualities, i.e. the -pretension to love of God is negated by affirmation of the -reality, for pretension is one of the vanities of the lower soul. -But the Ṣúfís, when their attributes are overpowered by the -might of the Truth, habitually say that the attributes of -humanity are negated by affirming the subsistence of God. -This matter has already been discussed in the chapter on -poverty and purity and in that on annihilation and subsistence. -They say also that the words in question signify the negation -of Man’s choice by the affirmation of God’s choice. Hence -that blessed one said: “God’s choice for His servant with -His knowledge of His servant is better than His servant’s -choice for himself with his ignorance of his Lord,” because -love, as all agree, is the negation of the lover’s choice by -affirmation of the Beloved’s choice. I have read in the -Anecdotes that a dervish was drowning in the sea, when -<span class='pageno' id='Page_380'>380</span>some one cried: “Brother, do you wish to be saved?” He -said: “No.” “Then do you wish to be drowned?” “No.” -“It is a wonder that you will not choose either to die or to -be saved.” “What have I to do with safety,” said the dervish, -“that I should choose it? My choice is that God should -choose for me.” The Shaykhs have said that negation of one’s -own choice is the least grade in love. Now, God’s choice has -no beginning in time and cannot possibly be negated, but -Man’s choice is accidental (<i>`araḍí</i>) and admits of negation, and -must be trodden under foot, that the eternal choice of God -may subsist for ever.<a id='r179' /><a href='#f179' class='c015'><sup>[179]</sup></a> There has been much debate on this -matter, but my sole aim is that you should know the signification -of the terms used by the Ṣúfís. I have mentioned some -of these, e.g., <i>jam`</i> and <i>tafriqa</i>, and <i>faná</i> and <i>baqá</i>, and <i>ghaybat</i> -and <i>ḥuḍúr</i>, and <i>sukr</i> and <i>ṣaḥw</i>, in the chapter treating of the -doctrines of the Ṣúfís, and you must look there for the -explanation of them.</p> - -<h4 class='c020'><i>Musámarat</i> and <i>Muḥádathat</i>, and the difference between them.</h4> - -<p class='c010'>These terms denote two states of the perfect Ṣúfí. <i>Muḥádathat</i> -(conversation) is really spiritual talk conjoined with -silence of the tongue, and <i>musámarat</i> (nocturnal discourse) is -really continuance of unrestraint (<i>inbisáṭ</i>) combined with -concealment of the most secret thoughts (<i>kitmán-i sirr</i>). The -outward meaning of <i>musámarat</i> is a spiritual state (<i>waqtí</i>) -existing between God and Man at night, and <i>muḥádathat</i> is -a similar state, existing by day, in which there is exoteric and -esoteric conversation. Hence secret prayers (<i>munáját</i>) by night -are called <i>musámarat</i>, while invocations made by day are called -<i>muḥádathat</i>. The daily state is based on revelation (<i>kashf</i>), -and the nightly state on occupation (<i>satr</i>). In love <i>musámarat</i> -is more perfect than <i>muḥádathat</i>, and is connected with the -state of the Apostle, when God sent Gabriel to him with -Buráq and conveyed him by night from Mecca to a space of -<span class='pageno' id='Page_381'>381</span>two bow-lengths from His presence. The Apostle conversed -secretly with God, and when he reached the goal his tongue -became dumb before the revelation of God’s majesty, and his -heart was amazed at His infinite greatness, and he said: -“I cannot tell Thy praise.” <i>Muḥádathat</i> is connected with -the state of Moses, who, seeking communion with God, after -forty days came to Mount Sinai and heard the speech of God -and asked for vision of Him, and failed of his desire. There is -a plain difference between one who was conducted (Kor. xvii, 1) -and one who came (Kor. vii, 139). Night is the time when -lovers are alone with each other, and day is the time when -servants wait upon their masters. When a servant transgresses -he is reprimanded, but a lover has no law by the transgression -of which he should incur blame, for lovers cannot do anything -displeasing to each other.</p> - -<p class='c001'><i>`Ilm al-Yaqín</i> and <i>`Ayn al-Yaqín</i> and <i>Ḥaqq al-Yaqín</i>, and the -difference between them.</p> - -<p class='c001'>According to the principles of theology, all these expressions -denote knowledge (<i>`ilm</i>). Knowledge without certain faith -(<i>yaqín</i>) in the reality of the object known is not knowledge, -but when knowledge is gained that which is hidden is as that -which is actually seen. The believers who shall see God on -the Day of Judgment shall see Him then in the same wise -as they know Him now: if they shall see Him otherwise, -either their vision will be imperfect then or their knowledge -is faulty now. Both these alternatives are in contradiction -with unification (<i>tawḥíd</i>), which requires that men’s knowledge -of God should be sound to-day and their vision of God should -be sound to-morrow. Therefore certain knowledge (<i>`ilm-i yaqín</i>) -is like certain sight (<i>`ayn-i yaqín</i>), and certain truth (<i>ḥaqq-i -yaqín</i>) is like certain knowledge. Some have said that <i>`ayn -al-yaqín</i> is the complete absorption (<i>istighráq</i>) of knowledge -in vision, but this is impossible, because vision is an instrument -for the attainment of knowledge, like hearing, etc.: since knowledge -cannot be absorbed in hearing, its absorption in vision is -<span class='pageno' id='Page_382'>382</span>equally impossible. By <i>`ilm al-yaqín</i> the Ṣúfís mean knowledge -of (religious) practice in this world according to the Divine -commandments; by <i>`ayn al-yaqín</i> they mean knowledge of -the state of dying (<i>naz`</i>) and the time of departure from this -world; and by <i>ḥaqq al-yaqín</i> they mean intuitive knowledge -of the vision (of God) that will be revealed in Paradise, and of -its nature. Therefore <i>`ilm al-yaqín</i> is the rank of theologians -(<i>`ulamá</i>) on account of their correct observance of the Divine -commands, and <i>`ayn al-yaqín</i> is the station of gnostics (<i>`árifán</i>) -on account of their readiness for death, and <i>ḥaqq al-yaqín</i> is -the annihilation-point of lovers (<i>dústán</i>) on account of their -rejection of all created things. Hence <i>`ilm al-yaqín</i> is obtained -by self-mortification (<i>mujáhadat</i>), and <i>`ayn al-yaqín</i> by intimate -familiarity (<i>mu´ánasat</i>), and <i>ḥaqq al-yaqín</i> by contemplation -(<i>musháhadat</i>). The first is vulgar, the second is elect, and the -third is super-elect (<i>kháṣṣ al-kháṣṣ</i>).</p> - -<p class='c001'><i>`Ilm</i> and <i>Ma`rifat</i>, and the difference between them.</p> - -<p class='c001'>Theologians have made no distinction between <i>`ilm</i> and -<i>ma`rifat</i>, except when they say that God may be called <i>`álim</i> -(knowing), but not <i>`árif</i> (gnostic), inasmuch as the latter epithet -lacks Divine blessing. But the Ṣúfí Shaykhs give the name -of <i>ma`rifat</i> (gnosis) to every knowledge that is allied with -(religious) practice and feeling (<i>ḥál</i>), and the knower of which -expresses his feeling; and the knower thereof they call <i>`árif</i>. -On the other hand, they give the name of <i>`ilm</i> to every knowledge -that is stripped of spiritual meaning and devoid of -religious practice, and one who has such knowledge they call -<i>`álim</i>. One, then, who knows the meaning and reality of -a thing they call <i>`árif</i> (gnostic), and one who knows merely the -verbal expression and keeps it in his memory without keeping -the spiritual reality they call <i>`álim</i>. For this reason, when the -Ṣúfís wish to disparage a rival they call him <i>dánishmand</i> -(possessing knowledge). To the vulgar this seems objectionable, -but the Ṣúfís do not intend to blame the man for having -acquired knowledge, they blame him for neglecting the practice -<span class='pageno' id='Page_383'>383</span>of religion, because the <i>`álim</i> depends on himself, but the <i>`árif</i> -depends on his Lord. This question has been discussed at -length in the chapter entitled “The Removal of the Veil of -Gnosis”, and I need not say any more now.</p> - -<p class='c001'><i>Sharí`at</i> and <i>Ḥaqíqat</i>, and the difference between them.</p> - -<p class='c001'>These terms are used by the Ṣúfís to denote soundness of -the outward state and maintenance of the inward state. Two -parties err in this matter: firstly, the formal theologians, who -assert that there is no distinction between <i>sharí`at</i> (law) and -<i>ḥaqíqat</i> (truth), since the Law is the Truth and the Truth is -the Law; secondly, some heretics, who hold that it is possible -for one of these things to subsist without the other, and declare -that when the Truth is revealed the Law is abolished. This is -the doctrine of the Carmathians (<i>Qarámiṭa</i>) and the Shí`ites -and their satanically inspired followers (<i>muwaswisán</i>). The -proof that the Law is virtually separate from the Truth lies -in the fact that in faith belief is separate from profession; and -the proof that the Law and the Truth are not fundamentally -separate, but are one, lies in the fact that belief without -profession is not faith, and conversely profession without belief -is not faith; and there is a manifest difference between -profession and belief. <i>Ḥaqíqat</i>, then, signifies a reality which -does not admit of abrogation and remains in equal force from -the time of Adam to the end of the world, like knowledge of -God and like religious practice, which is made perfect by -sincere intention; and <i>sharí`at</i> signifies a reality which admits -of abrogation and alteration, like ordinances and commandments. -Therefore <i>sharí`at</i> is Man’s act, while <i>ḥaqíqat</i> is God’s -keeping and preservation and protection, whence it follows that -<i>sharí`at</i> cannot possibly be maintained without the existence of -<i>ḥaqíqat</i>, and <i>ḥaqíqat</i> cannot be maintained without observance -of <i>sharí`at</i>. Their mutual relation may be compared to that -of body and spirit: when the spirit departs from the body the -living body becomes a corpse and the spirit vanishes like wind, -for their value depends on their conjunction with one another. -<span class='pageno' id='Page_384'>384</span>Similarly, the Law without the Truth is ostentation, and the -Truth without the Law is hypocrisy. God hath said: “<i>Whosoever -mortify themselves for Our sake, We will assuredly -guide them in Our ways</i>” (Kor. xxix, 69): mortification is -Law, guidance is Truth; the former consists in a man’s -observance of the external ordinances, while the latter consists -in God’s maintenance of a man’s spiritual feelings. Hence the -Law is one of the acts acquired by Man, but the Truth is one -of the gifts bestowed by God.</p> - -<p class='c001'>Another class of terms and expressions are used by the -Ṣúfís metaphorically. These metaphorical terms are more -difficult to analyse and interpret, but I will explain them -concisely.</p> - -<p class='c001'><i>Ḥaqq.</i> By <i>ḥaqq</i> (truth) the Ṣúfís mean God, for <i>ḥaqq</i> is one -of the names of God, as He hath said: “<i>This is because God is -the Truth</i>” (Kor. xxii, 6).</p> - -<p class='c001'><i>Ḥaqíqat.</i> By this word they mean a man’s dwelling in the -place of union with God, and the standing of his heart in the -place of abstraction (<i>tanzíh</i>).</p> - -<p class='c001'><i>Khaṭarát.</i> Any judgments of separation (<i>aḥkám-i tafríq</i>) -that occur to the mind.</p> - -<p class='c001'><i>Waṭanát.</i> Any Divine meanings that make their abode in -the heart.</p> - -<p class='c001'><i>Ṭams.</i> Negation of a substance of which some trace is left.</p> - -<p class='c001'><i>Rams.</i> Negation of a substance, together with every trace -thereof, from the heart.</p> - -<p class='c001'><i>`Alá´iq.</i> Secondary causes to which seekers of God attach -themselves and thereby fail to gain the object of their desire.</p> - -<p class='c001'><i>Wasá´iṭ.</i> Secondary causes to which seekers of God attach -themselves and thereby gain the object of their desire.</p> - -<p class='c001'><i>Zawá´id.</i> Excess of lights (spiritual illumination) in the -heart.</p> - -<p class='c001'><i>Fawá´id.</i> The apprehension by the spirit of what it cannot -do without.</p> - -<p class='c001'><i>Malja´.</i> The heart’s confidence in the attainment of its -desire.</p> - -<p class='c001'><span class='pageno' id='Page_385'>385</span><i>Manjá.</i> The heart’s escape from the place of imperfection.</p> - -<p class='c001'><i>Kulliyyat.</i> The absorption (<i>istighráq</i>) of the attributes of -humanity in the Universal (<i>kulliyyat</i>).</p> - -<p class='c001'><i>Lawá´iḥ.</i> Affirmation of the object of desire, notwithstanding -the advent of the negation thereof (<i>ithbát-i murád bá wurúd-i -nafy-i án</i>).</p> - -<p class='c001'><i>Lawámi`.</i> The manifestation of (spiritual) light to the heart -while its acquirements (<i>fawá´id</i>) continue to subsist.</p> - -<p class='c001'><i>Ṭawáli`.</i> The appearance of the splendours of (mystical) -knowledge to the heart.</p> - -<p class='c001'><i>Ṭawáriq.</i> That which comes into the heart, either with glad -tidings or with rebuke, in secret converse (with God) at night.</p> - -<p class='c001'><i>Laṭá´if.</i> A symbol (<i>isháratí</i>), presented to the heart, of -subtleties of feeling.</p> - -<p class='c001'><i>Sirr.</i> Concealment of feelings of love.</p> - -<p class='c001'><i>Najwá.</i> Concealment of imperfections from the knowledge -of other (than God).</p> - -<p class='c001'><i>Ishárat.</i> Giving information to another of the object of -desire, without uttering it on the tongue.</p> - -<p class='c001'><i>Ímá.</i> Addressing anyone allusively, without spoken or -unspoken explanation (<i>bé `ibárat ú ishárat</i>).</p> - -<p class='c001'><i>Wárid.</i> The descent of spiritual meanings upon the heart.</p> - -<p class='c001'><i>Intibáh.</i> The departure of heedlessness from the heart.</p> - -<p class='c001'><i>Ishtibáh.</i> Perplexity felt in deciding between truth and -falsehood.</p> - -<p class='c001'><i>Qarár.</i> The departure of vacillation from the reality of one’s -feeling.</p> - -<p class='c001'><i>Inzi`áj.</i> The agitation of the heart in the state of ecstasy -(<i>wajd</i>).</p> - -<p class='c010'>Another class of technical terms are those which the Ṣúfís -employ, without metaphor, in unification (<i>tawḥíd</i>) and in -setting forth their firm belief in spiritual realities.</p> - -<p class='c010'><i>`Álam.</i> The term <i>`álam</i> (world) denotes the creatures of -God. It is said that there are 18,000 or 50,000 worlds. -Philosophers say there are two worlds, an upper and a lower, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_386'>386</span>while theologians say that <i>`álam</i> is whatever exists between -the Throne of God and the earth. In short, <i>`álam</i> is the -collective mass of created things. The Ṣúfís speak of the -world of spirits (<i>arwáḥ</i>) and the world of souls (<i>nufús</i>), but -they do not mean the same thing as the philosophers. What -they mean is “the collective mass of spirits and souls”.</p> - -<p class='c001'><i>Muḥdath.</i> Posterior in existence, i.e. it was not and -afterwards was.</p> - -<p class='c001'><i>Qadím.</i> Anterior in existence, i.e. it always was, and its -being was anterior to all beings. This is nothing but God.</p> - -<p class='c001'><i>Azal.</i> That which has no beginning.</p> - -<p class='c001'><i>Abad.</i> That which has no end.</p> - -<p class='c001'><i>Dhát.</i> The being and reality of a thing.</p> - -<p class='c001'><i>Ṣifat.</i> That which does not admit of qualification (<i>na`t</i>), -because it is not self-subsistent.</p> - -<p class='c001'><i>Ism.</i> That which is not the object named (<i>ghayr-i -musammá</i>).</p> - -<p class='c001'><i>Tasmiyat.</i> Information concerning the object named.</p> - -<p class='c001'><i>Nafy.</i> That which entails the non-existence of every object -of negation.</p> - -<p class='c001'><i>Ithbát.</i> That which entails the existence of every object of -affirmation.</p> - -<p class='c001'><i>Siyyán.</i> The possibility of the existence of one thing with -another.</p> - -<p class='c001'><i>Ḍiddán.</i> The impossibility of the existence of one thing -simultaneously with the existence of another.</p> - -<p class='c001'><i>Ghayrán.</i> The possibility of the existence of either of two -things, notwithstanding the annihilation of the other.</p> - -<p class='c001'><i>Jawhar.</i> The basis (<i>aṣl</i>) of a thing; that which is self-subsistent.</p> - -<p class='c001'><i>`Araḍ.</i> That which subsists in <i>jawhar</i> (substance).</p> - -<p class='c001'><i>Jism.</i> That which is composed of separate parts.</p> - -<p class='c001'><i>Su´ál.</i> Seeking a reality.</p> - -<p class='c001'><i>Jawáb.</i> Giving information concerning the subject-matter of -a question (<i>su´ál</i>).</p> - -<p class='c001'><i>Ḥusn.</i> That which is conformable to the (Divine) command.</p> - -<p class='c001'><span class='pageno' id='Page_387'>387</span><i>Qubḥ.</i> That which is not conformable to the (Divine) -command.</p> - -<p class='c001'><i>Safah.</i> Neglect of the (Divine) command.</p> - -<p class='c001'><i>Ẓulm.</i> Putting a thing in a place that is not worthy of it.</p> - -<p class='c001'><i>`Adl.</i> Putting everything in its proper place.</p> - -<p class='c001'><i>Malik.</i> He with whose actions it is impossible to interfere.</p> - -<p class='c010'>Another class of terms requiring explanation are those which -are commonly used by the Ṣúfís in a mystical sense that is not -familiar to philologists.</p> - -<p class='c010'><i>Kháṭir.</i> By <i>kháṭir</i> (passing thought) the Ṣúfís signify the -occurrence in the mind of something which is quickly removed -by another thought, and which its owner is able to repel from -his mind. Those who have such thoughts follow the first -thought in matters which come directly from God to Man. It -is said that the thought occurred to Khayr Nassáj that Junayd -was waiting at his door, but he wished to repel it. The same -thought returned twice and thrice, whereupon he went out and -discovered Junayd, who said to him: “If you had followed the -first thought it would not have been necessary for me to stand -here all this time.” How was Junayd acquainted with the -thought which occurred to Khayr? This question has been -asked, and has been answered by the remark that Junayd was -Khayr’s spiritual director, and a spiritual director cannot -fail to be acquainted with all that happens to one of his -disciples.</p> - -<p class='c001'><i>Wáqi`a.</i> By <i>wáqi`a</i> they signify a thought which appears in -the mind and remains there, unlike <i>kháṭir</i>, and which the seeker -has no means whatever of repelling: thus they say, <i>khaṭara -`alá qalbí</i>, “it occurred to my mind,” but <i>waqa`a fí qalbí</i>, “it -sank into my mind.” All minds are subject to <i>kháṭir</i> (passing -thought), but <i>wáqi`a</i> is possible only in a mind that is entirely -filled with the notion of God. Hence, when any obstacle appears -to the novice on the Way to God, they call it “a fetter” (<i>qayd</i>) -and say: “A <i>wáqi`a</i> has befallen him.” Philologists also use -the term <i>wáqi`a</i> to signify any difficult question, and when it is -<span class='pageno' id='Page_388'>388</span>answered satisfactorily they say, <i>wáqi`a ḥall shud</i>, “the difficulty -is solved.” But the mystics say that <i>wáqi`a</i> is that which is -insoluble, and that whatever is solved is a <i>kháṭir</i>, not a <i>wáqi`a</i>, -since the obstacles which confront mystics are not unimportant -matters on which varying judgments are continually being -formed.</p> - -<p class='c001'><i>Ikhtiyár.</i> By <i>ikhtiyár</i> they signify their preference of God’s -choice to their own, i.e. they are content with the good and -evil which God has chosen for them. A man’s preference of -God’s choice is itself the result of God’s choice, for unless God -had caused him to have no choice, he would never have let his -own choice go. When Abú Yazíd was asked, “Who is the -prince (<i>amír</i>)?” he replied, “He to whom no choice is left, -and to whom God’s choice has become the only choice.” It is -related that Junayd, having caught fever, implored God to give -him health. A voice spoke in his heart: “Who art thou to -plead in My kingdom and make a choice? I can manage My -kingdom better than thou. Do thou choose My choice instead -of coming forward with thine.”</p> - -<p class='c001'><i>Imtiḥán.</i> By this expression they signify the probation of -the hearts of the saints by diverse afflictions which come to -them from God, such as fear, grief, contraction, awe, etc. God -hath said: “<i>They whose hearts God hath proved for piety’s sake: -they shall win pardon and a great reward</i>” (Kor. xlix, 3). This -is a lofty grade.</p> - -<p class='c001'><i>Balá.</i> By <i>balá</i> (affliction) they signify the probation of the -bodies of God’s friends by diverse troubles and sicknesses and -tribulations. The more severely a man is afflicted the nearer -does he approach unto God, for affliction is the vesture of the -saints and the cradle of the pure and the nourishment of the -prophets. The Apostle said, “We prophets are the most -afflicted of mankind;” and he also said, “The prophets are the -most afflicted of mankind, then the saints, and then other men -according to their respective ranks.” <i>Balá</i> is the name of -a tribulation, which descends on the heart and body of a true -believer and which is really a blessing; and inasmuch as -<span class='pageno' id='Page_389'>389</span>the mystery thereof is concealed from him, he is divinely -recompensed for supporting the pains thereof. Tribulation -that befalls unbelievers is not affliction (<i>balá</i>), but misery -(<i>shaqáwat</i>), and unbelievers never obtain relief from misery. -The degree of <i>balá</i> is more honourable than that of <i>imtiḥán</i>, -for <i>imtiḥán</i> affects the heart only, whereas <i>balá</i> affects both the -heart and the body and is thus more powerful.</p> - -<p class='c001'><i>Taḥallí.</i> Imitation of praiseworthy people in word and deed. -The Apostle said: “Faith is not acquired by <i>taḥallí</i> (adorning -one’s self with the qualities of others) and <i>tamanní</i> (wishing), -but it is that which sinks deep into the heart and is verified -by action.” <i>Taḥallí</i>, then, is to imitate people without really -acting like them. Those who seem to be what they are -not will soon be put to shame, and their secret character will -be revealed. In the view of spiritualists, however, they are -already disgraced and their secret character is clear.</p> - -<p class='c001'><i>Tajallí.</i> The blessed effect of Divine illumination on the -hearts of the blest, whereby they are made capable of seeing -God with their hearts. The difference between spiritual vision -(<i>ru´yat ba-dil</i>) and actual vision (<i>ru´yat-i `iyán</i>) is this, that -those who experience <i>tajallí</i> (manifestation of God) see or do -not see, according as they wish, or see at one time and do not -see at another time, while those who experience actual vision -in Paradise cannot but see, even though they wish not to see; -for it is possible that <i>tajallí</i> should be hidden, whereas <i>ru´yat</i> -(vision) cannot possibly be veiled.</p> - -<p class='c001'><i>Takhallí.</i> Turning away from distractions which prevent -a man from attaining to God. One of these is the present world, -of which he should empty his hands; another is desire for the -next world, of which he should empty his heart; a third is -indulgence in vanity, of which he should empty his spirit; and -a fourth is association with created beings, of which he should -empty himself and from the thought of which he should disengage -his mind.</p> - -<p class='c001'><i>Shurúd.</i> The meaning of <i>shurúd</i> is “seeking restlessly to -escape from (worldly) corruptions and veils”; for all the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_390'>390</span>misfortunes of the seeker arise from his being veiled, and when -the veil is lifted he becomes united with God. The Ṣúfís apply -the term <i>shurúd</i> to his becoming unveiled (<i>isfár</i>) and his using -every resource for that purpose; for in the beginning, i.e. in -search, he is more restless; in the end, i.e. in union, he becomes -more steadfast.</p> - -<p class='c001'><i>Quṣúd.</i> By <i>quṣúd</i> (aims) they signify perfect resolution to -seek the reality of the object of search. The aims of the Ṣúfís -do not depend on motion and rest, because the lover, although -he be at rest in love, is still pursuing an aim (<i>qáṣid</i>). In this -respect the Ṣúfís differ from ordinary men, whose aims produce -in them some effect outwardly or inwardly; whereas the lovers -of God seek Him without any cause and pursue their aim -without movement of their own, and all their qualities are -directed towards that goal. Where love exists, all is an aim.</p> - -<p class='c001'><i>Iṣṭiná`.</i> By this term they mean that God makes a man -faultless through the annihilation of all his selfish interests and -sensual pleasures, and transforms in him the attributes of his -lower soul, so that he becomes selfless. This degree belongs -exclusively to the prophets, but some Shaykhs hold that it may -be attained by the saints also.</p> - -<p class='c001'><i>Iṣṭifá.</i> This signifies that God makes a man’s heart empty -to receive the knowledge of Himself, so that His knowledge -(<i>ma`rifat</i>) diffuses its purity through his heart. In this degree -all believers, the vulgar as well as the elect, are alike, whether -they are sinful or pious or saints or prophets, for God hath said: -“<i>We have given the Book as a heritage unto those of our servants -whom We have chosen</i> (iṣṭafayná): <i>some of them are they who -injure their own souls; some are they who keep the mean; and -some are they who excel in good works</i>” (Kor. xxxv, 29).</p> - -<p class='c001'><i>Iṣṭilám.</i> The manifestations (<i>tajalliyát</i>) of God which cause -a man to be entirely overpowered by a merciful probation -(<i>imtiḥán</i>), while his will is reduced to naught. <i>Qalb-i mumtaḥan</i>, -“a proved heart,” and <i>qalb-i muṣṭalam</i>, “a destroyed heart,” -bear the same meaning, although in the current usage of Ṣúfí -phraseology <i>iṣṭilám</i> is more particular and exquisite than <i>imtiḥán</i>.</p> - -<p class='c001'><span class='pageno' id='Page_391'>391</span><i>Rayn.</i> A veil on the heart, i.e. the veil of infidelity and error, -which cannot be removed except by faith. God hath said, -describing the hearts of the unbelievers (Kor. lxxxiii, 14): “<i>By -no means, but what they used to do hath covered their hearts</i>” -(rána `alá qulúbihim). Some have said that <i>rayn</i> cannot possibly -be removed in any manner, since the hearts of unbelievers are -not capable of receiving Islam, and those who do receive it must -have been, in the foreknowledge of God, true believers.</p> - -<p class='c001'><i>Ghayn.</i> A veil on the heart which is removed by asking -pardon of God. It may be either thin or dense. The latter is -for those who forget (God) and commit great sins; the former is -for all, not excepting saint or prophet. Did not the Apostle -say, “Verily, my heart is obscured (<i>yughánu `alá qalbí</i>), and -verily I ask pardon of God a hundred times every day.” For -removing the dense veil a proper repentance is necessary, and -for removing the thin veil a sincere return to God. Repentance -(<i>tawbat</i>) is a turning back from disobedience to obedience, and -return (<i>rujú`</i>) is a turning back from self to God. Repentance -is repentance from sin: the sin of common men is opposition to -God’s command, while the sin of lovers (of God) is opposition -to God’s will: therefore, the sin of common men is disobedience, -and that of lovers is consciousness of their own existence. If -anyone turns back from wrong to right, they say, “He is -repentant (<i>tá´ib</i>);” but if anyone turns back from what is right -to what is more right, they say, “He is returning (<i>á´ib</i>).“ All -this I have set forth in the chapter on repentance.</p> - -<p class='c001'><i>Talbís.</i> They denote by <i>talbís</i> the appearance of a thing -when its appearance is contrary to its reality, as God hath said: -”<i>We should assuredly have deceived them</i> (lalabasná `alayhim) -<i>as they deceive others</i>” (Kor. vi, 9). This quality of deception -cannot possibly belong to anyone except God, who shows the -unbeliever in the guise of a believer and the believer in the guise -of an unbeliever, until the time shall come for the manifestation -of His decree and of the reality in every case. When a Ṣúfí -conceals good qualities under a mask of bad, they say: “He is -practising deception (<i>talbís</i>),” but they use this term in such -<span class='pageno' id='Page_392'>392</span>instances only, and do not apply it to ostentation and hypocrisy, -which are fundamentally <i>talbís</i>, because <i>talbís</i> is not used except -in reference to an act performed by God.</p> - -<p class='c001'><i>Shurb.</i> The Ṣúfís call the sweetness of piety and the delight -of miraculous grace and the pleasure of intimacy <i>shurb</i> -(drinking); and they can do nothing without the delight of -<i>shurb</i>. As the body’s drink is of water, so the heart’s drink is -of (spiritual) pleasure and sweetness. My Shaykh used to say -that a novice without <i>shurb</i> is a stranger to (i.e. unacquainted -with the duties of) the novitiate, and that a gnostic with <i>shurb</i> -is a stranger to gnosis, because the novice must derive some -pleasure (<i>shurbí</i>) from his actions in order that he may fulfil -the obligations of a novice who is seeking God; but the gnostic -ought not to feel such pleasure, lest he should be transported -with that pleasure instead of with God: if he turn back to his -lower soul he will not rest (with God).</p> - -<p class='c001'><i>Dhawq.</i> <i>Dhawq</i> resembles <i>shurb</i>, but <i>shurb</i> is used solely in -reference to pleasures, whereas <i>dhawq</i> is applied to pleasure and -pain alike. One says <i>dhuqtu ´l-ḥaláwat</i>, “I tasted sweetness,” -and <i>dhuqtu ´l-balá</i>, “I tasted affliction;” but of <i>shurb</i> they say, -<i>sharibtu bi-ka´si ´l-waṣl</i>, “I drank the cup of union,” and <i>sharibtu -bi-ka´si ´l-wudd</i>, “I drank the cup of love,” and so forth.<a id='r180' /><a href='#f180' class='c015'><sup>[180]</sup></a></p> - -<hr class='c017' /> -<div class='footnote' id='f177'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r177'>177</a>. <i>Maḥq</i> denotes annihilation of a man’s being in the essence of God, while <i>maḥw</i> -denotes annihilation of his actions in the action of God (Jurjání, <i>Ta`rífát</i>).</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f178'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r178'>178</a>. <i>Nafaḥát</i>, No. 15.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f179'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r179'>179</a>. Here the author refers to the example of Moses, whose prayer for vision of God -was refused (Kor. vii, 139), because he was exercising his own choice.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f180'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r180'>180</a>. This distinction between <i>shurb</i> and <i>dhawq</i> is illustrated by citations from the -Koran, viz., lii, 19; xliv, 49; and liv, 48.</p> -</div> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_393'>393</span> - <h2 id='ch25' class='c011'>CHAPTER XXV. <br /><span class='sc'>The Uncovering of the Eleventh Veil: Concerning Audition</span> (<i>samá`</i>).</h2> -</div> - -<p class='c014'>The means of acquiring knowledge are five: hearing, sight, -taste, smell, and touch. God has created for the mind these -five avenues, and has made every kind of knowledge depend on -one of them. Four of the five senses are situated in a special -organ, but one, namely touch, is diffused over the whole body. -It is possible, however, that this diffusion, which is characteristic -of touch, may be shared by any of the other senses. The -Mu`tazilites hold that no sense can exist but in a special organ -(<i>maḥall-i makhṣúṣ</i>), a theory which is controverted by the fact -that the sense of touch has no such organ. Since one of the -five senses has no special organ, it follows that, if the sense of -touch is generally diffused, the other senses may be capable of -the same diffusion. Although it is not my purpose to discuss -this question here, I thought a brief explanation necessary. -God has sent Apostles with true evidences, but belief in His -Apostles does not become obligatory until the obligatoriness of -knowing God is ascertained by means of hearing. It is hearing, -then, that makes religion obligatory; and for this reason the -Sunnís regard hearing as superior to sight in the domain of -religious obligation (<i>taklíf</i>). If it be said that vision of God is -better than hearing His word, I reply that our knowledge of -God’s visibility to the faithful in Paradise is derived from -hearing: it is a matter of indifference whether the understanding -allows that God shall be visible or not, inasmuch as we are -assured of the fact by oral tradition. Hence hearing is superior -to sight. Moreover, all religious ordinances are based on -hearing and could not be established without it; and all the -prophets on their appearance first spoke in order that those -<span class='pageno' id='Page_394'>394</span>who heard them might believe, then in the second place they -showed miracles (<i>mu`jiza</i>), which also were corroborated by -hearing. What has been said proves that anyone who denies -audition denies the entire religious law.</p> - -<h4 class='c020'><i>Chapter on the Audition of the Koran and kindred matters.</i></h4> - -<p class='c010'>The most beneficial audition to the mind and the most -delightful to the ear is that of the Word of God, which all -believers and unbelievers, human beings and perís alike, are -commanded to hear. It is a miraculous quality of the Koran -that one never grows weary of reading and hearing it, so that -the Quraysh used to come secretly by night and listen to the -Apostle while he was praying and marvel at his recitation, e.g., -Naḍr b. al-Ḥárith, who was the most elegant of them in speech, -and `Utba b. Rabí`a, who was bewitchingly eloquent, and Abú -Jahl b. Hishám, who was a wondrous orator. One night `Utba -swooned on hearing the Apostle recite a chapter of the Koran, -and he said to Abú Jahl: “I am sure that these are not the -words of any created being.” The perís also came and listened -to the Word of God, and said: “<i>Verily, we heard a marvellous -recitation, which guides to the right way; and we shall not -associate anyone with our Lord</i>” (Kor. lxxii, 1-2).<a id='r181' /><a href='#f181' class='c015'><sup>[181]</sup></a> It is related -that a man recited in the presence of `Abdalláh b. Ḥanẕala: -“<i>They shall have a couch of Hell-fire, and above them shall be -quilts thereof</i>” (Kor. vii, 39). `Abdalláh began to weep so -violently that, to quote the narrator’s words, “I thought life -would depart from him.” Then he rose to his feet. They bade -him sit down, but he cried: “Awe of this verse prevents me -from sitting down.” It is related that the following verse was -read in the presence of Junayd: “<i>O believers, why say ye that -which ye do not?</i>” (Kor. lxi, 2). Junayd said: “O Lord, if we -say, we say because of Thee, and if we do, we do because of -Thy blessing: where, then, is our saying and doing?” It is -related that Shiblí said, on hearing the verse “<i>And remember</i> -<span class='pageno' id='Page_395'>395</span><i>thy Lord when thou forgettest</i>” (Kor. xviii, 23), “Remembrance -(of God) involves forgetfulness (of self), and all the world have -stopped short at the remembrance of Him;” then he shrieked -and fell senseless. When he came to himself, he said: -“I wonder at the sinner who can hear God’s Word and remain -unmoved.” A certain Shaykh says: “Once I was reading the -Word of God, ‘<i>Beware of a day on which ye shall be returned -unto God</i>’ (Kor. ii, 281). A heavenly voice called to me, ‘Do -not read so loud; four perís have died from the terror inspired -in them by this verse’.” A dervish said: “For the last ten -years I have not read nor heard the Koran except that small -portion thereof which is used in prayer.” On being asked why, -he answered: “For fear lest it should be cited as an argument -against me.” One day I came into the presence of Shaykh -Abu ´l-`Abbás Shaqání and found him reading: “<i>God propoundeth -as a parable an owned slave who hath naught in his -power</i>” (Kor. xvi, 77), and weeping and shrieking, so that he -swooned and I thought he was dead. “O Shaykh,” I cried, -“what ails thee?” He said: “After eleven years I have -reached this point in my set portion of the Koran and am -unable to proceed farther.” Abu ´l-`Abbás b. `Aṭá was asked -how much of the Koran he read daily. He answered: -“Formerly I used to read the whole Koran twice in a day and -night, but now after reading for fourteen years I have only -reached the <i>Súrat al-Anfál</i>.”<a id='r182' /><a href='#f182' class='c015'><sup>[182]</sup></a> It is related that Abu ´l-`Abbás -Qaṣṣáb said to a Koran-reader, “Recite,” whereupon he recited: -“<i>O noble one, famine hath befallen us and our people, and we are -come with a petty merchandise</i>” (Kor. xii, 88). He said once -more, “Recite,” whereupon the reader recited: “<i>If he stole, -a brother of his hath stolen heretofore</i>” (Kor. xii, 77). Abu ´l-`Abbás -bade him recite a third time, so he recited: “<i>No blame -shall be laid upon you this day: God forgiveth you</i>,” etc. -(Kor. xii, 92). Abu ´l-`Abbás cried: “O Lord, I am more -unjust than Joseph’s brethren, and Thou art more kind than -Joseph: deal with me as he dealt with his wicked brethren.”</p> - -<p class='c001'><span class='pageno' id='Page_396'>396</span>All Moslems, pious and disobedient alike, are commanded to -listen to the Koran, for God hath said: “<i>When the Koran is -recited hearken thereto and be silent that perchance ye may win -mercy</i>” (Kor. vii, 203).<a id='r183' /><a href='#f183' class='c015'><sup>[183]</sup></a> And it is related that the Apostle -said to Ibn Mas`úd: “Recite the Koran to me.” Ibn Mas`úd -said: “Shall I recite it to thee, to whom it was revealed?” -The Apostle answered: “I wish to hear it from another.” This -is a clear proof that the hearer is more perfect in state than the -reader, for the reader may recite with or without true feeling, -whereas the hearer feels truly, because speech is a sort of pride -and hearing is a sort of humility. The Apostle also said that the -chapter of Húd had whitened his hair. It is explained that -he said this because of the verse at the end of that chapter: -“<i>Be thou steadfast, therefore, as thou hast been commanded</i>” -(Kor. xi, 114), for Man is unable to be really steadfast in -fulfilling the Divine commandments, inasmuch as he can do -nothing without God’s help.<a id='r184' /><a href='#f184' class='c015'><sup>[184]</sup></a></p> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c004'> - <div><span class='sc'>Section.</span></div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>Zurára b. Abí Awfá, one of the chief Companions of the -Apostle, while he was presiding over the public worship, recited -a verse of the Koran, uttered a cry, and died. Abú Ja`far -Juhaní,<a id='r185' /><a href='#f185' class='c015'><sup>[185]</sup></a> an eminent Follower, on hearing a verse which Ṣáliḥ -Murrí<a id='r186' /><a href='#f186' class='c015'><sup>[186]</sup></a> read to him, gave a loud moan and departed from this -world. Ibráhím Nakha`í<a id='r187' /><a href='#f187' class='c015'><sup>[187]</sup></a> relates that while he was passing -through a village in the neighbourhood of Kúfa he saw an old -woman standing in prayer. As the marks of holiness were -manifest on her countenance, he waited until she finished -<span class='pageno' id='Page_397'>397</span>praying and then saluted her in hope of gaining a blessing -thereby. She said to him, “Dost thou know the Koran?” -He said, “Yes.” She said, “Recite a verse.” He did so, -whereupon she cried aloud and sent her soul forth to meet the -vision of God. Aḥmad b. Abi ´l-Ḥawárí relates the following -tale. “I saw in the desert a youth, clad in a coarse frock, -standing at the mouth of a well. He said to me: ‘O Aḥmad, -thou art come in good time, for I must needs hear the Koran, -that I may give up my soul. Read me a verse.’ God inspired -me to read, ‘<i>Verily, those who say, “God is our Lord,” and then -are steadfast</i>’ (Kor. xli, 30). ‘O Aḥmad,’ said he, ‘by the Lord -of the Ka`ba thou hast read the same verse which an angel -was reading to me just now,’ and with these words he gave up -his soul.”</p> - -<h4 class='c020'><i>Chapter on the Audition of Poetry, etc.</i></h4> - -<p class='c010'>It is permissible to hear poetry. The Apostle heard it, and -the Companions not only heard it but also spoke it. The -Apostle said, “Some poetry is wisdom;” and he said, “Wisdom -is the believer’s lost she-camel: wherever he finds her, he has -the best right to her;” and he said too, “The truest word ever -spoken by the Arabs is the verse of Labíd,</p> - -<div class='lg-container-b c009'> - <div class='linegroup'> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'>‘<i>Everything except God is vain,</i></div> - <div class='line'><i>And all fortune is inevitably fleeting.</i>’”</div> - </div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>`Amr b. al-Sharíd<a id='r188' /><a href='#f188' class='c015'><sup>[188]</sup></a> relates that his father said: “The Apostle -asked me whether I could recite any poetry of Umayya b. Abi ´l-Ṣalt, -so I recited a hundred verses, and at the end of each verse -he cried, ‘Go on!’ He said that Umayya almost became -a Moslem in his poetry.” Many such stories are told of the -Apostle and the Companions. Erroneous views are prevalent -on this subject. Some declare that it is unlawful to listen to any -poetry whatever, and pass their lives in defaming their brother -Moslems. Some, on the contrary, hold that all poetry is lawful, -and spend their time in listening to love-songs and descriptions -<span class='pageno' id='Page_398'>398</span>of the face and hair and mole of the beloved. I do not intend -to discuss the arguments which both parties in this controversy -bring forward against each other. The Ṣúfí Shaykhs follow the -example of the Apostle, who, on being asked about poetry, -said: “What is good thereof is good and what is bad thereof is -bad,” i.e., whatever is unlawful, like backbiting and calumny and -foul abuse and blame of any person and utterance of infidelity, -is equally unlawful whether it be expressed in prose or in verse; -and whatever is lawful in prose, like morality and exhortations -and inferences drawn from the signs of God and contemplation -of the evidences of the Truth, is no less lawful in verse. In fine, -just as it is unlawful and forbidden to look at or touch a beautiful -object which is a source of evil, so it is unlawful and forbidden -to listen to that object or, similarly, to hear the description of it. -Those who regard such hearing as absolutely lawful must also -regard looking and touching as lawful, which is infidelity and -heresy. If one says, “I hear only God and seek only God in -eye and cheek and mole and curl,” it follows that another may -look at a cheek and mole and say that he sees and seeks God -alone, because both the eye and the ear are sources of admonition -and knowledge; then another may say that in touching a person, -whose description it is thought allowable to hear and whom -it is thought allowable to behold, he, too, is only seeking God, -since one sense is no better adapted than another to apprehend -a reality; then the whole religious law is made null and void, -and the Apostle’s saying that the eyes commit fornication loses -all its force, and the blame of touching persons with whom -marriage may legally be contracted is removed, and the -ordinances of religion fall to the ground. Foolish aspirants to -Ṣúfiism, seeing the adepts absorbed in ecstasy during audition -(<i>samá`</i>), imagined that they were acting from a sensual impulse -and said, “It is lawful, else they would not have done so,” and -imitated them, taking up the form but neglecting the spirit, -until they perished themselves and led others into perdition. -This is one of the great evils of our time. I will set it forth -completely in the proper place.</p> - -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_399'>399</span> - <h4 class='c020'><i>Chapter on the Audition of Voices and Melodies.</i></h4> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>The Apostle said, “Beautify your voices by reading the -Koran aloud;” and God hath said, “<i>God addeth unto His -creatures what He pleaseth</i>” (Kor. xxxv, 1), meaning, as the -commentators think, a beautiful voice; and the Apostle said, -“Whoso wishes to hear the voice of David, let him listen to the -voice of Abú Músá al-Ash`arí.” It is stated in well-known -traditions that the inhabitants of Paradise enjoy audition, for -there comes forth from every tree a different voice and melody. -When diverse sounds are mingled together, the natural temperament -experiences a great delight. This sort of audition is -common to all living creatures, because the spirit is subtle, -and there is a subtlety in sounds, so that when they are heard -the spirit inclines to that which is homogeneous with itself. -Physicians and those philosophers who claim to possess a -profound knowledge of the truth have discussed this subject -at large and have written books on musical harmony. The -results of their invention are manifest to-day in the musical -instruments which have been contrived for the sake of exciting -passion and procuring amusement and pleasure, in accord with -Satan, and so skilfully that (as the story is told) one day, -when Isḥáq of Mawṣil<a id='r189' /><a href='#f189' class='c015'><sup>[189]</sup></a> was playing in a garden, a nightingale, -enraptured with the music, broke off its song in order to listen, -and dropped dead from the bough. I have heard many tales -of this kind, but my only purpose is to mention the theory that -the temperaments of all living creatures are composed of sounds -and melodies blended and harmonized. Ibráhím Khawwáṣ says: -“Once I came to an Arab tribe and alighted at the hospitable -abode of one of their chiefs. I saw a negro lying, shackled and -chained, at the tent door in the heat of the sun. I felt pity for -him and resolved to intercede with the chief on his behalf. -When food was brought for my entertainment I refused to eat, -knowing that nothing grieves an Arab more than this. The -<span class='pageno' id='Page_400'>400</span>chief asked me why I refused, and I answered that I hoped his -generosity would grant me a boon. He begged me to eat, -assuring me that all he possessed was mine. ‘I do not want -your wealth,' I said, ‘but pardon this slave for my sake.’ ‘First -hear what his offence was,’ the chief replied, ‘then remove his -chains. This slave is a camel-driver, and he has a sweet voice. -I sent him with a few camels to my estates, to fetch me some -corn. He put a double load on every camel and chanted so -sweetly on the way that the camels ran at full speed. They -returned hither in a short time, and as soon as he unloaded -them they died one after another.’ ‘O prince,’ I cried in -astonishment, ‘a nobleman like you does not speak falsely, -but I wish for some evidence of this tale.’ While we talked -a number of camels were brought from the desert to the wells, -that they might drink. The chief inquired how long they had -gone without water. ‘Three days,’ was the reply. He then -commanded the slave to chant. The camels became so occupied -in listening to his song that they would not drink a mouthful of -water, and suddenly they turned and fled, one by one, and -dispersed in the desert. The chieftain released the slave and -pardoned him for my sake.”</p> - -<p class='c001'>We often see, for example, how camels and asses are affected -with delight when their drivers trill an air. In Khurásán and -`Iráq it is the custom for hunters, when hunting deer (<i>áhú</i>) at -night, to beat on a basin of brass (<i>ṭashtí</i>) in order that the deer -may stand still, listening to the sound, and thus be caught. -And in India, as is well known, some people go out to the open -country and sing and make a tinkling sound, on hearing which -the deer approach; then the hunters encircle them and sing, -until the deer are lulled to sleep by the delightful melody -and are easily captured. The same effect is manifest in young -children who cease crying in the cradle when a tune is sung to -them, and listen to the tune. Physicians say of such a child -that he is sensible and will be clever when he grows up. On -the death of one of the ancient kings of Persia his ministers -wished to enthrone his son, who was a child two years old. -<span class='pageno' id='Page_401'>401</span>Buzurjmihr,<a id='r190' /><a href='#f190' class='c015'><sup>[190]</sup></a> on being consulted, said: “Very good, but we -must make trial whether he is sensible,” and ordered singers to -sing to him. The child was stirred with emotion and began -to shake his arms and legs. Buzurjmihr declared that this was -a hopeful sign and consented to his succession. Anyone who -says that he finds no pleasure in sounds and melodies and -music is either a liar and a hypocrite or he is not in his right -senses, and is outside of the category of men and beasts. Those -who prohibit music do so in order that they may keep the -Divine commandment, but theologians are agreed that it is -permissible to hear musical instruments if they are not used for -diversion, and if the mind is not led to wickedness through -hearing them. Many traditions are cited in support of this -view. Thus, it is related that `Á´isha said: “A slave-girl was -singing in my house when `Umar asked leave to enter. As -soon as she heard his step she ran away. He came in and the -Apostle smiled. ‘O Apostle of God,’ cried `Umar, ‘what hath -made thee smile?’ The Apostle answered, ‘A slave-girl was -singing here, but she ran away as soon as she heard thy step.’ -‘I will not depart,’ said `Umar, ‘until I hear what the Apostle -heard.’ So the Apostle called the girl back and she began to -sing, the Apostle listening to her.” Many of the Companions -have related similar traditions, which Abú `Abd al-Raḥmán -al-Sulamí has collected in his <i>Kitáb al-Samá`</i><a id='r191' /><a href='#f191' class='c015'><sup>[191]</sup></a>; and he has -pronounced such audition to be permissible. In practising -audition, however, the Ṣúfí Shaykhs desire, not permissibility as -the vulgar do, but spiritual advantages. Licence is proper for -beasts, but men who are subject to the obligations of religion -ought to seek spiritual benefit from their actions. Once, when -I was at Merv, one of the leaders of the <i>Ahl-i ḥadíth</i><a id='r192' /><a href='#f192' class='c015'><sup>[192]</sup></a> and the -most celebrated of them all said to me: “I have composed -a work on the permissibility of audition.” I replied: “It is -<span class='pageno' id='Page_402'>402</span>a great calamity to religion that the Imám should have made -lawful an amusement which is the root of all immorality.” “If -you do not hold it to be lawful,” said he, “why do you practise -it?” I answered: “Its lawfulness depends on circumstances -and cannot be asserted absolutely: if audition produces a lawful -effect on the mind, then it is lawful; it is unlawful if the effect -is unlawful, and permissible if the effect is permissible.”</p> - -<h4 class='c020'><i>Chapter on the Principles of Audition.</i></h4> - -<p class='c010'>You must know that the principles of audition vary with the -variety of temperaments, just as there are different desires in -various hearts, and it is tyranny to lay down one law for all. -Auditors (<i>mustami`án</i>) may be divided into two classes: (1) those -who hear the spiritual meaning, (2) those who hear the material -sound. There are good and evil results in each case. Listening -to sweet sounds produces an effervescence (<i>ghalayán</i>) of the -substance moulded in Man: true (<i>ḥaqq</i>) if the substance be -true, false (<i>báṭil</i>) if the substance be false. When the stuff of -a man’s temperament is evil, that which he hears will be evil -too. The whole of this topic is illustrated by the story of -David, whom God made His vicegerent and gave him a sweet -voice and caused his throat to be a melodious pipe, so that -wild beasts and birds came from mountain and plain to hear -him, and the water ceased to flow and the birds fell from the -air. It is related that during a month’s space the people who -were gathered round him in the desert ate no food, and the -children neither wept nor asked for milk; and whenever the -folk departed it was found that many had died of the rapture -that seized them as they listened to his voice: one time, it is -said, the tale of the dead amounted to seven hundred maidens -and twelve thousand old men. Then God, wishing to separate -those who listened to the voice and followed their temperament -from the followers of the truth (<i>ahl-i ḥaqq</i>) who listened to the -spiritual reality, permitted Iblís to work his will and display -his wiles. Iblís fashioned a mandoline and a flute and took -up a station opposite to the place where David was singing. -<span class='pageno' id='Page_403'>403</span>David’s audience became divided into two parties: the blest and -the damned. Those who were destined to damnation lent ear -to the music of Iblís, while those who were destined to felicity -remained listening to the voice of David. The spiritualists -(<i>ahl-i ma`ní</i>) were conscious of nothing except David’s voice, -for they saw God alone; if they heard the Devil’s music, they -regarded it as a temptation proceeding from God, and if they -heard David’s voice, they recognized it as being a direction from -God; wherefore they abandoned all things that are merely -subsidiary and saw both right and wrong as they really are. -When a man has audition of this kind, whatever he hears is -lawful to him. Some impostors, however, say that their audition -is contrary to the reality. This is absurd, for the perfection of -saintship consists in seeing everything as it really is, that the -vision may be right; if you see otherwise, the vision is wrong. -The Apostle said: “O God, let us see things as they are.” -Similarly, right audition consists in hearing everything as it is -in quality and predicament. The reason why men are seduced -and their passions excited by musical instruments is that they -hear unreally: if their audition corresponded with the reality, -they would escape from all evil consequences. The people of -error heard the word of God, and their error waxed greater -than before. Some of them quoted “<i>The eyes attain not unto -Him</i>” (Kor. vi, 103) as a demonstration that there shall be no -vision of God; some cited “<i>Then He settled Himself on the -throne”</i> (Kor. vii, 52) to prove that position and direction may -be affirmed of Him; and some argued that God actually -“comes”, since He has said, “<i>And thy Lord shall come and -the angels rank by rank</i>” (Kor. lxxxix, 23). Inasmuch as error -was implanted in their minds, it profited them nothing to hear -the Word of God. The Unitarian, on the other hand, when -he peruses a poem, regards the Creator of the poet’s nature -and the Disposer of his thoughts, and drawing an admonition -therefrom, sees in the act an evidence of the Agent. Thus he -finds the right way even in falsehood, while those whom we have -mentioned above lose the way in the midst of truth.</p> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c004'> - <div><span class='pageno' id='Page_404'>404</span><span class='sc'>Section.</span></div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>The Shaykhs have uttered many sayings on this subject. -Dhu ´l-Nún the Egyptian says: “Audition is a Divine influence -(<i>wárid al-ḥaqq</i>) which stirs the heart to seek God: those who -listen to it spiritually (<i>ba-ḥaqq</i>) attain unto God (<i>taḥaqqaqa</i>), -and those who listen to it sensually (<i>ba-nafs</i>) fall into heresy -(<i>tazandaqa</i>).” This venerable Ṣúfí does not mean that audition -is the cause of attaining unto God, but he means that the -auditor ought to hear the spiritual reality, not the mere sound, -and that the Divine influence ought to sink into his heart and -stir it up. One who in that audition follows the truth will -experience a revelation, whereas one who follows his lower soul -(<i>nafs</i>) will be veiled and will have recourse to interpretation -(<i>ta´wíl</i>). <i>Zandaqa</i> (heresy) is a Persian word which has been -Arabicized. In the Arabic tongue it signifies “interpretation”. -Accordingly, the Persians call the commentary on their Book -<i>Zand ú Pázand</i>.<a id='r193' /><a href='#f193' class='c015'><sup>[193]</sup></a> The philologists, wishing to give a name to -the descendants of the Magians, called them <i>zindíq</i> on the -ground of their assertion that everything stated by the Moslems -has an esoteric interpretation, which destroys its external sense. -At the present day the Shí`ites of Egypt, who are the remnant -of these Magians, make the same assertion. Hence the word -<i>zindíq</i> came to be applied to them as a proper name. Dhu ´l-Nún, -by using this term, intended to declare that spiritualists -in audition penetrate to the reality, while sensualists make -a far-fetched interpretation and thereby fall into wickedness. -Shiblí says: “Audition is outwardly a temptation (<i>fitnat</i>) and -inwardly an admonition (<i>`ibrat</i>): he who knows the mystic -sign (<i>ishárat</i>) may lawfully hear the admonition; otherwise, he -has invited temptation and exposed himself to calamity,” -i.e. audition is calamitous and a source of evil to anyone whose -whole heart is not absorbed in the thought of God. Abú `Alí -Rúdbárí said, in answer to a man who questioned him concerning -audition: “Would that I were rid of it entirely!” because Man -<span class='pageno' id='Page_405'>405</span>is unable to do everything as it ought to be done, and when he -fails to do a thing duly he perceives that he has failed and -wishes to be rid of it altogether. One of the Shaykhs says: -“Audition is that which makes the heart aware of the things in -it that produce absence” (<i>má fíhá mina ´l-mughayyibát</i>), so that -the effect thereof is to make the heart present with God. -Absence (<i>ghaybat</i>) is a most blameworthy quality of the heart. -The lover, though absent from his Beloved, must be present -with him in heart; if he be absent in heart, his love is gone. My -Shaykh said: “Audition is the viaticum of the indigent: one -who has reached his journey’s end hath no need of it,” because -hearing can perform no function where union is; news is heard -of the absent, but hearing is naught when two are face to face. -Ḥuṣrí says: “What avails an audition that ceases whenever -the person whom thou hearest becomes silent? It is necessary -that thy audition should be continuous and uninterrupted.” -This saying is a token of the concentration of his thoughts -in the field of love. When a man attains so high a degree as -this he hears (spiritual truths) from every object in the -universe.</p> - -<h4 class='c020'><i>Chapter on the various opinions respecting Audition.</i></h4> - -<p class='c010'>The Shaykhs and spiritualists hold different views as to -audition. Some say that it is a faculty appertaining to absence, -for in contemplation (of God) audition is impossible, inasmuch -as the lover who is united with his Beloved fixes his gaze on -Him and does not need to listen to him; therefore, audition is -a faculty of beginners which they employ, when distracted by -forgetfulness, in order to obtain concentration; but one who is -already concentrated will inevitably be distracted thereby. -Others, again, say that audition is a faculty appertaining to -presence (with God), because love demands all; until the whole -of the lover is absorbed in the whole of the Beloved, he is -deficient in love: therefore, as in union the heart (<i>dil</i>) has love -and the soul (<i>sirr</i>) has contemplation and the spirit has union -and the body has service, so the ear also must have such -<span class='pageno' id='Page_406'>406</span>a pleasure as the eye derives from seeing. How excellent, -though on a frivolous topic, are the words of the poet who -declared his love for wine!</p> - -<div class='lg-container-b c009'> - <div class='linegroup'> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'>“<i>Give me wine to drink and tell me it is wine.</i></div> - <div class='line'><i>Do not give it me in secret, when it can be given openly</i>,”<a id='r194' /><a href='#f194' class='c015'><sup>[194]</sup></a></div> - </div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>i.e., let my eye see it and my hand touch it and my palate taste -it and my nose smell it: there yet remains one sense to be -gratified, viz. my hearing: tell me, therefore, this is wine, that -my ear may feel the same delight as my other senses. And -they say that audition appertains to presence with God, because -he who is absent from God is a disbeliever (<i>munkir</i>), and those -who disbelieve are not worthy to enjoy audition. Accordingly, -there are two kinds of audition: mediate and immediate. -Audition of which a reciter (<i>qárí</i>) is the source is a faculty of -absence, but audition of which the Beloved (<i>yárí</i>) is the source -is a faculty of presence. It was on this account that a well-known -spiritual director said: “I will not put any created -beings, except the chosen men of God, in a place where I can -hear their talk or converse with them.”</p> - -<h4 class='c020'><i>Chapter concerning their different grades in the reality of Audition.</i></h4> - -<p class='c010'>You must know that each Ṣúfí has a particular grade in -audition and that the feelings which he gains therefrom are -proportionate to his grade. Thus, whatever is heard by -penitents augments their contrition and remorse; whatever is -heard by longing lovers increases their longing for vision; -whatever is heard by those who have certain faith confirms their -certainty; whatever is heard by novices verifies their elucidation -(of matters which perplex them); whatever is heard by lovers -impels them to cut off all worldly connexions; and whatever is -heard by the spiritually poor forms a foundation for hopelessness. -Audition is like the sun, which shines on all things but affects -<span class='pageno' id='Page_407'>407</span>them differently according to their degree: it burns or illumines -or dissolves or nurtures. All the classes that I have mentioned -are included in the three following grades: beginners (<i>mubtadiyán</i>), -middlemen (<i>mutawassiṭán</i>), and adepts (<i>kámilán</i>). -I will now insert a section treating of the state of each of these -three grades in regard to audition, that you may understand -this matter more easily.</p> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c004'> - <div><span class='sc'>Section.</span></div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>Audition is an influence (<i>wárid</i>) proceeding from God, and -inasmuch as this body is moulded of folly and diversion the -temperament of the beginner is nowise capable of (enduring) the -word of God, but is overpoweringly impressed by the descent -of that spiritual reality, so that some lose their senses in -audition and some die, and there is no one whose temperament -retains its equilibrium. It is well known that in the hospitals -of Rúm they have invented a wonderful thing which they call -<i>angalyún</i>;<a id='r195' /><a href='#f195' class='c015'><sup>[195]</sup></a> the Greeks call anything that is very marvellous -by this name, e.g. the Gospel and the books (<i>waḍ`</i>) of Mání -(Manes). The word signifies “promulgation of a decree” -(<i>iẕhár-i ḥukm</i>). This <i>angalyún</i> resembles a stringed musical -instrument (<i>rúdí az rúdha</i>). The sick are brought to it two -days in the week and are forced to listen, while it is being -played on, for a length of time proportionate to the malady -from which they suffer; then they are taken away. If it is -desired to kill anyone, he is kept there for a longer period, -until he dies. Everyone’s term of life is really written (in the -tablets of destiny), but death is caused indirectly by various -circumstances. Physicians and others may listen continually -to the <i>angalyún</i> without being affected in any way, because it -is consonant with their temperaments. I have seen in India -a worm which appeared in a deadly poison and lived by it, -because that poison was its whole being. In a town of -Turkistán, on the frontiers of Islam, I saw a burning mountain, -from the rocks of which sal-ammoniac fumes (<i>nawshádur</i>) were -<span class='pageno' id='Page_408'>408</span>boiling forth;<a id='r196' /><a href='#f196' class='c015'><sup>[196]</sup></a> and in the midst of that fire was a mouse, which -died when it came out of the glowing heat. My object in -citing these examples is to show that all the agitation of -beginners, when the Divine influence descends upon them, is -due to the fact that their bodies are opposed to it; but when it -becomes continual the beginner receives it quietly. At first -the Apostle could not bear the vision of Gabriel, but in the end -he used to be distressed if Gabriel ever failed to come, even for -a brief space. Similarly, the stories which I have related above -show that beginners are agitated and that adepts are tranquil in -audition. Junayd had a disciple who was wont to be greatly -agitated in audition, so that the other dervishes were distracted. -They complained to Junayd, and he told the disciple that he -would not associate with him if he displayed such agitation -in future. “I watched that dervish,” says Abú Muḥammad -Jurayrí, “during audition: he kept his lips shut and was silent -until every pore in his body opened; then he lost consciousness, -and remained in that state for a whole day. I know not -whether his audition or his reverence for his spiritual director -was more perfect.” It is related that a man cried out during -audition. His spiritual director bade him be quiet. He laid -his head on his knee, and when they looked he was dead. -I heard Shaykh Abú Muslim Fáris b. Ghálib al-Fárisí say that -some one laid his hand on the head of a dervish who was -agitated during audition and told him to sit down: he sat -down and died on the spot. Raqqí<a id='r197' /><a href='#f197' class='c015'><sup>[197]</sup></a> relates that Darráj<a id='r198' /><a href='#f198' class='c015'><sup>[198]</sup></a> said: -“While Ibn al-Qúṭí<a id='r199' /><a href='#f199' class='c015'><sup>[199]</sup></a> and I were walking on the bank of the -Tigris between Baṣra and Ubulla, we came to a pavilion and -saw a handsome man seated on the roof, and beside him a girl -who was singing this verse:—</p> - -<div class='lg-container-b c009'> - <div class='linegroup'> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'><span class='pageno' id='Page_409'>409</span>‘<i>My love was bestowed on thee in the way of God;</i></div> - <div class='line'><i>Thou changest every day: it would beseem thee better not to do this.</i>’</div> - </div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c019'>A young man with a jug and a patched frock was standing -beneath the pavilion. He exclaimed: ‘O damsel, for God’s -sake chant that verse again, for I have only a moment to live; -let me hear it and die!’ The girl repeated her song, whereupon -the youth uttered a cry and gave up his soul. The owner of the -girl said to her, ‘Thou art free,’ and came down from the roof -and busied himself with preparations for the young man’s funeral. -When he was buried all the people of Baṣra said prayers over -him. Then the girl’s master rose and said: ‘O people of Baṣra, -I, who am so-and-so, the son of so-and-so, have devoted all my -wealth to pious works and have set free my slaves.’ With these -words he departed, and no one ever learned what became of -him.” The moral of this tale is that the novice should be -transported by audition to such an extent that his audition -shall deliver the wicked from their wickedness. But in the -present age some persons attend meetings where the wicked -listen to music, yet they say, “We are listening to God;” and -the wicked join with them in this audition and are encouraged -in their wickedness, so that both parties are destroyed. Junayd -was asked: “May we go to a church for the purpose of -admonishing ourselves and beholding the indignity of their -unbelief and giving thanks for the gift of Islam?” He replied: -“If you can go to a church and bring some of the worshippers -back with you to the Court of God, then go, but not otherwise.” -When an anchorite goes into a tavern, the tavern becomes his -cell, and when a haunter of taverns goes into a cell, that cell -becomes his tavern. An eminent Shaykh relates that when he -was walking in Baghdád with a dervish, he heard a singer -chanting—</p> - -<div class='lg-container-b c009'> - <div class='linegroup'> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'>“<i>If it be true, it is the best of all objects of desire,</i></div> - <div class='line'><i>And if not, we have lived a pleasant life in it.</i>”</div> - </div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c019'>The dervish uttered a cry and died. Abú `Alí Rúdbárí says: -<span class='pageno' id='Page_410'>410</span>“I saw a dervish listening attentively to the voice of a singer. -I too inclined my ear, for I wished to know what he was -chanting. The words, which he sang in mournful accents, were -these:—</p> - -<div class='lg-container-b c009'> - <div class='linegroup'> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'>‘<i>I humbly stretch my hand to him who gives food liberally.</i>’</div> - </div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c019'>Then the dervish uttered a loud cry and fell. When we came -near him we found that he was dead.” A certain man says: -“I was walking on a mountain road with Ibráhím Khawwáṣ. -A sudden thrill of emotion seized my heart, and I chanted—</p> - -<div class='lg-container-b c009'> - <div class='linegroup'> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'>‘<i>All men are sure that I am in love,</i></div> - <div class='line'><i>But they know not whom I love.</i></div> - <div class='line'><i>There is in Man no beauty</i></div> - <div class='line'><i>That is not surpassed in beauty by a beautiful voice.</i>’</div> - </div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c019'>Ibráhím begged me to repeat the verses, and I did so. In -sympathetic ecstasy (<i>tawájud</i>) he danced a few steps on the -stony ground. I observed that his feet sank into the rock as -though it were wax. Then he fell in a swoon. On coming to -himself he said to me: ‘I have been in Paradise, and you were -unaware.’“ I once saw with my own eyes a dervish walking in -meditation among the mountains of Ádharbáyaján and rapidly -singing to himself these verses, with many tears and moans:—</p> - -<div class='lg-container-b c009'> - <div class='linegroup'> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'>”<i>By God, sun never rose or set but thou wert my heart’s desire and my dream.</i></div> - <div class='line'><i>And I never sat conversing with any people but thou wert the subject of my conversation in the midst of my comrades.</i></div> - <div class='line'><i>And I never mentioned thee in joy or sorrow but love for thee was mingled with my breath.</i></div> - <div class='line'><i>And I never resolved to drink water, when I was athirst, but I saw an image of thee in the cup.</i></div> - <div class='line'><i>And were I able to come I would have visited thee, crawling on my face or walking on my head.</i>”</div> - </div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>On hearing these verses he changed countenance and sat down -for a while, leaning his back against a crag, and gave up his soul.</p> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c004'> - <div><span class='pageno' id='Page_411'>411</span><span class='sc'>Section.</span></div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>Some of the Ṣúfí Shaykhs have objected to the hearing of -odes and poems and to the recitation of the Koran in such -a way that its words are intoned with undue emphasis, and they -have warned their disciples against these practices and have -themselves eschewed them and have displayed the utmost zeal -in this matter. Of such objectors there are several classes, and -each class has a different reason. Some have found traditions -declaring the practices in question to be unlawful and have -followed the pious Moslems of old in condemning them. They -cite, for example, the Apostle’s rebuke to Shírín, the handmaid -of Ḥassán b. Thábit, whom he forbade to sing; and `Umar’s -flogging the Companions who used to hear music; and `Alí’s -finding fault with Mu`áwiya for keeping singing-girls, and his -not allowing Ḥasan to look at the Abyssinian woman who used -to sing and his calling her “the Devil’s mate”. They say, -moreover, that their chief argument for the objectionableness of -music is the fact that the Moslem community, both now and in -past times, are generally agreed in regarding it with disapproval. -Some go so far as to pronounce it absolutely unlawful, quoting -Abu ´l-Ḥárith Bunání, who relates as follows: “I was very -assiduous in audition. One night a certain person came to my -cell and told me that a number of seekers of God had assembled -and were desirous to see me. I went out with him and soon -arrived at the place. They received me with extraordinary -marks of honour. An old man, round whom they had formed -a circle, said to me: ‘With thy leave, some poetry will be -recited.’ I assented, whereupon one of them began to chant -verses which the poets had composed on the subject of -separation (from the beloved). They all rose in sympathetic -ecstasy, uttering melodious cries and making exquisite gestures, -while I remained lost in amazement at their behaviour. They -continued in this enthusiasm until near daybreak, then the old -man said, ‘O Shaykh, art not thou curious to learn who am -I and who are my companions?’ I answered that the reverence -which I felt towards him prevented me from asking that -<span class='pageno' id='Page_412'>412</span>question. ‘I myself,’ said he, ‘was once `Azrá`íl and am now -Iblís, and all the rest are my children. Two benefits accrue to -me from such concerts as this: firstly, I bewail my own -separation (from God) and remember the days of my prosperity, -and secondly, I lead holy men astray and cast them into error.’ -From that time (said the narrator) I have never had the least -desire to practise audition.”</p> - -<p class='c001'>I, `Alí b. `Uthmán al-Jullábí, have heard the Shaykh and -Imám Abu ´l-`Abbás al-Ashqání relate that one day, being in an -assembly where audition was going on, he saw naked demons -dancing among the members of the party and breathing upon -them, so that they waxed hot.</p> - -<p class='c001'>Others, again, refuse to practise audition on the ground that, -if they indulged in it, their disciples would conform with them -and thereby run a grave risk of falling into mischief and of -returning from penitence to sin and of having their passions -violently roused and their virtue corrupted. It is related that -Junayd said to a recently converted disciple: “If you wish to -keep your religion safe and to maintain your penitence, do not -indulge, while you are young, in the audition which the Ṣúfís -practise; and when you grow old, do not let yourself be the -cause of guilt in others.”</p> - -<p class='c001'>Others say that there are two classes of auditors: those who -are frivolous (<i>láhí</i>) and those who are divine (<i>iláhí</i>). The -former are in the very centre of mischief and do not shrink -from it, while the latter keep themselves remote from mischief -by means of self-mortification and austerities and spiritual -renunciation of all created things. “Since we” (so say the -persons of whom I am now speaking) “belong to neither of -these two classes, it is better for us to abstain from audition and -to occupy ourselves with something that is suitable to our -state.”</p> - -<p class='c001'>Others say: “Inasmuch as audition is dangerous to the -vulgar and their belief is disturbed by our taking part in it, -and inasmuch as they are unable to attain to our degree therein -and incur guilt through us, we have pity on the vulgar and give -<span class='pageno' id='Page_413'>413</span>sincere advice to the elect and from altruistic motives decline -to indulge in audition.” This is a laudable course of action.</p> - -<p class='c001'>Others say: “The Apostle has said, ‘It contributes to the -excellence of a man’s Islam if he leaves alone that which -does not concern him.’ Accordingly, we renounce audition as -being unnecessary, for it is a waste of time to busy one’s self -with irrelevant things, and time is precious between lovers and -the Beloved.”</p> - -<p class='c001'>Others of the elect argue that audition is hearsay and its -pleasure consists in gratification of a desire, and this is mere -child’s play. What value has hearsay when one is face to face? -The act of real worth is contemplation (of God).</p> - -<p class='c001'>Such, in brief, are the principles of audition.</p> - -<h4 class='c020'><i>Chapter on</i> Wajd <i>and</i> Wujúd <i>and</i> Tawájud.</h4> - -<p class='c010'><i>Wajd</i> and <i>wujúd</i> are verbal nouns, the former meaning “grief” -and the latter “finding”. These terms are used by Ṣúfís to -denote two states which manifest themselves in audition: one -state is connected with grief, and the other with gaining the -object of desire. The real sense of “grief” is “loss of the -Beloved and failure to gain the object of desire”, while the real -sense of “finding” is “attainment of the desired object”. The -difference between <i>ḥazan</i> (sorrow) and <i>wajd</i> is this, that the -term <i>ḥazan</i> is applied to a selfish grief, whereas the term <i>wajd</i> -is applied to grief for another in the way of love, albeit the -relation of otherness belongs only to the seeker of God, for God -Himself is never other than He is. It is impossible to explain -the nature of <i>wajd</i>, because <i>wajd</i> is pain in actual vision, -and pain (<i>alam</i>) cannot be described by pen (<i>qalam</i>). <i>Wajd</i> -is a mystery between the seeker and the Sought, which only -a revelation can expound. Nor is it possible to indicate the -nature of <i>wujúd</i>, because <i>wujúd</i> is a thrill of emotion in contemplation -of God, and emotion (<i>ṭarab</i>) cannot be reached by -investigation (<i>ṭalab</i>). <i>Wujúd</i> is a grace bestowed by the -Beloved on the lover, a grace of which no symbol can suggest -the real nature. In my opinion, <i>wajd</i> is a painful affection of -<span class='pageno' id='Page_414'>414</span>the heart, arising either from jest or earnest, either from sadness -or gladness; and <i>wujúd</i> is the removal of a grief from the -heart and the discovery of the object that was its cause. He -who feels <i>wajd</i> is either agitated by ardent longing in the -state of occultation (<i>ḥijáb</i>), or calmed by contemplation in the -state of revelation (<i>kashf</i>). The Shaykhs hold different views -on the question whether <i>wajd</i> or <i>wujúd</i> is more perfect. Some -argue that, <i>wujúd</i> being characteristic of novices (<i>murídán</i>), and -<i>wajd</i> of gnostics (<i>`árifán</i>), and gnostics being more exalted in -degree than novices, it follows that <i>wajd</i> is higher and more -perfect than <i>wujúd</i>; for (they say) everything that is capable of -being found is apprehensible, and apprehensibility is characteristic -of that which is homogeneous with something else: it -involves finiteness, whereas God is infinite; therefore, what -a man finds is naught but a feeling (<i>mashrabí</i>), but what he -has not found, and in despair has ceased to seek, is the Truth -of which the only finder is God. Some, again, declare that -<i>wajd</i> is the glowing passion of novices, while <i>wujúd</i> is a gift -bestowed on lovers, and, since lovers are more exalted than -novices, quiet enjoyment of the gift must be more perfect than -passionate seeking. This problem cannot be solved without -a story, which I will now relate. One day Shiblí came in -rapturous ecstasy to Junayd. Seeing that Junayd was sorrowful, -he asked what ailed him. Junayd said, “He who seeks shall -find.” Shiblí cried, “No; he who finds shall seek.” This -anecdote has been discussed by the Shaykhs, because Junayd -was referring to <i>wajd</i> and Shibli to <i>wujúd</i>. I think Junayd’s -view is authoritative, for, when a man knows that his object of -worship is not of the same <i>genus</i> as himself, his grief has no end. -This topic has been handled in the present work. The Shaykhs -agree that the power of knowledge should be greater than the -power of <i>wajd</i>, since, if <i>wajd</i> be more powerful, the person -affected by it is in a dangerous position, whereas one in whom -knowledge preponderates is secure. It behoves the seeker in -all circumstances to be a follower of knowledge and of the -religious law, for when he is overcome by <i>wajd</i> he is deprived -<span class='pageno' id='Page_415'>415</span>of discrimination (<i>khiṭáb</i>), and is not liable to recompense for -good actions or punishment for evil, and is exempt from honour -and disgrace alike: therefore he is in the predicament of madmen, -not in that of the saints and favourites of God. A person -in whom knowledge (<i>`ilm</i>) preponderates over feeling (<i>ḥál</i>) -remains in the bosom of the Divine commands and prohibitions, -and is always praised and rewarded in the palace of glory; but -a person in whom feeling preponderates over knowledge is -outside of the ordinances, and dwells, having lost the faculty of -discrimination, in his own imperfection. This is precisely the -meaning of Junayd’s words. There are two ways: one of -knowledge and one of action. Action without knowledge, -although it may be good, is ignorant and imperfect, but -knowledge, even if it be unaccompanied by action, is glorious -and noble. Hence Abú Yazíd said, “The unbelief of the -magnanimous is nobler than the Islam of the covetous;” and -Junayd said, “Shiblí is intoxicated; if he became sober he -would be an Imám from whom people would benefit.” It is a -well-known story that Junayd and Muḥammad<a id='r200' /><a href='#f200' class='c015'><sup>[200]</sup></a> b. Masrúq and -Abu ´l-`Abbás b. `Aṭá were together, and the singer (<i>qawwál</i>) was -chanting a verse. Junayd remained calm while his two friends -fell into a forced ecstasy (<i>tawájud</i>), and on their asking him -why he did not participate in the audition (<i>samá`</i>) he recited -the word of God: “<i>Thou shall think them</i> (the mountains) -<i>motionless, but they shall pass like the clouds</i>” (Kor. xxvii, 90). -<i>Tawájud</i> is “taking pains to produce wajd”, by representing to -one’s mind, for example, the bounties and evidences of God, -and thinking of union (<i>ittiṣál</i>) and wishing for the practices of -holy men. Some do this <i>tawájud</i> in a formal manner, and -imitate them by outward motions and methodical dancing and -grace of gesture: such <i>tawájud</i> is absolutely unlawful. Others -do it in a spiritual manner, with the desire of attaining to their -condition and degree. The Apostle said, “He who makes himself -like unto a people is one of them,” and he said, “When ye -recite the Koran, weep, or if ye weep not, then endeavour to -<span class='pageno' id='Page_416'>416</span>weep.” This tradition proclaims that <i>tawájud</i> is permissible. -Hence that spiritual director said: “I will go a thousand leagues -in falsehood, that one step of the journey may be true.”</p> - -<h4 class='c020'><i>Chapter on Dancing, etc.</i></h4> - -<p class='c010'>You must know that dancing (<i>raqṣ</i>) has no foundation either -in the religious law (of Islam) or in the path (of Ṣúfiism), -because all reasonable men agree that it is a diversion when it -is in earnest, and an impropriety (<i>laghwí</i>) when it is in jest. -None of the Shaykhs has commended it or exceeded due bounds -therein, and all the traditions cited in its favour by anthropomorphists -(<i>ahl-i ḥashw</i>) are worthless. But since ecstatic -movements and the practices of those who endeavour to induce -ecstasy (<i>ahl-i tawájud</i>) resemble it, some frivolous imitators have -indulged in it immoderately and have made it a religion. -I have met with a number of common people who adopted -Ṣúfiism in the belief that it is this (dancing) and nothing more. -Others have condemned it altogether. In short, all foot-play -(<i>páy-bází</i>) is bad in law and reason, by whomsoever it is -practised, and the best of mankind cannot possibly practise it; -but when the heart throbs with exhilaration and rapture -becomes intense and the agitation of ecstasy is manifested and -conventional forms are gone, that agitation (<i>iḍtiráb</i>) is neither -dancing nor foot-play nor bodily indulgence, but a dissolution -of the soul. Those who call it “dancing” are utterly wrong. -It is a state that cannot be explained in words: “without -experience no knowledge.”</p> - -<p class='c001'><i>Looking at youths</i> (aḥdáth). Looking at youths and associating -with them are forbidden practices, and anyone who declares -this to be allowable is an unbeliever. The traditions brought -forward in this matter are vain and foolish. I have seen -ignorant persons who suspected the Ṣúfís of the crime in -question and regarded them with abhorrence, and I observed -that some have made it a religious rule (<i>madhhabí</i>). All the -Ṣúfí Shaykhs, however, have recognized the wickedness of such -practices, which the adherents of incarnation (<i>ḥulúliyán</i>)—may -<span class='pageno' id='Page_417'>417</span>God curse them!—have left as a stigma on the saints of God -and the aspirants to Ṣúfiism. But God knows best what is -the truth.</p> - -<h4 class='c020'><i>Chapter on the Rending of Garments</i> (fi ´l-kharq).</h4> - -<p class='c010'>It is a custom of the Ṣúfís to rend their garments, and they -have commonly done this in great assemblies where eminent -Shaykhs were present. I have met with some theologians who -objected to this practice and said that it is not right to tear an -intact garment to pieces, and that this is an evil. I reply -that an evil of which the purpose is good must itself be good. -Anyone may cut an intact garment to pieces and sew it together -again, e.g. detach the sleeves and body (<i>tana</i>) and gusset (<i>tiríz</i>) -and collar from one another, and then restore the garment to its -original condition; and there is no difference between tearing -a garment into five pieces and tearing it into a hundred pieces. -Besides, every piece gladdens the heart of a believer, when he -sews it on his patched frock, and brings about the satisfaction -of his desire. Although the rending of garments has no -foundation in Ṣúfiism and certainly ought not to be practised in -audition by anyone whose senses are perfectly controlled—for, -in that case, it is mere extravagance—nevertheless, if the -auditor be so overpowered that his sense of discrimination is -lost and he becomes unconscious, then he may be excused (for -tearing his garment to pieces); and it is allowable that all the -persons present should rend their garments in sympathy with -him. There are three circumstances in which Ṣúfís rend their -garments: firstly, when a dervish tears his own garment to -pieces through rapture caused by audition; secondly, when -a number of his friends tear his garment to pieces at the -command of a spiritual director on the occasion of asking God -to pardon an offence; and thirdly, when they do the same in -the intoxication of ecstasy. The most difficult case is that of -the garment thrown off or torn in audition. It may be injured -or intact. If it be injured, it should either be sewed together -and given back to its owner or bestowed on another dervish or -<span class='pageno' id='Page_418'>418</span>torn to pieces, for the sake of gaining a blessing, and divided -among the members of the party. If it be intact, we have to -consider what was the intention of the dervish who cast it off. -If he meant it for the singer, let the singer take it; and if he -meant it for the members of the party, let them have it; and if -he threw it off without any intention, the spiritual director must -determine whether it shall be given to those present and divided -among them, or be conferred on one of them, or handed to the -singer. If the dervish meant it for the singer, his companions -need not throw off their garments in sympathy, because the -cast-off garment will not go to his fellows and he will have -given it voluntarily or involuntarily without their participation. -But if the garment was thrown off with the intention that it -should fall to the members of the party, or without any intention, -they should all throw off their garments in sympathy; and -when they have done this, the spiritual director ought not to -bestow the garment on the singer, but it is allowable that any -lover of God among them should sacrifice something that -belongs to him and return the garment to the dervishes, in -order that it may be torn to pieces and distributed. If -a garment drops off while its owner is in a state of rapture, the -Shaykhs hold various opinions as to what ought to be done, -but the majority say that it should be given to the singer, in -accordance with the Apostolic tradition: “The spoils belong to -the slayer;” and that not to give it to the singer is to violate -the obligations imposed by Ṣúfiism. Others contend—and -I prefer this view—that, just as some theologians are of opinion -that the dress of a slain man should not be given to his slayer -except by permission of the Imám, so, here, this garment should -not be given to the singer except by command of the spiritual -director. But if its owner should not wish the spiritual director -to bestow it, let no one be angry with him.</p> - -<h4 class='c020'><i>Chapter on the Rules of Audition.</i></h4> - -<p class='c010'>The rules of audition prescribe that it should not be practised -until it comes (of its own accord), and that you must not make -<span class='pageno' id='Page_419'>419</span>a habit of it, but practise it seldom, in order that you may not -cease to hold it in reverence. It is necessary that a spiritual -director should be present during the performance, and that the -place should be cleared of common people, and that the singer -should be a respectable person, and that the heart should be -emptied of worldly thoughts, and that the disposition should -not be inclined to amusement, and that every artificial effort -(<i>takalluf</i>) should be put aside. You must not exceed the proper -bounds until audition manifests its power, and when it has -become powerful you must not repel it but must follow it as it -requires: if it agitates, you must be agitated, and if it calms, -you must be calm; and you must be able to distinguish a strong -natural impulse from the ardour of ecstasy (<i>wajd</i>). The auditor -must have enough perception to be capable of receiving the -Divine influence and of doing justice to it. When its might is -manifested on his heart he must not endeavour to repel it, and -when its force is broken he must not endeavour to attract it. -While he is in a state of emotion, he must neither expect -anyone to help him nor refuse anyone’s help if it be offered. -And he must not disturb anyone who is engaged in audition -or interfere with him, or ponder what he means by the -verse (to which he is listening),<a id='r201' /><a href='#f201' class='c015'><sup>[201]</sup></a> because such behaviour -is very distressing and disappointing to the person who is -trying (to hear). He must not say to the singer, “You -chant sweetly;” and if he chants unmelodiously or distresses -his hearer by reciting poetry unmetrically, he must not say -to him, “Chant better!” or bear malice towards him, but he -must be unconscious of the singer’s presence and commit -him to God, who hears correctly. And if he have no part in -the audition which is being enjoyed by others, it is not proper -that he should look soberly on their intoxication, but he must -keep quiet with his own “time” (<i>waqt</i>) and establish its -dominion, that the blessings thereof may come to him. I, `Alí -<span class='pageno' id='Page_420'>420</span>b. `Uthmán al-Jullábí, think it more desirable that beginners -should not be allowed to attend musical concerts (<i>samá`há</i>), lest -their natures become depraved. These concerts are extremely -dangerous and corrupting, because women on the roofs or -elsewhere look at the dervishes who are engaged in audition; -and in consequence of this the auditors have great obstacles to -encounter. Or it may happen that a young reprobate is one -of the party, since some ignorant Ṣúfís have made a religion -(<i>madhhab</i>) of all this and have flung truth to the winds. I ask -pardon of God for my sins of this kind in the past, and I implore -His help, that He may preserve me both outwardly and inwardly -from contamination, and I enjoin the readers of this book to -hold it in due regard and to pray that the author may believe -to the end and be vouchsafed the vision of God (in Paradise).</p> - -<hr class='c017' /> -<div class='footnote' id='f181'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r181'>181</a>. After a further eulogy of the inimitable style of the Koran, the author relates the -story of `Umar’s conversion.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f182'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r182'>182</a>. The chapter of the Spoils, a title given to the eighth chapter of the Koran.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f183'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r183'>183</a>. Here the author quotes a number of Koranic verses in which the faithful are -enjoined to listen heedfully to the recitation of the sacred volume, or are rebuked for -their want of attention.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f184'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r184'>184</a>. I have omitted here a story related by Abú Sa`íd al-Khudrí concerning -Muḥammad’s interview with a party of destitute refugees (<i>muhájirún</i>), to whom the -Koran was being read.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f185'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r185'>185</a>. BI. Abú Juhayn, J. Abú Juhaní.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f186'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r186'>186</a>. Sha`rání, <i>Ṭabaqát al-Kubrá</i>, i, 60.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f187'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r187'>187</a>. Ibn Khallikán, No. 1.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f188'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r188'>188</a>. B. al-Rashíd.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f189'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r189'>189</a>. <i>Aghání</i>, 5, 52-131.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f190'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r190'>190</a>. The vizier of Khusraw Núshírwán, the great Sásánian king of Persia (531-78 <span class='fss'>A.D.</span>).</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f191'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r191'>191</a>. <i>The Book of Audition.</i></p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f192'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r192'>192</a>. “The followers of Tradition” as opposed to “the followers of Opinion” -(<i>ahl-i ra´y</i>).</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f193'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r193'>193</a>. See Professor Browne’s <i>Literary History of Persia</i>, i, 81.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f194'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r194'>194</a>. Abú Nuwás, <i>Die Weinlieder</i>, ed. by Ahlwardt, No. 29, verse 1.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f195'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r195'>195</a>. εὐαγγέλιον.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f196'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r196'>196</a>. The mountains referred to are the Jabal al-Buttam, to the east of Samarcand. -See G. Le Strange, <i>The Lands of the Eastern Caliphate</i>, p. 467.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f197'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r197'>197</a>. IJ. Duqqí. Qushayrí, who relates this story (184, 22), has “al-Raqqí”. -The <i>nisba</i> Duqqí refers to Abú Bakr Muḥammad al-Dínawarí (<i>Nafaḥát</i>, No. 229), -while Raqqí probably denotes Ibráhím b. Dáwud al-Raqqí (ibid., No. 194).</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f198'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r198'>198</a>. <i>Nafaḥát</i>, No. 207.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f199'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r199'>199</a>. So Qushayrí. The Persian texts have القرطى or القرظى. In the commentary on -Qushayrí by Zakariyyá al-Anṣárí the name is written al-Fúṭí.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f200'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r200'>200</a>. Apparently a mistake for Aḥmad b. Muḥammad. See <i>Nafaḥát</i>, No. 83.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f201'> -<p class='c001'><a href='#r201'>201</a>. The text of this clause is uncertain. I have followed B.’s reading, <i>ú murád-i -úrá badán bayt-i ú bi-na-sanjad</i>, but I am not sure that it will bear the translation -given above. L. has <i>badán niyyat-i ú</i>, and J. <i>badán nisbat-i ú</i>.</p> -</div> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_421'>421</span> - <h2 class='c011'>INDEX.</h2> -</div> - -<h3 class='c018'>I. <br /> <span class='sc'>Names of Persons, Peoples, Tribes, Sects, and Places.</span></h3> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c000'> - <div>A.</div> - </div> -</div> - -<ul class='index'> - <li class='c021'>Aaron, <a href='#Page_262'>262</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>`Abbás, uncle of the Prophet, <a href='#Page_99'>99</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>`Abdalláh Anṣárí, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— b. Badr al-Juhaní, <b><a href='#Page_81'>81</a></b>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— b. Ḥanẕala, 394.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— b. Ja`far, <a href='#Page_319'>319</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— b. Khubayq. <i>See</i> <a href='#KHUBAYQ'>Abú Muḥammad `Abdalláh b. Khubayq</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— b. Mas`úd al-Hudhalí, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— b. Mubárak, <a href='#Page_95'>95-7</a>, <a href='#Page_274'>274</a>, <a href='#Page_303'>303</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— b. Rabáḥ, <a href='#Page_73'>73</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— b. `Umar, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a>, <a href='#Page_191'>191</a>, <a href='#Page_232'>232</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— b. Unays, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>`Abd al-Razzáq Ṣan`ání, <a href='#Page_98'>98</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Abel, <a href='#Page_364'>364</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Abraham, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>, <a href='#Page_73'>73</a>, <a href='#Page_74'>74</a>, <a href='#Page_91'>91</a>, <a href='#Page_115'>115</a>, <a href='#Page_161'>161</a>, <a href='#Page_232'>232</a>, <a href='#Page_237'>237</a>, <a href='#Page_252'>252</a>, <a href='#Page_262'>262</a>, <a href='#Page_317'>317</a>, <a href='#Page_318'>318</a>, <a href='#Page_326'>326</a>, <a href='#Page_327'>327</a>, <a href='#Page_328'>328</a>, <a href='#Page_342'>342</a>, <a href='#Page_353'>353</a>, <a href='#Page_365'>365</a>, <a href='#Page_370'>370</a>, <a href='#Page_371'>371</a>, <a href='#Page_373'>373</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— the Station of, <a href='#Page_326'>326</a>, <a href='#Page_328'>328</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Abu ´l-`Abbás, <a href='#Page_173'>173</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— Aḥmad b. Masrúq, <a href='#Page_146'>146-7</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— Aḥmad b. Muḥammad al-Ashqání, <a href='#Page_150'>150</a>, <b><a href='#Page_168'>168</a></b>, <a href='#Page_206'>206</a>, <a href='#Page_395'>395</a>, <a href='#Page_412'>412</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— Aḥmad b. Muḥammad al-Qaṣṣáb, <a href='#Page_161'>161</a>, <a href='#Page_325'>325</a>, <a href='#Page_395'>395</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— Aḥmad b. Muḥammad b. Sahl al-Ámulí, <a href='#Page_149'>149-50</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— b. `Alí, <a href='#Page_191'>191</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— b. `Aṭa, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a>, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a>, <a href='#Page_150'>150</a>, <a href='#Page_158'>158</a>, <a href='#Page_180'>180</a>, <a href='#Page_249'>249</a>, <a href='#Page_330'>330</a>, <a href='#Page_395'>395</a>, <a href='#Page_415'>415</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— Qásim b. al-Mahdí al-Sayyárí, <b><a href='#Page_157'>157-8</a></b>, <b><a href='#Page_228'>228</a></b>, <b><a href='#Page_251'>251-60</a></b>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Abu ´l-`Abbás Qaṣṣáb. <i>See</i> Abu ´l-`Abbás Aḥmad b. Muḥammad al-Qaṣṣab.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— Sayyárí. <i>See</i> Abu ´l-`Abbás Qásim b. al-Mahdí al-Sayyárí.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— Shaqáni. <i>See</i> Abu ´l-`Abbás Aḥmad b. Muḥammad al-Ashqání.</li> - <li class='c021'>Abú `Abdalláh al-Abíwardí (Báwardí), <a href='#Page_123'>123</a>, <a href='#Page_124'>124</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— Aḥmad b. `Áṣim al-Anṭákí, <a href='#Page_127'>127</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— Aḥmad b. Yaḥyá al-Jallá, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a>, <a href='#Page_134'>134-5</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— al-Ḥárith b. Asad al-Muḥásibí, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a>, <b><a href='#Page_108'>108-9</a></b>, <a href='#Page_127'>127</a>, <a href='#Page_154'>154</a>, <b><a href='#Page_176'>176-83</a></b>, <a href='#Page_225'>225</a>, <a href='#Page_249'>249</a>, <a href='#Page_286'>286</a>, <a href='#Page_307'>307</a>, <a href='#Page_335'>335</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— Junaydí, <a href='#Page_173'>173</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— Khafíf. <i>See</i> Abú `Abdalláh Muḥammad b. Khafíf.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— Khayyáṭí, <a href='#Page_161'>161</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— Muḥammad b. `Alí al-Dástání, <a href='#Page_164'>164</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— Muḥammad b. `Alí al-Tirmidhí, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a>, <i>141-2</i>, <a href='#Page_147'>147</a>, <a href='#Page_200'>200</a>, <b><a href='#Page_210'>210-41</a></b>, <a href='#Page_338'>338</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— Muḥammad b. al-Faḍl al-Balkhí, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a>, <a href='#Page_134'>134</a>, <b><a href='#Page_140'>140-1</a></b>, <a href='#Page_208'>208</a>, <a href='#Page_327'>327</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— Muḥammad b. al-Ḥakím, known as Muríd, <a href='#Page_175'>175</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— Muhạmmad b. Ismá`íl al-Maghribí, <a href='#Page_147'>147</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— Muḥammad b. Khafíf, <a href='#Page_50'>50</a>, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a>, <a href='#Page_150'>150</a>, <a href='#Page_151'>151</a>, <b><a href='#Page_158'>158</a></b>, <a href='#Page_226'>226</a>, <b><a href='#Page_247'>247-51</a></b>, <a href='#Page_290'>290</a>, <a href='#Page_323'>323</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— Rúdbárí, <a href='#Page_318'>318</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Abú `Abd al-Raḥmán Ḥátim b. `Ulwán al-Aṣamm, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>, <b><a href='#Page_115'>115</a></b>, <a href='#Page_286'>286</a>, <a href='#Page_300'>300</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— Muḥammad b. al-Ḥusayn al-Sulamí, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a>, <a href='#Page_108'>108</a>, <a href='#Page_401'>401</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><span class='pageno' id='Page_422'>422</span>Abú Aḥmad al-Muẕaffar b. Aḥmad b. Ḥamdán, <a href='#Page_170'>170-1</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Abu ´l-`Alá `Abd al-Raḥím b. Aḥmad al-Sughdí, <a href='#Page_175'>175</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Abú `Alí al-Daqqáq. <i>See</i> Abú `Alí Ḥasan b. Muḥammad al-Daqqáq.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— al-Faḍl b. Muḥammad al-Fármadhí, <a href='#Page_169'>169</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— al-Fuḍayl b. `Iyáḍ, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a>, <b><a href='#Page_97'>97-100</a></b>, <a href='#Page_103'>103</a>, <a href='#Page_105'>105</a>, <a href='#Page_109'>109</a>, <a href='#Page_114'>114</a>, <a href='#Page_127'>127</a>, <a href='#Page_179'>179</a>, <a href='#Page_286'>286</a>, <a href='#Page_328'>328</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— al-Ḥasan b. `Alí al-Júzajání, <a href='#Page_147'>147-8</a>, <a href='#Page_216'>216</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— Ḥasan b. Muḥammad al-Daqqáq, <b><a href='#Page_162'>162-3</a></b>, <a href='#Page_272'>272</a>, <a href='#Page_284'>284</a>, <a href='#Page_370'>370</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— al-Júzajání. <i>See</i> Abú `Alí al-Ḥasan b. `Alí al-Júzajání.</li> - <li class='c021'><a id='ALRUDBARI'></a>—— Muḥammad b. al-Qásim al-Rúdbárí, <b><a href='#Page_157'>157</a></b>, <a href='#Page_237'>237</a>, <a href='#Page_253'>253</a>, <a href='#Page_293'>293</a>, <a href='#Page_404'>404</a>, <a href='#Page_409'>409</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— Qarmíní, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— al-Rúdbárí. <i>See</i> <a href='#ALRUDBARI'>Abú `Alí Muḥammad b. al-Qásim al-Rúdbárí</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><a id='ALAZDI'></a>—— Shaqíq b. Ibráhím al-Azdí, <b><a href='#Page_111'>111-12</a></b>, <a href='#Page_115'>115</a>, <a href='#Page_286'>286</a>, <a href='#Page_358'>358</a>, <a href='#Page_359'>359</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— Siyáh, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a>, <a href='#Page_205'>205</a>, <a href='#Page_209'>209</a>, <a href='#Page_323'>323</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— Thaqafí, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— Záhir, <a href='#Page_165'>165</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Abú `Amr Dimashqí, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— b. Nujayd, <a href='#Page_298'>298</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— Qazwíní, <a href='#Page_166'>166</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Abú Bakr, the Caliph, <a href='#Page_31'>31</a>, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a>, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a>, <b><a href='#Page_70'>70-2</a></b>, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>, <a href='#Page_204'>204</a>, <a href='#Page_229'>229</a>, <a href='#Page_284'>284</a>, <a href='#Page_304'>304</a>, <a href='#Page_315'>315</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><a id='ALSHIBLI'></a>—— Dulaf b. Jaḥdar al-Shiblí, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a>, <a href='#Page_27'>27</a>, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a>, <a href='#Page_39'>39</a>, <a href='#Page_137'>137</a>, <a href='#Page_144'>144</a>, <a href='#Page_150'>150</a>, <a href='#Page_151'>151</a>, <b><a href='#Page_155'>155-6</a></b>, <a href='#Page_158'>158</a>, <a href='#Page_159'>159</a>, <a href='#Page_195'>195</a>, <a href='#Page_210'>210</a>, <a href='#Page_227'>227</a>, <a href='#Page_228'>228</a>, <a href='#Page_249'>249</a>, <a href='#Page_257'>257</a>, <a href='#Page_275'>275</a>, <a href='#Page_276'>276</a>, <a href='#Page_284'>284</a>, <a href='#Page_293'>293</a>, <a href='#Page_294'>294</a>, <a href='#Page_305'>305</a>, <a href='#Page_313'>313</a>, <a href='#Page_315'>315</a>, <a href='#Page_330'>330</a>, <a href='#Page_331'>331</a>, <a href='#Page_351'>351</a>, <a href='#Page_353'>353</a>, <a href='#Page_356'>356</a>, <a href='#Page_359'>359</a>, <a href='#Page_374'>374</a>, <a href='#Page_376'>376</a>, <a href='#Page_378'>378</a>, <a href='#Page_394'>394</a>, <a href='#Page_404'>404</a>, <a href='#Page_414'>414</a>, <a href='#Page_415'>415</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— b. Fúrak, <a href='#Page_214'>214</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— Muḥammad al-Dínawarí, <a href='#Page_408'>408</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— Muḥammad b. Músá al-Wásiṭí, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a>, <b><a href='#Page_154'>154-5</a></b>, <a href='#Page_157'>157</a>, <a href='#Page_158'>158</a>, <a href='#Page_228'>228</a>, <a href='#Page_251'>251</a>, <a href='#Page_265'>265</a>, <a href='#Page_277'>277</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— Muḥammad b. `Umar al-Warráq, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>, <b><a href='#Page_141'>141</a></b>, <b><a href='#Page_142'>142-3</a></b>, <a href='#Page_147'>147</a>, <a href='#Page_229'>229</a>, <a href='#Page_235'>235</a>, <a href='#Page_338'>338</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— Muḥammad b. Zakariyyá al-Rází, <a href='#Page_150'>150</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Abú Bakr al-Warráq. <i>See</i> Abú Bakr Muḥammad b. `Umar al-Warráq.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— al-Wásiṭí. <i>See</i> Abú Bakr Muḥammad b. Músá al-Wásiṭí.</li> - <li class='c021'>Abú Dardá `Uwaym b. `Ámir, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a>, <a href='#Page_232'>232</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Abú Dharr Jundab b. Junáda al-Ghifárí, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a>, <b><a href='#Page_177'>177</a></b>, <b><a href='#Page_178'>178</a></b>, <a href='#Page_344'>344</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Abu ´l-Faḍl b. al-Asadí, <a href='#Page_175'>175</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— b. al-Ḥasan, <a href='#Page_165'>165</a>, <a href='#Page_188'>188</a>, <a href='#Page_227'>227</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— Muḥammad b. al-Ḥasan al-Khuttalí, <a href='#Page_166'>166-7</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Abu ´l-Fatḥ b. Sáliba, <a href='#Page_173'>173</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><a id='ALKIRMANI'></a>Abu ´l-Fawáris Sháh b. Shujá` al-Kirmání, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>, <a href='#Page_123'>123</a>, <a href='#Page_132'>132</a>, <b><a href='#Page_133'>133</a></b>, <b><a href='#Page_138'>138</a></b>, <a href='#Page_352'>352</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Abu ´l-Fayḍ Dhu ´l-Nún b. Ibráhím al-Miṣrí, <a href='#Page_36'>36</a>, <b><a href='#Page_100'>100-3</a></b>, <a href='#Page_117'>117</a>, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a>, <a href='#Page_143'>143</a>, <a href='#Page_200'>200</a>, <a href='#Page_208'>208</a>, <a href='#Page_226'>226</a>, <a href='#Page_233'>233</a>, <a href='#Page_250'>250</a>, <a href='#Page_275'>275</a>, <a href='#Page_286'>286</a>, <a href='#Page_298'>298</a>, <a href='#Page_299'>299</a>, <a href='#Page_303'>303</a>, <a href='#Page_329'>329</a>, <a href='#Page_332'>332</a>, <a href='#Page_359'>359</a>, <a href='#Page_404'>404</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Abú Ḥafṣ `Amr b. Sálim al-Níshápúrí al-Ḥaddádí, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a>, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>, <a href='#Page_120'>120</a>, <b><a href='#Page_123'>123-4</a></b>, <a href='#Page_132'>132</a>, <a href='#Page_133'>133</a>, <a href='#Page_134'>134</a>, <a href='#Page_257'>257</a>, <a href='#Page_276'>276</a>, <a href='#Page_298'>298</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— al-Ḥaddád. <i>See</i> Abú Ḥafṣ `Amr b. Sálim al-Níshápúrí al-Ḥaddádí.</li> - <li class='c021'>Abú Ḥalím Ḥabíb b. Salím al-Rá`í, <b><a href='#Page_90'>90-1</a></b>, <a href='#Page_109'>109</a>, <a href='#Page_110'>110</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Abú Ḥámid Aḥmad b. Khaḍrúya al-Balkhí, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>, <a href='#Page_115'>115</a>, <b><a href='#Page_119'>119-21</a></b>, <a href='#Page_123'>123</a>, <a href='#Page_140'>140</a>, <a href='#Page_142'>142</a>, <a href='#Page_338'>338</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— Dústán, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Abú Hamza al-Baghdádí, <a href='#Page_144'>144</a>, <b><a href='#Page_154'>154</a></b>, <a href='#Page_182'>182</a>, <a href='#Page_183'>183</a>, <a href='#Page_190'>190</a>, <a href='#Page_249'>249</a>, <a href='#Page_286'>286</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— al-Khurásání, <a href='#Page_146'>146</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Abú Ḥanífa, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a>, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a>, <b><a href='#Page_92'>92-5</a></b>, <a href='#Page_98'>98</a>, <a href='#Page_103'>103</a>, <a href='#Page_109'>109</a>, <a href='#Page_141'>141</a>, <a href='#Page_286'>286</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Abu ´l-Ḥárith Bunání, <a href='#Page_411'>411</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Abu ´l-Ḥasan Aḥmad b. Abi ´l-Ḥawárí, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a>, <a href='#Page_113'>113</a>, <b><a href='#Page_118'>118-19</a></b>, <a href='#Page_131'>131</a>, <a href='#Page_397'>397</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— Aḥmad b. Muḥammad al-Núrí, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>, <a href='#Page_36'>36</a>, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a>, <a href='#Page_42'>42</a>, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a>, <b><a href='#Page_130'>130-2</a></b>, <a href='#Page_134'>134</a>, <a href='#Page_137'>137</a>, <a href='#Page_144'>144</a>, <a href='#Page_154'>154</a>, <a href='#Page_176'>176</a>, <b><a href='#Page_189'>189-95</a></b>, <a href='#Page_225'>225</a>, <a href='#Page_269'>269</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— `Alí b. Abí `Alí al-Aswad, <a href='#Page_174'>174</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— `Alí b. Aḥmad al-Khurqání, <a href='#Page_163'>163</a>, <a href='#Page_173'>173</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— `Alí b. Bakrán, <a href='#Page_172'>172</a>, <a href='#Page_247'>247</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— `Alí b. Ibráhím al-Ḥuṣrí, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a>, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>, <a href='#Page_122'>122</a>, <a href='#Page_150'>150</a>, <b><a href='#Page_160'>160</a></b>, <a href='#Page_166'>166</a>, <a href='#Page_249'>249</a>, <a href='#Page_257'>257</a>, <a href='#Page_281'>281</a>, <a href='#Page_282'>282</a>, <a href='#Page_378'>378</a>, <a href='#Page_405'>405</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><span class='pageno' id='Page_423'>423</span>Abu ´l-Ḥasan `Alí b. Muḥammad al-Iṣfahání, <b><a href='#Page_142'>142-4</a></b>, <a href='#Page_150'>150</a>, <a href='#Page_351'>351</a>, <a href='#Page_353'>353</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— Búshanjí (Fúshanja), <a href='#Page_44'>44</a>, <a href='#Page_299'>299</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— al-Khurqání. <i>See</i> Abu ´l-Ḥasan `Alí b. Aḥmad al-Khurqání.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— Muḥammad b. Ismá`íl Khayr al-Nassáj, <b><a href='#Page_144'>144-5</a></b>, <a href='#Page_154'>154</a>, <a href='#Page_155'>155</a>, <a href='#Page_286'>286</a>, <a href='#Page_387'>387</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— al-Núrí. <i>See</i> Abu ´l-Ḥasan Aḥmad b. Muḥammad al-Núrí.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— b. Sáliba, <a href='#Page_104'>104</a>, <a href='#Page_166'>166</a>, <a href='#Page_172'>172</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><a id='ALSAQATI'></a>—— Sarí b. Mughallis al-Saqaṭí, <b><a href='#Page_110'>110-11</a></b>, <a href='#Page_114'>114</a>, <a href='#Page_117'>117</a>, <a href='#Page_127'>127</a>, <a href='#Page_128'>128</a>, <a href='#Page_129'>129</a>, <a href='#Page_131'>131</a>, <a href='#Page_143'>143</a>, <a href='#Page_144'>144</a>, <a href='#Page_154'>154</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— b. Sim`ún, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><a id='SUMNUNKHAWWAS'></a>—— Sumnún b. `Abdalláh al-Khawwáṣ, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a>, <b><a href='#Page_136'>136-8</a></b>, <a href='#Page_249'>249</a>, <a href='#Page_286'>286</a>, <a href='#Page_308'>308</a>, <a href='#Page_312'>312</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Abú Ḥázim al-Madaní, <a href='#Page_91'>91</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Abú Ḥulmán, <a href='#Page_131'>131</a>, <a href='#Page_260'>260</a>, <a href='#Page_261'>261</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Abú Hurayra, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a>, <a href='#Page_232'>232</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Abú `Ísá `Uwaym b. Sá`ida, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Abú Isḥáq Ibráhím b. Adham b. Manṣúr, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a>, <a href='#Page_68'>68</a>, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a>, <b><a href='#Page_103'>103-5</a></b>, <a href='#Page_109'>109</a>, <a href='#Page_111'>111</a>, <a href='#Page_217'>217</a>, <a href='#Page_232'>232</a>, <a href='#Page_286'>286</a>, <a href='#Page_323'>323</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><a id='IBRAHIMKHAWWAS'></a>—— Ibráhím b. Aḥmad al-Khawwáṣ, <a href='#Page_147'>147</a>, <b><a href='#Page_153'>153-4</a></b>, <a href='#Page_205'>205</a>, <a href='#Page_207'>207</a>, <a href='#Page_222'>222</a>, <a href='#Page_223'>223</a>, <a href='#Page_285'>285</a>, <a href='#Page_289'>289</a>, <a href='#Page_292'>292</a>, <a href='#Page_293'>293</a>, <a href='#Page_339'>339</a>, <a href='#Page_342'>342</a>, <a href='#Page_362'>362</a>, <a href='#Page_399'>399</a>, <a href='#Page_410'>410</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— Isfará´iní, <a href='#Page_214'>214</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— b. Shahriyár, <a href='#Page_172'>172</a>, <a href='#Page_173'>173</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Abú Ja`far Ḥaddád, <a href='#Page_249'>249</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— Juhaní, <a href='#Page_396'>396</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— Muḥammad b. `Alí al-Ḥawárí, <a href='#Page_173'>173</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— Muḥammad b. `Alí b. Ḥusayn al-Báqir, <a href='#Page_77'>77-8</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— Muḥammad b. al-Ḥusayn al-Ḥaramí, <a href='#Page_174'>174</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— Muḥammad b. al-Miṣbáḥ al-Ṣaydalání, <a href='#Page_172'>172</a>, <a href='#Page_260'>260</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— Turshízí, <a href='#Page_173'>173</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Abú Jahl, <a href='#Page_204'>204</a>, <a href='#Page_394'>394</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Abú Kabsha, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Abu ´l-Khayr Aqṭa`, <a href='#Page_304'>304</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Abú Lubába b `Abd al-Mundhir, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Abu ´l-Maḥásin, <a href='#Page_137'>137</a>, <a href='#Page_233'>233</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Abú Maḥfúẕ Ma`rúf b. Fírúz al-Karkhí, <a href='#Page_110'>110</a>, <b><a href='#Page_113'>113-15</a></b>, <a href='#Page_117'>117</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Abú Ma`mar, of Iṣfahán, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Abu ´l-Marthad Kinána b. al-Ḥusayn al-`Adawí, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><a id='KHUBAYQ'></a>Abú Muḥammad `Abdalláh b. Khubayq, <a href='#Page_128'>128</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><a id='JURAYRI'></a>—— Aḥmad b. al-Ḥusayn al-Jurayrí, <b><a href='#Page_148'>148-9</a></b>, <a href='#Page_150'>150</a>, <a href='#Page_158'>158</a>, <a href='#Page_249'>249</a>, <a href='#Page_286'>286</a>, <a href='#Page_408'>408</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— Bángharí, <a href='#Page_174'>174</a>, <a href='#Page_323'>323</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— Ja`far b. Muḥammad Ṣádiq, <a href='#Page_78'>78-80</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— Ja`far b. Nuṣayr al-Khuldí, <a href='#Page_155'>155</a>, <b><a href='#Page_156'>156-7</a></b>, <a href='#Page_193'>193</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— Murta`ish, <a href='#Page_39'>39</a>, <a href='#Page_42'>42</a>, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a>, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a>, <a href='#Page_54'>54</a>, <a href='#Page_155'>155</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— Ruwaym b. Aḥmad, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a>, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a>, <a href='#Page_134'>134</a>, <b><a href='#Page_135'>135-6</a></b>, <a href='#Page_194'>194</a></li> - <li class='c021'><a id='ALTUSTARI'></a>—— Sahl b. `Abdalláh al-Tustarí, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>, <b><a href='#Page_139'>139-40</a></b>, <a href='#Page_148'>148</a>, <a href='#Page_151'>151</a>, <a href='#Page_189'>189</a>, <b><a href='#Page_195'>195-210</a></b>, <a href='#Page_225'>225</a>, <a href='#Page_233'>233</a>, <a href='#Page_249'>249</a>, <a href='#Page_257'>257</a>, <a href='#Page_283'>283</a>, <a href='#Page_286'>286</a>, <a href='#Page_296'>296</a>, <a href='#Page_302'>302</a>, <a href='#Page_311'>311</a>, <a href='#Page_318'>318</a>, <a href='#Page_322'>322</a>, <a href='#Page_330'>330</a>, <a href='#Page_338'>338</a>, <a href='#Page_348'>348</a>, <a href='#Page_349'>349</a>, <a href='#Page_363'>363</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Abú Músá al-Ash`arí, <a href='#Page_399'>399</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Abú Muslim, <a href='#Page_358'>358</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— Fáris b. Ghálib al-Fárisí, <a href='#Page_165'>165</a>, <b><a href='#Page_172'>172</a></b>, <a href='#Page_319'>319</a>, <a href='#Page_346'>346</a>, <a href='#Page_408'>408</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Abú Naṣr al-Sarráj, <a href='#Page_255'>255</a>, <a href='#Page_323'>323</a>, <a href='#Page_341'>341</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Abú Nuwás, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a>, <a href='#Page_406'>406</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Abu ´l-Qásim, of Merv, <a href='#Page_233'>233</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— `Abd al-Karím b. Hawázin al-Qushayrí, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a>, <a href='#Page_114'>114</a>, <a href='#Page_123'>123</a>, <a href='#Page_150'>150</a>, <a href='#Page_163'>163</a>, <b><a href='#Page_167'>167-8</a></b>, <a href='#Page_177'>177</a>, <a href='#Page_227'>227</a>, <a href='#Page_306'>306</a>, <a href='#Page_311'>311</a>, <a href='#Page_334'>334</a>, <a href='#Page_408'>408</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— `Alí b. `Abdalláh al-Gurgání, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a>, <a href='#Page_150'>150</a>, <b><a href='#Page_169'>169-70</a></b>, <a href='#Page_206'>206</a>, <a href='#Page_234'>234</a>, <a href='#Page_339'>339</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— al-Gurgání. <i>See</i> Abu ´l-Qásim `Alí b. `Abdalláh al-Gurgání.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— al-Ḥakím, <a href='#Page_338'>338</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— Ibráhím b. Muḥammad b. Maḥmúd al-Naṣrábádí, <a href='#Page_150'>150</a>, <b><a href='#Page_159'>159-60</a></b>, <a href='#Page_162'>162</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><a id='ABULQASIMJUNAYD'></a>—— Junayd, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a>, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a>, <a href='#Page_27'>27</a>, <a href='#Page_39'>39</a>, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a>, <a href='#Page_74'>74</a>, <a href='#Page_103'>103</a>, <b><a href='#Page_106'>106</a></b>, <a href='#Page_110'>110</a>, <a href='#Page_115'>115</a>, <a href='#Page_118'>118</a>, <a href='#Page_123'>123</a>, <a href='#Page_124'>124</a>, <b><a href='#Page_128'>128-30</a></b>, <b><a href='#Page_131'>131</a></b>, <a href='#Page_132'>132</a>, <a href='#Page_134'>134</a>, <a href='#Page_135'>135</a>, <a href='#Page_137'>137</a>, <a href='#Page_138'>138</a>, <a href='#Page_143'>143</a>, <a href='#Page_144'>144</a>, <a href='#Page_145'>145</a>, <a href='#Page_147'>147</a>, <a href='#Page_148'>148</a>, <a href='#Page_149'>149</a>, <a href='#Page_150'>150</a>, <a href='#Page_151'>151</a>, <a href='#Page_154'>154</a>, <a href='#Page_156'>156</a>, <a href='#Page_157'>157</a>, <a href='#Page_166'>166</a>, <a href='#Page_182'>182</a>, <b><a href='#Page_185'>185-9</a></b>, <a href='#Page_194'>194</a>, <a href='#Page_200'>200</a>, <a href='#Page_206'>206</a>, <a href='#Page_208'>208</a>, <a href='#Page_216'>216</a>, <a href='#Page_225'>225</a>, <a href='#Page_228'>228</a>, <a href='#Page_249'>249</a>, <a href='#Page_250'>250</a>, <a href='#Page_251'>251</a>, <a href='#Page_260'>260</a>, <a href='#Page_281'>281</a>, <a href='#Page_282'>282</a>, <a href='#Page_284'>284</a>, <a href='#Page_286'>286</a>, <a href='#Page_293'>293</a>, <a href='#Page_296'>296</a>, <a href='#Page_297'>297</a>, <a href='#Page_299'>299</a>, <a href='#Page_303'>303</a>, <a href='#Page_307'>307</a>, <a href='#Page_320'>320</a>, <a href='#Page_328'>328</a>, <a href='#Page_331'>331</a>, <a href='#Page_338'>338</a>, <a href='#Page_339'>339</a>, <a href='#Page_343'>343</a>, <a href='#Page_351'>351</a>, <a href='#Page_352'>352</a>, <a href='#Page_355'>355</a>, <a href='#Page_356'>356</a>, <a href='#Page_359'>359</a>, <a href='#Page_368'>368</a>, <a href='#Page_387'>387</a>, <a href='#Page_388'>388</a>, <a href='#Page_394'>394</a>, <a href='#Page_408'>408</a>, <a href='#Page_409'>409</a>, <a href='#Page_412'>412</a>, <a href='#Page_414'>414</a>, <a href='#Page_415'>415</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><span class='pageno' id='Page_424'>424</span>Abu ´l-Qásim Naṣrábádí. <i>See</i> Abú ´l-Qásim Ibráhím b. Muḥammad b. Maḥmúd al-Naṣrábádí.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— Qushayrí. <i>See</i> Abu ´l-Qásim `Abd al-Karím b. Hawázin al-Qushayrí.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— Suddí, <a href='#Page_172'>172</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Abú Qatáda, <a href='#Page_73'>73</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Abú Sahl Ṣu`lúkí, <a href='#Page_272'>272</a>, <a href='#Page_284'>284</a>, <a href='#Page_319'>319</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Abú Sa`íd, the Carmathian, <a href='#Page_150'>150</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— b. Abi ´l-Khayr Faḍlalláh b. Muḥammad al-Mayhaní, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a>, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a>, <a href='#Page_119'>119</a>, <a href='#Page_150'>150</a>, <a href='#Page_163'>163</a>, <b><a href='#Page_164'>164-6</a></b>, <a href='#Page_170'>170</a>, <a href='#Page_218'>218</a>, <a href='#Page_235'>235</a>, <a href='#Page_250'>250</a>, <a href='#Page_318'>318</a>, <a href='#Page_346'>346</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— Aḥmad b. `Ísá. al-Kharráz, <a href='#Page_138'>138</a>, <b><a href='#Page_143'>143</a></b>, <a href='#Page_146'>146</a>, <a href='#Page_149'>149</a>, <a href='#Page_232'>232</a>, <a href='#Page_233'>233</a>, <b><a href='#Page_241'>241-6</a></b>, <a href='#Page_368'>368</a>, <a href='#Page_374'>374</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— al-Hujwírí, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— al-Kharráz. <i>See</i> Abú Sa`íd Aḥmad b. `Ísá. al-Kharráz.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— al-Khudrí, <a href='#Page_396'>396</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Abú Ṣáliḥ Ḥamdún b. Aḥmad b. `Umára al-Qaṣṣár, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a>, <b><a href='#Page_125'>125-6</a></b>, <b><a href='#Page_183'>183-4</a></b>, <a href='#Page_195'>195</a>, <a href='#Page_225'>225</a>, <a href='#Page_249'>249</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Abu ´l-Sarí Manṣúr b. `Ammár, <a href='#Page_126'>126-7</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Abú Sulaymán `Abd al-Raḥmán b. `Aṭiyya al-Dárání, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>, <b><a href='#Page_112'>112-13</a></b>, <a href='#Page_114'>114</a>, <a href='#Page_118'>118</a>, <a href='#Page_200'>200</a>, <a href='#Page_225'>225</a>, <a href='#Page_286'>286</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— al-Dárání. <i>See</i> Abú Sulaymán `Abd al-Raḥmán b. `Aṭiyya al-Dárání.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— Dáwud b. Nuṣayr al-Ṭá´í, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a>, <a href='#Page_79'>79</a>, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a>, <a href='#Page_95'>95</a>, <b><a href='#Page_109'>109-10</a></b>, <a href='#Page_114'>114</a>, <a href='#Page_286'>286</a>, <a href='#Page_350'>350</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Abú Ṭáhir Ḥaramí, <a href='#Page_64'>64</a>, <a href='#Page_292'>292</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— Makshúf, <a href='#Page_173'>173</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Abú Ṭalḥa al-Málikí, <a href='#Page_322'>322</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Abú Ṭálib, father of the Caliph `Alí, <a href='#Page_269'>269</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Abú Ṭálib, Shaykh, <a href='#Page_173'>173</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Abú Thawr Ibráhím b. Khálid, <a href='#Page_125'>125</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Abú Turáb `Askar b. al-Ḥusayn al-Nakhshabí, <b><a href='#Page_121'>121-2</a></b>, <a href='#Page_125'>125</a>, <a href='#Page_138'>138</a>, <a href='#Page_143'>143</a>, <a href='#Page_146'>146</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Abú `Ubayda b. al-Jarráḥ, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Abú `Uthmán al-Ḥírí. <i>See</i> Abú `Uthmán Sa`íd b. Ismá`íl al-Ḥírí.</li> - <li class='c021'>Abú `Uthmán al-Maghribí. <i>See</i> Abú `Uthmán Sa`íd b. Sallám al-Maghribí.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— Sa`íd b. Ismá`íl al-Ḥírí, <b><a href='#Page_132'>132-4</a></b>, <a href='#Page_138'>138</a>, <a href='#Page_140'>140</a>, <a href='#Page_180'>180</a>, <a href='#Page_181'>181</a>, <a href='#Page_298'>298</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— Sa`íd b. Sallám al-Maghribí, <b><a href='#Page_158'>158-9</a></b>, <a href='#Page_186'>186</a>, <a href='#Page_217'>217</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Abú Ya`qúb Aqṭa`, <a href='#Page_150'>150</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— Nahrajúrí, <a href='#Page_150'>150</a>, <a href='#Page_158'>158</a>, <a href='#Page_245'>245</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><a id='YUSUFRAZI'></a>—— Yúsuf b. al-Ḥusayn al-Rází, <a href='#Page_134'>134</a>, <b><a href='#Page_136'>136</a></b>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Abu ´l-Yaqẕán `Ammár b. Yásir, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Abu ´l-Yasar Ka`b b. `Amr, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Abú Yazíd Ṭayfúr b. `Ísá al-Bisṭámí, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a>, <a href='#Page_68'>68</a>, <b><a href='#Page_106'>106-8</a></b>, <a href='#Page_120'>120</a>, <a href='#Page_176'>176</a>, <b><a href='#Page_184'>184-8</a></b>, <a href='#Page_200'>200</a>, <a href='#Page_217'>217</a>, <a href='#Page_226'>226</a>, <a href='#Page_238'>238</a>, <a href='#Page_250'>250</a>, <a href='#Page_254'>254</a>, <a href='#Page_257'>257</a>, <a href='#Page_258'>258</a>, <a href='#Page_275'>275</a>, <a href='#Page_286'>286</a>, <a href='#Page_291'>291</a>, <a href='#Page_293'>293</a>, <a href='#Page_311'>311</a>, <a href='#Page_327'>327</a>, <a href='#Page_331'>331</a>, <a href='#Page_332'>332</a>, <a href='#Page_335'>335</a>, <a href='#Page_347'>347</a>, <a href='#Page_351'>351</a>, <a href='#Page_359'>359</a>, <a href='#Page_375'>375</a>, <a href='#Page_388'>388</a>, <a href='#Page_415'>415</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Abú Yúsuf, the Cadi, <a href='#Page_110'>110</a>, <a href='#Page_286'>286</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><a id='YAHYAZAKARIYYA'></a>Abú Zakariyyá Yaḥyá b. Mu`ádh al-Rází, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a>, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a>, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a>, <a href='#Page_120'>120</a>, <b><a href='#Page_122'>122-3</a></b>, <a href='#Page_132'>132</a>, <a href='#Page_133'>133</a>, <a href='#Page_187'>187</a>, <a href='#Page_226'>226</a>, <a href='#Page_312'>312</a>, <a href='#Page_337'>337</a>, <a href='#Page_360'>360</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Adam, <a href='#Page_63'>63</a>, <a href='#Page_109'>109</a>, <a href='#Page_124'>124</a>, <a href='#Page_130'>130</a>, <a href='#Page_144'>144</a>, <a href='#Page_159'>159</a>, <a href='#Page_160'>160</a>, <a href='#Page_208'>208</a>, <a href='#Page_239'>239</a>, <a href='#Page_240'>240</a>, <a href='#Page_249'>249</a>, <a href='#Page_252'>252</a>, <a href='#Page_262'>262</a>, <a href='#Page_297'>297</a>, <a href='#Page_324'>324</a>, <a href='#Page_353'>353</a>, <a href='#Page_355'>355</a>, <a href='#Page_357'>357</a>, <a href='#Page_363'>363</a>, <a href='#Page_364'>364</a>, <a href='#Page_371'>371</a>, <a href='#Page_383'>383</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Ádharbáyaján, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a>, <a href='#Page_173'>173</a>, <a href='#Page_410'>410</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Adíb Kamandí (Kumandí), <a href='#Page_173'>173</a>, <a href='#Page_335'>335</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Ahl-i ḥadíth, <a href='#Page_401'>401</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Ahl-i ra´y, <a href='#Page_401'>401</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Ahl-i Ṣuffa, <a href='#Page_80'>80</a>, <b><a href='#Page_81'>81-2</a></b>, <a href='#Page_344'>344</a>. - <ul> - <li><i>See</i> Aṣḥáb-i Ṣuffa.</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c021'>Aḥmad, Khwája, <a href='#Page_170'>170</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— b. Abi ´l-Ḥawárí. <i>See</i> Abu ´l-Ḥasan Aḥmad b. Abi ´l-Ḥawárí.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— b. `Áṣim al-Anṭákí. <i>See</i> Abú `Abdalláh Aḥmad b. `Áṣim al-Anṭákí.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— Bukhárí, <a href='#Page_321'>321</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— b. Fátik, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— Ḥammádí, <a href='#Page_174'>174</a>, <a href='#Page_193'>193</a>, <a href='#Page_364'>364</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— b. Ḥanbal, <a href='#Page_116'>116</a>, <b><a href='#Page_117'>117-18</a></b>, <a href='#Page_286'>286</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— b. Ḥarb, <a href='#Page_365'>365</a>, <a href='#Page_366'>366</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— Íláqí, <b><a href='#Page_174'>174</a></b>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— b. Khaḍrúya. <i>See</i> Abú Ḥámid Aḥmad b. Khaḍrúya al-Balkhí.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— b. Masrúq. <i>See</i> Abu ´l-`Abbás Aḥmad b. Masrúq.</li> - <li class='c021'><span class='pageno' id='Page_425'>425</span>Aḥmad Najjár Samarqandí, <a href='#Page_174'>174</a>, <a href='#Page_353'>353</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Ahriman, <a href='#Page_280'>280</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>`Á´isha, <a href='#Page_42'>42</a>, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a>, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a>, <a href='#Page_320'>320</a>, <a href='#Page_331'>331</a>, <a href='#Page_401'>401</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Akhí Zanjání, <a href='#Page_173'>173</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>`Alá b. al-Ḥaḍramí, <a href='#Page_232'>232</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>`Alí b. Abí Ṭálib, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a>, <b><a href='#Page_74'>74</a></b>, <a href='#Page_83'>83</a>, <a href='#Page_84'>84</a>, <a href='#Page_152'>152</a>, <a href='#Page_192'>192</a>, <a href='#Page_269'>269</a>, <a href='#Page_300'>300</a>, <a href='#Page_315'>315</a>, <a href='#Page_336'>336</a>, <a href='#Page_361'>361</a>, <a href='#Page_411'>411</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>`Alí Aṣghar, <a href='#Page_76'>76</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— b. Bakkár, <a href='#Page_323'>323</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— b. Bundár al-Ṣayrafí, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a>, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— b. Ḥusayn b. `Alí, called Zayn al-`Ábidín, <a href='#Page_76'>76-7</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— b. al-Ḥusayn al-Sírgání, <a href='#Page_173'>173</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— b. Isḥáq, <a href='#Page_174'>174</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— b. Khashram, <a href='#Page_105'>105</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— b. Músá al-Riḍá, <a href='#Page_114'>114</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— Naṣrábádí, <a href='#Page_125'>125</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— b. Sahl al-Iṣfahání. <i>See</i> Abu ´l-Ḥasan `Alí b. Muḥammad al-Iṣfahání.</li> - <li class='c021'>`Amr b. al-Sharíd, <a href='#Page_397'>397</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— b. `Uthmán al-Makkí, <a href='#Page_91'>91</a>, <b><a href='#Page_138'>138-9</a></b>, <a href='#Page_143'>143</a>, <a href='#Page_150'>150</a>, <a href='#Page_151'>151</a>, <a href='#Page_189'>189</a>, <a href='#Page_309'>309</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Ámul, <a href='#Page_162'>162</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Anas b. Málik, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Anthropomorphists, <a href='#Page_117'>117</a>, <a href='#Page_118'>118</a>, <a href='#Page_131'>131</a>, <a href='#Page_213'>213</a>, <a href='#Page_236'>236</a>, <a href='#Page_289'>289</a>, <a href='#Page_316'>316</a>. - <ul> - <li><i>See</i> Ḥashwiyya.</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c021'>`Arafát, <a href='#Page_326'>326</a>, <a href='#Page_328'>328</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>`Árif, Khwája, <a href='#Page_174'>174</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Áṣaf b. Barkhiyá, <a href='#Page_230'>230</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Aṣḥáb al-kahf, <a href='#Page_230'>230</a>. - <ul> - <li><i>See</i> Cave, men of the.</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c021'>Aṣḥáb-i Ṣuffa, <a href='#Page_30'>30</a>. - <ul> - <li><i>See</i> Ahl-i Ṣuffa.</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c021'>Ashlátak, <a href='#Page_234'>234</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>`Aṭṭár, Faríd al-Dín, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Awḥad Qaswarat b. Muḥammad al-Jardízí, <a href='#Page_175'>175</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>`Azrá´íl, <a href='#Page_412'>412</a>.</li> -</ul> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> - <div class='nf-center'> - <div>B.</div> - </div> -</div> - -<ul class='index'> - <li class='c021'>Báb al-Ṭáq, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— `Umar, <a href='#Page_234'>234</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Badr, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a>, <a href='#Page_255'>255</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— al-Dín, <a href='#Page_173'>173</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Baghdád, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a>, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a>, <a href='#Page_96'>96</a>, <a href='#Page_108'>108</a>, <a href='#Page_110'>110</a>, <a href='#Page_117'>117</a>, <a href='#Page_123'>123</a>, <a href='#Page_129'>129</a>, <a href='#Page_137'>137</a>, <a href='#Page_150'>150</a>, <a href='#Page_151'>151</a>, <a href='#Page_152'>152</a>, <a href='#Page_154'>154</a>, <a href='#Page_323'>323</a>, <a href='#Page_356'>356</a>, <a href='#Page_358'>358</a>, <a href='#Page_378'>378</a>, <a href='#Page_409'>409</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Bahshamís, a sect of the Mu`tazilites, <a href='#Page_295'>295</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Bal`am, <a href='#Page_273'>273</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Balkh, <a href='#Page_103'>103</a>, <a href='#Page_112'>112</a>, <a href='#Page_115'>115</a>, <a href='#Page_119'>119</a>, <a href='#Page_120'>120</a>, <a href='#Page_123'>123</a>, <a href='#Page_140'>140</a>, <a href='#Page_286'>286</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Bániyás, <a href='#Page_167'>167</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Banú Shayba, gate of the, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— Umayya, <a href='#Page_78'>78</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Báqir. <i>See</i> Abú Ja`far Muḥammad b. `Alí b. Ḥusayn al-Báqir.</li> - <li class='c021'>Barṣíṣá, <a href='#Page_273'>273</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Baṣra, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>, <a href='#Page_84'>84</a>, <a href='#Page_121'>121</a>, <a href='#Page_131'>131</a>, <a href='#Page_408'>408</a>, <a href='#Page_409'>409</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Báṭiniyán, <a href='#Page_263'>263</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Batúl, <a href='#Page_79'>79</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Báward, <a href='#Page_97'>97</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Báyazíd al-Bisṭámí. <i>See</i> Abú Yazíd Ṭayfúr b. `Ísá al-Bisṭámí.</li> - <li class='c021'>Bayḍá, <a href='#Page_150'>150</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Bayḍáwí, <a href='#Page_273'>273</a>, <a href='#Page_348'>348</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Bayt al-Jinn, <a href='#Page_167'>167</a>, <a href='#Page_234'>234</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— al-sibá`, at Tustar, <a href='#Page_233'>233</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Bilál b. Rabáḥ, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a>, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a>, <a href='#Page_301'>301</a>, <a href='#Page_302'>302</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Bilqís, <a href='#Page_230'>230</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Bishr b. al-Ḥárith al-Ḥáfí, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a>, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a>, <b><a href='#Page_105'>105-6</a></b>, <a href='#Page_117'>117</a>, <a href='#Page_127'>127</a>, <a href='#Page_143'>143</a>, <a href='#Page_179'>179</a>, <a href='#Page_286'>286</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Bisṭám, <a href='#Page_106'>106</a>, <a href='#Page_164'>164</a>, <a href='#Page_286'>286</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Brahmans, <a href='#Page_236'>236</a>, <a href='#Page_271'>271</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Bukhárá, <a href='#Page_353'>353</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Bundár b. al-Ḥusayn, <a href='#Page_249'>249</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Buráq, <a href='#Page_380'>380</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Buzurjmihr, <a href='#Page_401'>401</a>.</li> -</ul> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> - <div class='nf-center'> - <div>C.</div> - </div> -</div> - -<ul class='index'> - <li class='c021'>Cain, <a href='#Page_364'>364</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><a id='CARMATHIANS'></a>Carmathians, <a href='#Page_263'>263</a>, <a href='#Page_383'>383</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Cave, the men of the, <a href='#Page_230'>230</a>, <a href='#Page_354'>354</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Chahár Ṭáq, <a href='#Page_358'>358</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>China, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Chinese, <a href='#Page_263'>263</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Christians, <a href='#Page_244'>244</a>, <a href='#Page_263'>263</a>.</li> -</ul> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> - <div class='nf-center'> - <div><span class='pageno' id='Page_426'>426</span>D.</div> - </div> -</div> - -<ul class='index'> - <li class='c021'>Dajjál, <a href='#Page_224'>224</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Damascus, <a href='#Page_76'>76</a>, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a>, <a href='#Page_131'>131</a>, <a href='#Page_167'>167</a>, <a href='#Page_234'>234</a>, <a href='#Page_260'>260</a>, <a href='#Page_343'>343</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Darráj, <a href='#Page_408'>408</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>al-Dástání. <i>See</i> Abú `Abdalláh Muḥammad b. `Alí al-Dástání.</li> - <li class='c021'>David, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>, <a href='#Page_185'>185</a>, <a href='#Page_197'>197</a>, <a href='#Page_255'>255</a>, <a href='#Page_320'>320</a>, <a href='#Page_329'>329</a>, <a href='#Page_352'>352</a>, <a href='#Page_371'>371</a>, <a href='#Page_399'>399</a>, <a href='#Page_402'>402</a>, <a href='#Page_403'>403</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Dáwud of Iṣfahán, <a href='#Page_135'>135</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— al-Ṭá´í. <i>See</i> Abú Sulaymán Dáwud b. Nuṣayr al-Ṭá´í.</li> - <li class='c021'>Dhahabí, <a href='#Page_118'>118</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Dhu ´l-Nún. <i>See</i> Abu ´l-Fayḍ Dhu ´l-Nún b. Ibráhím al-Miṣrí.</li> - <li class='c021'>Dínár, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Duqqí, <a href='#Page_408'>408</a>.</li> -</ul> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> - <div class='nf-center'> - <div>E.</div> - </div> -</div> - -<ul class='index'> - <li class='c021'>Egypt, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a>, <a href='#Page_100'>100</a>, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>, <a href='#Page_143'>143</a>, <a href='#Page_233'>233</a>, <a href='#Page_332'>332</a>, <a href='#Page_404'>404</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Euphrates, the, <a href='#Page_84'>84</a>, <a href='#Page_90'>90</a>, <a href='#Page_234'>234</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Eve, <a href='#Page_353'>353</a>.</li> -</ul> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> - <div class='nf-center'> - <div>F.</div> - </div> -</div> - -<ul class='index'> - <li class='c021'>Faḍl b. Rabí`, <a href='#Page_98'>98</a>, <a href='#Page_100'>100</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Faraj, Shaykh, <a href='#Page_173'>173</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Farazdaq, <a href='#Page_77'>77</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Farghána, <a href='#Page_234'>234</a>, <a href='#Page_235'>235</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Fáris, <a href='#Page_260'>260</a>, <a href='#Page_261'>261</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Fárisís, <a href='#Page_131'>131</a>, <a href='#Page_260'>260</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Fárs, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a>, <a href='#Page_151'>151</a>, <a href='#Page_172'>172</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Fáṭima, daughter of the Prophet, <a href='#Page_79'>79</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— wife of Aḥmad b. Khaḍrúya, <a href='#Page_119'>119</a>, <a href='#Page_120'>120</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— wife of Báb `Umar, <a href='#Page_234'>234</a>, <a href='#Page_235'>235</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Fayd, <a href='#Page_137'>137</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Fuḍayl b. `Iyáḍ. <i>See</i> Abú `Alí al-Fuḍayl b. `Iyáḍ.</li> -</ul> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> - <div class='nf-center'> - <div>G.</div> - </div> -</div> - -<ul class='index'> - <li class='c021'>Gabriel, <a href='#Page_73'>73</a>, <a href='#Page_106'>106</a>, <a href='#Page_237'>237</a>, <a href='#Page_240'>240</a>, <a href='#Page_241'>241</a>, <a href='#Page_254'>254</a>, <a href='#Page_304'>304</a>, <a href='#Page_305'>305</a>, <a href='#Page_320'>320</a>, <a href='#Page_335'>335</a>, <a href='#Page_380'>380</a>, <a href='#Page_408'>408</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Ghazna, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a>, <a href='#Page_91'>91</a>, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a>, <a href='#Page_175'>175</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Ghulám al-Khalíl, <a href='#Page_137'>137</a>, <a href='#Page_190'>190</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Goliath, <a href='#Page_185'>185</a>, <a href='#Page_255'>255</a>.</li> -</ul> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> - <div class='nf-center'> - <div>H.</div> - </div> -</div> - -<ul class='index'> - <li class='c021'>Ḥabíb, name of Muḥammad, <a href='#Page_317'>317</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— al-`Ajamí, <a href='#Page_88'>88-9</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— al-Rá`í. <i>See</i> Abú Ḥalím Ḥabíb b. Salím al-Rá`í.</li> - <li class='c021'>Ḥafṣ Miṣṣíṣí, <a href='#Page_323'>323</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Ḥafṣa, <a href='#Page_320'>320</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Hagar, <a href='#Page_74'>74</a>, <a href='#Page_365'>365</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Ḥajjáj, <a href='#Page_88'>88</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— b. `Umar al-Aslamí, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Ḥakím b. `Alí b. al-Ḥusayn al-Sírgání, <a href='#Page_173'>173</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Ḥakímís, <a href='#Page_130'>130</a>, <a href='#Page_141'>141</a>, <b><a href='#Page_210'>210-41</a></b>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Ḥalláj. <i>See</i> Ḥusayn b. Manṣúr al-Ḥalláj.</li> - <li class='c021'>Ḥallájís, <a href='#Page_131'>131</a>, <a href='#Page_152'>152</a>, <a href='#Page_260'>260</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Ḥamdún Qaṣṣár. <i>See</i> Abú Ṣáliḥ Ḥamdún b. Aḥmad b. `Umára al-Qaṣṣár.</li> - <li class='c021'><a id='HAMDUNIS'></a>Ḥamdúnís, <a href='#Page_195'>195</a>. - <ul> - <li><i>See</i> <a href='#QASSARIS'>Qaṣṣárís</a>.</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c021'>Harim b. Ḥayyán, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a>, <b><a href='#Page_84'>84-5</a></b>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Ḥárith al-Muḥásibí. <i>See</i> Abú `Abdalláh al-Ḥárith b. Asad al-Muḥásibí.</li> - <li class='c021'>Ḥáritha, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>, <a href='#Page_227'>227</a>, <a href='#Page_229'>229</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Hárún al-Rashíd, <a href='#Page_98'>98</a>, <a href='#Page_99'>99</a>, <a href='#Page_100'>100</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Hárút, <a href='#Page_364'>364</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Ḥasan b. `Alí, <a href='#Page_73'>73</a>, <a href='#Page_75'>75-6</a>, <a href='#Page_319'>319</a>, <a href='#Page_411'>411</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— of Baṣra, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a>, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a>, <a href='#Page_75'>75</a>, <b><a href='#Page_86'>86-7</a></b>, <a href='#Page_88'>88</a>, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a>, <a href='#Page_232'>232</a>, <a href='#Page_362'>362</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— Mu´addib, <a href='#Page_163'>163</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Ḥashwiyya, ḥashwiyán, <a href='#Page_213'>213</a>, <a href='#Page_236'>236</a>, <a href='#Page_244'>244</a>, <a href='#Page_289'>289</a>. - <ul> - <li><i>See</i> Anthropomorphists.</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c021'>Ḥassán b. Thábit, <a href='#Page_411'>411</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Ḥátim al-Aṣamm. <i>See</i> Abú `Abd al-Raḥmán Ḥátim b. `Ulwán al-Aṣamm.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— Ṭá´í, <a href='#Page_318'>318</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Herát, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Ḥijáz, the, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a>, <a href='#Page_96'>96</a>, <a href='#Page_137'>137</a>, <a href='#Page_319'>319</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Ḥíra quarter of Níshápúr, <a href='#Page_183'>183</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Hishám b. `Abd al-Malik, <a href='#Page_77'>77</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Húd, <a href='#Page_396'>396</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Hudhayfa al-Yamání, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Ḥulmánís, <a href='#Page_131'>131</a>, <a href='#Page_260'>260</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><span class='pageno' id='Page_427'>427</span>Ḥulúlís, <a href='#Page_131'>131</a>, <a href='#Page_183'>183</a>, <b><a href='#Page_260'>260-6</a></b>, <a href='#Page_416'>416</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Ḥulwán, <a href='#Page_319'>319</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Ḥusayn b. `Alí, <b><a href='#Page_76'>76</a></b>, <a href='#Page_177'>177</a>, <a href='#Page_178'>178</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— b. Faḍl, <a href='#Page_286'>286</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— b. Manṣúr al-Ḥalláj, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a>, <b><a href='#Page_150'>150-3</a></b>, <a href='#Page_158'>158</a>, <a href='#Page_172'>172</a>, <a href='#Page_189'>189</a>, <a href='#Page_205'>205</a>, <a href='#Page_226'>226</a>, <a href='#Page_249'>249</a>, <a href='#Page_259'>259</a>, <a href='#Page_260'>260</a>, <a href='#Page_281'>281</a>, <a href='#Page_285'>285</a>, <a href='#Page_303'>303</a>, <a href='#Page_311'>311</a>, <a href='#Page_344'>344</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— Simnán, Khwája, <a href='#Page_173'>173</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Ḥuṣrí. <i>See</i> Abu ´l-Ḥasan `Alí b. Ibráhím al-Ḥuṣrí.</li> -</ul> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> - <div class='nf-center'> - <div>I.</div> - </div> -</div> - -<ul class='index'> - <li class='c021'>Ibáḥatís, <a href='#Page_131'>131</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Iblís, <a href='#Page_63'>63</a>, <a href='#Page_129'>129</a>, <a href='#Page_130'>130</a>, <a href='#Page_208'>208</a>, <a href='#Page_239'>239</a>, <a href='#Page_252'>252</a>, <a href='#Page_268'>268</a>, <a href='#Page_273'>273</a>, <a href='#Page_351'>351</a>, <a href='#Page_357'>357</a>, <a href='#Page_402'>402</a>, <a href='#Page_403'>403</a>, <a href='#Page_412'>412</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Ibn `Abbás, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a>, <a href='#Page_331'>331</a>, <a href='#Page_351'>351</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— `Aṭá. <i>See</i> Abu ´l-`Abbás b. `Aṭá.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— al-Athír, <a href='#Page_358'>358</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— al-Jallá. <i>See</i> Abú `Abdalláh Aḥmad b. Yaḥyá al-Jallá.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— Khallikán, <a href='#Page_92'>92</a>, <a href='#Page_98'>98</a>, <a href='#Page_125'>125</a>, <a href='#Page_214'>214</a>, <a href='#Page_358'>358</a>, <a href='#Page_396'>396</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— Mas`úd, <a href='#Page_396'>396</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— al-Mu`allá, <a href='#Page_343'>343</a>, <a href='#Page_344'>344</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— al-Qúṭí, <a href='#Page_408'>408</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— `Umar. <i>See</i> `Abdalláh b. `Umar.</li> - <li class='c021'>Ibráhím b. Adham. <i>See</i> Abú Isḥáq Ibráhím b. Adham b. Manṣúr.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— b. Dáwud al-Raqqí, <a href='#Page_408'>408</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— Khawwáṣ. <i>See</i> <a href='#IBRAHIMKHAWWAS'>Abú Isḥáq Ibráhím b. Aḥmad al-Khawwáṣ</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— Máristání, <a href='#Page_149'>149</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— Nakha`í, <a href='#Page_396'>396</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— Raqqí, <a href='#Page_233'>233</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— b. Sa`d `Alawí, <a href='#Page_374'>374</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— Samarqandí, <a href='#Page_147'>147</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— b. Shaybán, <a href='#Page_246'>246</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— Shaybáni, <a href='#Page_147'>147</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>`Imrán, <a href='#Page_179'>179</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>India, <a href='#Page_243'>243</a>, <a href='#Page_400'>400</a>, <a href='#Page_407'>407</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Indians, <a href='#Page_263'>263</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Iram, <a href='#Page_224'>224</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>`Iráq, <a href='#Page_110'>110</a>, <a href='#Page_116'>116</a>, <a href='#Page_126'>126</a>, <a href='#Page_140'>140</a>, <a href='#Page_172'>172</a>, <a href='#Page_177'>177</a>, <a href='#Page_249'>249</a>, <a href='#Page_260'>260</a>, <a href='#Page_345'>345</a>, <a href='#Page_400'>400</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Iṣfahán, <a href='#Page_138'>138</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Isḥáq of Mawṣil, <a href='#Page_399'>399</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Ishmael, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>, <a href='#Page_74'>74</a>, <a href='#Page_252'>252</a>, <a href='#Page_353'>353</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Ismá`íl al-Sháshí, <a href='#Page_175'>175</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Ismá`ílís, <a href='#Page_263'>263</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Israelites, <a href='#Page_192'>192</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— desert of the, <a href='#Page_229'>229</a>.</li> -</ul> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> - <div class='nf-center'> - <div>J.</div> - </div> -</div> - -<ul class='index'> - <li class='c021'>Jabal al-Buttam, <a href='#Page_408'>408</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Jabarites, <a href='#Page_75'>75</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Jacob, <a href='#Page_258'>258</a>, <a href='#Page_310'>310</a>, <a href='#Page_370'>370</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Ja`far al-Khuldí. <i>See</i> Abú Muḥammad Ja`far b. Nuṣayr al-Khuldí.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— Ṣádiq. <i>See</i> Abú Muḥammad Ja`far b. Muḥammad Ṣádiq.</li> - <li class='c021'>Jáḥiẕ, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Jerusalem, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>, <a href='#Page_215'>215</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Jesus, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>, <a href='#Page_50'>50</a>, <a href='#Page_232'>232</a>, <a href='#Page_244'>244</a>, <a href='#Page_262'>262</a>, <a href='#Page_273'>273</a>, <a href='#Page_371'>371</a>, <a href='#Page_375'>375</a>, <a href='#Page_376'>376</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Jews, <a href='#Page_261'>261</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Jidda, <a href='#Page_233'>233</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Job, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a>, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>, <a href='#Page_251'>251</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><a id='JOHN'></a>John the Baptist, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>, <a href='#Page_371'>371</a>, <a href='#Page_375'>375</a>, <a href='#Page_376'>376</a>. - <ul> - <li><i>See</i> <a href='#YAHYAZAKARIYYA'>Yaḥyá b. Zakariyyá</a>.</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c021'><a id='JOSEPH'></a>Joseph, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a>, <a href='#Page_258'>258</a>, <a href='#Page_262'>262</a>, <a href='#Page_310'>310</a>, <a href='#Page_335'>335</a>, <a href='#Page_365'>365</a>, <a href='#Page_395'>395</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Junayd. <i>See</i> <a href='#ABULQASIMJUNAYD'>Abu ´l-Qásim Junayd</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Junaydís, <a href='#Page_130'>130</a>, <b><a href='#Page_185'>185-9</a></b>, <a href='#Page_195'>195</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Jurayj, <a href='#Page_232'>232</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Jurayrí. <i>See</i> <a href='#JURAYRI'>Abú Muḥammad Aḥmad b. al-Ḥusayn al-Jurayrí</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Jurjání, <a href='#Page_373'>373</a>.</li> -</ul> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> - <div class='nf-center'> - <div>K.</div> - </div> -</div> - -<ul class='index'> - <li class='c021'>Ka`ba, the, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>, <a href='#Page_121'>121</a>, <a href='#Page_141'>141</a>, <a href='#Page_239'>239</a>, <a href='#Page_240'>240</a>, <a href='#Page_258'>258</a>, <a href='#Page_300'>300</a>, <a href='#Page_326'>326</a>, <a href='#Page_327'>327</a>, <a href='#Page_329'>329</a>, <a href='#Page_337'>337</a>, <a href='#Page_397'>397</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Kamand (Kumand), <a href='#Page_335'>335</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Karbalá, <a href='#Page_76'>76</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Karkh, <a href='#Page_356'>356</a>, <a href='#Page_378'>378</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Kattání, <a href='#Page_325'>325</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Khabbáb b. al-Aratt, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Khaḍir. <i>See</i> Khiḍr.</li> - <li class='c021'><span class='pageno' id='Page_428'>428</span>Khafífís, <a href='#Page_130'>130</a>, <b><a href='#Page_247'>247-51</a></b>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Khálid b. Walíd, <a href='#Page_232'>232</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Khalíl, <a href='#Page_73'>73</a>, <a href='#Page_91'>91</a>, <a href='#Page_317'>317</a>. - <ul> - <li><i>See</i> Abraham.</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c021'>Khárijites, <a href='#Page_286'>286</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Kharráz. <i>See</i> Abú Sa`íd Aḥmad b. `Ísá al-Kharráz.</li> - <li class='c021'>Kharrázís, <a href='#Page_130'>130</a>, <b><a href='#Page_241'>241-6</a></b>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Khayr al-Nassáj. <i>See</i> Abu ´l-Ḥasan Muḥammad b. Ismá`íl Khayr al-Nassáj.</li> - <li class='c021'>Khazá´iní, Imám, <a href='#Page_227'>227</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Khiḍr, <a href='#Page_103'>103</a>, <a href='#Page_141'>141</a>, <a href='#Page_142'>142</a>, <a href='#Page_153'>153</a>, <a href='#Page_290'>290</a>, <a href='#Page_342'>342</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Khubayb, <a href='#Page_221'>221</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Khurásán, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a>, <a href='#Page_115'>115</a>, <a href='#Page_121'>121</a>, <a href='#Page_123'>123</a>, <a href='#Page_126'>126</a>, <a href='#Page_134'>134</a>, <a href='#Page_140'>140</a>, <a href='#Page_146'>146</a>, <a href='#Page_151'>151</a>, <a href='#Page_159'>159</a>, <a href='#Page_173'>173</a>, <a href='#Page_174'>174</a>, <a href='#Page_177'>177</a>, <a href='#Page_236'>236</a>, <a href='#Page_335'>335</a>, <a href='#Page_400'>400</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Khurqán, <a href='#Page_163'>163</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Khurqání. <i>See</i> Abu ´l-Ḥasan `Alí b. Aḥmad al-Khurqání.</li> - <li class='c021'>Khusraw. <i>See</i> Núshírwán.</li> - <li class='c021'>al-Khuttalí. <i>See</i> Abu ´l-Faḍl Muḥammad b. al-Ḥasan al-Khuttalí.</li> - <li class='c021'>Khúzistán, <a href='#Page_151'>151</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Kirmán, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a>, <a href='#Page_123'>123</a>, <a href='#Page_132'>132</a>, <a href='#Page_133'>133</a>, <a href='#Page_173'>173</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Kish, <a href='#Page_173'>173</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Korah, <a href='#Page_347'>347</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Kúfa, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a>, <a href='#Page_75'>75</a>, <a href='#Page_84'>84</a>, <a href='#Page_98'>98</a>, <a href='#Page_104'>104</a>, <a href='#Page_118'>118</a>, <a href='#Page_145'>145</a>, <a href='#Page_205'>205</a>, <a href='#Page_339'>339</a>, <a href='#Page_360'>360</a>, <a href='#Page_396'>396</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Kumish, <a href='#Page_173'>173</a>.</li> -</ul> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> - <div class='nf-center'> - <div>L.</div> - </div> -</div> - -<ul class='index'> - <li class='c021'>Labíd, <a href='#Page_397'>397</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Laháwur, <a href='#Page_91'>91</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Laylá, <a href='#Page_258'>258</a>, <a href='#Page_353'>353</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Lukám, Mount, <a href='#Page_166'>166</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Luqmán of Sarakhs, <a href='#Page_188'>188</a>.</li> -</ul> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> - <div class='nf-center'> - <div>M.</div> - </div> -</div> - -<ul class='index'> - <li class='c021'>Magians, <a href='#Page_280'>280</a>, <a href='#Page_404'>404</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Maḥmúd, Khwája, <a href='#Page_174'>174</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Majnún, <a href='#Page_258'>258</a>, <a href='#Page_353'>353</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><a id='MALAMATIS'></a>Malámatís, <a href='#Page_50'>50</a>, <b><a href='#Page_62'>62-9</a></b>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Málik, the Imám, <a href='#Page_116'>116</a>, <a href='#Page_286'>286</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Málik b. Dínár, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a>, <b><a href='#Page_89'>89-90</a></b>, <a href='#Page_337'>337</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Mání (Manes), <a href='#Page_407'>407</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Manichæans, <a href='#Page_31'>31</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Manṣúr, the Caliph, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— b. `Ammár. <i>See</i> Abu ´l-Sarí Manṣúr b. `Ammár.</li> - <li class='c021'>Maqám-i Ibráhím, <a href='#Page_326'>326</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Maqdisí, <a href='#Page_260'>260</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Ma`rúf Karkhí. <i>See</i> Abú Maḥfúẕ Ma`rúf b. Fírúz al-Karkhí.</li> - <li class='c021'>Márút, <a href='#Page_364'>364</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Marv al-Rúd, <a href='#Page_50'>50</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Marwa, <a href='#Page_326'>326</a>, <a href='#Page_328'>328</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Marwán b. Mu`áwiya, <a href='#Page_118'>118</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Mary, the Virgin, <a href='#Page_230'>230</a>, <a href='#Page_244'>244</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Mash`ar al-Ḥarám, <a href='#Page_326'>326</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Mas`úd, spiritual director, <a href='#Page_323'>323</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— b. Rabí` al-Fárisí, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Mayhana, <a href='#Page_164'>164</a>, <a href='#Page_235'>235</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Mecca, <a href='#Page_77'>77</a>, <a href='#Page_83'>83</a>, <a href='#Page_84'>84</a>, <a href='#Page_87'>87</a>, <a href='#Page_91'>91</a>, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a>, <a href='#Page_96'>96</a>, <a href='#Page_98'>98</a>, <a href='#Page_107'>107</a>, <a href='#Page_145'>145</a>, <a href='#Page_158'>158</a>, <a href='#Page_186'>186</a>, <a href='#Page_192'>192</a>, <a href='#Page_215'>215</a>, <a href='#Page_221'>221</a>, <a href='#Page_258'>258</a>, <a href='#Page_290'>290</a>, <a href='#Page_292'>292</a>, <a href='#Page_326'>326</a>, <a href='#Page_327'>327</a>, <a href='#Page_329'>329</a>, <a href='#Page_339'>339</a>, <a href='#Page_340'>340</a>, <a href='#Page_372'>372</a>, <a href='#Page_378'>378</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Medína, <a href='#Page_116'>116</a>, <a href='#Page_221'>221</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Merv, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>, <a href='#Page_96'>96</a>, <a href='#Page_97'>97</a>, <a href='#Page_154'>154</a>, <a href='#Page_158'>158</a>, <a href='#Page_174'>174</a>, <a href='#Page_205'>205</a>, <a href='#Page_209'>209</a>, <a href='#Page_251'>251</a>, <a href='#Page_323'>323</a>, <a href='#Page_401'>401</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Michael, <a href='#Page_241'>241</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Mihna. <i>See</i> Mayhana.</li> - <li class='c021'>Miná, <a href='#Page_326'>326</a>, <a href='#Page_328'>328</a>, <a href='#Page_329'>329</a>, <a href='#Page_340'>340</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Miqdád b. al-Aswad, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Mis`ar b. Kidám, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Misṭaḥ b. Uthátha b. `Abbád, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Moses, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a>, <a href='#Page_74'>74</a>, <a href='#Page_76'>76</a>, <a href='#Page_90'>90</a>, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>, <a href='#Page_167'>167</a>, <a href='#Page_179'>179</a>, <a href='#Page_230'>230</a>, <a href='#Page_262'>262</a>, <a href='#Page_296'>296</a>, <a href='#Page_297'>297</a>, <a href='#Page_324'>324</a>, <a href='#Page_332'>332</a>, <a href='#Page_371'>371</a>, <a href='#Page_372'>372</a>, <a href='#Page_380'>380</a>, <a href='#Page_381'>381</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Mu`ádh b. al-Ḥárith, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Mu`áwiya, the Caliph, <a href='#Page_411'>411</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Mu´ayyad, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Muḍar, <a href='#Page_83'>83</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Mughíra b. Shu`ba, <a href='#Page_337'>337</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Muhájirín, <a href='#Page_19'>19</a>, <a href='#Page_396'>396</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><a id='MUHAMMAD'></a>Muḥammad, the Prophet, <a href='#Page_1'>1</a>, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a>, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a>, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a>, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a>, <a href='#Page_19'>19</a>, <a href='#Page_31'>31</a>, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a>, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>, <a href='#Page_36'>36</a>, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a>, <a href='#Page_42'>42</a>, <a href='#Page_44'>44</a>, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a>, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a>, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a>, <a href='#Page_62'>62</a>, <a href='#Page_70'>70</a>, <a href='#Page_72'>72</a>, <a href='#Page_76'>76</a>, <a href='#Page_79'>79</a>, <a href='#Page_80'>80</a>, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a>,82, <a href='#Page_83'>83</a>, <a href='#Page_90'>90</a>, <a href='#Page_91'>91</a>, <a href='#Page_92'>92</a>, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a>, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a>, <a href='#Page_95'>95</a>, <a href='#Page_98'>98</a>, <a href='#Page_99'>99</a>, <a href='#Page_100'>100</a>, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>, <a href='#Page_116'>116</a>, <a href='#Page_117'>117</a>, <a href='#Page_127'>127</a>, <a href='#Page_129'>129</a>, <a href='#Page_140'>140</a>, <a href='#Page_141'>141</a>, <a href='#Page_158'>158</a>, <a href='#Page_185'>185</a>, <a href='#Page_186'>186</a>, <a href='#Page_192'>192</a>, <a href='#Page_200'>200</a>, <a href='#Page_202'>202</a>, <a href='#Page_209'>209</a>, <a href='#Page_211'>211</a>, <a href='#Page_213'>213</a>, <a href='#Page_215'>215</a>, <a href='#Page_221'>221</a>, <a href='#Page_222'>222</a>, <a href='#Page_223'>223</a>, <a href='#Page_225'>225</a>, <a href='#Page_229'>229</a>, <a href='#Page_230'>230</a>, <a href='#Page_231'>231</a>, <a href='#Page_232'>232</a>, <a href='#Page_236'>236</a>, <a href='#Page_238'>238</a>, <a href='#Page_254'>254</a>, <a href='#Page_255'>255</a>, <a href='#Page_258'>258</a>, <a href='#Page_259'>259</a>, <a href='#Page_261'>261</a>, <a href='#Page_269'>269</a>, <a href='#Page_283'>283</a>, <a href='#Page_287'>287</a>, <a href='#Page_312'>312</a>, <a href='#Page_315'>315</a>, <a href='#Page_317'>317</a>, <a href='#Page_318'>318</a>, <a href='#Page_319'>319</a>, <a href='#Page_324'>324</a>, <a href='#Page_330'>330</a>, <a href='#Page_331'>331</a>, <a href='#Page_332'>332</a>, <a href='#Page_333'>333</a>, <a href='#Page_336'>336</a>, <a href='#Page_344'>344</a>, <a href='#Page_346'>346</a>, <a href='#Page_348'>348</a>, <a href='#Page_353'>353</a>, <a href='#Page_358'>358</a>, <a href='#Page_365'>365</a>, <a href='#Page_371'>371</a>, <a href='#Page_372'>372</a>, <a href='#Page_373'>373</a>, <a href='#Page_380'>380</a>, <a href='#Page_381'>381</a>, <a href='#Page_394'>394</a>, <a href='#Page_396'>396</a>, <a href='#Page_397'>397</a>, <a href='#Page_401'>401</a>, <a href='#Page_408'>408</a>, <a href='#Page_411'>411</a>. - <ul> - <li><i>See</i> <a href='#TRADITIONS'>Traditions of the Prophet</a>.</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c021'><span class='pageno' id='Page_429'>429</span>Muḥammad b. Aḥmad al-Muqrí, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— b. `Alí Ḥakím. <i>See</i> Abú `Abdalláh Muḥammad b. `Alí al-Tirmidhí.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— b. `Alí b. al-Ḥusayn b. `Alí b. Abí Ṭálib, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— b. Faḍl al-Balkhí. <i>See</i> Abú `Abdalláh Muḥammad b. al-Faḍl al-Balkhí.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— Ḥakím. <i>See</i> Abú `Abdalláh Muḥammad b. `Alí al-Tirmidhí.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— b. al-Ḥasan, <a href='#Page_110'>110</a>, <a href='#Page_116'>116</a>, <a href='#Page_286'>286</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— b. al-Ḥusayn al-`Alawí, <a href='#Page_205'>205</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— b. Ka`b al-Quraẕí, <a href='#Page_99'>99</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— b. Khafíf. <i>See</i> Abú `Abdalláh Muḥammad b. Khafíf.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— Ma`shúq, <a href='#Page_174'>174</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— b. Masrúq, <a href='#Page_415'>415</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— b. Salama, <a href='#Page_173'>173</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— b. Sírín, <a href='#Page_92'>92</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— b. `Ulyán, <a href='#Page_206'>206</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— b. Wási`, <a href='#Page_91'>91-2</a>, <a href='#Page_276'>276</a>, <a href='#Page_330'>330</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— b. Zakariyyá, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a>. - <ul> - <li><i>See</i> Abú Bakr Muḥammad b. Zakariyyá al-Rází.</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c021'>Muḥásibís, <a href='#Page_130'>130</a>, <b><a href='#Page_176'>176-83</a></b>, <a href='#Page_371'>371</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Mujassima, <a href='#Page_236'>236</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Múltán, <a href='#Page_91'>91</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Muqaddasí, <a href='#Page_260'>260</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Muríd, <a href='#Page_175'>175</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Murjites, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a>, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Murta`ish. <i>See</i> Abú Muḥammad Murta`ish.</li> - <li class='c021'>Mushabbiha, <a href='#Page_236'>236</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Muslim Maghribí, <a href='#Page_233'>233</a>, <a href='#Page_234'>234</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Muṣṭafá, <a href='#Page_99'>99</a>, <a href='#Page_368'>368</a>. - <ul> - <li><i>See</i> <a href='#MUHAMMAD'>Muḥammad, the Prophet</a>.</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c021'>Mutanabbí, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><a id='MUTAZILITES'></a>Mu`tazilites, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a>, <a href='#Page_106'>106</a>, <a href='#Page_117'>117</a>, <a href='#Page_118'>118</a>, <a href='#Page_213'>213</a>, <a href='#Page_215'>215</a>, <a href='#Page_239'>239</a>, <a href='#Page_253'>253</a>, <a href='#Page_268'>268</a>, <a href='#Page_280'>280</a>, <a href='#Page_286'>286</a>, <a href='#Page_295'>295</a>, <a href='#Page_393'>393</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Muẕaffar, Khwája. <i>See</i> Abú Aḥmad al-Muẕaffar b. Aḥmad b. Ḥamdán.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— Kirmánsháhí Qarmíní, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Muzayyin the Elder, <a href='#Page_257'>257</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Muzdalifa, <a href='#Page_326'>326</a>, <a href='#Page_328'>328</a>.</li> -</ul> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> - <div class='nf-center'> - <div>N.</div> - </div> -</div> - -<ul class='index'> - <li class='c021'>Naḍr b. al-Ḥárith, <a href='#Page_261'>261</a>, <a href='#Page_394'>394</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Náfi`, <a href='#Page_191'>191</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Najd, <a href='#Page_83'>83</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Nasá, <a href='#Page_206'>206</a>, <a href='#Page_251'>251</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Nestorians, <a href='#Page_244'>244</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Nibájí, <a href='#Page_138'>138</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Nile, the river, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>, <a href='#Page_211'>211</a>, <a href='#Page_212'>212</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Nimrod, <a href='#Page_73'>73</a>, <a href='#Page_224'>224</a>, <a href='#Page_327'>327</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Níshápúr, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a>, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a>, <a href='#Page_120'>120</a>, <a href='#Page_123'>123</a>, <a href='#Page_124'>124</a>, <a href='#Page_125'>125</a>, <a href='#Page_133'>133</a>, <a href='#Page_134'>134</a>, <a href='#Page_159'>159</a>, <a href='#Page_165'>165</a>, <a href='#Page_170'>170</a>, <a href='#Page_174'>174</a>, <a href='#Page_183'>183</a>, <a href='#Page_272'>272</a>, <a href='#Page_318'>318</a>, <a href='#Page_365'>365</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Noah, <a href='#Page_371'>371</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Núḥ, a brigand, <a href='#Page_183'>183</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Núrí. <i>See</i> Abu ´l-Ḥasan Aḥmad b. Muḥammad al-Núrí.</li> - <li class='c021'>Núrís, <a href='#Page_130'>130</a>, <a href='#Page_189'>189-95</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Núshírwán, <a href='#Page_401'>401</a>.</li> -</ul> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> - <div class='nf-center'> - <div>O.</div> - </div> -</div> - -<ul class='index'> - <li class='c021'>Oxus, the river, <a href='#Page_142'>142</a>, <a href='#Page_235'>235</a>.</li> -</ul> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> - <div class='nf-center'> - <div>P.</div> - </div> -</div> - -<ul class='index'> - <li class='c021'>Pádisháh-i Tá´ib, <a href='#Page_173'>173</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Pharaoh, <a href='#Page_76'>76</a>, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>, <a href='#Page_223'>223</a>, <a href='#Page_224'>224</a>, <a href='#Page_347'>347</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Prophet, the House of the, <a href='#Page_75'>75</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Purg, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a>.</li> -</ul> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> - <div class='nf-center'> - <div>Q.</div> - </div> -</div> - -<ul class='index'> - <li class='c021'><a id='QADARITES'></a>Qadarites, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a>, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a>, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a>, <a href='#Page_75'>75</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Qarámiṭa, <a href='#Page_383'>383</a>. <i>See</i> <a href='#CARMATHIANS'>Carmathians</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Qaran, <a href='#Page_83'>83</a>, <a href='#Page_84'>84</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Qárún, <a href='#Page_347'>347</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><span class='pageno' id='Page_430'>430</span><a id='QASSARIS'></a>Qaṣṣárís, <a href='#Page_130'>130</a>, <b><a href='#Page_183'>183-4</a></b>. - <ul> - <li><i>See</i> <a href='#HAMDUNIS'>Ḥamdúnís</a> and <a href='#MALAMATIS'>Malámatís</a>.</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c021'>Qays of the Banú `Ámir, <a href='#Page_353'>353</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Quhistán, <a href='#Page_173'>173</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Quraysh, <a href='#Page_261'>261</a>, <a href='#Page_394'>394</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Qushayrí. <i>See</i> Abu ´l-Qásim `Abd al-Karím b. Hawázin al-Qushayrí.</li> -</ul> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> - <div class='nf-center'> - <div>R.</div> - </div> -</div> - -<ul class='index'> - <li class='c021'>Rabí`a, <a href='#Page_83'>83</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Rábi`a `Adawiyya, <a href='#Page_358'>358</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Ráfiḍís, <a href='#Page_152'>152</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Rajá b. Ḥayát, <a href='#Page_99'>99</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Ramla, <a href='#Page_343'>343</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Raqqám, <a href='#Page_190'>190</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Raqqí, <a href='#Page_408'>408</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Rayy, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a>, <a href='#Page_120'>120</a>, <a href='#Page_123'>123</a>, <a href='#Page_133'>133</a>, <a href='#Page_293'>293</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Riḍwán, <a href='#Page_232'>232</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Rúm, <a href='#Page_207'>207</a>, <a href='#Page_222'>222</a>, <a href='#Page_244'>244</a>, <a href='#Page_407'>407</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Ruṣáfa mosque, <a href='#Page_154'>154</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Ruwaym. <i>See</i> Abú Muḥammad Ruwaym b. Aḥmad.</li> -</ul> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> - <div class='nf-center'> - <div>S.</div> - </div> -</div> - -<ul class='index'> - <li class='c021'>Ṣábians, <a href='#Page_222'>222</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Ṣafá, <a href='#Page_326'>326</a>, <a href='#Page_328'>328</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Ṣafwán b. Bayḍá, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Sahl b. `Abdalláh al-Tustarí. <i>See</i> <a href='#ALTUSTARI'>Abú Muḥammad Sahl b. `Abdalláh al-Tustarí</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Sahlagí, Shaykh, <a href='#Page_164'>164</a>, <a href='#Page_173'>173</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Sahlís, <a href='#Page_130'>130</a>, <b><a href='#Page_195'>195-210</a></b>, <a href='#Page_296'>296</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Sá´ib b. Khallád, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Sa`íd b. Abí Sa`íd al-`Ayyár, <a href='#Page_175'>175</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— b. al-Musayyib, <a href='#Page_87'>87</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Sálár-i Ṭabarí, <a href='#Page_175'>175</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Ṣáliḥ Murrí, <a href='#Page_396'>396</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Sálim, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— b. `Abdalláh, <a href='#Page_99'>99</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— b. `Umayr b. Thábit, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Sálimís, <a href='#Page_131'>131</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Salmán al-Fárisí, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a>, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a>, <a href='#Page_90'>90</a>, <a href='#Page_232'>232</a>, <a href='#Page_344'>344</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Samarcand, <a href='#Page_140'>140</a>, <a href='#Page_408'>408</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Sámarrá, <a href='#Page_145'>145</a>, <a href='#Page_359'>359</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Sarah, <a href='#Page_365'>365</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Sarakhs, <a href='#Page_164'>164</a>, <a href='#Page_165'>165</a>, <a href='#Page_174'>174</a>, <a href='#Page_193'>193</a>, <a href='#Page_227'>227</a>, <a href='#Page_364'>364</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Sarí al-Saqaṭí. <i>See</i> <a href='#ALSAQATI'>Abu ´l-Ḥasan Sarí Mughallis al-Saqaṭí</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Sayyárís, <a href='#Page_130'>130</a>, <b><a href='#Page_251'>251-60</a></b>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Shaddád, <a href='#Page_224'>224</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>al-Sháfi`í, <b><a href='#Page_116'>116</a></b>, <a href='#Page_125'>125</a>, <a href='#Page_286'>286</a>, <a href='#Page_347'>347</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Sháh b. Shujá`. <i>See</i> <a href='#ALKIRMANI'>Abu ´l-Fawáris Sháh b. Shujá` al-Kirmání</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Shahristání, <a href='#Page_131'>131</a>, <a href='#Page_295'>295</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Shaqíq of Balkh. <i>See</i> <a href='#ALAZDI'>Abú `Alí Shaqíq b. Ibráhím al-Azdí</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Sha`rání, <a href='#Page_396'>396</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Shiblí. <i>See</i> <a href='#ALSHIBLI'>Abú Bakr Dulaf b. Jaḥdar al-Shiblí</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Shí`ites, <a href='#Page_152'>152</a>, <a href='#Page_263'>263</a>, <a href='#Page_383'>383</a>, <a href='#Page_404'>404</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Shíráz, <a href='#Page_247'>247</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Shírín, <a href='#Page_411'>411</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Shu`ayb, <a href='#Page_74'>74</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Shúníziyya mosque, <a href='#Page_123'>123</a>, <a href='#Page_323'>323</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Shurayḥ, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a>, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Ṣiffín, <a href='#Page_84'>84</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Sinai, Mount, <a href='#Page_230'>230</a>, <a href='#Page_372'>372</a>, <a href='#Page_381'>381</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Ṣiráṭ, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a>, <a href='#Page_107'>107</a>, <a href='#Page_199'>199</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Sírawání, <a href='#Page_166'>166</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Solomon, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a>, <a href='#Page_230'>230</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Sophists, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Súfisṭá´iyán, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Sufyán Thawrí, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a>, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a>, <a href='#Page_103'>103</a>, <a href='#Page_128'>128</a>, <a href='#Page_293'>293</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— b. `Uyayna, <a href='#Page_98'>98</a>, <a href='#Page_118'>118</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Ṣuhayb b. Sinán, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Sulaymán Rá`í, <a href='#Page_116'>116</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Sumnún al-Muḥibb. <i>See</i> <a href='#SUMNUNKHAWWAS'>Abu ´l-Ḥasan Sumnún b. `Abdalláh al-Khawwáṣ</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Syria, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a>, <a href='#Page_118'>118</a>, <a href='#Page_172'>172</a>.</li> -</ul> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> - <div class='nf-center'> - <div>T.</div> - </div> -</div> - -<ul class='index'> - <li class='c021'>Ṭábarání, <a href='#Page_227'>227</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Ṭabaristán, <a href='#Page_161'>161</a>, <a href='#Page_163'>163</a>, <a href='#Page_173'>173</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>al-Tábi`ún, <a href='#Page_83'>83</a>, <a href='#Page_88'>88</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Ṭayfúrís, <a href='#Page_130'>130</a>, <b><a href='#Page_184'>184-8</a></b>, <a href='#Page_189'>189</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Thábit b. Wadí`at, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Tha`laba, <a href='#Page_348'>348</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><span class='pageno' id='Page_431'>431</span>Thawbán, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— name of Dhu ´l-Nún, <a href='#Page_100'>100</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Tibetans, <a href='#Page_263'>263</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Tigris, <a href='#Page_180'>180</a>, <a href='#Page_408'>408</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Tíh-i Baní Isrá´íl, <a href='#Page_229'>229</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Tirmidh, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>, <a href='#Page_141'>141</a>, <a href='#Page_229'>229</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Transoxania, <a href='#Page_50'>50</a>, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a>, <a href='#Page_161'>161</a>, <a href='#Page_174'>174</a>, <a href='#Page_288'>288</a>, <a href='#Page_364'>364</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Turkistán, <a href='#Page_407'>407</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Ṭús, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a>, <a href='#Page_165'>165</a>, <a href='#Page_166'>166</a>, <a href='#Page_234'>234</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Tustar, <a href='#Page_195'>195</a>, <a href='#Page_225'>225</a>, <a href='#Page_233'>233</a>.</li> -</ul> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> - <div class='nf-center'> - <div>U.</div> - </div> -</div> - -<ul class='index'> - <li class='c021'>Ubulla, <a href='#Page_408'>408</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Uḥud, <a href='#Page_192'>192</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>`Ukkásha b. Miḥṣan, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>`Umar b. `Abd al-`Azíz, <a href='#Page_99'>99</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— b. al-Khaṭṭáb, the Caliph, <a href='#Page_31'>31</a>, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a>, <a href='#Page_70'>70</a>, <b><a href='#Page_72'>72-3</a></b>, <a href='#Page_76'>76</a>, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a>, <a href='#Page_83'>83</a>, <a href='#Page_208'>208</a>, <a href='#Page_211'>211</a>, <a href='#Page_212'>212</a>, <a href='#Page_232'>232</a>, <a href='#Page_254'>254</a>, <a href='#Page_304'>304</a>, <a href='#Page_361'>361</a>, <a href='#Page_394'>394</a>, <a href='#Page_401'>401</a>, <a href='#Page_411'>411</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Umayya b. Abi ´l-Ṣalt, <a href='#Page_397'>397</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Umm Kulthúm, <a href='#Page_361'>361</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>`Utba b. Ghazwán, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— al-Ghulám, <a href='#Page_180'>180</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— b. Mas`úd, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— b. Rabí`a, <a href='#Page_394'>394</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>`Uthmán, the Caliph, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a>, <b><a href='#Page_73'>73-4</a></b>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Uways al-Qaraní, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a>, <b><a href='#Page_83'>83-4</a></b>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Uzkand, <a href='#Page_234'>234</a>.</li> -</ul> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> - <div class='nf-center'> - <div>W.</div> - </div> -</div> - -<ul class='index'> - <li class='c021'>Wahb b. Ma`qal, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a>.</li> -</ul> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> - <div class='nf-center'> - <div>Y.</div> - </div> -</div> - -<ul class='index'> - <li class='c021'>Yaḥyá b. Mu`ádh al-Rází. <i>See</i> <a href='#YAHYAZAKARIYYA'>Abú Zakariyyá Yaḥyá b. Mu`ádh al-Rází</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Yaḥyá b. Zakariyyá, <a href='#Page_122'>122</a>. - <ul> - <li><i>See</i> <a href='#JOHN'>John the Baptist</a>.</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c021'>Yazdán, <a href='#Page_280'>280</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Yazíd b. Mu`áwiya, <a href='#Page_76'>76</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Yúsuf, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a>, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a>. - <ul> - <li><i>See</i> <a href='#JOSEPH'>Joseph</a>.</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c021'>—— b. al-Ḥusayn. <i>See</i> <a href='#YUSUFRAZI'>Abú Ya`qúb Yúsuf b. al-Ḥusayn al-Rází</a>.</li> -</ul> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> - <div class='nf-center'> - <div>Z.</div> - </div> -</div> - -<ul class='index'> - <li class='c021'>Zacharias, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>, <a href='#Page_230'>230</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Ẓáhirite school of law, <a href='#Page_135'>135</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Zá´ida, <a href='#Page_232'>232</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Zakariyyá al-Anṣárí, <a href='#Page_408'>408</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Zakí b. al-`Alá, <a href='#Page_172'>172</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Zayd b. al-Khaṭṭáb, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Zayn al-`Ábidín, <a href='#Page_76'>76</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Zuhrí, <a href='#Page_71'>71</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Zulaykhá, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a>, <a href='#Page_310'>310</a>, <a href='#Page_335'>335</a>, <a href='#Page_365'>365</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Zurára b. Abí Awfá, <a href='#Page_396'>396</a>.</li> -</ul> - -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_432'>432</span> - <h3 class='c018'>II. <br /> <span class='sc'>Subjects, Oriental Words, and Technical Terms.</span></h3> -</div> - -<p class='c010'>Arabic and Persian words are printed in italics. In their arrangement no account is -taken of the definite article <i>al</i>.</p> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> - <div class='nf-center'> - <div>A.</div> - </div> -</div> - -<ul class='index'> - <li class='c021'><i>`abá</i>, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a>, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>, <a href='#Page_133'>133</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>abad</i>, <a href='#Page_386'>386</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>Abdál</i>, <a href='#Page_214'>214</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>Abrár</i>, <a href='#Page_214'>214</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Actions, the Divine, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>adab</i>, <i>ádáb</i>, <a href='#Page_334'>334</a>, <a href='#Page_341'>341</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>ádáb-i ẕáhir</i>, <a href='#Page_292'>292</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>`adam</i>, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a>, <a href='#Page_168'>168</a>, <a href='#Page_253'>253</a>, <a href='#Page_373'>373</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>ádamiyyat</i>, <a href='#Page_246'>246</a>, <a href='#Page_254'>254</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>`adl</i>, <a href='#Page_387'>387</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>áfát</i>, <a href='#Page_281'>281</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>aghyár</i>, <a href='#Page_31'>31</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>aḥdáth</i>, <a href='#Page_416'>416</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>ahl-i dargáh</i>, <a href='#Page_169'>169</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— <i>ḥaqá´iq</i>, <a href='#Page_225'>225</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— <i>ḥaqíqat</i>, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— <i>ḥaqq</i>, <a href='#Page_62'>62</a>, <a href='#Page_402'>402</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— <i>ḥashw</i>, <a href='#Page_316'>316</a>, <a href='#Page_416'>416</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— <i>himmat</i>, <a href='#Page_167'>167</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— <i>`ibárat</i>, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>ahl al-`ilm</i>, <a href='#Page_253'>253</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>ahl-i ma`ní</i>, <a href='#Page_403'>403</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— <i>maqámát</i>, <a href='#Page_61'>61</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— <i>minan</i>, <a href='#Page_265'>265</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— <i>mu`ámalat</i>, <a href='#Page_225'>225</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— <i>rusúm</i>, <a href='#Page_172'>172</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— <i>wafá</i>, <a href='#Page_265'>265</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>aḥrár</i>, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><a id='AHWAL'></a><i>aḥwál</i>, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>, <a href='#Page_110'>110</a>, <a href='#Page_157'>157</a>, <a href='#Page_177'>177</a>. - <ul> - <li>See <i><a href='#HAL'>ḥál</a></i> and <a href='#STATES'>States of Mystics</a>.</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c021'><i>á´ib</i>, <a href='#Page_391'>391</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>`ajz</i>, <a href='#Page_276'>276</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>akhláq</i>, <a href='#Page_42'>42</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>Akhyár</i>, <a href='#Page_214'>214</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>`alá´iq</i>, <a href='#Page_165'>165</a>, <a href='#Page_384'>384</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>`álam</i>, <a href='#Page_385'>385</a>, <a href='#Page_386'>386</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>álat-i mawsúm</i>, <a href='#Page_199'>199</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>`álim</i>, <a href='#Page_382'>382</a>, <a href='#Page_383'>383</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>`álim-i rabbání</i>, <a href='#Page_151'>151</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Alms, <a href='#Page_314'>314-17</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>amír</i>, <a href='#Page_388'>388</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>amn</i>, <a href='#Page_216'>216</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>anfás</i>, <a href='#Page_164'>164</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>angalyún</i>, <a href='#Page_407'>407</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Angels, <a href='#Page_239'>239-41</a>, <a href='#Page_302'>302</a>, <a href='#Page_303'>303</a>, <a href='#Page_351'>351</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><a id='ANNIHILATION'></a>Annihilation, <a href='#Page_20'>20</a>, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a>, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a>, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a>, <a href='#Page_36'>36</a>, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a>, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a>, <b><a href='#Page_58'>58-60</a></b>, <a href='#Page_95'>95</a>, <a href='#Page_170'>170</a>, <a href='#Page_171'>171</a>, <a href='#Page_205'>205</a>, <b><a href='#Page_241'>241-6</a></b>. - <ul> - <li>See <i><a href='#FANA'>faná</a></i>.</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c021'><i>`aql</i>, <a href='#Page_309'>309</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>`araḍ</i>, <a href='#Page_261'>261</a>, <a href='#Page_264'>264</a>, <a href='#Page_386'>386</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>arbáb-i aḥwál</i>, <a href='#Page_302'>302</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— <i>ḥál</i>, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— <i>laṭá´if</i>, <a href='#Page_353'>353</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— <i>ma`ání</i>, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a>, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>`árif</i>, <a href='#Page_79'>79</a>, <a href='#Page_100'>100</a>, <a href='#Page_265'>265</a>, <a href='#Page_267'>267</a>, <a href='#Page_382'>382-3</a>, <a href='#Page_414'>414</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>`arsh</i>, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Ascension of Báyazíd, <a href='#Page_238'>238</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— of Muḥammad, <a href='#Page_186'>186</a>, <a href='#Page_215'>215</a>, <a href='#Page_240'>240</a>, <a href='#Page_259'>259</a>, <a href='#Page_262'>262</a>, <a href='#Page_277'>277</a>, <a href='#Page_283'>283</a>, <a href='#Page_302'>302</a>, <a href='#Page_330'>330</a>, <a href='#Page_331'>331</a>, <a href='#Page_336'>336</a>, <a href='#Page_368'>368</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— of Prophets and Saints, <a href='#Page_238'>238</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><a id='ASCETICISM'></a>Asceticism, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a>, <a href='#Page_86'>86</a>. - <ul> - <li><i>See</i> <a href='#MORTIFICATION'>Mortification</a> and <i><a href='#ZUHD'>zuhd</a></i>.</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c021'>Asking, rules in, <a href='#Page_357'>357-60</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>asrár</i>, <a href='#Page_255'>255</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Association. <i>See</i> <a href='#COMPANIONSHIP'>Companionship</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— with the wicked, <a href='#Page_86'>86</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><span class='pageno' id='Page_433'>433</span>Attributes, the Divine, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a>, <a href='#Page_36'>36</a>, <a href='#Page_252'>252</a>, <a href='#Page_253'>253</a>, <a href='#Page_279'>279</a>, <a href='#Page_288'>288</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>awbat</i>, <a href='#Page_295'>295</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>awliyá</i>, <a href='#Page_210'>210</a>, <a href='#Page_211'>211</a>, <a href='#Page_212'>212</a>, <a href='#Page_215'>215</a>, <a href='#Page_295'>295</a>. - <ul> - <li><i>See</i> <a href='#SAINTS'>Saints</a>.</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c021'><i>awrád</i>, <a href='#Page_303'>303</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>Awtád</i>, <a href='#Page_146'>146</a>, <a href='#Page_214'>214</a>, <a href='#Page_228'>228</a>, <a href='#Page_234'>234</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>awwáb</i>, <a href='#Page_295'>295</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>áyát</i>, <a href='#Page_373'>373</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>`ayyár</i>, <a href='#Page_100'>100</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>`ayn</i>, <a href='#Page_149'>149</a>, <a href='#Page_171'>171</a>, <a href='#Page_196'>196</a>, <a href='#Page_206'>206</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>`ayn al-yaqí</i>n, <a href='#Page_381'>381-2</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>azal</i>, <a href='#Page_386'>386</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>azaliyyat</i>, <a href='#Page_238'>238</a>.</li> -</ul> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> - <div class='nf-center'> - <div>B.</div> - </div> -</div> - -<ul class='index'> - <li class='c021'><i>Báb</i>, a title given to Ṣúfí Shaykhs, <b><a href='#Page_234'>234</a></b>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>badhl-i rúḥ</i>, <a href='#Page_194'>194</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>balá</i>, <a href='#Page_388'>388</a>, <a href='#Page_389'>389</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>baqá</i>, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a>, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a>, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a>, <a href='#Page_73'>73</a>, <a href='#Page_143'>143</a>, <a href='#Page_170'>170</a>, <a href='#Page_171'>171</a>, <a href='#Page_185'>185</a>, <a href='#Page_205'>205</a>, <b><a href='#Page_241'>241-6</a></b>, <a href='#Page_253'>253</a>, <a href='#Page_266'>266</a>, <a href='#Page_373'>373</a>, <a href='#Page_377'>377</a>, <a href='#Page_380'>380</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>báqí</i>, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a>, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a>, <a href='#Page_311'>311</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>bashariyyat</i>, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a>, <a href='#Page_159'>159</a>, <a href='#Page_217'>217</a>, <a href='#Page_226'>226</a>, <a href='#Page_237'>237</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>basṭ</i>, <a href='#Page_181'>181</a>, <b><a href='#Page_374'>374-6</a></b>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>bayán</i>, <a href='#Page_356'>356</a>, <a href='#Page_373'>373</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>bégána</i>, <a href='#Page_200'>200</a>, <a href='#Page_222'>222</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>bégánagí</i>, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a>, <a href='#Page_333'>333</a>, <a href='#Page_377'>377</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Begging, <a href='#Page_105'>105</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— rules in, <a href='#Page_357'>357</a>, <a href='#Page_360'>360</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>birsám</i>, <a href='#Page_167'>167</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Blame, the doctrine of, <a href='#Page_62'>62-9</a>, <a href='#Page_183'>183-4</a>. - <ul> - <li>See <i><a href='#MALAMAT'>malámat</a></i>, <a href='#MALAMATIS'>Malámatís</a>, <a href='#QASSARIS'>Qaṣṣárís</a>.</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c021'>Blue garments, worn by Ṣúfís, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a>.</li> -</ul> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> - <div class='nf-center'> - <div>C.</div> - </div> -</div> - -<ul class='index'> - <li class='c021'>Cave, story of the, <a href='#Page_231'>231</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Celibacy, <a href='#Page_360'>360-6</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>chigúnagí</i>, <a href='#Page_374'>374</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>chilla</i>, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a>, <a href='#Page_324'>324</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><a id='COMPANIONSHIP'></a>Companionship, <a href='#Page_189'>189</a>, <a href='#Page_190'>190</a>, <b><a href='#Page_334'>334-45</a></b>. - <ul> - <li>See <i><a href='#SUHBAT'>ṣuḥbat</a></i>.</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c021'><a id='CONTEMPLATION'></a>Contemplation, <a href='#Page_70'>70</a>, <a href='#Page_91'>91</a>, <a href='#Page_92'>92</a>, <a href='#Page_105'>105</a>, <a href='#Page_165'>165</a>, <a href='#Page_171'>171</a>, <b><a href='#Page_201'>201-5</a></b>, <a href='#Page_300'>300</a>, <a href='#Page_327'>327</a>, <b><a href='#Page_329'>329-33</a></b>, <a href='#Page_346'>346</a>. - <ul> - <li>See <i><a href='#MUSHAHADAT'>musháhadat</a></i>.</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c021'>Covetousness, <a href='#Page_128'>128</a>, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a>, <a href='#Page_217'>217</a>.</li> -</ul> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> - <div class='nf-center'> - <div>D.</div> - </div> -</div> - -<ul class='index'> - <li class='c021'><i>dahr</i>, <b><a href='#Page_244'>244</a></b>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>dahriyán</i>, <a href='#Page_281'>281</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Daily bread, <a href='#Page_106'>106</a>, <a href='#Page_157'>157</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Dancing, <a href='#Page_416'>416</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>dánishmand</i>, <a href='#Page_382'>382</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>ḍarúrí</i>, <a href='#Page_261'>261</a>, <a href='#Page_271'>271</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>da`wá</i>, <a href='#Page_274'>274</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>dawá al-misk</i>, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><a id='DERVISHES'></a>Dervishes, <a href='#Page_142'>142</a>, <a href='#Page_143'>143</a>, <a href='#Page_146'>146</a>, <a href='#Page_165'>165</a>. - <ul> - <li>See <i><a href='#FAQIR'>faqír</a></i> and <i><a href='#FUQARA'>fuqará</a></i>.</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c021'>—— resident, <a href='#Page_340'>340-5</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— travelling, <a href='#Page_340'>340</a>, <a href='#Page_345'>345-7</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>dhát</i>, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a>, <a href='#Page_386'>386</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>dhawq</i>, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a>, <a href='#Page_392'>392</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><a id='DHIKR'></a><i>dhikr</i>, <a href='#Page_87'>87</a>, <a href='#Page_126'>126</a>, <a href='#Page_128'>128</a>, <a href='#Page_154'>154</a>, <a href='#Page_155'>155</a>, <a href='#Page_242'>242</a>, <a href='#Page_254'>254</a>, <a href='#Page_300'>300</a>, <a href='#Page_301'>301</a>, <a href='#Page_307'>307</a>, <a href='#Page_371'>371</a>, <a href='#Page_376'>376</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>dídár</i>, <a href='#Page_175'>175</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>ḍiddán</i>, <a href='#Page_386'>386</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>dil</i>, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>, <a href='#Page_144'>144</a>, <a href='#Page_309'>309</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Directors, spiritual, <a href='#Page_55'>55-7</a>, <a href='#Page_128'>128</a>, <a href='#Page_129'>129</a>, <a href='#Page_133'>133</a>, <a href='#Page_134'>134</a>, <a href='#Page_166'>166</a>, <a href='#Page_169'>169</a>, <a href='#Page_301'>301</a>, <a href='#Page_353'>353</a>, <a href='#Page_354'>354</a>, <a href='#Page_357'>357</a>, <a href='#Page_387'>387</a>, <a href='#Page_408'>408</a>, <a href='#Page_418'>418</a>, <a href='#Page_419'>419</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><a id='DIVINES'></a>Divines, <a href='#Page_116'>116</a>, <a href='#Page_142'>142</a>, <a href='#Page_143'>143</a>, <a href='#Page_213'>213</a>. - <ul> - <li>See <i><a href='#ULAMA'>`ulamá</a></i>.</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c021'>—— disagreement of the, <a href='#Page_106'>106</a>, <a href='#Page_176'>176</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Dreams, <a href='#Page_88'>88</a>, <a href='#Page_91'>91</a>, <a href='#Page_92'>92</a>, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a>, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a>, <a href='#Page_100'>100</a>, <a href='#Page_116'>116</a>, <a href='#Page_129'>129</a>, <a href='#Page_138'>138</a>, <a href='#Page_145'>145</a>, <a href='#Page_218'>218</a>, <a href='#Page_282'>282</a>, <a href='#Page_321'>321</a>, <a href='#Page_358'>358</a>, <a href='#Page_359'>359</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Dualism, <a href='#Page_259'>259</a>, <a href='#Page_273'>273</a>, <a href='#Page_280'>280</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>dústán</i>, <a href='#Page_265'>265</a>, <a href='#Page_382'>382</a>.</li> -</ul> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> - <div class='nf-center'> - <div>E.</div> - </div> -</div> - -<ul class='index'> - <li class='c021'>Eating, rules in, <a href='#Page_347'>347-9</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Ecstasy, <a href='#Page_138'>138</a>, <a href='#Page_152'>152</a>, <a href='#Page_167'>167</a>. - <ul> - <li><i>See</i> <a href='#INTOXICATION'>Intoxication</a> and <i><a href='#SAMA'>samá`</a></i> and <i><a href='#WAJD'>wajd</a></i>.</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c021'>Essence, the Divine, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>.</li> -</ul> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> - <div class='nf-center'> - <div>F.</div> - </div> -</div> - -<ul class='index'> - <li class='c021'><a id='FADL'></a><i>faḍl</i>, <a href='#Page_201'>201</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>fá`il</i>, <a href='#Page_237'>237</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Faith, <a href='#Page_225'>225</a>, <b><a href='#Page_286'>286-90</a></b>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>falakiyán</i>, <a href='#Page_280'>280</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><a id='FANA'></a><i>faná</i>, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a>, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a>, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a>, <a href='#Page_73'>73</a>, <a href='#Page_143'>143</a>, <a href='#Page_168'>168</a>, <a href='#Page_170'>170</a>, <a href='#Page_185'>185</a>, <a href='#Page_205'>205</a>, <b><a href='#Page_241'>241-6</a></b>, <a href='#Page_253'>253</a>, <a href='#Page_266'>266</a>, <a href='#Page_373'>373</a>, <a href='#Page_377'>377</a>, <a href='#Page_380'>380</a>. - <ul> - <li><span class='pageno' id='Page_434'>434</span><i>See</i> <a href='#ANNIHILATION'>Annihilation</a>.</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c021'><i>faná-yi `ayn</i>, <a href='#Page_244'>244</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— <i>kullí</i>, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— <i>kulliyyat</i>, <a href='#Page_243'>243</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>fání</i>, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a>, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>, <a href='#Page_311'>311</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>fáqa</i>, <a href='#Page_325'>325</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>faqd</i>, <a href='#Page_368'>368</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><a id='FAQIR'></a><i>faqír</i>, <a href='#Page_20'>20</a>, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a>, <a href='#Page_60'>60</a>, <a href='#Page_165'>165</a>, <a href='#Page_309'>309</a>. - <ul> - <li><i>See</i> <a href='#DERVISHES'>Dervishes</a>.</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c021'><a id='FAQR'></a><i>faqr</i>, <a href='#Page_36'>36</a>, <a href='#Page_60'>60</a>, <a href='#Page_109'>109</a>, <a href='#Page_189'>189</a>, <a href='#Page_309'>309</a>, <a href='#Page_364'>364</a>. - <ul> - <li><i>See</i> <a href='#POVERTY'>Poverty</a>.</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c021'><i>farághat</i>, <a href='#Page_109'>109</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>fardániyyat</i>, <a href='#Page_281'>281</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Fasting, <a href='#Page_36'>36</a>, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>, <a href='#Page_201'>201</a>, <b><a href='#Page_320'>320-5</a></b>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>fawá´id</i>, <a href='#Page_384'>384</a>, <a href='#Page_385'>385</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Fear, <a href='#Page_112'>112</a>, <a href='#Page_113'>113</a>, <a href='#Page_122'>122</a>, <a href='#Page_128'>128</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>fikrat</i>, <a href='#Page_239'>239</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>fi`l</i>, <a href='#Page_237'>237</a>, <a href='#Page_256'>256</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Free will, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>, <a href='#Page_288'>288</a>. - <ul> - <li><i>See</i> <a href='#PREDESTINATION'>Predestination</a>.</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c021'>Frocks, patched, worn by Ṣúfís, <a href='#Page_45'>45-57</a>. - <ul> - <li>See <i><a href='#MURAQQAAT'>muraqqa`át</a></i>.</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c021'><a id='FUQARA'></a><i>fuqará</i>, <a href='#Page_19'>19</a>, <a href='#Page_110'>110</a>, <a href='#Page_126'>126</a>, <a href='#Page_142'>142</a>, <a href='#Page_165'>165</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>furqat</i>, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>futúḥ</i>, <a href='#Page_355'>355</a>.</li> -</ul> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> - <div class='nf-center'> - <div>G.</div> - </div> -</div> - -<ul class='index'> - <li class='c021'>Garments, the rending of, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a>, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a>, <b><a href='#Page_417'>417-18</a></b>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Generosity, <a href='#Page_114'>114</a>, <a href='#Page_123'>123</a>, <a href='#Page_124'>124</a>, <a href='#Page_183'>183</a>, <a href='#Page_184'>184</a>, <b><a href='#Page_317'>317-19</a></b>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>ghaflat</i>, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>, <a href='#Page_155'>155</a>, <a href='#Page_187'>187</a>, <a href='#Page_242'>242</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>ghalabat</i>, <a href='#Page_184'>184</a>, <a href='#Page_226'>226</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>ghaná.</i> See <i><a href='#GHINA'>ghiná</a></i>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>gharíb</i>, <a href='#Page_146'>146</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>Ghawth</i>, <a href='#Page_214'>214</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>ghaybat</i>, <a href='#Page_155'>155</a>, <a href='#Page_178'>178</a>, <b><a href='#Page_248'>248-51</a></b>, <a href='#Page_256'>256</a>, <a href='#Page_301'>301</a>, <a href='#Page_370'>370</a>, <a href='#Page_380'>380</a>, <a href='#Page_405'>405</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>ghayn</i>, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a>, <a href='#Page_391'>391</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>ghayr</i>, <a href='#Page_62'>62</a>, <a href='#Page_105'>105</a>, <a href='#Page_237'>237</a>, <a href='#Page_274'>274</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>ghayrán</i>, <a href='#Page_386'>386</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>ghayrat</i>, <a href='#Page_156'>156</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><a id='GHINA'></a><i>ghiná</i>, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a>, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a>, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a>, <a href='#Page_74'>74</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>ghusl</i>, <a href='#Page_293'>293</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>gilím</i>, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a>, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>girawish</i>, <a href='#Page_289'>289</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><a id='GNOSIS'></a>Gnosis, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a>, <a href='#Page_100'>100</a>, <a href='#Page_134'>134</a>, <a href='#Page_140'>140</a>, <b><a href='#Page_267'>267-77</a></b>, <a href='#Page_325'>325</a>, <a href='#Page_392'>392</a>. - <ul> - <li>See <i><a href='#MARIFAT'>ma`rifat</a></i>.</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c021'>Grace. See <i><a href='#FADL'>faḍl</a></i>, <i><a href='#INAYAT'>`ináyat</a></i>, <i><a href='#KARAMAT'>karámat</a></i>.</li> -</ul> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> - <div class='nf-center'> - <div>H.</div> - </div> -</div> - -<ul class='index'> - <li class='c021'><i>ḥadath</i>, <a href='#Page_293'>293</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>hadhayán</i>, <a href='#Page_167'>167</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>ḥáḍir</i>, <a href='#Page_373'>373</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>ḥaḍrat</i>, <a href='#Page_256'>256</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>ḥajj</i>, <a href='#Page_326'>326</a>. - <ul> - <li><i>See</i> <a href='#PILGRIMAGE'>Pilgrimage</a>.</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c021'><a id='HAL'></a><i>ḥál</i>, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a>, <a href='#Page_50'>50</a>, <a href='#Page_112'>112</a>, <a href='#Page_177'>177</a>, <b><a href='#Page_180'>180-3</a></b>, <a href='#Page_236'>236</a>, <a href='#Page_242'>242</a>, <a href='#Page_243'>243</a>, <a href='#Page_258'>258</a>, <a href='#Page_267'>267</a>, <a href='#Page_309'>309</a>, <b><a href='#Page_367'>367-70</a></b>, <a href='#Page_371'>371</a>, <a href='#Page_372'>372</a>, <a href='#Page_382'>382</a>, <a href='#Page_415'>415</a>. - <ul> - <li><i>See</i> <a href='#STATES'>States of mystics</a> and <i><a href='#AHWAL'>aḥwál</a></i>.</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c021'><i>ḥálí</i>, <a href='#Page_267'>267</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>ḥáll</i>, <a href='#Page_244'>244</a>, <a href='#Page_254'>254</a>, <a href='#Page_279'>279</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>ḥaqá´iq</i>, <a href='#Page_117'>117</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><a id='HAQIQAT'></a><i>ḥaqíqat</i>, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a>, <a href='#Page_149'>149</a>, <b><a href='#Page_383'>383-4</a></b>. - <ul> - <li><i>See</i> <a href='#TRUTH'>Truth, the</a>.</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c021'><a id='HAQQ'></a><i>ḥaqq</i>, <a href='#Page_384'>384</a>, <a href='#Page_404'>404</a>. - <ul> - <li><i>See</i> <a href='#TRUTH'>Truth, the</a>.</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c021'><i>ḥaqq al-yaqín</i>, <a href='#Page_381'>381</a>, <a href='#Page_382'>382</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>ḥashw</i>, <a href='#Page_167'>167</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>hastí</i>, <a href='#Page_374'>374</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><a id='HAWA'></a><i>hawá</i>, <a href='#Page_196'>196</a>, <a href='#Page_207'>207</a>, <a href='#Page_208'>208</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>haybat</i>, <a href='#Page_376'>376</a>, <a href='#Page_377'>377</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>ḥayrat</i>, <a href='#Page_275'>275</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>ḥazan</i>, <a href='#Page_413'>413</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Hell, the result of God’s anger, <a href='#Page_199'>199</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>hidáyat</i>, <a href='#Page_95'>95</a>, <a href='#Page_203'>203</a>, <a href='#Page_204'>204</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><a id='HIJAB'></a><i>ḥijáb</i>, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a>, <a href='#Page_149'>149</a>, <a href='#Page_236'>236</a>, <a href='#Page_325'>325</a>, <a href='#Page_374'>374</a>, <a href='#Page_414'>414</a>. - <ul> - <li><i>See</i> <a href='#VEILS'>Veils, spiritual</a>.</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c021'><i>ḥijáb-i ghayní</i>, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>ḥijáb-i rayní</i>, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a>, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>himmat</i>, <a href='#Page_155'>155</a>, <a href='#Page_235'>235</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Hope, <a href='#Page_112'>112</a>, <a href='#Page_113'>113</a>, <a href='#Page_122'>122</a>, <a href='#Page_133'>133</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>ḥubb</i>, <a href='#Page_305'>305</a>, <a href='#Page_306'>306</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><a id='HUDUR'></a><i>ḥuḍúr</i>, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>, <a href='#Page_129'>129</a>, <a href='#Page_144'>144</a>, <a href='#Page_155'>155</a>, <a href='#Page_178'>178</a>, <b><a href='#Page_248'>248-51</a></b>, <a href='#Page_301'>301</a>, <a href='#Page_373'>373</a>, <a href='#Page_380'>380</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>ḥudúth</i>, <a href='#Page_280'>280</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><a id='HULUL'></a><i>ḥulúl</i>, <a href='#Page_131'>131</a>, <a href='#Page_260'>260</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Hunger, <a href='#Page_324'>324</a>, <a href='#Page_325'>325</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>ḥurmat</i>, <a href='#Page_334'>334</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>ḥurqat</i>, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>ḥusn</i>, <a href='#Page_386'>386</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><span class='pageno' id='Page_435'>435</span><i>huwiyyat</i>, <a href='#Page_238'>238</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>ḥuzn</i>, <a href='#Page_371'>371</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Hypocrisy, <a href='#Page_87'>87</a>, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a>, <a href='#Page_291'>291</a>, <a href='#Page_292'>292</a>, <a href='#Page_304'>304</a>.</li> -</ul> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> - <div class='nf-center'> - <div>I.</div> - </div> -</div> - -<ul class='index'> - <li class='c021'><i>ibáḥí</i>, <a href='#Page_131'>131</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>`ibádat</i>, <a href='#Page_79'>79</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>`ibárat</i>, <a href='#Page_203'>203</a>, <a href='#Page_276'>276</a>, <a href='#Page_385'>385</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>ibtidá</i>, <a href='#Page_119'>119</a>, <a href='#Page_169'>169</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>`idda</i>, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>i`jáz</i>, <a href='#Page_219'>219</a>, <a href='#Page_221'>221</a>, <a href='#Page_223'>223</a>, <a href='#Page_255'>255</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>ijmá</i>`, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>, <a href='#Page_225'>225</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>ikhláṣ</i>, <a href='#Page_103'>103</a>, <a href='#Page_117'>117</a>, <a href='#Page_246'>246</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>ikhtiyár</i>, <a href='#Page_171'>171</a>, <a href='#Page_297'>297</a>, <a href='#Page_316'>316</a>, <b><a href='#Page_388'>388</a></b>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>iláhiyyat</i>, <a href='#Page_245'>245</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>ilhám</i>, <a href='#Page_166'>166</a>, <a href='#Page_271'>271</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>ilhámiyán</i>, <a href='#Page_271'>271</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><a id='ILM'></a><i>`ilm</i>, <a href='#Page_103'>103</a>, <a href='#Page_267'>267</a>, <a href='#Page_381'>381</a>, <b><a href='#Page_382'>382-3</a></b>, <a href='#Page_415'>415</a>. - <ul> - <li><i>See</i> <a href='#KNOWLEDGE'>Knowledge</a>.</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c021'><i>`ilm-i ma`rifat</i>, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— <i>mu`ámalat</i>, <a href='#Page_86'>86</a>, <a href='#Page_115'>115</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— <i>sharí`at</i>, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— <i>waqt</i>, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>, <a href='#Page_112'>112</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>`ilm al-yaqín</i>, <a href='#Page_381'>381</a>, <a href='#Page_382'>382</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>`ilmí</i>, <a href='#Page_267'>267</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>ímá</i>, <a href='#Page_385'>385</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>ímán</i>, <a href='#Page_225'>225</a>, <b><a href='#Page_286'>286-90</a></b>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>imtiḥán</i>, <a href='#Page_388'>388</a>, <a href='#Page_389'>389</a>, <a href='#Page_390'>390</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><a id='IMTIZAJ'></a><i>imtizáj</i>, <a href='#Page_131'>131</a>, <a href='#Page_152'>152</a>, <a href='#Page_254'>254</a>, <a href='#Page_260'>260</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>inábat</i>, <a href='#Page_181'>181</a>, <a href='#Page_295'>295</a>, <a href='#Page_371'>371</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><a id='INAYAT'></a><i>`ináyat</i>, <a href='#Page_203'>203</a>, <a href='#Page_268'>268</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>inbisáṭ</i>, <a href='#Page_380'>380</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Incarnation, <a href='#Page_92'>92</a>, <a href='#Page_236'>236</a>, <b><a href='#Page_260'>260-6</a></b>. - <ul> - <li>See <i><a href='#HULUL'>ḥulúl</a></i>.</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c021'>Indulgences, <a href='#Page_116'>116</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>insán</i>, <a href='#Page_197'>197</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>insániyyat</i>, <a href='#Page_197'>197</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Inspiration, <a href='#Page_271'>271</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Intention, the power of, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>intibáh</i>, <a href='#Page_385'>385</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>intiqál</i>, <a href='#Page_236'>236</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><a id='INTOXICATION'></a>Intoxication, spiritual, <b><a href='#Page_226'>226-9</a></b>, <a href='#Page_248'>248</a>, <a href='#Page_352'>352</a>. - <ul> - <li>See <i><a href='#SUKR'>sukr</a></i>.</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c021'><i>inzi`áj</i>, <a href='#Page_385'>385</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>irádat</i>, <a href='#Page_199'>199</a>, <a href='#Page_307'>307</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>ishárat</i>, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a>, <a href='#Page_129'>129</a>, <a href='#Page_155'>155</a>, <a href='#Page_385'>385</a>, <a href='#Page_404'>404</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>`ishq</i>, <a href='#Page_310'>310</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>ishtibáh</i>, <a href='#Page_385'>385</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>ism</i>, <a href='#Page_386'>386</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>istidlál</i>, <a href='#Page_268'>268</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>istidlálí</i>, <a href='#Page_330'>330</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>istidráj</i>, <a href='#Page_221'>221</a>, <a href='#Page_224'>224</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>iṣṭifá</i>, <a href='#Page_265'>265</a>, <a href='#Page_390'>390</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>istighráq</i>, <a href='#Page_381'>381</a>, <a href='#Page_385'>385</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>istikhárat,</i> 3.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>iṣṭilám</i>, <a href='#Page_390'>390</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>iṣṭiná`</i>, <a href='#Page_390'>390</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>istiqámat</i>, <a href='#Page_104'>104</a>, <a href='#Page_177'>177</a>, <a href='#Page_301'>301</a>, <a href='#Page_377'>377</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>istiṭá`at</i>, <a href='#Page_75'>75</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>istiwá</i>, <a href='#Page_307'>307</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><a id='ITHAR'></a><i>íthár</i>, <a href='#Page_189'>189-95</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>ithbát</i>, <a href='#Page_379'>379</a>, <a href='#Page_380'>380</a>, <a href='#Page_386'>386</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><a id='ITTIHAD'></a><i>ittiḥád</i>, <a href='#Page_152'>152</a>, <a href='#Page_198'>198</a>, <a href='#Page_254'>254</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>ittiṣál</i>, <a href='#Page_415'>415</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>`iyán</i>, <a href='#Page_356'>356</a>, <a href='#Page_370'>370</a>, <a href='#Page_373'>373</a>.</li> -</ul> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> - <div class='nf-center'> - <div>J.</div> - </div> -</div> - -<ul class='index'> - <li class='c021'><a id='JABR'></a><i>jabr</i>, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>, <a href='#Page_272'>272</a>, <a href='#Page_288'>288</a>, <a href='#Page_324'>324</a>. - <ul> - <li><i>See</i> <a href='#PREDESTINATION'>Predestination</a>.</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c021'><i>jadhb</i>, <a href='#Page_195'>195</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>jadhbat</i>, <a href='#Page_248'>248</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>jadhbí</i>, <a href='#Page_330'>330</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>jalál</i>, <a href='#Page_177'>177</a>, <a href='#Page_288'>288</a>, <a href='#Page_376'>376</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><a id='JAM'></a><i>jam`</i>, <a href='#Page_237'>237</a>, <a href='#Page_238'>238</a>, <b><a href='#Page_251'>251-60</a></b>, <a href='#Page_266'>266</a>, <a href='#Page_285'>285</a>, <a href='#Page_380'>380</a>. - <ul> - <li><i>See</i> <a href='#UNION'>Union with God</a>.</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c021'><i>jam`-i himmat</i> (<i>himam</i>), <a href='#Page_258'>258</a>, <a href='#Page_282'>282</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>jam` al-jam`</i>, <a href='#Page_39'>39</a>, <a href='#Page_259'>259</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>jam`-i salámat</i>, <a href='#Page_257'>257</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>jam`-i taksír</i>, <a href='#Page_257'>257</a>, <a href='#Page_258'>258</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>jamál</i>, <a href='#Page_177'>177</a>, <a href='#Page_288'>288</a>, <a href='#Page_376'>376</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>ján</i>, <a href='#Page_197'>197</a>, <a href='#Page_199'>199</a>, <a href='#Page_309'>309</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>janábat</i>, <a href='#Page_293'>293</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>jawáb</i>, <a href='#Page_386'>386</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>jawhar</i>, <a href='#Page_386'>386</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>jihád</i>, <a href='#Page_364'>364</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>al-jihád al-akbar</i>, <a href='#Page_200'>200</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>jism</i>, <a href='#Page_386'>386</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>jubba</i>, <a href='#Page_50'>50</a>, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>júd</i>, <a href='#Page_317'>317</a>.</li> -</ul> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> - <div class='nf-center'> - <div><span class='pageno' id='Page_436'>436</span>K.</div> - </div> -</div> - -<ul class='index'> - <li class='c021'><i>kabíra</i>, <a href='#Page_225'>225</a>, <a href='#Page_295'>295</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>kabúdí</i>, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>kadar</i>, <a href='#Page_30'>30</a>, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>kafsh</i>, <a href='#Page_345'>345</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>kalám</i>, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>, <a href='#Page_307'>307</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>kamál</i>, <a href='#Page_288'>288</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>kámil</i>, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a>, <a href='#Page_407'>407</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><a id='KARAMAT'></a><i>karámat</i>, <i>karámát</i>, <a href='#Page_109'>109</a>, <a href='#Page_177'>177</a>, <a href='#Page_213'>213</a>, <a href='#Page_214'>214</a>, <b><a href='#Page_218'>218-35</a></b>, <a href='#Page_255'>255</a>, <a href='#Page_282'>282</a>, <a href='#Page_291'>291</a>, <a href='#Page_323'>323</a>, <a href='#Page_324'>324</a>, <a href='#Page_377'>377</a>, <a href='#Page_379'>379</a>. - <ul> - <li><i>See</i> <a href='#MIRACLES'>Miracles</a>.</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c021'><i>kasb</i>, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a>, <a href='#Page_195'>195</a>, <a href='#Page_225'>225</a>, <a href='#Page_254'>254</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>kashf</i>, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a>, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a>, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a>, <a href='#Page_111'>111</a>, <a href='#Page_226'>226</a>, <a href='#Page_265'>265</a>, <a href='#Page_374'>374</a>, <a href='#Page_380'>380</a>, <a href='#Page_414'>414</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>khánaqáh</i>, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>kharq</i>, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a>, <a href='#Page_417'>417</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>khashíshí</i>, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>kháṣṣ al-kháṣṣ</i>, <a href='#Page_382'>382</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>khaṭar</i>, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a>, <a href='#Page_149'>149</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>khaṭarát</i>, <a href='#Page_144'>144</a>, <a href='#Page_384'>384</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>kháṭir</i>, <a href='#Page_387'>387</a>, <a href='#Page_388'>388</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>khatm</i>, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>khawáṭir</i>, <a href='#Page_149'>149</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>khawf</i>, <a href='#Page_371'>371</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>khidmat</i>, <a href='#Page_191'>191</a>, <a href='#Page_218'>218</a>, <a href='#Page_271'>271</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>khirqat</i>, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>khiṭáb</i>, <a href='#Page_415'>415</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>khullat</i>, <a href='#Page_73'>73</a>, <a href='#Page_326'>326</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i><a id='corr436.29'></a><span class='htmlonly'><ins class='correction' title='khuṣúsiyyat'>khuṣúṣiyyat</ins></span><span class='epubonly'><a href='#c_436.29'><ins class='correction' title='khuṣúsiyyat'>khuṣúṣiyyat</ins></a></span></i>, <a href='#Page_257'>257</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>kibrít-i aḥmar</i>, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>kitmán-i sirr</i>, <a href='#Page_380'>380</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><a id='KNOWLEDGE'></a>Knowledge, <a href='#Page_11'>11-18</a>, <a href='#Page_108'>108</a>. - <ul> - <li>See <i><a href='#ILM'>`ilm</a></i>.</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c021'>—— of God. <i>See</i> <a href='#GNOSIS'>Gnosis</a> and <i><a href='#MARIFAT'>ma`rifat</a></i>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>kulliyyat</i>, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>, <a href='#Page_379'>379</a>, <a href='#Page_385'>385</a>.</li> -</ul> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> - <div class='nf-center'> - <div>L.</div> - </div> -</div> - -<ul class='index'> - <li class='c021'><i>laḥq</i>, <a href='#Page_373'>373</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>laṭá´if</i>, <a href='#Page_385'>385</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><a id='LAW'></a>Law, the, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a>, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a>, <a href='#Page_140'>140</a>. - <ul> - <li>See <i><a href='#SHARIAT'>sharí`at</a></i>.</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c021'><i>lawá´iḥ</i>, <a href='#Page_385'>385</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>lawámi`</i>, <a href='#Page_385'>385</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Liberality, <a href='#Page_317'>317-19</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>lisán al-ḥál</i>, <a href='#Page_356'>356</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Love, Divine, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a>, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a>, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a>, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a>, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a>, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a>, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>, <a href='#Page_103'>103</a>, <a href='#Page_107'>107</a>, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a>, <a href='#Page_137'>137</a>, <a href='#Page_138'>138</a>, <a href='#Page_156'>156</a>, <a href='#Page_157'>157</a>, <a href='#Page_180'>180</a>, <a href='#Page_187'>187</a>, <a href='#Page_211'>211</a>, <a href='#Page_258'>258</a>, <a href='#Page_288'>288</a>, <a href='#Page_297'>297</a>, <b><a href='#Page_304'>304-13</a></b>, <a href='#Page_330'>330</a>, <a href='#Page_331'>331</a>, <a href='#Page_376'>376</a>, <a href='#Page_377'>377</a>, <a href='#Page_390'>390</a>, <a href='#Page_405'>405</a>. - <ul> - <li>See <i><a href='#MAHABBAT'>maḥabbat</a></i>.</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c021'><a id='LUST'></a>Lust, <a href='#Page_115'>115</a>, <a href='#Page_128'>128</a>, <a href='#Page_208'>208</a>, <a href='#Page_209'>209</a>, <a href='#Page_240'>240</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>luṭf</i>, <a href='#Page_377'>377-9</a>.</li> -</ul> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> - <div class='nf-center'> - <div>M.</div> - </div> -</div> - -<ul class='index'> - <li class='c021'><i>madhhab-i Thawrí</i>, <a href='#Page_125'>125</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>mafqúd</i>, <a href='#Page_164'>164</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>maghlúb</i>, <a href='#Page_246'>246</a>, <a href='#Page_312'>312</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— <i>al-qulúb</i>, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Magic, <a href='#Page_151'>151</a>, <a href='#Page_152'>152</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><a id='MAHABBAT'></a><i>maḥabbat</i>, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>, <a href='#Page_117'>117</a>, <a href='#Page_157'>157</a>, <a href='#Page_178'>178</a>, <a href='#Page_187'>187</a>, <a href='#Page_211'>211</a>, <a href='#Page_297'>297</a>, <a href='#Page_305'>305</a>, <a href='#Page_306'>306</a>, <a href='#Page_310'>310</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>maḥall</i>, <a href='#Page_244'>244</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>maḥfúz</i>, <a href='#Page_225'>225</a>, <a href='#Page_239'>239</a>, <a href='#Page_241'>241</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>maḥq</i>, <a href='#Page_373'>373</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>maḥram</i>, <a href='#Page_349'>349</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>maḥw</i>, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a>, <a href='#Page_373'>373</a>, <a href='#Page_379'>379</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>makásib</i>, <a href='#Page_254'>254</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><a id='MALAMAT'></a><i>malámat</i>, <b><a href='#Page_62'>62-9</a></b>, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a>, <a href='#Page_100'>100</a>, <a href='#Page_119'>119</a>, <a href='#Page_175'>175</a>, <b><a href='#Page_183'>183-4</a></b>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>malik</i>, <a href='#Page_387'>387</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>malja´</i>, <a href='#Page_384'>384</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Man, the constitution of, <a href='#Page_198'>198</a>, <a href='#Page_199'>199</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>maní</i>, <a href='#Page_238'>238</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>ma`ní</i>, <a href='#Page_35'>35</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>manjá</i>, <a href='#Page_385'>385</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><a id='MAQAM'></a><i>maqám</i>, <i>maqámát</i>, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a>, <a href='#Page_110'>110</a>, <a href='#Page_157'>157</a>, <a href='#Page_177'>177</a>, <b><a href='#Page_180'>180-3</a></b>, <a href='#Page_236'>236</a>, <a href='#Page_258'>258</a>, <a href='#Page_265'>265</a>, <a href='#Page_291'>291</a>, <a href='#Page_301'>301</a>, <b><a href='#Page_370'>370-3</a></b>. - <ul> - <li><i>See</i> <a href='#STATIONS'>Stations of the Mystic Path</a>.</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c021'><i>maqhúr</i>, <a href='#Page_368'>368</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>mardán</i>, <a href='#Page_327'>327</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><a id='MARIFAT'></a><i>ma`rifat</i>, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a>, <a href='#Page_79'>79</a>, <a href='#Page_152'>152</a>, <a href='#Page_178'>178</a>, <a href='#Page_194'>194</a>, <a href='#Page_225'>225</a>, <b><a href='#Page_267'>267-77</a></b>, <a href='#Page_326'>326</a>, <b><a href='#Page_382'>382-3</a></b>, <a href='#Page_390'>390</a>. - <ul> - <li><i>See</i> <a href='#GNOSIS'>Gnosis</a>.</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c021'>Marriage, <a href='#Page_360'>360-6</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>mashárib</i>, <a href='#Page_301'>301</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>mashrab</i>, <a href='#Page_414'>414</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>maskanat</i>, <a href='#Page_60'>60</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>ma`ṣúm</i>, <a href='#Page_225'>225</a>, <a href='#Page_241'>241</a>, <a href='#Page_298'>298</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>ma`túh</i>, <a href='#Page_312'>312</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>mawaddat</i>, <a href='#Page_187'>187</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><span class='pageno' id='Page_437'>437</span><i>mawáhib</i>, <a href='#Page_254'>254</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>mawjúd</i>, <a href='#Page_164'>164</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>miḥnat</i>, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><a id='MIRACLES'></a>Miracles, <a href='#Page_152'>152</a>, <a href='#Page_168'>168</a>, <a href='#Page_213'>213</a>, <a href='#Page_214'>214</a>, <a href='#Page_215'>215</a>, <b><a href='#Page_218'>218-35</a></b>, <a href='#Page_323'>323</a>, <a href='#Page_324'>324</a>. - <ul> - <li>See <i><a href='#KARAMAT'>karámat</a></i>.</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c021'><i>mi`ráj</i>, <a href='#Page_238'>238</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>miskín</i>, <a href='#Page_60'>60</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>mizaj</i>, <a href='#Page_281'>281</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><a id='MORTIFICATION'></a>Mortification, <b><a href='#Page_195'>195-210</a></b>, <a href='#Page_256'>256</a>, <a href='#Page_257'>257</a>, <a href='#Page_346'>346</a>. - <ul> - <li>See <i><a href='#MUJAHADAT'>mujáhadat</a></i>.</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c021'><i>mu`ámalát</i>, <a href='#Page_30'>30</a>, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a>, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>mu´ánasat</i>, <a href='#Page_382'>382</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>mu`áyanat</i>, <a href='#Page_331'>331</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>mubtadí</i>, <a href='#Page_167'>167</a>, <a href='#Page_407'>407</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>muḍtarr</i>, <a href='#Page_316'>316</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>mufarrid</i>, <a href='#Page_362'>362</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>muftariq</i>, <a href='#Page_255'>255</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>muḥáḍarat</i>, <a href='#Page_373'>373</a>, <a href='#Page_374'>374</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>muḥádathat</i>, <a href='#Page_380'>380</a>, <a href='#Page_381'>381</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>muḥawwil-i aḥwál</i>, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>muḥdath</i>, <a href='#Page_92'>92</a>, <a href='#Page_263'>263</a>, <a href='#Page_270'>270</a>, <a href='#Page_293'>293</a>, <a href='#Page_386'>386</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>muḥibb</i>, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><a id='MUJAHADAT'></a><i>mujáhadat</i>, <a href='#Page_35'>35</a>, <a href='#Page_36'>36</a>, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a>, <a href='#Page_50'>50</a>, <a href='#Page_70'>70</a>, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a>, <a href='#Page_95'>95</a>, <a href='#Page_113'>113</a>, <a href='#Page_127'>127</a>, <a href='#Page_170'>170</a>, <a href='#Page_176'>176</a>, <a href='#Page_182'>182</a>, <a href='#Page_184'>184</a>, <b><a href='#Page_195'>195-210</a></b>, <a href='#Page_292'>292</a>, <a href='#Page_296'>296</a>, <a href='#Page_325'>325</a>, <a href='#Page_329'>329</a>, <a href='#Page_382'>382</a>. - <ul> - <li><i>See</i> <a href='#MORTIFICATION'>Mortification</a>.</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c021'><i>mujálasat</i>, <a href='#Page_159'>159</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>mujarrad</i>, <a href='#Page_61'>61</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><a id='MUJIZAT'></a><i>mu`jizat</i>, <b><a href='#Page_219'>219-26</a></b>, <a href='#Page_230'>230</a>, <a href='#Page_324'>324</a>, <a href='#Page_394'>394</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>mujtami`</i>, <a href='#Page_255'>255</a>, <a href='#Page_367'>367</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>mukáshafat</i>, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a>, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a>, <b><a href='#Page_373'>373-4</a></b>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>mukhlaṣ</i>, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>mukhliṣ</i>, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a>, <a href='#Page_265'>265</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>mukḥula</i>, <a href='#Page_345'>345</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>munáját</i>, <a href='#Page_344'>344</a>, <a href='#Page_380'>380</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>muníb</i>, <a href='#Page_295'>295</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>muntahí</i>, <a href='#Page_168'>168</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>muqarrabán</i>, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a>, <a href='#Page_295'>295</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>múqin</i>, <a href='#Page_144'>144</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><a id='MURAQQAAT'></a><i>muraqqa`át</i>, <b><a href='#Page_45'>45-57</a></b>, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a>, <a href='#Page_73'>73</a>, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>muríd</i>, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a>, <a href='#Page_107'>107</a>, <a href='#Page_157'>157</a>, <a href='#Page_211'>211</a>, <a href='#Page_265'>265</a>, <a href='#Page_370'>370</a>, <a href='#Page_414'>414</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>murshid</i>, <a href='#Page_172'>172</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>muruwwat</i>, <a href='#Page_328'>328</a>, <a href='#Page_334'>334</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>musabbib</i>, <a href='#Page_327'>327</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>musáfirán</i>, <a href='#Page_340'>340</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>musámarat</i>, <a href='#Page_380'>380</a>, <a href='#Page_381'>381</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><a id='MUSHAHADAT'></a><i>musháhadat</i>, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a>, <a href='#Page_50'>50</a>, <a href='#Page_70'>70</a>, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a>, <a href='#Page_95'>95</a>, <a href='#Page_113'>113</a>, <a href='#Page_127'>127</a>, <a href='#Page_129'>129</a>, <a href='#Page_155'>155</a>, <a href='#Page_165'>165</a>, <a href='#Page_170'>170</a>, <a href='#Page_176'>176</a>, <a href='#Page_184'>184</a>, <a href='#Page_201'>201</a>, <a href='#Page_237'>237</a>, <a href='#Page_275'>275</a>, <a href='#Page_280'>280</a>, <a href='#Page_296'>296</a>, <a href='#Page_325'>325</a>, <a href='#Page_329'>329</a>, <a href='#Page_373'>373</a>, <a href='#Page_382'>382</a>. - <ul> - <li><i>See</i> <a href='#CONTEMPLATION'>Contemplation</a>.</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c021'><i>mushtáq</i>, <a href='#Page_265'>265</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Music, <a href='#Page_399'>399-413</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>mustaghriq</i>, <a href='#Page_373'>373</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>mustahlik</i>, <a href='#Page_308'>308</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>mustami`</i>, <a href='#Page_174'>174</a>, <a href='#Page_402'>402</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>mustaqím</i>, <a href='#Page_184'>184</a>, <a href='#Page_369'>369</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>mustaṣwif</i>, <a href='#Page_35'>35</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>muta´ahhil</i>, <a href='#Page_349'>349</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>mutakallim</i>, <a href='#Page_131'>131</a>, <a href='#Page_154'>154</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>mutakawwin</i>, <a href='#Page_369'>369</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>mutamakkin</i>, <a href='#Page_119'>119</a>, <a href='#Page_152'>152</a>, <a href='#Page_168'>168</a>, <a href='#Page_369'>369</a>, <a href='#Page_372'>372</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>mutaraddid</i>, <a href='#Page_372'>372</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>mutaṣawwif</i>, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a>, <a href='#Page_35'>35</a>, <a href='#Page_172'>172</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>mutaṣawwifa</i>, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>mutawassiṭ</i>, <a href='#Page_407'>407</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>muwaḥḥid</i>, <a href='#Page_270'>270</a>, <a href='#Page_278'>278</a>.</li> -</ul> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> - <div class='nf-center'> - <div>N.</div> - </div> -</div> - -<ul class='index'> - <li class='c021'><i>nabí</i>, <a href='#Page_129'>129</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>nadam</i>, <a href='#Page_294'>294</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>nadámat</i>, <a href='#Page_295'>295</a>, <a href='#Page_296'>296</a>, <a href='#Page_297'>297</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><a id='NAFS'></a><i>nafs</i>, <a href='#Page_149'>149</a>, <a href='#Page_154'>154</a>, <a href='#Page_182'>182</a>, <b><a href='#Page_196'>196-210</a></b>, <a href='#Page_240'>240</a>, <a href='#Page_277'>277</a>, <a href='#Page_303'>303</a>, <a href='#Page_404'>404</a>. - <ul> - <li><i>See</i> <a href='#SOUL'>Soul, the lower</a>.</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c021'><i>nafs-i lawwáma</i>, <a href='#Page_62'>62</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>nafy</i>, <a href='#Page_379'>379</a>, <a href='#Page_380'>380</a>, <a href='#Page_386'>386</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>najwá</i>, <a href='#Page_352'>352</a>, <a href='#Page_385'>385</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>nakirat</i>, <a href='#Page_79'>79</a>, <a href='#Page_178'>178</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>na`layn</i>, <a href='#Page_345'>345</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>namáz</i>, <a href='#Page_300'>300</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Name, the great, of God, <a href='#Page_105'>105</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Names of God, <a href='#Page_317'>317</a>, <a href='#Page_382'>382</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>naskh-i arwáḥ</i>, <a href='#Page_260'>260</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>nifáq</i>, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a>, <a href='#Page_291'>291</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Novices, discipline of, <a href='#Page_54'>54</a>, <a href='#Page_195'>195</a>, <a href='#Page_301'>301</a>, <a href='#Page_302'>302</a>, <a href='#Page_338'>338</a>, <a href='#Page_354'>354</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>numúd</i>, <a href='#Page_167'>167</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>Nuqabá</i>, <a href='#Page_214'>214</a>.</li> -</ul> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> - <div class='nf-center'> - <div><span class='pageno' id='Page_438'>438</span>O.</div> - </div> -</div> - -<ul class='index'> - <li class='c021'>Obedience, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a>, <a href='#Page_90'>90</a>, <a href='#Page_287'>287</a>, <a href='#Page_288'>288</a>, <a href='#Page_311'>311</a>, <a href='#Page_312'>312</a>.</li> -</ul> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> - <div class='nf-center'> - <div>P.</div> - </div> -</div> - -<ul class='index'> - <li class='c021'><i>palás</i>, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Pantheism, <a href='#Page_243'>243</a>, <a href='#Page_246'>246</a>. - <ul> - <li>See <i><a href='#HULUL'>ḥulúl</a></i>, <i><a href='#ITTIHAD'>ittiḥád</a></i>, <i><a href='#IMTIZAJ'>imtizáj</a></i>, <i><a href='#FANA'>faná</a></i>, <i>tawḥíd</i>, <a href='#UNION'>Union with God</a>.</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c021'>Paradise, of no account, <a href='#Page_107'>107</a>, <a href='#Page_111'>111</a>; - <ul> - <li>the effect of God’s satisfaction, <a href='#Page_199'>199</a>.</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c021'><i>pársá-mardán</i>, <a href='#Page_265'>265</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Passion, <a href='#Page_207'>207-10</a>. - <ul> - <li>See <i><a href='#HAWA'>hawá</a></i>.</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c021'>Patience, <a href='#Page_86'>86</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Persecution of Ṣúfís, <a href='#Page_137'>137</a>, <a href='#Page_140'>140</a>, <a href='#Page_154'>154</a>, <a href='#Page_190'>190</a>, <a href='#Page_191'>191</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><a id='PILGRIMAGE'></a>Pilgrimage, the, <a href='#Page_107'>107</a>, <b><a href='#Page_326'>326-9</a></b>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>pindásht</i>, <a href='#Page_150'>150</a>, <a href='#Page_155'>155</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>pír</i>, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>, <a href='#Page_55'>55</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Poetry, the hearing of, <a href='#Page_397'>397</a>, <a href='#Page_398'>398</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Poets, the pre-Islamic, <a href='#Page_372'>372</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><a id='POLYTHEISM'></a>Polytheism, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a>, <a href='#Page_113'>113</a>, <a href='#Page_132'>132</a>. - <ul> - <li>See <i><a href='#SHIRK'>shirk</a></i>.</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c021'><a id='POVERTY'></a>Poverty, practical, <a href='#Page_60'>60</a>; - <ul> - <li>spiritual, <b><a href='#Page_19'>19-29</a></b>, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a>, <b><a href='#Page_58'>58-61</a></b>, <a href='#Page_121'>121</a>, <a href='#Page_127'>127</a>, <a href='#Page_349'>349</a>;</li> - <li>voluntary and compulsory, <a href='#Page_71'>71</a>, <a href='#Page_316'>316</a>.</li> - <li>See <i><a href='#FAQR'>faqr</a></i>.</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c021'>Praise of God. See <i><a href='#DHIKR'>dhikr</a></i>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Prayer, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a>, <b><a href='#Page_300'>300-4</a></b>.</li> - <li class='c021'><a id='PREDESTINATION'></a>Predestination, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>, <a href='#Page_104'>104</a>, <a href='#Page_203'>203</a>, <a href='#Page_209'>209</a>, <a href='#Page_210'>210</a>, <a href='#Page_273'>273</a>. - <ul> - <li>See <i><a href='#JABR'>jabr</a></i>.</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c021'>Prophets, miracles of the, <a href='#Page_219'>219-26</a>. - <ul> - <li>See <i><a href='#MUJIZAT'>mu`jizat</a></i>.</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c021'>—— the, superior to the Saints, <a href='#Page_129'>129</a>, <a href='#Page_219'>219</a>, <b><a href='#Page_235'>235-9</a></b>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— and Saints, the, superior to the Angels, <a href='#Page_239'>239-41</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Purgation, <a href='#Page_70'>70</a>. - <ul> - <li><i>See</i> <a href='#MORTIFICATION'>Mortification</a>.</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c021'>Purification, <a href='#Page_291'>291-4</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><a id='PURITY'></a>Purity, spiritual, <a href='#Page_58'>58-61</a>. - <ul> - <li>See <i><a href='#SAFA'>safá</a></i> and <i><a href='#SAFWAT'>ṣafwat</a></i>.</li> - </ul> - </li> -</ul> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> - <div class='nf-center'> - <div>Q.</div> - </div> -</div> - -<ul class='index'> - <li class='c021'><i>qabá</i>, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a>, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>, <a href='#Page_133'>133</a>, <a href='#Page_183'>183</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>qabḍ</i>, <a href='#Page_181'>181</a>, <b><a href='#Page_374'>374-6</a></b>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>qadar</i>, <a href='#Page_75'>75</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>qadím</i>, <a href='#Page_92'>92</a>, <a href='#Page_262'>262</a>, <a href='#Page_386'>386</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>qahr</i>, <a href='#Page_369'>369</a>, <b><a href='#Page_377'>377-9</a></b>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>qarár</i>, <a href='#Page_385'>385</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>qawwál</i>, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a>, <a href='#Page_171'>171</a>, <a href='#Page_415'>415</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>qayd</i>, <a href='#Page_387'>387</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>qibla</i>, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>, <a href='#Page_300'>300</a>, <a href='#Page_301'>301</a>, <a href='#Page_354'>354</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>qidam</i>, <a href='#Page_263'>263</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>qubḥ</i>, <a href='#Page_387'>387</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>qudrat</i>, <a href='#Page_300'>300</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Quietism. See <i><a href='#RIDA'>riḍá</a></i> and <i><a href='#TAWAKKUL'>tawakkul</a></i>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Quietists, four classes of, <a href='#Page_178'>178</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>qurb</i>, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a>, <a href='#Page_226'>226</a>, <a href='#Page_238'>238</a>, <a href='#Page_309'>309</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>qurbat</i>, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>, <a href='#Page_191'>191</a>, <a href='#Page_249'>249</a>, <a href='#Page_300'>300</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>quṣúd</i>, <a href='#Page_390'>390</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>Quṭb</i>, <a href='#Page_147'>147</a>, <a href='#Page_206'>206</a>, <a href='#Page_214'>214</a>, <a href='#Page_228'>228</a>, <a href='#Page_229'>229</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>quwwat</i>, <a href='#Page_280'>280</a>.</li> -</ul> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> - <div class='nf-center'> - <div>R.</div> - </div> -</div> - -<ul class='index'> - <li class='c021'><i>rabbání</i>, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a>, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>ráhib</i>, <a href='#Page_96'>96</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>rajá</i>, <a href='#Page_133'>133</a>, <a href='#Page_371'>371</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>rakwa</i>, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>rams</i>, <a href='#Page_384'>384</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>raqṣ</i>, <a href='#Page_416'>416</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>rasídagán</i>, <a href='#Page_228'>228</a>, <a href='#Page_233'>233</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>rasm</i>, <a href='#Page_35'>35</a>, <a href='#Page_36'>36</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Rationalism, <a href='#Page_75'>75</a>. - <ul> - <li><i>See</i> <a href='#MUTAZILITES'>Mu`tazilites</a>, <a href='#QADARITES'>Qadarites</a>.</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c021'><i>rayn</i>, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a>, <a href='#Page_391'>391</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Renunciation, <a href='#Page_70'>70</a>, <a href='#Page_71'>71</a>, <a href='#Page_104'>104</a>. - <ul> - <li><i>See</i> <a href='#ASCETICISM'>Asceticism</a> and <i><a href='#ITHAR'>íthár</a></i> and <i><a href='#ZUHD'>zuhd</a></i>.</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c021'>Repentance, <a href='#Page_294'>294-9</a>. - <ul> - <li>See <i><a href='#TAWBAT'>tawbat</a></i>.</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c021'>Resignation, <a href='#Page_73'>73</a>. - <ul> - <li>See <i><a href='#TASLIM'>taslím</a></i> and <i><a href='#RIDA'>riḍá</a></i>.</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c021'><i>ribát</i>, <a href='#Page_96'>96</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><a id='RIDA'></a><i>riḍá</i>, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>, <a href='#Page_20'>20</a>, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a>, <a href='#Page_91'>91</a>, <a href='#Page_99'>99</a>, <a href='#Page_117'>117</a>, <a href='#Page_126'>126</a>, <a href='#Page_157'>157</a>, <b><a href='#Page_177'>177-80</a></b>, <b><a href='#Page_182'>182</a></b>, <a href='#Page_217'>217</a>, <a href='#Page_246'>246</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>riddat</i>, <a href='#Page_225'>225</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>riyá</i>, <a href='#Page_304'>304</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>riyáḍat</i>, <a href='#Page_196'>196</a>, <a href='#Page_202'>202</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>rubúbiyyat</i>, <a href='#Page_141'>141</a>, <a href='#Page_157'>157</a>, <a href='#Page_210'>210</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><a id='RUH'></a><i>rúḥ</i>, <a href='#Page_196'>196</a>, <a href='#Page_197'>197</a>, <a href='#Page_261'>261</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>rúḥání</i>, <a href='#Page_20'>20</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>rúḥiyán</i>, <a href='#Page_266'>266</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><span class='pageno' id='Page_439'>439</span><i>rujú`</i>, <a href='#Page_391'>391</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>rukhaṣ</i>, <a href='#Page_116'>116</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>rusúm</i>, <a href='#Page_42'>42</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>ru´yat</i>, <a href='#Page_389'>389</a>. - <ul> - <li><i>See</i> <a href='#VISION'>Vision</a>.</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c021'><i>ru´yat-i áfát</i>, <a href='#Page_159'>159</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>rúza-i wiṣál</i>, <a href='#Page_322'>322</a>.</li> -</ul> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> - <div class='nf-center'> - <div>S.</div> - </div> -</div> - -<ul class='index'> - <li class='c021'><i>ṣa`álík</i>, <a href='#Page_97'>97</a>, <a href='#Page_173'>173</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>ṣabr</i>, <a href='#Page_86'>86</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Sacrifice, spiritual, <a href='#Page_194'>194</a>. - <ul> - <li>See <i><a href='#ITHAR'>íthár</a></i>.</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c021'><i>ṣádiq</i>, <a href='#Page_325'>325</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><a id='SAFA'></a><i>ṣafá</i>, <a href='#Page_30'>30</a>, <a href='#Page_31'>31</a>, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a>, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a>, <a href='#Page_35'>35</a>, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a>, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a>, <a href='#Page_328'>328</a>. - <ul> - <li><i>See</i> <a href='#PURITY'>Purity</a>.</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c021'><i>safah</i>, <a href='#Page_387'>387</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><a id='SAFWAT'></a><i>ṣafwat</i>, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a>, <a href='#Page_109'>109</a>, <a href='#Page_167'>167</a>, <a href='#Page_309'>309</a>, <a href='#Page_310'>310</a>. - <ul> - <li><i>See</i> <a href='#PURITY'>Purity</a>.</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c021'><i>ṣáḥi ´l-qulúb</i>, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>ṣáḥib jam`</i>, <a href='#Page_258'>258</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— <i>shar`</i>, <a href='#Page_226'>226</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— <i>sirr</i>, <a href='#Page_226'>226</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— <i>ṭab`</i>, <a href='#Page_158'>158</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><a id='SAHW'></a><i>saḥw</i>, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a>, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a>, <b><a href='#Page_184'>184-8</a></b>, <a href='#Page_228'>228</a>, <a href='#Page_373'>373</a>, <a href='#Page_380'>380</a>. - <ul> - <li><i>See</i> <a href='#SOBRIETY'>Sobriety</a>.</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c021'><a id='SAINTS'></a>Saints, the, <a href='#Page_63'>63</a>, <a href='#Page_116'>116</a>, <a href='#Page_129'>129</a>, <a href='#Page_130'>130</a>, <a href='#Page_138'>138</a>, <b><a href='#Page_210'>210-41</a></b>, <a href='#Page_295'>295</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Saintship, definitions of, <a href='#Page_216'>216-18</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>sakhá</i>, <a href='#Page_317'>317</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>ṣalát</i>, <a href='#Page_300'>300</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><a id='SAMA'></a><i>samá`</i>, <a href='#Page_50'>50</a>, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a>, <a href='#Page_171'>171</a>, <b><a href='#Page_393'>393-420</a></b>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>satr</i>, <a href='#Page_380'>380</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>ṣawm</i>, <a href='#Page_36'>36</a>, <a href='#Page_320'>320</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>sayyáḥ</i>, <a href='#Page_118'>118</a>, <a href='#Page_173'>173</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Self-conceit, <a href='#Page_62'>62</a>, <a href='#Page_63'>63</a>, <a href='#Page_148'>148</a>, <a href='#Page_155'>155</a>, <a href='#Page_156'>156</a>, <a href='#Page_214'>214</a>, <a href='#Page_346'>346</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Self-knowledge, <a href='#Page_197'>197</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Selfishness, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>. - <ul> - <li>See <i><a href='#NAFS'>nafs</a></i>.</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c021'>Senses, the five, <a href='#Page_209'>209</a>, <a href='#Page_321'>321</a>, <a href='#Page_322'>322</a>, <a href='#Page_393'>393</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>shafaqat</i>, <a href='#Page_134'>134</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>shahádat</i>, <a href='#Page_333'>333</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>sháhid</i>, <a href='#Page_265'>265</a>, <a href='#Page_373'>373</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>shahwat</i>, <a href='#Page_208'>208</a>. - <ul> - <li><i>See</i> <a href='#LUST'>Lust</a>.</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c021'><i>shalíthá</i>, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>shaqáwat</i>, <a href='#Page_389'>389</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><a id='SHARIAT'></a><i>sharí`at</i>, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a>, <b><a href='#Page_383'>383-4</a></b>. - <ul> - <li><i>See</i> <a href='#LAW'>Law, the</a>.</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c021'><i>shaṭḥ</i>, <a href='#Page_168'>168</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>shawáhid</i>, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>shawq</i>, <a href='#Page_92'>92</a>, <a href='#Page_128'>128</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Shaykhs, the Ṣúfí, character of the, <a href='#Page_55'>55-7</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><a id='SHIRK'></a><i>shirk</i>, <a href='#Page_113'>113</a>, <a href='#Page_273'>273</a>. - <ul> - <li><i>See</i> <a href='#POLYTHEISM'>Polytheism</a>.</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c021'><i>shurb</i>, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a>, <a href='#Page_392'>392</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>shurúd</i>, <a href='#Page_389'>389</a>, <a href='#Page_390'>390</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>ṣiddíq</i>, <a href='#Page_31'>31</a>, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a>, <a href='#Page_115'>115</a>, <a href='#Page_129'>129</a>, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>ṣidq</i>, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>ṣifat</i>, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a>, <a href='#Page_181'>181</a>, <a href='#Page_264'>264</a>, <a href='#Page_386'>386</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Silence, rules in, <a href='#Page_355'>355</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Sin, <a href='#Page_196'>196</a>, <a href='#Page_225'>225</a>, <a href='#Page_286'>286</a>, <a href='#Page_294'>294-9</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Sincerity, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a>, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>, <a href='#Page_103'>103</a>, <a href='#Page_291'>291</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>sirr</i>, <a href='#Page_309'>309</a>, <a href='#Page_333'>333</a>, <a href='#Page_373'>373</a>, <a href='#Page_385'>385</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>siyáḥat</i>, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a>, <a href='#Page_192'>192</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>siyyán</i>, <a href='#Page_386'>386</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Sleep, <a href='#Page_109'>109</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Sleeping, rules in, <a href='#Page_351'>351-4</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><a id='SOBRIETY'></a>Sobriety, spiritual, <a href='#Page_226'>226-9</a>, <a href='#Page_248'>248</a>, <a href='#Page_352'>352</a>. - <ul> - <li>See <i><a href='#SAHW'>ṣaḥw</a></i>.</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c021'>Solitude, <a href='#Page_103'>103</a>, <a href='#Page_188'>188</a>, <a href='#Page_338'>338</a>. - <ul> - <li>See <i><a href='#UZLAT'>`uzlat</a></i> and <i><a href='#WAHDAT'>waḥdat</a></i>.</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c021'><a id='SOUL'></a>Soul, the lower or animal, <a href='#Page_9'>9</a>, <b><a href='#Page_96'>196-210</a></b>, <a href='#Page_325'>325</a>. - <ul> - <li>See <i><a href='#NAFS'>nafs</a></i>.</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c021'>Speech, rules in, <a href='#Page_355'>355</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Spirit, the, <a href='#Page_196'>196-200</a>, <a href='#Page_261'>261-6</a>. - <ul> - <li>See <i><a href='#RUH'>rúḥ</a></i>.</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c021'><a id='STATES'></a>States of mystics, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a>, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a>, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a>, <a href='#Page_55'>55</a>, <b><a href='#Page_180'>180-3</a></b>, <a href='#Page_249'>249</a>, <a href='#Page_308'>308</a>, <b><a href='#Page_367'>367-70</a></b>. - <ul> - <li>See <i><a href='#AHWAL'>aḥwál</a></i> and <i><a href='#HAL'>ḥál</a></i>.</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c021'><a id='STATIONS'></a>Stations of the mystic Path, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a>, <a href='#Page_133'>133</a>, <a href='#Page_168'>168</a>, <b><a href='#Page_180'>180-3</a></b>, <a href='#Page_249'>249</a>, <a href='#Page_302'>302</a>, <a href='#Page_308'>308</a>, <b><a href='#Page_370'>370-1</a></b>. - <ul> - <li>See <i><a href='#MAQAM'>maqám</a></i>.</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c021'><i>su´ál</i>, <a href='#Page_386'>386</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Ṣúfí and Ṣúfiism, definitions of, <a href='#Page_34'>34-44</a>, <a href='#Page_165'>165</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— origin of the name, <a href='#Page_30'>30</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>—— sects, the twelve, <a href='#Page_130'>130</a>, <a href='#Page_176'>176-266</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><a id='SUHBAT'></a><i>ṣuḥbat</i>, <a href='#Page_157'>157</a>, <a href='#Page_159'>159</a>, <a href='#Page_175'>175</a>, <a href='#Page_189'>189</a>. - <ul> - <li><i>See</i> <a href='#COMPANIONSHIP'>Companionship</a>.</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c021'><a id='SUKR'></a><i>sukr</i>, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a>, <a href='#Page_118'>118</a>, <b><a href='#Page_184'>184-8</a></b>, <a href='#Page_380'>380</a>. - <ul> - <li><i>See</i> <a href='#INTOXICATION'>Intoxication</a>.</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c021'>Sunna, the, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a>, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a>, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a>, <a href='#Page_334'>334</a>, <a href='#Page_345'>345</a>, <a href='#Page_361'>361</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>ṣúrat-i ma`húd</i>, <a href='#Page_199'>199</a>.</li> -</ul> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> - <div class='nf-center'> - <div><span class='pageno' id='Page_440'>440</span>T.</div> - </div> -</div> - -<ul class='index c000'> - <li class='c021'><i>ṭá`at</i>, <a href='#Page_203'>203</a>, <a href='#Page_225'>225</a>, <a href='#Page_287'>287</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>ṭab`</i>, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>ṭábá´i`iyán</i>, <a href='#Page_280'>280</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>ṭabáyi`</i>, <a href='#Page_197'>197</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>tadbír</i>, <a href='#Page_140'>140</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>tafríd</i>, <a href='#Page_281'>281</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>tafriqat</i> (<i>tafriqa</i>), <a href='#Page_194'>194</a>, <a href='#Page_237'>237</a>, <b><a href='#Page_251'>251-60</a></b>, <a href='#Page_266'>266</a>, <a href='#Page_285'>285</a>, <a href='#Page_380'>380</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>ṭághút</i>, <a href='#Page_78'>78</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>taḥallí</i>, <a href='#Page_389'>389</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>ṭahárat</i>, <a href='#Page_291'>291-4</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>tá´ib</i>, <a href='#Page_295'>295</a>, <a href='#Page_391'>391</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>tajallí</i>, <a href='#Page_276'>276</a>, <a href='#Page_389'>389</a>, <a href='#Page_390'>390</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>tajríd</i>, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a>, <a href='#Page_60'>60</a>, <a href='#Page_121'>121</a>, <a href='#Page_135'>135</a>, <a href='#Page_158'>158</a>, <a href='#Page_165'>165</a>, <a href='#Page_176'>176</a>, <a href='#Page_222'>222</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>tajziya</i>, <a href='#Page_236'>236</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>takalluf</i>, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a>, <a href='#Page_318'>318</a>, <a href='#Page_334'>334</a>, <a href='#Page_364'>364</a>, <a href='#Page_419'>419</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>takawwun</i>, <a href='#Page_369'>369</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>takbír</i>, <a href='#Page_109'>109</a>, <a href='#Page_303'>303</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>takhallí</i>, <a href='#Page_389'>389</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>takhlíl-i maḥásin</i>, <a href='#Page_293'>293</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>taklíf</i>, <a href='#Page_184'>184</a>, <a href='#Page_204'>204</a>, <a href='#Page_272'>272</a>, <a href='#Page_393'>393</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>ṭalab</i>, <a href='#Page_97'>97</a>, <a href='#Page_201'>201</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>talbís</i>, <a href='#Page_175'>175</a>, <a href='#Page_391'>391-92</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>ṭálib</i>, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a>, <a href='#Page_39'>39</a>, <a href='#Page_169'>169</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>talwín</i>, <a href='#Page_372'>372</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>tamkín</i>, <a href='#Page_71'>71</a>, <a href='#Page_72'>72</a>, <a href='#Page_147'>147</a>, <a href='#Page_158'>158</a>, <a href='#Page_226'>226</a>, <a href='#Page_228'>228</a>, <b><a href='#Page_370'>370-3</a></b>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>ṭams</i>, <a href='#Page_384'>384</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>tanásukhiyán</i>, <a href='#Page_264'>264</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>tanzíh</i>, <a href='#Page_238'>238</a>, <a href='#Page_326'>326</a>, <a href='#Page_374'>374</a>, <a href='#Page_384'>384</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>taqwá</i>, <a href='#Page_334'>334</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>ṭarab</i>, <a href='#Page_97'>97</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>ṭaríq</i>, <a href='#Page_90'>90</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>taríqat</i>, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a>, <a href='#Page_54'>54</a>, <a href='#Page_321'>321</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>ṭaṣarruf</i>, <a href='#Page_282'>282</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>taṣawwuf</i>, <a href='#Page_35'>35</a>, <a href='#Page_189'>189</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>taṣdíq</i>, <a href='#Page_286'>286</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>tashbíh</i>, <a href='#Page_270'>270</a>, <a href='#Page_271'>271</a>, <a href='#Page_280'>280</a>, <a href='#Page_332'>332</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><a id='TASLIM'></a><i>taslím</i>, <a href='#Page_140'>140</a>, <a href='#Page_209'>209</a>, <a href='#Page_268'>268</a>, <a href='#Page_371'>371</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>tasmiyat</i>, <a href='#Page_386'>386</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>ta`ṭíl</i>, <a href='#Page_104'>104</a>, <a href='#Page_202'>202</a>, <a href='#Page_256'>256</a>, <a href='#Page_257'>257</a>, <a href='#Page_270'>270</a>, <a href='#Page_271'>271</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>tawájud</i>, <a href='#Page_410'>410</a>, <a href='#Page_413'>413-16</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><a id='TAWAKKUL'></a><i>tawakkul</i>, <a href='#Page_19'>19</a>, <a href='#Page_117'>117</a>, <a href='#Page_126'>126</a>, <a href='#Page_146'>146</a>, <a href='#Page_153'>153</a>, <a href='#Page_177'>177</a>, <a href='#Page_181'>181</a>, <a href='#Page_205'>205</a>, <a href='#Page_290'>290</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>ṭawáli`</i>, <a href='#Page_385'>385</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>ṭawáriq</i>, <a href='#Page_385'>385</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><a id='TAWBAT'></a><i>tawbat</i>, <a href='#Page_79'>79</a>, <a href='#Page_88'>88</a>, <a href='#Page_181'>181</a>, <b><a href='#Page_294'>294-9</a></b>, <a href='#Page_371'>371</a>, <a href='#Page_391'>391</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>tawfíq</i>, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a>, <a href='#Page_203'>203</a>, <a href='#Page_288'>288</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><a id='TAWHID'></a><i>tawḥíd</i>, <a href='#Page_9'>9</a>, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>, <a href='#Page_36'>36</a>, <a href='#Page_104'>104</a>, <a href='#Page_107'>107</a>, <a href='#Page_113'>113</a>, <a href='#Page_158'>158</a>, <a href='#Page_172'>172</a>, <a href='#Page_202'>202</a>, <a href='#Page_205'>205</a>, <a href='#Page_236'>236</a>, <a href='#Page_253'>253</a>, <b><a href='#Page_278'>278-85</a></b>, <a href='#Page_335'>335</a>, <a href='#Page_374'>374</a>, <a href='#Page_381'>381</a>, <a href='#Page_385'>385</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>ta´wíl</i>, <a href='#Page_404'>404</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>ta´yíd</i>, <a href='#Page_379'>379</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Technical terms of the Ṣúfís, <b><a href='#Page_367'>367-92</a></b>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>thaná-yi jamíl</i>, <a href='#Page_306'>306</a>, <a href='#Page_307'>307</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>thawáb</i>, 4, 146.</li> - <li class='c021'>Time, mystical meaning of, 13. - <ul> - <li>See <i><a href='#WAQT'>waqt</a></i>.</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c021'><a id='TRADITIONS'></a>Traditions of the Prophet, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a>, <a href='#Page_19'>19</a>, <a href='#Page_20'>20</a>, <a href='#Page_30'>30</a>, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a>, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>, <a href='#Page_55'>55</a>, <a href='#Page_60'>60</a>, <a href='#Page_61'>61</a>, <a href='#Page_63'>63</a>, <a href='#Page_70'>70</a>, <a href='#Page_72'>72</a>, <a href='#Page_80'>80</a>, <a href='#Page_90'>90</a>, <a href='#Page_99'>99</a>, <a href='#Page_108'>108</a>, <a href='#Page_116'>116</a>, <a href='#Page_122'>122</a>, <a href='#Page_143'>143</a>, <a href='#Page_148'>148</a>, <a href='#Page_161'>161</a>, <a href='#Page_168'>168</a>, <a href='#Page_179'>179</a>, <a href='#Page_184'>184</a>, <a href='#Page_186'>186</a>, <a href='#Page_192'>192</a>, <a href='#Page_197'>197</a>, <a href='#Page_200'>200</a>, <a href='#Page_202'>202</a>, <a href='#Page_208'>208</a>, <a href='#Page_211'>211</a>, <a href='#Page_212'>212</a>, <a href='#Page_230'>230</a>, <a href='#Page_231'>231</a>, <a href='#Page_232'>232</a>, <a href='#Page_254'>254</a>, <a href='#Page_261'>261</a>, <a href='#Page_262'>262</a>, <a href='#Page_263'>263</a>, <a href='#Page_267'>267</a>, <a href='#Page_275'>275</a>, <a href='#Page_277'>277</a>, <a href='#Page_278'>278</a>, <a href='#Page_283'>283</a>, <a href='#Page_287'>287</a>, <a href='#Page_291'>291</a>, <a href='#Page_294'>294</a>, <a href='#Page_296'>296</a>, <a href='#Page_300'>300</a>, <a href='#Page_301'>301</a>, <a href='#Page_302'>302</a>, <a href='#Page_304'>304</a>, <a href='#Page_305'>305</a>, <a href='#Page_312'>312</a>, <a href='#Page_314'>314</a>, <a href='#Page_320'>320</a>, <a href='#Page_321'>321</a>, <a href='#Page_322'>322</a>, <a href='#Page_324'>324</a>, <a href='#Page_329'>329</a>, <a href='#Page_333'>333</a>, <a href='#Page_334'>334</a>, <a href='#Page_335'>335</a>, <a href='#Page_336'>336</a>, <a href='#Page_337'>337</a>, <a href='#Page_338'>338</a>, <a href='#Page_344'>344</a>, <a href='#Page_351'>351</a>, <a href='#Page_352'>352</a>, <a href='#Page_355'>355</a>, <a href='#Page_358'>358</a>, <a href='#Page_361'>361</a>, <a href='#Page_362'>362</a>, <a href='#Page_363'>363</a>, <a href='#Page_364'>364</a>, <a href='#Page_368'>368</a>, <a href='#Page_381'>381</a>, <a href='#Page_388'>388</a>, <a href='#Page_389'>389</a>, <a href='#Page_391'>391</a>, <a href='#Page_396'>396</a>, <a href='#Page_397'>397</a>, <a href='#Page_398'>398</a>, <a href='#Page_399'>399</a>, <a href='#Page_401'>401</a>, <a href='#Page_403'>403</a>, <a href='#Page_413'>413</a>, <a href='#Page_415'>415</a>, <a href='#Page_418'>418</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Transmigration of spirits, <a href='#Page_260'>260</a>, <a href='#Page_262'>262-4</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Travel, <a href='#Page_345'>345-7</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Trinity, the Christian, <a href='#Page_285'>285</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Trust in God, <a href='#Page_115'>115</a>, <a href='#Page_157'>157</a>, <a href='#Page_163'>163</a>, <a href='#Page_359'>359</a>. - <ul> - <li>See <i><a href='#TAWAKKUL'>tawakkul</a></i>.</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c021'><a id='TRUTH'></a>Truth, the, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a>, <a href='#Page_140'>140</a>. - <ul> - <li>See <i><a href='#HAQQ'>ḥaqq</a></i> and <i><a href='#HAQIQAT'>ḥaqíqat</a></i>.</li> - </ul> - </li> -</ul> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> - <div class='nf-center'> - <div>U.</div> - </div> -</div> - -<ul class='index c000'> - <li class='c021'><i>`ubúdiyyat</i>, <a href='#Page_79'>79</a>, <a href='#Page_141'>141</a>, <a href='#Page_157'>157</a>, <a href='#Page_159'>159</a>, <a href='#Page_237'>237</a>, <a href='#Page_245'>245</a>, <a href='#Page_257'>257</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>`ukkáza</i>, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><a id='ULAMA'></a><i>`ulamá</i>, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a>, <a href='#Page_31'>31</a>, <a href='#Page_213'>213</a>, <a href='#Page_382'>382</a>. - <ul> - <li><i>See</i> <a href='#DIVINES'>Divines</a>.</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c021'><i>ulfat</i>, <a href='#Page_158'>158</a>, <a href='#Page_326'>326</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><a id='UNIFICATION'></a>Unification, <a href='#Page_106'>106</a>, <a href='#Page_158'>158</a>, <a href='#Page_164'>164</a>, <a href='#Page_176'>176</a>, <b><a href='#Page_278'>278-85</a></b>, <a href='#Page_289'>289</a>, <a href='#Page_291'>291</a>. - <ul> - <li>See <i><a href='#TAWHID'>tawḥíd</a></i>.</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c021'><span class='pageno' id='Page_441'>441</span><a id='UNION'></a>Union with God, <a href='#Page_118'>118</a>, <a href='#Page_119'>119</a>, <a href='#Page_131'>131</a>, <a href='#Page_163'>163</a>, <a href='#Page_201'>201</a>, <b><a href='#Page_202'>202-5</a></b>, <a href='#Page_208'>208</a>, <a href='#Page_302'>302</a>. - <ul> - <li>See <i><a href='#FANA'>faná</a></i>, <i><a href='#JAM'>jam`</a></i>, <i><a href='#HUDUR'>ḥuḍúr</a></i>.</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c021'>Unity of God, the. <i>See</i> <a href='#UNIFICATION'>Unification</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>uns</i>, <a href='#Page_301'>301</a>, <a href='#Page_309'>309</a>, <b><a href='#Page_376'>376-7</a></b>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>uṣúl</i>, <a href='#Page_74'>74</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><a id='UZLAT'></a><i>`uzlat</i>, <a href='#Page_72'>72</a>, <a href='#Page_190'>190</a>.</li> -</ul> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> - <div class='nf-center'> - <div>V.</div> - </div> -</div> - -<ul class='index c000'> - <li class='c021'><a id='VEILS'></a>Veils, spiritual, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a>, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a>, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a>, <a href='#Page_9'>9</a>, <a href='#Page_111'>111</a>, <a href='#Page_168'>168</a>, <a href='#Page_200'>200</a>, <a href='#Page_249'>249</a>, <a href='#Page_331'>331</a>, <a href='#Page_332'>332</a>. - <ul> - <li>See <i><a href='#HIJAB'>ḥijáb</a></i>.</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c021'>Vigils, <a href='#Page_138'>138</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><a id='VISION'></a>Vision, spiritual, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a>, <a href='#Page_111'>111</a>, <a href='#Page_185'>185</a>, <a href='#Page_186'>186</a>, <a href='#Page_332'>332</a>, <a href='#Page_381'>381</a>, <a href='#Page_382'>382</a>, <a href='#Page_389'>389</a>, <a href='#Page_393'>393</a>, <a href='#Page_403'>403</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Visions, <a href='#Page_151'>151</a>, <a href='#Page_167'>167</a>.</li> -</ul> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> - <div class='nf-center'> - <div>W.</div> - </div> -</div> - -<ul class='index c000'> - <li class='c021'><i>waḥdániyyat</i>, <a href='#Page_281'>281</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><a id='WAHDAT'></a><i>waḥdat</i>, <a href='#Page_84'>84</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>wáḥidiyyat</i>, <a href='#Page_246'>246</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>waḥshat</i>, <a href='#Page_147'>147</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><a id='WAJD'></a><i>wajd</i>, <a href='#Page_167'>167</a>, <a href='#Page_368'>368</a>, <a href='#Page_385'>385</a>, <b><a href='#Page_413'>413-16</a></b>, <a href='#Page_419'>419</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>waláyat</i>, <a href='#Page_210'>210</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>walí</i>, <a href='#Page_129'>129</a>, <a href='#Page_211'>211</a>, <a href='#Page_212'>212</a>, <a href='#Page_215'>215</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Walking, rules in, <a href='#Page_349'>349-51</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>wáqi`a</i>, <a href='#Page_387'>387</a>, <a href='#Page_388'>388</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><a id='WAQT'></a><i>waqt</i>, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>, <a href='#Page_27'>27</a>, <a href='#Page_329'>329</a>, <b><a href='#Page_70'>367-70</a></b>, <a href='#Page_380'>380</a>, <a href='#Page_419'>419</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>wara`</i>, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>wárid</i>, <a href='#Page_385'>385</a>, <a href='#Page_404'>404</a>, <a href='#Page_407'>407</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>wasá´iṭ</i>, <a href='#Page_384'>384</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>waṣl</i>, <a href='#Page_309'>309</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>waswás</i>, <a href='#Page_166'>166</a>, <a href='#Page_208'>208</a>, <a href='#Page_293'>293</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>waṭan</i>, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>waṭanát</i>, <a href='#Page_144'>144</a>, <a href='#Page_384'>384</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Way to God, the, <a href='#Page_121'>121</a>, <a href='#Page_233'>233</a>, <a href='#Page_269'>269</a>, <a href='#Page_270'>270</a>, <a href='#Page_274'>274</a>, <a href='#Page_371'>371</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Wealth, spiritual, <b><a href='#Page_21'>21-3</a></b>, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a>, <a href='#Page_123'>123</a>, <a href='#Page_127'>127</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>wiláyat</i>, <a href='#Page_210'>210</a>, <a href='#Page_211'>211</a>, <a href='#Page_225'>225</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Wool, garments of, <a href='#Page_30'>30</a>, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a>, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a>, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a>, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>wujúd</i>, <a href='#Page_253'>253</a>, <a href='#Page_373'>373</a>, <a href='#Page_413'>413-16</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>wuṣúl</i>, <a href='#Page_118'>118</a>, <a href='#Page_119'>119</a>.</li> -</ul> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> - <div class='nf-center'> - <div>Y.</div> - </div> -</div> - -<ul class='index c000'> - <li class='c021'><i>yad-i suflá</i>, <a href='#Page_316'>316</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>yad-i `ulyá</i>, <a href='#Page_316'>316</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>yáft</i>, <a href='#Page_201'>201</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>yagánagí</i>, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a>, <a href='#Page_333'>333</a>, <a href='#Page_377'>377</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>yaqín</i>, <a href='#Page_130'>130</a>, <a href='#Page_144'>144</a>, <a href='#Page_248'>248</a>, <a href='#Page_272'>272</a>, <a href='#Page_330'>330</a>, <a href='#Page_381'>381</a>.</li> -</ul> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> - <div class='nf-center'> - <div>Z.</div> - </div> -</div> - -<ul class='index c000'> - <li class='c021'><i>zaddíq</i>, <b><a href='#Page_31'>31</a></b>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>ẕáhiriyán</i>, <a href='#Page_154'>154</a>, <a href='#Page_241'>241</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>zakát</i>, <a href='#Page_314'>314-17</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>zand ú pázand</i>, <a href='#Page_404'>404</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>zandaqa</i>, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a>, <a href='#Page_152'>152</a>, <a href='#Page_404'>404</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>zawá´id</i>, <a href='#Page_384'>384</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>zindíq</i>, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>, <a href='#Page_404'>404</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><a id='ZUHD'></a><i>zuhd</i>, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>, <a href='#Page_179'>179</a>, <a href='#Page_181'>181</a>, <a href='#Page_371'>371</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>ẕuhúr</i>, <a href='#Page_369'>369</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>ẕulm</i>, <a href='#Page_387'>387</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>zunnár</i>, <a href='#Page_259'>259</a>, <a href='#Page_273'>273</a>.</li> -</ul> - -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_442'>442</span> - <h3 class='c018'>III. <br /> <span class='sc'>Books.</span></h3> -</div> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c000'> - <div>A.</div> - </div> -</div> - -<ul class='index'> - <li class='c021'><i>Ádáb al-murídín</i>, by Muḥammad b. `Alí al-Tirmidhí, <a href='#Page_338'>338</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>Asrár al-khiraq wa ´l-ma´únát</i>, by `Alí b. `Uthmán al-Hujwírí, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a>.</li> -</ul> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> - <div class='nf-center'> - <div>B.</div> - </div> -</div> - -<ul class='index'> - <li class='c021'><i>Baḥr al-qulúb</i>, by `Alí b. `Uthmán al-Hujwírí, <a href='#Page_259'>259</a>.</li> -</ul> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> - <div class='nf-center'> - <div>G.</div> - </div> -</div> - -<ul class='index'> - <li class='c021'><i>Ghalaṭ al-wájidín</i>, by Ruwaym, <a href='#Page_135'>135</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Gospel, the, <a href='#Page_407'>407</a>.</li> -</ul> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> - <div class='nf-center'> - <div>K.</div> - </div> -</div> - -<ul class='index'> - <li class='c021'><i>Khatm al-wiláyat</i>, by Muḥammad b. `Alí al-Tirmidhí, <a href='#Page_141'>141</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>Kitáb `adháb al-qabr</i>, by Muḥammad b. `Alí al-Tirmidhí, <a href='#Page_141'>141</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>Kitáb al-bayán li-ahl al-`iyán</i>, by `Alí b. `Uthmán al-Hujwírí, <a href='#Page_259'>259</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>Kitáb-i faná ú baqá</i>, by `Alí b. `Uthmán al-Hujwírí, <a href='#Page_60'>60</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><a id='KITAB'></a><i>Kitáb al-luma`</i>, by Abú Naṣr al-Sarráj, <a href='#Page_255'>255</a>, <a href='#Page_323'>323</a>, <a href='#Page_341'>341</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>Kitáb-i maḥabbat</i>, by `Amr b. `Uthmán al-Makkí, <a href='#Page_309'>309</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>Kitáb al-nahj</i>, by Muḥammad b. `Alí al-Tirmidhí, <a href='#Page_141'>141</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>Kitáb al-samá`</i>, by Abú `Abd al-Raḥmán al-Sulamí, <a href='#Page_401'>401</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>Kitáb al-tawḥíd</i>, by Muḥammad b. `Alí al-Tirmidhí, <a href='#Page_141'>141</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Koran, the, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a>, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>, <a href='#Page_19'>19</a>, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a>, <a href='#Page_70'>70</a>, <a href='#Page_77'>77</a>, <a href='#Page_88'>88</a>, <a href='#Page_96'>96</a>, <a href='#Page_97'>97</a>, <a href='#Page_98'>98</a>, <a href='#Page_117'>117</a>, <a href='#Page_124'>124</a>, <a href='#Page_135'>135</a>, <a href='#Page_149'>149</a>, <a href='#Page_230'>230</a>, <a href='#Page_300'>300</a>, <a href='#Page_301'>301</a>, <a href='#Page_304'>304</a>, <a href='#Page_307'>307</a>, <a href='#Page_317'>317</a>, <a href='#Page_323'>323</a>, <b><a href='#Page_394'>394-7</a></b>, <a href='#Page_411'>411</a>, <a href='#Page_415'>415</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Koran, citations from the, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a>, <a href='#Page_9'>9</a>, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a>, <a href='#Page_19'>19</a>, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a>, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a>, <a href='#Page_30'>30</a>, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a>, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a>, <a href='#Page_42'>42</a>, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a>, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a>, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a>, <a href='#Page_62'>62</a>, <a href='#Page_63'>63</a>, <a href='#Page_74'>74</a>, <a href='#Page_78'>78</a>, <a href='#Page_79'>79</a>, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a>, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a>, <a href='#Page_90'>90</a>, <a href='#Page_91'>91</a>, <a href='#Page_97'>97</a>, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>, <a href='#Page_103'>103</a>, <a href='#Page_109'>109</a>, <a href='#Page_122'>122</a>, <a href='#Page_156'>156</a>, <a href='#Page_159'>159</a>, <a href='#Page_160'>160</a>, <a href='#Page_167'>167</a>, <a href='#Page_185'>185</a>, <a href='#Page_186'>186</a>, <a href='#Page_190'>190</a>, <a href='#Page_193'>193</a>, <a href='#Page_194'>194</a>, <a href='#Page_197'>197</a>, <a href='#Page_198'>198</a>, <a href='#Page_200'>200</a>, <a href='#Page_201'>201</a>, <a href='#Page_202'>202</a>, <a href='#Page_204'>204</a>, <a href='#Page_208'>208</a>, <a href='#Page_210'>210</a>, <a href='#Page_211'>211</a>, <a href='#Page_212'>212</a>, <a href='#Page_215'>215</a>, <a href='#Page_230'>230</a>, <a href='#Page_237'>237</a>, <a href='#Page_238'>238</a>, <a href='#Page_239'>239</a>, <a href='#Page_241'>241</a>, <a href='#Page_246'>246</a>, <a href='#Page_249'>249</a>, <a href='#Page_251'>251</a>, <a href='#Page_252'>252</a>, <a href='#Page_255'>255</a>, <a href='#Page_261'>261</a>, <a href='#Page_267'>267</a>, <a href='#Page_268'>268</a>, <a href='#Page_269'>269</a>, <a href='#Page_273'>273</a>, <a href='#Page_278'>278</a>, <a href='#Page_283'>283</a>, <a href='#Page_289'>289</a>, <a href='#Page_291'>291</a>, <a href='#Page_294'>294</a>, <a href='#Page_295'>295</a>, <a href='#Page_296'>296</a>, <a href='#Page_297'>297</a>, <a href='#Page_304'>304</a>, <a href='#Page_311'>311</a>, <a href='#Page_312'>312</a>, <a href='#Page_316'>316</a>, <a href='#Page_320'>320</a>, <a href='#Page_324'>324</a>, <a href='#Page_330'>330</a>, <a href='#Page_336'>336</a>, <a href='#Page_338'>338</a>, <a href='#Page_348'>348</a>, <a href='#Page_349'>349</a>, <a href='#Page_350'>350</a>, <a href='#Page_354'>354</a>, <a href='#Page_355'>355</a>, <a href='#Page_357'>357</a>, <a href='#Page_360'>360</a>, <a href='#Page_368'>368</a>, <a href='#Page_370'>370</a>, <a href='#Page_371'>371</a>, <a href='#Page_372'>372</a>, <a href='#Page_373'>373</a>, <a href='#Page_374'>374</a>, <a href='#Page_375'>375</a>, <a href='#Page_377'>377</a>, <a href='#Page_380'>380</a>, <a href='#Page_381'>381</a>, <a href='#Page_384'>384</a>, <a href='#Page_388'>388</a>, <a href='#Page_390'>390</a>, <a href='#Page_391'>391</a>, <a href='#Page_392'>392</a>, <a href='#Page_394'>394-7</a>, <a href='#Page_399'>399</a>, <a href='#Page_403'>403</a>, <a href='#Page_415'>415</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'>Koran, commentary on the, by Muḥammad b. `Alí al-Tirmidhí, <a href='#Page_141'>141</a>.</li> -</ul> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> - <div class='nf-center'> - <div>L.</div> - </div> -</div> - -<ul class='index'> - <li class='c021'><i>Luma`.</i> See <i><a href='#KITAB'>Kitáb al-luma`</a></i>.</li> -</ul> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> - <div class='nf-center'> - <div>M.</div> - </div> -</div> - -<ul class='index'> - <li class='c021'><i>Minháj al-dín</i>, by `Alí b. `Uthmán al-Hujwírí, <a href='#Page_2'>2</a>, <a href='#Page_80'>80</a>, <a href='#Page_153'>153</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>Mir´át al-ḥukamá</i>, by Sháh b. Shujá` al-Kirmání, <a href='#Page_138'>138</a>.</li> -</ul> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> - <div class='nf-center'> - <div>N.</div> - </div> -</div> - -<ul class='index'> - <li class='c021'><i>Nafaḥát al-uns</i>, by Jámí, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a>, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a>, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a>, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a>, <a href='#Page_44'>44</a>, <a href='#Page_169'>169</a>, <a href='#Page_172'>172</a>, <a href='#Page_173'>173</a>, <a href='#Page_234'>234</a>, <a href='#Page_249'>249</a>, <a href='#Page_257'>257</a>, <a href='#Page_260'>260</a>, <a href='#Page_298'>298</a>, <a href='#Page_304'>304</a>, <a href='#Page_323'>323</a>, <a href='#Page_325'>325</a>, <a href='#Page_335'>335</a>, <a href='#Page_338'>338</a>, <a href='#Page_358'>358</a>, <a href='#Page_374'>374</a>, <a href='#Page_408'>408</a>, <a href='#Page_415'>415</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><span class='pageno' id='Page_443'>443</span><i>Nawádir al-uṣúl</i>, by Muḥammad b. `Alí al-Tirmidhí, <a href='#Page_141'>141</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>Nuzhat al-qulúb</i>, by Ḥamdalláh Mustawfí, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a>.</li> -</ul> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> - <div class='nf-center'> - <div>R.</div> - </div> -</div> - -<ul class='index'> - <li class='c021'><i>Ri`áyat</i>, by Ḥárith al-Muḥásibí, <a href='#Page_108'>108</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>al-Ri`áyat bi-ḥuqúq Allah</i>, by Aḥmad b. Khaḍrúya, <a href='#Page_338'>338</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>al-Ri`áyat li-ḥuqúq Allah</i>, by `Alí b. `Uthmán al-Hujwírí, <a href='#Page_280'>280</a>.</li> -</ul> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> - <div class='nf-center'> - <div>T.</div> - </div> -</div> - -<ul class='index'> - <li class='c021'><i>Ṭabaqát al-ḥuffáẕ</i>, by Dhahabí, <a href='#Page_118'>118</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>Ṭabaqát al-Ṣúfiyya</i>, by Abú `Abd al-Raḥmán al-Sulamí, <a href='#Page_108'>108</a>, <a href='#Page_114'>114</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>Tadhkirat al-awliyá</i>, by `Aṭṭár, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a>, <a href='#Page_137'>137</a>, <a href='#Page_238'>238</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>Ta`rífát</i>, by Jurjání, <a href='#Page_373'>373</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>Ta´ríkh-i masháyikh</i> (History of the Ṣúfí Shaykhs), by Muḥammad b. `Alí al-Tirmidhí, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a>.</li> - <li class='c021'><i>Taṣḥíḥ al-irádat</i>, by Junayd, <a href='#Page_338'>338</a>.</li> -</ul> -<div class='pbb'> - <hr class='pb c000' /> -</div> -<p class='c001'><a id='endnote'></a></p> -<div class='tnotes'> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> - <div class='nf-center'> - <div><span class='large'>Transcriber’s Note</span></div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c001'>Occasional lapses of punctuation in the various indexes have been silently -corrected.</p> - -<p class='c001'>Other errors deemed most likely to be the printer’s have been corrected, and -are noted here. The references are either to the page and line, or, where -three numbers are employed, to the line within a footnote in the original.</p> - -<table class='table1' summary=''> -<colgroup> -<col width='12%' /> -<col width='69%' /> -<col width='18%' /> -</colgroup> - <tr> - <td class='c012'><a id='c_2.28'></a><a href='#corr2.28'>2.28</a></td> - <td class='c012'>The truth is best known to God God[.]</td> - <td class='c013'>Added.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'><a id='c_39.33'></a><a href='#corr39.33'>39.33</a></td> - <td class='c012'><i>fa-li-Yaḥyá wa-amm[á/a] labs</i></td> - <td class='c013'>Replaced.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'><a id='c_82.21'></a><a href='#corr82.21'>82.21</a></td> - <td class='c012'>Abu ´l-Marthad Kinána b. al-Ḥu[ṣ/s]ayn</td> - <td class='c013'>Replaced.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'><a id='c_91.10'></a><a href='#corr91.10'>91.10</a></td> - <td class='c012'>[`Amr b.] `Uthmán al-Makkí</td> - <td class='c013'>Restored.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'><a id='c_96.36'></a><a href='#corr96.36'>96.36</a></td> - <td class='c012'>yet I feel fear within myself[’./.’]</td> - <td class='c013'>Transposed.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'><a id='c_108.1.1'></a><a href='#corr108.1.1'>108.1.1</a></td> - <td class='c012'><i>Ri`áyat li-ḥuqúq All[á/a]h</i></td> - <td class='c013'>Replaced.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'><a id='c_141.5.1'></a><a href='#corr141.5.1'>141.5.1</a></td> - <td class='c012'>“The Book [of] Unification.”</td> - <td class='c013'>Missing.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'><a id='c_193.17'></a><a href='#corr193.17'>193.17</a></td> - <td class='c012'>[“/‘]<i>They> prefer them to themselves,</i> ...</td> - <td class='c013'>Replaced.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'><a id='c_200.27'></a><a href='#corr200.27'>200.27</a></td> - <td class='c012'>(<i>al-jihád al-akbar</i>)[”].</td> - <td class='c013'>Added.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'><a id='c_193.18'></a><a href='#corr193.18'>193.18</a></td> - <td class='c012'>... <i>although they are indigent</i>[”/’]</td> - <td class='c013'>Replaced.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'><a id='c_229.23'></a><a href='#corr229.23'>229.23</a></td> - <td class='c012'>Afterwards Muḥammad b. [`]Alí asked a question</td> - <td class='c013'>Inserted.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'><a id='c_436.29'></a><a href='#corr436.29'>436.29</a></td> - <td class='c012'><i>khuṣú[s/ṣ]iyyat</i>, 257.</td> - <td class='c013'>Replaced.</td> - </tr> -</table> - -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin-top:4em'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE KASHF AL-MAHJÚB ***</div> -<div style='text-align:left'> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Updated editions will replace the previous one—the old editions will -be renamed. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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