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+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for
+eBook #64686 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/64686)
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-The Project Gutenberg eBook of Forgers and Forgeries, by William George
-Constable
-
-This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and
-most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
-whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms
-of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at
-www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you
-will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before
-using this eBook.
-
-Title: Forgers and Forgeries
-
-Author: William George Constable
-
-Release Date: March 04, 2021 [eBook #64686]
-
-Language: English
-
-Character set encoding: UTF-8
-
-Produced by: Stephen Hutcheson and the Online Distributed Proofreading
-             Team at https://www.pgdp.net
-
-*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FORGERS AND FORGERIES ***
-
-  ON THE COVER PAGES
-  A forgery of a Greek bronze statuette (BACK COVER), and a genuine
-  example (FRONT COVER). Such “type” forgeries are exceptionally
-  difficult to detect. Probably made for the tourist trade.
-
-
-
-
-Retail Price $1.00
-
-
-
-
-                                FORGERS
-                                 _and_
-                               FORGERIES
-
-
-                          _BY W. G. Constable_
-                          CURATOR OF PAINTINGS
-                      MUSEUM OF FINE ARTS, BOSTON
-
-
-                      _ART TREASURES OF THE WORLD_
-                          NEW YORK AND TORONTO
-
-  _ART TREASURES OF THE WORLD_
-      100 SIXTH AVENUE, NEW YORK 13, N. Y.
-      IN CANADA: 1184 CASTLEFIELD AVENUE
-      TORONTO 10, ONTARIO
-
-      Printed in U. S. A.    AT14 W
-
-_Copyright 1954 by Harry N. Abrams, Incorporated. Copyright in the
-United States and foreign countries under International Copyright
-Convention. All rights reserved under Pan-American Convention. No part
-of the contents of this book may be reproduced without the written
-permission of Harry N. Abrams, Incorporated. Printed in U.S.A._
-
-
-The usual idea of a forgery is of something deliberately fabricated to
-appear to be what it is not; something conceived in sin, and carrying
-the taint of illegitimacy throughout its existence. In fact, however,
-many things made for quite innocent and even laudable purposes have been
-used to deceive and to defraud, by means of misrepresentation or
-subsequent manipulation. So the essential element in forgery lies in the
-way an object is presented, rather than in the purpose that inspired its
-making.
-
-Still, it is objects made to deceive which have always held the center
-of the stage. Without doubt, the main motive for their manufacture is to
-make money. But often there is an element of drama, even of romance, in
-the way they come into existence. A famous example is a _Sleeping Cupid_
-which the young Michelangelo is supposed have carved in imitation of the
-work of classical antiquity and which, after being buried in the ground,
-was bought by a dealer and sold as an antique, being rated as such until
-its true origin was revealed. Though the element of deceit was present
-from the beginning, the primary purpose of the work was a challenge to
-the past; and it is significant that Michelangelo’s early biographers
-counted the success of the imposition to his credit, since it proved
-that he could successfully rival the sculptors of Greece and Rome.
-
-Such challenges to the past have undoubtedly inspired men who were or
-ultimately became professional forgers. This seems to have been the case
-with Giovanni Bastianini (1830-1868), the Italian sculptor. His
-admiration for early Renaissance Italian sculpture bred in him a spirit
-of rivalry which issued in the production of remarkable imitations to be
-exploited as originals through collaboration with a dealer. Alceo
-Dossena (1878-1937) also seems to have wanted to prove himself the equal
-of earlier sculptors, though later he knowingly embarked on the making
-of forgeries of medieval and Renaissance Italian sculpture, skillful
-enough to be purchased as originals by various museums. The case for
-conscious rivalry with the past is clearer with Rouchomovski, the
-nineteenth-century goldsmith, whose abilities, though sufficient to give
-him a reputation in his own right, led him to make the famous tiara of
-Saitaphernes, which was purchased by the Louvre as Greco-Scythian work
-of the third century B.C.
-
-With other forgers, however, desire to confound connoisseurs and the
-learned world has been uppermost, generally bred by neglect or adverse
-criticism. So it seems to have been with Thomas Chatterton and his
-eighteenth-century imitations of medieval poems; perhaps it operated in
-the case of T. J. Wise and his forgeries of nineteenth-century
-pamphlets; and apparently I. F. Ioni, the Sienese painter and restorer,
-well-known for his forgeries of Italian primitive paintings, derived at
-least as much satisfaction from trying to take in eminent authorities as
-from the money he made. Certainly such motives inspired H. A. Van
-Meegeren, the most famous forger of our time. Van Meegeren, a dexterous
-painter, skillful in imitating others, did not receive the recognition
-to which he felt his gifts entitled him, and turned his talents to
-forging the great Dutch masters of the seventeenth century. In 1937 he
-achieved spectacular success with his sale to the Rotterdam museum for
-$200,000 of his _Disciples at Emmaus_, as an early work by Jan Vermeer.
-A vivid light is thrown on his motives by a remark he made in 1947 after
-his arrest and trial: “The _Disciples_ represented the master-stroke in
-my plan for vengeance.” Later, the desire to fill his pockets seems to
-have become paramount. A similar case may be that of the Piltdown skull,
-once thought to be the earliest surviving relic of prehistoric man.
-Recent intensive examination has proved that though the cranium is of
-respectable antiquity, the lower jaw is that of a chimpanzee doctored to
-appear ancient; and there is some reason to think that it was made and
-planted near where the cranium was found, by a disgruntled museum
-technician who wished to prove that he could fool the learned world.
-
-    [Illustration: LEFT: A forgery by Giovanni Bastianini, part copy and
-    part style imitation. RIGHT: A fragment of an original relief by
-    Desiderio da Settignano on which the forgery was based.]
-
-But whatever mixture of motives may go into making a forgery, the
-predominant one is almost always financial gain. It follows that what
-the forger makes is mainly determined by the market for his goods, which
-in turn depends on current activity among collectors and in the learned
-world. In the Middle Ages, fantastic curiosities and saintly relics were
-much in demand, and forgers saw to it that the supply was kept up.
-Later, the growth of scientific knowledge and religious skepticism
-spoiled this market; while recognition of the artist as an individual
-and the development of art collections stimulated production of
-forgeries imitating the work of particular artists or of particular
-epochs. These have since been the staple of the forger’s trade,
-reflecting the tastes of the day. The eighteenth-century collectors’
-passion for classical antiquity helped to sustain in Rome a flourishing
-industry for the supply of classical statues and gems, with Thomas
-Jenkins, painter, art agent, and banker as one of its leading figures;
-English Regency taste produced a fine crop of imitations of Sèvres and
-Meissen porcelain, made both in England and elsewhere; the Gothic
-revival, bringing in its train a new enthusiasm for Italian primitives,
-created hitherto neglected opportunities for the forger, who maintained
-an active sideline in keeping up the supply of Palissy ware and Italian
-majolica, until the taste of the aesthetic period turned his attention
-to Delft ware; and in our own time we have seen the forger swing from
-fabricating Famille Rose and Famille Verte to meeting twentieth-century
-demands for the art of the T’ang, Sung, and earlier Chinese dynasties.
-
-    [Illustration: ABOVE: An example of a flourishing nineteenth-century
-    industry: a forgery of a fourteenth-century Italian diptych, with
-    (BELOW) a genuine example for comparison. The crackle and facial
-    types indicate the forgery.]
-
-    [Illustration: (genuine example)]
-
-Just as he responds to changes in taste or in learned activity, so the
-forger follows in the footsteps of the tourist, for whom he has provided
-flint implements to be discovered in prehistoric sites; Greek and Roman
-coins, gems, and statuettes at appropriate places in Italy, Greece, and
-Asia Minor; scarabs and small sculpture in Egypt; and today, pottery and
-figurines in Central and South America.
-
-Nor does the forger confine his attentions to the art of the past, but
-extends them to contemporary work. Constable and Corot were imitated
-while they were still living; forgeries of Renoir, Degas, Picasso,
-Matisse, and others are common today; while, among Americans, Winslow
-Homer and Ryder fabrications circulate freely. Artists are apt to be
-forgetful as to what they have produced, especially in the case of
-sketches, and have been known to deny authorship of perfectly genuine
-work; so that risks of confrontation are not too great. With a
-contemporary artist recently dead, his work not yet fully known or
-catalogued, a vogue for collecting him fanned by a skillful
-entrepreneur, prices not so high as to provoke critical examination, and
-with not too many genuine examples accessible for comparison, the forger
-is in velvet.
-
-The two main methods of making forgeries, manufacture and
-misrepresentation, are in practice often combined; but it is convenient
-to discuss them separately. The simplest type of manufactured forgery is
-the straight copy, although this has considerable disadvantages. In
-addition to the necessity of choosing the right materials, imitating the
-right technique, and giving a proper appearance of age, the risks of
-confrontation with the original are great in these days of systematic
-combing of collections, aided by swift and easy travel, by photography
-and widespread publication. Sometimes, the forger attempts to meet this
-risk of confrontation by introducing variations into a design, so that
-the forgery may pass as a version of the original. But even so,
-comparison of the two is almost inevitable, with the almost equally
-inevitable exposure of any defects in the copy. It is this risk that
-makes forgers prefer to copy objects that are types rather than those
-stamped with the individuality of some particular master. The strictly
-controlled design and iconography of much Byzantine painting, and its
-standardized technique, encourages modern repetition; and the putting of
-one more copy on the market is not in itself likely to arouse suspicion.
-Similarly, the fact that eighteenth-century Chinese potters paid homage
-to those of earlier dynasties by making most admirable copies of their
-work, confuses the situation in favor of the forger. Another advantage
-(to the forger) of such objects is that many of them can be reproduced
-by casting. With some knowledge of the materials used for the originals
-and some skill in giving an appearance of age, such things as Chinese
-grave figures, Greek or Near Eastern bronzes, and coins can be produced
-in quantity. Sometimes, indeed, variation in the material of the cast is
-an aid to deception; as in the case of Renaissance bas-reliefs, when a
-cast in wax or stucco may, after some manipulation, be passed off as a
-sketch for a marble original.
-
-    [Illustration: ABOVE: A forgery of Vermeer by Van Meegeren,
-    purporting to be an early work of the artist, purchased as an
-    original, compared with (BELOW) the earliest known painting signed
-    by Vermeer.]
-
-    [Illustration: (genuine example)]
-
-More common than straight copies of particular objects, however, are
-imitations of the style of some period or master. This avoids the risk
-of comparison with a more or less identical original, and helps in
-passing off the forgery as an unknown example of the style it imitates.
-It was on this basis that Bastianini, Rouchomovski, and Dossena worked,
-as did the German painter Roerich in his imitations of Cranach and other
-early German masters. Usually such imitations of a style do not embody a
-new conception or an original idea; for the most part they consist of
-borrowings from original works, pieced together to make a more or less
-consistent whole. Often, these borrowings are secondhand, being taken
-from photographs, engravings, or reproductions in books. A specific case
-was the use of Weisser’s _Bilderatlas zur Weltgeschichte_ (1882) by
-Rouchomovski for the reliefs on the tiara of Saitapharnes. The use of
-such models is, however, the Achilles’ heel of the forger. Once their
-source is tracked down, detection of the imposture is almost certain.
-
-    [Illustration: A forgery of fourteenth-century Italian wood
-    sculpture by Dossena.]
-
-    [Illustration: An X-ray revealed modern nails in the interior.]
-
-That, perhaps, is why forgers have on occasion virtually abandoned the
-use of models, either wholly or in part, and produced objects different
-from anything that is known, but which could fit into some particular
-historical or cultural background. Here, they are exploiting not only
-ignorant enthusiasm but the desire among the learned to extend knowledge
-of little-known epochs of human history, or to find material that will
-justify theories about them. Comparatively crude examples are the
-so-called Baphomets, stone figures said to have been worshipped by the
-Knights Templar; and the “medieval” pilgrim’s badges made in
-nineteenth-century London by William Smith and Charles Eaton, now widely
-known as “Billies and Charlies.” The appeal of the unknown was more
-skillfully utilized by Rouchomovski and Van Meegeren. In the tiara of
-Saitapharnes, existing models had been used, through reproductions, for
-the reliefs and inscriptions; but as a whole, the tiara was something of
-a kind unknown, yet eagerly sought for, and so was more readily accepted
-when it came into the market. Similarly, unknown early works of Vermeer
-had long been a matter of speculation among art historians, and in
-certain quarters a hypothetical character for them had been built up; so
-that when _The Disciples at Emmaus_ appeared and more or less fitted the
-bill, it was all the more easy to believe in it.
-
-    [Illustration: A forgery of Egyptian limestone sculpture (RIGHT)
-    compared with a genuine example of the type (LEFT). The forgery was
-    proved so by analyzing the binding material of the color.]
-
-So far, the forgeries discussed have been substantially new
-constructions. This is to be expected when the motives of challenge to
-the past or self-vindication are at work; usually, however, the forger
-prefers to use a genuine piece, wholly or in part, as a starting point
-for his operations. This has none of the disadvantages of a copy; it
-avoids some of the difficulties of finding suitable materials; and it
-provides a pattern for such things as color, texture, and surface
-condition, in any changes or additions that the forger may make.
-
-One possibility is to construct a forgery with the aid of genuine
-fragments, or on the basis of a damaged original. Joseph Nollekens, the
-eighteenth-century English sculptor, who worked with Thomas Jenkins in
-Rome, himself tells of making extensive additions to pieces of Roman
-sculpture found as the result of excavation, which in due course went
-into famous collections in England. Similarly, Dossena sometimes used
-fragments of genuine _quattrocento_ work in his forgeries. This, too,
-was the method favored by Ioni for making his early Italian paintings.
-One great convenience of such procedures (for the forger) is that if
-suspicion is aroused and investigation made, it can always be alleged
-that the added work is merely honest restoration. Indeed, the line
-between restoration and forgery sometimes becomes blurred. Occasionally
-there appears in the art market a graft of a piece of one original onto
-another; its sellers would be consumed with indignation were it
-suggested that they had handled a forgery.
-
-The exploitation of genuine work, however, often takes much simpler
-forms than that described above. The signature of a master may be added
-to a school piece, or to anything that bears some superficial
-resemblances to his work; sometimes, indeed, the addition is to a work
-by the master himself, to convince the doubting and to increase its sale
-value. Not infrequently, however, there is present an inconvenient
-signature of the real author, which has to be obliterated or manipulated
-into something more attractive. A special form of manipulation is to put
-on some anonymous portrait a name which more or less fits the dress and
-character of the sitter, and so increases its sale value. Shakespeare
-and Milton are often so honored; and many mediocre portraits picked up
-in England have been adorned with the names of Colonial worthies, and
-thus found a ready market in the United States.
-
-All the examples of forgery so far mentioned are of the manufactured
-type, however little work may have been expended on them. In this they
-differ entirely from the forgeries which depend wholly on
-misrepresentation, a genuine article of one kind being passed off as of
-another, without any physical change. It is not usual to brand such
-things as forgeries, and legally they are not so regarded; but morally,
-in that something is made to appear what it is not, they seem to be
-truly forgeries.
-
-    [Illustration: ABOVE: A forgery (partly cleaned for examination) of
-    a fifteenth-century Florentine portrait, compared with a genuine
-    example (BELOW). The forgery is on an old panel, but was finally
-    proved false by the presence of titanium white, a twentieth-century
-    pigment.]
-
-    [Illustration: (genuine example)]
-
-A simple and widespread means of falsifying in this way is a certificate
-of authorship and genuineness. Sometimes, the writers of these are of
-the highest competence and probity. These two qualities are not always
-combined, however; and the certificate then becomes either intentionally
-or innocently misleading. Unfortunately, most certificates are written
-for a fee, and there is always temptation for the writer to err on the
-side of pleasing his employer; while there is no question that sometimes
-certificates have been given deliberately to defraud. Moreover, forged
-certificates bearing reputable names are not unknown, a special variety
-being the stringing together of words from a genuine letter, with all
-qualifying or negative phrases omitted. There is, however, a more
-insidious method of giving a certificate, that of publication of an
-object in a reliable journal. Editors are generally careful enough; but
-they are defenseless in the face of a plausible case put forward by a
-name of some reputation, especially when the passage relating to the
-object is included in a more general context. This kind of certification
-is particularly difficult to cope with, since such articles will
-continue to be cited in later publications, perhaps mainly to controvert
-them but nevertheless renewing their availability for dishonest
-purposes.
-
-Construction of false pedigrees is another means of misrepresentation,
-much used in the case of copies or versions. Sometimes, a pedigree is
-completely false, naming imaginary former owners whose existence cannot
-be proved but equally cannot be disproved. Sometimes, such history as
-the object may have is grafted onto that of another and accepted
-version, so that the two may become confused. A special case of this is
-the planting out of objects in houses whose owners are ready, for a
-consideration, to describe them as having descended in the family, or
-even as having been bought from the maker by an ancestor.
-
-The skill, ingenuity, and knowledge of the forger and of those who
-exploit his work, are opposed to the skill, ingenuity, and knowledge of
-the collector and the learned world. The unaided human eye, if it has a
-trained and well-informed mind behind it, can go a long way in detecting
-forgeries. It is surprising how forgetful, careless, or ignorant a
-forger can be. He may employ materials whose inconsistency with the
-period to which his work claims to belong can be seen even by the
-unaided eye. More common is the introduction of such things as types and
-details of costume, or the use of coats of arms, that are later than the
-alleged date of the work. All such evidence, however, needs scrutiny,
-since it may simply be a case of later additions to a genuine object.
-More useful, therefore, may be tracking down the source of a forger’s
-borrowings. If, for example, these at first sight seem to come from an
-original work, but follow much more closely the variations from that
-original in a later copy or engraving, the conclusion is obvious. Again,
-investigation of pedigrees, checking of literary references, searching
-through exhibition records, may all reveal suspicious or occasionally
-damning evidence of falsified history.
-
-    [Illustration: ABOVE: A forgery of a portrait by Cranach, and
-    (BELOW) a genuine example. A style forgery, skillful, but coarser
-    than an original.]
-
-    [Illustration: (genuine example)]
-
-To tests based on observation and historical verification, we must add
-those mainly dependent on feeling. For the sensitive and trained
-observer, a number of indefinable characteristics will “add up” to a
-definite conviction of genuine or false. Qualities of surface and
-handling, subtleties in color and in the definition of form, the degree
-of unity in conception and treatment, and the emotional character of the
-work are among the things which influence such decisions. Thus, a copy,
-however exact, may reveal itself as lacking the coherence and the
-feeling which inspired the original; and the most skillful imitation of
-some older work may be recognized as a creation of its own time. Nobody
-can completely divorce himself from the prevailing thoughts, opinions,
-assumptions, feelings, and standards of his own period; and inevitably
-these will color whatever he produces, whether he be a forger or an
-original artist.
-
-Scorn is often poured on judgments of the type described, and the expert
-who produces them in a court of law is the delight of the skillful
-cross-examiner. True, the only merit of snap opinions based on defective
-sensibility and inadequate experience is that they have a fifty-fifty
-chance of being right; but with sensibility backed by knowledge, an
-almost supra-rational instinct develops as to what is genuine or false.
-The so-called impression or hunch is, in such circumstances, more
-accurately described as a synthesis of many experiences. It is often
-forgotten that such almost instinctive judgments are not confined to art
-and archaeology. They play an important part in the sciences (where they
-are called hypotheses), in politics, in war, in business, and many other
-fields. Their value varies with the men who make them; but this does not
-lessen their potential value, and their occasional indispensability. In
-the detection of two particular types of forgery they are especially
-useful. Imitations of contemporary work can be very baffling, since the
-forger works with materials which were or might have been used in
-genuine work, does not have to give an appearance of age, and works
-against the same general background as does the artist he imitates.
-Similarly, a school piece which is misrepresented as the work of an old
-master, was produced in a similar physical and emotional environment. In
-such cases, a final verdict often has to be based on nothing but
-imponderable elements of style, realizable only through feeling based on
-knowledge.
-
-    [Illustration: ABOVE: An imitation of the work of John Constable,
-    distinguished from an original (BELOW) by its coarse handling and
-    mistakes in topography.]
-
-    [Illustration: (genuine example)]
-
-The methods so far described of detecting forgeries may well be as old
-as the practice of forgery itself. Certainly, they form the basis of all
-investigations of which we have records, as well as of those made today.
-Their efficiency, however, has been immensely increased by the
-development of scientific methods of investigation. The first great step
-forward came with the use of photography, which permitted comparison of
-suspicious objects with genuine examples in a way hitherto impossible.
-Next came the application of various scientific techniques to the
-analysis of the physical constitution of an object. So spectacular have
-been the results in some cases as to create a blind faith in such
-methods of investigation, almost as though a piece of scientific
-apparatus were an oracle which when consulted would answer “Yes” or “No”
-to the question of whether an object is genuine. The limits of
-scientific investigation are, however, clearly marked. This method is
-solely concerned with the physical make-up of an object, and is
-completely indifferent as to who made it, when and where it was made,
-and why it was made. All that it does is to make possible the discovery
-of physical facts bearing upon these matters, which have to be observed
-and interpreted by human minds and used as the basis for human
-judgments.
-
-    [Illustration: ABOVE: A forgery of a painting by Utrillo adapted
-    from a genuine example, compared with another genuine picture
-    (BELOW). Note the clumsy handling of paint and drawing in the
-    forgery.]
-
-    [Illustration: (genuine example)]
-
-The scientific procedures with which we are concerned here fall into two
-main groups. Of these, one includes various techniques for extending the
-range of human vision. The simplest is examination by microscope, which
-enables characteristics of a surface to be seen that would otherwise be
-invisible, so that, for example, painted cracks or cracks artificially
-induced can be distinguished from crackle due to age. With the
-microscope, too, evidence of removals and additions can be obtained,
-such as the manipulation of signatures and inscriptions, or the presence
-of repaint or artificial patina; while the structure of pigments, stone,
-etc., can be ascertained, as a step toward their identification. More
-elaborate is examination under various rays of the spectrum, to which
-the human eye is not sensitive but whose results can be recorded. The
-best known of these is X-ray, which penetrates certain substances but is
-held up in different degrees by others, especially metals, so that a
-photographic film behind an object will record a map of such substances
-in an object, thus revealing much that is below the surface. On the
-other hand, ultra-violet rays falling on a surface cause fluorescence,
-which varies according to substance and texture, so that additions to
-the surface may be revealed. Infra-red rays, in contrast, penetrate the
-surface, and are reflected back from the layers beneath, so that a
-photograph taken by infra-red light may reveal something concealed from
-the eye, which X-ray may not pick up.
-
-The second group of investigatory methods includes various means of
-analyzing the materials present in an object. The most familiar is
-chemical analysis; but this is being supplemented and to some extent
-displaced by spectrographic analysis, with its recent extension in the
-use of X-ray diffraction. By these means, it is possible to detect even
-minute traces of substances whose presence or absence may be decisive in
-settling the date or provenance of a material. Some recent applications
-of quantitative analysis have proved helpful in ascertaining the date of
-objects. One of these techniques, determination of the extent of
-fluorination, was used to prove that the jawbone of the Piltdown skull
-was a modern forgery; while another, based on the amount of radio-active
-carbon present, which is known to decay at a certain rate, is still in
-course of development, but promises to be most useful.
-
-Thus, a formidable group of weapons are available against the forger. To
-be effective, however, the significance of the facts they bring to light
-must be understood. Decisive proof that an object is not of the period
-or by the hand to which it is attributed comes only through the
-discovery of facts which are not only inconsistent with the attribution
-but cannot be explained except by assuming that the attribution is
-wrong. For instance, the body of a work may contain a substance unknown
-at its ostensible date. Modern nails inside a piece of wood sculpture
-said to be of the fourteenth century; cobalt, unknown as a pigment until
-the early nineteenth century, in a painting attributed to Velázquez; and
-titanium white, a twentieth-century invention, in a portrait labelled
-fifteenth-century Florentine—these are all good evidence that the object
-is not what it is held out to be.
-
-Moreover, the facts discovered always have to be controlled by reference
-to established standards. Structure revealed by microscopic examination
-must be compared with that of known substances; chemical and
-spectrographic analysis has to be checked by reference to a codified
-series of earlier tests; crackle on a surface can only be labelled as
-false if the nature of genuine crackle is known; and the reading of
-whatever is discovered by X-ray, ultra-violet, or infra-red rays calls
-for comparison with verified results of previous examinations. The facts
-yielded by one method of investigation may by themselves not be
-sufficient evidence of forgery; if, however, they can be joined with the
-results of other methods, all pointing in the same direction, a strong
-case can be built up. As in a court of law, this, rather than production
-of a single dramatic and decisive piece of evidence, is what usually
-happens.
-
-It might be thought that the combination of expert and scientist would
-leave the forger with his occupation gone. On the contrary, he continues
-to flourish. In the face of the expert, he discards the clumsy copy and
-the inept certificate, utilizing the improved methods of photography and
-reproduction and the increasing flood of learned works, to help save him
-from anachronisms and inherent contradictions in his work. The scientist
-he meets either by concentrating in fields where scientific methods of
-inquiry are relatively helpless, or by himself going to school with the
-scientist. The results of recent scientific work have put at his
-disposal much knowledge of what to do, what to avoid, and how to baffle
-certain types of investigation. Moreover, he has even taken over certain
-procedures worked out by scientists, such as those for hastening the
-effect of time, and has applied them to his own problems; cases are
-known of forgeries having been submitted, through innocent hands, for
-scientific investigation, to find out whether they will survive the
-ordeal, and if not, what are the mistakes to be avoided in the future.
-
-                            * * * * * * * *
-
-One question is often asked in connection with forgeries: Why should a
-once-admired object be disregarded or condemned on being proved a
-forgery, seeing that it is still the same object? One reason is human
-snobbery; another, and more important, is that when an object is proved
-to be a forgery, it is to us no longer the same object that it was.
-After the discovery, human knowledge about the positive and negative
-qualities of the object has increased, and a new judgment has to be made
-upon it. Exactly the same thing happens with a genuine work. As
-familiarity with it grows, it becomes another thing to the spectator’s
-eyes and mind, and so it may rise or fall in his esteem. Conceivably,
-the characteristics which proclaim something to be a forgery might, when
-discovered, cause it to be more highly regarded; but that kind of
-forgery is not yet known, though it may perhaps exist.
-
-
-    [Illustration: _W. G. CONSTABLE_]
-
-William George Constable was born in Derby, England, in 1887 and
-educated at Cambridge University and the Slade School of the University
-of London. He was formerly Assistant Director of the National Gallery,
-London; Director of the Courtauld Institute (University of London); and
-Slade Professor of Fine Art at Cambridge University. Since 1938, he has
-been Curator of Paintings at the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston.
-
-The author of numerous books and magazine articles, Mr. Constable has
-devoted himself particularly to the study of English and Italian
-paintings and drawings. This is reflected in his more recent
-publications: _Venetian Painting_ (1950); a monograph on the English
-artist Richard Wilson (1953); and _The Painter’s Workshop_ (1954).
-
-    [Illustration: BACK COVER: A forgery of a Greek bronze statuette.]
-
-
-
-
-                          Transcriber’s Notes
-
-
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-
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-  is public-domain in the country of publication.
-
-—In the text versions only, text in italics is delimited by
-  _underscores_.
-
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-
-<div style='text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; font-weight:bold'>The Project Gutenberg eBook of Forgers and Forgeries, by William George Constable</div>
-
-<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>
-This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and
-most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
-whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms
-of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online
-at <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you
-are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the
-country where you are located before using this eBook.
-</div>
-
-<div style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Title: Forgers and Forgeries</div>
-
-<div style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Author: William George Constable</div>
-
-<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Release Date: March 04, 2021 [eBook #64686]</div>
-
-<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Language: English</div>
-
-<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Character set encoding: UTF-8</div>
-
-<div style='display:block; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Produced by: Stephen Hutcheson and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net</div>
-
-<div style='margin-top:2em; margin-bottom:4em'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FORGERS AND FORGERIES ***</div>
-<div id="cover" class="img">
-<img id="coverpage" src="images/cover.jpg" alt="Forgers and Forgeries" width="500" height="724" />
-</div>
-<blockquote>
-<p><span class="smaller">ON THE COVER PAGES</span>
-<br />A forgery of a Greek bronze statuette (<a href="#fig12"><span class="smaller">BACK COVER</span></a>), and
-a genuine example (<a href="#cover"><span class="smaller">FRONT COVER</span></a>). Such &ldquo;type&rdquo; forgeries
-are exceptionally difficult to detect. Probably made for
-the tourist trade.</p>
-</blockquote>
-<div class="box">
-<p><span class="smallest">Retail Price $1.00</span></p>
-<h1>FORGERS
-<br /><i>and</i>
-<br />FORGERIES</h1>
-<p class="tbcenter"><i><span class="small">BY</span> <span class="large">W. G. Constable</span></i>
-<br /><span class="smallest">CURATOR OF PAINTINGS
-<br />MUSEUM OF FINE ARTS, BOSTON</span></p>
-<p class="tbcenter"><i class="small">ART TREASURES OF THE WORLD</i>
-<br /><span class="smallest">NEW YORK AND TORONTO</span></p>
-</div>
-<div class="verse">
-<p class="t0"><i>ART TREASURES OF THE WORLD</i></p>
-<p class="t2"><span class="smallest">100 SIXTH AVENUE, NEW YORK 13, N. Y.</span></p>
-<p class="t2"><span class="smallest">IN CANADA: 1184 CASTLEFIELD AVENUE</span></p>
-<p class="t2"><span class="smallest">TORONTO 10, ONTARIO</span></p>
-</div>
-<div class="verse">
-<p class="t2"><span class="smallest">Printed in U. S. A.</span> <span class="hst"><span class="smallest">AT14 W</span></span></p>
-</div>
-<p><i>Copyright 1954 by Harry N. Abrams, Incorporated. Copyright in the United States and foreign
-countries under International Copyright Convention. All rights reserved under Pan-American
-Convention. No part of the contents of this book may be reproduced without the written permission
-of Harry N. Abrams, Incorporated. Printed in U.S.A.</i></p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_5">5</div>
-<p class="tb"><span class="xxlarge">T</span>he usual idea of a forgery is of something deliberately fabricated to
-appear to be what it is not; something conceived in sin, and carrying
-the taint of illegitimacy throughout its existence. In fact, however,
-many things made for quite innocent and even laudable purposes have been
-used to deceive and to defraud, by means of misrepresentation or subsequent
-manipulation. So the essential element in forgery lies in the way an object is
-presented, rather than in the purpose that inspired its making.</p>
-<p>Still, it is objects made to deceive which have always held the center of the
-stage. Without doubt, the main motive for their manufacture is to make
-money. But often there is an element of drama, even of romance, in the way
-they come into existence. A famous example is a <i>Sleeping Cupid</i> which the
-young Michelangelo is supposed have carved in imitation of the work of classical
-antiquity and which, after being buried in the ground, was bought by a
-dealer and sold as an antique, being rated as such until its true origin was revealed.
-Though the element of deceit was present from the beginning, the
-primary purpose of the work was a challenge to the past; and it is significant
-that Michelangelo&rsquo;s early biographers counted the success of the imposition to
-<span class="pb" id="Page_6">6</span>
-his credit, since it proved that he could successfully rival the sculptors of Greece
-and Rome.</p>
-<p>Such challenges to the past have undoubtedly inspired men who were or
-ultimately became professional forgers. This seems to have been the case with
-Giovanni Bastianini (1830-1868), the Italian sculptor. His admiration for
-early Renaissance Italian sculpture bred in him a spirit of rivalry which issued
-in the production of remarkable imitations to be exploited as originals
-through collaboration with a dealer. Alceo Dossena (1878-1937) also seems to
-have wanted to prove himself the equal of earlier sculptors, though later he
-knowingly embarked on the making of forgeries of medieval and Renaissance
-Italian sculpture, skillful enough to be purchased as originals by various museums.
-The case for conscious rivalry with the past is clearer with Rouchomovski,
-the nineteenth-century goldsmith, whose abilities, though sufficient
-to give him a reputation in his own right, led him to make the famous tiara
-of Saitaphernes, which was purchased by the Louvre as Greco-Scythian work
-of the third century <span class="sc">B.C.</span></p>
-<p>With other forgers, however, desire to confound connoisseurs and the learned
-world has been uppermost, generally bred by neglect or adverse criticism. So
-it seems to have been with Thomas Chatterton and his eighteenth-century
-imitations of medieval poems; perhaps it operated in the case of T. J. Wise
-and his forgeries of nineteenth-century pamphlets; and apparently I. F. Ioni,
-the Sienese painter and restorer, well-known for his forgeries of Italian primitive
-paintings, derived at least as much satisfaction from trying to take in eminent
-authorities as from the money he made. Certainly such motives inspired
-H. A. Van Meegeren, the most famous forger of our time. Van Meegeren, a
-dexterous painter, skillful in imitating others, did not receive the recognition
-to which he felt his gifts entitled him, and turned his talents to forging the
-great Dutch masters of the seventeenth century. In 1937 he achieved spectacular
-success with his sale to the Rotterdam museum for $200,000 of his
-<i>Disciples at Emmaus</i>, as an early work by Jan Vermeer. A vivid light is thrown
-on his motives by a remark he made in 1947 after his arrest and trial: &ldquo;The
-<i>Disciples</i> represented the master-stroke in my plan for vengeance.&rdquo; Later, the
-desire to fill his pockets seems to have become paramount. A similar case may
-be that of the Piltdown skull, once thought to be the earliest surviving relic of
-prehistoric man. Recent intensive examination has proved that though the
-<span class="pb" id="Page_7">7</span>
-cranium is of respectable antiquity, the lower jaw is that of a chimpanzee
-doctored to appear ancient; and there is some reason to think that it was made
-and planted near where the cranium was found, by a disgruntled museum technician
-who wished to prove that he could fool the learned world.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig1">
-<img src="images/p02.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="500" />
-<p class="pcap"><span class="smaller">LEFT</span>: A forgery by Giovanni Bastianini, part copy and part style
-imitation. <span class="smaller">RIGHT</span>: A fragment of an original relief by Desiderio da
-Settignano on which the forgery was based.</p>
-</div>
-<p>But whatever mixture of motives may go into making a forgery, the predominant
-one is almost always financial gain. It follows that what the forger makes
-is mainly determined by the market for his goods, which in turn depends on
-current activity among collectors and in the learned world. In the Middle Ages,
-fantastic curiosities and saintly relics were much in demand, and forgers saw
-to it that the supply was kept up. Later, the growth of scientific knowledge and
-religious skepticism spoiled this market; while recognition of the artist as an individual
-and the development of art collections stimulated production of forgeries
-imitating the work of particular artists or of particular epochs. These
-have since been the staple of the forger&rsquo;s trade, reflecting the tastes of the day.
-The eighteenth-century collectors&rsquo; passion for classical antiquity helped to sustain
-in Rome a flourishing industry for the supply of classical statues and gems,
-with Thomas Jenkins, painter, art agent, and banker as one of its leading figures;
-English Regency taste produced a fine crop of imitations of S&egrave;vres and
-Meissen porcelain, made both in England and elsewhere; the Gothic revival,
-bringing in its train a new enthusiasm for Italian primitives, created hitherto
-neglected opportunities for the forger, who maintained an active sideline in
-keeping up the supply of Palissy ware and Italian majolica, until the taste of the
-aesthetic period turned his attention to Delft ware; and in our own time we
-have seen the forger swing from fabricating Famille Rose and Famille Verte
-to meeting twentieth-century demands for the art of the T&rsquo;ang, Sung, and earlier
-Chinese dynasties.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_8">8</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig2">
-<img src="images/p03.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="845" />
-<p class="pcap"><span class="smaller">ABOVE</span>: An example of a flourishing nineteenth-century industry: a
-forgery of a fourteenth-century Italian diptych, with (<span class="smaller">BELOW</span>) a
-genuine example for comparison. The crackle and facial types indicate
-the forgery.</p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_9">9</div>
-<div class="img">
-<img src="images/p03a.jpg" alt="(genuine example)" width="535" height="800" />
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_10">10</div>
-<p>Just as he responds to changes in taste or in learned activity, so the forger follows
-in the footsteps of the tourist, for whom he has provided flint implements
-to be discovered in prehistoric sites; Greek and Roman coins, gems, and statuettes
-at appropriate places in Italy, Greece, and Asia Minor; scarabs and small
-sculpture in Egypt; and today, pottery and figurines in Central and South
-America.</p>
-<p>Nor does the forger confine his attentions to the art of the past, but extends
-them to contemporary work. Constable and Corot were imitated while they
-were still living; forgeries of Renoir, Degas, Picasso, Matisse, and others are
-common today; while, among Americans, Winslow Homer and Ryder fabrications
-circulate freely. Artists are apt to be forgetful as to what they have produced,
-especially in the case of sketches, and have been known to deny authorship
-of perfectly genuine work; so that risks of confrontation are not too great.
-With a contemporary artist recently dead, his work not yet fully known or catalogued,
-a vogue for collecting him fanned by a skillful entrepreneur, prices not
-so high as to provoke critical examination, and with not too many genuine examples
-accessible for comparison, the forger is in velvet.</p>
-<p>The two main methods of making forgeries, manufacture and misrepresentation,
-are in practice often combined; but it is convenient to discuss them separately.
-The simplest type of manufactured forgery is the straight copy, although
-this has considerable disadvantages. In addition to the necessity of choosing the
-right materials, imitating the right technique, and giving a proper appearance
-of age, the risks of confrontation with the original are great in these days of systematic
-combing of collections, aided by swift and easy travel, by photography
-and widespread publication. Sometimes, the forger attempts to meet this risk of
-confrontation by introducing variations into a design, so that the forgery may
-pass as a version of the original. But even so, comparison of the two is almost
-inevitable, with the almost equally inevitable exposure of any defects in the
-copy. It is this risk that makes forgers prefer to copy objects that are types rather
-than those stamped with the individuality of some particular master. The
-strictly controlled design and iconography of much Byzantine painting, and its
-<span class="pb" id="Page_11">11</span>
-standardized technique, encourages modern repetition; and the putting of one
-more copy on the market is not in itself likely to arouse suspicion. Similarly, the
-fact that eighteenth-century Chinese potters paid homage to those of earlier
-dynasties by making most admirable copies of their work, confuses the situation
-in favor of the forger. Another advantage (to the forger) of such objects is that
-many of them can be reproduced by casting. With some knowledge of the materials
-used for the originals and some skill in giving an appearance of age, such
-things as Chinese grave figures, Greek or Near Eastern bronzes, and coins can
-be produced in quantity. Sometimes, indeed, variation in the material of the
-cast is an aid to deception; as in the case of Renaissance bas-reliefs, when a cast
-in wax or stucco may, after some manipulation, be passed off as a sketch for a
-marble original.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig3">
-<img src="images/p04a.jpg" alt="" width="574" height="696" />
-<p class="pcap"><span class="smaller">ABOVE</span>: A forgery of Vermeer by Van Meegeren, purporting to be an
-early work of the artist, purchased as an original, compared with
-(<span class="smaller">BELOW</span>) the earliest known painting signed by Vermeer.</p>
-</div>
-<div class="img">
-<img src="images/p04c.jpg" alt="(genuine example)" width="621" height="700" />
-</div>
-<p>More common than straight copies of particular objects, however, are imitations
-of the style of some period or master. This avoids the risk of comparison
-with a more or less identical original, and helps in passing off the forgery as an
-unknown example of the style it imitates. It was on this basis that Bastianini,
-Rouchomovski, and Dossena worked, as did the German painter Roerich in his
-<span class="pb" id="Page_12">12</span>
-imitations of Cranach and other early German masters. Usually such imitations
-of a style do not embody a new conception or an original idea; for the most part
-they consist of borrowings from original works, pieced together to make a more
-or less consistent whole. Often, these borrowings are secondhand, being taken
-from photographs, engravings, or reproductions in books. A specific case was
-the use of Weisser&rsquo;s <i>Bilderatlas zur Weltgeschichte</i> (1882) by Rouchomovski for the
-reliefs on the tiara of Saitapharnes. The use of such models is, however, the
-Achilles&rsquo; heel of the forger. Once their source is tracked down, detection of the
-imposture is almost certain.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig4">
-<img src="images/p05.jpg" alt="" width="349" height="795" />
-<p class="pcap">A forgery of fourteenth-century Italian wood sculpture by
-Dossena.</p>
-</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig5">
-<img src="images/p05a.jpg" alt="" width="591" height="779" />
-<p class="pcap">An X-ray revealed modern nails in the interior.</p>
-</div>
-<p>That, perhaps, is why forgers have on occasion virtually abandoned the use
-of models, either wholly or in part, and produced objects different from anything
-that is known, but which could fit into some particular historical or cultural
-background. Here, they are exploiting not only ignorant enthusiasm but
-<span class="pb" id="Page_13">13</span>
-the desire among the learned to extend knowledge of little-known epochs of
-human history, or to find material that will justify theories about them. Comparatively
-crude examples are the so-called Baphomets, stone figures said to
-have been worshipped by the Knights Templar; and the &ldquo;medieval&rdquo; pilgrim&rsquo;s
-badges made in nineteenth-century London by William Smith and Charles
-Eaton, now widely known as &ldquo;Billies and Charlies.&rdquo; The appeal of the unknown
-was more skillfully utilized by Rouchomovski and Van Meegeren. In the tiara
-of Saitapharnes, existing models had been used, through reproductions, for the
-reliefs and inscriptions; but as a whole, the tiara was something of a kind unknown,
-yet eagerly sought for, and so was more readily accepted when it came
-into the market. Similarly, unknown early works of Vermeer had long been a
-matter of speculation among art historians, and in certain quarters a hypothetical
-character for them had been built up; so that when <i>The Disciples at Emmaus</i>
-appeared and more or less fitted the bill, it was all the more easy to believe in it.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig6">
-<img src="images/p05c.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="577" />
-<p class="pcap">A forgery of Egyptian limestone sculpture (<span class="smaller">RIGHT</span>) compared with a
-genuine example of the type (<span class="smaller">LEFT</span>). The forgery was proved so by
-analyzing the binding material of the color.</p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_14">14</div>
-<p>So far, the forgeries discussed have been substantially new constructions. This
-is to be expected when the motives of challenge to the past or self-vindication
-are at work; usually, however, the forger prefers to use a genuine piece, wholly
-or in part, as a starting point for his operations. This has none of the disadvantages
-of a copy; it avoids some of the difficulties of finding suitable materials;
-and it provides a pattern for such things as color, texture, and surface condition,
-in any changes or additions that the forger may make.</p>
-<p>One possibility is to construct a forgery with the aid of genuine fragments, or
-on the basis of a damaged original. Joseph Nollekens, the eighteenth-century
-English sculptor, who worked with Thomas Jenkins in Rome, himself tells of
-making extensive additions to pieces of Roman sculpture found as the result of
-excavation, which in due course went into famous collections in England. Similarly,
-Dossena sometimes used fragments of genuine <i>quattrocento</i> work in his
-forgeries. This, too, was the method favored by Ioni for making his early Italian
-paintings. One great convenience of such procedures (for the forger) is that if
-suspicion is aroused and investigation made, it can always be alleged that the
-added work is merely honest restoration. Indeed, the line between restoration
-and forgery sometimes becomes blurred. Occasionally there appears in the art
-market a graft of a piece of one original onto another; its sellers would be consumed
-with indignation were it suggested that they had handled a forgery.</p>
-<p>The exploitation of genuine work, however, often takes much simpler forms
-than that described above. The signature of a master may be added to a school
-piece, or to anything that bears some superficial resemblances to his work;
-sometimes, indeed, the addition is to a work by the master himself, to convince
-the doubting and to increase its sale value. Not infrequently, however, there is
-present an inconvenient signature of the real author, which has to be obliterated
-or manipulated into something more attractive. A special form of manipulation
-is to put on some anonymous portrait a name which more or less fits the dress
-and character of the sitter, and so increases its sale value. Shakespeare and Milton
-are often so honored; and many mediocre portraits picked up in England
-have been adorned with the names of Colonial worthies, and thus found a ready
-market in the United States.</p>
-<p>All the examples of forgery so far mentioned are of the manufactured type,
-however little work may have been expended on them. In this they differ entirely
-from the forgeries which depend wholly on misrepresentation, a genuine
-<span class="pb" id="Page_15">15</span>
-article of one kind being passed off as of another, without any physical change.
-It is not usual to brand such things as forgeries, and legally they are not so regarded;
-but morally, in that something is made to appear what it is not, they
-seem to be truly forgeries.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig7">
-<img src="images/p06.jpg" alt="" width="548" height="700" />
-<p class="pcap"><span class="smaller">ABOVE</span>: A forgery (partly cleaned for examination) of a fifteenth-century
-Florentine portrait, compared with a genuine example (<span class="smaller">BELOW</span>).
-The forgery is on an old panel, but was finally proved false by the
-presence of titanium white, a twentieth-century pigment.</p>
-</div>
-<div class="img">
-<img src="images/p06a.jpg" alt="(genuine example)" width="437" height="695" />
-</div>
-<p>A simple and widespread means of falsifying in this way is a certificate of
-authorship and genuineness. Sometimes, the writers of these are of the highest
-competence and probity. These two qualities are not always combined, however;
-and the certificate then becomes either intentionally or innocently misleading.
-Unfortunately, most certificates are written for a fee, and there is
-always temptation for the writer to err on the side of pleasing his employer;
-while there is no question that sometimes certificates have been given deliberately
-to defraud. Moreover, forged certificates bearing reputable names are not
-unknown, a special variety being the stringing together of words from a genuine
-letter, with all qualifying or negative phrases omitted. There is, however, a
-<span class="pb" id="Page_16">16</span>
-more insidious method of giving a certificate, that of publication of an object
-in a reliable journal. Editors are generally careful enough; but they are
-defenseless in the face of a plausible case put forward by a name of some reputation,
-especially when the passage relating to the object is included in a
-more general context. This kind of certification is particularly difficult to cope
-with, since such articles will continue to be cited in later publications, perhaps
-mainly to controvert them but nevertheless renewing their availability for dishonest
-purposes.</p>
-<p>Construction of false pedigrees is another means of misrepresentation, much
-used in the case of copies or versions. Sometimes, a pedigree is completely false,
-naming imaginary former owners whose existence cannot be proved but equally
-cannot be disproved. Sometimes, such history as the object may have is grafted
-onto that of another and accepted version, so that the two may become confused.
-A special case of this is the planting out of objects in houses whose owners
-are ready, for a consideration, to describe them as having descended in the family,
-or even as having been bought from the maker by an ancestor.</p>
-<p>The skill, ingenuity, and knowledge of the forger and of those who exploit his
-work, are opposed to the skill, ingenuity, and knowledge of the collector and the
-learned world. The unaided human eye, if it has a trained and well-informed
-mind behind it, can go a long way in detecting forgeries. It is surprising how forgetful,
-careless, or ignorant a forger can be. He may employ materials whose
-inconsistency with the period to which his work claims to belong can be seen
-even by the unaided eye. More common is the introduction of such things as
-types and details of costume, or the use of coats of arms, that are later than the
-alleged date of the work. All such evidence, however, needs scrutiny, since it
-may simply be a case of later additions to a genuine object. More useful, therefore,
-may be tracking down the source of a forger&rsquo;s borrowings. If, for example,
-these at first sight seem to come from an original work, but follow much more
-closely the variations from that original in a later copy or engraving, the conclusion
-is obvious. Again, investigation of pedigrees, checking of literary references,
-searching through exhibition records, may all reveal suspicious or occasionally
-damning evidence of falsified history.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_17">17</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig8">
-<img src="images/p07.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="713" />
-<p class="pcap"><span class="smaller">ABOVE</span>: A forgery of a portrait by Cranach, and (<span class="smaller">BELOW</span>) a genuine
-example. A style forgery, skillful, but coarser than an original.</p>
-</div>
-<div class="img">
-<img src="images/p07a.jpg" alt="(genuine example)" width="592" height="799" />
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_18">18</div>
-<p>To tests based on observation and historical verification, we must add those
-mainly dependent on feeling. For the sensitive and trained observer, a number
-of indefinable characteristics will &ldquo;add up&rdquo; to a definite conviction of genuine
-or false. Qualities of surface and handling, subtleties in color and in the definition
-of form, the degree of unity in conception and treatment, and the emotional
-character of the work are among the things which influence such decisions.
-Thus, a copy, however exact, may reveal itself as lacking the coherence and the
-feeling which inspired the original; and the most skillful imitation of some older
-work may be recognized as a creation of its own time. Nobody can completely
-divorce himself from the prevailing thoughts, opinions, assumptions, feelings,
-and standards of his own period; and inevitably these will color whatever he
-produces, whether he be a forger or an original artist.</p>
-<p>Scorn is often poured on judgments of the type described, and the expert who
-produces them in a court of law is the delight of the skillful cross-examiner.
-True, the only merit of snap opinions based on defective sensibility and inadequate
-experience is that they have a fifty-fifty chance of being right; but with
-sensibility backed by knowledge, an almost supra-rational instinct develops as
-to what is genuine or false. The so-called impression or hunch is, in such circumstances,
-more accurately described as a synthesis of many experiences. It is often
-forgotten that such almost instinctive judgments are not confined to art and
-archaeology. They play an important part in the sciences (where they are called
-hypotheses), in politics, in war, in business, and many other fields. Their value
-varies with the men who make them; but this does not lessen their potential
-value, and their occasional indispensability. In the detection of two particular
-types of forgery they are especially useful. Imitations of contemporary work can
-be very baffling, since the forger works with materials which were or might have
-been used in genuine work, does not have to give an appearance of age, and
-works against the same general background as does the artist he imitates. Similarly,
-a school piece which is misrepresented as the work of an old master, was
-produced in a similar physical and emotional environment. In such cases, a
-final verdict often has to be based on nothing but imponderable elements of
-style, realizable only through feeling based on knowledge.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_19">19</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig9">
-<img src="images/p08.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="635" />
-<p class="pcap"><span class="smaller">ABOVE</span>: An imitation of the work of John Constable, distinguished
-from an original (<span class="smaller">BELOW</span>) by its coarse handling and mistakes in
-topography.</p>
-</div>
-<div class="img">
-<img src="images/p08a.jpg" alt="(genuine example)" width="800" height="619" />
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_20">20</div>
-<p>The methods so far described of detecting forgeries may well be as old as the
-practice of forgery itself. Certainly, they form the basis of all investigations of
-which we have records, as well as of those made today. Their efficiency, however,
-has been immensely increased by the development of scientific methods of
-investigation. The first great step forward came with the use of photography,
-which permitted comparison of suspicious objects with genuine examples in a
-way hitherto impossible. Next came the application of various scientific techniques
-to the analysis of the physical constitution of an object. So spectacular
-have been the results in some cases as to create a blind faith in such methods of
-investigation, almost as though a piece of scientific apparatus were an oracle
-which when consulted would answer &ldquo;Yes&rdquo; or &ldquo;No&rdquo; to the question of whether
-an object is genuine. The limits of scientific investigation are, however, clearly
-marked. This method is solely concerned with the physical make-up of an object,
-and is completely indifferent as to who made it, when and where it was
-made, and why it was made. All that it does is to make possible the discovery of
-physical facts bearing upon these matters, which have to be observed and interpreted
-by human minds and used as the basis for human judgments.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig10">
-<img src="images/p09.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="598" />
-<p class="pcap"><span class="smaller">ABOVE</span>: A forgery of a painting by Utrillo adapted from a
-genuine example, compared with another genuine picture (<span class="smaller">BELOW</span>).
-Note the clumsy handling of paint and drawing in the forgery.</p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_21">21</div>
-<div class="img">
-<img src="images/p09a.jpg" alt="(genuine example)" width="800" height="650" />
-</div>
-<p>The scientific procedures with which we are concerned here fall into two
-main groups. Of these, one includes various techniques for extending the range
-of human vision. The simplest is examination by microscope, which enables
-characteristics of a surface to be seen that would otherwise be invisible, so that,
-for example, painted cracks or cracks artificially induced can be distinguished
-from crackle due to age. With the microscope, too, evidence of removals and
-additions can be obtained, such as the manipulation of signatures and inscriptions,
-or the presence of repaint or artificial patina; while the structure of pigments,
-stone, etc., can be ascertained, as a step toward their identification. More
-elaborate is examination under various rays of the spectrum, to which the human
-eye is not sensitive but whose results can be recorded. The best known of
-these is X-ray, which penetrates certain substances but is held up in different
-degrees by others, especially metals, so that a photographic film behind an
-object will record a map of such substances in an object, thus revealing much
-<span class="pb" id="Page_22">22</span>
-that is below the surface. On the other hand, ultra-violet rays falling on a surface
-cause fluorescence, which varies according to substance and texture, so that
-additions to the surface may be revealed. Infra-red rays, in contrast, penetrate
-the surface, and are reflected back from the layers beneath, so that a photograph
-taken by infra-red light may reveal something concealed from the eye,
-which X-ray may not pick up.</p>
-<p>The second group of investigatory methods includes various means of analyzing
-the materials present in an object. The most familiar is chemical analysis;
-but this is being supplemented and to some extent displaced by spectrographic
-analysis, with its recent extension in the use of X-ray diffraction. By
-these means, it is possible to detect even minute traces of substances whose presence
-or absence may be decisive in settling the date or provenance of a material.
-Some recent applications of quantitative analysis have proved helpful in ascertaining
-the date of objects. One of these techniques, determination of the extent
-of fluorination, was used to prove that the jawbone of the Piltdown skull was a
-modern forgery; while another, based on the amount of radio-active carbon
-present, which is known to decay at a certain rate, is still in course of development,
-but promises to be most useful.</p>
-<p>Thus, a formidable group of weapons are available against the forger. To be
-effective, however, the significance of the facts they bring to light must be understood.
-Decisive proof that an object is not of the period or by the hand to which
-it is attributed comes only through the discovery of facts which are not only
-inconsistent with the attribution but cannot be explained except by assuming
-that the attribution is wrong. For instance, the body of a work may contain a
-substance unknown at its ostensible date. Modern nails inside a piece of wood
-sculpture said to be of the fourteenth century; cobalt, unknown as a pigment
-until the early nineteenth century, in a painting attributed to Vel&aacute;zquez; and
-titanium white, a twentieth-century invention, in a portrait labelled fifteenth-century
-Florentine&mdash;these are all good evidence that the object is not what it is
-held out to be.</p>
-<p>Moreover, the facts discovered always have to be controlled by reference to
-established standards. Structure revealed by microscopic examination must be
-compared with that of known substances; chemical and spectrographic analysis
-has to be checked by reference to a codified series of earlier tests; crackle on a
-surface can only be labelled as false if the nature of genuine crackle is known;
-<span class="pb" id="Page_23">23</span>
-and the reading of whatever is discovered by X-ray, ultra-violet, or infra-red
-rays calls for comparison with verified results of previous examinations. The
-facts yielded by one method of investigation may by themselves not be sufficient
-evidence of forgery; if, however, they can be joined with the results of other
-methods, all pointing in the same direction, a strong case can be built up. As
-in a court of law, this, rather than production of a single dramatic and decisive
-piece of evidence, is what usually happens.</p>
-<p>It might be thought that the combination of expert and scientist would leave
-the forger with his occupation gone. On the contrary, he continues to flourish.
-In the face of the expert, he discards the clumsy copy and the inept certificate,
-utilizing the improved methods of photography and reproduction and the increasing
-flood of learned works, to help save him from anachronisms and inherent
-contradictions in his work. The scientist he meets either by concentrating in
-fields where scientific methods of inquiry are relatively helpless, or by himself
-going to school with the scientist. The results of recent scientific work have put
-at his disposal much knowledge of what to do, what to avoid, and how to baffle
-certain types of investigation. Moreover, he has even taken over certain procedures
-worked out by scientists, such as those for hastening the effect of time,
-and has applied them to his own problems; cases are known of forgeries having
-been submitted, through innocent hands, for scientific investigation, to find out
-whether they will survive the ordeal, and if not, what are the mistakes to be
-avoided in the future.</p>
-<p class="center"><span class="gs">* * * * * * * *</span></p>
-<p>One question is often asked in connection with forgeries: Why should a once-admired
-object be disregarded or condemned on being proved a forgery, seeing
-that it is still the same object? One reason is human snobbery; another, and
-more important, is that when an object is proved to be a forgery, it is to us no
-longer the same object that it was. After the discovery, human knowledge about
-the positive and negative qualities of the object has increased, and a new judgment
-has to be made upon it. Exactly the same thing happens with a genuine
-work. As familiarity with it grows, it becomes another thing to the spectator&rsquo;s
-eyes and mind, and so it may rise or fall in his esteem. Conceivably, the characteristics
-which proclaim something to be a forgery might, when discovered,
-cause it to be more highly regarded; but that kind of forgery is not yet known,
-though it may perhaps exist.</p>
-<hr class="dwide" />
-<div class="img" id="fig11">
-<img src="images/p11.jpg" alt="" width="481" height="601" />
-<p class="pcap"><i>W. G. CONSTABLE</i></p>
-</div>
-<p>William George Constable was born in
-Derby, England, in 1887 and educated at
-Cambridge University and the Slade
-School of the University of London. He
-was formerly Assistant Director of the
-National Gallery, London; Director of the
-Courtauld Institute (University of London);
-and Slade Professor of Fine Art at
-Cambridge University. Since 1938, he
-has been Curator of Paintings at the Museum
-of Fine Arts, Boston.</p>
-<p>The author of numerous books and
-magazine articles, Mr. Constable has devoted
-himself particularly to the study of
-English and Italian paintings and drawings.
-This is reflected in his more recent
-publications: <i>Venetian Painting</i> (1950); a
-monograph on the English artist Richard
-Wilson (1953); and <i>The Painter&rsquo;s Workshop</i>
-(1954).</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig12">
-<img src="images/p20.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="626" />
-<p class="pcap"><span class="smaller">BACK COVER</span>: A forgery of a Greek bronze statuette.</p>
-</div>
-<h2>Transcriber&rsquo;s Notes</h2>
-<ul>
-<li>Silently corrected a few typos.</li>
-<li>Retained publication information from the printed edition: this eBook is public-domain in the country of publication.</li>
-<li>In the text versions only, text in italics is delimited by _underscores_.</li>
-</ul>
-<div style='display:block; margin-top:4em'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FORGERS AND FORGERIES ***</div>
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