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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d7b82bc --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +*.txt text eol=lf +*.htm text eol=lf +*.html text eol=lf +*.md text eol=lf diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6f2896c --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #64434 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/64434) diff --git a/old/64434-0.txt b/old/64434-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 7fbd435..0000000 --- a/old/64434-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,8562 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook of A Pictorial Atlas of Fossil Remains, -consisting of coloured illustrations selected from Parkinson's "Organic -remains of a former world," and Artis's "Antediluvian phytology.", by -Gideon Algernon Mantell - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you -will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before -using this eBook. - -Title: A Pictorial Atlas of Fossil Remains, consisting of coloured - illustrations selected from Parkinson's "Organic remains of a former - world," and Artis's "Antediluvian phytology." - -Author: Gideon Algernon Mantell - -Release Date: January 31, 2021 [eBook #64434] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -Produced by: Tom Cosmas from files generously provided by The Internet - Archive. All derived products are placed in the Public Domain. - -*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A PICTORIAL ATLAS OF FOSSIL -REMAINS, CONSISTING OF COLOURED ILLUSTRATIONS SELECTED FROM PARKINSON'S -"ORGANIC REMAINS OF A FORMER WORLD," AND ARTIS'S "ANTEDILUVIAN -PHYTOLOGY." *** - - - - -Transcriber's Note - -Text emphasis denoted by _Italics_ and =Bold=. Whole and fractional -parts as 123-4/5. - - - - -[Illustration] - -JOSEPH DINKEL. DEL. ET LITH. - -PRINTED BY M. & N. HANHAR - -THE PERFECT SERIES OF THE BONES OF THE RIGHT FOOT OF THE =MOA=, OR -EXTINCT COLOSSAL OSTRICH-LIKE BIRD OF =NEW ZEALAND= FOUND IMBEDDED IN -AN ERECT POSITION, WITH THE CORRESPONDING FOOT A YARD IN ADVANCE, IN -A TURRARY DEPOSIT, AT =WAIKOUAITI= IN THE MIDDLE ISLAND, BY =WALTER -MANTELL ESQ^{RE}= OF =WELLINGTON=. - -FIGURES 1^a 2^a 3^a THE PLANTAR OR UNDER SURFACE OF THE FIRST, SECOND -& THIRD TOES. THE FIGURES ARE 1/3 NATURAL SIZE LINEAR. THE ORIGINAL -BIRD WAS ABOUT 10 FEET HIGH. - - - - - A - - PICTORIAL ATLAS - - OF - - FOSSIL REMAINS, - - CONSISTING OF COLOURED - - ILLUSTRATIONS - - SELECTED FROM - - PARKINSON'S "ORGANIC REMAINS OF A FORMER WORLD;" - - AND - - ARTIS'S "ANTEDILUVIAN PHYTOLOGY." - - WITH DESCRIPTIONS - - BY GIDEON ALGERNON MANTELL, ESQ. LL.D. F.K.S. - - VICE-PRESIDENT OF THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY, - FELLOW OF THE ROYAL COLLEGE OF SURGEONS OF ENGLAND, ETC. - AUTHOR OF "THE WONDERS OF GEOLOGY," ETC. ETC. - -[Illustration] - - "All things in nature are engaged in writing their own history. The - planet and the pebble are attended by their shadows--the rolling - rock leaves its farrows on the mountain side--the river its channel - in the soil--the animal its bones in the stratum--the fern and the - leaf inscribe their modest epitaphs on the coal--the falling drop - sculptures its story on the sand, or on the stone--not a footstep - on the snow or on the ground but traces in characters more or less - enduring the record of its progress."--_Emerson._ - - - With Seventy-four plates, - - CONTAINING NEARLY NINE HUNDRED FIGURES. - - - LONDON: - H. G. BOHN, YORK STREET, COVENT GARDEN. - 1850. - - -LONDON: - -R. CLAY, PRINTER, BREAD STREET HILL. - - - TO - - THE VERY REVEREND - - WILLIAM BUCKLAND, D.D. F.R.S. - - Dean of Westminster, - - &c. &c. &c. - - THIS WORK IS INSCRIBED - - AS AN EXPRESSION OF THE HIGH RESPECT AND AFFECTIONATE REGARD - - OF ONE WHO HAS FOR MORE THAN THIRTY YEARS - - ENJOYED THE HONOUR AND PRIVILEGE OF HIS CORRESPONDENCE - - AND FRIENDSHIP. - - - Chester Square, Pimlico, - _January 1850._ - - - - -PREFACE. - - -In the hope of promoting the diffusion of a taste for the cultivation -of a peculiarly interesting and attractive branch of Natural History, -I have been induced, in compliance with the suggestion of the eminent -publisher of this volume, to arrange in a connected series the Plates -of the late Mr. Parkinson's "Organic Remains of a Former World," and -of Mr. Artis's "Antediluvian Phytology," with descriptions of the -specimens represented. - -As I have been enabled, with the valuable assistance of my friend, -John Morris, Esq. F.G.S., the author of "A Catalogue of British -Fossils," to append, in almost every instance, the generic and -specific names adopted by the most recent authorities, the volume -will, I trust, not only prove interesting to the general reader, as -a beautiful _Pictorial Atlas_ of some of the most remarkable relics -of the animals and plants of a "Former World," but also constitute -a valuable book of reference in the library of the Geologist and -Palæontologist, since it contains the names and localities of no -inconsiderable number of species and genera. - -For the guidance of the unscientific reader who may desire further -information on any of the subjects treated of in the following pages, -references are given to a few general works on Geology and Fossil -Remains. - - - Chester Square, Pimlico, - _August 1850._ - - - - -TABLE OF CONTENTS. - - - PAGE - Preface v - - Description of the Frontispiece x - - Introduction 13 - - -Descriptions of the Plates. - - - -FOSSIL REMAINS OF THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM. - -(_Plates I. to XXXIII. inclusive._) - - Plate - - I.--Various specimens of Fossil Wood, and fragments of Plants 19 - - II.--Chiefly examples of silicified Wood 21 - - III.--Stigmaria, Calamites, and Wood 23 - - IV.--Fronds of various Fossil Ferns 25 - - V.--Different species of Ferns and other Plants 27 - - VI.--Principally Fossil Fruits from the London clay of the - Isle of Sheppey 29 - - VII.--Specimens of the Fruit of a species of _Nipas_, or - Molucca Palm; from the Isle of Sheppey 31 - - VIII.--Figures of different portions of beautiful silicified - Stems of Plants allied to the Arborescent Ferns; - from Chemnitz 33 - - IX.--Fossil Seed-vessels or Cones (_Lepidostrobus_) of - the Lepidodendron 35 - - X.--An aquatic Plant (_Hydatica_) in Coal shale 37 - - XI.--A fine specimen of another species of Hydatica 39 - - XII.--A delicate aquatic Plant (_Myriophyllites_) in Coal - shale 41 - - XIII.--Portion of the Stem of the _Calamites ramosus_ 43 - - XIV.--Fragment of Stems of another species of Calamite - (_Calamites dubius_) 45 - - XV.--Stem of a Calamite very much resembling the Bamboo - (_Calamites pseudo-bambusia_) 47 - - XVI.--Another species of Calamite (_Calamites approximatus_) 49 - - XVII.--Stem of another kind of Calamite (_Calamites decoratus_) 51 - - XVIII.--Fossil Stems allied to the Pandanus or Yucca - (_Sternbergia transversa_) 53 - - XIX.--Stem of a species of Sigillaria (_Sigillaria fibrosa_) 55 - - XX.--Stem of another kind of Sigillaria 57 - - XXI.--Fossil Roots of Sigillaria (_Stigmaria ficoides_) 59 - - XXII.--Another species of Stigmaria (_Stigmaria verrucosa_) 61 - - XXIII.--Fragment of a Stigmaria with large tubercles 63 - - XXIV.--Part of a Stem of a tree allied to Sigillaria - (_Aspidiaria cristata_) 65 - - XXV.--Stem of a Plant allied to the Arborescent Ferns - (_Megaphyton_) 67 - - XXVI.--Stem of a species of Lepidodendron 69 - - XXVII.--Fossil Plant allied to the Lepidodendron 71 - - XXVIII.--A beautiful fossil Fern resembling Osmunda regalis - (_Neuropteris auriculata_) 73 - - XXIX.--An elegant trifoliate Fern in Coal shale - (_Neuropteris trifoliata_) 75 - - XXX.--An exquisite specimen of fossil Fern (_Pecopteris Miltoni_) 77 - - XXXI.--Another elegant Fern in Coal shale (_Pecopteris plumosa_) 79 - - XXXII.--A very beautiful plumose Fern in Coal shale - (_Alethopteris decurrens_) 81 - - XXXIII.--A fossil Fruit or Seed-vessel in Coal shale - (_Carpolithes marginatus_) 83 - - -FOSSIL REMAINS OF THE ANIMAL KINGDOM. - -(_Plates XXXIV. to LXXIV: inclusive._) - - XXXIV.--A beautiful mass of Coral (_Syringopora geniculata_) on - Carboniferous limestone 87 - - XXXV.--Several kinds of fossil Corals (_Syringopora ramulosa_, - _Catenipora escharoides_, &c.) 89 - - XXXVI.--Corals from different formations (_Fungia_, - _Cyathophyllum_) 91 - - XXXVII.--Various fossil Corals (_Astrea_, _Lithostrotion_, - _Caryophyllia annularis_) 93 - -XXXVIII.--Corals and Coral marbles (_Cyathophyllum_, _Astrea_, - _Lithodendron_) 95 - - XXXIX.--Fossil Corals, and Sponges or Amorphozoa (_Siphonia_, - _Favosites_, _Explanaria_) 97 - - XL.--Various fossil Zoophytes (_Clionites_, _Millepora_) 99 - - XLI.--A beautiful specimen of a cyathiform fossil Zoophyte - (_Chenendopora Parkinsoni_) 101 - - XLII.--Several kinds of Zoophytes in Flint (_Choanites_, - _Siphonia_, _Jerea_) 103 - - XLIII.--Various Corals and other Zoophytes (_Fungia polymorpha_, - _Jerea pyriformis_, _Ventriculite_) 105 - - XLIV.--Silicified Sponges and other Zoophytes (_Scyphia_, - _Cnemidium_, _Chenendopora_) 107 - - XLV.--Several kinds of calcareous and silicified Corals and - other Zoophytes 109 - - XLVI.--A recent Pentacrinus (_P. caput medusæ_), and a - beautiful Fossil species 111 - - XLVII.--Numerous specimens of portions of Stems, separate - Ossicles, and Receptacles, of various kinds of - Encrinites and Pentacrinites 113 - - XLVIII.--The Lily Encrinite (_Encrinites monileformis_) 115 - - XLIX.--Remains of several kinds of Encrinites and Encrinital - marbles 117 - - L.--Chiefly specimens of the Pear Encrinite of Bradford, in - Wiltshire (_Apiocrinus Parkinsoni_) 119 - - LI.--Several kinds of Crinoidea (_Actinocrinites_, - _Pentacrinites_) 121 - - LII.--Specimens of Pentacrinites from Lyme Regis 123 - - LIII.--Fossil Star-fishes (_Goniaster_, _Ophiura_, _Cidaris_) 125 - - LIV.--Various kinds of Echinites or fossil Sea-urchins - (_Clypeaster_, _Ananchytes_, _Discoidea_, _Conulus_) 127 - - LV.--Several varieties of fossil Echini (_Cidaris_, - _Nucleolites_, _Micraster_, _Spatangus_) 129 - - LVI.--Echinites and echinital Spines 131 - - LVII.--Fossil univalve Shells (_Euomphalus_, &c.) and - _Cololites_ 133 - - LVIII.--Fossil Shells of various kinds of Cephalopoda - (_Nautilus_, _Orthoceras_, _Lituties_, &c.) 135 - - LIX.--Belemnites, Orthoceratites, and Hippurites, &c. 137 - - LX.--Belemnites and Ammonites 139 - - LXI.--Hamites of several species; Scaphites, Nummulites, &c. 141 - - LXII.--Fossil Foraminifera of several genera 143 - - LXIII.--Several species of Trigonia 145 - - LXIV.--Fossil bivalve Shells (_Cucullæa_, _Crassatella_, - _Lima_, _Cardium_, &c.), and the anomalous bodies - termed _Trigonellites_ 147 - - LXV.--Fossil Shells of the genera _Panopæa_, _Teredina_, &c. 149 - - LXVI.--Fossil Shells of the genera _Ostrea_, _Perna_, - _Gryphea_, &c. 151 - - LXVII.--Chiefly Shells of brachiopodous Mollusca, - (_Terebratula_, _Spirifer_, _Productus_, &c.) 153 - - LXVIII.--Fossil Crabs from Sheppey; Trilobites, Insects, &c. 155 - - LXIX.--Remains of Turtles from Sheppey, and Vertebræ of - Crocodilian Reptiles from Havre, and of the _Mosasaurus_ 157 - - LXX.--The Jaws of the fossil Reptile of Maestricht - (_Mosasaurus_); and Teeth of various kinds of - Sharks and Rays (_Carcharias_, _Miliobatis_, - _Pthychodus_, &c.) 159 - - LXXI.--Skull and Antlers of the fossil Elk of Ireland, and Teeth - of the Mammoth 161 - - LXXII.--Fossil teeth of _Hippopotamus_, _Rhinoceros_, - _Dinotherium_, _Palæotherium_, and _Anoplotherium_; - and ungueal bone of Megalonyx 163 - - LXXIII.--Skeleton of the _Megatherium_, and Teeth of the fossil - _Bears_ of the Caverns 165 - - LXXIV.--Molar Teeth of _Mastodon giganteus_, from Big-bone Lick, - Kentucky 167 - -Frontispiece.--Foot of the Moa of New Zealand. - - -SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES. - - 1. Fossil Bears of the Caverns 166 - - 2. The Belemnite _ib._ - - 3. Fossil Remains of Birds--Moa of New Zealand 172 - - 4. Botanical Arrangement of Fossil Vegetables 175 - - 5. Cephalopoda--Nautilus, Ammonite, &c. 180 - - 6. Carboniferous Formations 181 - - 7. Coal 182 - - 8. Corals _ib._ - - 9. Cuvier's Principles of Palæontology 183 - - 10. Fossil Edentata, Megatherium, &c. 184 - - 11. Flint: Animal Remains in Siliceous Nodules 185 - - 12. Foraminifera 186 - - 13. The Gigantic extinct Irish Elk: Cervus megaloceros 189 - - 14. Fossil Infusoria _ib._ - - 15. The Mosasaurus, or Fossil Animal of Maestricht 191 - - 16. Fossil Reptiles 192 - - 17. --------------- of the Wealden: the Iguanodon 193, 202 - - 18. ------------------------------ the Pelorosaurus 197 - - 19. Silicification and Siliceous Petrifactions _ib._ - - 20. Stigmariæ and Sigillariæ 198 - - -WORKS REFERRED TO IN THE DESCRIPTIONS. - - Michelin, Iconographie Zoophytologie, Paris, 4to. - - Göppert, H. R. Die Fossilen, Farrnkrauter,--forming vol. xvii. of - the Nova Acta Academiæ C. L. C. Naturæ Curiosorum. 1836, 4to. - - Presl, C. B., Sternberg, Dr. G. Flora der Vorwelt, Part VII. and - VIII. edited by Presl. - - Goldfuss, Dr. A., Petrefacta Germaniæ, folio, Dusseldorf, 1841-44. - - Fossil Flora of Great Britain, by Dr. Lindley and Mr. Button. - - Dr. Buckland's Bridgewater Essay on Geology and Mineralogy, 2 vols, - with numerous Plates. - - The Wonders of Geology, 3 vols, sixth edition, 1849. - - The Medals of Creation, 2 vols. 1844. - - Geological Excursions round the Isle of Wight and along the - adjacent Coast of Dorsetshire, 1 vol. numerous Plates. - - Thoughts on Animalcules, 1 vol. numerous coloured Plates, second - edition, 1850. - - Thoughts on a Pebble, with 30 Illustrations, eighth edition, 1850. - - Lyell, Sir Charles, Travels in. America, 1845, and 1849. - - - - -DESCRIPTION OF THE FRONTISPIECE. - - -THE MOA OF NEW ZEALAND. - -The Frontispiece represents the entire series of bones composing the -right foot of the Moa (_Dinornis robustus_), found imbedded in an -erect position, with the corresponding foot a yard in advance, in a -turbary deposit, at Waikouaiti, in the Middle Island of New Zealand, -in 1849. The figures are one-third less in linear dimensions than the -originals. - -Figures 1^_a_, 2^_a_, 3^_a_, show the palmar, or under surface of -the respective toes, and exhibit the trochlear or articulating -extremities of the phalangeal bones. - - * * * * * - -The ancient swamp or morass in which these matchless specimens were -imbedded, is situated on the shore, in a little creek or bay near -Island Point, at the mouth of the river Waikouaiti, and is covered -by the sea except at the lowest tides. Many remains of the largest -species of Moa have from time to time been obtained from this -deposit; the bones sent to England by Dr. Mackellar, Mr. Percy Earle, -and others, figured and described in the Zoological Transactions by -Professor Owen, were from this locality. - -The specimens figured were obtained by Mr. Walter Mantell, in -1849, when visiting Waikouaiti, as Government Commissioner for the -settlement of Native claims. On the recession of the tide, the -upper (or proximal) ends of the metatarsals were just visible above -the surface: these were carefully dug up, and all the bones of the -respective toes numbered, one by one, as they were extracted from -the soil. In this state they were sent to me, and have subsequently -been articulated under my direction, in their natural order of -arrangement.[1] - -[Footnote 1: By the well-known eminent anatomical artist, Mr. Flower, -of 22, Lambeth Terrace, Lambeth Road.] - -The condition and position of the bones, and the nature of the -deposit,--evidently an ancient morass, in which the New Zealand flax -(_phormium tenax_) once grew luxuriantly,--remind us of the very -similar circumstances in which the extinct gigantic Elks in Ireland, -and the Mastodons in America, have occasionally been found engulfed -in peat bogs and morasses; and, as my son emphatically observes, it -is impossible to arrive at any other conclusion than that the Moa to -which these feet belonged, had sunk down in the swamp, and perished -on the spot. Vertebræ and other parts of a skeleton of a bird of the -same proportions, were dug up near the feet. - -As the specimens under examination are the first examples in -which the entire series of the phalangeal and ungueal bones have -been found in natural connexion with the metatarsals, I subjoin -the admeasurements of the several parts, to render the peculiar -construction of the feet in one species of the lost race of the -colossal birds of New Zealand, more obvious to those who may feel -interested in the subject. - -TARSO-METATARSAL BONES. - - Inches. Lines. - - Length of the shaft from the distal end of the middle - trochlea to the proximal extremity 17 0 - - Circumference of the proximal end 11 9 - - Transverse diameter, or width, of ditto 4 6 - - Antero-posterior diameter of ditto 3 6 - - Circumference of the middle of the shaft 6 3 - - Antero-posterior diameter of ditto 1 8 - - Transverse diameter of ditto 3 6 - - Width of the distal, or trochlear, end 6 3 - - Circumference of the trochlear end 15 6 - - Antero-posterior diameter of the middle trochlea 3 9 - -PHALANGEAL BONES. - - Inner Toe. Middle Toe. Outer Toe. - (Fig. 1.) (Fig. 2.) (Fig. 3.) - Inches. Lines. Inches. Lines. Inches. Lines. - - First, or proximal phalanx - { Length 4 9 -- 4 3 -- 3 2 - { Circumference of proximal end 6 6 -- 6 9 -- 5 9 - - Second phalangeal bone. - { Length 1 9 -- 2 6 -- 1 9 - { Circumference of proximal end 3 0 -- 5 3 -- 4 9 - - Third phalangeal bone Ungueal. - { Length {3 0} -- 1 9 -- 1 0 - { Circumference of proximal end {4 0} -- 4 6 -- 4 6 - - Third phalangeal bone Ungueal. - { Length {3 0} -- 0 11 - { Circumference of proximal end {4 2} -- 4 0 - - Fifth ungueal bone - { Length 2 6 - { Circumference of proximal end 3 9 - -The total length of the toes is as follows:--inner digit, 9½ inch.; -middle, 11½ inch.; outer, 9-1/3 inch. The transverse diameter of the -expanse of the foot, from the distal extremity of the inner toe (fig. -1^a), to that of the outer one (fig. 3^a), is 15½ inches. The length -from the posterior part of the trochlear extremity of the metatarsal -to the distal end of the ungueal of the middle toe (fig. 2^a), is -13 inches. If to the actual dimensions of the bones be added the -proportional thickness of the cartilaginous integuments, nails, &c., -the length of the foot of the living bird may be estimated at about -16 inches, and the breadth at 17 or 18 inches. - -From the great width and solidity of the metatarsals, and the form -and corresponding size and strength of the phalangeals and ungueals, -the ornithologist will perceive that the feet of the Moa must have -constituted powerful instruments for scratching, digging, and -uprooting the sub-terrestrial vegetable substances, which Professor -Owen, with great probability, infers, formed the chief sustenance of -the extinct colossal birds of New Zealand. - -According to the relative proportions of the bones composing the -hinder extremities of the gigantic species of Moa, the corresponding -_tibia_, or leg-bone, of the feet above described, would be two feet -nine inches in length, and the _femur_, or thigh bone, nine and a -half inches; the total height of the bird was probably about ten feet. - -Tibiæ, femora, and other bones of much larger proportions, -(apparently of _Dinornis giganteus_ and _D. ingens_,) were obtained -from the same locality; some of these indicate birds of eleven or -twelve feet in height; dimensions exceeding by one-third those of the -largest known existing species of Struthionidæ--the Ostrich.[2] - -[Footnote 2: Even from this imperfect description (and further -anatomical details would be irrelevant in the present work), the -ornithologist cannot fail to observe the peculiar characters -exhibited by these extremities of the remarkable family of birds, -of which the diminutive Apteryx appears to be the only living -representative. But the Apteryx differs most essentially in the -structure of the cranium and mandibles, from the extinct types to -which Professor Owen has given the names of Dinornis, Palapteryx, -Aptornis, &c. - -With regard to the construction of the feet it may be further -remarked, that the length of the inner and outer toes is nearly -equal, as in the Cassowary; but the middle toe, which in the -Cassowary is one-third longer than the other digits, in the Moa -scarcely exceeds in length by one-fifth, the inner and outer toes. -The ungueal segments are very large, being equal to one-third the -length of the toes. The phalangeals are relatively much shorter than -in the Cassowary and Ostrich, and wider than in the former, and more -arched than in either of these living struthious birds. - -In the metatarsal the presence of the three elements whose fusion -constitutes the bone, is strongly marked; there does not appear -to be any certain indications of a posterior or hind toe, though -Professor Owen imagines he has detected feeble traces of a fourth -digit: in that case the bird to which my specimens belonged, would -be termed _Palapteryx_. The crania found by Mr. Walter Mantell at -Waingongoro, and figured and described by Professor Owen in the -Zoological Transactions (Vol. III., Plates 52, 53, 54, 55), as -Dinornis and Palapteryx, must have belonged to birds of comparatively -small stature. The skull with the adze-like upper mandible, and -the enormously-developed _basi-occipitals_ and _basi-sphenoids_ -(_Dinornis_, of Professor Owen, Plate 53), was found associated with -many vertebræ of the neck and back, and bones of the leg, of the same -bird; and these my son states indicated a height of from six to seven -feet. The skull and the rest of the skeleton were found imbedded in -sand, and lying in their natural relative position; unfortunately, -all these precious remains, except the cranium, were destroyed by -a sudden rush of the natives to seize upon the exhumed relics! It -therefore yet remains to discover the cranial type that characterized -the colossal forms at present known only by other parts of the -skeleton.] - -Referring the reader to the additional account of the fossil birds -of New Zealand given in a subsequent part of this volume (see -_Supplementary Notes_, p. 173), I will conclude this notice with a -few general remarks. From the numerous facts relating to the fossil -remains of birds from our Antipodean colony, that have now been -brought under the consideration of the naturalists and geologists of -this country, we may safely conclude, that at a period geologically -recent, but of immense antiquity in relation to the human inhabitants -of those Islands, New Zealand was densely peopled by tribes of -colossal struthious bipeds, of species and genera that have long -since become extinct. I believe that ages ere the advent of the -Maori tribes, the Moa and its kindred were the chief inhabitants -of the country, and that from the period when those Islands were -taken possession of by man, the race gradually diminished, and the -colossal types were finally annihilated by human agency. That some -of the largest species were contemporary with the Maories, there can -now be no reasonable doubt. Apart from native traditions, and songs -and tales in which allusions are made to the gigantic magnitude and -flowing plumage of the Moa, the collocation of calcined and half -roasted bones of the Dinornis, of dogs, and of the human species, -in the ancient fire-heaps of the aborigines, and the unequivocal -marks of the celt or axe of jade on some of the tibiæ,--the chips or -cuts having evidently been made on the bones when recent,--afford -incontrovertible proof that the last of the Moas, like the last of -the Dodos, was annihilated by human agency. - -From the remarkable size and strength of the thighs, legs, and feet -of the Moas, it is clear that the hinder limbs must have constituted -powerful locomotive organs; and when we consider the vast swarms of -the largest species which existed at some remote period, it seems -highly probable that this family of colossal birds,--a family unknown -in any other part of the world,--was not originally confined within -the narrow geographical limits of modern New Zealand, but ranged over -a vast continent now submerged, and of which Phillip and Norfolk -Islands, and Chatham and Auckland Islands, and those of New Zealand, -are the culminating points. - -But whatever may be the result of future discoveries as to the -relative age of the bone-deposits, or the existence or extinction -of any of the colossal species of Moa, or the former extension of -the race over countries now submerged, one astounding fact must ever -remain unassailable--the vast preponderance of the class Aves or -Birds, that prevailed, and which still prevails, in the fauna of New -Zealand, to the almost entire exclusion of mammalia and reptiles. Any -palæontologist who saw only the collections sent over by my son, must -have been astonished at their extent and variety. I may venture to -affirm that such an assemblage of the fossil bones of birds was never -before seen in Europe: nearly fifteen hundred specimens, collected -from various parts of the country, with scarcely any intermixture -of the remains of any other class;--it is a phenomenon as startling -as the exclusively reptilian character of the fauna of the Wealden -epoch. But the fauna of New Zealand, even at the present time, -presents a character as ornithic and as anomalous as its ancient one; -for while there are upwards of fifty or sixty genera of birds, there -is but one indigenous mammalian quadruped known to naturalists--a -species of rat! In this respect, therefore, as well as in its flora, -in which ferns and other cellulosæ of peculiar types prevail to an -extent unknown elsewhere, the country offers a striking example of -that now acknowledged fact in natural history--a centre or focus of -creation of certain organic types. And this law, with whose operation -during the palæozoic and secondary ages modern geological researches -have made us familiar, appears to have continued in unabated energy -to the present moment. - -From what has been advanced, it is manifest that the present -geographical distribution of special groups of terrestrial animals -and plants, displays as many anomalies in the relative predominance -of the different classes and orders over certain areas, without -relation to climatorial or other obvious physical conditions, as can -be traced in the natural records of the earlier ages of the world. -The conclusion therefore forces itself upon the mind, that throughout -the vast periods of time to which our retrospective knowledge -extends, the geological changes of the earth's surface, and the -appearance and obliteration of species and genera, have been governed -by the same physical and organic laws; and that notwithstanding the -variable conditions of the land and the water, indicated by the -sedimentary formations, there was at no period a greater discrepancy -in the assemblages of certain types of the animal and vegetable -kingdoms, than exists at present. - -Of the nature of that law by which the extinction of a race of highly -organized beings is determined, and whose effects through innumerable -ages palæontology has in part revealed, we are as utterly ignorant -as of that which governs the first appearance of the minutest living -animalcule which the powers of the microscope enable us to descry; -both are veiled in inscrutable mystery, the results only are within -the scope of our finite comprehension.[3] - -[Footnote 3: See the concluding part of Lecture VIII. § 46, Wonders -of Geology, vol. ii. p. 890.] - - - - -INTRODUCTION. - - -The publication of Mr. Parkinson's "_Organic Remains of a former -World_," at the commencement of the present century, must be regarded -as a memorable event in the history of British Palæontology: it was -the first attempt to give a familiar and scientific account of the -fossil relics of animals and plants, accompanied by figures of the -specimens described. - -The three volumes[4] of which the work consisted, appeared at -considerable intervals; the last was published in 1811. Although -nearly forty years have since elapsed, and hundreds of geological -works, of all kinds and degrees of merit, have subsequently been -issued, Mr. Parkinson's Plates, owing to their fidelity and beauty, -are still in such request, as to induce the proprietor, Mr. Bohn, now -that the work is out of print, to publish them, with the descriptions -and modern names of the fossils represented. - -[Footnote 4: Three volumes, in 4to.; price 10_l._ 10_s._] - -I have added a few explanatory remarks, and in the "Supplementary -Notes," have given extended notices of some of the most interesting -subjects, with the view of rendering the volume more intelligible and -acceptable to the general reader. - -In looking through the original work of Mr. Parkinson, the instructed -observer will not fail to perceive the immense progress which the -study of fossil animals and plants has made since the period of -its first appearance in 1811. At that time, the terms Geology and -Palæontology were unknown; all the sedimentary strata have since been -accurately defined and arranged, and names assigned to the respective -systems or formations; while the so-called _Diluvial Epoch_, which -Mr. Parkinson, and even Baron Cuvier, considered as established -by incontrovertible physical evidence, has been expunged from the -chronology of geology. In Mr. Parkinson's volumes, no allusion will -be found to that most remarkable era in the earth's history which -modern researches have brought to light--_the Age of Reptiles_; -the terms Ichthyosauri, Plesiosauri, Iguanodon, Megalosaurus--now -familiar as household words--are not inscribed on their pages; all -those marvellous beings of past ages have been discovered during the -last forty years; in short, the remark of an eminent critic is as -true as it is beautiful:--"Geology is a philosophy which never rests; -its law is progress; a point which yesterday was invisible is its -goal to-day, and will be its starting-post to-morrow." - -I gladly avail myself of this opportunity to make a passing allusion -to the excellent and accomplished author, Mr. Parkinson. I had the -pleasure and privilege of his acquaintance in my youth, immediately -after the publication of the third volume of his valuable work. Mr. -Parkinson was rather below the middle stature, with an energetic, -intelligent, and pleasing expression of countenance, and of mild -and courteous manners; readily imparting information, either on his -favourite science, or on professional subjects; for he was at that -time actively engaged in medical practice in Hoxton Square, and -was the author of several valuable medical treatises. He kindly -showed and explained to me the principal objects in his cabinets, -and pointed out every source of information on fossil remains; a -department of natural knowledge at that time but little cultivated -in England, but which peculiar circumstances had contributed to -render the engrossing object of my young and ardent mind. In after -years Mr. Parkinson warmly encouraged my attempts to elucidate the -nature of the strata and organic remains of my native county, Sussex, -a district which was then supposed to be destitute of geological -interest; and he revised my drawings, and favoured me with his -remarks on many subjects treated of in my first work--"_The Fossils -of the South Downs_."[5] - -[Footnote 5: Published in 1822.] - -In 1822, Mr. Parkinson published "An Introduction to the Study of -Fossil Organic Remains, especially of those found in the British -Strata; intended to aid the Student in his Inquiries respecting -the Nature of Fossils, and their Connexion with the Formation of -the Earth;" 1 vol. 8vo. with ten plates, principally of the genera -of fossil shells. He also contributed a few papers to the early -volumes of the Geological Society of London, of which he was one of -the original members. After Mr. Parkinson's death, his beautiful -and choice collection was sold by auction, and its contents widely -dispersed. The fine series of silicified zoophytes was purchased by -Mr. Featherstonhaugh, and taken to America; and some years afterwards -was destroyed by a fire which consumed the museum in which it was -placed. - -As illustrative of the pleasing style of Mr. Parkinson's work, I -subjoin an abstract of the chapter, _On the Pleasure and Advantages -of a Knowledge of Fossil Remains_. The epistolary style was adopted; -and the first letter is supposed to be penned by a friend desirous of -learning the nature of certain fossils he had observed on his journey -to Oxford:-- - -"I have lived long enough to witness many sad disappointments to the -fond dreams of happiness indulged by persons who, only intent on the -acquisition of riches, had neglected to cultivate any intellectual or -ennobling pursuit; so that on retiring from active life, they were -unable to enjoy the leisure so dearly earned by years of anxiety and -care, and either relapsed into a state of miserable ennui, or gave -themselves up to the excitement of frivolous or vicious indulgences. - -"Aware of the necessity of devoting the few leisure hours, which -the duties of my calling left at my disposal, to some rational -and amusing occupation, I have always cultivated, more or less -assiduously, some branch of art or science, and thence acquired an -enthusiastic admiration for the beauties of nature, and an insatiable -curiosity to pry into the mysteries of the natural world. With this -state of mind, I have at length resolved to avail myself of the means -my little fortune affords me to indulge those feelings, and have, I -trust, quitted the busy scenes of the world for ever. - -"In pursuance of a plan long entertained of visiting the most -interesting parts of our island, I left London last week, accompanied -by my daughter, and our old friend, Frank Wilton, whose lively -disposition and agreeable manners render him, as you well know, an -excellent companion. But he has made himself most acceptable to us -on another account;--his resolute scepticism with respect to the -more rational, and his submissive credulity as to the popular and -traditional explanations of such natural phenomena as are beyond his -comprehension, are frequently productive of remarks so quaint and -humorous, as to contribute in no small degree to our enjoyment. - -"Ere our first day's journey was completed, I discovered how -insufficient was the knowledge I possessed to enable me to form -even a conjecture, as to the nature of the very first objects which -particularly arrested our attention. We were within a few miles of -Oxford, when Wilton, looking out of the carriage window, exclaimed, -'Bless me! never before did I see roads mended with such materials!' -This, of course, drew my attention to what had so strongly excited -his wonder; and I must confess that my astonishment was but little -less than his own; for I beheld a labourer with a large hammer -breaking to pieces a nearly circular ornamented stone, half as -large as the fore-wheel of our carriage, and resembling in form a -coiled-up serpent, or snake. We instantly stopped the chaise, and -inquired of the man the name of the stone, and where it came from. -'This, Sir,' he replied, 'is a _snake-stone_, and comes from yonder -quarry, where there are thousands of them.' Upon hearing this, we all -alighted, and with surprise examined some of the unbroken stones, -which, though evidently bearing the form of an unknown animal, were -composed of solid rock. As we sauntered along, the carriage following -us, we came to a neat building on the road-side, which a sign in -the hedge opposite denoted to be a house of public entertainment. -Hoping to gain more satisfactory information respecting the objects -that had so much excited our curiosity, we entered this literally -hedge ale-house, and on being shown into a neat room, the casement -of which, surrounded by roses and honeysuckles in full bloom, -opened into a garden redolent with fragrance and beauty, from the -wild profusion of its flowers and shrubs, we determined to rest -awhile, and partake of such refreshment as the cottage might afford. -While these were preparing, Frank Wilton, whose restless curiosity -leaves nothing unobserved, was examining the contents of the old -oaken mantel-shelf, and suddenly cried out, 'Well! if the object of -travelling is to behold novelties and wonders, surely this county -will afford that gratification in the highest degree; for among the -curious things on this mantel-piece, there is not one of which I -have ever seen its like before.' The articles now passed under my -examination, and with no better success; for I had never observed -anything similar, nor could I form a rational conjecture respecting -their nature. - -"While thus engaged, our landlady made her appearance, and from her -we learnt that this was her collection of curiosities, gathered from -the neighbouring country; and she readily imparted to us all she knew -of the subject. Taking up one of the stones, which resembled those -we had seen on the road,--'This,' she said, 'is a petrified snake, -with which this neighbourhood abounds. These were once fairies that -inhabited these parts, and, for their crimes, were turned first into -snakes, and then into stones. Here'--showing a stone of a conical -form--'is one of the fairies' night-caps,[6] now also become stone.' -'Do, madam,' addressing Emma, 'pray observe this pattern; is it -possible lace-work like this should ever have been worked by human -hands? This--and this--are pieces of bones of giants, who lived -here after the fairies were destroyed.' These bones, she informed -us, were frequently dug up in several parts of the county, as well -as innumerable _thunderbolts_,[7] some of which she also showed us, -affirming that they were the very thunderbolts by which the giants -were in their turn annihilated. - -[Footnote 6: A Cidaris, or turban-echinite; see Plate LIII.] - -[Footnote 7: _Belemnites_, popularly termed "thunderbolts," Plate LIX.] - -"We all listened attentively to this discourse, and on my smiling, -when she withdrew, at the romantic account we had received, Wilton -strenuously defended our good landlady's narration, and declared, he -thought it was not without a fair share of probability. On the return -of our hostess, I did not venture to express any doubt of the truth -of her story, but merely requested to know if she was aware of there -being anywhere a more extensive collection of similar curiosities. -'To be sure. Sir,' she replied, 'our University has a museum full of -them; and if you be going through Oxford, it will be well worth your -while to see it.' - -"After taking refreshment, we left our kind and communicative -hostess, but not with an intention of immediately visiting the Museum -of the University. On the contrary, I felt that, without some -previous knowledge of the objects to be examined, our curiosity would -be only excited, not gratified; and I resolved to defer our visit to -Oxford, until we had obtained the information necessary to insure -us both pleasure and profit in the investigation of the relics of -interest it contained. - -"Thus, my dear friend, at the very outset of my long anticipated -holidays, I have experienced considerable disappointment, and I -confidently appeal to you to afford me the information I require; -for I know that you have successfully cultivated the science which -teaches the nature of these figured stones, or petrifactions, and -possess a valuable collection of these most extraordinary objects. -You now, therefore, have it in your power to add greatly to the -delight and instruction I am anticipating from my travels, by giving -me an insight into the origin and nature of the petrified remains -which, I am told, are every where to be met with in the districts we -are about to visit." - - * * * * * - -Of Mr. Artis's Work, I need only mention that it was intended, as -its title expresses, to illustrate "_The Fossil Remains of Plants -peculiar to the Coal Formations of Great Britain; selected for -their novelty and interest from upwards of a Thousand Specimens in -the possession of the Author_; by Edmund Tyrell Artis, Esq. F.S.A. -F.G.S." It was published by Nichols & Son, 1838. The plates are well -executed, and faithfully portray the original specimens. - - * * * * * - -_Gallery of Organic Remains in the British Museum._ - -The collection of fossils in our national museum is now so varied and -extensive, and so admirably arranged by its eminent Curator, Charles -König, Esq., F.R.S., and his able assistants, Mr. Waterhouse and Mr. -Woodward, that the intelligent reader whose interest may be awakened -by the beautiful and curious objects figured and described in this -volume, cannot fail to be highly gratified by inspecting leisurely -the various organic remains from all parts of the world, that are -there displayed. - -I gladly avail myself of this opportunity gratefully to acknowledge -the liberality and kindness I have at all times experienced from the -Officers of the several departments of Natural History in the British -Museum, in promoting my scientific researches, by affording me every -facility to examine the vast stores of Information placed under their -guardianship. - -[Illustration] - - - - -DESCRIPTION OF THE PLATES. - - - -PART I. - -FOSSIL FLORA. - -Plates I. to XXXIII. inclusive. - -[Illustration: Plate I] - - - - -DESCRIPTION OF THE PLATES. - - - * * * * * - - -PLATE I. - -(Plates I. to IX. inclusive are from Parkinson's Organic Remains.) - -Fossil Woods and Leaves. - - Fig. 1. Fossil coniferous wood, from a bed of clay at Blackwall. - This wood is simply bituminized, and has undergone no other - mineral transmutation; it is in the usual condition of wood - in peat-bogs. - - Fig. 2. A piece of bituminous wood, containing _Mellite_, - or Honey-stone (_honigstein_ of Werner), the yellow - crystallized substance in the middle of the specimen. It is - a fossil resin, allied to amber: from Thuringia. - - Fig. 3. Carbonized coniferous wood, from the so-called "Bovey - Coal" formation of Devonshire. - - Fig, 4. A piece of calcareous wood, showing very distinctly the - ligneous structure on the surface. - - Fig. 5. Lignite, or carbonized wood, in clay; the cracks or - fissures in the wood are filled up with white calcareous - spar. Specimens of this kind are common in many argillaceous - strata, as well as in limestone. - - Fig. 6. A fragment of shale, covered with the imprints of the - leaf-stalks that have been shed. It is a species of - _Lepidodendron_. See description of Plate XXVI. - - Fig. 7. This fossil vegetable is part of the stem of a tree; and - possibly of a species of _Sigillaria_. - - Fig. 8. Portion of a nodule of ironstone, enclosing some pinnules - or leaflets of a beautiful fern (_Neuropteris_): from - Coalbrook Dale, Shropshire. - -[Illustration: Plate II.] - - -PLATE II. - -Petrified Woods. - - Fig. 1. Silicified bituminized wood; probably from New Holland. - - Fig. 2. Silicified root of a coniferous tree, (_Rhizolithes_, of - the early collectors,) "resembling in structure that of the - larch."--_Mr. Parkinson._ - - Fig. 3. A similar example of silicified bituminous wood, or root. - - Fig. 4. Fossil coniferous wood, a longitudinal section. - - Fig. 5. Another section of the same fossil wood. - - Fig. 6. "Petrified larch-tree," from Mount Krappe in Hungary. - - Fig. 7. Silicified bituminous wood. - - Fig. 8. "Jasperized wood, resembling in structure that of the - hazel."--_Mr. Parkinson._ - - Fig. 9. Silicified coniferous wood; apparently a dried and - withered mass, before it underwent petrifaction. - - Fig. 10. Silicified wood, having a cavity lined with mammillated - chalcedony; appearing as if the silex had percolated through - the substance of the mass, and had slowly oozed into the - hollow. - - Fig. 11. Silicified bituminous wood. In this specimen the - siliceous matter occurs in yellow semi-pellucid globules; - the colour is supposed to have been derived from the bitumen. - -The silicified woods delineated above, belong to the division which -Mr. Parkinson denominated opaline; he conceived their peculiar -characters to have resulted from an infiltration of fluid silex -into the ligneous tissue, which, having previously undergone -bituminization, was in a permeable state; hence originated the -conchoidal fracture and peculiar resinous lustre which these -specimens exhibit. - -The specimen, fig. 7, Mr. Parkinson describes as corroborating the -opinion that the ligneous tissues were converted into a bituminous -substance, and subsequently impregnated with siliceous matter. "In -that fossil there is a knot of wood which differs not the least -in appearance from that in a recent piece, but it is perfectly -impregnated with opaline silex. Is it possible that the change this -knot has suffered could have been effected by an abstraction of the -greater part or of the whole of its constituent molecules, and a -substitution of particles of a different nature? Its hardness and -closeness of texture oppose an insuperable bar to the supposition: -whilst the mysteriousness of the change is entirely dispelled -by admitting of the softening operation of bituminization, and -consequent admission of silex in a fluid state."--_Mr. Parkinson_. - -[Illustration: Plate III.] - - -PLATE III. - -Petrified Stems and Leaves. - - Fig. 1. A portion of the trunk of the fossil vegetable called - _Stigmaria ficoides_ (of M. Alex. Brongniart); it is - the root of a tree common in the coal deposits; see - _Supplementary Notes_, Art. _Stigmaria_, p. 198, for a - description of the nature and mode of occurrence of these - fossils. - - Fig. 2. Impressions of dicotyledonous leaves in travertine; a - modern calcareous deposit; from Campania.[8] - -[Footnote 8: Medals of Creation, vol. i. p. 193.] - - Fig. 3. Part of the stem of a reed-like plant (_Calamites - dubius_, Brongniart); from the coal deposits of Yorkshire. - See description of _Calamites_. - - Fig. 4. Appears to be a fragment of the stem of a species of - _Lepidodendron_. - - Fig. 5. Fragment of the leaf of a Cycadeous plant, from the - oolite of Stonesfield. (_Zamia pectinata._) - - Fig. 6. Portion of an ironstone nodule, split asunder, showing - part of the terminal branch of a _Lepidodendron_, from - Coalbrook Dale. See description of _Lepidodendron_. - - Fig. 7. "A pebble that appears to have been partly enveloped in a - leaf while in a soft state, which has produced the markings - on its surface."--_Mr. Parkinson._ - - Fig. 8. "Ligniform pitchstone;" fossil wood having a resinous - transparency; supposed by Mr. Parkinson to have originated - from an intermixture of silex and bitumen; the internal part - is opalized. - - Fig. 9. Fragment of calcareous coniferous wood from the Lias of - Charmouth, Dorsetshire: the vegetable structure is well - preserved. - -[Illustration: Plate IV.] - - -PLATE IV. - -Fossil Fern Leaves. - - Figs. 1, & 2. An ironstone nodule, split asunder, showing an - inclosed fern-leaf (_Alethopteris lonchitidis_, of - Sternberg); from the coal-beds of Newcastle. - - Figs. 3, & 4. The corresponding parts of another nodule, - containing a fern-leaf of a different kind (_Neuropteris_). - - Fig. 5. A very beautiful fossil fern (_Cheilanthes microlobus_, - of Göppert; _Sphenopteris_, of Brongniart); from the coal - formation. - - Fig. 6. A slab of coal-shale with fronds of ferns (_Alethopteris - Serlii_, of Göppert); from Dunkerton. - - Fig. 7. A beautiful fern (_Pecopteris_) in coal-shale; from - Newcastle. - -[Illustration: Plate V.] - - -PLATE V. - -Fossil Ferns and Stems. - - Fig. 1. A beautiful delicate plant, belonging to a family of - which numerous species occur in the coal deposits; named, - from the stellular form of the foliage, _Asterophyllites_. - - Fig. 2. A fern in coal-shale, from Yorkshire. (_Sphenopteris - trifoliata_, of Artis.) - - Fig. 3. Another species of star-leaf plant (_Annularia - brevifolia_), from the coal of Silesia. - - Fig. 4. A dicotyledonous leaf in sandstone, in a beautiful state - of preservation; from the tertiary strata of Œningen. - - Fig. 5. A frond of a remarkable species of extinct fern - (_Cyclopteris orbicularis_, of Brongniart); from the coal of - Shropshire. - - Fig. 6. An elegant fern (_Pecopteris_), from coal shale; - Newcastle. - - Fig. 7. A delicate plant (_Sphenophyllum erosum_, vel _dentatum_, - of Sternberg), with wedge-shaped pinnules, from the coal - formation. - - Fig. 8. Portion of a stem, flattened by compression, of a species - of _Sigillaria_ (_Sigillaria tesselata_, of Brongniart). - From the coal of Yorkshire. - - Fig. 9. Fern (_Pecopteris oreopteridis_, of Brongniart); from the - coal of South Wales. - - Figs. 10, & 11. Two specimens of _Asterophyllites_ in ironstone - nodules, from Coalbrook Dale. The white appearance is - occasioned by a deposition of hydrate of alumina. - -[Illustration: Plate VI.] - - -PLATE VI. - -Fossil Fruits from Sheppey. - -The greater number of the specimens here figured, are from the London -clay of the Isle of Sheppey.[9] - -[Footnote 9: For an account of the circumstances under which fossil -fruits, &c. occur in that celebrated locality, see Medals of -Creation, vol. ii.] - -These fossils are strongly impregnated with pyrites (sulphuret of -iron), and are liable to decompose after exposure to the air for a -few weeks or months, even when placed in closed cabinets: when first -found they are remarkably beautiful. An excellent work on the fossil -fruits of the Isle of Sheppey, was commenced by J. S. Bowerbank, Esq. -F.K.S. of Highbury Grove; but which, it is much to be regretted, was -discontinued after only three numbers were published. - - Fig. 1. Portion of a branch of a tree, completely mineralized by - pyrites; it is the "pyritous fossil wood" of Mr. Parkinson. - - Figs. 2, & 3. Vegetable substances, too imperfect to determine. - - Figs. 4, 8, 9, & 13. The berries of an extinct genus of plants, - (named _Wetherellia_, by Mr. Bowerbank, in honour of Mr. - Wetherell of Highgate,) which, from their appearance when - split asunder, are called by the local collectors, "coffee - berries." The natural affinities of these fossils are not - determined. - - Figs. 5, 6, & 7. The fruit or seed-vessel of a palm allied to the - recent Nipa, a native of the Molucca Islands; the fossil is - therefore named _Nipadites_.[10] See the next Plate. - -[Footnote 10: Medals of Creation, vol. i. p, 180.] - - Figs. 10, & 12. Fossil fruits of plants belonging to the Cucumber - tribe (hence named _Cucumites_, by Mr. Bowerbank).[11] - -[Footnote 11: Plate xiii. of Mr. Bowerbank's work on the Fossil -Fruits of the London Clay, contains numerous figures of Cucumites.] - - Fig. 11. A transverse section of Fig. 16. - - Figs. 14, 18, 24, & 26, are varieties of Cucumites. - - Fig. 16. Calcareous wood from Oxfordshire. - - Fig. 19. Wood mineralized by copper (Cupreous fossil-wood of - Parkinson), from Souxson, in Siberia. - - Fig. 18. Fossil fruit resembling the seed-vessels of plants - of the genus _Cupania_ (_Amomocarpum_, of Brongniart; - _Cupanoides_, of Bowerbank); M. Brongniart considers the - original to have been related to the Cardamoms (_Amomum_). - - Fig. 21. Probably a species of Cupanoides. - - Figs. 20, & 22. Pericarp of a fruit; its affinities unknown. - - Fig. 23. A piece of pyritous wood. - - Fig. 25. A rolled specimen of _Nipadites_. - - Figs. 24, & 26. Two fruits of plants of the Cucumber family - (_Cucumites_). - - Figs. 27, & 29. Specimens of the stems of a species of extinct - Club-moss (_Lycopodites squamatus_); fossils of this kind - are abundant in the pyritous clay of Sheppey. - - Fig. 28. A fragment of silicified wood, rounded by attrition; - from the gravel-pits at Hackney. - - * * * * * - - Figs. 15, & 17. I have purposely reserved the description of these - fossils for this place, because notwithstanding their close - resemblance to the aments or cones of a pine or larch, which - led the earlier collectors to regard them as fruits, they - do not belong to the vegetable but to the animal kingdom, - being the hardened excrementitious contents (_Coprolites_) - of the intestines of the fishes, with whose remains they are - associated in the chalk.[12] The specimens figured are from - Cherry Hinton, in Cambridgeshire; similar fossils occur in - the Chalk and Chalk-marl of Sussex, Kent, &c. - -[Footnote 12: See Medals of Creation, vol. i. p. 432; and Dr. -Buckland's Bridgewater Essays, vol. ii. pl. 15.] - -[Illustration: Plate VII.] - - -PLATE VII. - -Fossil Fruits of Palms. - - Figs. 1-5. Splendid specimens of one of the most remarkable of the - fossil fruits that occur in the London clay of the Isle of - Sheppey. The nut in its pericarp or husk is shown in fig. 1, - the separate pericarp in fig. 2, and the nut itself in fig. - 3. Figs. 4 and 5, represent another beautiful fossil of the - same species. - -These fossil fruits, which Mr. Parkinson considered as belonging -to a species of Cocos, or Cocoa, and M. Brongniart referred to the -Pandanus or Screw-pine, Mr. Bowerbank has demonstrated to be closely -related to the recent _Nipa_, or Malucca Palm; a low shrub-like -monocotyledonous plant, that inhabits marshy tracts near the mouths -of great rivers, particularly where the waters are brackish. - -Mr. Bowerbank has figured and described eleven species. The -species represented in this plate is distinguished as _Nipadites -Parkinsonis_: M. Brongniart had previously named it _Pandanocarpum -Parkinsonis_.[13] - -[Footnote 13: See an account of an "Excursion to the Isle of -Sheppey," Medals of Creation, vol. ii. p. 897.] - -The following is Mr. Bowerbank's description of these fossils:-- - -"The fruits of which the group I propose to name _Nipadites_ is -composed, are known among the women and children by whom they are -usually collected, by the name of '_petrified figs_.' The epicarp and -endocarp are thin and membranous; the sarcocarp is thick and pulpy, -composed of cellular tissue, through which run numerous bundles of -vessels. The cells are about the 8/100th part of an inch in diameter. -Nearly in the centre of the pericarp is situated a large seed, which, -when broken, is found to be more or less hollow. It is frequently -not more than half a line in thickness; but in perfect specimens it -presents the appearance of a closely granulated structure, in which -small apertures containing carbonaceous matter occasionally occur. -The seed in _Nipadites Parkinsonis_, consists of regular layers of -cells radiating from a spot situated near the middle of the seed, and -apparently enclosing a central embryo. - -"If the habits of the plants which produced these fossil fruits were -similar to those of the recent _Nipa_, it will account for their -amazing abundance in the London Clay of the Isle of Sheppey; which -formation, from the great variety of fossilized stems and branches, -mixed up with _asteria_, _mollusca_, and _conchifera_ of numerous -marine and fresh-water genera, is strikingly characterized as having -been the delta of an immense river, which probably flowed from near -the Equator towards the spot where these interesting remains are now -deposited."[14] - -[Footnote 14: History of the Fossil Fruits and Seeds of the London -Clay. Van Voorst, London, 1840.] - - Figs. 6, 7, & 8. Specimens of a seed-vessel, or nut, of an unknown - plant, often found in the strata of the coal measures. It is - called _Trigonocarpum olivæforme_, from its general shape. - From Leicestershire; it probably belongs to a plant of the - Palm family. - -[Illustration: Plate VIII.] - - -PLATE VIII. - -Petrified Stems and Woods. - - Figs. 1-7, represent different sections and parts of some - remarkably beautiful and interesting silicified stems of an - extinct tribe of plants, related to the arborescent ferns, and - which are found in considerable abundance at Chemnitz, near - Hillersdorf, in Saxony. The name of _Psaronius_ is given to - the genus by M. Cotta. - - Figs. 1, 2, 5, 7, are _P. helmintholithes_; figs. 3, 6, _P. - asterolithes_; figs. 5, 6, 7, are enlarged figures of the - transverse sections of some of the vessels forming the - vascular tissue. - -From the stellular figure produced by transverse sections of the -vessels, this fossil wood has received the name of "_Staarenstein_," -or Starry-stone. In the time of Mr. Parkinson, the tubes now known -to be the vessels of the vascular tissue, were supposed to have been -produced by some boring or parasitical animals. - - Fig. 4. Transverse section of a stem of calcareous wood from the - Bath oolite. - - Figs. 8, & 9. Calcareous fossil wood; the cylindrical cavities have - been formed by the depredations of the ligniverous boring - mollusk, the _Teredo_, and are now filled with translucent - calcareous spar. This kind of fossil was called "_Lapis - syringoides_" by the early collectors. - - Fig. 10. Silicified wood; the perforations are supposed to have - been occasioned by the depredations of boring mollusca: the - cavities are filled with a white pellucid chalcedony. - -[Illustration: Plate IX.] - - -PLATE IX. - -Fossil Stems and Seed-vessels. - - Fig. 1. The strobilus or cone of an extinct family of plants - whose remains are very abundant in the coal strata, and - which have largely contributed to the formation of the - mineral fuel now become so indispensable to the necessities - and luxuries of man. There are several kinds, and although - there can be no doubt that they are the seed-vessels of the - _Lepidodendra_ with which they are associated, yet but few - species are identified with their parent trees. The specimen - figured is the _Lepidostrobus ornatus_ of Lindley and - Hutton. From the coal measures of Coalbrook Dale. - - Fig. 2. One of the so-called "Petrified Melons" of Mount Carmel. - - Figs. 3 & 4. An unknown fossil body; possibly a coral. - - Fig. 5. A vertical section of one of the "_Petrified Melons_" - from Mount Carmel. The fossil thus named by Mr. Parkinson - appears to be merely a siliceous nodule, having a cavity - lined with quartz crystals. There is, however, a legend - rife among the barefooted friars of Mount Carmel, that has - conferred a celebrity on these stones; it runs, that "on - this spot was a garden well stocked with melons, and that - the prophet Elias, who founded the monastery, once asking - the gardener for one of his melons, he with churlish humour - answered, they were not melons but stones: on which they - were immediately changed into stones, and so remain to this - day." - - Figs. 6 & 7. Unknown vegetable fossils, highly metallic; fig. 6 - appears to be a fragment of a cone. - - Figs. 8 & 9, are nodules of pyrites, accidentally assuming the - form of fungi; they are not fossils, but simply masses of - inorganic mineral matter. - - Fig. 10. Portion of the flattened stem of an extinct plant, from - the coal measures of Yorkshire, whose affinities are - uncertain; supposed to resemble the Yew-tree. It appears to - be similar to the fossil named _Knorria taxina_ by Messrs. - Lindley and Hutton in the British Fossil Flora. In that - beautiful work,--the continuation of which is much to be - desired,--the genus _Knorria_ comprises those fossil stems - in which the projecting scars of the petioles are densely - arranged in a spiral manner.[15] - -[Footnote 15: Medals of Creation, vol. i. p. 161.] - -[Illustration: Plate X.] - - -PLATE X. - -(Plates X. to XXXIV. inclusive, are from Artis's work on the Fossil -Remains of Plants, from the coal formations of Great Britain.) - -"Columnar Hydatica." - -Under the name _Hydatica_, Mr. Artis has described two species of -fossil plants, from the coal-mine near Wentworth, Yorkshire. The -originals appear to have been aquatic plants, having a horizontal or -creeping stem, sending up slender branches, which floated by their -leaves on the surface of the water. - -The generic characters are, "Stem, arborescent, jointed, branched; -leaves, long, linear." - -In the arrangements of Schlotheim and Brongniart, who consider only -the construction of the leaves, these plants would belong to the -genus _Poacites_. - -The species figured is named _Hydatica columnaris_, or Columnar -Hydatica. The stem is branched all the way up, and ends in a -club-like head; the branches are numerous, simple, alternate, and -covered with parallel hair-like leaves. - - Fig. 1. The plant of the natural size, imbedded in coal-shale; - fig. 2, a branch magnified, showing; the two linear series - in which the leaves are arranged. - -[Illustration: Plate XI.] - - -PLATE XI. - -"Prostrate Hydatica." - -A splendid specimen of another species of _Hydatica_, spread out on -the surface of the coal-shale, as if expanded on the bosom of the -lake in which it grew: the length of the original, a part of which -only is figured in the plate, was eight feet, five inches. - -This species is named by Mr. Artis, _Hydatica prostrata_. The stem is -jointed, and slightly striated; the joints are formed with irregular -sutures, whence arise tufts of linear leaves resembling those of our -common grasses. - -Fragments of this fossil plant are abundant in the roofs of several -of the chambers whence the coal has been extracted, in Elsecar -Colliery, Yorkshire. - -[Illustration: Plate XII.] - - -PLATE XII. - -"Slender Myriophyllite." - -The fossil here figured seems to approximate very closely to the -Hydatica; but Mr. Artis describes the plant under the generic name of -_Myriophyllites_;--_M. gracilis_. The stem is herbaceous and slender, -terminating in a point; it is thickly covered with hair-like leaves. - -It was found imbedded horizontally, in detached masses, separated -from the great mass of vegetable matter which covers the coal, by an -intervening layer of shale. It is rarely met with in the same bed -with other vegetables, but generally in solitary and thin strata, -taking a horizontal position; so that by riving the shale which -contains these plants, numbers of them are disclosed on the same -surface. In its general aspect this fossil vegetable resembles the -trailing roots of some aquatic plants. - -[Illustration: Plate XIII.] - - -PLATE XIII. - -"Branched Calamite." - -Long and large jointed stems, generally more or less flattened by -compression, and bearing some resemblance to a cane or bamboo, are -very abundant in the coal formations. Some of them attain many feet -in length, and are of a corresponding magnitude in circumference. -The original plants are supposed to have been related to the -_Equisetaceæ_, or Mare's-tail, and not to the _Bambusiæ_, and -other arborescent grasses. The stem is jointed, and longitudinally -striated, having annular impressions at the articulations. - -The present species (_Calamites ramosus_) has the stem arborescent -and branched; the branches are cylindrical, striated, and inserted at -the articulations of the trunk; the articulations of the branches are -surrounded by a striated disk. - -The stem has been found nine feet in length, and occurs both -horizontally and vertically, in sandstone, in Leabrook Quarry, near -Wentworth. - -[Illustration: Plate XIV.] - - -PLATE XIV. - -"Doubtful Calamite." - -These fossil stems are from the same sandstone quarry as the Calamite -delineated in the previous plate. - -They differ in some respects from the usual type of the genus, -hence the specific name (_Calamites dubius_). The striæ are narrow, -and have a fine groove running down the middle; the fifth or sixth -articulation is surrounded by a double line of large globular -indentations, one row belonging to each of the connected joints; -these imprints have apparently been left by a zone of some organs -which surrounded the articulations, and by its pressure left the -indented frill, shown in the upper extremity of fig. 2. - -These stems are generally found compressed, and from two to three -feet in length. Their termination is unknown. - -This species is figured by M. Ad. Brongniart in Hist. Veg. Foss. tab. -18, figs. 1-3. - -[Illustration: Plate XV.] - - -PLATE XV. - -"Pseudo-Bamboo Calamite." - - (_Calamites pseudo bambusia_, of Sternberg. - ---- _Suckovii_, of Brongniart, Hist. Foss. Veg. tab. 14.) - -"This fossil was found in the clay which fills the fissures of a very -fine grit, called by the workmen 'Delf,' that forms a stratum from -twenty to twenty-five feet thick, in the quarry at Leabrook, near -Wentworth, in Yorkshire. Immediately under this stratum there is a -thin bed of very good coal; and at a considerable depth below this -bed, there is a second layer of coal, eight feet thick, which is -covered in particular places with immense masses of fossil plants." - -The species here figured very closely resembles the Bamboos. The -stem is arborescent, and marked with parallel linear strife, which -are intercepted at the sutures; it is simple and cylindrical, and -contracted at the articulations; it occurs five feet or more in -length. - - Fig. 1, represents part of the middle of a stem. - - Fig. 2, shows the gradual upward diminution of the stem, and its - pointed termination. - -[Illustration: Plate XVI.] - - -PLATE XVI. - -"Short-jointed Calamite." - - (_Calamites approximatus_, Sternberg. - ---- ----, Brongniart, Hist. Veg. Foss. tab. 24.) - -This species of Calamite is characterized by the shortness and number -of the joints; these are intercepted by distinct articulations, and -have small compressed tubercles, forming a studded row round the -trunk. The articulations are about one-fifth the diameter of the stem -apart. The tubercular studs, or warts, are probably the cicatrices -of fallen leaves; they rise directly from the articulations, and not -from the lower termination of the striæ, as in the species figured in -the next plate. - -The specimen was found imbedded horizontally in soft sandstone, at -the bottom of the rock in Hober Quarry, near Wentworth. - - Fig. 1, represents a portion of the upper part of the trunk, - of the natural size, terminating at the top in a sharp - compressed point. - - Fig. 2. An outline on a reduced scale, to show the proportionate - size of the stem. - -[Illustration: Plate XVII.] - - -PLATE XVII. - -"Ornamented Calamite." - - (_Calamites decoratus_, Artis. - ---- ----, of Brongniart, Hist. Veg. Foss. tab. 14, figs. 1-5.) - -In this species of Calamite the joints are short, and decrease in -length towards the summit, where they terminate in an enlarged -rounded head. The striæ are ornamented with tubercles at the bottom, -close to the articulation. The striæ are broader, and the tubercles -larger, towards the summit. - -The stem is sometimes found two feet long, and from two to four -inches in diameter. - -The situation of the tubercles at the lower extremity of the striæ, -is a striking feature of this species; and the termination of the -summit of the stem is remarkable for its obtuseness. - -The specimen is from Leabrook Quarry, Yorkshire. - -[Illustration: Plate XVIII.] - - -PLATE XVIII. - -"Transverse Sternbergia." - - (_Sternbergia transversa_, of Artis. - _Artesia_ ----, of Presl. Additions to Sternberg's _Flora der Vorwelt_.) - -The stems known by the name of _Sternbergia_, (from Count Sternberg, -the author of the Fossil Flora,) appear to be related to the Yucca, -or to the Pandanus or Screw-pine. - -Mr. Artis observes, that they bear considerable analogy to the stems -of the _Stapeliæ_ of our gardens; but still, the external form, -which Is the only character visible, does not furnish sufficient -ground for their being positively referred to that genus. The stem is -marked longitudinally with double keels or ridges, which terminate at -different heights spirally round the stem, and have small tubercles -at their terminations. There are likewise slight annular depressions, -mostly distinct, but in some places two or more unite. - -The stem is straight, simple, and cylindrical, and is compressed -towards the summit. It is sometimes found six feet in length, and -from one to four inches in diameter. It is generally coated with a -carbonized bark. - - Fig. 1, shows a portion of the stem of the natural size. - - Fig. 2. The upper extremity, in which the tubercular terminations - of the double keels or ridges are seen at A, B. - -Found associated with Calamites in the clay-bind of Leabrook Quarry. - -[Illustration: Plate XIX.] - - -PLATE XIX. - -"Fibrous Sigillaria." - - (_Rhytidolepis fibrosa_, of Artis.) - -Stems more or less flattened, with the external surface -longitudinally furrowed, and uniformly ornamented with rows of deeply -imprinted symmetrical figures, disposed with much regularity, are -among the most abundant vegetable remains in the coal formation. -These are named _Sigillariæ_, from the Latin word _sigillum_, -signifying a _seal_, in allusion to the extreme regularity of the -imprints on the surface. When found in an upright position, at right -angles to the plane of the stratum, the original cylindrical form -of the tree is commonly preserved; and many examples are now known -of groups of erect Sigillariæ, with their roots extending into the -surrounding clay or sandy loam; the roots proving to be the fossil -bodies called _Stigmariæ_, which were formerly supposed to be a -distinct family of aquatic plants.[16] The first discovery of this -highly interesting and unexpected fact was made by Mr. Binney.[17] - -[Footnote 16: Dr. Buckland's Bridgewater Essay, vol. i. p. 476.] - -[Footnote 17: See "Supplementary Notes, p. 198."] - -The specimen figured was found in an erect position in the sandstone -of a quarry at Rowmarsh, near Rotherham in Yorkshire. - -The stem is simple, the furrows small and wavy, impressed with dots -on the ridges. The cicatrices are ovate, subpentagonal, with the -lower angles rounded, having a single gland near the lower extremity. -The stem is three feet long, and four inches in diameter. - -The transverse section, as seen in fig. 1, shows traces of a double -concentric ring, as if produced by internal structure. Fig. 2, -displays the equality of the stem throughout its entire length, and -its abrupt termination. In fig. 3, is seen the cicatrix with its -single gland, for the attachment of the petiole or leaf-stalk. Fig. -4, indicates the undulating line of the top of the ridge. - -"The originals of these fossils are supposed by M. Ad. Brongniart to -have constituted a peculiar family of coniferous plants, now extinct, -which probably belonged to the great division of gymnospermous -dicotyledons. In their external forms they somewhat resembled the -Cacteæ or Euphorbiæ, but were more nearly related by their internal -organization to the Zamiæ or Cycadeæ. The leaves and fruits of these -trees are unknown, for no satisfactory connexion has been established -between the stems, and the foliage and seed vessels with which they -are sometimes collocated."[18] - -[Footnote 18: Medals of Creation, vol. i. p. 138.] - -[Illustration: Plate XX.] - - -PLATE XX. - -"Sigillaria." - - (_Euphorbites vulgaris_, of Artis.) - -This species is characterized by the remarkable fish-like form of -the cicatrices left by the base of the leaf-stalks, and by the -rapid tapering of the upper part of the stem, as shown in the -reduced figure 1, which represents a specimen nine feet long, five -feet in circumference at the base, and only twenty-one inches in -circumference at the upper end. - -The ridges, which at the superior extremity are simple and narrow, -and parted only by a single line, become at the lower part of the -stem wide and flat, and are separated by a groove of equal breadth, -as seen in fig. 3, which is taken from B, fig. 1. - -Fig. 2, represents a portion towards the upper end, at A, fig. 1; and -exhibits the different appearance of the bark, and the under surface, -when the cortical investment is removed; the imprints in each case -differing very much in appearance. - -The specimen from which the drawing was taken, was from a sandstone -quarry near Altofts, in Yorkshire. In one of the abandoned chambers -of the upper Elsecar coal-mine, seven trunks of this tree were -suspended freely from the roof, the largest of which was eight feet -in circumference. - -[Illustration: Plate XXI.] - - -PLATE XXI. - -"Ficoid Stigmaria." - - (_Stigmaria ficoides_, of M. Brongniart, Hist. Veg. Foss. tab. 17, - figs. 5, 6. - _Ficoidites furcatus_, of Mr. Artis.) - -The fossil trunks or stems called _Stigmariæ_, or _Variolæ_, (from -the pits or areolæ with which they are studded,) occur as abundantly -in the coal formation as the _Sigillariæ_, of which tribe of plants -unequivocal proof has at length been obtained that they are the -roots. These bodies are more or less regularly cylindrical, and vary -in length from a few inches to fifteen or twenty feet, the largest -being several inches in diameter. Their surface is covered with -numerous oval or circular depressions, in the middle of each of which -there is a rounded papilla, or tubercle. These variolæ are disposed -round the stem in quincunx order. When these roots are broken across, -a small cylindrical core or pith is exposed, which extends in a -longitudinal direction throughout the stem, like a medullary column. -This central axis, which is often separable from the surrounding -mass, is composed of bundles of vascular tissue disposed in a -radiated manner, and separated from each other by medullary rays. -This internal organization presents the same correspondence with that -of the stems of Sigillariæ, as does the structure of the roots of a -dicotyledonous tree with that of its branches and stems. - -The Stigmariæ are almost invariably present in the bed called the -"Under Clay," which underlies the coal, and when observed in this -situation, long tapering sub-cylindrical fibres are found attached to -the tubercles; and these processes or rootlets are often several feet -in length. Their form and mode of attachment are shown at C, D; the -rootlets terminate in bifurcations, as seen at A, B. - -The specimen here figured is part of a root nearly six feet long, and -three inches in diameter; some of the rootlets were two feet long. It -is imbedded in shale; from Elsecar colliery.[19] - -[Footnote 19: A Stigmaria with rootlets, many feet in length, is -placed over the doorway in the room devoted to fossil vegetables in -the Gallery of Organic Remains in the British Museum.] - -[Illustration: Plate XXII.] - - -PLATE XXII. - -"Warty Stigmaria." - - (_Stigmaria ficoides_, Brongniart. - _Phytolithus verrucosus_, Martin's Petrificata Derbiensia, Pl. II. - _Ficoidites verrucosus_, of Artis.) - -In this species of Stigmaria the tubercles vary considerably in size, -and give a verrucose, or warty, aspect to the surface. The specimen -figured on a small scale, fig. 2, and a portion of the natural size, -fig. 1, was between five and six feet in length, and four inches in -diameter. A groove visible on the external surface indicates the -inner axis, which by compression has been pressed from its natural -central position; see fig. 2, A, B, C, D: figs. 6, 7, 8, 9, show in -the corresponding transverse sections the position of this body. - -The mode of attachment of the rootlets to the tubercle on the main -root, is represented fig. 5. Fig. 3, exhibits the characters of the -two kinds of variolæ, or tubercles. - -When Dr. Buckland's Bridgewater Essay was published, the true -nature of these fossil remains was unknown. It was supposed by -Messrs. Lindley and Hutton, that the original was an aquatic plant, -having a short dome-shaped trunk, from which radiated numerous long -horizontal branches; and that when the plant was perfect, and the -branches floating on the water, its appearance resembled that of -an Asterias.[20] This dome-shaped trunk is now known to be merely -the base of the stem of the tree. See _Supplementary Notes_, art. -_Stigmaria_. - -[Footnote 20: Dr. Buckland's Bridgewater Essay, vol. ii. p. 95.] - -[Illustration: Plate XXIII.] - - -PLATE XXIII. - -"Great Stigmaria." - - (_Stigmaria ficoides_, of Brongniart. - _Ficoidites major_, of Artis.) - -The fossil here represented is a fragment of a Stigmaria having -larger tubercles than the species previously described. The tubercles -are oval at the base, somewhat compressed, longitudinally farrowed at -the top, with a pit in the furrow. - -This root is from five to six inches in diameter; the axis is seen -near the compressed side, in the transverse section at the bottom of -the figure. - -From a sandstone quarry, near Rotherham, Yorkshire. - -The specimen figured by Mr. Parkinson, _ante_, Plate III. fig. 1, -appears to be the fragment of a Stigmaria of this kind in ironstone: -the internal axis is seen in the transverse section pressed from its -natural position to near the outer surface. - -[Illustration: Plate XXIV.] - - -PLATE XXIV. - -"Crested Aspidiaria." - - (_Aspidiaria cristata_, of Presl. - _Sigillaria appendiculata_, Brongniart. - _Aphyllum cristatum_, Artis.) - -The fossil here represented is part of the stem of a tree nearly -forty feet long, and two feet in diameter, found imbedded in -sandstone at Banktop, Yorkshire. - -The cicatrices of the petioles are obovate, and have a central oblong -crest or ridge; the interstices form deep angular furrows. - -The stems with this type of sculpturing, are supposed to belong to a -group of extinct vegetables, which held an intermediate place between -the Sigillariæ, previously described, and the Lepidodendra; together -with the latter, and certain true Coniferæ and arborescent ferns, -these trees appear to have constituted the principal forests of the -Carboniferous epoch. - -[Illustration: Plate XXV.] - - -PLATE XXV. - -"Frondose Megaphyton." - - (_Megaphyton distans_, of Lindley and Hutton's Fossil Flora of - Great Britain.) - -Very large stems not channelled, with regular cicatrices of great -size, arranged longitudinally, occur in the sandstone and grits of -the Carboniferous formation, and are supposed to belong to a tribe of -extinct plants, more nearly allied to the arborescent ferns of our -tropical climes, than to any other existing trees. - -The specimen figured is part of a stem ten feet in length, from a -quarry near Rowmarsh in Yorkshire. - -This stem has a coarse fibrous surface, furrowed longitudinally; the -cicatrices left by the shedding of the leaves are of a horseshoe -shape with the points directed upwards. - -This group of stems has been separated by writers on fossil botany -into several genera, as _Bothrodendron_, _Ulodendron_, &c.[21] In -some of these the scars are five inches in diameter. - -[Footnote 21: See Dr. Buckland's Bridgewater Essay, plate 56.] - -There are many fine examples of these fossils in the British Museum. - -[Illustration: Plate XXVI.] - - -PLATE XXVI. - -"Lepidodendron, or Scaly-tree." - - (_Aphyllum asperum_, Rough Aphyllum, of Artis.) - -"The Lepidodendra (Scaly-trees) are a tribe of plants whose remains -abound in the Coal formation, and rival in number and magnitude the -Calamites and Sigillariæ previously described. The name is derived -from the imbricated or scaly appearance of the surface, occasioned by -the little angular scars left by the separation of the leaves. Some -of these trees have been found almost entire, from their roots to the -topmost branches. One specimen, forty feet high, and thirteen feet -in diameter at the base, and divided towards the summit into fifteen -or twenty branches, was discovered in the Jarrow coal-mine, near -Newcastle.[22] - -[Footnote 22: Wonders of Geology, sixth edition, vol. ii. p. 722.] - -"The foliage of these trees consists of simple linear leaves, -spirally arranged around the stem, and which appear to have been -shed from the base of the tree with age. The markings produced by -the attachment of the leaves are never obliterated, and the twigs -and branches are generally found covered with foliage. The originals -are supposed by M. Adolphe Brongniart, notwithstanding their -gigantic size, to have been closely related to the Lycopodia, or -Club-mosses."[23] - -[Footnote 23: Medals of Creation, p. 144.] - -Associated with the stems of Lepidodendra, and oftentimes imbedded -in masses of their foliage, and in some instances attached to the -extremities of the branches, are numerous oblong or cylindrical -scaly cones, garnished with leaves: an imperfect specimen is figured -in Plate IX. fig. 1, and the vertical section of another in Plate -III. fig. 6. These cones have received the name of _Lepidostrobi_ -(Scaly-cones), and are the seed-vessels or fruits of the -Lepidodendra.[24] - -[Footnote 24: See Medals of Creation, p. 147, and lign. 31, p. 149.] - -These fossils often form the nuclei of the ironstone nodules from -Coalbrook Dale, and are invested with a pure white hydrate of -alumina; the leaflets, or more properly bracteæ, are often replaced -by galena, or sulphuret of lead, giving rise to specimens of great -beauty and interest, as examples of the electro-chemical changes -which these fruits of the carboniferous forests have undergone. - -The fossils figured in this Plate, are portions of a stem eleven feet -in length, from near Hoyland, Yorkshire. Fig. 1, is from the upper -part, and shows the carbonized scales attached; fig. 2, represents -part of the lower end, in which the scales are decorticated, from the -adhesion of the bark to the surrounding shale. - - A. Shows the cicatrix, with its transverse gland that connects the scale, - in the upper part of the trunk. - - B. Exposes the interstice between the scales in the lower portion of the - stem. - - C. A section of the hollow cicatrix. - -[Illustration: Plate XXVII.] - - -PLATE XXVII. - -"Lychnophorite." - - (_Lychnophorites superus_, of Artis.) - -The fossil figured under the above name by Mr. Artis, is part of a -large branch of a tree, the surface of which is covered with the -cicatrices of leaf-stalks, as in the Lepidodendron. The form of the -cicatrix and point of attachment is shown at B; figure A, is the -restored outline of a leaf. - -"Dr. Martins refers the fossil plants of this type to a recent -shrubby genus of syngenesious plants, which cover the plains of -Brazil, and which he names _Lychnophora_, whence he formed this -fossil genus, by changing the termination to _ites_, according to the -common usage."--_Artis._ - -The specimen represented is in sandstone, from Swinton Common, near -Rotherham, Yorkshire. - -This tree seems to be closely allied to the Lepidodendra. - -[Illustration: Plate XXVIII.] - - -PLATE XXVIII. - -"Eared Neuropterite." - - (_Neuropteris auriculata_, Brongniart. Hist. Veg. Foss. tab. 66. - _Filicites Osmunda_, of Artis.) - -The general aspect of this beautiful filicite very much resembles -that of our well-known flowering fern, the elegant _Osmunda regalis_; -the auriculated or one-eared base of the lanceolated leaflets -forms, however, a distinguishing character. It belongs to the genus -_Neuropteris_ (nerved-leaf fern) of M. Brongniart, which comprises -many species of delicately-veined ferns: the veins in this fossil -plant are very fine, arched, and rise obliquely from the base of the -leaflet. - -The leaflets are often found detached, and in many instances, though -completely carbonized, are so firm, and so slightly attached to -the shale, that they may be separated by a pair of forceps: when -removed, their impression remains on the stone, as is shown in the -light-coloured part of the figure 2; the form and distribution of the -rib, and nervures or veins, are seen in fig. 3. - -From Elsecar colliery. - -[Illustration: Plate XXIX.] - - -PLATE XXIX. - -"Trifoliate Sphenopterite." - - (_Sphenopteris trifoliata_, Brongniart, Hist. Veg. Foss. tab. 53, fig. 3. - _Filicites trifoliatus_, of Artis. - _Cheilanthites_; from its supposed analogy to the recent genus - _Cheilanthes_. Göppert. _Trans. Academy of Bonn_.) - -This is a rare species of fern from the coal shale of Yorkshire, -Elsecar Colliery. It has the leaf or frond tripinnate; the pinnæ, -lobes, or wings, alternate with an odd one; the leaflets are ternate, -with roundish, convex lobes. - -This plant has been referred to the tropical ferns, and is nearly -allied to the genera _Davallia_, or _Cheilanthes_; but from the -almost general absence of the organs of fructification in fossil -ferns, it is impossible to refer them with any certainty to living -genera. It belongs to the Sphenopteres, or wedge-shaped-leaf ferns, -of M. Brongniart. - -A, shows the cast or matrix of the under side of the leaf; B, the -upper side in relief. - -[Illustration: Plate XXX.] - - -PLATE XXX. - -"Milton Filicite." - - (_Pecopteris Miltoni_, Brongniart, Hist. Veg. Foss. tab. 114, - _Filicites Miltoni_, Artis.) - -This exquisite specimen exhibits part of two leaves attached to the -stem, the under surface of the fronds, on which the fructification is -beautifully displayed, being exposed. The frond is tripinnate, the -stipes large and strong, the leaflets linear with the tip rounded. -The fructification is arranged in lines near the margin; but slight -traces of the venation of the leaflets are distinguishable. - -From Milton, in Yorkshire. - -[Illustration: Plate XXXI.] - - -PLATE XXXI. - -"Plumose Pecopterite." - - (_Pecopteris plumosa_, Brongniart, Hist. Veg. Foss. tab. 121. - _Filicites plumosus_, Artis.) - -This elegant fern is characterized by the plumose or wavy character -of the stipes or stems of the fronds, which are tripinnate; the -leaflets are lanceolate and sessile,--that is, are closely attached -by their base, without a stalk. The fructification is seen disposed -near the margins of the leaflets on the left hand upper part of the -specimen. - -From the same locality as the last. - -[Illustration: Plate XXXII.] - - -PLATE XXXII. - -"Decurrent Filicite." - - (_Alethopteris decurrens_, of Göppert. - _Pecopteris heterophylla_, Lindley and Hutton, tab. 38. - _Filicites decurrens_, of Artis.) - -The drawing represents but a small portion of the specimen, which -indicated a plant of gigantic size. - -"The leaf or frond of this fern is very large, tripinnate or -quadripinnate; the stipes is broad and undulated; the leaflets are -sessile, linear-lanceolate; the ribs pinnate, the secondary ribs -perpendicular to the main rib; the first leaflet on the superior side -of the pinnule adheres by its side to the rachis."--_Artis._ - -This fern, which closely resembles some recent species, (_Pteris -aurita_,) occurs in great abundance in the shale at Alverthorpe near -Wakefield. Notwithstanding the profusion with which the foliage of -many kinds of ferns is distributed throughout the coal formation, -the undoubted stems of tree-ferns are so rare, that it may admit -of question whether some of the leaves which from the analogy of -their structure to recent forms have been referred to the ferns, -may not have belonged to the stems of unknown trees with which -they are associated in the strata; for as, in the animal kingdom, -distinct types of living organisms are often found blended in the -extinct races, so in the vegetable, it is possible, that foliage and -stems, of apparently discordant types, may have belonged to the same -extinct species or genus of trees. This problem can only be solved -by diligent and continued research in the richest localities of -coal-plants. - -M. Brongniart remarks that every bed of coal is the product of a -special vegetation, often different from that which preceded, and -that which followed it. Each bed thus resulting from a distinct -vegetation, is characterized by the predominance of certain -impressions of plants, and the experienced miners distinguish in many -cases the beds they are working, by their practical knowledge of the -plants that prevail. - -The same beds of coal, and the deposits which cover it, ought -therefore to contain the different parts of the plants that were -living at the period of its formation; and by carefully studying the -association of these different fossils, forming thus little special -floras, generally of but few species, we may hope to acquire data -by which we may advance the means of reconstructing the anomalous -vegetable forms of the ancient world. M. Brongniart strongly urges -attention to this circumstance in the examination of the coal strata, -with the view of determining the identity of the scattered leaves, -stems, and fruits, in any particular stratum. By such a procedure, -much addition would be made to our knowledge of the entire structures -of many of the fossil plants of which we now only know the fragments. -Thus we may hope to ascertain the foliage of the Sigillariæ, -the roots of which, by a similar method, have but recently been -determined to be the fossils called _Stigmariæ_. - -[Illustration: Plate XXXIII.] - - -PLATE XXXIII. - -"Carpolithe, or Fossil Seed-vessel." - - (_Carpolithus marginatus_, of Artis.) - -The carbonized husks or shells of nuts, and other carpolithes, -or seed-vessels, are not unfrequently met with in the coal and -coal-shale. In the slab of shale figured, there are three specimens -of an oval nut, B, C, which is striated longitudinally. These -are associated with other vegetable remains, among which part of -a Lepidostrobus, the supposed cone or strobilus of a species of -Lepidodendron (see description of Plate IX.), is conspicuous at a. - - - - -PART II. - -FOSSIL FAUNA. - -Plates XXXIV. to LXXIV. inclusive. - -[Illustration: Plate XXXIV.] - - -PLATE XXXIV. - -(_Plates XXXIV. to LXXIV. inclusive, are from Parkinson's Organic -Remains._) - -Fossil Tubipore, from Derbyshire. - - (_Syringopora geniculata_, of Phillips, from the Mountain Limestone, - Derbyshire.) - -The specimen figured is a mass of limestone, on the surface of which -is spread out in high relief a delicate tubiporite, or fossil coral, -allied to the Tubipora, or "Organ-pipe coral," so generally preserved -in cabinets of natural curiosities, from the beauty and elegance of -its crimson tubes. The fossil, however, though somewhat resembling -the recent coral in its general form, belongs to an extinct genus. - -This Syringopora appears to have been very abundant in the sea -in which the strata of mountain or carboniferous limestone were -deposited, for it forms entire beds of great extent. A beautifully -figured marble results from this coral, when the interstices of its -tubes have been filled up with compact calcareous matter. A small -polished slab is represented in fig. 2. At Matlock, vases, and other -ornamental articles, are made of it; and the sections of the coral -tubes impart considerable variety of figures.[25] - -[Footnote 25: Articles of this kind may be obtained of Mr. Tennant, -149, Strand.] - -Some slabs of this fossil coral are of a dull red hue, which there -is every reason to conclude is due to the colour of the original; -and not only are traces of the natural tints of the living zoophyte -preserved, but even the animal membrane of the coral; and this may -be exposed by immersing a fragment of the marble in dilute muriatic -(hydrochloric) acid. Mr. Parkinson thus describes the result of his -first experiment:-- - -"A fragment of the marble (Plate XXXIV. fig. 2) was exposed to the -action of muriatic acid in a very dilute state. As the calcareous -earth was dissolved, and the carbonic acid escaped, I was delighted -to observe the membranaceous substance appear, depending from the -stone in light, flocculent, elastic flakes. Many of these retained -a deep red colour, and appeared in a beautiful and distinct manner, -although not absolutely retaining the form of the tubipore. A -faithful representation of this appearance is given in fig. 3." - -This experiment of Mr. Parkinson was highly important, as proving -the previously almost incredible fact, that animal membrane, -when hermetically sealed, as it were, in the solid stone, was as -indestructible as the rock itself. It suggested, too, the probability -that vestiges of other animal tissues might be traced in organic -remains, and encouraged subsequent observers to seek for evidence of -the soft parts of animal bodies entombed in the strata. It was the -first step in the right direction, and led to the detection of many -highly interesting phenomena. In Dr. Buckland's Bridgewater Essay -will be found figures and descriptions of the eyes of crustacea: of -the wings, elytra or wing-covers, and the integuments of the body of -insects; of the skin of reptiles; and, in the "Wonders of Geology," -and "Medals of Creation," of the membranes of the air-bladder, -and of the capsule of the eye of fishes; of the soft parts of the -animalcules called foraminifera, &c. The bodies of mollusca, or -shell-fish, converted into a dark brown mass (_mollushite_), occur -in such abundance in some deposits, as to yield a rich manure from -the quantity of phosphate of lime. The excrementitious substances -termed by Dr. Buckland "Coprolites," are also used for agricultural -purposes. - -[Illustration: Plate XXXV.] - - -PLATE XXXV. - -The subjects here figured are Fossil Corals. - - Fig. 1. (_Syringopora ramulosa_.) A fragment of another species - of the coral previously described; from the mountain - limestone. - - Fig. 2, represents four connected tubes of the recent organ-pipe - coral (_Sarcinula musica_) of New Holland, to show the - structure of this type of Zoophytes. Coloured figures of the - live polypes of this coral are given in Wonders of Geology, - sixth edition, vol. ii. plate vi. - - Fig. 3. A polished slab of marble, the white markings in which - are produced by sections of the tubes of the same species of - coral as that represented in fig. 1. - - Fig. 4. (_Catenipora escharoides._) The fossil here delineated is - well known to collectors by the name of "_chain-coral_" - derived from the elegant cateniform markings produced by - transverse sections of the parallel tubes, which being of an - oval form, and in close apposition, give rise to chain-like - figures, as shown in figs. 5 and 6. From Dudley. - -This fossil coral abounds in that division of the Silurian formation -termed the Wenlock or Dudley limestones, wherever these deposits -occur. The most exquisite specimens are obtained from the Falls of -the Ohio, at Louisville, in the United States of America. A coral -reef of the Silurian epoch here exists in the bed of the mighty -stream of fresh water, almost as perfect as when growing in its -native sea! The river dashes over the entire mass in the season -of high water; but in those periods when the stream is low, the -ridge of coral is exposed, and its surface then presents the most -extraordinary display of Silurian corals, of numerous species and -genera, standing in relief on the more compact masses of the rock. -The substance of the corals, being siliceous, resists the action -of the cataract, while the softer calcareous matter which filled -up the interstices of the tubes, lamellæ, &c. of the zoophytes, is -washed away atom by atom; and natural dissections are formed, which -art would in vain attempt to imitate. Dr. Yandell, of the Medical -College, Louisville, and Dr. Clapp, of New Albany, have splendid -collections from the Falls, which every geologist and intelligent -traveller who visits Kentucky should not fail to examine: the masses -of Astreæ, Madrepores, &c. are so fresh in their aspect, as not to be -readily distinguished from the recent specimens of the same genera -which are placed beside them.[26] - -[Footnote 26: See Sir Charles Lyell's Travels in the United States; -and Drs. Yandell and Shumard's "Contributions to the Geology of -Kentucky." Louisville, 1847.] - - Fig. 5, is a transverse section of a mass of chain-coral from - Dudley. - - Fig. 6. The same, as seen by transmitted light. - -[Illustration: Plate XXXVI.] - - -PLATE XXXVI. - -Various Fossil Corals from different Formations. - - Figs. 1, 2, 3. (_Cyathophyllum turbinatum_, of Goldfuss.) These - three turbinated or top-shaped corals are referable to a - genus of which many species are exceedingly abundant in the - Wenlock or Dudley limestone of the Silurian System. They - belong to the Anthozoa, or flower-like corals. The living - animal, of which the _coral_ is but the durable earthy - fabric or skeleton, bore a close analogy to the sea-anemone, - or animal flower (_Actinia_), of our coasts. Each of these - specimens belonged but to a single animal: the Cyathophylla - are not, like the tubipores previously described, an - aggregation of numerous individual polypes.[27] - - -[Footnote 27: For a popular account of the nature of Corals and the -animals which form them, see Wonders of Geology, vol. ii. Lect. vi. -p. 589.] - - Fig. 4. A small coral (_Fungia_) from Dudley. - - Fig. 5. On this block of mountain limestone there are the remains - of two different kinds of corals. The upper cylindrical part - is a fragment of Cyathophyllum, to the lower part of which - is attached a species of another genus (_Michelinia_). - - Fig. 6, is a small coral (_Fungia numismalis_, of Goldfuss), - common in the Oolite. - - Fig. 7. A piece of encrinital limestone, from Derbyshire, having - a conical cast--that is, the stone has been moulded in the - interior or cavity--of a turbinated coral (_Turbinolia_). - - Fig. 8. A longitudinal section, showing the transverse cells and - lamellæ of the same kind of coral (_Cyathophyllum_) as figs. - 1, 2, 3. - - Fig. 9. A species of Turbinolia (_Turbinolia complanata_, of - Goldfuss). - - Fig. 10. A small turbinated coral (_Turbinolia mitrata_, of - Hesinger), from the Silurian strata of Gothland. - - Fig. 11. A Turbinolia from the Silurian deposits of Sweden. - - Fig. 12. A remarkable coral (_Petraia_, of Munster), from the - Devonian strata. - - Figs. 13 & 14, are sections of Cyathophylla, like figs. 1, 2, 3, - to exhibit the internal structure. - - Figs. 15 & 16. Two elegant simple corals (_Caryophyllia - centralis_, of Mantell), from the chalk of Kent. The form - and disposition of the lamellæ of the cavity, as seen at the - upper part of the specimens, are shown at _a_ and _b_. - - Fig. 17. A transverse and polished section of a species of - Cyathophyllum, from the Devonian strata, at Blackenberg on - the Rhine. - -[Illustration: Plate XXXVII.] - - -PLATE XXXVII. - -Various Fossil Compound Corals. - - Fig. 1. A beautiful specimen of Star-coral (_Astrea ananas_, of - Goldfuss), from the Silurian strata of Sweden. At _a_, is - shown "the mode in which, as in proliferous flowers, new - polypes bud from the centre of the parent disk. At _b_, is - represented the growth in the recent _Madrepora stellaris_ - of Linnæus."--_Mr. Parkinson._ - - Fig. 2. An elegant Cyathophyllum (_C. dianthus_, of Goldfuss), - from the Silurian formation of Sweden. At _c_, (the lower - part of the plate,) is shown its probable mode of increase. - - Figs. 3 & 6. A columnar compound coral (_Lithostrotion striatum_, - of Lhwyd), from the mountain limestone of Derbyshire; - fig. 3, is a transverse section of fig. 6, showing the - basaltiform arrangement of the columns. - - Fig. 4. "A fossil madrepore, from Lincolnshire."--_Mr. Parkinson._ - - Fig. 5. A very elegant and abundant coral (_Caryophyllia - annularis_, of Parkinson), in the bed termed "Coral Rag," of - the oolite of Wiltshire, Berkshire, &c. Large conglomerated - masses of this branched species form a considerable - proportion of the fossil coral-reef which traverses some - parts of the oolite: and when this bed is worked for road - materials, blocks of this coral, more or less changed into - calcareous spar, may be seen lying on the way-side. Near - Faringdon, in Berkshire, a quarry in the Coral-rag has - yielded many beautiful examples. - - Fig. 7. Called "Spider-stone," by Mr. Parkinson. It is a species - of _Astrea_: _d_, is an enlarged view of one of the - polype-cells. - - Fig. 8. A beautiful fossil coral, from Transylvania (apparently a - species of Lithostrotion?). - - Fig. 9. The specimen figured is from the mountain limestone of - the Mendip Hills. (It is the _Michelinia tenuisepta_, of - Phillips; _Manon favosum_, of Goldfuss?) It is described - by Mr. Parkinson as "bearing somewhat of a honeycomb - appearance." - -[Illustration: Plate XXXVIII.] - - -PLATE XXXVIII. - -Fossil Corals, and Coral Marbles. - - Fig. 1, is a polished slab of the carboniferous limestone, - well known as the Kilkenny marble, and much used for - chimney-pieces. The figures exposed on the surface are - produced by sections of enclosed corals (some species of - Cyathophyllum), which are transmuted into white calcareous - spar. - - Fig. 2. A coral of the same kind (_Cyathophyllum turbinatum_), - from the mountain limestone of Derbyshire. - - Fig. 3. A polished slice of Derbyshire marble, the markings on - which are derived from sections of enclosed branches of - corals (_Syringopora_), resembling that figured in Pl. XXXIV. - - Fig. 4. An elegant compound coral, called "Spider-stone" by - collectors (_Astrea arachnoides_, of Dr. Fleming); from - Wiltshire: the geological habitat uncertain; probably the - Oolite. - - Fig. 5. This specimen appears to be a cluster of corals belonging - to the genus Cyathophyllum. - - Fig. 6. A magnified sketch of one of the cells of fig. 4. - - Fig. 7. A polished transverse section of a coral; the precise - relation of this species is not certain. - - Fig. 8. This is a very abundant coral in some of the beds of - mountain limestone, (_Lithodendron fasciculatum_, of - Phillips.) The specimen figured is from Clifton, near - Bristol. The marble cups, and other ornaments, manufactured - from the rocks near that place, often exhibit sections of - this species. - - Fig. 9. A mass of coral from Ingleborough, (_Cyathophyllum - fungites._) - - Fig. 10. A polished slice of a beautiful marble richly marked by - the sections of the enclosed corals (_Astrea undulata_, of - Dr. Fleming); from Switzerland: probably from the Oolitic or - Jurassic formation. - - Fig. 11. Vertical section of a fossil coral, showing the - transverse arrangement of the internal cells. - - Figs. 12 & 13. These specimens are polished sections of a very - beautiful compound coral (_Astrea Tisburiensis_, of Miss - Benett), which occurs in a silicified state in the Portland - beds that are quarried at Tisbury, in Wiltshire. Masses of - chert (a kind of coarse silex or flint), wholly made up of - this coral, are often met with, and when sliced and polished - are extremely beautiful and interesting; the originally - calcareous fabric of the zoophytes being perfectly - transmuted into silex, and the interstices filled up with a - similar substance, but of a different colour.[28] - -[Footnote 28: Specimens of the Tisbury Astrea, and of most if not -all of the coralline marbles figured and described, may be obtained -of Professor Tennant; and also vases, &c. of the various marbles of -Derbyshire.] - -[Illustration: Plate XXXIX.] - - -PLATE XXXIX. - -Various Fossil Corals and Sponges, or Amorphozoa. - - Fig. 1. A coral from the Dudley limestone. (_Favosites?_) - - Fig. 2, is a vertical section of figs. 4 and 5, to show the - internal arrangement of the cells. - - Fig. 3. The under surface of a very common species (_Favosites - Gothlandica_, of Goldfuss); from the Wenlock limestone of - Dudley. A magnified view of part of the surface, to show the - honeycomb structure, is given in fig. 7. - - Fig. 4, the under, and fig. 5, the upper surface, of a small - coral (_Cyclolites ?_) from the Oolite. - - Fig. 6. A silicified branched sponge, (_Spongites lobatus_, of - Dr. Fleming,) from the chalk of Berkshire. - - Fig. 9, is a beautiful silicified, lobate, spongoid body, - (_Siphonia_,) probably from the greensand. Siliceous - cruciform spicula obtained from this fossil are represented - in fig. 8. - -Zoophytes of this kind, like many of the sponges, have their tissues -strengthened by, and largely composed of spicula, which vary in -form and size in the different species and genera. Many sponges and -Siphoniæ in flint, and in the chert of the greensand, consist almost -entirely of spicula, which may be easily detected by a slightly -magnifying power. - - Fig. 10. Another common Dudley Coral. (_Porites pyriformis_, of - Mr. Lonsdale.) - - Fig. 11. A beautiful coral (_Explanaria flexuosa_, of Dr. - Fleming), from the Coral Rag of Steeple Ashton, Wilts. The - outline indicates the mode of increase, according to Mr. - Parkinson, of this form of zoophyte. - - Fig. 12. This is a portion of a delicate ramose sponge - (_Spongites ramosus_, of Mantell), whose remains are - abundant in the chalk-flints, and have given rise to the - irregularly branched siliceous nodules. A specimen nine - inches long, with seven branches, is figured in Fossils of - the South Downs, Pl. XV. fig. 11. Siliceous spicula are - thickly interspersed throughout the mass. - -[Illustration: Plate XL.] - - -PLATE XL. - -Fossil Corals, &c. - - Fig. 1. The shells of Oysters, and other mollusca, are subjected - to the ravages of a parasitical sponge, (_Cliona_, of Dr. - Grant,) which is beset with minute siliceous spines or - spicula, and inhabits hollows formed in the substance of the - shell. Shells thus honeycombed, as it were, may often be - found on the sea-shore with the excavated parts filled up - by sponge. I have shells collected by my eldest son on the - shores of New Zealand, that are hollowed out in a similar - manner, and occupied by sponge. Whether these cavities are - produced by mechanical means, or are the result of the - decay and absorption of the shell induced by the growth of - the parasite, are questions still undetermined. There are - several kinds of shells found fossil, which were infested - with a similar parasitical sponge; and when the cavities - thus produced have been filled up by flint, and the shell - has subsequently decomposed, or been worn away, the surface - of the flint is studded with the casts of the cells, in - the form of small irregular globular bodies, connected by - filaments or strings of flint. The fossil, fig. 1, is a - fossil of this kind, described by Mr. Parkinson as being - "covered with minute round bodies, the nature of which is - unknown;" fig. 12, is an enlarged view of five of these - globular casts connected by filaments. - -The origin of these fossils was first pointed out by the Rev. W. -Conybeare.[29] The fibrous shells of a fossil genus of bivalves named -_Inoceramus_, of which several species abound in the Chalk, appear -to have been particularly subjected to depredations of this kind. -Hence among partially water-worn flints, specimens of the siliceous -casts are common; figs. 8, and 10, are examples from the Hackney -gravel-pits. - -[Footnote 29: See Medals of Creation, vol. i. p. 396, fig. 94.] - -Mr. Morris has named these fossils, _Clionites_; fig. 1, is _C. -Parkinsoni_. - - Figs. 2, 4, 7, are portions of a recent species of jointed - zoophyte (_Isis_), from a modern concretionary deposit on - the shores of the Mediterranean, Sicily. - - Fig. 3. A branched fossil coral (_Millepora ramosa_, of Dr. - Fleming), imbedded in compact oolitic limestone from - Wiltshire. A portion of the surface magnified is represented - in fig. 11. - - Fig. 5, appears to be a fungiform Spongite; its locality is not - mentioned. - - Fig. 6. Portion of a fossil coral (_Ceriopora_), from - Switzerland. - - Figs. 8, & 10. These pebbles have the surface covered with casts - of Clionites (_Clionites Conybeari_, of Mr. Morris.[30]) - -[Footnote 30: Mr. Morris thus defines the generic character of these -fossil bodies:--"Reticular masses of a more or less compressed -globular, elliptical, or polygonal form; rugose and sometimes -papillose; connected by minute tubuli or fibrillæ. Dendritical, -dichotomous, or irregularly aggregated." _Clionites Conybeari_ is -characterized by "Cells irregular, somewhat polygonal, with one -or more papillæ; surface finely tuberculated, connecting threads -numerous." Note from Mr. Morris, April, 1850. - -The fossils, however, do not appear to be the silicified sponge -(_Cliona_) by which the ravages in the shell have been effected; they -are merely casts of the cavities produced.] - - Fig. 9. Fragments of the radicle processes of attachment of some - Apiocrinite or Lily-shaped animal in chalk; see description - of Plate LI. - - Fig. 14. A section of a siliceous nodule; probably the cellular - appearance is inorganic: fig. 13, is a magnified section of - the cells. - -[Illustration: Plate XLI.] - - -PLATE XLI. - -A Silicified cup-shaped Sponge, from Touraine. - - (_Chenendopora Parkinsoni_, of Michelin. - _Spongites Townsendi_, of Mantell.) - -This beautiful plate of a petrified zoophyte allied to the Spongia, -formed the frontispiece to Mr. Parkinson's second volume. The fossil -delineated is from Touraine in France, and is one of the most perfect -examples of this kind hitherto observed. It belongs to a group -of cup-shaped _Amorphozoa_, (as these organisms are now named by -naturalists, from the great irregularity of shape which they assume,) -termed _Chenendopora_. The original organic substance is transmuted -into silex, and the interstices are filled up with carbonate of -lime. The same species occurs in the greensand in the Vale of -Pewsey in Wiltshire, and, I believe, also in the white-chalk; for -many cyathiform flints from the South Downs appear to have the same -internal structure. - -In the so-called "gravel-pits," near Faringdon, in Berkshire,--which -are quarries of a loosely-aggregated grit of the greensand, almost -wholly made up of the relics of shells, corals, amorphozoa, -&c.--numerous sponges of this genus are met with. One beautiful -species (_Chenendopora fungiformis_) has acquired, from its cup-like -form, the local name of "petrified salt-cellar."[31] - -[Footnote 31: Wonders of Geology, vol. ii. p. 637; and Medals of -Creation, "Excursion to Faringdon," vol. ii. p. 923.] - -[Illustration: Plate XLII.] - - -PLATE XLII. - -The Fossils represented in this Plate are chiefly Zoophytes in Flint. - - Fig. 1. A flint from the gravel-pits at Hackney. Its form is - derived from the enclosed zoophyte, part of whose structure - is exposed in the upper portion of the figure. This - fossil zoophyte (_Choanites Königi_, of Mantell) is very - abundant in some of the chalk strata, and many of the most - beautifully marked pebbles cut and polished for brooches by - the lapidaries of Brighton, Bognor, and the Isle of Wight, - are the silicified soft parts of this animal. The original - was of a subglobular form, and probably of a soft fleshy - consistence; it had a deep central cavity, whence numerous - tubes diverged, and ramified throughout the mass; it was - fixed at the base by radicle or root-like processes.[32] - -[Footnote 32: See Medals of Creation, p. 264. "Thoughts on a Pebble," -(eighth edition,) contains coloured figures and a full description of -these fossils.] - - Fig. 2. This is another characteristic and abundant fossil - zoophyte of the chalk and flint. The specimen figured - is a water-worn pebble, and therefore gives but obscure - indications of the form and structure of the original. - The fungiform flints--called in Sussex petrified - mushrooms--belong to the same genus (_Ventriculites_, of - Mantell): and highly interesting specimens occur in which - some part of the zoophyte is invested with flint, and - the other part expanded in the chalk. The original was - probably a polyparium--that is, the skeleton or support of - an aggregation of coral-polypes--of a funnel shape, the - polype-shells being situated on the inner surface: the base - was attached by root-like fibres.[33] The polype-cells are - cylindrical and regular, and clusters of beautiful casts of - them often occur on flints. - -[Footnote 33: Consult Medals of Creation, pp. 270-279: and Wonders of -Geology, sixth edition, p. 638.] - - Fig. 3. This specimen is described by Mr. Parkinson as "a - pear-shaped alcyonite from Switzerland." It is probably one - of those fossil zoophytes allied to the sponges (called - _Siphonia_), in which the upper part is of a bulbous or - pear-like form, and is supported by a stem with root-like - processes at the base. The bulb has a central cavity - studded with irregular pores, that communicates with the - parallel longitudinal tubes of which the stem is composed: a - structure admitting of that ready ingress and egress of the - sea-water, which this class of organisms requires. There are - numerous species in the greensand of the chalk formation.[34] - -[Footnote 34: Medals of Creation, p. 258, Lign. 56.] - - Fig. 4. A variety of Siphonia (_Jerea excavata_, of Michelin), - from the greensand of Wiltshire. - - Fig. 5. A silicified Siphonia from Saumur. - - Fig. 6. A Ventriculite from a gravel-pit; the markings are - produced by the exposed and partially abraded outer - integument, which in perfect examples consists of a regular - net-work of sub-cylindrical fibres. - - Fig. 7, is a transverse section of a Siphonia (_Siphonia - pyriformis_ of Goldfuss). - - Fig. 8. A nearly perfect specimen of a similar fossil. In fig. 7, - are shown sections of tubes passing from the periphery to - the centre; in fig. 8, the central aperture of the cavity of - the bulb, and part of the stem, are displayed. - - Figs. 9, & 10, are imperfect specimens of Choanites: fig. 10, - is a vertical section showing the central cavity and the - connected tubes. - - Fig. 11, is another example of _Siphonia pyriformis_. - - Fig. 12, a vertical, and fig. 13, a transverse section, of the - same species of Siphonia. - - Fig. 14. A small turbinated calcareous spongite from Switzerland. - - Fig. 15. The appearance of the animal membrane exposed by - immersion of the fossil (fig. 14), in diluted hydrochloric - acid. - -[Illustration: Plate XLIII.] - - -PLATE XLIII. - -Fossil Corals, and other Zoophytes. - - Figs. 1, 2, 3, & 4, are representations of different aspects of - a simple coral (_Fungia polymorpha_, of Goldfuss); the - locality is uncertain. Fig. 1, the base; fig. 2, a magnified - representation of part of the same; fig. 3, magnified view - of part of the lamellated surface of fig. 4. - - Fig. 5. The nature of this fossil is not obvious; it may be a - rolled Siphonia. - - Fig. 6, is a fine specimen of a Siphonia (_Jerea pyriformis_, - of Lamouroux). At both extremities the apertures of the - numerous tubuli are seen. - - Figs. 7, 8, & 9, are varieties of the same species of fossil - sponge (_Scyphia articulata_, of Goldfuss), from Switzerland. - - Fig. 10. A spongite of a very peculiar form. - - Fig. 11. A spongite investing a fossil shell (_Nerita_), from - Faringdon. - - Fig. 12, is an imperfect specimen of a Ventriculite - (_Ventriculites alcyonoides_, of Mantell), from the chalk of - Wiltshire. - - Fig. 13. A calcareous spongite which has been immersed in dilute - hydrochloric acid to show its structure. - - Fig. 14. A pebble deriving its shape from a zoophyte apparently - related to the Ventriculites (_Spongites labyrinthicus_, - of Mantell). The aperture at the base has arisen from the - decomposition of the process of attachment. - - Fig. 15. A pebble enclosing part of the base of a Ventriculite; - the circular spots on the large end are sections of the - ramifications of the stirps or base of the zoophyte; for - this figure and the following are drawn in an inverted - position. - - Fig. 16, is a similar fossil, split vertically, and showing the - enclosed stem of the Ventriculite. - -[Illustration: Plate XLIV.] - - -PLATE XLIV. - -Fossil Zoophytes. - - Fig. 1. A spongite (_Scyphia costata_, of Goldfuss), from - Switzerland. The fossil spongeous bodies named _Scyphia_, - are characterized by the "mass or body being either - cylindrical, simple or branched; fistulous, and terminating - in a rounded pit; entirely composed of a firm reticulated - tissue."[35] Like the other bodies comprised in the group - of Amorphozoa, the form in this genus is exceedingly - diversified, and as the structure is often but obscurely - shown, the determination of these fossils is oftentimes - impossible. It is however convenient, in the present state - of our knowledge, to distinguish the principal kinds by - names which may be modified or abandoned, when the structure - and natural affinities of the original organisms are more - accurately determined. - -[Footnote 35: Medals of Creation, p. 237.] - - Fig. 2. Another species of Scyphia from Switzerland; a small - portion of the surface magnified is seen at _a_. - - Fig. 3. The peculiar form and tissue of another genus of - Amorphozoa (_Cnemidium rimulosum_, of Goldfuss), are shown - in this beautiful specimen. - - Fig. 4, is a section of a chalk flint, from Wycombe Heath; the - purple body, partially invested by a white border, is - evidently a mass of the soft parts of some zoophyte, which - served as a nucleus to the siliceous nodule. A purple - or pink hue often prevails in the sections of zoophytes - immersed in flint, and doubtless depends on the original - colour of the living animal. - - Fig. 5. A very fine spongite (_Chenendopora fungiformis_, of - Michelin), from France. - - Fig. 6. This is evidently a fossil zoophyte, but the structure - exposed is not sufficiently characteristic to determine the - genus. - - Fig. 7. A beautiful fungiform Scyphia. - - Fig. 8. This elegant specimen, which Mr. Parkinson highly valued, - is evidently a _Choanite_ imbedded in flint. The body - retains a pink colour, and is surrounded by a white band, - which is probably the remains of the cortical or external - tissue of the original zoophyte. I have seen many transverse - sections in which the central mass was either of a pink or - purple colour, and encircled by a white zone, in the squared - flints of the walls of churches and other ancient edifices - in Sussex.[36] - -[Footnote 36: Polished specimens of the pebbles of the Isle of Wight, -exhibiting sections of the Choanites, Ventriculites, &c., may be -obtained of _Mr. Fowlestone_, Lapidary, 4, Victoria Arcade, Ryde; -who also has generally on sale a good series of the fossils of the -Island. The minute organisms that occur in flints, many of which are -highly interesting objects when seen by transmitted light under a -good microscope, can be procured of _Mr. Topping_, that well-known -preparer of microscopic objects, New Winchester Street, Pentonville -Hill; and fossil infusorial earths, &c. in great perfection of _Mr. -Poulton_, Microscopic Artist, Reading, Berks.] - -[Illustration: Plate XLV.] - - -PLATE XLV. - -Fossil Corals and other Zoophytes. - - Fig. 1. "A fossil body, from near Bath, the surface of which - is covered by stelliform markings, which seem to have - been formed by a coralloid."--_Parkinson._ This fossil - is supposed by Mr. Morris to be the cast of one of those - mollusca which form and inhabit hollows in stone, coral, &c. - (hence termed _Lithodomi_). In the present instance, the - mollusk had bored into a mass of coral, the imprints of the - stellular polype-cells of which remain on the surface of the - cast. It closely resembles fig. 3, Plate XXXVI. of Faujas - St. Fond, Hist. Mont. St. Pierre, which is described as a - coral; it is the _Astrea geometrica_, of Goldfuss. - - Fig. 2. A fossil coral from Maestricht. At _b_, is shown an - enlarged view of one of the stars. - - Fig. 3. "A siliceous fossil from Essex."--_Mr. Parkinson._ - (_Ventriculites racemosus_, of Mr. Toulmin Smith.) I must - confess myself unable to determine the nature of this - specimen. - - Figs. 4, & 6. Corals from the cretaceous strata of St. Peter's - Mountain, Maestricht (_Gorgonia bacillaris ?_ of Goldfuss). - At _a_, is shown one of the cells in fig. 6, magnified. - - Fig. 5. A pebble, split asunder, exposing the remains of a - spongite, which formed the nucleus of the flint.[37] - -[Footnote 37: For an account of the formation of flint, see Wonders -of Geology, vol. i. p. 300. (_6th Edition._)] - - Fig. 7. Another spongite in a pebble; from Sewardstone, Essex. - - Fig. 8. A water-worn, silicified, or rather chalcedonic - Ventriculite, from France. - - Fig. 9. A very beautiful transverse section of the stem of a - Ventriculite in a flint; the colour of the original being - retained. This was another precious gem in the estimation - of the amiable author of "The Organic Remains of a Former - World." - - Fig. 10. A portion of a Choanite in flint; from gravel, Islington. - - Fig. 11. A perfect specimen of a small simple coral (Fungia), - from Maestricht. - - Fig. 12. A spongite in a pebble; similar to fig. 5. Such - specimens are very common in the shingle along the sea-shore - at Brighton, Dover, &c. - - Fig. 13. A fossil coral in limestone, from Maestricht. It is too - imperfectly defined to determine the species or genus; an - enlarged sketch of the structure is given at _c_. - -[Illustration: Plate XLVI.] - - -PLATE XLVI. - -Pentacrinus. - - Fig. 1. Specimen of a recent _Pentacrinus Caput Medusæ_, from the - Caribbean Sea. - -The Lily-shaped animals (_Crinoidea_), so named from a fancied -resemblance of some species when in a state of repose to a closed -lily, may be compared to a Feather-star (_Comatula_) fixed to -a jointed column, with its mouth upwards; the base of the stem -being attached to the rock by root-like processes. The only known -living genus inhabits the seas of the West Indies, and the specimen -figured represents the body (or upper part of the animal), with a -considerable portion of the stem remaining attached. The Crinoidea -are divided into two groups; Encrinites, having the ossicula -(little bones) of the stem rounded, and Pentacrinites, in which the -ossicula of the column are pentagonal, or angular. The Crinoidea are -characterized by having a fixed base, a column or stem composed of -numerous separate articulated pieces of a solid calcareous substance, -supporting on its summit a vase, or receptacle, formed by a series -of closely adjusted plates, which contain the body, or viscera. The -upper part of the receptacle is covered by a plated integument, on -one side of which an aperture or mouth is placed. From the upper -margin proceed five articulated tentacula or arms, which subdivide -into branches that in some species are very numerous and of extreme -tenuity. On the inside, the arms are beset with articulated cirri or -feelers. The joints composing the column are perforated by a central -opening; there are also side-arms, that radiate from the column in -groups of five at different points. When the animal is alive, the -skeleton is covered by a soft integument, as in the star-fishes, and -the arms spread out and expand, forming a net, by which living prey -is captured and conveyed to the mouth by the tentacula, in the same -manner as in the fresh-water polype or Hydra. - -The fossil remains of Crinoidea consist of the ossicula of the -column, arms, and tentacula; of the plates of the vase, or -receptacle; and of the peduncle, or base of attachment. This family -of Radiaria, though now of such excessive rarity, swarmed in the -seas that deposited the ancient secondary strata; whole mountain -chains and extensive tracts of country are composed of strata almost -entirely made up of their fossil remains.[38] The number and species -of genera is very great. - -[Footnote 38: Wonders of Geology, vol. ii. p. 645. Medals of -Creation, p. 312.] - - Fig. 2, is a remarkably beautiful specimen of the receptacle of - a Pentacrinite from Gloucestershire, showing the arms - introverted, as if the animal had suddenly perished while in - the act of closing over its prey; the stem is wanting. - - Fig. 3. A spongite (_Chenendopora subplana_, of Michelin) from - the greensand of the Vale of Pewsey, in Wiltshire. - -[Illustration: Plate XLVII.] - - -PLATE XLVII. - -Fossil Remains of Crinoidea. - -In this beautiful plate Mr. Parkinson has figured a great variety -of ossicula and portions of stems belonging to many species and -genera of Crinoidea; the markings or sculpturing on the articulating -surfaces of the columnar ossicula are represented with great -accuracy. It is not within the plan of this work to give detailed -descriptions of these numerous detached parts; a few of the most -interesting objects only will be particularized. - -The specimens figured in the upper part of the plate, figs. 1 to 28, -are cylindrical ossicula, and portions of stems of Encrinites: those -in the lower division are for the most part pentagonal, and therefore -belong to Pentacrinites. - - Fig. 24. The "Tortoise Encrinite," of Mr. Parkinson, (_Marsupites - Milleri_, of Mantell,) from the chalk of Kent. The specimen - figured is the receptacle or body of a very remarkable - crinoideal animal which forms the link that unites the - Lily-shaped animals with the Star-fishes; like the former, - the receptacle is composed of articulated plates, closed - at the top by a tessellated plate-work with a buccal - aperture, and surrounded by five flexible arms; but the - original animal, like the Star-fishes, was destitute of a - stem, and could float through the water at pleasure. Its - true structure was first pointed out by me in 1822;[39] the - name Marsupite was suggested by the purse-like form. In the - figure, the base of the receptacle is uppermost. Fig. 30, is - a single plate of a Marsupite attached to a piece of chalk. - -[Footnote 39: See "Fossils of the South Downs."] - - Figs. 31, 35, 38, 39, 40, 41, 74, 75, 76, 77. These are portions - of a small species of Encrinite (_Apiocrinus ellipticus_) - peculiar to the white chalk, in some localities of which the - detached ossicula and peduncles are abundant. At Northfleet, - near Gravesend, these fossils are often met with. Figs. 75, - and 76, are portions of the receptacle with part of the - column; figs. 31, 38, and 39, are parts of the processes of - attachment. I have never seen any specimen with the arms.[40] - -[Footnote 40: Medals of Creation, p. 321.] - - Fig. 34. This is part of the receptacle and stem of another small - chalk Encrinite (_Bourgeticrinus_, of D'Orbigny) from Kent; - it is remarkable for the very slight increase in bulk of the - receptacle, and the peculiar form of the plates of which it - is composed. - - Figs. 36 & 37. Two views of the receptacle of a very remarkable - crinoidean animal (_Pentremites florealis_, of Say), from - the cherty carboniferous limestone of Kentucky. This - zoophyte, though resembling the Crinoidea in having a - plated receptacle supported by an articulated stem, has a - remarkable affinity to the Sea-urchins (_Echinidæ_) in the - porous bands and pentagonal aperture, and in being destitute - of arms or tentacula. Some of the Kentucky limestone beds - swarm with the remains of these zoophytes.[41] - -[Footnote 41: Medals of Creation, p. 327.] - - Fig. 47. "Two ossicula of the Lily Encrinite immersed in diluted - muriatic acid, by which the animal membrane was exposed, - and is seen hanging in flocculæ from the bottom of the - fossil,"--_Mr. Parkinson._ - - Figs. 57, 64, 66. Part of the stem, and the articulating surfaces - of two ossicles of a very elegant pentacrinite (_Pentacrinus - scalaris_, of Goldfuss), from the Lias of Lyme Regis. - - Figs. 53, 56, 59, 61, 62, 63, 65, 67. Portions of stems, and the - various modifications of the ossicula of another Lias - Pentacrinite (_Pentacrinus basaltiformis_, of Goldfuss). - - Fig. 79. This elegant little crinoidean receptacle was named - the "Clove Encrinite," by Mr. Parkinson, from its form; - (_Eugeniacrinus caryophyllatus_, of Goldfuss). It is from - the Oolite of Mount Randen, in Switzerland.[42] - -[Footnote 42: Ibid. p. 327.] - - Figs. 80, 81, 82, & 83. Appear to be fossil corals of the genus - Ceriopora. - -[Illustration: Plate XLVIII.] - - -PLATE XLVIII. - -The Lily Encrinite (_Encrinites monileformis_). - -This exquisite species of the extinct Crinoideans which swarmed in -the seas of the secondary ages of Geology, is equally interesting and -attractive to the amateur collector and the scientific observer. The -specimen figured is a charming example of the "_Stone Lily_" partly -expanded, attached to a block of limestone studded with encrinal -ossicula. Mr. Parkinson informed me that it was formerly in the -collection of Mr. Jacob Forster, and cost him twenty guineas; from -five to ten guineas is now the usual price for a specimen in a good -state of preservation, with any part of the column attached. This -Encrinite is not known to occur in England. The specimens seen in -collections are for the most part from Lower Saxony: this species has -only been found in the limestone strata called "_Muschelkalk_" one -of the subdivisions of the _Trias_, or New Red Sandstone formation, -of Germany.[43] The most celebrated locality of these fossils is -in Brunswick, near the village of Erkerode, about two miles from -the town bearing the same name. The bed in which they are found is -a soft argillaceous cream-coloured limestone, about one foot and a -half in thickness; and the stone is composed chiefly of trochites, or -detached ossicula of the stems, and a few fragile shells and corals. - -[Footnote 43: Medals of Creation, vol. i. p. 322. Wonders of Geology, -vol. ii. pp. 534, 549.] - -An elaborate account of the structure of the skeleton of the Lily -Encrinite is given by Mr. Miller, in his valuable work, "The -Natural History of the Lily-shaped Animals," (1 vol. 4to. 1821.) -Mr. Parkinson had previously carefully investigated the different -parts which enter into the composition of the receptacle and column, -and had given them names analogous to those employed to designate -the bones of the skeleton in vertebrated animals. This nomenclature -has very properly been abandoned; but I subjoin Mr. Parkinson's -description of the figures, to record his ingenuity and skill in -dissecting organic remains:-- - - "Fig. 1, The Lily Encrinite, with part of its vertebral column - attached. In this specimen is seen the extensive capacity - for motion yielded by the peculiar form of the vertebra; - in the superior part of the column; and by the fortunate - removal of a portion of the fingers, a fair view is given of - the natural arrangement of the tentacula. - - Fig. 2. The pentagonal base, composed of the ossa innominata, and - forming with the scapulæ and clavicles, the pelvis, in which - were contained the organs of digestion, &c. - - Fig. 3. The Lily Encrinite, detached from its vertebral column. - - _a_, the centre of its base, formed by five cuneiform ossicula, - or _ossa innominata_. - - a, one of the _ossa innominata_ detached. - - _b_, the ribs, or _articuli trapezoides_; forming, with the preceding - bones, the pentagonal base. - - b, one of the ribs detached, showing its internal surface. - - _c_, the clavicles. - - c 1, the interior surface. - - c 2, the superior surface. - - _d_, the scapulæ. - - d 1, the inferior surface. - - d 2, the superior surface. - - _e_, the arms. - - f, the two first bones of the arms united. - - _g, h, i, k, l, m_, the bones of the fingers gradually diminishing. - - Fig. 4. Part of the supposed base, or organ of attachment, of the - Lily Encrinite. - - Fig. 5. The supposed base, or organ of attachment, of the '_Cap - Encrinite_.'" - -[Illustration: Plate XLIX.] - - -PLATE XLIX. - -Remains of Encrinites. - - Fig. 1. A polished slab of limestone formed of portions of the - stems of encrinites; the white figures are produced by - sections of the calcareous spar into which the ossicula - are transmuted. The dark spots are the cavities of the - entrochites, filled with mineral matter of a different - colour. - - Fig. 2, is the pentagonal base of the receptacle of the - Derbyshire Encrinite. - - Fig. 3. A mass of Derbyshire encrinal marble, with numerous - portions of stems lying in relief. - -The Derbyshire encrinal marble is so extensively employed in the -manufacture of tables, chimney-pieces, vases, &c., that it must be -familiar to every reader; and yet probably but few are aware of -its origin, or of the nature of the fossil remains of which it is -composed, and that give rise to the elegant figures in which its -beauty consists. On Middleton Moor, near Matlock, extensive quarries -of this marble are worked, and good specimens of the ossicula and -stems may be easily obtained.[44] - -[Footnote 44: See Medals of Creation for "A Geological Excursion from -Matlock to Middleton Moor, returning by Stonnis," p. 968.] - - Fig. 4. Part of the stem of a large Encrinite, (_Cyathocrinus - rugosus_, of Miller,) from the Wenlock limestone, Dudley. - - Fig. 5. A fine specimen of the lower part of the stem, and the - root-like processes of attachment of the base, of the same - species as fig. 4: from Dudley. - - Fig. 6, is called the "_Screw or Pulley-stone_" of Derbyshire. - These curious fossils are found in the chert (a kind of - flint) which occurs in veins and layers in some of the - limestone strata: they are siliceous casts of the interior - cavities of the stems, and small branches of ossicula, of - Encrinites. Plate XL VII. fig. 10, is a detached specimen of - this kind. - - Fig. 7, is described by Mr. Parkinson as "a piece of marble from - Shropshire, in which is discovered a part of the pentagonal - base of the Turban or Shropshire Encrinite." - - Fig. 8, is part of the column of the same species. These - specimens belong to the Rose Encrinite (_Rhodocrinus verus_, - of Miller). - - Fig. 9. The receptacle of a very remarkable form of Encrinite, - called by Mr. Parkinson "the _Cap Encrinite_ of Derbyshire." - I can find no notice of this beautiful and unique specimen - in the work of Miller or of subsequent authors; neither am - I aware of any data by which a relation can be established - between this receptacle and the ossicula and stems, so - abundant in the carboniferous limestone of Derbyshire. - -[Illustration: Plate L.] - - -PLATE L. - -Encrinites and Pentacrinites. - - The Pear Encrinite of Bradford; Mr. Parkinson. - - (_Apiocrinus rotundus_, of Miller. - ---- _Parkinsoni_, of Bronn.) - -The most generally known of the British Crinoidea, from its size, -and abundance in one particular locality, is the "_Pear Encrinite_" -of Bradford in Wiltshire, some of the quarries of the oolite on the -heights above that picturesquely-situated town, yielding not only -immense quantities of detached plates and ossicula, but also numerous -examples of the receptacle, and occasionally the entire skeleton -from the peduncle of the base to the extremities of the arms. The -lamented Mr. Channing Pearce, and his father (now of Percy Place, -Grosvenor, Bath), when resident at Bradford, paid such unremitting -attention to the collection of these fossils, that perfect specimens -were obtained, exhibiting the entire structure of the originals; -of these some fine examples are preserved in the British Museum. -Sir Charles Lyell mentions a very interesting fact relating to the -occurrence of these Crinoidea in the strata. He states that the -upper surface of a bed of limestone at Bradford is incrusted with a -continuous pavement formed by the stony roots of the Apiocrinites; -and upon this is a layer of clay in which are the stems and bodies -(receptacles) of innumerable examples; some erect, others lying -prostrate; while throughout the clay are scattered detached arms, -stems, and receptacles. This submarine forest of Crinoideans must -therefore have flourished in the clear sea-water till invaded by a -current loaded with mud, which overwhelmed the living zoophytes, and -entombed them in the argillaceous deposit in which their remains are -now imbedded.[45] - -[Footnote 45: See Wonders of Geology, vol. ii. p. 653.] - -The receptacle of this Apiocrinite is pyriform and very smooth, the -plates are large and thin, with radiating articulated surfaces; the -stem is short, smooth, and strong, the arms are simple, and like -those of the Marsupite; the peduncle spreads out into an expanded -base, which is firmly attached to the rock; sections of this part are -generally of a purple colour. - - Fig. 1. Part of the column of the Bradford Encrinite. 2. Part - of the receptacle; a minute incrusting coral (_Bryozoa_) - is attached to the lower part, giving the stem a rough - appearance. - - Figs. 3, & 4. Surface of detached plates of the receptacle. - - Fig. 5. Portion of the column partly covered with a cortical - covering of a purple colour possibly the original investing - membrane. - - Fig. 6. A receptacle, in which a few of the ossicula of the arms - remain attached to the margin. - - Fig. 7. Another receptacle, in which the plates called by Mr. - Parkinson "clavicles and scapulæ," are retained in their - natural positions. - - Fig. 8. A receptacle, in which the principal plates are well - defined: these are named by Mr. Parkinson as follow: _a_, - clavicle; _b_, scapula; _c_, ossicula of the arms; _d_, the - last series of the same. The ossicles forming the elongated - tentacula, Mr. P. termed "_bones of the fingers_." - - Fig. 9. Portion of an encrinital stem with digitated processes: - the nature of this fossil is unknown to me. - - Fig. 10. Three united ossicula of a Pentacrinite with depressions - for side-arms: from the Lias of Lyme Regis. - - Fig. 11. A distorted pentacrinal ossicle; said to be from Africa. - - Figs. 12, & 14, are vertical polished sections of the peduncle, or - base of the stem, of the Bradford Encrinite. - - Fig. 13. Vertical section of the peduncle of a Pentacrinite from - Soissons. - - Fig. 15. A polished slab of pentacrinal marble from Charmouth, - Dorsetshire. - - Fig. 16. Variously contorted pentacrinal stems with numerous - side-arms, from Charmouth. - -[Illustration: Plate LI.] - - -PLATE LI. - -Fossil Crinoidea, or Lily-shaped Animals. - - Fig. 1. Part of the receptacle of the "_Nave Encrinite_" of Mr. - Parkinson (_Actinocrinus_, of Miller). Mountain limestone. - - Fig. 2. A portion of the receptacle of a "_Rose Encrinite_" - (_Rhodocrinus_), viewed from the base. - - Fig. 3. The "Nave Encrinite" (_Actinocrinus triacontadactylus_, - or thirty-fingered, of Miller), from the mountain limestone. - This is a good example of the structure of the receptacle - in this group of Crinoideans, which is distinguished by - the arms passing off at right angles from the periphery - of the receptacle, like the spokes of a wheel; whence the - name, Nave Encrinite. The upper part is covered by closely - adapted plates, and the buccal aperture or mouth is situated - at the side. The stem of this group is thickly beset with - side-arms. (Fig. 7 is a very small detached one.) The arms - are numerous (amounting to thirty in the species figured), - and of great length; these subdivide into jointed filaments - of extreme minuteness. Slabs of limestone are often entirely - covered with them, and many layers are wholly made up of - their aggregated remains. The plates of the receptacle are - generally highly ornamented: in one species the sculpturing - so closely resembles that of the _Marsupites ornatus_ of the - chalk, that it was with difficulty I convinced Mr. Parkinson - that the latter did not possess a stem, and therefore was - not an Actinocrinite.[46] - -[Footnote 46: See Medals of Creation, p. 325; Wonders of Geology, p. -664; Miller's Crinoidea, p. 94.] - - Figs. 4, & 5. Portions of receptacles of Actinocrinites. - - Figs. 6, & 8. Fragments of stems of a Pentacrinite (_Pentacrinus - scalaris_, of Goldfuss); from Gloucestershire. - - Fig. 9. A Pentacrinite expanded on a slab of Lias-shale. - Gloucestershire. - - Fig. 10. Stem, receptacle, and arms of a Crinoidean (probably a - _Cyathocrinite_); it is drawn in an inverted position. The - figure is stated by Mr. Parkinson to be copied "from a plate - by Dr. Capeller." Neither the locality, nor the stratum from - which it was obtained, is mentioned. - - Fig. 11. Part of the stem of a Pentacrinite (_P. basaltiformis_, - of Miller); from the Lias. Gloucestershire. - - Fig. 12. The receptacle of a Crinoidean (_Platycrinus lævis_, of - Miller); from the mountain limestone, Ireland. Fig. 13, - ossicles of the arms; and fig. 14, joints of the stems, - slightly magnified. - - Fig. 15. "The superior part of the Briaræan pentacrinite."--_Mr. - Parkinson._ (_Pentacrinus Briareus_, of Miller.) The - specimen is a slab of Lias, almost wholly made up of - crinoideal remains. In relief on the surface are the stems - and dislocated ossicles of the receptacle; the latter are - thus enumerated by Mr. Parkinson;--_a_, scapula; _b_, - clavicle; _c_, first bone of the arm; _d_, second arm-bone; - _e_, commencement of the two series of bones forming the - fingers. - - Fig. 16, is another slab of pentacrinal Lias limestone, with - portions of a stem and numerous side-arms: these are - generally electrotyped, as it were, with a brilliant - pyrites, giving a rich metallic lustre to the animal - remains. In the British Museum there are many splendid - specimens of this highly interesting family of Radiaria. I - would especially direct the intelligent visitor's attention - to a slab of stone, many feet in height and breadth, on - which a group of Pentacrinites is displayed, as palpable - and perfect as if the animals were sporting in their native - element. This matchless specimen is from Germany. - - Fig. 17. One of the small auxiliary lateral tentacles of a - Pentacrinite. - -[Illustration: Plate LII.] - - -PLATE LII. - -Pentacrinites. - - Fig. 1. This specimen displays the usual appearance of the mode - in which the arms of Pentacrinites are spread out in relief - on the pyritous lias limestone of Charmouth. - - Fig. 2. The arms, from the upper part of the receptacle to their - third or fourth subdivision of the Briaræan Pentacrinite. - Charmouth. - - Fig. 3. A small specimen, showing the ramifications and delicacy - of the extremities of the arms or tentacula. - - Fig. 4. "A fossil body, supposed to be a species of oval - encrinite."--_Mr. Parkinson._ This fossil is certainly - a coral, probably some species of Turbinolia, from the - Devonian formation. - -[Illustration: Plate LIII.] - - -PLATE LIII. - -Fossil Star-Fishes and Echini. - -The radiated animals popularly called Star-fishes, from their -stellular figure, are so abundant along our sea shores, that the -nature of the common five-rayed species (_Asterias_, or _Uraster -rubens_)[47] must be familiar to most of my readers. This species -belongs to the group in which the rays are elongated, and far exceed -in length the diameter of the disk; in another subdivision (the -_Goniaster_, or Cushion-star), the body is angular, and the lobes -or rays are short, and do not exceed in length the diameter of the -body. In another group (the _Comatula_, or Feather-star), the rays -are fringed with long jointed tentacula, which divide and subdivide -like those of the Crinoidea; and these star-fishes may, in fact, be -regarded as free Lily-shaped animals.[48] There is another tribe in -which the arms are elongated into slender rays, without grooves or -tentacula; these are called the Serpent Star-fishes (_Ophiura_). -Species of all these groups occur in a fossil state.[49] - -[Footnote 47: See Professor Forbes's delightful "History of the -British Star-Fishes."] - -[Footnote 48: In the young state the Comatulæ have a jointed -stem, and are attached to other bodies; being in this stage true -Crinoideans.] - -[Footnote 49: Medals of Creation, p. 332.] - - Fig. 1. "Part of a fossil lunated star from the chalk of - Kent."--_Mr. Parkinson._ (_Goniaster semilunata_, of - Parkinson; _Goniaster Parkinsoni_, of Prof. E. Forbes). - Remains of Star-fishes are by no means rare in the chalk - strata of Kent; in those of Sussex they are far less common. - When the "Fossils of the South Downs" was published, in - 1822, a few fragments only had been discovered. Of late - years, some beautiful examples have been obtained from - the chalk-pits near Arundel and Worthing, by Mr. Dixon, - Mr. Coombe, Mrs. Smith, of Tunbridge Wells, and other - collectors. The cabinet of the Marquess of Northampton is - very rich in this class of fossils. Several unique examples - of new species have been obtained from the chalk near - Maidstone. - - Fig. 2. "An echinite, from France."--_Mr. Parkinson._ The - locality of this fossil is uncertain; no similar specimen - is known either to Mr. Morris, or the other eminent - palæontologists I have consulted; and the original cannot be - discovered. I have reason to believe it was purchased, after - Mr. Parkinson's death, together with the greater number of - the fossils already described, by an American gentleman, and - taken to the United States. - - Fig. 3. "Part of a stellite or fossil star-fish, resembling - _Pentagonaster regularis_."--_Mr. Parkinson._ This - well-known chalk species (_Goniaster Mantelli_, of Prof. - E. Forbes), occurs frequently in an imperfect state in the - quarries near Gravesend. The collection of the Marquess - of Northampton contains a perfect and exquisite specimen - attached to a flint, from that locality. - - Fig. 4. A beautiful example of the Turban Echinite (_Cidaris - Parkinsoni_, of Dr. Fleming), from Wiltshire. - -The _Cidaris_, or Turban Echinite, belongs to the family of radiated -animals, of which the recent Sea-urchin (_Echinus sphæra_) is a -well-known example. The globular shell or envelope of these animals -is composed of numerous calcareous polygonal plates, arranged in -regular and elegant patterns, like the lines of the meridian on a -globe. These plates are externally covered with papillæ of various -sizes, to which spines of corresponding magnitude are articulated. -In some of the _Cidares_ the principal tubercles are very large, and -their spines several inches in length. The number and variety of the -animals of this family that occur in a fossil state are so great, -that a work expressly devoted to the subject would be required to -thoroughly investigate the characters and relations of the known -species. An elementary knowledge of this class of fossil remains may -be obtained by reference to "Medals of Creation," chap. xi. p. 240. - - Fig. 5. Part of the case of a Cidaris attached to a flint by its - outer surface, surrounded by upwards of twenty spines; the - interior of the shell, of a light pink colour, is exposed. - This exquisite fossil is now in the cabinet of the Marquess - of Northampton. It was purchased by Mr. Parkinson for the - sum of twenty guineas; but this was in the palmy days of - the study of organic remains, before the terms Geology and - Palæontology were invented, and when a choice relic of "a - former world" was cheap at any price, in the opinion of the - enthusiastic collector. - - Fig. 6. A Turban Echinite (_Cidaris_ (_Hemicidaris_, of Agassiz) - _crenularis_, of Lamarck): from the Coral Rag of Wiltshire. - - Fig. 7. A siliceous cast--that is, a flint that has been moulded - in the interior of the shell, and received the impress - of the internal structure--of "_Cidaris corollaris_," of - Parkinson; (_Cyphosoma correlare_, of Agassiz): from Sussex. - - Fig. 8. Cidaris with spines, from the Oolite of Stonesfield. - - Fig. 9. A specimen of one of the Cidares with large tubercles - (_Cidaris coronatus_, of Goldfuss); from the Coral Rag, - Oxfordshire. - - Fig. 10. An elegant chalk echinus (_Cidaris Königi_, of - Mantell;[50] _Cyphosoma Milleri_, of Agassiz; _C. - granulosus_, of Goldfuss): from Kent. - -[Footnote 50: Fossils of the South Downs, p. 189. (1822.)] - - Fig. 11. A fine species from the chalk at Gravesend (_Cidaris - vesiculosus_, of Goldfuss). - - Fig. 12. A peculiar type of Cidaris (_Salenia scutigera_, of - Goldfuss), from the freestone or upper greensand of - Warminster, Wilts. - - Fig. 13. Another species of the same genus (_Salenia stellulata_, - of Agassiz); from Warminster. - - Fig. 14. An enlarged view of part of the structure around the - vertex of fig. 13. - - Fig. 15. A species of Feather-star (_Comatula pectinata_, of - Goldfuss); from Solenhofen. - - Figs. 17, 18, 19, 20. "Minute _Stellitæ_ (that is, fossil - Star-fish); from Verona."--_Mr. Parkinson._ These are - probably the bodies or disks of _Ophiuræ_ deprived of their - arms. - - Fig. 16. The nature of the specimen figured is unknown to me. - -[Illustration: Plate LIV.] - - -PLATE LIV. - -Various Species of Fossil Sea-Urchins. - - Fig. 1. A large, discoidal echinite, of the type called _Clypeus_ - or _Shield-echinus_, (_Clypeus sinuatus_, of Leske,) from - the Coral Rag of Oxfordshire. This species abounds in the - beds of this division of the Oolite in Berkshire, Wiltshire, - Gloustershire, &c. - - Fig. 2. "_Echinanthites orbicularis_ (_Pygurus_) of Leske."--Mr. - Parkinson. - - Fig. 3. An imperfect flint cast of an echinus (_Discoidea_), from - the South Downs. - - Fig. 4. The Helmet Echinite, (_Ananchytes ovatus_, of Lamarck,) - from the Chalk of Kent. This is a characteristic species of - the white chalk, and abounds in the strata of the North and - South Downs. At Northfleet, near Gravesend, the quarry-men - find beautiful specimens. - - Fig. 5. An oval echinite (_Nucleolites_,) from Verona. - - Fig. 6. A portion of a very flat echinite, in which the rays or - ambulacra are in a floriform arrangement, (_Echinodiscus - bisperforatus_, of Parkinson; _Lobophora biperforata_, of - Desor,) from Tertiary Strata, Verona. - - Fig. 7. A small discoidal echinite (_Discoidea subuculus_, of - Leske,) from the upper greensand of Warminster. - - Fig. 8. The floriform radiated part of the shell of an echinite - (_Clypeaster_), from the tertiary strata of Malta. - - Fig. 9. A cast in flint of part of the interior of the case or - shell of an echinite. - - Fig. 10. An elegant conical echinite (_Conulus albogalerus_, of - Leske; _Galerites_, of Agassiz), common in the chalk of Kent - and Sussex. - - Fig. 11. View of the base of fig. 10, showing the situation of - the two apertures of the shell. - -[Illustration: Plate LV.] - - -PLATE LV. - -Fossil Sea-Urchins, or Echinites. - - Fig. 1. The shell of a Turban Echinite (_Cidaris saxatilis_, of - Parkinson), broken in two, and each piece imbedded in the - same fragment of flint. From Kent. - - Fig. 2. A round Buckler Echinite (_Echinodiscus_ (_Clypeaster_) - _subrotundus_, of Parkinson), from Italy. - - Fig. 3. The upper surface of an Echinite (_Spatangites_ - (_Disaster_, of Agassiz) _ovalis_, of Parkinson); from - Scarborough. - - Fig. 4. View of the upper, and fig. 5, of the lower surface of - an Echinite, (_Spatangus_ (_Hemipneaster_, of Agassiz) - _radiatus_, of Parkinson,) from the cretaceous strata of St. - Peter's Mountain, Maestricht. - - Fig. 6. A small Echinite (_Echinites_ (_Nucleolites_, of Leske) - _pyriformis_, of Parkinson), from the cretaceous strata of - Maestricht. - - Fig. 7. A small Echinite of a different genus (_Echinites_ - (_Cassidulus_, of Lamarck,) _Lapis cancri_, of Parkinson), - from Maestricht. - - Fig. 8. An Echinite (_Spatangites_ (_Nucleolites_) _brissoides - ovalis_, of Parkinson). Locality unknown. - - Fig. 9. A beautiful specimen of a large heart-shaped Echinite of - a recent species (_Spatangus purpureus_), from a modern - tertiary deposit, Malta. - - Fig. 10. An Echinite (_Echinodiscus_ (_Clypeaster_) _laganum_, of - Parkinson), from a tertiary deposit, Verona. - - Fig. 11. This Is a very abundant Spatangus or heart-shaped - echinite, (_Spatangus cor marinum_, of Parkinson; _Cor - testudinarium,_ of Goldfuss; _Micraster cor anguinum_, of - Agassiz,) in the chalk of Kent, and some parts of Sussex. - Siliceous casts, forming cordiform flints, with deep - imprints of the pentapetalous rays on the vertex, are common - among the stones of the ploughed fields of the Downs. - - Fig. 12. A _Spatangite_, (_Spatangus_ (_Micraster_, of Agassiz) - _lacunosus_, of Parkinson), from tertiary strata, Malta, - -[Illustration: Plate LVI.] - - -PLATE LVI. - -Echinites and Echinital Spines. - - Fig. 1. A fragment of the shell of a Turban Echinite, with three - clavated or club-shaped spines attached, on chalk, from Kent - (_Cidaris claviger_, of König). The inner surface of the - fragment of shell is exposed. - - Fig. 2. A crushed shell of an elegant species of Turban Echinite - (_Cidaris sceptrifera_, of Mantell), on a block of chalk; - with two displaced spines near it. The sceptre-like form of - the spines suggested the specific name. The chalk has been - carefully cut away so as to display the shell and spines as - much as possible without detaching them. From Sussex; common - in the chalk near Gravesend. - - Fig. 3. Part of the shell, with two spines of another species - (_Cidaris vesiculosus_, of Goldfuss), from Kent. - - Fig. 4. "A fossil echinital spine resembling a belemnite."--_Mr. - Parkinson._ I am unable to determine either the species or - locality of this fossil: it is indeed doubtful whether it is - a spine of an echinus. - - Figs. 5 to 19, represent various kinds of echinital spines of - Turban Echinites or Cidarites. - - Fig. 5. "A fossil spine named '_Bacolo di Santo Paulo_,' by - Scilla."--_Mr. Parkinson._ From Verona. - - Figs. 6, 8, 9, 10, 11, 14, 15, 16, 17, & 18, are, I believe, - referable to various species of Cidaris that occur in the - Oolite or Jurassic deposits. - - Figs. 9 and 11. Species of _Cidaris glandiferus_, of Goldfuss. - - Fig. 15, is a well known form, which occurs in thousands in - the Oolite Limestone, the Coral Rag, of Caen, and other - localities in Wiltshire; it belongs to a beautiful Cidarite - (_Cidaris Blumenbachii_[51]), which is occasionally found - with similar spines attached. - -[Footnote 51: See Wonders of Geology, vol. ii. p. 500, figs. 3 and 6.] - - Fig. 12. "A flat serrated spine from Verona."--_Mr. Parkinson._ - It belongs to the _Cidaris Schmidelii_, of Goldfuss. - - Fig. 7. The interior of the upper part or vertex of a large - Echinus, from the tertiary strata of Malta. The greater - portion of the shell is broken away, but a small fragment - showing the outer surface remains on the upper left - hand of the specimen. The five large petalous ambulacra - are beautifully seen. Perfect examples of this echinite - (_Echinanthus Clypeaster altus_, of Parkinson), are not - uncommon. - - Fig. 19. A spine of _Cidaris sceptrifera_, from the chalk of Kent. - - Fig. 20. An elegant Turban Echinite, (_Hemicidaris crenularis_, - of Lamarck,) common in the Coral Rag of Wiltshire. Groups of - this beautiful echinoderm, with numerous spines attached, - are found at Caen. I have seen on one slab of limestone, - upwards of twenty individuals with the spines radiating - round the shell, as if the animals were alive on a mud bank - in shallow water. - - Fig. 21. A fragment of the shell with two spines (_Cidaris - claviger_), attached to a flint; from Kent. - -[Illustration: Plate LVII.] - - -PLATE LVII. - -Fossil Shells. - - Figs. 1, & 3. Upper and under view of a discoidal spiral univalve - shell (_Euomphalus pentangulatus_, of Sowerby), from - the mountain limestone of Derbyshire. The extinct genus - Euomphalus, a name suggestive of the deeply excavated - disk, comprises many species which occur in the Silurian, - Devonian, and Carboniferous formations. The shell has - chambers, or rather obsolete cavities sealed up by a shelly - partition, in the abandoned part of the spire.[52] - -[Footnote 52: Medals of Creation, pp. 425-427.] - - Fig. 2. An elegant univalve shell, completely silicified or - transmuted into flint (_Natica canrena_, of Parkinson, - _Natica Gentii_, of Sowerby), from the upper greensand of - Blackdown. - - Figs. 4, & 6. Two views of the same specimen; a univalve (_Nerita - conoidea_, of Lamarck), in which the apex or upper part is - destroyed, and the interior of the shell is filled with - yellowish brown chalcedony; in fig. 4, a cast of the spire - is seen, and in fig. 6, the mouth of the shell, with the - chalcedony partially filling up the interior. From tertiary - strata near Paris. - - Fig. 5. A beautiful fossil univalve shell, from the "Red Crag" of - Suffolk, known to collectors as the "Essex reversed whelk," - from the spire being coiled in the opposite direction to the - common mode; the mouth is consequently situated to the left - of the observer; the same species occurs with the spire in - the usual direction. This shell is the _Murex_ (_Fusus_) - _contrarius_, of Parkinson. - - Figs. 7, & 8. Under and upper view of another species of - Euomphalus (_E. rugosus_, of Sowerby), from the Wenlock - limestone, Dudley. - - Fig. 9. An enlarged view of fig. 10. "A shell of the genus - _Sigaretus_."--_Mr. Parkinson._ Mr. Morris thinks it is - merely an operculum of a small univalve. - - Fig. 11. A chambered cephalopodous shell (_Lituites lituus_, of - Hisinger), from Silurian strata, Sweden. - - Figs. 12, & 13. These curious contorted bodies are named - "_Vermiculitæ_" by Mr. Parkinson. They occur in the - cream-coloured limestone of Pappenheim and Solenhofen. - They are termed "_Lumbricaria colon_" by Goldfuss; and - "_Cololites_" by M. Agassiz; the last-named eminent - naturalist has demonstrated that they are the fossilized - intestines of fishes.[53] - -[Footnote 53: See Dr. Buckland's Bridgewater Essay, vol. ii. plate -15.] - -[Illustration: Plate LVIII.] - - -PLATE LVIII. - -Fossil Shells. - - Fig. 1. "Part of a hexahedral Serpulite."--_Mr. Parkinson._ - - Fig. 2. A silicified mass of delicate filiform serpulæ, from the - upper greensand of Devonshire (_Serpula filiformis_, of - Sowerby). - - Fig. 3. Portion of a species of _Siliquaria_, from tertiary - strata, France. It is the shell of an Annelide related to - _Dentalium_. - - Fig. 5. A spiral Serpulite (it resembles the _Serpula conica_); - probably from the cretaceous beds of the Isle of Rugen. - - Fig. 6, is a piece of polished sandstone, from the upper - greensand of Wiltshire, "the markings on which are produced - by sections of a species of Serpula (_Vermetus concavus_, of - Sowerby)."--_Mr. Morris._ - - Fig. 7. A species of _Vermetus_; from Bayonne? - - Figs. 8, & 9. A species of _Vermetus_ which abounds in the coarse - arenaceous limestone of Bognor Rocks, in Sussex (_Vermetus - Bognoriensis_, of Sowerby). - - Fig. 10. "A section of the shell of a Nautilus, to show that the - siphuncle sometimes suffered distension."--_Mr. Parkinson._ - - Fig. 11. A species of Serpula (_Serpula ampullacea_, of Sowerby), - from the chalk of Kent. - - Fig. 12. A fragment of the back or dorsal part of the shell of a - fossil Nautilus (_Nautilus centralis_, of Sowerby), from the - London clay, Brentford. The outer shell is broken away, and - the siphuncle, traversing five of the septa of the chambers, - is exposed. - - Fig. 13. "The outline of the back of a Nautilus."--_Mr. - Parkinson._ - - Fig. 14. An Orthoceratite (_Orthoceras annulatum_, of Sowerby; - _O. undulatum_, of Kissinger), from the Wenlock Limestone, - Dudley. - - Fig. 15. A fragment of a fossil Nautilus (_Nautilus Parkinsoni_, - of Mr. Edwards), from the London clay of Harwich. It shows - the situation of the siphuncle and the form of the septa, as - indicated by the sinuous transverse lines. - - Fig. 16. A polished section of a Nautilus (_N. truncatus_, of - Sowerby), from the Inferior Oolite of Yeovil, Somersetshire. - The chambers are filled up with crystalline limestone, with - the exception of the six outermost cells, in which are left - hollows that are lined with calcareous spar. - - Fig. 17. Polished section of an Orthoceratite, from the Silurian - strata of Oëland, Sweden. - - Fig. 18. The discoidal part of a Lituite from the same locality - as fig. 17. - - Fig. 19. A polished slab of grey marble, from the Devonian - formation of the Rhine. The figures are sections of - _Orthoceratites_, _a_; and _Lituites_, _b_. - -[Illustration: Plate LIX.] - - -PLATE LIX. - -Fossil Cephalopoda, &c. - - Fig. 1. A fossil shell named Hippurite (_Hippurites bioculatus_, - of D'Orbigny), from the south of France. This shell belongs - to a family termed _Rudistes_, whose characters are somewhat - problematical,--some naturalists referring them to the - bivalves, and others to the univalves. The Hippurite is - generally of an elongated conical form, and has internally - two obtuse longitudinal ridges; the base is sometimes - partitioned by transverse septa. - - Fig. 5, is a longitudinal section of a specimen in which septa - are displayed. The aperture is closed by a moveable - operculum, or upper valve, as in the specimen fig. 1. The - substance of the shell is cellular and very thick, and when - fractured, resembles that of the lamelliferous corals. Some - kinds attain a large size, and are called "petrified horns" - by the inhabitants of the districts in the Pyrenees where - they abound. Though Hippurites are abundant in the chalk of - the south of France, and in Spain and Portugal, none have - been found in England. The _Spherulite_, a nearly allied - genus, which has no internal longitudinal ridges, occurs in - the chalk of Sussex: it was first discovered near Lewes. - (_Spherulites Mortoni_, of Mantell.)[54] - -[Footnote 54: Medals of Creation, p. 428.] - - Fig. 2. The siphuncle of a very large Orthoceratite ("related to - the genus _Ormoceras_," Mr. Morris), from the Rhine. - - Figs. 3 & 4, "show the direction in which the siphuncle in - Orthoceratites intersects the septa." - - Fig. 6. Siphuncle of an orthoceratite (related to _Orthoceras - duplex_, of Kissinger), from the Silurian strata, Sweden. - - Fig. 7. An Orthoceratite (_O. pyriforme_, of Sowerby), from the - Silurian strata, Dudley. - - Figs. 8-15. Various kinds of Belemnites. - -In the "_Supplementary Notes_" I have, under the head, -"_Belemnites_," explained somewhat fully the nature of those fossils -which, by the name of "thunderbolts," have for so many centuries -excited the interest and perplexed the ingenuity of collectors of -fossil remains. Referring the reader to that note, I shall therefore -in this place merely give such specific names of the specimens -figured by Mr. Parkinson as I have been able to determine. - - Fig. 8. "A Belemnite of large size," Mr. Parkinson. This specimen - is part of the phragmocone from near the lower apical - portion, partially invested with the fibrous rostrum or - guard. It is the species named _Belemnites giganteus_ by M. - D'Orbigny; from the Oxford clay of Wiltshire. - - Fig. 9. The guard of a Belemnite, eroded by some Annelide. - - Fig. 10, is a vertical section of a fragment of a Belemnite, - showing the alveolus or cavity for the reception of the apex - of the phragmocone in the upper part. - - Fig. 11. The distal or apical part of the rostrum or guard of a - Belemnite. The annexed outline of a transverse section - exhibits the radiated structure. - - Fig. 12. The distal part of the guard of a chalk Belemnite - (_Belemnitella mucronata_); from Norwich. Siliceous casts - of the phragmocone of _Belemnitella_ are occasionally met - with in the flints of the South Downs. This phragmocone has - a longitudinal flat band or ridge, extending down the dorsal - aspect: the chambers are very numerous; the slit or fissure - in the ventral aspect of the guard, is occupied by a thin - expansion of the phragmocone. - - Fig. 13. A Belemnite from the great oolite of Stonesfield - (_Belemnites fusiformis_, of Parkinson). The upper part - shows the alveolus for the reception of the apex of the - phragmocone. - - Fig. 14. A fragment of a guard split vertically, the flat surface - showing a section of the alveolus filled with spar. This - specimen belongs to the _Belemnites cylindriformis_, of - Parkinson. - - Fig. 15. A Belemnite (_Belemnites coniformis_, of Parkinson), - having part of the guard broken off, to show the alveolus - or hollow in which the apical part of the phragmocone is - received. The removed portion has the cast of the alveolus - attached to it. - - Fig. 16, of which fig. 17, is an enlarged view, is a species of - chambered foraminiferous shell, called _Nodosaria_ (_N. - raphanistrum_, of Lamarck); from Sienna. See description of - Plate LXII. - -[Illustration: Plate LX.] - - -PLATE LX. - -Ammonites. - - Fig. 1. A Belemnite (_Belemnitella mucronata_) attached to a - flint. Kent. - - Fig. 2. Cast of part of a straight-chambered shell (_Baculites - Fraujasii_, of Lamarck), in which the septa, or partitions, - are deeply and regularly sinuated. In fossils of this kind, - the cast of each chamber is distinct from the others; but - the series is held together by the flexuosities of the - septa. From Maestricht. - - Fig. 3. A limestone cast of the chamber of an Ammonite: from - Bath. The elongated channel in the middle indicates the - position of the siphuncle. - - Fig. 4. Fragment of an Ammonite, showing cavities of two - chambers, and the canal of the siphuncle, partly lined with - calcareous spar. - - Fig. 5. Polished sections of an Ammonite (_Ammonites Walcotii_) - from the Lias, Whitby. The chambers are filled with - semi-transparent spar. The siphunculus is seen running along - the dorsal, or outer margins of the volutions. The dark - appearances observable in several parts of the siphuncle - result from the carbonization of the animal membrane with - which the tube was lined in the living state. - - Fig. 6. "An _Oval Ammonite_."--_Mr. Parkinson._ This is evidently - the cast of a discoidal shell pressed into an elliptical - form. In the Chalk-marl, casts of Ammonites, Nautilites, &c. - are very commonly more or less distorted by compression. The - marl appears to have remained in a plastic state after the - decomposition of the shell in which it was moulded, and to - have admitted of being squeezed into close contact with the - surrounding matrix; when the stratum became consolidated - the cast retained its accidental shape, and adhering but - slightly to the investing marl, was separable by a properly - directed blow. This explains the otherwise unintelligible - fact of a cast being closely invested by the rock, and all - traces of the shell in which it was formed absent. When both - the cast and the matrix became solid and uncompressible - before the shell was decomposed, then loose casts were - formed; as is common in the Portland stone, &c. The fossil - figured appears to be an indifferent example of a common - chalk-marl species (_Ammonites Mantelli_, of Sowerby). - - Fig. 7. A beautiful cast of an Ammonite, in which the foliaceous - septa transmuted into pyrites (sulphuret of iron, or - _marcasite_), are exquisitely shown. - - Fig. 8. A very fine specimen of an Ammonite (_Ammonites latus_, - of Sowerby), from the "_Galt_;" a subdivision of the - Lower chalk, in which Ammonites, with their pearly shells - beautifully preserved, are abundant. From Folkstone, in - Kent; a celebrated locality for these and other fossils of - the same cretaceous deposits. - - Fig. 9. Sections of a pyritous cast of an Ammonite, showing the - sinuous edges of the septa. - -[Illustration: Plate LXI.] - - -PLATE LXI. - -Fossil Cephalopoda, &c. - - Fig. 1. Part of the cast of a species of Hamite (_Hamites - intermedius_, of Sowerby), from the Gait of Folkstone. The - name _Hamites_ was employed by Mr. Parkinson to designate - a genus of chambered shells, in which the direction of the - spire, instead of being straight, as in _Baculites_, or - discoidal, as in _Ammonites_, was bent like a hook beyond - the inner reflected part. All the specimens here figured are - but fragments.[55] - -[Footnote 55: Medals of Creation, vol. ii. p. 500.] - - Figs. 2, & 5. Portions of _Hamites intermedius_, of Sowerby. - - Fig. 3. _Hamites plicatilis_, of Sowerby. - - Fig. 4. A fragment of _Hamites rotundus_, of Sowerby. - - Figs. 6, & 7. Two views of a species of an extinct genus, the - shells of which, though not chambered, are supposed to have - been inhabited by Cephalopoda, like the recent Argonaut. The - specimen (_Bellerophon costatus_, of Sowerby) is from the - Mountain limestone of Derbyshire.[56] - -[Footnote 56: Ibid p. 477.] - - Figs. 8, & 9. An Ammonite with a contracted aperture, and three - deep constrictions across the disk. From the Inferior oolite - of Normandy. - - Figs. 10, & 11. Two specimens of "_Scaphites_, or Boat-like - Ammonite," of Mr. Parkinson. A remarkable cretaceous genus - of extinct cephalopoda. The specimens figured are from the - Lower chalk of Sussex (_Scaphites costatus_, of Mantell; _S. - equalis_, of Sowerby). - - Fig. 12. Cast of a spiral chambered shell, called _Turrilite_, of - which many species occur in the lower cretaceous strata - (_Turrilites costatus_, of Langius). The quarries of lower - chalk at St. Catharine's Mount, near Rouen, in Normandy, - have long been celebrated for the number and perfection of - specimens of this elegant type of cephalopodous shells. - The first known English examples of this genus, as well as - of Scaphites, were discovered by me in the chalk marl, at - Hamsey, near Lewes, in Sussex, in 1810. Several very fine - specimens of a large species (_Turrilites tuberculatus_), - some of which are more than two feet in length, have - been obtained from the same strata. The tubercles on the - casts of this species are the bases of strong spines. The - siphunculus, in the state of a pyritous cast, is preserved - in some examples. - - Figs. 13 to 27. These figures all refer to a very curious group of - fossils, termed _Nummulites_, from the supposed resemblance - of some of the flat disks to a piece of money. The - complexity of their internal structure, and the supposed - resemblance of their organization to that of the true - Cephalopoda, led to many erroneous opinions as to the - nature of the originals. That eminent physiologist, Dr. - W. B. Carpenter, has recently investigated the intimate - structure of the whole group, and the results are given in - a beautiful and masterly memoir in the Quarterly Journal - of the Geological Society of London.[57] Dr. Carpenter - has clearly shown that these fossils belong to the - _Foraminifera_, and not, as some eminent naturalists have - supposed, to the _Bryozoa_, or "_Moss-corals_." As the - family to which they belong comprises a numerous assemblage - of minute organic remains, many of which are delineated in - the next plate (Plate LXII.), the reader is referred to - the "_Supplementary Notes_," for a general description of - the _Foraminifera_, in which is given a restored figure - of the supposed living animal of the Nummulite, from Dr. - Carpenter's memoir. - -[Footnote 57: No. 21, for February 1850. "On the Microscopic -Structure of Nummulina, Orbitolites and Orbitoides."] - - Fig. 13. The usual appearance of the common species of Nummulite - (_Nummulina lævigata_). From Egypt. - - Fig. 14. A specimen rubbed down, and exposing the internal - cellular structure. - - Fig. 15. An example in which the outer investment is partly - removed. - - Fig. 16. A vertical section of the same. - - Fig. 17. This fossil, of which fig. 18, is a vertical section - (_Nummulites obtusa_, of Sowerby), appears to belong to a - different genus; probably _Orbitolites_, or _Marginopora_. - Tertiary strata. - - Fig. 19. A vertical section of a Nummulite, showing a cavity in - the centre, probably from decomposition. - - Fig. 20. A section of another species of Nummulite (_N. dispansa - ?_ of Sowerby);[58] Tertiary strata, India. - -[Footnote 58: See Sowerby's Mineral Conchology, vol. i.; and -Mantell's Fossils of the South Downs.] - - Figs. 21 to 26, are various sections of a fossil Nummulite, of - which fig. 37, represents the flat surface (_Nummulites - complanata_, of Parkinson. This fossil belongs to the genus - _Discospira_ of Mr. Morris).[59] - -[Footnote 59: "_Discospira_, Nov. Gen. Disciform, volutions distrial, -not embracing the previous ones, cells numerous." _Mr. Morris_, 1850.] - - Fig. 28. A species of Foraminifera (_Fasciolites_, of Parkinson; - _Alveolina elliptica_, of D'Orbigny). - - Fig. 29. A transverse section. - - Figs. 30, & 31. Enlarged views of the same fossil. Fig. 31. A - longitudinal section. - -[Illustration: Plate LXII.] - - -PLATE LXII. - -Fossil Foraminifera. - -With the exception of figs. 23, 24, 29, 31 and 32, all the specimens -delineated in this Plate belong to the Foraminifera. The figures -represent magnified views; the natural size is indicated in some -instances by a minute outline. Under the article "Foraminifera," -in the "_Supplementary Notes_," a general account is given of the -structure and economy of the living animalcules. A list of names is -subjoined. - - Figs. 1, & 2. _Rotalia trochiliformis_, of Lamarck. Tertiary. - - Fig. 3. _Rotalia Beccarii_, of Linnæus. Tertiary. - - Fig. 4. _Cristellaria rotulata_, Lamarck. Chalk. - - Figs. 5, 6, 7. _Lituola nautiloidea_, Lamarck. Chalk. - - Fig. 8. _Spirolina depressa_, Lamarck. This and the specimens to - fig. 21 inclusive, are tertiary fossils. - - Fig. 9. _Spirolina cylindracea_, Lamarck. - - Fig. 10. _Orthocerina clavulus._ - - Fig. 11. _Biloculina ringens_, Lamarck. - - Figs. 12, & 13. _Quinqueloculina cor anguinum_, Lamarck. - - Figs. 14, 15, & 16. _Quinqueloculina._ - - Figs. 17, 18, 19. _Triloculina trigonula_, Lamarck. - - Fig. 20. _Quinqueloculina opposita_, Lamarck. - - Fig. 21. _Peneroloplis opercularis_. - - Fig. 22. _Adelosina_, of D'Orbigny; a recent species. - - Figs. 23, & 24. _Gyrogonites_. The fossils here figured on a - magnified scale as microscopic shells of the same family as - those above described, received the name of Gyrogonites, - or twisted stones. They prove to be the seed-vessels of a - species of the common fresh-water plant, the _Chara_. The - fruit of this genus consists of minute nuclei, with an - external calcareous covering, composed of five spirally - twisted plates, which unite at the summit. These fossils - occur by myriads in many of the fresh-water secondary and - tertiary limestones, as well as in the calcareous deposits - now in progress of formation in our lakes. In the lacustrine - limestones of the Isle of Wight (at Binstead, White Cliff, - &c.), beautiful specimens may be obtained.[60] Professor E. - Forbes has discovered Gyrogonites in the Wealden strata of - the Isle of Purbeck, associated with shells of the genera - _Planorbis_, _Physa_, _Paluolina_, &c. - -[Footnote 60: See Geological Excursions round the Isle of Wight. 2d -Edit. 1850, p. 108.] - - Fig. 25. _Polystomella crispa_, of Linnæus. From the tertiary - strata of the Apennines. - - Fig. 26. _Cristellaria ?_ - - Figs. 27, & 28. _Rotalia Beccarii_. Apennines. - - Fig. 30. _Cristellaria galea_, of Lamarck. Apennines. - - Fig. 29. Cast of a species of Area; a bivalve shell, from - tertiary strata, Bordeaux. - - Fig. 31. A curious pteropodous shell (_Vaginella depressa_), from - tertiary strata, Basterot. - - Fig. 32. This appears to be an imperfect specimen of a bivalve - having a fibrous structure, like _Pinna_. It is probably a - fragment of an Inoceramus. - -[Illustration: Plate LXIII.] - - -PLATE LXIII. - -Trigoniæ. - - Figs. 1, & 2, represent the structure of the hinge in both valves - of a genus of bivalves of which numerous fossil species - are met with in the secondary strata, and two or three - species still exist in the Pacific Ocean. The genus is named - _Trigonia_, from the form of the hinge, and the specific - names below are those given by Mr. Parkinson. - - Fig. 3. _Trigonia clavellata_, of Parkinson, from the Kimmeridge - clay, Hartwell, Bucks. - - Fig. 4. _Trigonia costata_, Oxford clay, Wilts. - - Fig. 5. _Trigonia excentrica_; upper greensand, Blackdown. Like - most of the shells from this locality, the Trigoniæ are - transmuted into silex. - - Fig. 6. _Trigonia dædalea_, Blackdown. - - Fig. 7. ---- _spinosa_, Blackdown. - - Fig. 8. Enlarged view of the spines of the above. - - Fig. 9. _Trigonia alæformis_, Blackdown. - - Fig. 10. ---- _rudis_, Blackdown. - - Fig. 11. A bivalve shell of the genus _Productus_ (_P. - antiquatus_, of Sowerby?), from the Mountain limestone. See - description of fig. 9, Plate LXVII. - - Fig. 12. Cast of a species of _Trigonia_ (_T. clavellata_), from - the Portland rock. Many beds of this oolitic limestone are - almost entirely made up of casts of Trigoniæ, and chiefly of - this species. - - Fig. 13. _Trigonia sinuata_, from Blackdown. - - Figs. 14 to 18. "Different views of a species of _Harpax_."--_Mr. - Parkinson._ (_Plicatula spinosa_). From the Lias, - Gloucestershire. - - Fig. 14. The inner surface of the flat valve. - - Fig. 15. Inner surface of the convex valve. - - Fig. 16. Magnified hinge teeth of the flat, and fig. 17, of the - convex valve. - - Fig. 18. Magnified view of the adpressed spines on the external - surface of the shell. - -[Illustration: Plate LXIV.] - - -PLATE LXIV. - -Fossil Shells. - - Fig. 1. A perfect specimen of one valve, showing the character of - the hinge of _Cucullæa decussata_, of Parkinson. London - clay. Herne Bay. - - Fig. 2. Interior view of _Crassatella tumida_, of Lamarck. Eocene - strata, Paris. - - Fig. 3. _Cardium Hillanum_, of Sowerby. A beautiful silicified - bivalve from Blackdown. - - Fig. 4. _Nucula ovum_, of Sowerby. A common bivalve, in the Lias, - Yorkshire. - - Fig. 5. Inner view of _Cyrena deperdita_, of Parkinson. Plastic - clay, Woolwich. - - Fig. 6. _Lima gigantea_, of Sowerby, from Lyme Regis. This is a - young and small specimen of a large bivalve that occurs in - great perfection in the Lias. - - Fig. 7. _Cardinia Listeri_, of Sowerby. From the Lias, - Gloucestershire. - - Fig. 8. Cast of a bivalve; genus uncertain. - - Figs. 9 to 12. These fossils are the _Trigonellites_ of Mr. - Parkinson; and have since been referred to a genus named - _Aptychus_. Their true relations are very problematical. - Though found in pairs, there is no hinge or natural - connexion. Some naturalists suppose they may belong to the - internal organization of Ammonites, because certain kinds - have been found collocated with particular species of that - genus of Cepholopoda. At present I do not think there is any - satisfactory evidence as to their real nature. Species occur - in the Kimmeridge clay, and other subdivisions of the Oolite - formation. - - Figs. 9, & 12. _Trigonellites lata_, of Mr. Parkinson. - - Figs. 10, & 11. ---- _lamellosa_. - - Figs. 13, & 14. _Corbida revoluta_, of Sowerby. London clay, - Highgate. - - Fig. 16. An imperfect specimen of _Lysianassa_ (_Mya_) - _literata_, from the fullers' earth of the Oolite, Wiltshire. - - Figs. 15, & 17. _Cardita senilis_, of Sowerby. From the Red crag - of Suffolk. - -[Illustration: Plate LXV.] - - -PLATE LXV. - -Fossil Shells. - - Fig. 1. A single valve, viewed interiorly, of a fine shell - (_Panopæa Aldrovandi_, of Faujas St. Fond) from the - Pleistocene or Newer Tertiary strata, that form a chain - of low hills near Palermo, in Sicily. The shells in these - deposits comprise almost all the genera and species that now - inhabit the Mediterranean. They occur in the most beautiful - state, deprived only of their colour; and groups are often - met with of extreme elegance. The cabinet of the Marquess of - Northampton contains an extensive and unrivalled series of - these fossils, collected during his Lordship's residence at - Palermo. - - Figs. 2, & 4. A boring bivalve (_Fistulana_ or _Lithodomus_) from - the Oolite, Bath. - - Figs. 3, & 5. Valves of a small Oyster from the Crag of Essex. - - Fig. 6. A group of Lithodomi in limestone from the Oolite, - Bradford, Wilts. - - Fig. 7. A detached specimen from the same, showing the enclosed - bivalve. - - Figs. 8, & 10. Fine but imperfect specimens of a species of - _Teredo_ (_Teredina personata_, of Lamarck), from the - Plastic clay of Epernay, France. - - Fig. 9. A snail-shell (_Helix arbustorum_) found associated, and - evidently contemporaneous, with bones of Mammoth, and - extinct species of Deer, and other mammalia. From Brentford, - in a bed of light calcareous earth, twenty feet below the - surface. - - Fig. 11. "A concamerated Teredo."--_Mr. Parkinson._ I am unable - to ascertain the nature of this fossil. - - Fig. 12. A species of _Fistulana_, from France. - - Fig. 13. External surface of _Chama squamosa_ of Brander. London - clay, Hordwell. - - Figs. 14, & 15, are the anchylosed caudal vertebræ of the tails of - fishes. From the London clay, Isle of Sheppey. - - Fig. 16. "A small oyster with a spathose structure."--_Mr. - Parkinson._ This shell is probably the flat valve of a - species of _Dianchora_, of Sowerby; from the Chalk. - -[Illustration: Plate LXVI.] - - -PLATE LXVI. - -Fossil Bivalve Shells. - - Fig. 1. A fossil Oyster (_Ostrea Marshii_, of Sowerby), from the - Cornbrash of the Oolite, Wiltshire. - - Fig. 2. The fossil Cockscomb Oyster, (_Ostrea carinata_, of - Lamarck,) from the Lower chalk, Havre, France. - - Fig. 3. The elegant fossil shell here figured is a peculiar and - most abundant species in the Lias formation; specimens - are not uncommon, in which every part of the shell is as - perfect as if just thrown up on the sea-shore. It belongs - to the genus Gryphites (_Gryphea incurva_, of Sowerby,) - the shells of which are nearly related to the oysters, but - are distinguished by the deep concave under-valve, and its - curved beak, and the almost flat upper shell. The testaceous - substance is of a finer laminated structure than in the - Ostrea, and the hinge-ligament is inserted in an elongated - curved groove.[61] - -[Footnote 61: Medals of Creation, vol. i. p. 387.] - - Fig. 4. "_Ostrea vel frons folium._"--_Mr. Parkinson._ This - species appears to be the _Ostrea gregarea_ (?) of Sowerby, - which occurs in the chlorite marl or firestone of the Lower - chalk in Sussex and Kent. - - Fig. 5. The fossil is the cast of an oyster-like bivalve, called - Perna, (_Perna quadrata_, of Sowerby,) which is easily - recognisable, even in casts, by the line of distinct - teeth which compose the hinge. This species is abundant - in the Portland limestone, particularly in the quarries - around Swindon, in Wiltshire; but from the close adhesion - of the outer surface of the shell to the surrounding - stone, they can seldom be extracted, the casts only being - readily obtainable. In the Kimmeridge clay, which lies - above the Portland rock, the shells may be met with in - great perfection. The best locality is near Hartwell, in - Buckinghamshire, where the clay is extensively dug for the - brick manufactures. - - Figs. 6, & 7. Two views of a small shell of the genus _Crenatula_, - from Bedfordshire. - - Fig. 8. Portion of a very large species of Perna (_Perna - maxillata_, of Sowerby), from tertiary strata. Piedmont. The - figure shows the inner surface of the shell with part of the - broad crenulated hinge. - -[Illustration: Plate LXVII.] - - -PLATE LXVII. - -Fossil Shells of Brachiopoda, &c. - - Fig. 1. A species of _Radiolites_ (_R. agariciformis_, of M. - D'Orbigny), from the Cretaceous strata of France. This genus - is only known in a fossil state; it belongs to the same - group of shells (order, _Rudistes_) as the Spherulites and - Hippurites: the lower valve is conical, and much larger than - the upper, which is slightly convex; it is deeply channelled - longitudinally. - - Fig. 2. Smooth valve of a species of Corbula (_Corbula gallica_, - of Lamarck); abundant in some of the Eocene deposits of the - Paris basin. - - Fig. 3. A single valve; the inner surface is shown in the figure, - of a remarkable genus of shells (_Crania personata_, of - Lamarck), frequently occurring attached to Echinites and - other bodies of the white chalk. - - Fig. 4. A species of _Terebratula_ (_T. diphya_, of Lamarck). - The shells of this genus belong to that division of - mollusks termed _Brachiopoda_ (arm-feet), from their having - internally two spiral fleshy arms developed from the sides - of the alimentary orifice. These organs are supported by - shelly processes, curiously modified in different genera, - which often occur in a fossil state. Although the fossil - Terebratulæ are very numerous, the recent species are but - few, and are inhabitants of the seas off Australia. They - form two natural groups; in the one the shells are smooth, - but perforated all over with minute openings or foramina; - and these are often filled with a dark substance, which is - the carbonized soft parts: in the other division the shells - are plicated or furrowed, and are not foraminiferous.[62] - The Spirifers, another group of Brachiopoda, have a pair of - internal spiral appendages. - -[Footnote 62: On the structure of shells the reader should consult -the admirable papers of Dr. Carpenter, in the British Association -Reports.] - - Fig. 5. _Terebratula coarctata_, of Parkinson. Bradford clay, - Wilts. - - Figs. 6, & 7, show the internal structure of recent Terebratulæ - from New Holland. The complicated shelly apophyses which - supported the arms are quite perfect. - - Fig. 8. _Terebratula triquetra_, of Parkinson (_T. diphya_, of - Lamarck); another example of the species, fig. 4. - - Figs. 9, & 10. Different parts of the same specimen of a - brachiopodous bivalve belonging to the genus _Productus_, so - named from the lengthened or produced form of the convex - valve. "This is generally filled with limestone, which - conceals the internal structure; but, with a slight blow, - the shell divides, when the edge of the small valve rests - against the inside of the produced cylindrical part of the - larger one; generally about half an inch from the top of the - shell: one side of the valve, before hidden, fig. 9 _a_, is - then exposed, as shown in fig. 10."--_Mr. Parkinson._ - - Fig. 9. _a_, the beak of the upper valve; _c_, a cavity in the - superior part of the shell. - - Fig. 10. The under part of the shell; _b_, a depression receiving - the beak of the upper valve, a. - - Fig. 10*. The inner surface of another upper valve, having a - longitudinal fissure. The species figured is the _Productus - Martini_ of Mr. Sowerby. From the mountain limestone of - Derbyshire; in which deposit numerous examples occur. - - Fig. 11. A large species of Spirifer (_Spirifer striatus_, of - Sowerby), from the mountain limestone of Derbyshire. In this - species the upper valve is broken away, and one of the large - spiral apophyses is seen lying imbedded in the limestone - with which the cavity of the shell is filled. - - Fig. 13, is a beautiful example of part of one of the spiral - appendages of the same species. - - Fig. 12. "A patch of square scales of a fish from - Dorsetshire."--_Mr. Parkinson._ These evidently belong to a - Lepidoid fish (_Dapedius_), whose remains are common in the - Lias;[63] perfect specimens are often obtained. The British - Museum contains some beautiful examples of this fossil fish. - -[Footnote 63: Wonders of Geology, vol. ii. p. 529.] - - Figs. 14, & 15. A curious fossil bivalve, from the Devonian strata - of the Eifel. The flat valve is shown in fig. 14; and the - deep conical valve in fig. 15; _a_, tooth in the posterior - margin; _b_, a part of the surface magnified, to show its - cellular structure. The species is _Calceola sandalina_, of - Lamarck. - - Fig. 16. A species of Spirifer; _a_, medial convexity of the - upper valve; _b_, the triangular foramen at the beak. - - Fig. 17. Spirifer (_S. cuspidatus_, of Mr. Martin), from the - Mountain limestone of Derbyshire. - - Fig. 18, represents a common appearance in certain chalk flints. - Although I have examined hundreds, and some in which the - form was more definite than in the specimen figured, I - am not able to offer any probable suggestion as to their - origin, should they be organic bodies, of which there is - much doubt. - - Fig. 19. "_Coronulites diadema._"--_Mr. Parkinson._ Probably a - species of Balanus, from a tertiary deposit. - - Fig. 20. Cast of one of the shells of a bivalve (_Pentamerus_), - from the Wenlock limestone of Dudley. - -[Illustration: Plate LXVIII.] - - -PLATE LXVIII. - -Fossil Crustacea. - - Figs. 1, & 3. "Fossil Crabs, from Sheppey."--_Mr. Parkinson._ - The London clay of this celebrated locality contains an - abundance of the fossil remains of Crustacea; and the - visitor may purchase of the local collectors fossil crabs - and lobsters, as readily as the recent species from the - neighbouring sea. Good specimens are however rare, and - command high prices. The specimens figured are two common - species. - - Fig. 1. _Cancer Leachii_, of MM. Desmarest and Brongniart. - - Fig. 3. _Inachus Lamarckii._ - -These fossils show the usual mode in which the crustaceæ occur in the -hardened clay of Sheppey. The thorax is bent over the abdomen, and -the pair of large chelate claws drawn towards each other. - - Fig. 2. Fossil Insects from the lithographic stone of Pappenheim. - "_a_, an insect with a bifurcated caudal extremity; _b_, the - sting which has passed out of its sheath; c, the termination - in a single point."--_Mr. Parkinson._ - - Fig. 4. "A fossil Shrimp, from Anspach."--_Mr. Parkinson._ - - Fig. 5. "Impression of an unknown fossil."--_Mr. Parkinson._ - - Fig. 6. "The claw of a Crab, from Maestricht, &c."--_Mr. - Parkinson._ Claws of this kind are frequent in the soft - sandy limestone of St. Peter's Mountain, but no other - vestiges of the Crabs to which they belonged have been met - with. The cause of this has been ascertained: the claws - belong to a species of Hermit Crab (_Pagurus Faujasii_, - of Desmarest), which like the living species had the body - covered by a delicate membrane, the claws only possessing a - durable crustaceous shell.[64] - -[Footnote 64: Wonders of Geology, p. 338.] - - Fig. 7. "An extended trilobite, from Dudley."--_Mr. Parkinson._ - Among the organic remains of the inhabitants of the seas, - in whose abysses were formed the Silurian, Devonian, and - other ancient sedimentary strata, an extinct family of - crustaceans, comprising numerous genera, are among the most - characteristic and remarkable. The name "_Trilobite_," first - given by Mr. Parkinson, expresses the most obvious character - of the longitudinally trilobed, convex, segmented, carapace - of the body, of the most common forms; but so great is the - number of species, and so dissimilar the groups, now known, - that the nomenclature of this class of fossils is greatly - extended. In Sir R. I. Murchison's splendid work on the - Silurian System, the genera and species of the formations - therein comprised are beautifully illustrated. The specimen - figured is an expanded specimen of the species commonly - known as the _Dudley Locust_ or _Insect_, (_Calymene - Blumenbachii_), from the Wenlock limestone, Dudley. - - Fig. 8. A coiled-up specimen; in this view are seen both ends - of the crustaceous covering of the animal: _a_, "the eye - enlarged." - - Fig. 9, is part of the head of the same species. - - Fig. 10. "A fossil Crab from the East Indies."--_Mr. Parkinson._ - Beautiful specimens of this species of Crab (_Gonoplax - Latreilli_, of Mr. Edwards) have been obtained from the - tertiary strata of India. - - Fig. 11. Another form of Trilobite (_Ogygia Buchii_, (_Asaphus_,) - of the Silurian System), from the Llandeilo flagstones. - - Fig. 12. "Remains of some large unknown insect."--_Mr. - Parkinson._ This figure is not sufficiently defined to admit - of interpretation. - - Fig. 13., "Part of a trilobite with tuberculated head," - (_Calymene variolare_,) from the Wenlock limestone, of - Dudley. - - Fig. 14. Posterior part of a trilobite with a caudal style or - process, (_Asaphus caudatus_,) from the Wenlock shale, - Dudley. - - Fig. 15. A nodule of ironstone from Coalbrook Dale, in which is - imbedded a small crustacean allied to the recent King Crab - or _Limulus_; a genus abundant in the seas of India and - America.[65] (_Limulus trilobitoides_, of Dr. Buckland. - _Bellinurus bellulus_, of Mr. König.) - -[Footnote 65: Medals of Creation, vol. i. p. 550.] - -[Illustration: Plate LXIX.] - - -PLATE LXIX. - -Fossil Fishes and Reptiles. - - Fig. 1. "A fossil body resembling part of a Tortoise, from - Gloucestershire."--_Mr. Parkinson._ This specimen is - probably one of the mandibles of a remarkable extinct genus - (_Ceratodus_) of fishes, whose dental organs, like those - of the recent _Chimæra_, consisted of consolidated plates - instead of separate teeth; each side of the jaw was formed - by one of these mandibular processes; the upper margin is - deeply undulated. The bone-bed of the Lias at Aust Cliff - near Westbury, Somersetshire, is rich in these remains. - - Fig. 2. The plastron, or inferior aspect of the carapace of a - fossil Turtle (_Chelonia breviceps_), from the London Clay - of the Isle of Sheppey. _a_, fragment of the _entosternal_ - plate; _b, b_, _hyosternal_ plates; _c, c_, _hyposternals_; - _d_, _xiphisternals_.[66] - -[Footnote 66: See Parkinson, p. 269.] - - Fig. 3. The cranium of the same species of Turtle, from the Isle - of Sheppey. Equally rich in the remains of Chelonian - reptiles, as in those of Fishes, Crustaceans, Serpents, and - Mollusks, the little Island at the mouth of the Medway has - yielded to the indefatigable researches of Mr. Bowerbank the - most extensive series of fossil Turtles hitherto discovered - in England. The various genera and species will be figured - and described in a work now in progress by Professors Bell - and Owen, under the auspices of the Palæontographical - Society. - - Fig. 4. A Serpula (_S. antiquata ?_), from the chalk, Sussex. - - Fig. 5. A dorsal vertebra of a fossil crocodilian reptile - (_Steneosaurus_), from the Oxford Clay of Honfleur. _a, b_, - costal depressions. - - Fig. 6. A dorsal convexo-concave vertebra of a crocodilian or - gavial-like reptile (_Streptospondylus_), from the same - locality. This figure shows the remarkable character whence - the name of this genus: the convexity of the body of the - vertebra (_a_) being situated anteriorly as in mammalia, the - reverse of the position of the bones forming the vertebral - column in the existing Crocodilians and Lacertians. _b_, - the posterior concavity; _c_, a deep depression beneath the - neural arch. - - Fig. 7. Sketch of the lower jaw of an extinct gavial-like reptile - (_Steneosaurus_): the vertebra, fig. 5, probably belongs to - the same species. From Honfleur. This figure, and figs, 5, - 6, and 8, are copied from Cuvier, "_Annales du Muséum_" - - Fig. 8. A caudal vertebra of the Fossil Animal of Maestricht - (_Mosasaurus_); a, the chevron bone or inferior spinous - process (_hœmapophysis_), anchylosed to the middle of the - body of the vertebra. - - Fig. 9. Fossil scale of a ganoid fish (probably _Lepidotus_), - from Kent. - - Fig. 10. Fossil tooth of a fish of the Shark family (_Notidanus - microdon_, of Agassiz,) from the chalk of Kent. - - Fig. 11. Recent "tooth of one of the Dog-fish," (Mr. Parkinson,) - for comparison with fig. 10. - - Fig. 12. Tooth of an extinct group of squaloid fishes (_Ptychodus - decurrens_, of Agassiz,) from the chalk of Kent.[67] - -[Footnote 67: See Medals of Creation, vol. ii. p. 617.] - - Fig. 13. A ctenoid (or comb-like) scale of a fish, (probably of a - species of _Beryx_,) from the chalk of Kent. - -[Illustration: Plate LXX.] - - -PLATE LXX. - -Fossil Reptiles and Fishes. - - Fig. 1. A reduced figure of the celebrated specimen of the jaws, - &c. of the "Fossil Animal of Maestricht," (_Mosasaurus - Hoffmani_,) from the cretaceous strata of St. Peter's - Mountain. See "_Supplementary Notes_," art. _Mosasaurus_. - - "_a, b._ The left side of the lower jaw, nearly whole, and seen on - its outer side. - - _c, d._ Right side of the lower jaw, viewed on the inner side, the - posterior part of which, a little concealed by the palate bones, - is continued to _e_. - - _f, g._ The right side of the upper jaw, seen on its inner side, and - with the palate bone. This part is nearly in its natural position - in relation to the corresponding ramus of the lower jaw. - - _h, i._ A fragment of the left side of the upper jaw, displaced and - fallen across the lower jaw. - - _k, l, m; k', l', m', o'._ The two palate bones displaced and thrown - one over the other, and also over the right side of the lower jaw. - In the original specimen a portion of bone is placed from _m_ to - _p_, and another at _q_, which are omitted to render the figure more - intelligible."--_Mr. Parkinson._ - - Figs. 2 to 18, are fossil teeth of various kinds of fishes, - principally of the Shark and Ray families. - - Fig. 2. Tooth of a shark (_Lamna_), from Malta. - - Fig. 3. Tooth of a shark (_Galeus pristodontus_), chalk marl, - Kent. - - Fig. 4. Tooth of a Saurian, the upper and lower end imperfect: - probably of a species of Steneosaurus, from Bath. - - Figs. 5, & 8. Teeth of a shark (_Otodus_,) London Clay, Isle of - Sheppey. - - Fig. 6. Tooth of a fish, (_Spherodus_,) from the Oolite, - Gloucestershire. - - Fig. 7. Part of the fossil jaw with three rows of teeth of a - fish, (of the Pycnoid[68] family,) from the Oolite, - Gloucestershire. - -[Footnote 68: Medals of Creation, vol. ii. p. 641.] - - Fig. 9. Tooth of a species of _Lamna_, from Sheppey. - - Fig. 10. Tooth of a species of _Hybodus_,[69] Stonesfield. - -[Footnote 69: Ibid. p. 621.] - - Fig. 11. A very large tooth of a Shark, (_Carcharias megalodon_,) - from the tertiary deposits of Malta. - - Fig. 12. Fragment of a bone, with two teeth, probably of a - species of _Pycnodus_. - - Fig. 13. "The mandible and tooth of a recent fish (_Diodon_), to - compare with the fossils figs. 16, and 17."--_Mr. Parkinson._ - - Fig. 14. "Fossil palate of a fish, from Sheppey."--_Mr. - Parkinson._ This evidently belonged to a species of _Ray_; - possibly to the Eagle rays (_Miliobatis_). - - Fig. 15. Tooth of a fish allied to the _Cestracionts_, or Port - Jackson Shark, (probably of the genus _Acrodus_,[70]) from - Bath; commonly called "_Leech palates_" by the quarry-men. - -[Footnote 70: Medals of Creation, p. 614.] - - Figs. 16, & 17. "Fossil palates of fishes of the Ray kind, from - Sheppey."--_Mr. Parkinson._ These appear to belong to the - Miliobates (_M. micropleuris_, of Agassiz). Beautiful - examples of these fossils have been obtained from the - Bracklesham clay, on the coast of the West of Sussex. The - late Frederic Dixon, Esq. of Worthing, whose untimely - death is so much to be deplored, had a matchless suite of - specimens from that locality. - - Fig. 18. A fine specimen of a fossil tooth of a fish of an - extinct genus, of which many species occur in the chalk - (_Ptychodus polygurus_, of Agassiz). The teeth of various - species of this genus of Sharks abound in the chalk of - almost every part of England.[71] - -[Footnote 71: Ibid. p. 616; and plate vi. fig. 2.] - -[Illustration: Plate LXXI.] - - -PLATE LXXI. - -Fossil Remains of Mammalia. - - Fig. 1. "a fossil tooth, probably of some animal of the whale - kind."--_Mr. Parkinson._ I am not able to determine the - nature of this specimen. - - Fig. 2. The antlers and skull of the Fossil Elk, of Ireland, - (_Megaceros Hibernicus_.) The original was nearly eleven - feet across, from the point of one antler to another. A - perfect skeleton of this extinct gigantic deer is exhibited - in the Gallery of Organic Remains in the British Museum. - For an account of this animal see Wonders of Geology, vol. - i. p. 132; and _Supplementary Notes_, p. 189. The following - measurements of the specimen figured are given by Mr. - Parkinson; - - Feet. Inches. - _a_ to _b_ 10 10 - _c_ to _d_ 5 2 - _e_ to _f_ 3 7½ - _g_ to _h_ 2 6 - _i_ to _k_ 1 10½ - _d_ to _l_ 1 2 - Diameter of the horn at _m_ 0 2¼ - Circumference, " 0 8 - " at the root 2 11 - Length of the cranium from _n_ to _o_ 2 0 - Width " " _p_ to _q_ 1 0 - -"A similar pair, found ten feet under ground in the county of Clare, -was presented to Charles the Second, and placed in the guard-room of -Hampton Court Palace." - - Fig. 3. Fragment of the fossil horn of some species of Cervus or - Deer, from Etampes, in France. - - Fig. 4. Two teeth of a ruminant, (a species of _Bos_ or _Ox_,) in - breccia, from Gibraltar.[72] - -[Footnote 72: Wonders of Geology, vol. i. p. 186.] - -The remaining figures. Figs. 5, 6, 7, 8, represent the worn surfaces -of molars or grinding teeth of the extinct species of Elephants -termed Mammoths, (_Elephas primigenius_, of M. Bojanus.) - - Fig. 9, shows the structure of part of the tooth. - -These were regarded by Mr. Parkinson as referable to two or more -species of Mammoth; but Professor Owen, after an examination of the -vast number of specimens that modern researches have brought to -light, and which are deposited in the public and private collections -of Great Britain, concludes that the specimens here figured belong -to but one species. The differences observable in the surface of the -crowns, are due to abrasion, and to the latitude of variety to which -the highly complex molars of this extinct Elephant were subject.[73] - -[Footnote 73: British Association, Report for 1843. Fossil Mammalia, -p. 213.] - -For an account of the Mastodon and Mammoth, see Wonders of Geology, -vol. i. pp. 151-161. - -[Illustration: Plate LXXII.] - - -PLATE LXXII. - -Fossil Teeth of Mammalia. - - Fig. 1. A right lower molar tooth of an extinct species of - Hippopotamus (_H. major_, of Cuvier), from France. - - Fig. 2. Upper molar of an extinct species of Rhinoceros (_R. - leptorhinus_, of Cuvier), from the bone-cave near Torquay, - Devonshire. - - Fig. 3. The crown of a molar tooth of the "gigantic Tapir" of - Baron Cuvier; the _Dinotherium_ of M. Kaup.[74] - -[Footnote 74: Wonders of Geology, vol. i. p. 174.] - - Fig. 4, "the outer, and fig. 5, the inner, surface of the fourth - molar of _Palæotherium medium_, of M. Cuvier."--_Mr. - Parkinson._ From the eocene tertiary deposits of Paris. - - Fig. 6, the outer, and fig. 7, the inner, aspect of an upper - molar of the same animal. - - Figs. 8, & 9. Lower molars of _Amplotherium commune_, of M. - Cuvier.[75] - -[Footnote 75: Ibid, p, 256.] - - Fig. 10. An ungueal or bone of the claw, of a gigantic animal of - the Sloth tribe (_Megalonyx Jeffersoni_); the figure is half - the linear diameter of the original.[76] - -[Footnote 76: Ibid. p. 169.] - - Fig. 11. Vertical section of a tooth of the same. These remains - of a colossal animal of that remarkable group of - mammalia--the Edentata--are from Big-bone Cave, in Kentucky. - The Megalonyx resembled the Megatherium in its general - characters but was one-third smaller. See _Supplementary - Notes_, p. 184. - -[Illustration: Plate LXXIII.] - - -PLATE LXXIII. - -Megatherium and Fossil Bears. - - Fig. 1, is a sketch, on a very small scale, of the skeleton of a - colossal extinct animal of the Sloth tribe, discovered in - the alluvial deposits of the Pampas, and preserved in the - museum at Madrid. A plaster model of a skeleton, restored - from the remains of various individuals, dispersed in - different collections, is just completed, and exhibited to - the public in the Gallery of Organic Remains of the British - Museum.[77] This extinct animal is named the _Megatherium_ - (_gigantic wild animal_) _Cuvieri_. It was seven feet - high, and nine long, and therefore larger than the largest - rhinoceros. It possessed no incisor teeth; and the grinders, - which are seven inches long, are of a prismatic form, - and like those of the sloths, are composed of dentine - and cement. They are so formed that the crown always - presents two cutting, wedge-shaped, salient angles; they - are therefore admirably adapted for cutting and bruising - vegetable substances. The entire fore-foot is about a yard - in length, and armed with strong claws. The Megatherium held - an intermediate place between the sloths, armadillos, and - ant-eaters. The celebrated specimens of different parts of - the skeleton of this colossal creature, preserved in the - Hunterian Museum of the College of Surgeons of England, were - collected and presented by Sir Woodbine Parish. - -[Footnote 77: See Wonders of Geology, pp. 164-167.] - - Fig. 2. The hindmost grinder of the upper jaw of the Fossil Bear - (_Ursus spelæus_) of the Caverns, from Gaylenreuth.[78] - -[Footnote 78: Ibid. vol. i. p. 176.] - - Fig. 3. The middle upper grinder. - - Fig. 4. The foremost upper grinder. - - Fig. 5. The hindmost grinder of the lower jaw. - - Fig. 6. The penultimate grinder of the lower jaw. - - Fig. 7. The antepenultimate lower grinder. - - Fig. 8. The foremost lower grinder. - - Fig. 9. The canine tooth of the Fossil Bear. - -[Illustration: Plate LXXIV.] - - -PLATE LXXIV. - -Tooth of the Mastodon. - -A molar tooth of the _Mastodon giganteus_, from Big-bone Lick, -Kentucky; of the natural size. - -From the great number of bones and teeth of animals of the extinct -elephantine genus, to which the name of Mastodon was given by Cuvier -(from the structure of the crowns of the teeth), that have of late -years been brought to England, and are dispersed in our public and -private collections, the intelligent reader must be familiar with the -forms, characters, and gigantic proportions, of that stupendous tribe -of animals which once ranged through the primeval forests not only of -America, but also of some parts of Europe. From a perfect skeleton -lately set up in the British Museum (in the same room with that of -the Megatherium), a correct idea may be obtained of this peculiar -type of mammalian structure. From this specimen it appears that -the great Mastodon of the Ohio was not unlike the elephant In its -general outline, though somewhat longer and thicker. It had a trunk -or proboscis, tusks which curved upward, and four molar teeth in each -jaw, but no incisors. But another remarkable peculiarity, and which -entirely separates the Mastodon from the Elephant, is that the young -animal had a pair of tusks, placed horizontally in the lower jaw, and -of these tusks one only became developed, and that in the adult male: -both were early shed in the female. In the midst of a collection of -Mastodon bones imbedded in mud, a mass of small branches, grass, and -leaves, in a half bruised state, and a species of reed common in -Virginia, were discovered; the whole appeared to have been enveloped -in a sac, probably the stomach of the animal. In another instance -traces of the proboscis were observed. The tusks are composed of -ivory, and vary somewhat in the direction and degree of their -curvature. The bones of this colossal quadruped are found remarkably -fresh and well preserved, and are generally impregnated with iron. No -living instance of this creature is on record, and there can be no -doubt that its race has long since been extinct. - -"Big-bone Lick, where so many remains of the Mastodon and other -extinct quadrupeds have been dug up, is distant from Cincinnati -about twenty-three miles in a south-west direction. This celebrated -bog is situated in a nearly level plain, in a valley bounded by -gentle slopes, which lead up to flat table-lands composed of blue -argillaceous (Silurian) limestone, and marl. The general course of -the meandering stream which flows through the plain, is from east to -west. There are two springs on the southern or left bank, rising from -marshes, and two on the opposite bank; the most western of which, -called the Gum Lick, is at the point where a small tributary joins -the principal stream. The quaking bogs on this side are now more than -fifteen acres in extent; but all the marshes were formerly larger, -before the surrounding forest was partially cleared away. Within the -memory of persons now living, the wild bisons or buffaloes crowded -to these springs; but they have retreated many years, and are now as -unknown to the inhabitants as the Mastodon itself. The bog in the -spots where the salt springs rise is so soft, that a pole may be -forced down into it many yards perpendicularly. - -"The greater numbers both of the entire skeletons and the separate -bones have been taken up from black mud, about twelve feet below -the level of the Creek. It is supposed that the bones of the -mastodons found here could not have belonged to less than one hundred -individuals: those of the fossil Elephant (_Elephas primigenius_) to -twenty; besides which a few bones of the Megalonyx, and of a species -of stag, horse, and bison, are stated to have been collected. The -greatest depth of the black mud has not been ascertained; it is -composed chiefly of clay, with a mixture of calcareous matter and -sand, and contains 5 parts in 100 of sulphate of lime, with some -animal matter. Layers of gravel occur in the midst of it at various -depths. It contains remains of seeds, and of several species and -genera of fresh-water and terrestrial shells. It is impossible to -view this plain without at once concluding that it has remained -unchanged in all its principal features, from the period when -the extinct quadrupeds inhabited the banks of the Ohio and its -tributaries. - -"There are two buffalo paths or trails still extant in the woods, -and both lead directly to springs: the one which strikes off in a -northerly direction from the Gum Lick, may be traced eastward through -the forest for several miles. It is three or four yards wide, and -only partially overgrown with grass, and sixty years ago was as bare, -hard, and well trodden, as a high road. It is well known that during -great droughts in the Pampas of South America, the horses, deer, -and cattle, throng to the rivers in such numbers, that the foremost -of the crowd are pushed into the stream by the pressure of others -behind, and are sometimes carried away by thousands, and drowned. In -their eagerness to drink the saline waters and lick the salt, the -heavy mastodons and elephants seem in like manner to have pressed -upon each other, and sunk in the soft quagmires of Kentucky."[79] - -[Footnote 79: Extracted from Sir Charles Lyell's "Travels in North -America," vol. ii. chap. xvii. 1845.] - - - - -SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES. - - - -I. Fossil Bears of the Caverns. (Plate LXXIII.) For many centuries -certain caves in Germany have been celebrated for their osseous -treasures, particularly those in Franconia. The most remarkable of -these caverns is that of Gaylenreuth, which lies to the north-west -of the village of that name, on the left bank of the river Wiesent, -on the confines of Bayreuth.[80] The entrance to this cave is in the -face of a perpendicular rock, and leads to a series of chambers from -fifteen to twenty feet high, and several hundred feet in extent, -terminating in a deep chasm. The cave is quite dark; and the icicles -and pillars of stalactite, reflected by the light of the torches, -which it is necessary to use, present a highly picturesque effect. -The floor is literally paved with bones and fossil teeth, and the -pillars and corbels of stalactite also contain similar remains. The -bones are generally scattered and broken, but not rolled; they are -lighter and less solid than recent bones, and are often incrusted -with stalactites. Three-fourths of the bones belong to two species -of bears (_Ursus_), the remainder to hyænas, tigers, wolves, foxes, -gluttons, weasels, and other small carnivora. Those belonging to -bears are referable to two extinct species: the largest has the skull -more prominent on the front than any living species; it is named -_Ursus spelæus_, or cavern bear; the other has a flat forehead, -and is the _Ursus priscus_ of Cuvier. The Hyena was allied to the -spotted hyena of the Cape, but differed in the form of the teeth and -skull. Bones of the Elephant and Rhinoceros are said to have been -discovered, together with those of existing animals, and fragments of -sepulchral urns of high antiquity.[81] - -[Footnote 80: See Medals of Creation, vol. ii. p. 869, for an -interesting account of the present state of these caverns, by my -friend. Major Willoughby Montague.] - -[Footnote 81: Dr. Buckland's "Reliquia Diluviana" contains a full -account of the most remarkable ossiferous caverns and their contents.] - -Similar ossiferous caves occur in England; of these, the most -remarkable now accessible are Kent's Hole, near Torquay, and Banwell -Cave, in the Mendip Hills, near the village of Banwell. The latter -may be easily visited, as the Exeter railway passes within three -miles of the village, and there is a station, with vehicles to convey -passengers to Banwell. - -II. The Belemnite. (Plates LIX. and LX.) Among the innumerable relics -which abound in the secondary deposits, there are perhaps no fossil -bodies that have excited so much curiosity, or given rise to so many -fanciful conjectures as to their nature and origin, as the long, -cylindrical, fusiform, crystalline stones, called _Belemnites_ by -naturalists, and _thunderbolts_ by common observers. Mr. Parkinson -gives an amusing account (vol. iii. p. 122) of the discordant -opinions entertained at various times respecting the nature of these -bodies. - -It would be irrelevant to dwell on the history of the successive -attempts that have been made to elucidate the origin and structure -of the Belemnite. It will suffice to describe concisely the present -state of our knowledge as to the organization of the original. - -Mr. Miller, in 1823,[82] showed that the Belemnite was the rostrum -or osselet of an animal allied to the Sepia, or Cuttle-fish, and -gave a restored outline of the supposed form of the original, with -the Belemnite in its presumed natural situation. Dr. Buckland and M. -Agassiz imagined that they had traced a natural connexion between -certain species of Belemnites that abound in the Lias, and the ink -bag and other soft parts of the Sepiæ or Calamaries found associated -with them; and they suggested the name of _Belemno-sepia_ for the -supposed animal of the Belemnite,[83] - -[Footnote 82: Geological Transactions, New Series, vol. ii.; and Dr. -Buckland's Bridgewater Essay.] - -[Footnote 83: Bridgewater Essay, p. 374.] - -In 1842, the late Mr. Channing Pearce described, under the name -of _Belemnoteuthis antiquus_, a naked (destitute of a shell,) -cephalopod, which occurs in immense numbers in certain beds of the -Oxford clay, especially at Christian Malford, in Wiltshire. This -animal has at the lower apical part a conical osselet of a horny -substance, and fibrous structure, enclosing a chambered siphunculated -shell, which becomes gradually thinner at the upper part, and forms -a cup-like receptacle, in which is placed the ink-bag. The soft body -of an elongated oval form, with a pair of lateral palleal fins, two -large sessile eyes, and with eight uncinated arms and a pair of long -tentacula, are preserved in a more or less distinct and perfect state -in several specimens that have lately been discovered. Mr. Channing -Pearce, Mr. Cunnington, and other collectors of these interesting -remains, were convinced that this cephalopod was entirely distinct -from the animal to which the Belemnite belonged. - -In 1844, Professor Owen laid before the Royal Society "A description -of certain Belemnites preserved with a great proportion of their soft -parts in the Oxford clay, at Christian Malford, Wilts."[84] In this -memoir (for which one of the royal medals of the Society was awarded) -the author describes as the soft parts of the Belemnite the remains -of the animal which Mr. Channing Pearce had two years previously -shown to belong to a different genus (_Belemnoteuthis_). Belying on -the correctness of Professor Owen's views, I gave an abstract of this -memoir in my "_Medals of Creation_," and stated that belemnites had -been discovered with the osselet, receptacle, and ink-bag, in their -natural position, and with remains of the mantle, body, fins, eyes, -and the tentacula, with their horny rings and hooks.[85] - -[Footnote 84: Philos. Trans. Part I. 1844. p. 65.] - -[Footnote 85: Medals of Creation, vol. ii. p. 467.] - -The discovery by my son (Mr. Reginald Neville Mantell) of some -remarkably perfect specimens of belemnites in the Oxford clay, -exposed in the railway works on which he was engaged, near -Trowbridge, in Wilts, led me to examine the structure of the -Belemnoteuthis with more attention than I had hitherto done, as well -as the evidence adduced by Professor Owen in proof that the fossil -osselet, the Belemnite, belonged to the same genus of cephalopoda. I -found that _no specimen had been obtained in which the phragmocone, -or terminal chambered part of the Belemnoteuthis_ (of Pearce), -_was situated in the alveolus of a Belemnite_; but Professor Owen -having assumed that the osselet of the former must have originally -been protected by a rostrum, or guard, described the soft parts -as belonging to the animal of the Belemnite, conceiving that the -phragmocone of the Belemnoteuthis was that of a Belemnite that had -slipped out of the guard. - -In a communication to the Royal Society, in 1848, I demonstrated -how utterly at variance with the facts were these conclusions, and -pointed out the essential distinctive characters that separated the -two extinct genera, so far as the specimens then discovered would -warrant.[86] Other illustrative examples of the Belemnite have since -been obtained; and in a supplementary paper read before the Royal -Society, February 14th, of the present year (1850), I have stated -what appears to me to be the extent of our present knowledge of the -organization of the Belemnite. I subjoin an abstract of that paper, -which embodies the result of an examination of many hundred specimens -of Belemnites and Belemnoteuthites. The annexed outline, or diagram, -shows the known structures of the Belemnite; of the soft parts of -the animal, a few imperfect carbonaceous traces, apparently of the -mantle, around and between the shelly processes of the upper part of -the phragmocone, are the only vestiges I have been able to detect. -The most perfect Belemnite hitherto discovered consists of, - -[Footnote 86: Philos. Trans. 1848, p. 171.] - -[Illustration] - -1. An external _Capsule_ (_e_) which invested the osselet or -sepiostaire, and extending upwards, constituted the external sheath -of the receptacle. - -2. The _Osselet_, characterized by its fibrous radiated structure, -terminating distally in a solid rostrum or guard (_i_), having an -alveolus, or conical hollow (_g_), to receive the apical portion of -the chambered phragmocone, and expanding proximally into a thin cup, -which became confluent with the capsule, and formed the receptacle -(_b, b_,) for the viscera. - -3. The _Phragmocone_ (_d_), or chambered, siphunculated (_c_), -internal shell; the apex of which occupied the alveolus (_g_) of -the guard, and the upper part constituted a capacious chamber, from -the basilar margin of which proceeded two long, flat, testaceous, -processes (_a, a_,). - -These structures comprise all that are at present known of the animal -to which the fossil commonly called "_Belemnite_," belonged. - -Of the _Belemnoteuthis_, the cephalopod which Professor Owen -considers to be a Belemnite, many examples of the body with eight -uncinated arms and a pair of long tentacula, and with an ink-bag, and -palleal fins, have been discovered. The osselet of this animal, like -that of the Belemnite, has a fibro-radiated structure, investing a -conical chambered shell; but this organ, for reasons fully detailed -in the memoir, could never have been contained within the alveolus of -a Belemnite. - -No _certain_ evidence has been obtained of the occurrence of an -_ink-bag_ in natural connexion with a Belemnite. - -Diagram of the known Structures of the _Belemnites Puzosianus_, from -Trowbridge. - - _a, a_, dorsal processes. - - _b, b_, the receptacle. - - _c, c_, the siphuncle. - - _d, d_, the phragmocone. - - _e_, the capsule. - - _f_, the inferior end of the phragmocone. - - _g_, the alveolus of the guard. - - _h_, vertical section of the guard. - - _i_, the guard, or rostrum of the osselet. - - _k_, sulcus, or furrow, on the ventral aspect of this species of - Belemnite. - - _l_, capsule, or periostricum. - - _m_, the dorsal line. - - _n_, transverse section, showing the fibrous radiated structure of - the guard. - -In the annexed outline the several parts are represented in their -natural relative positions. The capsule, or most external investment, -(_e_) is seen only in section, being removed to expose the rostrum -or guard (the fossil body generally known as the Belemnite). The -upper three-fourths of the rostrum are also taken away, to show the -phragmocone which it originally enveloped. The straight transverse -lines denote the chambers of the phragmocone; the latter is seen -extending downwards till it terminates in a point or apex; that part -of the cavity in the guard is called the _alveolus_. The _siphuncle_, -or tube which extends through the entire series of chambers, and is -situated on the ventral margin, is indicated at _c, c_. The dorsal -processes (_a, a_) are seen on their inner aspect at the upper part; -the diverging lines (_m_) between them indicate the impressions of -the soft parts, of which some traces remain. - -III. Fossil Remains of Birds.--_The Moa, or Dinornis of New -Zealand._ The bones of birds are of extreme rarity in a fossil -state. Throughout the immense series of the palæozoic and secondary -formations--the accumulated sedimentary deposits of innumerable -ages--no unquestionable indications of the existence of this class of -highly organized beings have been brought to light. - -In the Triassic, or New Red argillaceous sandstones of the valley -of the Connecticut River, in North America, some very remarkable -phenomena have, however, been discovered, and which in the opinions -of many eminent observers render it highly probable, that at the -period when these strata were deposited, numerous birds, some of -colossal magnitude, abounded on the then dry land. When slabs of -these sandstones are split asunder, or exposed, so as to exhibit -the sedimentary surface which separates one layer from another, -the foot-prints of many species of bipeds are perceived deeply -impressed on the stone, and disposed in such manner as to prove that -they are the tracks of animals that walked over the surface of the -deposit when it was in a soft or plastic state. The close analogy of -these imprints to those of birds' feet, not only in their general -resemblance, but also in the disposition of the tracks, and in the -relation of the distance of the stride, and the depth and shallowness -of the impressions, to the size of the respective feet, tends to -corroborate the inference first enunciated by Professor Hitchcock, -and subsequently confirmed by other geologists, that these mysterious -markings on the rock, are natural records of the existence of various -tribes of birds during the Triassic period;[87] but unfortunately the -only certain evidence of the correctness of this opinion--remains of -the skeletons--is wanting; not a vestige of a vertebrated animal of a -higher class than fishes and reptiles has been discovered.[88] - -[Footnote 87: Travels in North America, vol. ii. pl. 7.] - -[Footnote 88: See Wonders of Geology, vol. ii. p. 556. -Ornithichnites, or Fossil Footprints of Birds; Medals of Creation, -vol. i. p. 808.] - -In the vast fluviatile formation--the Wealden--of the south-east -of England, which abounds in the remains of terrestrial plants and -reptiles, many fragments of bones of such tenuity as to indicate that -they belonged to animals capable of flight, have from time to time -been collected since my first discovery and announcement, in 1822, of -supposed birds' bones in the strata of Tilgate Forest. Some of these -relics were declared by Baron Cuvier, and subsequently by Professor -Owen, to be unquestionably those of birds; probably some species of -waders. But recent observations have rendered it doubtful whether -all the specimens of this class from the Wealden, like those from -Stonesfield, are not to be regarded as referable to flying reptiles -(Pterodactyles).[89] - -[Footnote 89: Wonders of Geology, vol. i. p. 438, 440. I still think -it probable, however, that bones of birds will be detected among the -Wealden fossils.] - -In the chalk of Kent several bones of a very large flying animal -have been obtained from a quarry at Burham, near Maidstone; some of -these are figured and described in Professor Owen's beautiful work -on British Fossil Mammals and Birds, as those of a bird allied to -the Albatross; but the occurrence in the same quarry of jaws with -teeth, and other undoubted remains of a gigantic Pterodactyle,[90] -and the absence in the specimens figured of osteological characters -exclusively ornithic, seem to support the conclusion that these also -must be ascribed to flying reptiles. - -[Footnote 90: These fossils are in the splendid museum of J. S. -Bowerbank, Esq. of Highbury Grove, Islington.] - -In the most ancient tertiary strata unquestionable vestiges of birds -occur; in the Sub-Himalaya eocene deposits, they are associated with -bones of the extinct elephantine mammalia of India; in those of the -Paris basin with the remains of the Palæotheria, &c. In the miocene -and pliocene formations, the bones and even egg-shells of several -species and genera have been detected. The remains of birds, however, -even in comparatively recent deposits, were of such rare occurrence -as to be ranked by the collector of fossils among the most precious -of his acquisitions; but a few years ago, a most extraordinary -discovery in our Antipodean colony. New Zealand, astonished and -delighted the palæontologist, by placing before him hundreds of bones -of numerous extinct genera of birds, some of which far exceed in -magnitude those of the most gigantic living species, the Ostrich. - -In various localities of the maritime districts of New Zealand, -there had been observed in the beds of rivers and streams, fossil -bones of birds of colossal magnitude, belonging to many species and -several genera, associated with similar relics of smaller species. -These bones had attracted the attention of the natives long ere the -country was visited by Europeans; and traditions are rife among the -New Zealanders that this race formerly existed in great numbers, and -served as food to their remote ancestors. They also believe that some -of the largest species have been seen alive within the memory of man; -and even affirm that individuals still exist in the unfrequented and -inaccessible parts of the interior of the country. They call the bird -_Moa_, and state that its head and tail were adorned with magnificent -plumes of feathers, which were worn by their ancient chiefs as -ornaments of distinction. - -Nine years since, a fragment of a thigh-bone of a bird larger than -that of the Ostrich was brought to England by Mr. Rule, and submitted -to the examination of Professor Owen, who pronounced it to belong -to a gigantic bird of the _Struthious_ (Ostrich) order. A few years -afterwards several collections of vertebræ, bones of the extremities, -&c. were transmitted to England by Messrs. Williams, Wakefield, -Earle, &c., which corroborated that opinion, and proved that there -formerly existed in the islands of New Zealand, colossal birds of a -type distinct from any known in other parts of the world. In 1846 -and 1847, my eldest son, Mr. Walter Mantell, who has resided in New -Zealand several years, made an extensive and highly interesting -collection of these fossil remains, which arrived in England in 1848. -This series contains _skulls_, with the _mandibles or beaks_, bones -of other parts of the skeleton, and _portions of the egg-shells_, of -several extinct species and genera of birds; presenting remarkable -deviations from the previously known types to which they are most -nearly allied. - -This valuable accession to our knowledge of the osteology of this -extinct race of Ostrich-like birds--some individuals of which must -have attained a height of from ten to twelve feet--has yielded -important results as to the form, structure, and economy, of these -colossal bipeds, and the prevailing characters of the terrestrial -fauna of New Zealand in very remote periods. The collection, -consisting of above 700 specimens, is now in the British Museum: it -was obtained chiefly from a bed of _menaccanite_ or titaniferous -iron-sand, that had evidently been washed down by torrents from -the volcanic region of Mount Egmont; that snow-capped ridge which -forms so striking a feature in the physical geography of the North -Island, and is the source of the fresh-water streams that discharge -themselves into the ocean along the western shore. The tract of sand -from which my son dug up these relics, is on the coast near the -embouchure of a small river called Waingongoro, between Wanganui -and Waimate. That stream evidently once flowed into the sea far -from its present course, for lines of cliffs extend inland from -the now dry sand-spit, and bear marks of the erosive action of -currents.[91] A few months since, I received from my son another -most interesting collection of fossil bones (comprising above 500 -specimens), chiefly obtained from the eastern shores of the Middle -Island of New Zealand, when engaged as Government Commissioner for -the settlement of native claims. These were dug up from a morass of -small extent, lying in a little creek or bay at Waikouaiti, some -twenty miles north of Otago. This swamp, which is only visible at low -water, is composed of vegetable fibres (apparently of the _Phormium -tenax_), sand, and animal matter. The bones are of a deep brown -colour, and almost as fresh as if recently taken from a tar-pit. -Among the specimens are crania and mandibles, and bones of enormous -size. The most remarkable are _the entire series of phalangeals, and -the two tarso-metatarsals_, (26 in number,) _of the right and left -foot of the same individual bird_ (_Dinornis robustus_), which were -found standing erect, one a yard in advance of the other; as if the -bird had sunk into the mire, and unable to extricate itself, had -perished on the spot. These bones were carefully exhumed and numbered -seriatim, and are the only instances of the bones of the foot and -metatarsus found in natural connexion; they are, consequently, the -first certain examples known of the structure of the feet of the -colossal birds of New Zealand. The foot of the Moa, to which these -bones belonged, must have been 16 inches long, and 18 inches wide; -and the height of the bird about ten feet. (_See the Frontispiece._) - -[Footnote 91: I must refer for details to the Quarterly Journal of -the Geological Society, No. XV. August 1848.] - -It would extend this article far beyond the limits assigned to this -work, were I to attempt even a cursory account of all the facts and -inferences connected with these discoveries. The anatomical and -physiological characters of many species and genera will be found in -the admirable Memoirs on the _Dinornis_, _Palapteryx_, _Notornis_, -&c. by Prof. Owen, in the Transactions of the Zoological Society.[92] - -[Footnote 92: I regret to state that the egg-shells, and many -highly interesting bones, belonging to unknown genera of birds, -from Rangatapu or Waingongoro, in my son's first collection, remain -undescribed. My notes and observations on the geological position of -the ossiferous deposits of the North Island of New Zealand, derived -from the sketches and letters of Mr. Walter Mantell, are published in -the Geological Journal; those on his collection of fossils from the -Middle Island will appear in the same publication in the course of -the present year (1850).] - -From the facts at present known as to the position of the ossiferous -deposits of New Zealand, there is reason to conclude that they -bear the same relation to the present state of the country, as the -alluvial loam and clay containing the bones of mammoths, Irish -Elks, &c. to that of Great Britain. I think we may safely infer -that at a period geologically recent, but historically very remote, -those islands were densely peopled by tribes of ostrich-like birds -of species and genera which have long since become extinct; that -many species existed contemporary with the Maories or native human -inhabitants, and that the last of the family were exterminated, like -the Irish Elk, and the Dodo, by man. If, as the natives affirm, -some of the race still exist in the unfrequented parts of the -country, they are probably diminutive species, like the Apteryx -or _Kivi-Kivi_, which is the only living representative known to -naturalists, of this once numerous tribe of colossal Struthionidæ. -The only fossil osseous remains from New Zealand not referable to -birds are bones of two species of Seals, and one femur and a few -other bones of a Dog. Associated with the relics of the Dinornis -and other extinct genera, and unquestionably coeval with them, are -crania, mandibles, and other bones, of the living species of Apteryx, -Albatross, Penguin, Notornis, Nestor, Water-hen, &c. - -The fragments of egg-shells of Dinornis, from Rangatapu, belong to -three distinct types, each of very large size; my son, to convey an -idea of the magnitude of one egg, of which he dug up a large portion, -says, "a gentleman's hat would make a capital egg-cup for it." The -markings on the surface of the shells bear a greater resemblance to -those on the eggs of the Rhea and Cassowary than of the Ostrich. - -A remarkable fact mentioned by my son throws some light as to the -comparatively recent extirpation of the Moa. In one spot the natives -pointed out some little mounds covered with herbage, as consisting of -heaps of ashes and bones, the refuse of the fires and feasts left by -their remote ancestors. Upon digging into them, a quantity of burnt -bones was discovered: these belonged to Man, Moa, and Dog, and were -promiscuously intermingled. These calcined bones present no traces -whatever either of the earthy powder or manaccanite sand which the -cells and pores of the fossil bones invariably contain. If, as the -natives affirm, these are the rejectamenta of the feasts of the -aborigines, the practice of cannibalism by the New Zealanders must -have been of very ancient date, and could not have originated, as -Professor Owen supposed, from the want of animal food in consequence -of the extirpation of the colossal birds. (See _ante_, p. xi.) - -IV. Botanical arrangement of Fossil Vegetables.--Mr. Artis, in the -Introduction of his work, offers some judicious observations as -to the proper method in which the study of Fossil Botany should -be pursued. He remarks, "that from the imperfect state in which -fossil vegetables are generally found, the ordinary characters by -which recent plants are referred to their congeners, can scarcely -ever be detected in them. The sexual organs on which the systems of -Linnæus and Jussieu are founded, and even the integuments of those -organs while in the state of flowering, have uniformly perished. The -external parts of the seed or fruit exist, indeed, in a fossil state, -but they are almost always insulated from the other organs. If leaves -are found, it is almost certain that scarcely any portion of the stem -will be attached to them; if the external parts of a trunk, then very -rarely any vestiges of the branches and foliage. And when traces -of the internal structure can be discovered, it is seldom that the -external character of the stem remains. - -"In consequence of this deficiency of the essential characters on -which the determinations of the botanist are founded, there exists -a necessity for examining more minutely and accurately than has yet -been done, the internal structure of recent plants; their habits of -growth, the cicatrices or scars left on the stem by the leaves that -are spontaneously shed, the different appearances which their fruits -exhibit in their various stages of development--all these points must -be minutely studied before we can obtain any certainty as to the -identity of fossil and living species of plants. - -"It is not by publishing detached and unconnected delineations and -descriptions of fossil plants, as they occasionally occur, that -the knowledge of them can be considerably promoted. A systematic -arrangement must be formed; and the first step to this is the -accurate determination of the species. _Hoc opus, hic labor est._" - -"It will be seen," he observes, "in the course of this work, how -easy it would be to imagine parts of the same specimen to be -different species, when they happen to be broken and dispersed. I can -confidently assert, that in at least a thousand different specimens -which I have had in my possession, not more than a hundred distinct -species can be recognised. Furthermore, still fewer indeed can be -referred to any living species; for it is not the fern-like leaf of -a plant, the palm-like cicatrix, or the cane-like joint of a stem, -that will suffice to identify them with those tribes of the vegetable -kingdom. The whole anatomy of the plant must be studied. The subject -has, indeed, been begun by Professor Martins, in his comparison -of certain fossil stems of plants with those of the living plants -growing in the Brazils, but the study is as yet too new to afford -certain results. Accordingly, several of that professor's opinions -are at variance with those of M. Adolphe Brongniart, who has also -compared the recent and fossil vegetables together on this plan. -But by following up the comparison, which has been so successfully -adopted by Baron Cuvier, in the study of fossil animals,[93] similar -results may be expected, and a knowledge of the extinct plants be at -length attained." - -[Footnote 93: Recherches sur les Ossemens Fossiles.] - -Mr. Artis then gives an abstract of the systems of Baron Schlotheim, -Count Sternberg, Professor Martins, and M. Adolphe Brongniart, which -I am Induced to subjoin as a useful record of the state of fossil -botany twelve years ago:-- - -"The Baron Schlotheim, who published in 1804 the first part of a -Flora der Vorwelt, followed up his researches of this kind by a -catalogue of his cabinet, under the title of 'Die Petrefactenkunde -auf ihrem jetzigen Standpunkte erläutert,' published in 1820, to -which two Appendices have since been added in 1822 and 1823. - -"The arrangement made by the Baron, so far as regards the vegetable -part of his cabinet, is as follows. His specimens are first divided -into five Sections, or Orders:-- - -1. Dendrolithes, containing the remains of trees, which are -subdivided into three sub-sections. - -A. _Lithoxylites_, of which no characters are given, but from the -specimens mentioned by him, he evidently arranges in this place the -wood-stone and wood-opal of the mineralogists. - -B. _Lithanthracites_, in which are placed the bituminized stems, and -other parts of trees. - -C. _Bibliolithes_.--Fossil leaves, mostly of the later formations. - -2. Botanolithes.--Comprising those kinds of fossil plants which -cannot be considered either as trees or shrubs, nor as belonging to -the plants of the old coal formation. - -All the specimens belonging to the preceding sections are merely -enumerated, and not distinguished by generic and trivial names, as is -the case with the following. - -Phytotypolithes.--Fossil plants of the stone-coal formation. These -are divided systematically into genera and species. The genera are as -follow:-- - - a. _Palmacites_, containing fifteen species. - b. _Casuarinites_, " five. - c. _Calamites_, " ten. - d. _Filicites_, " twenty-three. - e. _Lycopodiolithes_, " five. - f. _Poacites_, " four. - -In the whole sixty-two species. - -4. Carpolithes.--Of which he enumerates fifteen species as present in -his collection. This division is considered as a genus, as is also -the next. - -5. Anthotypolithes.--The cabinet contains only one species, namely -the _Anthotypolithes ranunculiformis_." - - * * * * * - -In 1820, Gaspard Count Sternberg published in German, the first -number of a work which has been translated by the Comte de Bray, -under the title of "Essai d'un Exposé Geognostico-Botanique de la -Flore du Monde Primitif." Of this translation a second and third part -appeared in 1823 and 1824. In these successive numbers the Count -has communicated the state of his knowledge as it grew up under his -hands, in consequence of his own labours and those of his friend, -Baron Schlotheim. The genera, as they are successively developed in -the work, are the following:-- - - 1. _Lepidodendron._--Stem scaly; the scales leaf-bearing, surrounding - the stem spirally. In a subsequent number, what are here called - scales, are denominated scale-like cicatrices. - -This genus is subdivided in the first number into two sub-genera, but -this division is not noticed in the additional species quoted in the -succeeding numbers. - - _Lepidotæ._--Scales convex. - - _Alveolariæ._--Scales sub-concave. - - 2. _Variolariæ._--Stem shield-bearing, or warty; shields leaf-bearing, - surrounding the stem spirally. - - 3. _Calamitæ._--Stem striated, intercepted with sutures at the - articulations. - - 4. _Syringodendron._--Stem arborescent, in the form of pipes agglutinated - together, with naked glandules surrounding the stem spirally. - -In the second number the following genera are given:-- - - 5. _Rhytidolepis._--Stem arborescent, streaked longitudinally with - elevated wrinkles; shields surrounding the stem spirally. - - 6. _Flabellaria._--Leaves part stalked, divided and expanded like a fan. - - 7. _Schlotheimia._--Stem jointed, contracted at the articulation, - verticillate. - - 8. _Annularia._--Leaves disposed in a whirl, inserted in a proper ring. - - 9. _Nœggerathia._--Stem as thick as a goose-quill; leaves alternate, - approximate, reverse-ovate, half embracing the stem, - pectinato-toothed at the top, the remainder of the edge uncut. - - 10. _Osmunda._ } This and the following have no generic characters - 11. _Asplenium._ } assigned to them, the recent genera being referred - to. - - 12. _Rotularia._--Leaves verticillate, expanded in the form of a small - wheel. - -The third number contains the following additional genera:-- - - 13. _Lepidolepis._--Scale-like cicatrices truncated at their top. - - 14. _Thuites_, of which he gives no characters, but refers to his - figures. - - 15. _Antholites._ - - 16. _Carpolites._ - - 17. _Conites._--Fossil strobili. - - 18. _Sphenopteris._ - - 19. _Polypodiolithus._ - - 20. _Myriophyllites._ - - 21. _Phyllites._ - - 22. _Algacites_, which the French translator, on obtaining the opinion - of Professor Agardh, has changed into _Sargassum_; that celebrated - algologist having considered it as identically the same as that - genus of recent algæ. - -The genera thus successively established, may be arranged in the -following order:-- - - A. Fossil plants of unknown origin, in which the stem is large, and forms - the only, or at least the most prominent character; including, - 1. _Lepidodendron_; 2. _Variolaria_; 3. _Calamites_; - 4. _Syringodendron_; 5. _Rhytidolepis_; 13. _Lepidolepis_. - - B. Fossil plants, of unknown origin, in which the leaves form the - prominent character; including, 6. _Flabellaria_; 7. _Schlotheimia_; - 8. _Annularia_; 9. _Nœggerathia_; 12. _Rotularia_. - - C. Fossil parts of unknown plants; including, 15, _Antholites_; - 16. _Carpolites_; 17. _Conites_. - - D. Fossil plants, or parts of plants referable to living types; including, - 10. _Osmunda_; 11. _Asplenium_; 14. _Thuites_; 18. _Sphenopteris_; - 19. _Polypodiolites_; 20. _Myriophyllites_; 22. Algacites. - - * * * * * - -In November 1821, Professor Martins read to the Botanical Society of -Ratisbon, a paper which was afterwards published in its Memoirs for -1822. This paper was entitled, "_De Plantis nonnullis Antediluvianis -ope specierum inter tropicos viventium illustrandis_;" in it several -of the species mentioned by Baron Schlotheim and Count Sternberg are -referred to the orders and genera of recent plants; and the following -genera are proposed:-- - - 1. _Filicites_, analogous to the Arborescent ferns. - - 2. _Palmacites_, analogous to the Palmæ. - - 3. _Bambusites_, analogous to Bambusia, and other arborescent grasses; - these are the _Calamites_ of other authors. - - 4. _Yuccites_, analogous to the Cuciphoræ, Dracenæ, Pandani, Yuccæ, and - Velloriæ, of botanical writers. - - 5. _Cactites_, analogous to the Cacti. - - 6. _Euphorbites_, analogous to the Cereiform species of Euphorbia. - - 7. _Lychnophorites_, analogous to _Lychnophora_, a genus of plants found - by Martius in Brazil, which belongs to the order of the Compositæ, - and is allied to the _Vernoniæ_ of Linnæus and the _Pollalestæ_ of - Humboldt. - - * * * * * - -M. Adolphe Brongniart has given the following classification -of fossil plants, in his Essay "_Sur la Classification et la -Distribution de Végétaux Fossiles_" inserted in the "Mémoires du -Muséum d'Histoire Naturelle;" and also printed separately in quarto, -Paris, 1822:-- - - -STEMS. - - -Class I.--Stems whose internal organization is recognisable. - - 1. Exogenites.--Wood formed of regular concentric layers. - - 2. Endogenites.--Wood composed of insulated bundles of vessels, which are - more numerous towards the circumference than at the centre. - - -Class II.--Stems whose internal organization is no longer distinct, -but which are characterised by their external form. - - 3. Culmites.--Stem jointed, smooth; a single impression at each - articulation.[94] - - 4. Calamites.--Stem jointed, regularly striated; impressions rounded, - small, numerous, forming a ring round each articulation, or - sometimes wanting.[95] - - 5. Syringodendron.--Stem channelled, not jointed; impressions dot-like - or linear, arranged in quincunx.[96] - - 6. Sigillaria.--Stem channelled, not jointed; impressions in the form of - disks, arranged in quincunx. - - 7. Clathraria.--Stem neither channelled, nor jointed; impressions in the - form of rounded disks, disposed in quincunx.[97] - - 8. Sagenaria.--Stem without joints, or furrows, covered with conical - rhomboidal tubercles disposed in quincunx, having at their upper - extremity an impression in the form of a disk.[98] - - 9. Stigmaria.--Stem without joints, or furrows; impressions rounded, - distant, disposed in quincunx.[99] - -[Footnote 94: These stems appear to M. Brongniart to belong to the -arborescent grasses, to _Calamus_ or its allied genera.] - -[Footnote 95: M. de Candolle suggested to M. Brongniart that these -stems belong to some plants of the natural order of Equisetaceæ.] - -[Footnote 96: M. Brongniart considers these remains to belong to -genera which are entirely extinct.] - -[Footnote 97: M. Brongniart shows in his paper the great agreement -between these two genera, and the stems of ferns, in every respect -excepting magnitude, and considers them as evidently owing their -origin to plants of that natural order rather than to the palms.] - -[Footnote 98: The stems of this genus are referable, in the opinion -of M. Brongniart, to those of plants belonging to the family of -_Lycopodiaceæ_, notwithstanding the great difference of size between -them and those of the recent plants of that natural order.] - -[Footnote 99: These stems, M. Brongniart supposes, belong rather to -plants of the natural order of _Aroideæ_, than to the _Euphorbiaceæ_, -or to the Palms to which they have been ascribed by other authors.] - -FOLIAGE. - - 10. Lycopodites.--Leaves linear, or setaceous, without ribs, or traversed - by a single rib, inserted all round the stem, or in a double row. - -This genus is subdivided into four sections, as follow:-- - - _a._ Leaves narrow, lanceolate, inserted in a regular manner all round a - stem having the characters of Sagenaria. - - _b._ Leaves setaceous, inserted in a double row only; stem not reticulated. - These he considers as the proper Lycopodites. - - _c._ Leaves broad, without any apparent ribs, inserted irregularly all - round the stem. These differ much from the rest of the genus. - - _d._ Leaves blunt, short, closely applied to the stem. - - -Class III.--11. Filicites.--Frond disposed on a flat surface, -symmetrical; secondary rib simple, forked, or rarely anastomosing. - -These are divided Into five sub-genera:-- - - _a._ _Glossopteris._--Frond simple, not jagged, traversed by a single - mid-rib, without distinct secondary ribs. - - _b._ _Sphenopteris._--Pinnules wedge-shaped, rounded or lobed at the - extremity; ribs palmate or radiating from the base of the pinnule. - - _c._ _Neuropteris._--Pinnules rounded, not lobed, nor adhering to the - rachis by their base; ribs scarcely visible beyond the base, in - general very distinct, and two-forked. - - _d._ _Pecopteris._--Frond pinnatifid; pinnules adherent by their base to - the rachis, traversed by a mid-rib; secondary ribs pinnate. - - _e._ _Odontopteris._--Pinnules adhering to the rachis by the whole of their - base; mid-rib none; secondary ribs running out perpendicularly from - the rachis. - - 12. Sphœnophyllites.--Leaves verticillate, wedge-shaped, truncate; ribs - radiating, two-forked.[100] - - 13. Asterophyllites.--Leaves verticillate, with a single rib.[101] - - 14. Fucoides.--Frond not symmetrical, often disposed on a flat surface; - ribs none, or badly defined. - - 15. Phyllites.--Leaves with ribs well defined, repeatedly divided, or - anastomosing.[102] - - 16. Poacites.--Leaves linear; ribs parallel. - - 17. Palmacites.--Leaves fan-shape. - -[Footnote 100: M. Brongniart considers these to belong to some -extinct genus of plants, allied to, although perfectly distinct from, -the recent genus _Marsilea_.] - -[Footnote 101: These the author thinks are the remains of an extinct -genus of plants.] - -[Footnote 102: The character of the ribs here given belongs -exclusively to leaves of plants of the dicotyledonous tribe; as those -of the next genus _Poacites_ equally restricts them to the other -great tribe of monocotyledonous plants.] - - -Class IV. _Organs of fructification._ - -Order I. Carpolithes.--Fruits or seeds. - -Order II. Antholithes.--Flowers.[103] - -[Footnote 103: These orders are too little known to be divided at -present into genera.] - -The numerous additions and modifications, which subsequent experience -and discoveries have led M. Brongniart to introduce into his -classification, will be found in an article recently published (1849) -in the "Dictionnaire Universel d'Histoire Naturelle," under the title -of "Tableau des Genres de Végétaux Fossiles, considérés sous le point -de vue de leur classification botanique et de leur distribution -géologique." - - -V. Fossil Cephalopoda, Nautilus, Ammonite, &c.--The fossil remains -of the molluscous animals, named _Cephalopoda_, from their organs -of prehension being arranged around the head or upper part of the -body, are the most ancient, numerous, and interesting, of this class -of animated nature in the mineral kingdom. These relics are among -the most varied and striking of the extinct beings that occur in -the sedimentary strata, from the most ancient secondary formations, -to the most recent tertiary. The living species are but a feeble -representation of the countless myriads which must have swarmed in -the ancient seas. - -The animal of the Cephalopods is composed of a body, which is either -enclosed in a shell, as in the Nautilus, or contains a calcareous -osselet or support, as in the Sepia or Cuttle-fish; it has a distinct -head, and eyes as perfect as in the vertebrated animals, with -complicated organs of hearing, and a powerful masticating apparatus, -surrounded by arms or tentacula. Below the head there is a tube which -acts as a locomotive instrument, to propel the animal backwards, by -the forcible ejection of the water that has served the purpose of -respiration, and which can be ejected with considerable force by the -contraction of the body. - -Their fossil remains consist of the external shell and the internal -osselet; and in the naked tribes, of the soft parts of the body, -the ink-bag, &c., as noticed in the account of the Belemnite and -Belemnoteuthis. - -The shell varies exceedingly in the different genera. In the group -characterised by smooth septa, and a medial or submedial siphuncle, -as the Nautilus, the earliest or most ancient type is straight, as in -the _Orthoceras_ (Plate LVIII. fig. 14) of the palæozoic formations; -the intermediate forms present various modifications of the spiral, -and terminate in the completely discoidal shell of the living genus; -while the other group, that with sinuous or foliated septa and a -dorsal siphuncle, commences in a discoidal type--the Ammonite, which -gradually passes through the various modifications of _Crioceras_, -_Scaphites_ (Plate LXI. fig. 10), _Hamites_ (Plate LXI. fig. 3), -_Turrilites_ (Plate LXI. fig. 12), &c.; and finally becomes extinct -in the straight Baculites (Plate LX. fig. 2). - -In argillaceous strata, as the Kimmeridge and Oxford clay, London -clay, &c., the shells of Cephalopoda are oftentimes beautifully -preserved; the chambers are frequently filled with the solid matrix, -but in many instances these cavities are lined either with brilliant -pyrites or spar. Stony or sparry casts of the cells or chambers, the -shell having perished, are another common state in which vestiges of -these animals occur. Sometimes the cast of each chamber is isolated, -so as to present a series from the innermost to the outermost -cell. Sections of those casts, in which the chambers are filled up -with spar, constitute specimens of great beauty and interest. The -so-called snake-stones are, of course, mere casts of Ammonites;[104] -those of Whitby, from the lias limestone, are well known to every -collector; the casts of a very large species are common in the -oolite, especially at Swindon, in Wiltshire, and in the neighbourhood -of Bath. - - -VI. The Carboniferous Deposits, or Coal Measures.--The various -deposits of Coal have manifestly been formed under different local -circumstances. Some have been peat-bogs, to which repeated additions -have been made by successive subsidences of the land; others have -been deposited at the bottom of lakes and rivers, and these are -associated with remains of fresh-water shells and Crustacea; others -have accumulated in the abyss of the ocean, having been formed by -the drifting and engulfing of immense rafts of trees and other -vegetable matter, like those of the Mississippi; others in inland -seas, the successive layers of vegetables having been supplied by -periodical land-floods. There can be no doubt that coal has been, -and may be, produced under all these conditions; and at different -periods, and in various localities, all these causes may have been in -operation. But the great series of ancient coal-formations present -a remarkable uniformity of character, not only throughout Europe, -but also in America and other parts of the world. A coal-field (as -a group of strata of this kind is commonly termed), is generally -composed of a series of layers of coal, clay, shale, and sand, of -variable thicknesses, based on grit or limestone, abounding in marine -shells and corals; and the most remarkable phenomenon is the constant -presence _beneath_ every bed of coal, of a thick stratum of earthy -clay, and of a layer of shale or slaty clay above it. One of the -series of triple deposits of which a coal-field consists, presents -therefore the following characters:-- - -1. _Under-clay_; the lowermost stratum. This is a tough argillaceous -earth or clay, which on drying becomes of a grey colour, and -very friable; it is occasionally black, from an intermixture of -carbonaceous matter. This bed almost invariably contains an abundance -of _Stigmariæ_ (see Plates XXII. XXIII.), of considerable length, -with their rootlets attached, and which extend in every direction -through the clay (as shown in the figures 1, 2, 6, pp. 199, 201). -These roots commonly lie parallel with the planes of the stratum, and -nearer to the top than to the bottom. - -2. _Coal._--A carbonized mass, in which the external forms of the -plants and trees composing it are obliterated, but the internal -structure, in many instances, remains. Large trunks, and stems, and -leaves, are rarely found in it. - -3. _The Roof_, or upper bed.--This consists of slaty clay, abounding -in leaves, trunks and branches, fruit, &c.; it includes layers and -nodules of ironstone, inclosing leaves, insects, Crustacea, &c. In -some localities beds of fresh-water shells, in others of marine -shells, are intercalated with the shale; finely laminated clay, -micaceous sand, grit, and pebbles of limestone, sandstone, &c. are -also often interstratified. The principal illustrative specimens of -the leaves, fruit, &c. (as those in Plate XXX. to Plate XXXIV.) are -found in this bed. - -Thus an uninterrupted series of strata, in which triple deposits of -this kind are repeated, (often thirty or forty times, and through -a thickness of several thousand feet,) constitutes the predominant -character of the ancient coal formations wherever they have been -explored. The difficulties attending a satisfactory solution of -this problem, are fully stated in the last edition of my Wonders of -Geology (Vol. ii. Lecture vii.), and to that work I must refer the -reader for a more extended consideration of this highly interesting -subject. - -[Footnote 104: See Medals of Creation, vol. ii. chap. i.; and -Thoughts on a Pebble, pp. 20, 69.] - - -VII. Coal.--The numerous fossil plants from the carboniferous strata -that are figured in this work, render it necessary to put the general -reader in possession of a concise view of the nature and mode of -formation of those ancient accumulations of vegetable matter, which -now constitute the beds of mineral fuel termed coal. - -Although at the present time no one at all conversant with geology -doubts the vegetable origin of Coal, the period is not distant when -many eminent philosophers were sceptical on this point; and the -truth in this, as in most other questions In natural philosophy, -was established with difficulty. The experiments and observations -of the late Dr. Macculloch mainly contributed to solve the problem -as to the vegetable origin of this substance; and that eminent -geologist successfully traced the transition of vegetable matter -from peat-wood, brown coal, lignite, and jet, to coal, anthracite, -graphite, and plumbago. Nor must the important labours of Mr. -Parkinson in this field of research be forgotten. The first volume of -the "Organic Remains of a former World," which treats of vegetable -fossils, contains much original and valuable information on the -transmutation of vegetable matter, by bituminous fermentation, into -the various mineral substances in which its original nature and -structure are altogether changed and obliterated; and that work may -still be consulted with advantage by the student. - -But though the vegetable origin of all coal will not admit of -question, yet evidence of the original structure of the plants or -trees whence it was derived is not always attainable. The most -perfect coal seems to have undergone a complete liquefaction, and -if any portions of the vegetable tissue remain, they appear as -if imbedded in a pure bituminous mass. The slaty coal generally -preserves traces of cellular or vascular tissue, and the spiral -vessels and dotted cells of coniferous trees may often be detected -by the microscope. In many instances the cells are filled with an -amber-coloured resinous substance; in others the organization is so -well preserved, that on the surface of a block of coal cracked by -heat, the vascular tissue, and the dotted glands, may be observed. -Some beds of coal appear to be wholly composed of minute leaves or -disintegrated foliage; for if a mass recently extracted from the -mine be split asunder, the exposed surfaces are found covered with -delicate laminæ of carbonized leaves and fibres matted together; -and flake after flake may be peeled off through a thickness of many -inches, and the same structure be apparent. Rarely are any large -trunks or branches observable in the beds of coal; but the general -appearance of the carboniferous mass is that of an immense deposit of -delicate foliage shed and accumulated in a forest, and consolidated -by great pressure while undergoing that peculiar process by which -vegetable matter is converted into carbon. - -The essential conditions for the transmutation of vegetable -substances into coal, appear to be the imbedding of large quantities -of recent vegetables beneath deposits which shall exclude the air, -and prevent the escape of the gaseous elements when released by -decomposition from their organic combination; hence, according as -these conditions have been more or less perfectly fulfilled, coal, -jet, lignite, brown-coal, peat-wood, &c. will be the result. - - -VIII. Fossil Corals.--The real nature even of recent Corals is in -general so imperfectly understood by the intelligent reader who has -not paid especial attention to the department of natural history -which treats of the class of animated nature termed Zoophytes, that -in describing the Fossil Corals In my Wonders of Geology, I felt -it necessary to devote one Lecture to the consideration of Corals -and Crinoidea, in order to afford a popular exposition of the -structure and economy of these highly Interesting tribes of animal -existence.[105] - -[Footnote 105: See Wonders of Geology, vol. ii. Lect. vi. p. 588.] - -A very prevalent error regarding their nature Is, that the beautiful -stony substances generally called corals, are fabricated by the -animalcules which inhabit the cells when living, in the same manner -as is the honeycomb of the bee and wasp. This opinion is utterly -erroneous: the coral is secreted by the integuments or membranes with -which when recent it was invested and permeated; in like manner as -are the bones of the skeleton in the higher orders of animals by the -tissues designed for that especial purpose, and wholly without the -cognisance or control of the creature of which they constitute the -internal support. - -A general idea of the nature of the compound coral-zoophytes may be -obtained by the examination of the common _Flustra_ or Sea-mat. This -form of polyparia, when taken out of the water, appears to the naked -eye like a patch of fine varnished net-work, adhering to a piece of -sea-weed or stone; when viewed with a magnifying lens of moderate -power, the surface is found beset with pores regularly disposed: -and if the Flustra be examined while immersed in sea-water, its -surface is seen to be invested by a gelatinous substance, and every -pore is the aperture of a cell, whence issues a tube fringed at the -extremity with long tentacula or feelers. These expand, then suddenly -contract, withdraw into the cell, and again issue forth: the whole -surface of the Flustra being studded with the hydra-like animalcules; -each enjoying a distinct existence, the entire group being united -by one common integument or calcareous frame-work. When the Flustra -is exposed to the air, the polypes soon perish, the animal matter -rapidly decomposes, and the calcareous lace-like skeleton alone -remains. In the larger and more compact corals the phenomena are -similar, differing only in degree. In a fossil state, the durable -remains of the corals consist for the most part of the calcareous -frame-work (or polyparium, as it is termed), which often possesses a -crystalline structure; and in some instances is completely transmuted -into silex, as in specimens from Antigua, the Falls of the Ohio, and -from Tisbury in Wiltshire. (See Plate XXXVIII. figs. 12, 13.) - -I must refer to the Wonders of Geology for a more extended notice -of fossil corals, and other zoophytes, and will only add that the -calcareous and siliceous spines or spicula, not only of sponges, but -also of Gorgoniæ, and other corals, are often met with in a fossil -state.[106] - -[Footnote 106: See Wonders of Geology, vol. ii. Lect. vi. p. 634.] - - -IX. Cuvier's Discoveries. _The Fossil Quadrupeds of Montmartre._ -(Plate LXXII.)--The Palæotheria, Anoplotheria, and other genera of -extinct quadrupeds related to the _Tapir_, whose remains were first -noticed in the gypseous limestone of Montmartre, near Paris, and -which have since been found in many other localities of the same -strata, are familiar to every one, from the just celebrity attached -to the labours of the illustrious Cuvier, who restored as it were -these lost denizens of an earlier world, in their native character -and forms, and distinguished them by names long since become -classical in the sciences which treat of the ancient history of the -earth and its inhabitants. - -The gypsum quarries spread over the flanks of Montmartre were many -years since known to contain fossil bones of extinct quadrupeds, and -some of these had been figured and described in 1768 by Guettard, -and afterwards by Pralon, Lamanon, and Parumot: but it was not till -the attention of M. Cuvier was directed to the subject by some -specimens put into his hands by M. Vuarin, that the interest and -importance of these fossils were understood. The curiosity of Baron -Cuvier was so much excited by an inspection of a large collection -of these bones, soon after he had been successfully engaged in the -investigation of the remains of fossil Elephants and Mastodons, -that he immediately began to obtain specimens from the quarries, -and by liberally rewarding the workmen, and by unremitting personal -research, he soon accumulated an immense quantity of bones of all -sorts, belonging to numerous individuals. He now perceived that -a new world was open to his view: and to use his own expressive -language, he found himself in an ancient charnel-house, surrounded -by a confused multitude of mangled skeletons of a great variety of -unknown beings. To arrange each fragment in its proper place, and -restore order to these heterogeneous materials, seemed at first a -hopeless task: but a knowledge of the immutable laws by which the -organization of animal existence is governed, soon enabled him to -assign to each bone, and even fragment, its proper place in the -skeleton; and the forms of beings hitherto unseen by mortal eye -appeared before him. "I cannot," he exclaims, "express my delight in -finding how the application of one principle was instantly followed -by the most triumphant results. The essential character of a tooth -and its relation to the skull being determined, all the other -elements of the fabric immediately fell into their proper places; and -the vertebra, ribs, bones of the legs, thigh, and feet, seemed to -arrange themselves even without my bidding, and in the very manner -I had predicted." The principles of the correlation of structure -which his profound researches in comparative anatomy had enabled -him to establish, conducted to these important results, and laid -the foundation of that science which has since received the name of -Palæontology.[107] The mode of induction adopted by this illustrious -philosopher, has been the mighty instrument by which subsequent -labourers in this department of science have so largely contributed -to our knowledge of the ancient condition of the earth, and of the -structure and economy of the tribes of beings which have successively -dwelt upon it. The examination of the fossil teeth (in Plate LXXII. -figs. 4-9) showed that the animals were herbivorous; and the crown -of the tooth being composed of two or three simple crescents, as in -certain pachydermata, proved that they differed from the ruminants, -which have double crescents, and each four bands of enamel. The -two principal genera first established were the _Palæotherium_ and -_Anoplotherium_. The first approximates to the Tapirs in the number -and disposition of the teeth; the second is remarkable in having no -projecting canines, and in all the teeth forming a continued series, -as in the human race. Remains of both these genera have been found -in the eocene tertiary strata of the Isle of Wight,[108] and on the -coast of Hampshire. - -[Footnote 107: A concise exposition of the Cuvierian inductive -philosophy will be found in Wonders of Geology, pp. 137-147.] - -[Footnote 108: See my Geological Excursions round the Isle of Wight. -For an account of the fossil animals of Paris, refer to Wonders of -Geology, p. 254.] - - -X. Fossil Edentata. _Megatherium, and Megalonyx_. (Plates LXXII. -and LXXIII.)--The remains of these and other allied forms of the -extinct gigantic Edentata, which once inhabited South America, occur -in immense quantities throughout the Pampas--those vast plains which -present a sea of waving grass for 900 miles. These plains consist -of alluvial loam and sand, containing fresh-water and marine shells -of existing species; they were evidently once, like Lewes Levels, -a gulf or arm of the sea. Since the publication of Mr. Parkinson's -work, vast numbers of bones have been exhumed, and many most -interesting specimens sent to England by Sir Woodbine Parish, and -Charles Darwin, Esq., in whose charming "Journal of Researches into -the Natural History and Geology of the Countries visited during the -Voyage of H.M.S. Beagle round the World," will be found many highly -graphic notices of the discovery of these remains.[109] Mr. Darwin, -under the head of _Bahia Blanca_,[110] describes the remains of no -less than nine great quadrupeds found imbedded within the space of -200 square yards. They consisted of three heads and other bones -of the _Megatherium_, of enormous dimensions; and bones of the -_Megalonyx_. Of the _Scelidotherium_, an allied animal, Mr. Darwin -obtained an almost perfect skeleton; it must have been as large as a -rhinoceros; in the structure of the head, it approaches nearest the -Cape ant-eater, in other respects it is related to the armadilloes. -Remains of a different species of Mylodon, of another gigantic -edental quadruped, and of a large animal with an osseous dermal coat -in compartments, very like that of the Armadillo. Of this last, which -has been named _Glyptodon_, there is a very fine specimen in the -Hunterian Museum. Teeth and bones of an extinct species of horse, -and of an unknown pachyderm, a huge beast with a long neck like the -camel. Lastly the _Toxodon_ (so named from the remarkable curvature -of the teeth); this is perhaps one of the strangest animals ever -discovered. In size it equals the elephant or megatherium, but the -structure of its teeth shows it to have been intimately related to -the gnawers--the order which at the present day includes the smallest -quadrupeds. In many details it approaches to the pachydermata; -judging from the position of its eyes, it was probably aquatic, like -the Dugong and Manatee, to which it is also allied. - -[Footnote 109: Published by Mr. Murray, in one vol. 1845. The -anatomical description of the fossil Edentata brought home by Mr. -Darwin, by Professor Owen, will be found in the "Zoology of the -Voyage of the Beagle."] - -[Footnote 110: Mr. Darwin's Journal, chap. v. p. 81.] - -The beds containing the above fossil remains, consist of stratified -gravel and reddish mud, and stand only from fifteen to twenty feet -above the level of high water; hence the elevation of the land has -been small since the great quadrupeds wandered over the surrounding -plains; and the external features of the country must then have been -very nearly the same as now. - -In another place, Mr. Darwin observes,--"The number of the remains of -these large quadrupeds imbedded in the grand estuary deposit which -forms the Pampas and covers the granitic rocks of Banda Oriental, -must be extraordinarily great. I believe, a straight line drawn in -any direction through the Pampas, would cut through some skeleton -or bones. Besides those which I found during my short excursions, I -heard of many others; and the origin of such names as, 'the stream -of the animal,' 'the hill of the giant,' is obvious. At other times, -I heard of the marvellous property of certain rivers, which had the -power of changing small bones into large; or as some maintained, -the bones themselves grew. As far as I am aware, not one of these -animals perished, as was formerly supposed, in the marshes or -muddy river-beds of the present land, but their bones have been -exposed by the streams intersecting the subaqueous deposit, in -which they were originally imbedded. We may conclude that the whole -area of the Pampas is one wide sepulchre of these extinct gigantic -quadrupeds."[111] - -[Footnote 111: Mr. Darwin's Journal, p. 135. The reader interested -in these extraordinary fossil remains should visit the British -Museum, and the Hunterian Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons in -Lincoln's Inn Fields.] - - -XI. Flint.--_Animal Remains in siliceous nodules._--So many -beautiful specimens of siliceous petrifactions--that is, animal and -vegetable remains transmuted into silex or flint--are figured in -the subjoined plates, that it may be useful to offer a few remarks -on this subject.[112] In many instances the organic remains in -chalk-flints are simply incrusted by the silex; such is the state -of numerous sponges which are as it were invested by the flint, and -have all their pores and tubes filled up by the same material, the -original tissue appearing as a brown calcareous substance. In other -examples, the sponge has been enveloped in a mass of liquid flint, -and has subsequently perished and decomposed; in this manner have -been formed those hollow nodules, which on being broken present a -cavity containing only a little white powder, or some fragments of -silicified sponge; in many instances the cavity is lined with quartz -crystals, or mammillated chalcedony. Frequently but part of the -zoophyte is permeated by the silex, and the other portion is in the -state of a friable calcareous earth imbedded in the chalk. Sponges -and other zoophytes often form the nuclei of the flint nodules; the -original substance of the organic body being in general silicified, -and the most delicate internal structure preserved. Shells, corals, -and the minute cases of foraminifera, are often immersed as it were -in pure flint, appearing as if preserved in a semi-transparent medium. - -[Footnote 112: See Wonders of Geology, vol. i. pp. 74-105, for a -general view of the process of petrifaction.] - -But there are innumerable flint nodules in which no traces of -spongeous tissue are apparent, and veins, dikes, and sheets of -tabular flint, that are in a great measure free from organic remains; -containing only such as may be supposed to have become imbedded in a -stream of fluid silex that flowed over a sea-bottom. Wood perforated -by lithodomi and silicified, is occasionally met with; and fuci or -algæ are sometimes found, appearing as if floating in the liquid -flint. - -For the most part, the minute shells in the chalk and flint are -filled with amorphous mineral matter; but in many examples, (as -I have ascertained by direct experiment,) the soft parts of -foraminifera remain in the shell. - - -XII. Foraminifera.--Plate LXII. contains figures of several species -belonging to various genera of those minute fossil shells, the -discoidal involute forms of which were once considered to belong -to the Cephalopoda, and to be related to the Nautilus, Spirula, -&c., but which are now grouped in one family, under the name of -_Foraminifera_; a term derived from the foramina or perforations with -which their shells are traversed, and which have relation to the -peculiar organization of the animals. - -Since microscopic observations have become so general, thanks to -the genius and enthusiasm of Ehrenberg, these fossil bodies have -acquired a degree of interest and importance, unsurpassed by more -obvious organic remains. Whole mountain chains and extensive tracts -of country are now known to be almost entirely composed of the -aggregated shells of a few genera of these _microzoa_.[113] In other -deposits their remains are associated with those of _Infusoria_,[114] -(both animal and vegetable,) still more infinitesimal. As much -error prevails among collectors as to the real nature of the fossil -foraminifera, I am induced to annex the following remarks.[115] - -[Footnote 113: A convenient term to express animal organisms that can -only be distinctly examined by the aid of the microscope: strata in a -great measure composed of such fossil remains may be distinguished as -_microzoic_ deposits.] - -[Footnote 114: This term was first employed to denote the various -minute forms of animal organization that appear in vegetable -infusions; as Rotifers, Monads, Vorticella, &c. But with these, -numerous vegetable forms generally appear, as Gaillonella, -Bacellaria, Navicula, &c.: these were formerly also regarded as -animals, and were consequently comprised under the same general -appellation.] - -[Footnote 115: The best scientific account of these animals will be -found in M. D'Orbigny's work on the "Foraminifères Fossiles du Bassin -Tertiaire de Vienne, (Autriche)." Paris, 1846. 1 vol. 4to, with -plates.] - -The foraminifera are marine animals of low organization, and, with -but few exceptions, extremely minute: in an ounce of sea-sand between -three and four millions have been distinctly enumerated. When living, -they are not aggregated, but always individually distinct; they are -composed of a body (or vital mass) of a gelatinous consistence, which -is either entire, and round, or divided into segments, placed either -on a simple or alternate line, or coiled spirally, or involuted -round an axis. This body is covered with an envelope or shell, which -is generally testaceous, rarely cartilaginous, and is modelled on -the segments, and follows all the modifications of form and contour -of the body. From the extremity of the last segment, there issue, -sometimes from one, sometimes from several openings of the shell, -or through numerous pores or foramina, very elongated, slender, -contractile, colourless filaments, more or less divided and ramified, -serving for prehension, and capable of entirely investing the shell. -The body varies in colour, but is always identical in individuals of -the same species,--it is yellow, fawn-coloured, red, violet, blue, -&c. Its consistence is variable; it is composed of minute globules, -the aggregation of which determines the general tint. It is sometimes -entire, round, and without segments, as in _Gromia_, _Orbulina_, &c., -which represent, at all ages, the embryonic state of all the other -genera. They increase, without doubt, by the entire circumference. -When the body is divided by lobes or segments, the primary lobe, -as in the permanent condition of the Gromia, is at first round or -oval, according to the genus; once formed it never enlarges, but is -enveloped externally by testaceous matter; it may be compared to a -ball on which is applied a second larger one, then a third still -larger, and so on during the life of the animal. - -The annexed figure of the animal of _Nummulina_ (as given by MM. -Joly and Leymerie) will serve to convey a general idea of the living -Foraminifera. - -[Illustration: THE ANIMAL OF THE NUMMULINA.] - -The segments, as the body increases, are agglomerated in six -different ways, and these modifications are the basis of M. -D'Orbigny's classification. The discoidal forms, as the _Rotalia_, -_Rosalina_, _Cristellaria_, &c. are involuted like the nautilus, -and divided by septa or partitions, the different lobes of the body -occupying contemporaneously every chamber, and being connected by a -tube or canal that extends through the entire series. In the spiral -forms, the _Textilaria_, &c. the same structure is apparent. These -two groups are the most abundant in the cretaceous strata; many beds -of the white chalk consist almost wholly of the aggregated shells -of the Rosalinæ, Rotaliæ, and Textilariæ.[116] Whatever the form of -the body, the filaments always consist of a colourless matter as -transparent as glass; they elongate from the base to six times the -diameter of the shell. They often divide and subdivide, so as to -appear branched. Though alike in form in the different genera, they -vary much in their position. In some they form a bundle which issues -from a single opening, and is withdrawn into the same by contraction; -in others the filaments project only through each of the pores in -the shell which covers the last segment; in others they issue from -both the large aperture and the foramina. In fine, these filaments or -pseudopodia fulfil in the foraminifera the functions of the numerous -tentacula in the Asteriadæ, or Star-fishes, serving as instruments of -locomotion and attachment. - -[Footnote 116: See Wonders of Geology, p. 299] - -Neither organs of nutriment nor of reproduction have been detected. -In the genera having one large aperture from which the filaments -issue and retract, we can conceive nutriment to be absorbed by that -opening; but this cannot be the case in the species which have -the last cell closed up; in these the filaments issuing through -the foramina are probably also organs of nutrition. M. D'Orbigny -considers the Foraminifera as constituting a distinct class in -zoology; less complicated than the Echinoderms and the Polypiaria in -their internal organization, they have by their filaments the mode of -locomotion of the first, and by their free, individual existence--not -aggregated and immovably fixed--they are more advanced in the scale -of being than the latter. To me they appear to be merely hydra-form -polypes of the most simple structure, protected by shells;[117] those -composed of different segments, I conceive to be a single aggregated -individual, and not a successive series of beings. - -[Footnote 117: An admirable paper on the "_Polystomella crispa_," by -Mr. Williamson, of Manchester, (Trans. Micros. Society of London, -vol. ii.) should be consulted on this question.] - -The white chalk is well known to be largely composed of a few kinds -of foraminifera, but the occurrence of the soft bodies of these -animalcules in a fossil state was first discovered by me, in 1845, -in chalk-flints, and was announced in a paper, read before the -Geological Society, entitled, "_Notes of a Microscopical Examination -of Chalk and Flint_."[118] This statement was regarded by some -eminent palæontologists as so "startling and unsatisfactory," that I -resumed the investigation, and communicated the result to the Royal -Society, in a memoir "_On the Fossil Remains of the Soft Parts of -Foraminifera discovered in the Chalk and Flint of the South-East of -England_;"[119] and with the kind assistance of that able chemist -and microscopist, Mr. Henry Deane, of Clapham Common, I obtained, -by immersing chalk in dilute hydrochloric acid, and mounting the -residue in Canada balsam, several specimens of the entire integuments -of the bodies of Rotaliæ, as distinct as if recent! This fact is -now admitted; and the experiment has been successfully repeated in -India, by Mr. Carter, on the limestones of that country;[120] and in -America, by Dr. Bailey, &c.[121] In some limestone recently collected -by my eldest son, Mr. Walter Mantell, in the Middle Island of New -Zealand, and which, like our cretaceous strata, is almost entirely -made up of foraminifera, I have detected the soft parts of the bodies -of Rotaliæ in the cells of the fossil shells, as distinctly as in the -chalk of England; and two of the species appear to be identical with -European forms. - -[Footnote 118: These "Notes" were withdrawn, and published in the -Annals of Natural History for August, 1845.] - -[Footnote 119: Published in Philos. Trans. Part iv. for 1846.] - -[Footnote 120: "On the existence of Beds of Foraminifera, recent and -fossil, on the South-East of Arabia," by H. J. Carter, Esq. Assistant -Surgeon, Bombay. Proceedings of the Bombay Asiatic Society, 1848.] - -[Footnote 121: A remarkable foraminiferous deposit of chalk detritus -occurs at Charing, in Kent, and was first examined and described -by William Harris, Esq.; it contains immense numbers of many kinds -of foraminifera, and of the cases or shells of entomostraca, of -the genus Cytherina, with spicules of sponges, &c.--See Wonders of -Geology, vol. 1. p. 324.] - -M. D'Orbigny gives the following summary of the distribution of the -known fossil species of Foraminifera:-- - -There are 228 species in the Tertiary deposits of Vienna alone, of -which twenty-seven species are known living in the Adriatic and the -Mediterranean. - -Foraminifera are unknown in the Silurian and Devonian formations. - -One species only is known in the Carboniferous system of Russia, the -_Fusulina cylindrica_. - - Jurassic or Oolitic formation Genera 5 Species 20 - Cretaceous " 34 " 280 - Tertiary " 56 " 450 - Living in the present seas " 68 " 1,000 - -Of these last, 575 species inhabit tropical seas, 350 the seas of -temperate, and 75 the seas of cold climates. - - -XIII. Fossil Elk of Ireland, or _Cervus megaloceros_. (Plate -LXXI.)--The shell-marls of Ireland contain in abundance the bones of -an animal, which like the Dodo, was once contemporary with the human -species, but has long been extinct: the last individuals of the race -were, in all probability, exterminated by the early Celtic tribes. -The remains of this noble creature generally occur in the deposits of -marl that underlie the peat-bogs, which are apparently, like those -of Scotland, the sites of ancient lakes or bays. In Curragh immense -quantities of these bones lie within a small area; the skeletons -appear to be entire, and are found with the skull elevated, and the -antlers thrown back on the shoulders, as if a small herd of these -Elks had sought refuge in the marshes, and had been engulfed in -the morass, in the same manner as the Mastodons of America. (See -description of Plate LXXIV., ante, p. 167.) - -This creature far exceeded in magnitude any living species of elk -or deer. The skeleton is upwards often feet in height to the top of -the skull, and the antlers are from ten to fourteen feet from one -extremity to the other. The fine perfect skeletons in the British -Museum, College of Surgeons, and in the Museum at Edinburgh, render -a particular description unnecessary. The bones are generally well -preserved, of a dark brown colour, with patches of blue phosphate -of iron. In some instances they are in so fresh a condition, that -the hollows of the long bones contain marrow having the appearance -of fresh suet. Remains of this majestic animal have been found -collocated with ancient sepulchral urns, stone implements, and rude -canoes, in such manner, as to leave no doubt that this now extinct -deer was coeval with the early human inhabitants of these Islands. -Its bones and antlers have been found at Walton, in Essex, associated -with the remains of the Mammoth, or fossil elephant.[122] - -[Footnote 122: Wonders of Geology, p. 134.] - - -XIV. Fossil Infusoria--_Infusorial Earths_.--In the note on -Foraminifera some account is given of various rocks composed of the -fossil remains of those minute animals; but the durable relics of the -yet more infinitesimal organisms designated by the terms _Infusoria_, -or _Infusorial animalcules_, form deposits of equal interest and -importance. Strata of great extent and thickness are wholly, or -in great part, made up of innumerable layers, consisting of the -aggregated siliceous cases or shields of Infusoria: and similar -structures are found to be the chief constituents of the white earthy -deposits of lakes, rivers, and basins of brackish water, in every -part of the world. - -Slowly, imperceptibly, but incessantly, are the vital energies of -the feeblest and minutest animal and vegetable existences separating -from the element in which they live, the most enduring of mineral -substances, silex--fabricating it into structures of the most -exquisite forms and sculpturing, and thus adding to the accumulations -of countless ages, which make up the sedimentary strata of the crust -of the globe. - -In the "Medals of Creation"[123] will be found a summary of what -was then known as to the formation and composition of many tertiary -deposits which the indefatigable Ehrenberg, Dr. Bailey, and other -eminent observers, had carefully investigated and described. The -five years that have since elapsed have been fruitful in results of -the most important and interesting character; from every quarter of -the world, from the loftiest mountain peaks, and from the deepest -recesses of the ocean which the plummet can reach, from the ashes of -volcanoes and from the snow of the glaciers, the durable remains of -Infusoria have been obtained. That excellent scientific periodical, -Silliman's American Journal, contains numerous interesting -communications on this subject from the eminent chemical professor -of the Military College at West Point, Dr. J. W. Bailey; and the -labours of Mr. Bowerbank, Williamson, and other active members of -the Microscopical Society of London, have yielded much interesting -information on the infusorial deposits of our own country. - -[Footnote 123: Medals of Creation, vol. i. p. 211.] - -The present note will be restricted to remarks on the nature of the -organisms which enter so largely into the composition of certain -tertiary deposits; since the opinion once entertained of the -animal nature of many infusoria, now regarded as true vegetables, -materially affects the geological conclusions respecting the -persistence of certain species of organisms through long periods of -time, during which the mollusca, zoophytes, &c. underwent repeated -mutations both in the species and genera. Thus, for example, the -_polierschiefer_, or polishing-slate of Bilin, and the berghmehl -of Tuscany, are described by Ehrenberg as masses of the siliceous -shells of animalcules of such extreme minuteness, that a cubic inch -of the stone contains upwards of forty millions; the infusorial -earth of Richmond, in Virginia, in like manner, is stated to be -made up of the siliceous skeletons of animalcules of infinitesimal -minuteness. But later investigations have (I conceive) satisfactorily -established, that the greater part of these fossil organisms belongs -to the vegetable and not to the animal kingdom.[124] The whole of the -figures in Plate IV. of the "Medals of Creation," described as living -Infusoria, on the authority of Ehrenberg, are undoubted vegetables, -belonging to the great botanical groups called _Diatomaceæ_ (from the -angular segments into which they separate by partial division), and -_Desmidiaceæ_.[125] The entire family of _Bacillaria_ belongs to this -group. These simplest forms of vegetable structures abound in every -lake or stream of fresh and brackish water, in every pool, or bay, -and throughout the ocean, from the equator to the poles; they secrete -siliceous envelopes, which present an endless variety of form and -structure, and after the death and decomposition of the perishable -tissues of the plants, remain as perfectly transparent colourless -shields of pure silica; such are the _Gaillonellæ_, _Euastra_, -_Closteria_, _Naviculæ_, _Synhedræ_, _Podospheniæ_, _Xanthidia_, -&c., which constitute so large a proportion of the infusorial earths -described by Ehrenberg and other authors.[126] - -[Footnote 124: In my little work on Recent Infusoria, entitled -"Thoughts on Animalcules, or a Glimpse of the Invisible World -revealed by the Microscope," I have expressed my conviction of -the vegetable nature of these organisms, as a reason for omitting -figures and descriptions of any of the species in a work on living -fresh-water animalcules.] - -[Footnote 125: The name Diatomaceæ is restricted by M. Brébisson to -those species which have a siliceous envelope, or cuticle; and that -of _Desmidiæ_ to those which are not siliceous, but reducible by heat -to carbon.] - -[Footnote 126: The reader interested in this subject should consult -the beautiful work of Mr. Hassall on the Desmidiaceæ, published by -Messrs. Reeve & Benham.] - -The extent of this infinitesimal flora throughout regions where no -other forms of vegetation are known, is strikingly demonstrated by -the observations of the eminent botanist and traveller. Dr. Hooker, -in his account of the Antarctic regions. - -"Everywhere," he states, "the waters and the ice alike abound in -these microscopic vegetables. Though too small to be visible to the -unassisted eye, their aggregated masses stained the iceberg and -pack-ice wherever they were washed by the sea, and imparted a pale -ochreous colour to the ice. From the south of the belt of ice which -encircles the globe, to the highest latitudes reached by man, this -vegetation is everywhere conspicuous, from the contrast between its -colour and that of the white snow and ice in which it is imbedded. In -the eightieth degree of south latitude all the surface ice carried -along by currents, and the sides of every berg, and the base of the -great Victoria barrier itself--a perpendicular wall of ice, from one -to two hundred feet above the sea-level--were tinged brown from this -cause, as if the waters were charged with oxide of iron. The majority -of these plants consist of simple vegetable cells, enclosed in -indestructible silex (as other _Algæ_ are in carbonate of lime); and -it is obvious that the death of such multitudes must form sedimentary -deposits of immense extent. - -"The universal existence of such an invisible vegetation as that of -the Antarctic ocean, is u truly wonderful fact, and the more so, -from its being unaccompanied by plants of a high order. This ocean -swarms with mollusca, and entomostracous crustaceans, small whales, -and porpoises; and the sea with penguins and seals, and the air with -birds: the animal kingdom is everywhere present, the larger creatures -preying on the smaller, and these again on those more minute; all -living nature seems to be carnivorous. This microscopic vegetation is -the sole nutrition of the herbivorous animals; and it may likewise -serve to purify the atmosphere, and thus execute in the antarctic -latitudes the office of the trees and grasses of the temperate -regions, and the broad foliage of the palms of the tropics."[127] - -[Footnote 127: From Dr. Hooker's account of the botany of the South -Polar regions in Sir J. Ross's Voyages of Discovery.] - -Dr. Hooker also observes, that the siliceous cases of the same kind -of Diatomaceæ now living in the waters of the South Polar Ocean, -have contributed in past ages to the formation of European strata; -for the tripoli and the phonolite stones of the Rhine contain the -siliceous shields of identical species. Such are the comments of one -of our most eminent botanists on the phenomena under review. The -reader will probably ask,--What, then, are the essential characters -which separate the animal from the vegetable kingdom? To this -question it is impossible to give a satisfactory reply: perhaps the -only distinction that will be generally admitted by zoologists and -botanists is the following:--_animals require organic substances for -their support; vegetables derive their sustenance from inorganic -matter_. - -The facts thus cursorily reviewed throw much doubt on many of M. -Ehrenberg's statements as to the identity of species of animalcules -now living, with those whose remains occur in the eocene, and in -the secondary strata. The so-called _Xanthidia_ of the chalk, are -certainly altogether distinct from the recent diatomæ to which the -name was first applied; the chalk organisms are probably the gemmules -of sponges or other zoophytes.[128] - -[Footnote 128: It would be convenient to distinguish these fossils by -another name, and thus avoid the perpetuation of the error; I would -propose that of _Spiniferites_, in allusion to the numerous spines -with which all the species are beset.] - -Infusorial earths may therefore be composed either of microscopic -vegetable or animal remains, or of both. The brackish and -fresh-water deposits I have examined are siliceous and almost wholly -diatomaceous: the marine calcareous strata composed of microscopic -organisms, consist chiefly of various kinds of foraminifera, a large -proportion belonging to the polythalamia, or chambered shells. I -am not certain as to the animal or vegetable nature of some of -the beautiful siliceous disks (_Coscinodisci_, _Arachnoidisci_, -_Actinocyclus_, &c.) so abundant in the Richmond, Barbadoes, and -Bermuda infusorial earths, and which occur in so splendid a state in -the Guano deposits of Ichaboe. - -With the corrections which the above remarks will enable the reader -to make, I would refer to the account of Fossil Infusoria in the -Medals of Creation, and Wonders of Geology. [129] - -[Footnote 129: See also "Thoughts on Animalcules."] - - -XV. The Mosasaurus, or _Fossil Reptile of Maestricht_. (Plate LXX.) -The occasional discovery of bones and teeth of an unknown animal -in the limestone of St. Peter's Mountain, near Maestricht, and the -innumerable shells, corals, teeth of fishes, claws of crabs, echini, -and other organic remains, had long since attracted the attention -of naturalists, and rendered these quarries celebrated throughout -Europe. In 1770, M. Hoffman, the surgeon of the Fort, who had for -some years been assiduously collecting the fossils of this locality, -had the good fortune to discover a specimen which has conferred an -enduring celebrity on his name. Some workmen, on blasting the rock -in one of the caverns of the interior of the mountain, perceived to -their astonishment the jaws of a large animal attached to the roof of -the chasm. The discovery was immediately made known to M. Hoffman, -who repaired to the spot, and for weeks presided over the arduous -task of separating the mass of stone containing these remains from -the surrounding rock. His labours were rewarded by the successful -extrication of the specimen, which he conveyed in triumph to his -house. This extraordinary discovery soon became the subject of -general conversation, and upon reaching the ears of the Canon of the -cathedral which stands on the mountain, excited in that functionary -a determination to claim the fossil, in right of being lord of the -manor; and he unfortunately succeeded, after a long and harassing -lawsuit, in obtaining this precious relic. It remained for years in -his possession, and Hoffman died without regaining his treasure, -or receiving any compensation. At length the French revolution -broke out, and the armies of the republic advanced to the gates of -Maestricht. The town was bombarded; but at the suggestion of the -committee of savans who accompanied the French troops to select their -share of plunder, the artillery was not suffered to bombard that part -of the city in which the celebrated fossil was known to be preserved. -In the mean time, the Canon of St. Peter's, shrewdly suspecting the -reason why such peculiar favour was shown to his residence, removed -the specimen, and concealed it in a vault; but when the city was -taken, the French authorities compelled him to give up his ill-gotten -prize, which was immediately transmitted to the Jardin des Plantes, -at Paris, where it still forms one of the most striking objects in -that magnificent collection.[130] - -[Footnote 130: Faujus St. Fond, in whose beautiful work on the -fossils of St. Peter's Mountain the above account is given, remarks -with much sang froid, "La _justice_, quoique tardive, arrive enfin -avec le tems!" The reader will probably think that although the Canon -was justly despoiled of his ill-gotten treasure, the French _savans_ -were a very equivocal personification of _Justice_!] - -The beautiful model of this most interesting fossil in the British -Museum, was presented to me by Baron Cuvier. It is four and a half -feet long, and two and a half wide; it consists of the jaws, with -teeth, palatal bones, and the tympanic bone, or _os quadratum_, -a bone possessed by reptiles, as well as birds, and in which the -auditory cells are contained. There are likewise some fine portions -of jaws, with teeth, in the British Museum, presented by Camper. -The original animal was probably a terrestrial reptile, holding an -intermediate place between the Monitors and Iguanas. It was about -twenty-five feet long. - -I discovered, many years since (1820), some vertebræ in the chalk -near Lewes, which closely resemble the corresponding bones of the -Mosasaurus, and in all probability belong to another species. In the -cretaceous strata of New Jersey, Dr. Harlan found and described, and -my friend. Dr. Morton, of Philadelphia, sent me, in 1834, teeth which -cannot be distinguished from those of Maestricht. Vertebræ, and other -bones, have since been obtained from the same deposits by Professor -Rogers, and described by Professor Owen in the Geological Journal. - - -XVI. Fossil Reptiles. Although when Mr. Parkinson's work was -published many fossil bones and teeth of reptiles had been discovered -in various parts of England, yet the abundance and variety, and -the extraordinary modification of form and structure of this class -of vertebrated animals, which prevailed throughout the secondary -geological formations, were not for a moment suspected. The few -examples of the remains of fossil reptiles described by Mr. -Parkinson, serve to mark the degree of knowledge which then existed -respecting a department of palæontology that rapidly acquired an -importance and interest unsurpassed by any other branch of fossil -osteology. - -The announcement of the founder of palæontology,[131] that there -was a period when the lakes and rivers of our planet were peopled -by reptiles, and cold-blooded oviparous quadrupeds of appalling -magnitude were the principal inhabitants of the dry land; when -the seas swarmed with saurians, exclusively adapted for a marine -existence, and the regions of the atmosphere were traversed by winged -lizards instead of birds; was an enunciation so novel and startling, -as to require all the prestige of the name of Cuvier, to obtain for -it any degree of attention and credence, even with those who were -sufficiently enlightened to admit, that a universal deluge would not -account for the physical mutations which the surface of the earth and -its inhabitants had, in the lapse of innumerable ages, undergone. - -[Footnote 131: In the "Ossemens Fossiles;" tom. v. Reptiles Fossiles.] - -Subsequent discoveries have established the truth of this proposition -to an extent beyond what even its promulgator could have surmised; -and the "_Age of Reptiles_" is now admitted into the category of -established facts. - -During the incalculable ages which the formation of the various -systems of secondary strata must have comprised, we find no evidence -in the fossils hitherto observed, of the existence of birds and -mammalia, as the characteristic types of the faunas of the dry land. -On the contrary, throughout the immense accumulations of the spoils -of the ancient islands and continents, amidst innumerable relics of -reptiles of various orders and genera, a few jaws and bones of two or -three kinds of extremely small marsupials, and the bones of a species -of wader, are the sole indications of the presence of the two grand -classes of Aves and Mammalia, which now constitute the chief features -of the terrestrial zoology of almost all countries. - -The earliest indications of air-breathing vertebrata in the ancient -secondary formations are those of small saurian reptiles in the -carboniferous strata; a few vestiges occur in the succeeding group, -the Permian. In the next epoch, the Triassic, colossal Batrachians -(_Labyrinthodonts_) appear; and on some of the strata of this -formation are the footmarks of numerous bipeds, presumed to be those -of birds; but at present the evidence of the bones of the animals -that made those imprints is required to establish the hypothesis. - -In the succeeding eras, the Lias, Oolite, Wealden, and Cretaceous, -swarms of reptiles of numerous genera and species everywhere prevail; -reptiles fitted to fly through the air, to roam over the land, to -inhabit the lakes, rivers, and seas; and yet not one identical -with any existing forms! These beings gradually decline in numbers -and species as we approach the close of the secondary periods, -and are immediately succeeded in the eocene epoch, by as great a -preponderance of warm-blooded vertebrata--birds and mammalia--as -exists at the present time; and an equal decadence in the class of -reptiles. With the Cretaceous Formation the "Age of Reptiles" may be -said to terminate. - - -XVII.--Fossil Reptiles of the Wealden. _The Iguanodon._ The -fluviatile deposits (termed _Wealden_), which in the south-east -of England, and in the north of Germany, are intercalated between -the oolitic and cretaceous formations, abound in the bones of -terrestrial, fresh-water, and marine reptiles, comprising some of -the most colossal land-saurians which have hitherto been brought -to light. These remains belong to various genera of Chelonians, -Saurians, and Crocodilians; and with these are associated those of -flying lizards (_Pterodactyles_), Plesiosauri, gigantic whale-like -reptiles (_Cetiosauri_), and of other oviparous quadrupeds of unknown -species and genera. - -The occurrence of fossils of this nature in the strata forming the -districts denominated the Wealds of Sussex and Kent, was first -brought under the notice of geologists in 1822, in my work on the -"Fossils of the South Downs," in which the remains of several -unknown reptiles were described; and among them the teeth and bones -of that extraordinary herbivorous lizard, the _Iguanodon_, on which -I am induced to offer a few observations in this place; the recent -discovery of some previously undetermined parts of the skeleton, -having materially elucidated the structure and economy of the -original.[132] - -[Footnote 132: The following is the description of the specimens -first discovered, given in the "Fossils of the South Downs; or, -Illustrations of the Geology of Sussex," 1 vol. 4to. 1822: "Incisors -and molar teeth evidently belonging to the same species of animal: -they differ from any previously known; the masticating surface is -perfectly smooth and rather depressed in the centre; these teeth -consist of the crown only, and are quite solid. An incisor tooth -1.3 inch long Is slightly bowed and smooth on its inner surface; -but it has externally a ridge which extends longitudinally down the -front. Its sides are angular and the edges finely crenated." From -the resemblance of these teeth in their general form to those of -the Iguana, a common land lizard in the West Indies, I subsequently -proposed the name of _Iguanodon_ (implying an animal having teeth -like the Iguana) for the fossil reptile. The teeth of an Iguana -four or five feet long are not larger than those of a mouse; the -Iguanodon's teeth are as large as the incisors of the rhinoceros. The -Iguana's teeth, when used, are chipped off at the points, no existing -reptile being capable of performing mastication; the teeth of the -Iguanodon, on the contrary, are ground down like the worn molars of -herbivorous mammalia, as I pointed out in my first memoir in the -Philos. Trans. 1825.] - -Since the first announcement of the discovery of the remains of the -Iguanodon, vast quantities of bones belonging to a great number of -individuals of all ages have been collected; but until a few years -since, not a vestige of the jaws had been observed, notwithstanding -the most diligent research. In the early part of the year 1848, I -was surprised and highly gratified by receiving from Capt. Lambart -Brickenden (at that time a personal stranger to me), who then resided -at Warminglid, near Cuckfield, in Sussex, the greater part of the -right side (or _ramus_) of the lower jaw, with several successional -teeth in their natural position, of an adult Iguanodon.[133] See p. -202. - -[Footnote 133: This beautiful and most instructive specimen is now in -my possession; it is figured of the natural size in Philos. Trans. -Part ii. for 1848, Plate XVI., as well as the portion of upper jaw in -the British Museum, Plate XIX. The character of the upper and lower -teeth of the Iguanodon are well represented in Plate XVIII. of the -same memoir. - -A specimen very similar to that discovered by Capt. Brickenden, -but of a young individual, was found soon afterwards in a quarry -near Horsham; but I was not allowed the privilege of figuring or -describing it!] - -In the course of last summer I obtained a very instructive fragment -of the middle part of the right ramus of the lower jaw of a much -larger Iguanodon, found by Mr. Fowlestone, with some enormous bones -of the extremities, in the Wealden strata of the Isle of Wight. A -portion of the upper jaw (without teeth) was discovered some years -since in Tilgate Forest, and is deposited, with the whole of the -collection I formed at Brighton, in the gallery of organic remains -of the British Museum. These three specimens are the only parts of -the jaws of the Iguanodon, with the exception of a fragment of the -angular bone, that I have had the opportunity of examining. The other -portions of the skeleton hitherto discovered are the following: the -tympanic bone;[134] cervical, dorsal, lumbar, and caudal vertebræ, -and chevron bones; ribs; the iliac bones, and sacrum composed of -six anchylosed vertebræ;[135] the coracoid, scapula and clavicles; -humerus, radius? metacarpals; femur, tibia and fibula, metatarsals -and ungueals. The cranium, carpals, and tarsals, have not been -discovered. - -[Footnote 134: This may or may not belong to the Iguanodon: no -tympanic bone has been found in such connexion with other parts of -the skeleton as to afford certain proof that this maxillary element -is referable to the Iguanodon.] - -[Footnote 135: In the Megalosaurus, the sacrum consists of five -anchylosed vertebræ.] - -With the exception of the assemblage of bones promiscuously grouped -together in a block of _Kentish rag_ (of the greensand formation), -found in a quarry near Maidstone, by Mr. Bensted,[136] a few -connected caudal vertebræ, and two or three instances in which -a femur, tibia, and fibula and some metatarsals, were found in -contiguity, all the bones were isolated. They have been obtained -from the quarries in St. Leonard's and Tilgate Forests, near -Loxwood, Rusper, Horsham, Cuckfield, and Battel; and from the cliffs -at Hastings, and in Sandown, and Brixton, and Brook Bays, on the -southern shore of the Isle of Wight. - -[Footnote 136: This most instructive specimen is in a glass-case -on the floor near the window, in the middle room of the Gallery of -Organic Remains in the British Museum. All the Wealden reptilian -remains of a large size, collected by me when residing in Sussex, are -in the upright glass cases in the same apartment.] - -So anomalous is the osteology of the Iguanodon compared with that of -existing saurians, that from my discovery of the first vestige of -this reptile--a fragment of a tooth--thirty years ago, to the recent -important acquisition of the jaws, I have had to contend with the -opposition of eminent naturalists, who have refused assent to the -physiological inferences suggested by the specimens which were from -time to time brought to light, because the modifications of structure -in a colossal herbivorous reptile, essentially differed from the -hypothetical archetype skeleton of the class to which it belonged. -When the first discovered teeth were shown to Baron Cuvier, he -pronounced them to be the incisors of a Rhinoceros; the metatarsals, -those of a Hippopotamus; the fragment of a femur, with a medullary -canal, that of some large mammalian. But the candour and liberality -of the founder of Palæontology were worthy of his transcendent -genius; upon receiving further evidence, he immediately acknowledged -the error, and expressed his conviction that the teeth and bones -belonged to an herbivorous reptile more extraordinary than any that -had previously been brought under his notice.[137] - -[Footnote 137: See Cuvier's Ossemens Fossiles, tom. v. part. ii. It -is much to be wished that those who aspire to emulate this great -man in scientific fame, would also endeavour to imitate him in the -yet nobler attributes of his character. It is stated by Professor -Owen, in Brit. Assoc. Reports on Fossil Reptiles, that the bones -of the Iguanodon were interpreted by me with the aid of Cuvier and -Clift. This is a mistake. Baron Cuvier died before I had obtained any -considerable portion of the skeleton; and neither Mr. Clift nor Mr. -Owen at that time could afford me any assistance in determining the -nature of the isolated bones I occasionally brought to the Hunterian -Museum for comparison. Any aid I ever received in my investigations -is most fully acknowledged in my works.] - -Even the lower jaw, which presents characters so peculiar as to -admit, as I conceive, of but one interpretation--that enunciated in -my memoir on the teeth and jaws of the Iguanodon,[138]--has been -adduced as affording a signal instance of the incorrectness of my -physiological deductions. And why? Because in the entire class of -living reptiles there is not a single species that has cheeks and -flexible lips, which, according to my view of the subject, the -Iguanodon must have possessed. But I do not hesitate to affirm -that the structure and arrangement of the teeth, and the mammalian -character of the bones of the extremities, are in perfect accordance -with my exposition of the probable structure and functions of the -maxillary organs of the original. The naturalists who advance these -objections, forget that among the existing mammalia there is one -genus, the _Ornithorhynchus_, or Duck-billed Platypus, that exhibits -as striking a deviation from the typical maxillary structure of its -class, as does the Iguanodon. If before the discovery of New Holland -the jaw-bones of the Ornithorhynchus had been found in a fossil state -in the strata of Tilgate Forest, and I had ventured to infer that the -original, though a true mammalian, and giving suck to its young, had -the extremities of the jaws covered with flat horny beaks, like those -of a duck, instead of with the fleshy lips and integuments which are -the peculiar attributes of its class, what censures would not my -temerity have called forth! We cannot too often be reminded of the -profound remark of William Penn: "Experience, which is continually -contradicting theory, is the only test of truth." - -[Footnote 138: See Philosophical Transactions, Part II. 1848.] - -The following are the physiological inferences relating to the -structure and habits of the Iguanodon, which Dr. Melville and myself -conceive our investigations have established: the discovery of the -cranium, and of perfect examples of the upper and lower jaws with -both successional and mature molars in their natural position, may -modify, but, we believe, will in no material respect invalidate these -conclusions. - -In instituting a comparison between the maxillary organs of the -Iguanodon, and those of the existing herbivorous lizards, we are at -once struck with their remarkable deviation from all known types -in the class of reptiles. In the _Amblyrhynchi_ (of the Galapagos -Islands), the most exclusively vegetable feeders of the Saurian -order, the alveolar process beset with teeth is continued round the -front of the mouth: the junction of the two rami of the lower jaw at -the symphysis presenting no edentulous interval whatever, the lips -not being more produced than in other reptiles; but this creature -only bruises its food; it cannot grind or masticate it. In fact, the -edentulous, expanded, scoop-shaped, procumbent symphysis of the lower -jaw of the Iguanodon, has no parallel among either recent or fossil -reptiles; and we seek in vain for organs at all analogous, except -among the herbivorous mammalia. The nearest approach is to be found -in certain _Edentata_; as for example in the _Cholæpus didactylus_, -or Two-toed Sloth, in which the anterior part of the lower jaw is -destitute of teeth, and much prolonged. The correspondence is still -closer in the extinct gigantic _Mylodons_, in which the symphysis -resembles the blade of a turf-spade, and has no traces of incisor -sockets; and were not this part of the jaw elevated vertically -in front, and the two sides confluent, it would present the very -counterpart of that of the Iguanodon. The great number and size of -the vascular foramina distributed along the outer side of the dentary -bone in the Wealden reptile, and the magnitude of the anterior -outlets which gave exit to the vessels and nerves that supplied the -front of the mouth, indicate the great development of the integuments -and soft parts with which the lower jaw was invested. - -The sharp ridge bordering the deep groove of the symphysis, in -which there are also several foramina, evidently gave attachment -to the muscles and integuments of the under lip; and there are -strong reasons for supposing that the latter was greatly produced, -and capable of being protruded and retracted so as to constitute, -in conjunction with a long extensile tongue, a suitable instrument -for seizing and cropping leaves and branches, which, from the -construction of the teeth, we may infer was the food of the Iguanodon. - -Thus we find the mechanism of the maxillary organs of the Wealden -herbivorous saurian, as demonstrated by recent discoveries, in -perfect harmony with the remarkable dental characters which -rendered the first known teeth so enigmatical. In the Iguanodon we -have a solution of the problem, how the integrity of the type of -organization peculiar to the class of cold-blooded vertebrata was -maintained, and yet adapted by simple modifications to fulfil the -conditions required by the economy of a gigantic terrestrial reptile, -destined to obtain support exclusively from vegetable substances; -in like manner as the extinct colossal sloth-like Edentata of -South America. In fine, we have in the Iguanodon the type of the -terrestrial herbivora, which in that remote epoch of the earth's -physical history--the _Age of Reptiles_--occupied the same relative -station in the terrestrial fauna, and fulfilled the same general -purposes in the economy of nature, as the Mylodons, Mastodons, and -Mammoths, of the tertiary periods, and the large pachyderms of modern -times. - -Although some important data are still required to complete our -knowledge of the structure of the Iguanodon, we are warranted in -concluding that this colossal herbivorous reptile was as bulky as the -elephant, and as massive in its proportions: for, living exclusively -on vegetable substances, the abdominal region must have been largely -developed. Its limbs must have been of proportionate size to support -and move so enormous a carcass. The hinder extremities probably -presented the unwieldly contour of those of the Hippopotamus, and -were based on strong short feet, protected by broad horny ungueal -phalanges, or nails. The fore-legs appear to have been less bulky, -and adapted for seizing and pulling down plants and branches: the -teeth and jaws demonstrate the nature of its food; and the fossil -remains of coniferous trees, arborescent, ferns, and cycadeous -plants, with which its relics are commonly associated, indicate the -character of the flora adapted for its sustenance.[139] - -[Footnote 139: Philosophical Transactions, for 1848, pp. 196-198.] - - -XVIII. The Pelorosaurus.--The humerus of a terrestrial reptile of -enormous magnitude, has lately been discovered by Mr. Peter Fuller -of Lewes, in the quarry near Cuckfield, from which many remains of -the Iguanodon and Hylæosaurus were obtained in my early researches. -This bone more nearly resembles the humerus of the Crocodiles, than -that of the Lizards. It Is four and a half feet in length, and of -corresponding proportions; it has a large medullary canal. As to -the size of the animal to which it belonged, while disclaiming the -idea that any certain conclusion can be drawn from a single bone, I -may mention, with the view of conveying some general notion, that -in a Gangetic crocodile eighteen feet long, the humerus is one -foot: according to this scale the fossil animal would be eighty-one -feet in length. I have proposed the name of _Pelorosaurus_ (from -πἑλωρ--_pelòr_--monster), or Colossal-saurian, for this new genus of -reptiles which Inhabited the country of the Iguanodon.[140] - -[Footnote 140: A memoir on this fossil was read before the Royal -Society, Feb. 14th, 1850; an abstract has been published in the -Proceedings of the Society. It is entitled, "On the Pelorosaurus; -an undescribed gigantic terrestrial reptile, whose remains are -associated with those of the Iguanodon and other saurians in the -strata of Tilgate Forest." It will appear in the Phil. Trans. Part -11. 1850.] - - -XIX. Silicification, _or petrifaction by flint_.--The various forms -in which silex occurs have depended on its state of fluidity. In -quartz crystals the solution was complete; in agate and chalcedony -it was in a gelatinous state, assuming a spheroidal or orbicular -disposition according to the motion given to its particles. Its -condition appears also to have been modified by the influence of -organic matter. In some polished slices of siliceous nodules, -the transition from flint to agate, chalcedony, and crystallized -quartz, is beautifully shown. The curious fact that the shells of -Echinites In chalk are almost invariably filled with flint, while -their crustaceous shells are changed into calc-spar, is probably -in many instances to be attributed to the animal matter having -undergone silicification; for the most organized parts are those -which appear to have been most susceptible of this transmutation. -In some specimens the oyster is changed into flint, while the shell -Is converted into crystallized carbonate of lime. In a trigonia -from Tisbury, formerly In the cabinet of the late Miss Benett, of -Norton House, near Warminster, the body of the mollusk was completely -metamorphosed into pure chalcedony, the branchiæ or gills being -as clearly defined as when the animal was recent. In specimens of -wood from Australia (presented to the British Museum by Sir Thomas -Mitchell), which are completely permeated by silex, there are on -the external surface some spots of chalcedony, that have apparently -originated from the exudation of the liquid silex from the interior -in viscid globules filled with air, which burst, and then collapsed, -and became solidified in their present form. - -In silicified wood, the permeation of the vegetable tissues by the -mineral matter appears to have been effected by solutions of silex of -a high temperature. In some examples mineralization has been effected -simply by replacement: the original substance has been removed, atom -by atom, and the silex substituted in its place. One of the most -eminent naturalists and mineralogists of the United States, Mr. J. -D. Dana,[141] suggests that the reason why silica is so common a -material in the constitution of fossil wood and shells, as well as in -pseudo-morphic crystals,[142] consists in the ready solution of silex -in water at a high temperature (a fact affirmed by Bergman[143]) -under great pressure, whenever an alkali is present, as is seen at -the present time in many volcanic regions, and its ready deposition -again when the water cools. A mere heated aqueous solution of silica, -under a high pressure, is sufficient to explain the phenomenon of -the silicification of organic structures. Mr. Dana states that "a -crystal of calc-spar in such a fluid, being exposed to solution from -the action of the heated water alone, the silica deposits itself -gradually on a reduction of temperature, and takes the place of the -lime, atom by atom, as soon as set free. Every silicified fossil -is an example of this pseudo-morphism; but there seems to be no -union of the silica with the lime, for silicate of lime is of rare -occurrence."[144] - -[Footnote 141: American Journal of Science, for January, 1845.] - -[Footnote 142: Pseudo-morphic crystals are crystals moulded in the -cavities left by other crystals, which they have replaced. See Dr. -Blum on pseudo-morphous minerals; and Mr. Jefferey's experiments on -the solution of silica in heated vapour; Wonders of Geology, p. 100.] - -[Footnote 143: Bergman first determined the solubility of silex in -simple water, aided by heat, and demonstrated its existence in the -Geysers, and other boiling springs of Iceland. _Parkinson_, _Org. -Rem._, vol. i. p. 324.] - -[Footnote 144: See my "Notes on a microscopical examination of chalk -and flint," Annals of Natural History, August 1845.] - - -XX. Stigmaria, Sigillaria, &c.--The most remarkable peculiarity -of the flora of the carboniferous period is the immense numerical -preponderance of the vascular or higher tribes of cryptogamic plants, -which amount to two-thirds of the species described. With these -are associated a few Palms, Coniferæ, Cycadeæ, and dicotyledonous -plants, allied to the _Cacteæ_ and _Euphorbiaceæ_. The number and -magnitude of the vegetables bearing an analogy to the _Ductulosæ_, -but differing from existing species and genera, constitute therefore -the most important botanical feature of the carboniferous flora. Thus -we have plants allied to the Equisetum, or mare's-tail (_Calamites_), -eighteen inches in circumference, and from thirty to forty feet high; -Zamia-like coniferæ (_Sigillariæ_) fifty feet high; and arborescent -club-mosses (_Lepidodendra_) attaining an altitude of sixty or -seventy feet. Of this ancient flora, the fossil plants whose stems -have been named _Sigillaria_ (see Plate XXI.), and their roots -Stigmaria, are especially remarkable in consequence of the peculiar -circumstances under which upright examples of these trees are -occasionally met with. Referring for details to "Wonders of Geology," -Lecture VII., I purpose describing in this place the facts recently -brought to light, which prove that certain species of Stigmaria are -the roots of Sigillariæ; while others in all probability belong to -Lepidodendra:--an opinion maintained more than thirty years ago by -the Rev. H. Steinhauer.[145] To the late Mr. Binney we are indebted -for the first confirmation of the inference of my friend, M. Adolphe -Brongniart, (derived from an examination of the structure of those -bodies,) that the Stigmariæ are the veritable roots of Sigillariæ. -At St. Helen's, near Liverpool, Mr. Binney discovered, in 1844, an -upright trunk of a Sigillaria, nine feet high, to which were attached -ten roots, several feet long, that extended into the under clay in -their natural position;[146] and these roots were unquestionable -Stigmariæ, the tubercles with their attached rootlets being clearly -displayed. In the floor of the Victoria Mine at Dunkinfold, near -Manchester, at the depth of 1,100 feet from the surface, Mr. Binney -also discovered a magnificent specimen of Sigillaria, which exhibited -on its stem the respective characters of three supposed species, and -had stigmaria-roots extending twenty feet. - -[Footnote 145: Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, -New Series, vol. i.] - -[Footnote 146: See Medals of Creation, vol. i. p. 143.] - -In the Sydney coal-field at Cape Breton, Mr. Richard Brown has -observed several upright stems of Sigillariæ and Lepidodendra, with -stigmaria-roots attached; and the same fact has been noticed in the -Picton coal, in Nova Scotia. The following figures and notes from Mr. -Brown's description of these interesting phenomena, will place the -subject before the reader in a clear point of view.[147] - -[Footnote 147: "Description of an upright Lepidodendron with -Stigmaria-roots in the roof of the Sydney Main Coal, in the Island of -Cape Breton. By Richard Brown, Esq."--_Geological Journal_, No. 13, -for June, 1847, p. 46.] - -The main bed of coal is six feet in thickness, and is overlaid, as -usual, by a roof of shale abounding in foliage and fragments of -branches. As the coal is dug out, large masses of the shale fall in, -and occasionally hollow spaces, called by the workmen _pot-holes_, -are left in the roof; the fallen masses being the roots and truncated -stems of Sigillariæ and other trees, which separate at the parting -formed by the coaly bark covering the roots, when the supporting coal -is removed. - -The following sketch represents one of the specimens of the base of -a stem of a Lepidodendron, with the roots (_stigmariæ_) attached. -This figure (1) shows the position of the tree above the bed of main -coal, with the inclination and length of two of the principal roots, -so far as they could be distinctly traced; and the following sketch -(2) represents the trunk, with its branching roots, constructed from -careful measurements of the dimensions and position of each root, -drawn on the spot. The stem at the part marked A, was encrusted with -a coaly bark, covered by the usual cicatrices of the Lepidodendra, -and the roots at B, C, D, with a similar carbonaceous investment, -impressed with the characteristic pits or areolæ of Stigmariæ. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 1._ - -STEM OF LEPIDODENDRON WITH ROOTS.] - -[Illustration: _Fig. 2._] - -In the Instance of the upright stems of Sigillariæ in the same -coal-field, the roots were also unequivocally Stigmariæ. Fig. 3, -represents one of these erect stems, sixteen Inches high and twelve -inches in diameter at the top, which dropped from the roof of the bed -after the coal had been removed. Part of the coaly bark remains at -_c_. The decorticated part of the trunk is covered with minute scales -as far as the point _h_, a few inches below the first ramification of -the roots. The carbonaceous crust investing the roots was thick at -the upper part, but gradually became thin, and at _a_, and _b_, was a -mere friable pellicle, that fell off upon the slightest touch. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 3._ - -STEM OF SIGILLARIA ALTERNANS, 1/12 _natural size_.] - -[Illustration: _Fig. 4._] - -The exact position of the tree in relation to the underlying coal is -shown in the above section. Fig. 4. Immediately over the coal there -is a bed of hard shale, six inches in depth, in which no fossils are -found; this is overlaid by a softer shale abounding in coal-plants; -all the upright stems were rooted in the six-inch shale. Upon -clearing the base of this tree, a complete set of conical tap-roots -was discovered, arranged as in the annexed sketch. Fig. 5. There are -four large tap-roots in each quarter of the stump, and five inches -below these another set of smaller tap-roots; the total number -amounting to eighteen. The horizontal roots are seen to branch off in -a regular manner, the base being divided into four nearly equal parts -by deep channels, extending from the centre to the points _i, k, l, -m_. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 5._ - -_The under surface of Fig. 3, showing the conical tap-roots of the -tree, 1/12 natural size._] - -Mr. Brown remarks, that these short thick tap-roots were evidently -adapted only to a soft wet soil, such as we may conceive was the -nature of the first layer of mud deposited upon a bed of peat -which had settled down slightly below the level of the water. He -supposes, from the presence of a layer of shale without fossil plants -immediately over the coal, that the prostrate stems and leaves which -occur in such large quantities in the next superincumbent bed, fell -from trees growing on the spot, and were entombed in layers of mud -held in suspension in the water, which at short intervals inundated -the low marshy ground on which they grew; for had the plants been -drifted from a distance, he conceives they would also occur in the -first layer of shale, as well as in those higher up. - -[Illustration: _Fig. 6._ - -STEM OF A SIGILLARIA BROKEN OFF CLOSE TO THE ROOTS, 1/12 _natural -size_.] - -Having thus shown that the _Sigillaria alternans_ was provided -with roots adapted for a soft muddy soil, Mr. Brown next describes -the specimen represented in Fig. 6, which is the stem of the same -species of tree broken off near the roots; the hollow cylinder of -bark (_a_) having been bent down and doubled over by the pressure -of the surrounding mud, so as effectually to close up the aperture, -leaving only a few irregular cicatrices, of three or four inches -in length, converging at the apex; the structure, arrangement, and -number of the tap-roots, as well as the horizontal ramifications, are -similar to those in Fig. 5. This fossil clearly explains the nature -of the "_dome-shaped_" plant figured in the "Fossil Flora of Great -Britain."[148] - -[Footnote 148: The figures 3, 4, 5, 6, and the descriptions, are from -the paper of Richard Brown, Esq., published in the Journal of the -Geological Society of London, for March, 1849, entitled, "Description -of erect Sigillariæ, with conical tap-roots, found in the roof of the -Sydney Main Coal, in the Island of Cape Breton."] - -"The roots of the preceding fossils repeatedly ramify as their -distance from the stem increases, and ultimately terminate in broad -flattened points. The whole of the spreading roots of these trees -(the _Sigillariæ_) cover only an area of thirty square feet each; -whilst those of the Lepidodendron (Fig. 1), whose stem is only two -or three inches larger in diameter, covered a space of two hundred -square feet. Since it is well known, from numerous examples, that -the Lepidodendra were lofty trees, with spreading branches, which -therefore required wide bases for support, may we not conclude that -Sigillariæ of the species described were, on the contrary, trees of -low stature, without heavy branches?" - -I cannot quit this subject without again adverting to the remarkable -phenomenon mentioned In a previous note, namely, that in the bed of -pulverulent earth--the _under-clay_--on which the coal invariably -reposes, the roots (or Stigmariæ) of large trees are generally the -only organic remains met with. The constant occurrence of these -fossils in the under-clay, and their rarity in the coal and shale, -was long ago pointed out by Mr. Martin, Dr. Macculloch, and other -geologists; but the importance of the fact was not appreciated till -Mr. Logan drew attention to it. In the Welsh coal-field, through a -depth of 1,200 feet, there are sixty beds of coal, each of which lies -on a stratum of clay abounding in Stigmariæ. In the Appalachian coal -formation of the United States, the same phenomena occur. - -Thus it appears that the under-clay is the natural soil in which -the roots (_Stigmariæ_) of the Sigillariæ and Lepidodendra grew; -the coal above it is composed of the carbonized stems and foliage -of those trees; and the roof or coal-shale is formed by the -leaves and branches of a forest overwhelmed and buried beneath -the transported detritus of distant rocks. These phenomena may be -explained by supposing that a plain, densely clothed with a luxuriant -intertropical vegetation, was either inundated by an irruption -of the sea, or overwhelmed by a flood, from the sudden breaking -up of the barrier of an inland lake; or by the subsidence of the -country on which the forests grew. But when we find an uninterrupted -series, in which triple deposits of this character are repeated -through many thousand feet, the solution of the problem is beset -with difficulties, which the hypothesis of repeated periodical -subsidences, however ingenious, does not, in my opinion, remove.[149] - -[Footnote 149: See Wonders of Geology, pp. 669, 718, 731.] - -∵ Jaw of the Iguanodon.--_Additional note to_ p. 194.--Since -the preceding pages were struck off, I have, through the kindness -and liberality of Samuel H. Beckles, Esq., of Hastings, obtained -two portions of jaws from the Wealden of the Sussex Coast. One of -these is a fragment of the left side of the lower jaw, with six -well-defined dental sockets; the other specimen exhibits the position -of the mature molars and the successional teeth in the upper jaw; -and confirms the accuracy of the views of Dr. Melville and myself as -to the ruminant character of the arrangement of the dental organs in -the upper and lower jaws of the Iguanodon, as described in my memoir -on the structure of the jaws and teeth; Philos. Trans. 1848, p. 183. -When this specimen is completely developed, it will probably exhibit -distinctly the relative position of the germs and mature teeth, and -the form of the inner alveolar parapet. - - - - -INDEX. - - - A. - - Acrodus, tooth of, 160. - Actinocrinus, 121. - ---- triacontadactylus, 121. - Adelosina, 143. - Age of reptiles, 193. - Alethopteris decurrens, 81. - ---- lonchitidis, 25. - ---- Serlii, 25. - Algæ, fossil, 191. - Alveolina elliptica, 142. - Ammonites, 139. - ---- latus, 139. - ---- Mantelli, 139. - ---- ovalis, 139. - ---- Walcotii, 139. - Ananchytes ovatus, 127. - Annularia brevifolia, 27. - Anoplotherium commune, teeth of, 163. - Antarctic ocean, diatomaceæ of, 191. - Aphyllum asperum, 69. - ---- cristatum, 65. - Apiocrinus ellipticus, 113. - ---- Parkinsoni, 119. - ---- rotundus, 119. - Aptychus, 147. - Area, fossil, 144. - Artis, Mr., on fossil botany, 175. - ---- work of, 16. - Asaphus caudatus, 156. - Aspidiaria cristata, 65. - Asterias, fossil, 125. - Asterophyllites, 27. - Astrea ananas, 93. - ---- arachnoides, 95. - ---- geometrica, 109. - ---- Tisburiensis, 95. - ---- undulata, 95. - - - B. - - Baculites Fraujasii, 139. - Bahia Blanca, fossils of, 184. - Bears, fossil teeth of, 165. - ---- fossil, 169. - Beckles, S. H., Esq., fossils by, 202. - Belemnitella mucronata, 138, 139. - Belemnite, description of, 169. - Belemnites, 137, 138, 139. - ---- coniformis, 138. - ---- cylindriformis, 138. - ---- fusiformis, 138. - ---- giganteus, 137. - ---- Puzosianus, 171. - Belemnoteuthis antiquus, 170. - Bellerophon costatus, 141. - Bellinurus bellulus, 156. - Benett, Miss, the late, fossils by, 197, 95. - Bergman, on Silica, 198. - Big-bone Lick, account of, 167. - Biloculina ringens, 143. - Binney, Mr., on Stigmariæ, 198. - Birds, fossil remains of. New Zealand, x, 172. - Botanical arrangement of fossil plants, 175. - Bourgeticrinus, 113. - Bovey coal, 19. - Bowerbank, J. S., Esq., on fossil fruits of Sheppey, 29, 31. - Brachiopoda, fossil, 153. - Bradford encrinite, 119. - Brickenden, Capt. Lambart, discovery of jaw of Iguanodon, 194. - Brongniart, M., fossil botany of, 178. - ---- on fossil fruits of Sheppey, 31. - Brown, Mr. Richard, on upright Sigillariæ, 198. - Buckland, Dr., on Belemno-sepia, 170. - ---- on Stigmariæ, 55. - - - C. - - Calamites approximatus, 49. - ---- decoratus, 51. - ---- dubius, 23, 45. - ---- ramosus, 43. - ---- Suckovii, 47. - - Calceola sandalina, 154. - Calymene Blumenbachii, 156. - ---- variolare, 156. - Cancer Leachii, 155. - Cannibalism of New Zealanders, 175. - Cap Encrinite, 116, 117. - Cape Breton, coal-field of 199. - Carboniferous deposits, 181. - Carcharias megalodon, 160. - Cardinia Listeri, 147. - Cardita senilis, 147. - Cardium Hillanum, 147. - Carpenter, Dr., on foraminifera, 142. - Carpolithus marginatus, 83. - Caryophyllia annularis, 91. - ---- centralis, 91. - Catenipora escharoides, 89. - Caves, ossiferous, 169. - Cephalopoda, fossil, 141, 180. - Ceratodus, 157. - Ceriopora, 99, 114. - Chain-coral, 89. - Chama squamosa, 149. - Chara, fossil seeds of, 143. - Cheilanthes microlobus, 25. - Cheilanthites, 75, 79. - Chelonia breviceps, 157. - Chenendopora fungiformis, 107. - ---- Parkinsoni, 101. - ---- subplana. 111. - Choanites Königi, 103, 107. - Cidaris Blumenbachii, 131. - ---- claviger, 131. - ---- corollaris, 126. - ---- coronatus, 126. - ---- crenularis, 126. - ---- fossil, 126. - ---- glandiferus, 131. - ---- granulosus, 126. - ---- Königi, 126. - ---- Parkinsoni, 125. - ---- saxatilis, 129. - ---- sceptrifera, 131. - ---- Schmidelii, 131. - ---- vesiculosus, 126, 131. - Clapp, Dr., fossil corals by, 89. - Cliona, of New Zealand, 99. - Clionites, 99. - Clypeaster, 127. - ---- altus, 131. - Clypeus sinuatus, 127. - Cnemidium rimulosum, 107. - Coal, 182. - Coal measures, 181. - Cololites, 133. - Comatula, fossil, 125. - ---- pectinata, 126. - Conulus albogalerus, 127. - Coprolites of fishes, 30. - Coral marble, 95. - Corals, fossil, 182. - ---- fossil, from the Ohio, 89. - Corbula gallica, 153. - ---- revoluta, 147. - Coronulites diadema, 154. - Crabs, fossil, 155. - Crania personata, 153. - Crassatella tumida, 147. - Crenatula, fossil, 151. - Crinoidea, 111. - Cristellaria galea, 144. - ---- rotulata, 143. - Crustacea, fossil, 155. - Cucullæa decussata, 147 - Cucumites, 29, 30. - Cupanoides, 30. - Cuvier, Baron, discoveries of, 183. - Cyathocrinite, 121. - Cyathocrinus rugosus, 117. - Cyathophyllum dianthus, 93. - ---- fungites, 95. - ---- turbinatum, 91, 95. - Cyclopteris orbicularis, 27. - Cyphosoma correlare, 126. - ---- Milleri, 126. - Cyrena deperdita, 147. - - - D. - - Dana, J. D., Esq., on silicification, 197. - Dapedius, scales of, 154. - Darwin, Mr., Journal of, 184. - ---- on fossil Edentata, 185. - Deane, Mr. Henry, on Rotaliæ, 188. - Derbyshire Cap Encrinite, 117. - Desmidiaceæ, 190. - Dianchora, 149. - Diatomaceæ, 190. - Dinornis of New Zealand, x, 172. - Dinotherium, tooth of, 163. - Disaster ovalis, 129. - Discoidea, 127. - ---- subuculus, 127. - Discospira, 142. - D'Orbigny, M., on foraminifera, 186. - Dudley fossil locust, 156. - - - E. - - Echinanthites orbicularis, 127. - Echinanthus altus, 131. - Echini, fossil, 127, 129, 131. - Echinital spines, fossil, 131. - Echinodiscus bisperforatus, 127. - ---- laganum, 129. - ---- subrotundus, 129. - Echinites lapis cancri, 129. - ---- pyriformis, 129. - Edentata, fossil, 184. - Eggs of Dinornis, 174. - Elephas primigenius, teeth of, 161. - Elk fossil, of Ireland, 161, 189. - Encrinital limestone, 91. - ---- marble, 117. - Encrinites, 117. - ---- monileformis, 115. - Essex reversed Whelk, 133. - Eugeniacrinus caryophyllatus, 114. - Euomphalus pentangulatus, 133. - ---- rugosus, 133. - Euphorbites vulgaris, 57. - Explanaria flexuosa, 97. - - - F. - - Faringdon, fossil zoophytes of, 93. - Fasciolites, 142. - Favosites Gothlandica, 97. - Feet of Moa, x, 174. - Ferns, fossil, 25, 27. - Ficoidites furcatus, 59. - ---- major, 63. - ---- verrucosus, 61. - Filicites decurrens, 81. - ---- Miltoni, 77. - ---- Osmunda, 73. - ---- plumosus, 79. - ---- trifoliatus, 75. - Fishes, fossil, 157, 159. - Fistulana, fossil, 149. - Flint, fossils in, 185. - Flustra, structure of, 183. - Foraminifera, account of, 186. - ---- fossil, 142, 143, 188. - ---- ---- of India, 188. - ---- ---- of New Zealand, 188. - Forbes, Prof E., fossils by, 143. - Fossil plants, arrangement of, 175. - Fowlestone, Mr., fossils by, 107, 194. - Frontispiece, description of, x. - Fruits, fossil, of Isle of Sheppey, 29, 31. - Fuller, Mr. Peter, fossils by, 197. - Fungia, fossil, 91. - ---- numismalis, 91. - ---- polymorpha, 105. - Fusus contrarius, 133. - - - G. - - Galerites, 127. - Galeus pristodontus, 159. - Gloucestershire Pentacrinite, 111. - Goniaster Mantelli, 125. - ---- Parkinsoni, 125. - ---- semilunata, 125. - Gonoplax Latreilli, 156. - Gorgonia bacillaris, 109. - Gryphea incurva, 151. - Guard or rostrum of Belemnite, 171. - Gyrogonites, 143. - - - H. - - Hamites intermedius, 141. - ---- plicatilis, 141. - ---- rotundus, 141. - Hamsey, near Lewes, fossils from, 141. - Harris, W., Esq., on Charing deposits, 188. - Helix arbustorum, 149. - Hemicidaris crenularis, 126, 131. - Hermit crab, fossil, 155. - Hippopotamus, fossil teeth of, 163. - Hippurites bioculatus, 137. - Hoffman, M., discovery of Mosasaurus, 192. - Honey-stone, 19. - Hooker, Dr., on Diatomaceæ, 191. - Hybodus, tooth of, 159. - Hydatica columnaris, 37. - ---- prostrata, 39. - - - I. - - Iguanodon, 193, 202. - ---- discovery of, 193. - Inachus Lamarckii, 155. - Infusorial earths, 189. - Insects, fossil, 155. - Ireland, fossil Elk of, 189. - Ironstone nodules, 25. - - - J. - - Jaw of Iguanodon, 194, 202. - Jerea excavata, 104. - ---- pyriformis, 105. - - - K. - - Kentucky crinoidea, 114. - Kilkenny marble, 95. - Knorria taxina, 35. - - - L. - - Lamna, tooth of, 159. - Lapis syringoides, 33. - Leaves, dicotyledonous, in travertine, 23. - Lepidotus, 157. - Lepidodendron, 19, 23, 69. - ---- upright, 199. - ---- with stigmariæ, 199. - Lepidostrobi, 69. - Lepidostrobus ornatus, 35. - Lignite, 19. - Lily encrinite, 115. - Lima gigantea, 147. - Limulus trilobitoides, 156. - Lithodendron fasciculatum, 95. - Lithodomi, fossil, 149. - Lithostrotion striatum, 93. - Lituites lituus, 133. - Lituola nautiloidea, 143. - Lobophora biperforata, 127. - Lumbricaria colon, 133. - Lychnophorites superus, 71. - Lycopodites squamatus, 30. - Lyell, Sir Charles, on Apiocrinites, 119. - ---- on Big-bone Lick, 167. - Lysianassa literata, 147. - - - M. - - Maestricht, fossil reptile of, 191. - Mammalia, fossil teeth of, 161. - Manon favosum, 93. - Mantell, Mr. R. N., fossils by, 170. - ---- Walter, Esq., on fossil birds of New Zealand, x, 173. - Marsupites Milleri, 113. - Martius, M., fossil flora of, 178. - Mastodon, tooth of, 167. - Megaceros Hibernicus, antlers of, 161. - Megalonyx, tooth and claw of, 163. - ---- Jeffersoni, 163. - Megaphyton distans, 67. - Megatherium Cuvieri, 165. - Mellite, 19. - Melville, Professor, on the Iguanodon, 195. - Michelinia, 91. - ---- tenuisepta, 93. - Micraster cor anguinum, 129. - ---- lacunosus, 129. - Miliobatis, fossil, 160. - Millepora ramosa, 99. - Miller, Mr., on Belemnite, 170. - ---- on Crinoidea, 115. - Moa, or Dinornis, of New Zealand, x, 172. - Morris, Mr., on Clionites, 100. - ---- on Discospira, 142. - Mosasaurus, 157, 159, 191. - Murchison, Sir R. I., Silurian System, 155. - Mya literata, 147. - Myriophyllites gracilis, 41. - - - N. - - Natica Gentii, 133. - Nautilus centralis, 135. - ---- Parkinsoni, 135. - ---- truncatus, 135. - Nerita conoidea, 133. - Neuropteris, 19, 25. - ---- auriculata, 73. - New Zealand, fossil birds of, x, 172. - Nipa, fruits of, fossil, 29. - Nipadites, 29, 30, 31. - ---- Parkinsoni, 31. - Nodosaria raphanistrum, 138. - Nodules with leaves, 25. - Notidanus microdon, 157. - Nucleolites, 127. - ---- pyriformis, 129. - Nucula ovum, 147. - Nummulina, animal of, 187. - ---- Dr. Carpenter on, 14. - ---- lævigata, 142. - Nummulites, 141. - ---- complanata, 142. - ---- dispansa, 142. - ---- obtusa, 142. - - - O. - - Ogygia Buchii, 156. - Ohio, Falls of the, 89. - Ophiura, 125. - Ophiuræ, fossil, 126. - Orbitolites, 142. - Ormoceras, 137. - Ornithorhynchus, 195. - Orthoceras annulatum, 135. - ---- duplex, 137. - ---- pyriforme, 137. - ---- undulatum, 135. - Orthocerina clavulus, 143. - Osselet of Belemnite, 171. - Ostrea Marshii, 151. - ---- carinata, 151. - ---- gregarea, 151. - Otodus, tooth of, 159. - Owen, Professor, on Belemnites, 170. - ---- ---- on Dinornis, x, 173. - ---- ---- Elephants' teeth, 161. - Ox, fossil teeth of, 161. - - - P. - - Pagurus Faujasii, 155. - Palæotherium medium, teeth of, 163. - Pampas, 185. - Pandanocarpum Parkinsonis, 31. - Panopæa Aldrovandi, 149. - Parish, Sir Woodbine, fossils by, 165. - Parkinson, Mr., notice of, 13. - Pear encrinite, 119. - Pearce, Channing, Esq., fossils by, 119. - ---- on Belemnites, 170. - Pecopteris, 25, 27. - ---- heterophylla, 81. - ---- Miltoni, 77. - ---- oreopteridis, 27. - ---- plumosa, 79. - Pelorosaurus, 197. - Peneroloplis opercularis, 143. - Pentacrinites, 120, 121, 123. - Pentacrinus, 111. - ---- basaltiformis, 114, 121. - ---- Briareus, 122, 123. - ---- scalaris, 114, 121. - Pentagonaster regularis, 125. - Pentamerus, 154. - Pentremites florealis, 114. - Perna quadrata, 151. - ---- maxillata, 151. - Petraia, 91. - Petrifaction by flint, 197. - Petrified figs, 31. - ---- melons, 35. - Phragmocone of Belemnite, 171. - Platycrinus lævis, 122. - Plicatula spinosa, 145. - Polystomella crispa, 144. - Porites pyriformis, 97. - Productus, 145. - ---- antiquatus, 145. - ---- Martini, 154. - Psaronius, 33. - Ptychodus decurrens, 157. - ---- polygurus, 160. - Pulley-stone, 117. - - - Q. - - Quadrupeds, fossil, of Montmartre, 183. - Quinqueloculina ringens, 143. - ---- opposita, 143. - - - R. - - Radiolites agariciformis, 153. - Rangatapu, 174. - Reptiles, fossil, 157, 159, 192. - ---- ---- of the Wealden, 193. - Rhinoceros leptorhinus, 163. - Rhizolithes, 21. - Rhodocrinus verus, 117. - Rhytidolepis fibrosa, 55. - Rotalia Beccarii, 143, 144. - ---- trochiliformis, 143. - - - S. - - Salenia scutigera, 126. - ---- stellulata, 126. - Scaphites costatus, 141. - Scelidotherium, 185. - Schlotheim, Baron, fossil botany, 176. - Scyphia articulata, 105. - ---- costata, 107. - Seed-vessels, fossil, 31, 35. - Serpula antiquata, 157. - ---- conica, 135. - ---- filiformis, 135. - Serpulite, 135. - Shark's teeth, fossil, 159. - Shells, fossil, 133, 135, 137, 139, 141, 145, 147, 149, 151, 153. - Shrimp, fossil, 155. - Shropshire Encrinite, 117. - Shumard, Dr., on Geology of Kentucky, 89. - Sigaretus, fossil, 133. - Sigillaria, 57. - ---- alternans, 200. - ---- appendiculata, 65. - ---- fibrosa, 55. - ---- tesselata, 27. - ---- upright, 200. - ---- with stigmariæ, 199. - Siliceous nodules, fossils in, 185. - Silicification, 197. - Siliquaria, fossil, 135. - Siphonia, 97, 103. - ---- pyriformis, 104. - Spatangites ovalis, 129. - Spatangus cor marinum, 129. - ---- lacunosus, 129. - ---- purpureus, 129. - ---- radiatus, 129. - Sphenophyllum erosum, 27. - Sphenopteris, 25. - ---- trifoliata, 27, 75. - Spherodus, tooth of, 159. - Spherulites, 137. - Spicules of fossil sponges, 97. - Spines of Echinites, 131. - Spiniferites, 191. - Spirifer cuspidatus, 154. - ---- striatus, 154. - Spirolina depressa, 143. - ---- cylindracea, 143. - Spongites labyrinthicus, 105. - ---- lobatus, 97. - ---- ramosus, 97. - Staarenstein, 33. - Star-fishes, fossil, 125. - Starry-stone, 33. - Steinhauer, Rev. J., on Stigmariæ, 198. - Stems, fossil, 33, 35. - Steneosaurus, 157, 159. - Sternberg, Count, fossil flora of, 176. - Sternbergia transversa, 53. - Stigmaria, 198. - ---- ficoides, 23, 59, 61, 63. - ---- in under-clay, 181. - ---- with lepidodendron, 199. - Stigmariæ, with sigillariæ, 200. - Streptospondylus, 157. - Syringopora geniculata, 87. - ---- ramulosa, 89. - - - T. - - Teeth, fossil, of Anoplotherium, 163. - ---- ---- Bears, 165. - ---- ---- Dinotherium, 163. - ---- ---- Elephants, 161. - ---- ---- Hippopotamus, 163. - ---- ---- Mastodon, 167. - ---- ---- Megalonyx, 163. - ---- ---- Ox, 161. - ---- ---- Palæotherium, 163. - ---- ---- Rhinoceros, 163. - ---- of Sharks, fossil, 159. - Terebratula coarctata, 153. - ---- diphya, 153. - ---- triquetra, 153. - Teredina personata, 149. - Teredo, fossil, 33, 149. - Tisbury, fossil corals of, 95. - Tortoise encrinite, 113. - Toxodon, 185. - Trigonellites, 147. - ---- lamellosa, 147. - ---- lata, 147. - Trigonia alæformis, 145. - ---- clavellata, 145. - ---- costata, 145. - ---- dædalea, 145. - ---- excentrica, 145. - ---- rudis, 145. - ---- sinuata, 145. - ---- soft parts silicified, 197. - ---- spinosa, 145. - Trigonocarpum olivæforme, 31. - Trilobites, 155. - Triloculina trigonula, 143. - Tubipore, fossil, 87. - Turban encrinite, 117. - Turbinolia complanata, 91. - ---- mitrata, 91. - Turrilites costatus, 141. - ---- tuberculatus, 141. - Turtles, fossil, 157. - - - U. - - Under-clay, 181. - Ursus spelæus, teeth of, 165, 169. - ---- priscus, 169. - - - V. - - - Vaginella depressa, 144. - Ventriculites, 103, 105, 109. - ---- alcyonoides, 105. - ---- racemosus, 109. - Vermetus ampullacea, 135. - ---- Bognoriensis, 135. - ---- concavus, 135. - Victoria barrier, 191. - - - W. - - Waikouaiti, 174. - ---- fossils from, x, 174. - Waingongoro, 173. - Wenlock limestone corals, 89. - Wetherellia, 29. - Williamson, Mr., on Polystomella, 188. - Wood, fossil coniferous, 19, 23. - ---- calcareous, 19, 29. - ---- cupreous, 29. - ---- jasperized, 21. - ---- pyritous, 29. - ---- silicified, 21. - - - X. - - Xanthidia, 191. - - - Y. - - Yandell, Dr., fossil corals by, 89. - - - Z. - - Zamia pectinata, 23. - - -K. CLAY, PRINTER, BREAD STREET HILL. - - - - * * * * * - - -Transcriber's Note - - -Minor typos were corrected. Illustrations were relocated so as to -avoid splitting paragraphs. Some tables were rejoined and page splits -moved above or below them. - - - - -*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A PICTORIAL ATLAS OF FOSSIL REMAINS, -CONSISTING OF COLOURED ILLUSTRATIONS SELECTED FROM PARKINSON'S "ORGANIC -REMAINS OF A FORMER WORLD," AND ARTIS'S "ANTEDILUVIAN PHYTOLOGY." *** - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the -United States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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right: 84%; text-align: right;} -.fnanchor {vertical-align: super; font-size: .8em; text-decoration: none;} - - </style> - </head> -<body> - -<div style='text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; font-weight:bold'>The Project Gutenberg eBook of A Pictorial Atlas of Fossil Remains, consisting of coloured illustrations selected from Parkinson's "Organic remains of a former world," and Artis's "Antediluvian phytology.", by Gideon Algernon Mantell</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online -at <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you -are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the -country where you are located before using this eBook. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Title: A Pictorial Atlas of Fossil Remains, consisting of coloured illustrations selected from Parkinson's "Organic remains of a former world," and Artis's "Antediluvian phytology."</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Author: Gideon Algernon Mantell</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Release Date: January 31, 2021 [eBook #64434]</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Language: English</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Character set encoding: UTF-8</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Produced by: Tom Cosmas from files generously provided by The Internet Archive. All derived products are placed in the Public Domain.</div> - -<div style='margin-top:2em; margin-bottom:4em'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A PICTORIAL ATLAS OF FOSSIL REMAINS, CONSISTING OF COLOURED ILLUSTRATIONS SELECTED FROM PARKINSON'S "ORGANIC REMAINS OF A FORMER WORLD," AND ARTIS'S "ANTEDILUVIAN PHYTOLOGY." ***</div> - - - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 324px;"> -<img src="images/cover.png" width="324" height="437" alt="A Pictorial Atlas of Fossil Remains by Gideon Algernon Mantell" /> -</div> - - -<hr class="chap" /> - - -<div id="Frontispiece" class="fig_center" style="width: 551px;"> -<img src="images/frontis.png" width="551" height="680" alt="" /> - -<div class="smaller fig_left">JOSEPH DINKEL. DEL. ET LITH.</div> - -<div class="smaller fig_right">PRINTED BY M. & N. HANHAR</div> - -<p style="clear: both;" class="smaller">THE PERFECT SERIES OF THE BONES OF THE RIGHT FOOT OF THE <b>MOA</b>, OR EXTINCT COLOSSAL OSTRICH-LIKE BIRD OF <b>NEW ZEALAND</b> FOUND -IMBEDDED IN AN ERECT POSITION, WITH THE CORRESPONDING FOOT A YARD IN ADVANCE, IN A TURRARY DEPOSIT, AT <b>WAIKOUAITI</b> IN THE MIDDLE ISLAND, BY -<b>WALTER MANTELL ESQ<sup>RE</sup></b> OF <b>WELLINGTON</b>.</p> - -<p class="smaller">FIGURES 1<sup>a</sup> 2<sup>a</sup> 3<sup>a</sup> THE PLANTAR OR UNDER SURFACE OF THE FIRST, SECOND & THIRD TOES. THE FIGURES ARE <sup>1</sup>/<sub>3</sub> NATURAL SIZE LINEAR. -THE ORIGINAL BIRD WAS ABOUT 10 FEET HIGH.</p> -</div> - - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_i" id="Page_i">[ i ]</a></span></p> - -<p class="tdc pmt4">A</p> -<p class="caption2">PICTORIAL ATLAS</p> -<p class="tdc">OF</p> -<p class="caption1">FOSSIL REMAINS,</p> -<p class="tdc">CONSISTING OF COLOURED</p> -<p class="caption3">ILLUSTRATIONS</p> -<p class="tdc">SELECTED FROM</p> -<p class="caption4">PARKINSON'S "ORGANIC REMAINS OF A FORMER WORLD;"</p> -<p class="tdc">AND</p> -<p class="caption4">ARTIS'S "ANTEDILUVIAN PHYTOLOGY."<br /> -<br /> -WITH DESCRIPTIONS</p> - -<p class="caption3">BY GIDEON ALGERNON MANTELL, ESQ. LL.D. F.K.S.</p> - -<p class="tdc">VICE-PRESIDENT OF THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY,<br /> -FELLOW OF THE ROYAL COLLEGE OF SURGEONS OF ENGLAND, ETC.<br /> -AUTHOR OF "THE WONDERS OF GEOLOGY," ETC. ETC.</p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 236px;"> -<img src="images/titlepg.png" width="236" height="151" alt="" /> -</div> - - -<p class="ind2em smaller">"All things in nature are engaged in writing their own history. The planet and the pebble are attended by their -shadows—the rolling rock leaves its farrows on the mountain side—the river its channel in the soil—the animal its -bones in the stratum—the fern and the leaf inscribe their modest epitaphs on the coal—the falling drop sculptures -its story on the sand, or on the stone—not a footstep on the snow or on the ground but traces in characters -more or less enduring the record of its progress."—<i>Emerson.</i></p> - - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p class="tdc"><span class="antiqua">With Seventy-four plates,</span></p> - -<p class="tdc">CONTAINING NEARLY NINE HUNDRED FIGURES.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - - -<p class="tdc pmb4"> -LONDON:<br /> -H. G. BOHN, YORK STREET, COVENT GARDEN.<br /> -1850.<br /> -</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_ii" id="Page_ii">[ ii ]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="tdc pmt4">LONDON:</p> - -<p class="tdc pmb4">R. CLAY, PRINTER, BREAD STREET HILL.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_iii" id="Page_iii">[ iii ]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="tdc pmt4">TO<br /> -<br /> -<span class="larger">THE VERY REVEREND</span><br /> -<br /> -<span class="mlarger">WILLIAM BUCKLAND, D.D. F.R.S.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span class="antiqua">Dean of Westminster,</span><br /> -<br /> -&c. &c. &c.<br /> -<br /> -<span class="mlarger">THIS WORK IS INSCRIBED</span><br /> -<br /> -AS AN EXPRESSION OF THE HIGH RESPECT AND AFFECTIONATE REGARD<br /> -<br /> -OF ONE WHO HAS FOR MORE THAN THIRTY YEARS<br /> -<br /> -ENJOYED THE HONOUR AND PRIVILEGE OF HIS CORRESPONDENCE<br /> -<br /> -AND FRIENDSHIP.<br /> -</p> - - -<p class="p0"> -<span class="smcap">Chester Square, Pimlico,</span><br /> - <i>January 1850</i>.<br /> -</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p> <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_iv" id="Page_iv">[ iv ]</a></span></p> - -<p> <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v">[ v ]</a></span></p> - - - - -<h2><a name="PREFACE" id="PREFACE"></a>PREFACE.</h2> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 132px;"> -<img src="images/bar_dot.png" width="132" height="10" alt="bar doiamond" /> -</div> - -<p>In the hope of promoting the diffusion of a taste for the cultivation of a peculiarly -interesting and attractive branch of Natural History, I have been induced, in compliance -with the suggestion of the eminent publisher of this volume, to arrange in a connected -series the Plates of the late Mr. Parkinson's "<span class="smcap">Organic Remains of a Former -World</span>," and of Mr. Artis's "<span class="smcap">Antediluvian Phytology</span>," with descriptions of the -specimens represented.</p> - -<p>As I have been enabled, with the valuable assistance of my friend, John Morris, -Esq. F.G.S., the author of "<span class="smcap">A Catalogue of British Fossils</span>," to append, in almost -every instance, the generic and specific names adopted by the most recent authorities, the -volume will, I trust, not only prove interesting to the general reader, as a beautiful -<i>Pictorial Atlas</i> of some of the most remarkable relics of the animals and plants of -a "Former World," but also constitute a valuable book of reference in the library -of the Geologist and Palæontologist, since it contains the names and localities of no -inconsiderable number of species and genera.</p> - -<p>For the guidance of the unscientific reader who may desire further information -on any of the subjects treated of in the following pages, references are given to a few -general works on Geology and Fossil Remains.</p> - - -<p class="p0"> -<span class="smcap">Chester Square, Pimlico,</span><br /> - <i>August 1850.</i><br /> -</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p> <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vi" id="Page_vi">[ vi ]</a></span></p> - -<p> <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[ vii ]</a></span></p> - - - - -<h2><a name="TABLE_OF_CONTENTS" id="TABLE_OF_CONTENTS"></a>TABLE OF CONTENTS.</h2> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 120px;"> -<img src="images/bar_double.png" width="120" height="14" alt="" /> -</div> - -<table class="tblcont" summary="TOC"> -<tr> - <td colspan="2"></td> - <td class="tdr smaller">PAGE</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="2"><a href="#PREFACE"><span class="smcap">Preface</span></a></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#PREFACE">v</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="2"><a href="#DESCRIPTION_OF_THE_FRONTISPIECE"><span class="smcap">Description of the Frontispiece</span></a></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#DESCRIPTION_OF_THE_FRONTISPIECE">x</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="2"><a href="#INTRODUCTION"><span class="smcap">Introduction</span></a></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#INTRODUCTION">13</a></td> -</tr> -</table> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p class="tdc antiqua pmt1 pmb1">Descriptions of the Plates.</p> - -<hr class="r20" /> - - - -<p class="caption3">FOSSIL REMAINS OF THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM.</p> - -<p class="caption4">(<i>Plates I. to XXXIII. inclusive.</i>)</p> - -<table class="tblcont" summary="TOC"> -<tr> - <td colspan="2"></td> - <td class="tdr smaller">Plate</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr vtop">I.</td> - <td class="tdl">—Various specimens of Fossil Wood, and fragments of Plants</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Plate_1">19</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">II.</td> - <td class="tdl">—Chiefly examples of silicified Wood</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Plate_2">21</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">III.</td> - <td class="tdl">—Stigmaria, Calamites, and Wood</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Plate_3">23</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr vtop">IV.</td> - <td class="tdl">—Fronds of various Fossil Ferns</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Plate_4">25</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">V.</td> - <td class="tdl">—Different species of Ferns and other Plants</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Plate_5">27</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr vtop">VI.</td> - <td class="tdl">—Principally Fossil Fruits from the London clay of the - Isle of Sheppey</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Plate_6">29</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr vtop">VII.</td> - <td class="tdl">—Specimens of the Fruit of a species of <i>Nipas</i>, or - Molucca Palm; from the Isle of Sheppey</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Plate_7">31</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr vtop">VIII.</td> - <td class="tdl">—Figures of different portions of beautiful silicified - Stems of Plants allied to the Arborescent Ferns; - from Chemnitz</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Plate_8">33</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr vtop">IX.</td> - <td class="tdl">—Fossil Seed-vessels or Cones (<i>Lepidostrobus</i>) of - the Lepidodendron</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Plate_9">35</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">X.</td> - <td class="tdl">—An aquatic Plant (<i>Hydatica</i>) in Coal shale</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Plate_10">37</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr vtop">XI.</td> - <td class="tdl">—A fine specimen of another species of Hydatica</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Plate_11">39</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr vtop">XII.</td> - <td class="tdl">—A delicate aquatic Plant (<i>Myriophyllites</i>) in Coal - shale</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Plate_12">41</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">XIII.</td> - <td class="tdl">—Portion of the Stem of the <i>Calamites ramosus</i></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Plate_13">43</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">XIV.</td> - <td class="tdl">—Fragment of Stems of another species of Calamite - (<i>Calamites dubius</i>)</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Plate_14">45</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">XV.</td> - <td class="tdl">—Stem of a Calamite very much resembling the Bamboo - (<i>Calamites pseudo-bambusia</i>)</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Plate_15">47</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr vtop">XVI.</td> - <td class="tdl">—Another species of Calamite (<i>Calamites approximatus</i>)</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Plate_16">49</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr vtop">XVII.</td> - <td class="tdl">—Stem of another kind of Calamite (<i>Calamites decoratus</i>)</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Plate_17">51</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr vtop">XVIII.</td> - <td class="tdl">—Fossil Stems allied to the Pandanus or Yucca - (<i>Sternbergia transversa</i>)</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Plate_18">53</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr vtop">XIX.</td> - <td class="tdl">—Stem of a species of Sigillaria (<i>Sigillaria fibrosa</i>)</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Plate_19">55</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">XX.</td> - <td class="tdl">—Stem of another kind of Sigillaria</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Plate_20">57</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr vtop">XXI.</td> - <td class="tdl">—Fossil Roots of Sigillaria (<i>Stigmaria ficoides</i>)</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Plate_21">59</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr vtop">XXII.</td> - <td class="tdl">—Another species of Stigmaria (<i>Stigmaria verrucosa</i>)</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Plate_22">61</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">XXIII.</td> - <td class="tdl">—Fragment of a Stigmaria with large tubercles</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Plate_23">63</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">XXIV.</td> - <td class="tdl">—Part of a Stem of a tree allied to Sigillaria - (<i>Aspidiaria cristata</i>)</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Plate_24">65</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">XXV.</td> - <td class="tdl">—Stem of a Plant allied to the Arborescent Ferns - (<i>Megaphyton</i>)</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Plate_25">67</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr vtop">XXVI.</td> - <td class="tdl">—Stem of a species of Lepidodendron - <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">[ viii ]</a></span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Plate_26">69</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">XXVII.</td> - <td class="tdl">—Fossil Plant allied to the Lepidodendron</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Plate_27">71</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr vtop">XXVIII.</td> - <td class="tdl">—A beautiful fossil Fern resembling Osmunda regalis - (<i>Neuropteris auriculata</i>)</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Plate_28">73</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr vtop">XXIX.</td> - <td class="tdl">—An elegant trifoliate Fern in Coal shale - (<i>Neuropteris trifoliata</i>)</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Plate_29">75</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr vtop">XXX.</td> - <td class="tdl">—An exquisite specimen of fossil Fern (<i>Pecopteris Miltoni</i>)</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Plate_30">77</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr vtop">XXXI.</td> - <td class="tdl">—Another elegant Fern in Coal shale (<i>Pecopteris plumosa</i>)</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Plate_31">79</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr vtop">XXXII.</td> - <td class="tdl">—A very beautiful plumose Fern in Coal shale - (<i>Alethopteris decurrens</i>)</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Plate_32">81</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr vtop">XXXIII.</td> - <td class="tdl">—A fossil Fruit or Seed-vessel in Coal shale - (<i>Carpolithes marginatus</i>)</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Plate_33">83</a></td> -</tr> -</table> - - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p class="caption3">FOSSIL REMAINS OF THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.</p> - -<p class="caption4">(<i>Plates XXXIV. to LXXIV: inclusive.</i>)</p> - -<table class="tblcont" summary="TOC"> -<tr> - <td class="tdr vtop">XXXIV.</td> - <td class="tdl">—A beautiful mass of Coral (<i>Syringopora geniculata</i>) on - Carboniferous limestone</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Plate_34">87</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr vtop">XXXV.</td> - <td class="tdl">—Several kinds of fossil Corals (<i>Syringopora ramulosa</i>, - <i>Catenipora escharoides</i>, &c.)</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Plate_35">89</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr vtop">XXXVI.</td> - <td class="tdl">—Corals from different formations (<i>Fungia</i>, - <i>Cyathophyllum</i>)</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Plate_36">91</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr vtop">XXXVII.</td> - <td class="tdl">—Various fossil Corals (<i>Astrea</i>, <i>Lithostrotion</i>, - <i>Caryophyllia annularis</i>)</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Plate_37">93</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr vtop">XXXVIII.</td> - <td class="tdl">—Corals and Coral marbles (<i>Cyathophyllum</i>, <i>Astrea</i>, - <i>Lithodendron</i>)</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Plate_38">95</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr vtop">XXXIX.</td> - <td class="tdl">—Fossil Corals, and Sponges or Amorphozoa (<i>Siphonia</i>, - <i>Favosites</i>, <i>Explanaria</i>)</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Plate_39">97</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr vtop">XL.</td> - <td class="tdl">—Various fossil Zoophytes (<i>Clionites</i>, <i>Millepora</i>)</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Plate_40">99</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr vtop">XLI.</td> - <td class="tdl">—A beautiful specimen of a cyathiform fossil Zoophyte - (<i>Chenendopora Parkinsoni</i>)</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Plate_41">101</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr vtop">XLII.</td> - <td class="tdl">—Several kinds of Zoophytes in Flint (<i>Choanites</i>, - <i>Siphonia</i>, <i>Jerea</i>)</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Plate_42">103</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr vtop">XLIII.</td> - <td class="tdl">—Various Corals and other Zoophytes (<i>Fungia polymorpha</i>, - <i>Jerea pyriformis</i>, <i>Ventriculite</i>)</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Plate_43">105</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr vtop">XLIV.</td> - <td class="tdl">—Silicified Sponges and other Zoophytes (<i>Scyphia</i>, - <i>Cnemidium</i>, <i>Chenendopora</i>)</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Plate_44">107</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr vtop">XLV.</td> - <td class="tdl">—Several kinds of calcareous and silicified Corals and - other Zoophytes</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Plate_45">109</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr vtop">XLVI.</td> - <td class="tdl">—A recent Pentacrinus (<i>P. caput medusæ</i>), and a - beautiful Fossil species</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Plate_46">111</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr vtop">XLVII.</td> - <td class="tdl">—Numerous specimens of portions of Stems, separate Ossicles, - and Receptacles, of various kinds of Encrinites and Pentacrinites</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Plate_47">113</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr vtop">XLVIII.</td> - <td class="tdl">—The Lily Encrinite (<i>Encrinites monileformis</i>)</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Plate_48">115</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr vtop">XLIX.</td> - <td class="tdl">—Remains of several kinds of Encrinites and Encrinital - marbles</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Plate_49">117</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr vtop">L.</td> - <td class="tdl">—Chiefly specimens of the Pear Encrinite of Bradford, in - Wiltshire (<i>Apiocrinus Parkinsoni</i>)</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Plate_50">119</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr vtop">LI.</td> - <td class="tdl">—Several kinds of Crinoidea (<i>Actinocrinites</i>, - <i>Pentacrinites</i>)</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Plate_51">121</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr vtop">LII.</td> - <td class="tdl">—Specimens of Pentacrinites from Lyme Regis</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Plate_52">123</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr vtop">LIII.</td> - <td class="tdl">—Fossil Star-fishes (<i>Goniaster</i>, <i>Ophiura</i>, - <i>Cidaris</i>)</td> - <td class="tdr"> <a href="#Plate_53">125</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr vtop">LIV.</td> - <td class="tdl">—Various kinds of Echinites or fossil Sea-urchins - (<i>Clypeaster</i>, <i>Ananchytes</i>, <i>Discoidea</i>, - <i>Conulus</i>)</td> - <td class="tdr vbot"><a href="#Plate_54">127</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr vtop">LV.</td> - <td class="tdl">—Several varieties of fossil Echini (<i>Cidaris</i>, - <i>Nucleolites</i>, <i>Micraster</i>, <i>Spatangus</i>)</td> - <td class="tdr vbot"><a href="#Plate_55">129</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr vtop">LVI.</td> - <td class="tdl">—Echinites and echinital Spines</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Plate_56">131</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr vtop">LVII.</td> - <td class="tdl">—Fossil univalve Shells (<i>Euomphalus</i>, &c.) and - <i>Cololites</i></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Plate_57">133</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr vtop">LVIII.</td> - <td class="tdl">—Fossil Shells of various kinds of Cephalopoda - (<i>Nautilus</i>, <i>Orthoceras</i>, <i>Lituties</i>, &c.)</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Plate_58">135</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr vtop">LIX.</td> - <td class="tdl">—Belemnites, Orthoceratites, and Hippurites, &c.</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Plate_59">137</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr vtop">LX.</td> - <td class="tdl">—Belemnites and Ammonites</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Plate_60">139</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr vtop">LXI.</td> - <td class="tdl">—Hamites of several species; Scaphites, Nummulites, &c.</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Plate_61">141</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr vtop">LXII.</td> - <td class="tdl">—Fossil Foraminifera of several genera</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Plate_62">143</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr vtop">LXIII.</td> - <td class="tdl">—Several species of Trigonia</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Plate_63">145</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr vtop">LXIV.</td> - <td class="tdl">—Fossil bivalve Shells (<i>Cucullæa</i>, <i>Crassatella</i>, - <i>Lima</i>, <i>Cardium</i>, &c.), and the anomalous bodies - termed <i>Trigonellites</i></td> - <td class="tdr vbot"><a href="#Plate_64">147</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr vtop">LXV.</td> - <td class="tdl">—Fossil Shells of the genera <i>Panopæa</i>, <i>Teredina</i>, &c.</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Plate_65">149</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr vtop">LXVI.</td> - <td class="tdl">—Fossil Shells of the genera <i>Ostrea</i>, <i>Perna</i>, - <i>Gryphea</i>, &c.</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Plate_66">151</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr vtop">LXVII.</td> - <td class="tdl">—Chiefly Shells of brachiopodous Mollusca, (<i>Terebratula</i>, - <i>Spirifer</i>, <i>Productus</i>, &c.)</td> - <td class="tdr vbot"><a href="#Plate_67">153</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr vtop">LXVIII.</td> - <td class="tdl">—Fossil Crabs from Sheppey; Trilobites, Insects, &c.</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Plate_68">155</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr vtop">LXIX.</td> - <td class="tdl">—Remains of Turtles from Sheppey, and Vertebræ of - Crocodilian Reptiles from Havre, and of the <i>Mosasaurus</i></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Plate_69">157</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr vtop">LXX.</td> - <td class="tdl">—The Jaws of the fossil Reptile of Maestricht - (<i>Mosasaurus</i>); and Teeth of various kinds of - Sharks and Rays (<i>Carcharias</i>, <i>Miliobatis</i>, - <i>Pthychodus</i>, &c.) - <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_ix" id="Page_ix">[ ix ]</a></span></td> - <td class="tdr vbot"><a href="#Plate_70">159</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr vtop">LXXI.</td> - <td class="tdl">—Skull and Antlers of the fossil Elk of Ireland, and Teeth - of the Mammoth</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Plate_71">161</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr vtop">LXXII.</td> - <td class="tdl">—Fossil teeth of <i>Hippopotamus</i>, <i>Rhinoceros</i>, - <i>Dinotherium</i>, <i>Palæotherium</i>, and <i>Anoplotherium</i>; - and ungueal bone of Megalonyx</td> - <td class="tdr vbot"><a href="#Plate_72">163</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr vtop">LXXIII.</td> - <td class="tdl">—Skeleton of the <i>Megatherium</i>, and Teeth of the fossil - <i>Bears</i> of the Caverns</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Plate_73">165</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr vtop">LXXIV.</td> - <td class="tdl">—Molar Teeth of <i>Mastodon giganteus</i>, from Big-bone Lick, - Kentucky</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Plate_74">167</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Frontispiece">Frontispiece.</a></td> - <td class="tdl" colspan="2">—Foot of the Moa of New Zealand.</td> -</tr> -</table> - - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p class="caption3">SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES.</p> - -<table class="tblcont" summary="TOC"> -<tr> - <td class="tdr vtop">1.</td> - <td class="tdl">Fossil Bears of the Caverns</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#SupNote_1">166</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr vtop">2.</td> - <td class="tdl">The Belemnite</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#SupNote_2"><i>ib.</i></a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr vtop">3.</td> - <td class="tdl"> Fossil Remains of Birds—Moa of New Zealand</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#SupNote_3">172</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr vtop">4.</td> - <td class="tdl">Botanical Arrangement of Fossil Vegetables</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#SupNote_4">175</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr vtop">5.</td> - <td class="tdl">Cephalopoda—Nautilus, Ammonite, &c.</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#SupNote_5">180</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr vtop">6.</td> - <td class="tdl">Carboniferous Formations</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#SupNote_6">181</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr vtop">7.</td> - <td class="tdl">Coal</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#SupNote_7">182</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr vtop">8.</td> - <td class="tdl">Corals</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#SupNote_8"><i>ib.</i></a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr vtop">9.</td> - <td class="tdl">Cuvier's Principles of Palæontology</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#SupNote_9">183</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr vtop">10.</td> - <td class="tdl">Fossil Edentata, Megatherium, &c.</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#SupNote_10">184</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr vtop">11.</td> - <td class="tdl">Flint: Animal Remains in Siliceous Nodules</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#SupNote_11">185</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr vtop">12.</td> - <td class="tdl">Foraminifera</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#SupNote_12">186</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr vtop">13.</td> - <td class="tdl">The Gigantic extinct Irish Elk: Cervus megaloceros</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#SupNote_13">189</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr vtop">14.</td> - <td class="tdl">Fossil Infusoria</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#SupNote_14"><i>ib.</i></a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr vtop">15.</td> - <td class="tdl">The Mosasaurus, or Fossil Animal of Maestricht</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#SupNote_15">191</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr vtop">16.</td> - <td class="tdl">Fossil Reptiles</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#SupNote_16">192</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr vtop">17.</td> - <td class="tdl">———————- of the Wealden: the Iguanodon</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#SupNote_17">193</a>, <a href="#Iguanodon">202</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr vtop">18.</td> - <td class="tdl">——————————————— the Pelorosaurus</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#SupNote_18">197</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr vtop">19.</td> - <td class="tdl">Silicification and Siliceous Petrifactions</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#SupNote_19"><i>ib.</i></a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr vtop">20.</td> - <td class="tdl">Stigmariæ and Sigillariæ</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#SupNote_20">198</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td colspan="3"> </td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Index</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#INDEX">203</a></td> -</tr> -</table> - - -<hr class="tb" /> - - -<p class="caption3">WORKS REFERRED TO IN THE DESCRIPTIONS.</p> - -<p class="hanging">Michelin, Iconographie Zoophytologie, Paris, 4to.</p> - -<p class="hanging">Göppert, H. R. Die Fossilen, Farrnkrauter,—forming vol. xvii. of the Nova Acta Academiæ C. L. C. Naturæ Curiosorum. 1836, 4to.</p> - -<p class="hanging">Presl, C. B., Sternberg, Dr. G. Flora der Vorwelt, Part VII. and VIII. edited by Presl.</p> - -<p class="hanging">Goldfuss, Dr. A., Petrefacta Germaniæ, folio, Dusseldorf, 1841-44.</p> - -<p class="hanging">Fossil Flora of Great Britain, by Dr. Lindley and Mr. Button.</p> - -<p class="hanging">Dr. Buckland's Bridgewater Essay on Geology and Mineralogy, 2 vols, with numerous Plates.</p> - -<p class="hanging">The Wonders of Geology, 3 vols, sixth edition, 1849.</p> - -<p class="hanging">The Medals of Creation, 2 vols. 1844.</p> - -<p class="hanging">Geological Excursions round the Isle of Wight and along the adjacent Coast of Dorsetshire, 1 vol. numerous Plates.</p> - -<p class="hanging">Thoughts on Animalcules, 1 vol. numerous coloured Plates, second edition, 1850.</p> - -<p class="hanging">Thoughts on a Pebble, with 30 Illustrations, eighth edition, 1850.</p> - -<p class="hanging">Lyell, Sir Charles, Travels in. America, 1845, and 1849.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_x" id="Page_x">[ x ]</a></span></p> - - - - -<h2><a name="DESCRIPTION_OF_THE_FRONTISPIECE" id="DESCRIPTION_OF_THE_FRONTISPIECE"></a>DESCRIPTION OF THE FRONTISPIECE.</h2> - - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p class="caption3">THE MOA OF NEW ZEALAND.</p> - -<p>The <a href="#Frontispiece">Frontispiece</a> represents the entire series of bones composing the right foot of the Moa (<i>Dinornis -robustus</i>), found imbedded in an erect position, with the corresponding foot a yard in advance, in a turbary -deposit, at Waikouaiti, in the Middle Island of New Zealand, in 1849. The figures are one-third less in linear -dimensions than the originals.</p> - -<p>Figures 1<sup><i>a</i></sup>, 2<sup><i>a</i></sup>, 3<sup><i>a</i></sup>, show the palmar, or under surface of the respective toes, and exhibit the trochlear -or articulating extremities of the phalangeal bones.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>The ancient swamp or morass in which these matchless specimens were imbedded, is situated on the shore, -in a little creek or bay near Island Point, at the mouth of the river Waikouaiti, and is covered by the sea except -at the lowest tides. Many remains of the largest species of Moa have from time to time been obtained from this -deposit; the bones sent to England by Dr. Mackellar, Mr. Percy Earle, and others, figured and described in the -Zoological Transactions by Professor Owen, were from this locality.</p> - -<p>The specimens figured were obtained by Mr. Walter Mantell, in 1849, when visiting Waikouaiti, as Government -Commissioner for the settlement of Native claims. On the recession of the tide, the upper (or proximal) -ends of the metatarsals were just visible above the surface: these were carefully dug up, and all the bones -of the respective toes numbered, one by one, as they were extracted from the soil. In this state they were sent -to me, and have subsequently been articulated under my direction, in their natural order of arrangement.<a name="FNanchor_1" id="FNanchor_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_1" id="Footnote_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> By the well-known eminent anatomical artist, Mr. Flower, of 22, Lambeth Terrace, Lambeth Road.</p></div> - -<p>The condition and position of the bones, and the nature of the deposit,—evidently an ancient morass, -in which the New Zealand flax (<i>phormium tenax</i>) once grew luxuriantly,—remind us of the very similar circumstances -in which the extinct gigantic Elks in Ireland, and the Mastodons in America, have occasionally been -found engulfed in peat bogs and morasses; and, as my son emphatically observes, it is impossible to arrive -at any other conclusion than that the Moa to which these feet belonged, had sunk down in the swamp, and -perished on the spot. Vertebræ and other parts of a skeleton of a bird of the same proportions, were dug up -near the feet.</p> - -<p>As the specimens under examination are the first examples in which the entire series of the phalangeal -and ungueal bones have been found in natural connexion with the metatarsals, I subjoin the admeasurements -of the several parts, to render the peculiar construction of the feet in one species of the lost race of the -colossal birds of New Zealand, more obvious to those who may feel interested in the subject.</p> - -<p class="caption3nb">TARSO-METATARSAL BONES.</p> - -<table summary="data"> -<tr> - <td></td> - <td class="smaller">Inches.</td> - <td class="smaller">Lines.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Length of the shaft from the distal end of the middle<br /> - trochlea to the proximal extremity</td> - <td class="tdr">17</td> - <td class="tdr">0</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Circumference of the proximal end</td> - <td class="tdr">11</td> - <td class="tdr">9</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Transverse diameter, or width, of ditto</td> - <td class="tdr">4</td> - <td class="tdr">6</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Antero-posterior diameter of ditto</td> - <td class="tdr">3</td> - <td class="tdr">6</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Circumference of the middle of the shaft</td> - <td class="tdr">6</td> - <td class="tdr">3</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Antero-posterior diameter of ditto</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td class="tdr">8</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Transverse diameter of ditto</td> - <td class="tdr">3</td> - <td class="tdr">6</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Width of the distal, or trochlear, end</td> - <td class="tdr">6</td> - <td class="tdr">3</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Circumference of the trochlear end</td> - <td class="tdr">15</td> - <td class="tdr">6</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Antero-posterior diameter of the middle trochlea</td> - <td class="tdr">3</td> - <td class="tdr">9</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xi" id="Page_xi">[ xi ]</a></span></p> - -<p class="caption3nb">PHALANGEAL BONES.</p> - -<table summary="data"> -<tr> - <td colspan="3"></td> - <td class="tdc" colspan="2">Inner Toe.<br />(Fig. 1.)</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc" colspan="2">Middle Toe.<br />(Fig. 2.)</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc" colspan="2">Outer Toe.<br />(Fig. 3.)</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td colspan="3"></td> - <td class="tdc">Inches.</td> - <td class="tdc">Lines.</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">Inches.</td> - <td class="tdc">Lines.</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdc">Inches.</td> - <td class="tdc">Lines.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl" rowspan="2">First, or proximal phalanx</td> - <td rowspan="2"><span class="fs2">{</span></td> - <td class="tdl">Length</td> - <td class="tdr2">4</td> - <td class="tdr2">9</td> - <td class="tdr">—</td> - <td class="tdr2">4</td> - <td class="tdr2">3</td> - <td class="tdr">—</td> - <td class="tdr2">3</td> - <td class="tdr2">2</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Circumference of proximal end</td> - <td class="tdr2">6</td> - <td class="tdr2">6</td> - <td class="tdr">—</td> - <td class="tdr2">6</td> - <td class="tdr2">9</td> - <td class="tdr">—</td> - <td class="tdr2">5</td> - <td class="tdr2">9</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl" rowspan="2">Second phalangeal bone.</td> - <td rowspan="2"><span class="fs2">{</span></td> - <td class="tdl">Length</td> - <td class="tdr2">1</td> - <td class="tdr2">9</td> - <td class="tdr">—</td> - <td class="tdr2">2</td> - <td class="tdr2">6</td> - <td class="tdr">—</td> - <td class="tdr2">1</td> - <td class="tdr2">9</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Circumference of proximal end</td> - <td class="tdr2">3</td> - <td class="tdr2">0</td> - <td class="tdr">—</td> - <td class="tdr2">5</td> - <td class="tdr2">3</td> - <td class="tdr">—</td> - <td class="tdr2">4</td> - <td class="tdr2">9</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl" rowspan="2">Third phalangeal bone</td> - <td rowspan="2"><span class="fs2">{</span></td> - <td class="tdl">Length</td> - <td colspan="2" rowspan="2"> - <table summary="data"> - <tr> - <td class="tdc" colspan="4">Ungueal.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td rowspan="2"><span class="fs2">{</span></td> - <td class="tdl">3</td> - <td class="tdr">0</td> - <td rowspan="2"><span class="fs2">}</span></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">4</td> - <td class="tdr">0</td> - </tr> - </table> - </td> - <td class="tdr">—</td> - <td class="tdr2">1</td> - <td class="tdr2">9</td> - <td class="tdr">—</td> - <td class="tdr2">1</td> - <td class="tdr2">0</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Circumference of proximal end</td> - <td class="tdr">—</td> - <td class="tdr2">4</td> - <td class="tdr2">6</td> - <td class="tdr">—</td> - <td class="tdr2">4</td> - <td class="tdr2">6</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl" rowspan="2">Third phalangeal bone</td> - <td rowspan="2"><span class="fs2">{</span></td> - <td class="tdl vbot">Length</td> - <td colspan="3" rowspan="2"></td> - <td colspan="2" rowspan="2"> - <table summary="data"> - <tr> - <td class="tdc" colspan="4">Ungueal.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td rowspan="2"><span class="fs2">{</span></td> - <td class="tdl">3</td> - <td class="tdr">0</td> - <td rowspan="2"><span class="fs2">}</span></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">4</td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - </tr> - </table> - </td> - <td class="tdr vbot">—</td> - <td class="tdr2 vbot">0</td> - <td class="tdr2 vbot">11</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Circumference of proximal end</td> - <td class="tdr">—</td> - <td class="tdr2">4</td> - <td class="tdr2">0</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl" rowspan="2">Fifth ungueal bone</td> - <td rowspan="2"><span class="fs2">{</span></td> - <td class="tdl">Length</td> - <td colspan="6"></td> - <td class="tdr2">2</td> - <td class="tdr2">6</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Circumference of proximal end</td> - <td colspan="6"></td> - <td class="tdr2">3</td> - <td class="tdr2">9</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p>The total length of the toes is as follows:—inner digit, 9½ inch.; middle, 11½ inch.; outer, 9<sup>1</sup>/<sub>3</sub> inch. The -transverse diameter of the expanse of the foot, from the distal extremity of the inner toe (fig. 1<sup>a</sup>), to that of the -outer one (fig. 3<sup>a</sup>), is 15½ inches. The length from the posterior part of the trochlear extremity of the metatarsal -to the distal end of the ungueal of the middle toe (fig. 2<sup>a</sup>), is 13 inches. If to the actual dimensions of the bones be -added the proportional thickness of the cartilaginous integuments, nails, &c., the length of the foot of the living -bird may be estimated at about 16 inches, and the breadth at 17 or 18 inches.</p> - -<p>From the great width and solidity of the metatarsals, and the form and corresponding size and strength of the -phalangeals and ungueals, the ornithologist will perceive that the feet of the Moa must have constituted powerful -instruments for scratching, digging, and uprooting the sub-terrestrial vegetable substances, which Professor Owen, -with great probability, infers, formed the chief sustenance of the extinct colossal birds of New Zealand.</p> - -<p>According to the relative proportions of the bones composing the hinder extremities of the gigantic species -of Moa, the corresponding <i>tibia</i>, or leg-bone, of the feet above described, would be two feet nine inches in length, -and the <i>femur</i>, or thigh bone, nine and a half inches; the total height of the bird was probably about ten feet.</p> - -<p>Tibiæ, femora, and other bones of much larger proportions, (apparently of <i>Dinornis giganteus</i> and <i>D. ingens</i>,) -were obtained from the same locality; some of these indicate birds of eleven or twelve feet in height; -dimensions exceeding by one-third those of the largest known existing species of Struthionidæ—the Ostrich.<a name="FNanchor_2" id="FNanchor_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_2" id="Footnote_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> Even from this imperfect description (and further anatomical details would be irrelevant in the present work), the ornithologist cannot -fail to observe the peculiar characters exhibited by these extremities of the remarkable family of birds, of which the diminutive Apteryx appears -to be the only living representative. But the Apteryx differs most essentially in the structure of the cranium and mandibles, from the extinct -types to which Professor Owen has given the names of Dinornis, Palapteryx, Aptornis, &c. -</p> - -<p> -With regard to the construction of the feet it may be further remarked, that the length of the inner and outer toes is nearly equal, as in -the Cassowary; but the middle toe, which in the Cassowary is one-third longer than the other digits, in the Moa scarcely exceeds in length -by one-fifth, the inner and outer toes. The ungueal segments are very large, being equal to one-third the length of the toes. The phalangeals -are relatively much shorter than in the Cassowary and Ostrich, and wider than in the former, and more arched than in either of these living -struthious birds. -</p> - -<p> -In the metatarsal the presence of the three elements whose fusion constitutes the bone, is strongly marked; there does not appear to be -any certain indications of a posterior or hind toe, though Professor Owen imagines he has detected feeble traces of a fourth digit: in that -case the bird to which my specimens belonged, would be termed <i>Palapteryx</i>. The crania found by Mr. Walter Mantell at Waingongoro, and -figured and described by Professor Owen in the Zoological Transactions (Vol. III., Plates 52, 53, 54, 55), as Dinornis and Palapteryx, -must have belonged to birds of comparatively small stature. The skull with the adze-like upper mandible, and the enormously-developed -<i>basi-occipitals</i> and <i>basi-sphenoids</i> (<i>Dinornis</i>, of Professor Owen, Plate 53), was found associated with many vertebræ of the neck and back, -and bones of the leg, of the same bird; and these my son states indicated a height of from six to seven feet. The skull and the rest of the -skeleton were found imbedded in sand, and lying in their natural relative position; unfortunately, all these precious remains, except the -cranium, were destroyed by a sudden rush of the natives to seize upon the exhumed relics! It therefore yet remains to discover the cranial -type that characterized the colossal forms at present known only by other parts of the skeleton.</p></div> - -<p>Referring the reader to the additional account of the fossil birds of New Zealand given in a subsequent part -of this volume (see <i>Supplementary Notes</i>, <a href="#SupNote_4">p. 173</a>), I will conclude this notice with a few general remarks. From the -numerous facts relating to the fossil remains of birds from our Antipodean colony, that have now been brought -under the consideration of the naturalists and geologists of this country, we may safely conclude, that at a period -geologically recent, but of immense antiquity in relation to the human inhabitants of those Islands, New Zealand -was densely peopled by tribes of colossal struthious bipeds, of species and genera that have long since become -extinct. I believe that ages ere the advent of the Maori tribes, the Moa and its kindred were the chief -<span class="pagenum x-ebookmaker-drop"><a name="Page_xii" id="Page_xii">[ xii ]</a></span> -inhabitants of the country, and that from the period when those Islands were taken possession of by man, -the race gradually diminished, and the colossal types were finally annihilated by human agency. That some -of the largest species were contemporary with the Maories, there can now be no reasonable doubt. Apart from -native traditions, and songs and tales in which allusions are made to the gigantic magnitude and flowing -plumage of the Moa, the collocation of calcined and half roasted bones of the Dinornis, of dogs, and of the human -species, in the ancient fire-heaps of the aborigines, and the unequivocal marks of the celt or axe of jade on some -of the tibiæ,—the chips or cuts having evidently been made on the bones when recent,—afford incontrovertible -proof that the last of the Moas, like the last of the Dodos, was annihilated by human agency.</p> - -<p>From the remarkable size and strength of the thighs, legs, and feet of the Moas, it is clear that the hinder -limbs must have constituted powerful locomotive organs; and when we consider the vast swarms of the largest -species which existed at some remote period, it seems highly probable that this family of colossal birds,—a -family unknown in any other part of the world,—was not originally confined within the narrow geographical -limits of modern New Zealand, but ranged over a vast continent now submerged, and of which Phillip and -Norfolk Islands, and Chatham and Auckland Islands, and those of New Zealand, are the culminating points.</p> - -<p>But whatever may be the result of future discoveries as to the relative age of the bone-deposits, or the -existence or extinction of any of the colossal species of Moa, or the former extension of the race over countries -now submerged, one astounding fact must ever remain unassailable—the vast preponderance of the class Aves -or Birds, that prevailed, and which still prevails, in the fauna of New Zealand, to the almost entire exclusion -of mammalia and reptiles. Any palæontologist who saw only the collections sent over by my son, must have -been astonished at their extent and variety. I may venture to affirm that such an assemblage of the fossil -bones of birds was never before seen in Europe: nearly fifteen hundred specimens, collected from various parts -of the country, with scarcely any intermixture of the remains of any other class;—it is a phenomenon as startling -as the exclusively reptilian character of the fauna of the Wealden epoch. But the fauna of New Zealand, even -at the present time, presents a character as ornithic and as anomalous as its ancient one; for while there are -upwards of fifty or sixty genera of birds, there is but <span class="smcap">one</span> indigenous mammalian quadruped known to naturalists—a -species of rat! In this respect, therefore, as well as in its flora, in which ferns and other cellulosæ of -peculiar types prevail to an extent unknown elsewhere, the country offers a striking example of that now -acknowledged fact in natural history—a centre or focus of creation of certain organic types. And this law, -with whose operation during the palæozoic and secondary ages modern geological researches have made us -familiar, appears to have continued in unabated energy to the present moment.</p> - -<p>From what has been advanced, it is manifest that the present geographical distribution of special groups -of terrestrial animals and plants, displays as many anomalies in the relative predominance of the different classes -and orders over certain areas, without relation to climatorial or other obvious physical conditions, as can be traced -in the natural records of the earlier ages of the world. The conclusion therefore forces itself upon the mind, that -throughout the vast periods of time to which our retrospective knowledge extends, the geological changes of -the earth's surface, and the appearance and obliteration of species and genera, have been governed by the same -physical and organic laws; and that notwithstanding the variable conditions of the land and the water, indicated -by the sedimentary formations, there was at no period a greater discrepancy in the assemblages of certain types -of the animal and vegetable kingdoms, than exists at present.</p> - -<p>Of the nature of that law by which the extinction of a race of highly organized beings is determined, and -whose effects through innumerable ages palæontology has in part revealed, we are as utterly ignorant as of that -which governs the first appearance of the minutest living animalcule which the powers of the microscope enable -us to descry; both are veiled in inscrutable mystery, the results only are within the scope of our finite -comprehension.<a name="FNanchor_3" id="FNanchor_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_3" id="Footnote_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> See the concluding part of Lecture VIII. § 46, Wonders of Geology, vol. ii. p. 890.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[ 13 ]</a></span></p></div> - - - - -<h2><a name="INTRODUCTION" id="INTRODUCTION"></a>INTRODUCTION.</h2> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 132px;"> -<img src="images/bar_dot.png" width="132" height="10" alt="bar doiamond" /> -</div> - - -<p>The publication of Mr. Parkinson's "<i>Organic Remains of a former World</i>," at the commencement -of the present century, must be regarded as a memorable event in the history of British -Palæontology: it was the first attempt to give a familiar and scientific account of the fossil relics -of animals and plants, accompanied by figures of the specimens described.</p> - -<p>The three volumes<a name="FNanchor_4" id="FNanchor_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> of which the work consisted, appeared at considerable intervals; the last -was published in 1811. Although nearly forty years have since elapsed, and hundreds of -geological works, of all kinds and degrees of merit, have subsequently been issued, Mr. Parkinson's -Plates, owing to their fidelity and beauty, are still in such request, as to induce the proprietor, -Mr. Bohn, now that the work is out of print, to publish them, with the descriptions -and modern names of the fossils represented.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_4" id="Footnote_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> Three volumes, in 4to.; price 10<i>l.</i> 10<i>s.</i></p></div> - -<p>I have added a few explanatory remarks, and in the "<a href="#SUPPLEMENTARY_NOTES"><span class="smcap">Supplementary Notes</span></a>," have given -extended notices of some of the most interesting subjects, with the view of rendering the volume -more intelligible and acceptable to the general reader.</p> - -<p>In looking through the original work of Mr. Parkinson, the instructed observer will not fail -to perceive the immense progress which the study of fossil animals and plants has made since -the period of its first appearance in 1811. At that time, the terms Geology and Palæontology -were unknown; all the sedimentary strata have since been accurately defined and arranged, and -names assigned to the respective systems or formations; while the so-called <i>Diluvial Epoch</i>, which -Mr. Parkinson, and even Baron Cuvier, considered as established by incontrovertible physical -evidence, has been expunged from the chronology of geology. In Mr. Parkinson's volumes, no -allusion will be found to that most remarkable era in the earth's history which modern researches -have brought to light—<i>the Age of Reptiles</i>; the terms Ichthyosauri, Plesiosauri, Iguanodon, Megalosaurus—now -familiar as household words—are not inscribed on their pages; all those marvellous -beings of past ages have been discovered during the last forty years; in short, the remark -of an eminent critic is as true as it is beautiful:—"Geology is a philosophy which never rests; its -law is progress; a point which yesterday was invisible is its goal to-day, and will be its starting-post -to-morrow."</p> - -<p>I gladly avail myself of this opportunity to make a passing allusion to the excellent and -accomplished author, Mr. Parkinson. I had the pleasure and privilege of his acquaintance -in my youth, immediately after the publication of the third volume of his valuable work. Mr. -Parkinson was rather below the middle stature, with an energetic, intelligent, and pleasing -expression of countenance, and of mild and courteous manners; readily imparting information, -either on his favourite science, or on professional subjects; for he was at that time actively -engaged in medical practice in Hoxton Square, and was the author of several valuable medical -<span class="pagenum x-ebookmaker-drop"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[ 14 ]</a></span> -treatises. He kindly showed and explained to me the principal objects in his cabinets, and -pointed out every source of information on fossil remains; a department of natural knowledge at -that time but little cultivated in England, but which peculiar circumstances had contributed to -render the engrossing object of my young and ardent mind. In after years Mr. Parkinson -warmly encouraged my attempts to elucidate the nature of the strata and organic remains of my -native county, Sussex, a district which was then supposed to be destitute of geological interest; -and he revised my drawings, and favoured me with his remarks on many subjects treated of in -my first work—"<i>The Fossils of the South Downs</i>."<a name="FNanchor_5" id="FNanchor_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_5" id="Footnote_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> Published in 1822.</p></div> - -<p>In 1822, Mr. Parkinson published "An Introduction to the Study of Fossil Organic Remains, -especially of those found in the British Strata; intended to aid the Student in his Inquiries -respecting the Nature of Fossils, and their Connexion with the Formation of the Earth;" 1 vol. -8vo. with ten plates, principally of the genera of fossil shells. He also contributed a few papers -to the early volumes of the Geological Society of London, of which he was one of the original -members. After Mr. Parkinson's death, his beautiful and choice collection was sold by auction, -and its contents widely dispersed. The fine series of silicified zoophytes was purchased by Mr. -Featherstonhaugh, and taken to America; and some years afterwards was destroyed by a fire -which consumed the museum in which it was placed.</p> - -<p>As illustrative of the pleasing style of Mr. Parkinson's work, I subjoin an abstract of the -chapter, <i>On the Pleasure and Advantages of a Knowledge of Fossil Remains</i>. The epistolary style -was adopted; and the first letter is supposed to be penned by a friend desirous of learning the -nature of certain fossils he had observed on his journey to Oxford:—</p> - -<p>"I have lived long enough to witness many sad disappointments to the fond dreams of -happiness indulged by persons who, only intent on the acquisition of riches, had neglected to -cultivate any intellectual or ennobling pursuit; so that on retiring from active life, they were -unable to enjoy the leisure so dearly earned by years of anxiety and care, and either relapsed -into a state of miserable ennui, or gave themselves up to the excitement of frivolous or vicious -indulgences.</p> - -<p>"Aware of the necessity of devoting the few leisure hours, which the duties of my calling left -at my disposal, to some rational and amusing occupation, I have always cultivated, more or less -assiduously, some branch of art or science, and thence acquired an enthusiastic admiration for the -beauties of nature, and an insatiable curiosity to pry into the mysteries of the natural world. -With this state of mind, I have at length resolved to avail myself of the means my little -fortune affords me to indulge those feelings, and have, I trust, quitted the busy scenes of -the world for ever.</p> - -<p>"In pursuance of a plan long entertained of visiting the most interesting parts of our island, -I left London last week, accompanied by my daughter, and our old friend, Frank Wilton, whose -lively disposition and agreeable manners render him, as you well know, an excellent companion. -But he has made himself most acceptable to us on another account;—his resolute scepticism with -respect to the more rational, and his submissive credulity as to the popular and traditional -explanations of such natural phenomena as are beyond his comprehension, are frequently -productive of remarks so quaint and humorous, as to contribute in no small degree to our -enjoyment.</p> - -<p>"Ere our first day's journey was completed, I discovered how insufficient was the knowledge -I possessed to enable me to form even a conjecture, as to the nature of the very first -objects which particularly arrested our attention. We were within a few miles of Oxford, when -<span class="pagenum x-ebookmaker-drop"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[ 15 ]</a></span> -Wilton, looking out of the carriage window, exclaimed, 'Bless me! never before did I see roads -mended with such materials!' This, of course, drew my attention to what had so strongly -excited his wonder; and I must confess that my astonishment was but little less than his own; -for I beheld a labourer with a large hammer breaking to pieces a nearly circular ornamented -stone, half as large as the fore-wheel of our carriage, and resembling in form a coiled-up serpent, -or snake. We instantly stopped the chaise, and inquired of the man the name of the stone, -and where it came from. 'This, Sir,' he replied, 'is a <i>snake-stone</i>, and comes from yonder -quarry, where there are thousands of them.' Upon hearing this, we all alighted, and with -surprise examined some of the unbroken stones, which, though evidently bearing the form of -an unknown animal, were composed of solid rock. As we sauntered along, the carriage -following us, we came to a neat building on the road-side, which a sign in the hedge opposite -denoted to be a house of public entertainment. Hoping to gain more satisfactory information -respecting the objects that had so much excited our curiosity, we entered this literally hedge -ale-house, and on being shown into a neat room, the casement of which, surrounded by roses -and honeysuckles in full bloom, opened into a garden redolent with fragrance and beauty, -from the wild profusion of its flowers and shrubs, we determined to rest awhile, and partake of -such refreshment as the cottage might afford. While these were preparing, Frank Wilton, -whose restless curiosity leaves nothing unobserved, was examining the contents of the old oaken -mantel-shelf, and suddenly cried out, 'Well! if the object of travelling is to behold novelties -and wonders, surely this county will afford that gratification in the highest degree; for among -the curious things on this mantel-piece, there is not one of which I have ever seen its like -before.' The articles now passed under my examination, and with no better success; for -I had never observed anything similar, nor could I form a rational conjecture respecting their -nature.</p> - -<p>"While thus engaged, our landlady made her appearance, and from her we learnt that this -was her collection of curiosities, gathered from the neighbouring country; and she readily -imparted to us all she knew of the subject. Taking up one of the stones, which resembled those -we had seen on the road,—'This,' she said, 'is a petrified snake, with which this neighbourhood -abounds. These were once fairies that inhabited these parts, and, for their crimes, were -turned first into snakes, and then into stones. Here'—showing a stone of a conical form—'is -one of the fairies' night-caps,<a name="FNanchor_6" id="FNanchor_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a> now also become stone.' 'Do, madam,' addressing Emma, -'pray observe this pattern; is it possible lace-work like this should ever have been worked by -human hands? This—and this—are pieces of bones of giants, who lived here after the fairies -were destroyed.' These bones, she informed us, were frequently dug up in several parts of -the county, as well as innumerable <i>thunderbolts</i>,<a name="FNanchor_7" id="FNanchor_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> some of which she also showed us, affirming that -they were the very thunderbolts by which the giants were in their turn annihilated.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_6" id="Footnote_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> A Cidaris, or turban-echinite; see <a href="#Plate_53">Plate LIII</a>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_7" id="Footnote_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> <i>Belemnites</i>, popularly termed "thunderbolts," <a href="#Plate_59">Plate LIX</a>.</p></div> - -<p>"We all listened attentively to this discourse, and on my smiling, when she withdrew, at the -romantic account we had received, Wilton strenuously defended our good landlady's narration, -and declared, he thought it was not without a fair share of probability. On the return of our -hostess, I did not venture to express any doubt of the truth of her story, but merely requested -to know if she was aware of there being anywhere a more extensive collection of similar -curiosities. 'To be sure. Sir,' she replied, 'our University has a museum full of them; and -if you be going through Oxford, it will be well worth your while to see it.'</p> - -<p>"After taking refreshment, we left our kind and communicative hostess, but not with an -intention of immediately visiting the Museum of the University. On the contrary, I felt that, -<span class="pagenum x-ebookmaker-drop"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[ 16 ]</a></span> -without some previous knowledge of the objects to be examined, our curiosity would be only -excited, not gratified; and I resolved to defer our visit to Oxford, until we had obtained the -information necessary to insure us both pleasure and profit in the investigation of the relics of -interest it contained.</p> - -<p>"Thus, my dear friend, at the very outset of my long anticipated holidays, I have experienced -considerable disappointment, and I confidently appeal to you to afford me the information -I require; for I know that you have successfully cultivated the science which teaches the -nature of these figured stones, or petrifactions, and possess a valuable collection of these most -extraordinary objects. You now, therefore, have it in your power to add greatly to the delight -and instruction I am anticipating from my travels, by giving me an insight into the origin and -nature of the petrified remains which, I am told, are every where to be met with in the districts -we are about to visit."</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>Of Mr. Artis's Work, I need only mention that it was intended, as its title expresses, to -illustrate "<i>The Fossil Remains of Plants peculiar to the Coal Formations of Great Britain; selected -for their novelty and interest from upwards of a Thousand Specimens in the possession of the Author</i>; -by Edmund Tyrell Artis, Esq. F.S.A. F.G.S." It was published by Nichols & Son, 1838. -The plates are well executed, and faithfully portray the original specimens.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p><i>Gallery of Organic Remains in the British Museum.</i></p> - -<p>The collection of fossils in our national museum is now so varied and extensive, and so -admirably arranged by its eminent Curator, <span class="smcap">Charles König</span>, Esq., F.R.S., and his able -assistants, <span class="smcap">Mr. Waterhouse</span> and <span class="smcap">Mr. Woodward</span>, that the intelligent reader whose interest -may be awakened by the beautiful and curious objects figured and described in this volume, -cannot fail to be highly gratified by inspecting leisurely the various organic remains from all -parts of the world, that are there displayed.</p> - -<p>I gladly avail myself of this opportunity gratefully to acknowledge the liberality and kindness -I have at all times experienced from the Officers of the several departments of Natural History -in the British Museum, in promoting my scientific researches, by affording me every facility to -examine the vast stores of Information placed under their guardianship.</p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 129px;"> -<img src="images/page16.png" width="129" height="98" alt="" /> -</div> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[ 17 ]</a></span></p> - - - - -<h2 class="gesperrt"><a name="DESCRIPTION_OF_THE_PLATES" id="DESCRIPTION_OF_THE_PLATES"></a>DESCRIPTION OF THE PLATES.</h2> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p class="caption3 pmt2">PART I.</p> - -<p class="caption2 gesperrt">FOSSIL FLORA.</p> - -<p class="caption3 pmb4"><span class="smcap">Plates I. to XXXIII. inclusive.</span></p> - - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 60px;"> -<img src="images/bar_double.png" width="60" height="14" alt="bar doiamond" /> -</div> - - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[ 18 ]</a></span></p> - -<div><a id="Plate_1"></a> -<div class="fig_cap_pl">Plate I.</div> -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 529px;"> -<img src="images/plate1.png" width="529" height="715" alt="" /> -</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[ 19 ]</a></span></p> - -<p class="caption3nb">PLATE I.</p> - -<p class="caption4nb">(Plates I. to IX. inclusive are from Parkinson's Organic Remains.)</p> - -<p class="caption4nb"><span class="smcap">Fossil Woods and Leaves.</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1.</span> Fossil coniferous wood, from a bed of clay at -Blackwall. This wood is simply bituminized, and has -undergone no other mineral transmutation; it is in the usual -condition of wood in peat-bogs.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 2.</span> A piece of bituminous wood, containing <i>Mellite</i>, -or Honey-stone (<i>honigstein</i> of Werner), the yellow -crystallized substance in the middle of the specimen. It is -a fossil resin, allied to amber: from Thuringia.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 3.</span> Carbonized coniferous wood, from the so-called -"Bovey Coal" formation of Devonshire.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig, 4.</span> A piece of calcareous wood, showing very -distinctly the ligneous structure on the surface.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 5.</span> Lignite, or carbonized wood, in clay; the cracks -or fissures in the wood are filled up with white calcareous -spar. Specimens of this kind are common in many argillaceous -strata, as well as in limestone.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 6.</span> A fragment of shale, covered with the imprints -of the leaf-stalks that have been shed. It is a species of -<i>Lepidodendron</i>. See description of <a href="#Plate_26">Plate XXVI</a>.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 7.</span> This fossil vegetable is part of the stem of a -tree; and possibly of a species of <i>Sigillaria</i>.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 8.</span> Portion of a nodule of ironstone, enclosing some -pinnules or leaflets of a beautiful fern (<i>Neuropteris</i>): -from Coalbrook Dale, Shropshire.</p></div> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[ 20 ]</a></span></p> - -<div><a id="Plate_2"></a> -<div class="fig_cap_pl">Plate II.</div> -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 538px;"> -<img src="images/plate2.png" width="538" height="731" alt="" /> -</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[ 21 ]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="caption3nb">PLATE II.</p> - -<p class="caption4nb"><span class="smcap">Petrified Woods.</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1.</span> Silicified bituminized wood; probably from New Holland.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 2.</span> Silicified root of a coniferous tree, (<i>Rhizolithes</i>, of the early collectors,) "resembling -in structure that of the larch."—<i>Mr. Parkinson.</i></p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 3.</span> A similar example of silicified bituminous wood, or root.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 4.</span> Fossil coniferous wood, a longitudinal section.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 5.</span> Another section of the same fossil wood.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 6.</span> "Petrified larch-tree," from Mount Krappe in Hungary.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 7.</span> Silicified bituminous wood.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 8.</span> "Jasperized wood, resembling in structure that of the hazel."—<i>Mr. Parkinson.</i></p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 9.</span> Silicified coniferous wood; apparently a dried and withered mass, before it underwent -petrifaction.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 10.</span> Silicified wood, having a cavity lined with mammillated chalcedony; appearing as if -the silex had percolated through the substance of the mass, and had slowly oozed -into the hollow.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 11.</span> Silicified bituminous wood. In this specimen the siliceous matter occurs in yellow -semi-pellucid globules; the colour is supposed to have been derived from the -bitumen.</p></div> - -<p>The silicified woods delineated above, belong to the division which Mr. Parkinson denominated -opaline; he conceived their peculiar characters to have resulted from an infiltration of -fluid silex into the ligneous tissue, which, having previously undergone bituminization, was -in a permeable state; hence originated the conchoidal fracture and peculiar resinous lustre -which these specimens exhibit.</p> - -<p>The specimen, fig. 7, Mr. Parkinson describes as corroborating the opinion that the ligneous -tissues were converted into a bituminous substance, and subsequently impregnated with siliceous -matter. "In that fossil there is a knot of wood which differs not the least in appearance from -that in a recent piece, but it is perfectly impregnated with opaline silex. Is it possible that -the change this knot has suffered could have been effected by an abstraction of the greater part -or of the whole of its constituent molecules, and a substitution of particles of a different nature? -Its hardness and closeness of texture oppose an insuperable bar to the supposition: whilst the -mysteriousness of the change is entirely dispelled by admitting of the softening operation of -bituminization, and consequent admission of silex in a fluid state."—<i>Mr. Parkinson</i>.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[ 22 ]</a></span></p> - -<div><a id="Plate_3"></a> -<div class="fig_cap_pl">Plate III.</div> -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 536px;"> -<img src="images/plate3.png" width="536" height="727" alt="" /> -</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[ 23 ]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="caption3nb">PLATE III.</p> - -<p class="caption4nb"><span class="smcap">Petrified Stems and Leaves.</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1.</span> A portion of the trunk of the fossil vegetable called <i>Stigmaria ficoides</i> (of M. Alex. -Brongniart); it is the root of a tree common in the coal deposits; see <i>Supplementary -Notes</i>, Art. <i>Stigmaria</i>, p. 198, for a description of the nature and mode of occurrence -of these fossils.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 2.</span> Impressions of dicotyledonous leaves in travertine; a modern calcareous deposit; from -Campania.<a name="FNanchor_8" id="FNanchor_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_8" id="Footnote_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> Medals of Creation, vol. i. p. 193.</p></div> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 3.</span> Part of the stem of a reed-like plant (<i>Calamites dubius</i>, Brongniart); from the coal -deposits of Yorkshire. See description of <i>Calamites</i>.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 4.</span> Appears to be a fragment of the stem of a species of <i>Lepidodendron</i>.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 5.</span> Fragment of the leaf of a Cycadeous plant, from the oolite of Stonesfield. (<i>Zamia -pectinata.</i>)</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 6.</span> Portion of an ironstone nodule, split asunder, showing part of the terminal branch of -a <i>Lepidodendron</i>, from Coalbrook Dale. See description of <i>Lepidodendron</i>.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 7.</span> "A pebble that appears to have been partly enveloped in a leaf while in a soft state, -which has produced the markings on its surface."—<i>Mr. Parkinson.</i></p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 8.</span> "Ligniform pitchstone;" fossil wood having a resinous transparency; supposed by -Mr. Parkinson to have originated from an intermixture of silex and bitumen; the -internal part is opalized.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 9.</span> Fragment of calcareous coniferous wood from the Lias of Charmouth, Dorsetshire: the -vegetable structure is well preserved.</p></div> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[ 24 ]</a></span></p> - -<div><a id="Plate_4"></a> -<div class="fig_cap_pl">Plate IV.</div> -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 517px;"> -<img src="images/plate4.png" width="517" height="663" alt="" /> -</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[ 25 ]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="caption3nb">PLATE IV.</p> - -<p class="caption4nb"><span class="smcap">Fossil Fern Leaves.</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Figs.</span> 1, & 2. An ironstone nodule, split asunder, showing an inclosed fern-leaf (<i>Alethopteris -lonchitidis</i>, of Sternberg); from the coal-beds of Newcastle.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Figs.</span> 3, & 4. The corresponding parts of another nodule, containing a fern-leaf of a different -kind (<i>Neuropteris</i>).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 5.</span> A very beautiful fossil fern (<i>Cheilanthes microlobus</i>, of Göppert; <i>Sphenopteris</i>, of -Brongniart); from the coal formation.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 6.</span> A slab of coal-shale with fronds of ferns (<i>Alethopteris Serlii</i>, of Göppert); from -Dunkerton.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 7.</span> A beautiful fern (<i>Pecopteris</i>) in coal-shale; from Newcastle.</p></div> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[ 26 ]</a></span></p> - -<div><a id="Plate_5"></a> -<div class="fig_cap_pl">Plate V.</div> -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 520px;"> -<img src="images/plate5.png" width="520" height="700" alt="" /> -</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[ 27 ]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="caption3nb">PLATE V.</p> - -<p class="caption4nb"><span class="smcap">Fossil Ferns and Stems.</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1.</span> A beautiful delicate plant, belonging to a family of which numerous species occur in the -coal deposits; named, from the stellular form of the foliage, <i>Asterophyllites</i>.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 2.</span> A fern in coal-shale, from Yorkshire. (<i>Sphenopteris trifoliata</i>, of Artis.)</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 3.</span> Another species of star-leaf plant (<i>Annularia brevifolia</i>), from the coal of Silesia.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 4.</span> A dicotyledonous leaf in sandstone, in a beautiful state of preservation; from the -tertiary strata of Œningen.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 5.</span> A frond of a remarkable species of extinct fern (<i>Cyclopteris orbicularis</i>, of Brongniart); -from the coal of Shropshire.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 6.</span> An elegant fern (<i>Pecopteris</i>), from coal shale; Newcastle.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 7.</span> A delicate plant (<i>Sphenophyllum erosum</i>, vel <i>dentatum</i>, of Sternberg), with wedge-shaped -pinnules, from the coal formation.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 8.</span> Portion of a stem, flattened by compression, of a species of <i>Sigillaria</i> (<i>Sigillaria tesselata</i>, -of Brongniart). From the coal of Yorkshire.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 9.</span> Fern (<i>Pecopteris oreopteridis</i>, of Brongniart); from the coal of South Wales.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Figs.</span> 10, & 11. Two specimens of <i>Asterophyllites</i> in ironstone nodules, from Coalbrook Dale. -The white appearance is occasioned by a deposition of hydrate of alumina.</p></div> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[ 28 ]</a></span></p> - -<div><a id="Plate_6"></a> -<div class="fig_cap_pl">Plate VI.</div> -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 515px;"> -<img src="images/plate6.png" width="515" height="712" alt="" /> -</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[ 29 ]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="caption3nb">PLATE VI.</p> - -<p class="caption4nb"><span class="smcap">Fossil Fruits from Sheppey.</span></p> - -<p>The greater number of the specimens here figured, are from the London clay of the -Isle of Sheppey.<a name="FNanchor_9" id="FNanchor_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_9" id="Footnote_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> For an account of the circumstances under which fossil fruits, &c. occur in that celebrated locality, see Medals of -Creation, vol. ii.</p></div> - -<p>These fossils are strongly impregnated with pyrites (sulphuret of iron), and are liable to -decompose after exposure to the air for a few weeks or months, even when placed in closed cabinets: -when first found they are remarkably beautiful. An excellent work on the fossil fruits of the -Isle of Sheppey, was commenced by J. S. Bowerbank, Esq. F.K.S. of Highbury Grove; but -which, it is much to be regretted, was discontinued after only three numbers were published.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1.</span> Portion of a branch of a tree, completely mineralized by pyrites; it is the "pyritous -fossil wood" of Mr. Parkinson.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Figs.</span> 2, & 3. Vegetable substances, too imperfect to determine.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Figs.</span> 4, 8, 9, & 13. The berries of an extinct genus of plants, (named <i>Wetherellia</i>, by -Mr. Bowerbank, in honour of Mr. Wetherell of Highgate,) which, from their -appearance when split asunder, are called by the local collectors, "coffee berries." -The natural affinities of these fossils are not determined.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Figs.</span> 5, 6, & 7. The fruit or seed-vessel of a palm allied to the recent Nipa, a native of the -Molucca Islands; the fossil is therefore named <i>Nipadites</i>.<a name="FNanchor_10" id="FNanchor_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> See the next Plate.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_10" id="Footnote_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> Medals of Creation, vol. i. p, 180.</p></div> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Figs.</span> 10, & 12. Fossil fruits of plants belonging to the Cucumber tribe (hence named <i>Cucumites</i>, -by Mr. Bowerbank).<a name="FNanchor_11" id="FNanchor_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_11" id="Footnote_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> Plate xiii. of Mr. Bowerbank's work on the Fossil Fruits of the London Clay, contains numerous figures of Cucumites.</p></div> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 11.</span> A transverse section of Fig. 16.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Figs.</span> 14, 18, 24, & 26, are varieties of Cucumites.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 16.</span> Calcareous wood from Oxfordshire.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 19.</span> Wood mineralized by copper (Cupreous fossil-wood of Parkinson), from Souxson, -in Siberia.</p></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[ 30 ]</a></span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 18.</span> Fossil fruit resembling the seed-vessels of plants of the genus <i>Cupania</i> (<i>Amomocarpum</i>, -of Brongniart; <i>Cupanoides</i>, of Bowerbank); M. Brongniart considers the original -to have been related to the Cardamoms (<i>Amomum</i>).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 21.</span> Probably a species of Cupanoides.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Figs.</span> 20, & 22. Pericarp of a fruit; its affinities unknown.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 23.</span> A piece of pyritous wood.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 25.</span> A rolled specimen of <i>Nipadites</i>.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Figs.</span> 24, & 26. Two fruits of plants of the Cucumber family (<i>Cucumites</i>).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Figs.</span> 27, & 29. Specimens of the stems of a species of extinct Club-moss (<i>Lycopodites squamatus</i>); -fossils of this kind are abundant in the pyritous clay of Sheppey.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 28.</span> A fragment of silicified wood, rounded by attrition; from the gravel-pits at Hackney.</p></div> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Figs.</span> 15, & 17. I have purposely reserved the description of these fossils for this place, because -notwithstanding their close resemblance to the aments or cones of a pine or larch, -which led the earlier collectors to regard them as fruits, they do not belong to the -vegetable but to the animal kingdom, being the hardened excrementitious contents -(<i>Coprolites</i>) of the intestines of the fishes, with whose remains they are associated in -the chalk.<a name="FNanchor_12" id="FNanchor_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a> The specimens figured are from Cherry Hinton, in Cambridgeshire; -similar fossils occur in the Chalk and Chalk-marl of Sussex, Kent, &c.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_12" id="Footnote_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> See Medals of Creation, vol. i. p. 432; and Dr. Buckland's Bridgewater Essays, vol. ii. pl. 15.</p></div> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[ 31 ]</a></span></p> - - -<div><a id="Plate_7"></a> -<div class="fig_cap_pl">Plate VII.</div> -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 486px;"> -<img src="images/plate7.png" width="486" height="645" alt="" /> -</div> -</div> - -<p class="caption3nb">PLATE VII.</p> - -<p class="caption4nb"><span class="smcap">Fossil Fruits of Palms.</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Figs.</span> 1-5. Splendid specimens of one of the most remarkable of the fossil fruits that occur -in the London clay of the Isle of Sheppey. The nut in its pericarp or husk is -shown in fig. 1, the separate pericarp in fig. 2, and the nut itself in fig. 3. Figs. 4 -and 5, represent another beautiful fossil of the same species.</p></div> - -<p>These fossil fruits, which Mr. Parkinson considered as belonging to a species of Cocos, or -Cocoa, and M. Brongniart referred to the Pandanus or Screw-pine, Mr. Bowerbank has demonstrated -to be closely related to the recent <i>Nipa</i>, or Malucca Palm; a low shrub-like monocotyledonous -plant, that inhabits marshy tracts near the mouths of great rivers, particularly where -the waters are brackish.</p> - -<p>Mr. Bowerbank has figured and described eleven species. The species represented in this -plate is distinguished as <i>Nipadites Parkinsonis</i>: M. Brongniart had previously named it -<i>Pandanocarpum Parkinsonis</i>.<a name="FNanchor_13" id="FNanchor_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_13" id="Footnote_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> See an account of an "Excursion to the Isle of Sheppey," Medals of Creation, vol. ii. p. 897.</p></div> - -<p>The following is Mr. Bowerbank's description of these fossils:—</p> - -<p>"The fruits of which the group I propose to name <i>Nipadites</i> is composed, are known among -the women and children by whom they are usually collected, by the name of '<i>petrified figs</i>.' -The epicarp and endocarp are thin and membranous; the sarcocarp is thick and pulpy, composed of -cellular tissue, through which run numerous bundles of vessels. The cells are about the <sup>8</sup>/<sub>100</sub>th -part of an inch in diameter. Nearly in the centre of the pericarp is situated a large seed, which, -when broken, is found to be more or less hollow. It is frequently not more than half a line in -thickness; but in perfect specimens it presents the appearance of a closely granulated structure, -in which small apertures containing carbonaceous matter occasionally occur. The seed in -<i>Nipadites Parkinsonis</i>, consists of regular layers of cells radiating from a spot situated near the -middle of the seed, and apparently enclosing a central embryo.</p> - -<p>"If the habits of the plants which produced these fossil fruits were similar to those of the -recent <i>Nipa</i>, it will account for their amazing abundance in the London Clay of the Isle of -Sheppey; which formation, from the great variety of fossilized stems and branches, mixed -up with <i>asteria</i>, <i>mollusca</i>, and <i>conchifera</i> of numerous marine and fresh-water genera, is -strikingly characterized as having been the delta of an immense river, which probably flowed -from near the Equator towards the spot where these interesting remains are now deposited."<a name="FNanchor_14" id="FNanchor_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_14" id="Footnote_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> History of the Fossil Fruits and Seeds of the London Clay. Van Voorst, London, 1840.</p></div> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Figs.</span> 6, 7, & 8. Specimens of a seed-vessel, or nut, of an unknown plant, often found in the -strata of the coal measures. It is called <i>Trigonocarpum olivæforme</i>, from its general -shape. From Leicestershire; it probably belongs to a plant of the Palm family.</p></div> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[ 32 ]</a></span></p> - -<div><a id="Plate_8"></a> -<div class="fig_cap_pl">Plate VIII.</div> -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 514px;"> -<img src="images/plate8.png" width="514" height="719" alt="" /> -</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[ 33 ]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="caption3nb">PLATE VIII.</p> - -<p class="caption4nb"><span class="smcap">Petrified Stems and Woods.</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Figs.</span> 1-7, represent different sections and parts of some remarkably beautiful and interesting -silicified stems of an extinct tribe of plants, related to the arborescent ferns, and -which are found in considerable abundance at Chemnitz, near Hillersdorf, in -Saxony. The name of <i>Psaronius</i> is given to the genus by M. Cotta.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Figs.</span> 1, 2, 5, 7, are <i>P. helmintholithes</i>; figs. 3, 6, <i>P. asterolithes</i>; figs. 5, 6, 7, are enlarged figures -of the transverse sections of some of the vessels forming the vascular tissue.</p></div> - -<p>From the stellular figure produced by transverse sections of the vessels, this fossil wood has -received the name of "<i>Staarenstein</i>," or Starry-stone. In the time of Mr. Parkinson, the -tubes now known to be the vessels of the vascular tissue, were supposed to have been -produced by some boring or parasitical animals.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 4.</span> Transverse section of a stem of calcareous wood from the Bath oolite.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Figs.</span> 8, & 9. Calcareous fossil wood; the cylindrical cavities have been formed by the depredations -of the ligniverous boring mollusk, the <i>Teredo</i>, and are now filled with -translucent calcareous spar. This kind of fossil was called "<i>Lapis syringoides</i>" -by the early collectors.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 10.</span> Silicified wood; the perforations are supposed to have been occasioned by the -depredations of boring mollusca: the cavities are filled with a white pellucid -chalcedony.</p></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[ 34 ]</a></span></p> - -<div><a id="Plate_9"></a> -<div class="fig_cap_pl">Plate IX.</div> -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 520px;"> -<img src="images/plate9.png" width="520" height="697" alt="" /> -</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[ 35 ]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="caption3nb">PLATE IX.</p> - -<p class="caption4nb"><span class="smcap">Fossil Stems and Seed-vessels.</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1.</span> The strobilus or cone of an extinct family of plants whose remains are very abundant -in the coal strata, and which have largely contributed to the formation of the -mineral fuel now become so indispensable to the necessities and luxuries of man. -There are several kinds, and although there can be no doubt that they are the seed-vessels -of the <i>Lepidodendra</i> with which they are associated, yet but few species are -identified with their parent trees. The specimen figured is the <i>Lepidostrobus ornatus</i> -of Lindley and Hutton. From the coal measures of Coalbrook Dale.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 2.</span> One of the so-called "Petrified Melons" of Mount Carmel.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Figs.</span> 3 & 4. An unknown fossil body; possibly a coral.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 5.</span> A vertical section of one of the "<i>Petrified Melons</i>" from Mount Carmel. The fossil -thus named by Mr. Parkinson appears to be merely a siliceous nodule, having -a cavity lined with quartz crystals. There is, however, a legend rife among the -barefooted friars of Mount Carmel, that has conferred a celebrity on these stones; -it runs, that "on this spot was a garden well stocked with melons, and that the -prophet Elias, who founded the monastery, once asking the gardener for one of -his melons, he with churlish humour answered, they were not melons but stones: on -which they were immediately changed into stones, and so remain to this day."</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Figs.</span> 6 & 7. Unknown vegetable fossils, highly metallic; fig. 6 appears to be a fragment of -a cone.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Figs.</span> 8 & 9, are nodules of pyrites, accidentally assuming the form of fungi; they are not -fossils, but simply masses of inorganic mineral matter.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 10.</span> Portion of the flattened stem of an extinct plant, from the coal measures of Yorkshire, -whose affinities are uncertain; supposed to resemble the Yew-tree. It appears to be -similar to the fossil named <i>Knorria taxina</i> by Messrs. Lindley and Hutton in the -British Fossil Flora. In that beautiful work,—the continuation of which is much -to be desired,—the genus <i>Knorria</i> comprises those fossil stems in which the projecting -scars of the petioles are densely arranged in a spiral manner.<a name="FNanchor_15" id="FNanchor_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_15" id="Footnote_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> Medals of Creation, vol. i. p. 161.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[ 36 ]</a></span></p></div> - -<div><a id="Plate_10"></a> -<div class="fig_cap_pl">Plate X.</div> -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 550px;"> -<img src="images/plate10.png" width="550" height="625" alt="" /> -</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[ 37 ]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="caption3nb">PLATE X.</p> - -<p class="caption4nb">(Plates X. to XXXIV. inclusive, are from Artis's work on the Fossil Remains of Plants, from the coal formations -of Great Britain.)</p> - -<p class="caption4nb">"<span class="smcap">Columnar Hydatica.</span>"</p> - -<p>Under the name <i>Hydatica</i>, Mr. Artis has described two species of fossil plants, from the coal-mine -near Wentworth, Yorkshire. The originals appear to have been aquatic plants, having a -horizontal or creeping stem, sending up slender branches, which floated by their leaves on the -surface of the water.</p> - -<p>The generic characters are, "Stem, arborescent, jointed, branched; leaves, long, linear."</p> - -<p>In the arrangements of Schlotheim and Brongniart, who consider only the construction of -the leaves, these plants would belong to the genus <i>Poacites</i>.</p> - -<p>The species figured is named <i>Hydatica columnaris</i>, or Columnar Hydatica. The stem is -branched all the way up, and ends in a club-like head; the branches are numerous, simple, -alternate, and covered with parallel hair-like leaves.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1.</span> The plant of the natural size, imbedded in coal-shale; fig. 2, a branch magnified, -showing; the two linear series in which the leaves are arranged.</p></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[ 38 ]</a></span></p> - -<div><a id="Plate_11"></a> -<div class="fig_cap_pl">Plate XI.</div> -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 765px;"> -<img src="images/plate11.png" width="765" height="518" alt="" /> -</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[ 39 ]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="caption3nb">PLATE XI.</p> - -<p class="caption4nb">"<span class="smcap">Prostrate Hydatica.</span>"</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">A splendid</span> specimen of another species of <i>Hydatica</i>, spread out on the surface of the coal-shale, -as if expanded on the bosom of the lake in which it grew: the length of the original, a -part of which only is figured in the plate, was eight feet, five inches.</p> - -<p>This species is named by Mr. Artis, <i>Hydatica prostrata</i>. The stem is jointed, and slightly -striated; the joints are formed with irregular sutures, whence arise tufts of linear leaves -resembling those of our common grasses.</p> - -<p>Fragments of this fossil plant are abundant in the roofs of several of the chambers whence the -coal has been extracted, in Elsecar Colliery, Yorkshire.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[ 40 ]</a></span></p> - -<div><a id="Plate_12"></a> -<div class="fig_cap_pl">Plate XII.</div> -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 538px;"> -<img src="images/plate12.png" width="538" height="724" alt="" /> -</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[ 41 ]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="caption3nb">PLATE XII.</p> - -<p class="caption4nb">"<span class="smcap">Slender Myriophyllite</span>."</p> - -<p>The fossil here figured seems to approximate very closely to the Hydatica; but Mr. Artis -describes the plant under the generic name of <i>Myriophyllites</i>;—<i>M. gracilis</i>. The stem is herbaceous -and slender, terminating in a point; it is thickly covered with hair-like leaves.</p> - -<p>It was found imbedded horizontally, in detached masses, separated from the great mass of -vegetable matter which covers the coal, by an intervening layer of shale. It is rarely met with -in the same bed with other vegetables, but generally in solitary and thin strata, taking a horizontal -position; so that by riving the shale which contains these plants, numbers of them are -disclosed on the same surface. In its general aspect this fossil vegetable resembles the trailing -roots of some aquatic plants.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[ 42 ]</a></span></p> - -<div><a id="Plate_13"></a> -<div class="fig_cap_pl">Plate XIII.</div> -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 536px;"> -<img src="images/plate13.png" width="536" height="630" alt="" /> -</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[ 43 ]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="caption3nb">PLATE XIII.</p> - -<p class="caption4nb">"<span class="smcap">Branched Calamite.</span>"</p> - -<p>Long and large jointed stems, generally more or less flattened by compression, and bearing -some resemblance to a cane or bamboo, are very abundant in the coal formations. Some of -them attain many feet in length, and are of a corresponding magnitude in circumference. The -original plants are supposed to have been related to the <i>Equisetaceæ</i>, or Mare's-tail, and not to -the <i>Bambusiæ</i>, and other arborescent grasses. The stem is jointed, and longitudinally striated, -having annular impressions at the articulations.</p> - -<p>The present species (<i>Calamites ramosus</i>) has the stem arborescent and branched; the branches -are cylindrical, striated, and inserted at the articulations of the trunk; the articulations of the -branches are surrounded by a striated disk.</p> - -<p>The stem has been found nine feet in length, and occurs both horizontally and vertically, in -sandstone, in Leabrook Quarry, near Wentworth.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[ 44 ]</a></span></p> - -<div><a id="Plate_14"></a> -<div class="fig_cap_pl">Plate XIV.</div> -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 535px;"> -<img src="images/plate14.png" width="535" height="661" alt="" /> -</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[ 45 ]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="caption3nb">PLATE XIV.</p> - -<p class="caption4nb">"<span class="smcap">Doubtful Calamite.</span>"</p> - -<p>These fossil stems are from the same sandstone quarry as the Calamite delineated in the -previous plate.</p> - -<p>They differ in some respects from the usual type of the genus, hence the specific name -(<i>Calamites dubius</i>). The striæ are narrow, and have a fine groove running down the middle; the -fifth or sixth articulation is surrounded by a double line of large globular indentations, one row -belonging to each of the connected joints; these imprints have apparently been left by a zone -of some organs which surrounded the articulations, and by its pressure left the indented frill, -shown in the upper extremity of fig. 2.</p> - -<p>These stems are generally found compressed, and from two to three feet in length. Their -termination is unknown.</p> - -<p>This species is figured by M. Ad. Brongniart in Hist. Veg. Foss. tab. 18, figs. 1-3.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[ 46 ]</a></span></p> - -<div><a id="Plate_15"></a> -<div class="fig_cap_pl">Plate XV.</div> -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 545px;"> -<img src="images/plate15.png" width="545" height="697" alt="" /> -</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[ 47 ]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="caption3nb">PLATE XV.</p> - -<p class="caption4nb">"<span class="smcap">Pseudo-Bamboo Calamite.</span>"</p> - -<div class="tdc"> -<div class="spl">(<i>Calamites pseudo bambusia</i>, of Sternberg.<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">—— <i>Suckovii</i>, of Brongniart, Hist. Foss. Veg. tab. 14.)</span></div> -</div> - -<p>"This fossil was found in the clay which fills the fissures of a very fine grit, called by the -workmen 'Delf,' that forms a stratum from twenty to twenty-five feet thick, in the quarry -at Leabrook, near Wentworth, in Yorkshire. Immediately under this stratum there is a thin -bed of very good coal; and at a considerable depth below this bed, there is a second layer of -coal, eight feet thick, which is covered in particular places with immense masses of fossil plants."</p> - -<p>The species here figured very closely resembles the Bamboos. The stem is arborescent, and -marked with parallel linear strife, which are intercepted at the sutures; it is simple and cylindrical, -and contracted at the articulations; it occurs five feet or more in length.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1</span>, represents part of the middle of a stem.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 2</span>, shows the gradual upward diminution of the stem, and its pointed termination.</p></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[ 48 ]</a></span></p> - -<div><a id="Plate_16"></a> -<div class="fig_cap_pl">Plate XVI.</div> -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 290px;"> -<img src="images/plate16.png" width="290" height="757" alt="" /> -</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[ 49 ]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="caption3nb">PLATE XVI.</p> - -<p class="caption4nb">"<span class="smcap">Short-jointed Calamite.</span>"</p> - -<div class="tdc"> -<div class="spl">(<i>Calamites approximatus</i>, Sternberg.<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">—— ——, Brongniart, Hist. Veg. Foss. tab. 24.)</span></div> -</div> - -<p>This species of Calamite is characterized by the shortness and number of the joints; these are -intercepted by distinct articulations, and have small compressed tubercles, forming a studded row -round the trunk. The articulations are about one-fifth the diameter of the stem apart. The -tubercular studs, or warts, are probably the cicatrices of fallen leaves; they rise directly from the -articulations, and not from the lower termination of the striæ, as in the species figured in -the next plate.</p> - -<p>The specimen was found imbedded horizontally in soft sandstone, at the bottom of the rock in -Hober Quarry, near Wentworth.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1</span>, represents a portion of the upper part of the trunk, of the natural size, terminating at -the top in a sharp compressed point.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 2.</span> An outline on a reduced scale, to show the proportionate size of the stem.</p></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[ 50 ]</a></span></p> - -<div><a id="Plate_17"></a> -<div class="fig_cap_pl">Plate XVII.</div> -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 532px;"> -<img src="images/plate17.png" width="532" height="603" alt="" /> -</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[ 51 ]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="caption3nb">PLATE XVII.</p> - -<p class="caption4nb">"<span class="smcap">Ornamented Calamite.</span>"</p> - -<div class="tdc"> -<div class="spl">(<i>Calamites decoratus</i>, Artis.<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">—— ——, of Brongniart, Hist. Veg. Foss. tab. 14, figs. 1-5.)</span></div> -</div> - -<p>In this species of Calamite the joints are short, and decrease in length towards the summit, -where they terminate in an enlarged rounded head. The striæ are ornamented with tubercles at -the bottom, close to the articulation. The striæ are broader, and the tubercles larger, towards -the summit.</p> - -<p>The stem is sometimes found two feet long, and from two to four inches in diameter.</p> - -<p>The situation of the tubercles at the lower extremity of the striæ, is a striking feature of this -species; and the termination of the summit of the stem is remarkable for its obtuseness.</p> - -<p>The specimen is from Leabrook Quarry, Yorkshire.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[ 52 ]</a></span></p> - -<div><a id="Plate_18"></a> -<div class="fig_cap_pl">Plate XVIII.</div> -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 544px;"> -<img src="images/plate18.png" width="544" height="771" alt="" /> -</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[ 53 ]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="caption3nb">PLATE XVIII.</p> - -<p class="caption4nb">"<span class="smcap">Transverse Sternbergia.</span>"</p> - -<div class="tdc"> -<div class="spl">(<i>Sternbergia transversa</i>, of Artis.<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;"><i>Artesia</i> ——, of Presl. Additions to Sternberg's <i>Flora der Vorwelt</i>.)</span></div> -</div> - -<p>The stems known by the name of <i>Sternbergia</i>, (from Count Sternberg, the author of the -Fossil Flora,) appear to be related to the Yucca, or to the Pandanus or Screw-pine.</p> - -<p>Mr. Artis observes, that they bear considerable analogy to the stems of the <i>Stapeliæ</i> of our -gardens; but still, the external form, which Is the only character visible, does not furnish -sufficient ground for their being positively referred to that genus. The stem is marked -longitudinally with double keels or ridges, which terminate at different heights spirally round the -stem, and have small tubercles at their terminations. There are likewise slight annular -depressions, mostly distinct, but in some places two or more unite.</p> - -<p>The stem is straight, simple, and cylindrical, and is compressed towards the summit. It is -sometimes found six feet in length, and from one to four inches in diameter. It is generally -coated with a carbonized bark.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1</span>, shows a portion of the stem of the natural size.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 2.</span> The upper extremity, in which the tubercular terminations of the double keels or ridges -are seen at <span class="smcap">A</span>, <span class="smcap">B</span>.</p></div> - -<p>Found associated with Calamites in the clay-bind of Leabrook Quarry.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[ 54 ]</a></span></p> - -<div><a id="Plate_19"></a> -<div class="fig_cap_pl">Plate XIX.</div> -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 536px;"> -<img src="images/plate19.png" width="536" height="694" alt="" /> -</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[ 55 ]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="caption3nb">PLATE XIX.</p> - -<p class="caption4nb">"<span class="smcap">Fibrous Sigillaria.</span>"</p> - -<div class="tdc"> -<div class="spl">(<i>Rhytidolepis fibrosa</i>, of Artis.)</div> -</div> - -<p>Stems more or less flattened, with the external surface longitudinally furrowed, and uniformly -ornamented with rows of deeply imprinted symmetrical figures, disposed with much regularity, -are among the most abundant vegetable remains in the coal formation. These are named -<i>Sigillariæ</i>, from the Latin word <i>sigillum</i>, signifying a <i>seal</i>, in allusion to the extreme regularity -of the imprints on the surface. When found in an upright position, at right angles to the plane of -the stratum, the original cylindrical form of the tree is commonly preserved; and many examples -are now known of groups of erect Sigillariæ, with their roots extending into the surrounding -clay or sandy loam; the roots proving to be the fossil bodies called <i>Stigmariæ</i>, which were formerly -supposed to be a distinct family of aquatic plants.<a name="FNanchor_16" id="FNanchor_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a> The first discovery of this highly interesting -and unexpected fact was made by Mr. Binney.<a name="FNanchor_17" id="FNanchor_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_16" id="Footnote_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> Dr. Buckland's Bridgewater Essay, vol. i. p. 476.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_17" id="Footnote_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a> See "Supplementary Notes, <a href="#SupNote_20">p. 198</a>."</p></div> - -<p>The specimen figured was found in an erect position in the sandstone of a quarry at Rowmarsh, -near Rotherham in Yorkshire.</p> - -<p>The stem is simple, the furrows small and wavy, impressed with dots on the ridges. The -cicatrices are ovate, subpentagonal, with the lower angles rounded, having a single gland near -the lower extremity. The stem is three feet long, and four inches in diameter.</p> - -<p>The transverse section, as seen in fig. 1, shows traces of a double concentric ring, as if -produced by internal structure. Fig. 2, displays the equality of the stem throughout its entire -length, and its abrupt termination. In fig. 3, is seen the cicatrix with its single gland, for the -attachment of the petiole or leaf-stalk. Fig. 4, indicates the undulating line of the top of the -ridge.</p> - -<p>"The originals of these fossils are supposed by M. Ad. Brongniart to have constituted a -peculiar family of coniferous plants, now extinct, which probably belonged to the great division -of gymnospermous dicotyledons. In their external forms they somewhat resembled the Cacteæ -or Euphorbiæ, but were more nearly related by their internal organization to the Zamiæ or -Cycadeæ. The leaves and fruits of these trees are unknown, for no satisfactory connexion has -been established between the stems, and the foliage and seed vessels with which they are sometimes -collocated."<a name="FNanchor_18" id="FNanchor_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_18" id="Footnote_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18"><span class="label">[18]</span></a> Medals of Creation, vol. i. p. 138.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[ 56 ]</a></span></p></div> - -<div><a id="Plate_20"></a> -<div class="fig_cap_pl">Plate XX.</div> -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 531px;"> -<img src="images/plate20.png" width="531" height="695" alt="" /> -</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[ 57 ]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="caption3nb">PLATE XX.</p> - -<p class="caption4nb">"<span class="smcap">Sigillaria.</span>"</p> - -<div class="tdc"> -<div class="spl">(<i>Euphorbites vulgaris</i>, of Artis.)</div> -</div> - -<p>This species is characterized by the remarkable fish-like form of the cicatrices left by the -base of the leaf-stalks, and by the rapid tapering of the upper part of the stem, as shown in -the reduced figure 1, which represents a specimen nine feet long, five feet in circumference -at the base, and only twenty-one inches in circumference at the upper end.</p> - -<p>The ridges, which at the superior extremity are simple and narrow, and parted only by a -single line, become at the lower part of the stem wide and flat, and are separated by a groove -of equal breadth, as seen in fig. 3, which is taken from <span class="smcap">B</span>, fig. 1.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 2</span>, represents a portion towards the upper end, at <span class="smcap">A</span>, fig. 1; and exhibits the different -appearance of the bark, and the under surface, when the cortical investment is removed; the -imprints in each case differing very much in appearance.</p> - -<p>The specimen from which the drawing was taken, was from a sandstone quarry near Altofts, -in Yorkshire. In one of the abandoned chambers of the upper Elsecar coal-mine, seven trunks -of this tree were suspended freely from the roof, the largest of which was eight feet in -circumference.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[ 58 ]</a></span></p> - -<div><a id="Plate_21"></a> -<div class="fig_cap_pl">Plate XXI.</div> -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 569px;"> -<img src="images/plate21.png" width="569" height="777" alt="" /> -</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[ 59 ]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="caption3nb">PLATE XXI.</p> - -<p class="caption4nb">"<span class="smcap">Ficoid Stigmaria.</span>"</p> - -<div class="tdc"> -<div class="spl">(<i>Stigmaria ficoides</i>, of M. Brongniart, Hist. Veg. Foss. tab. 17, figs. 5, 6.<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;"><i>Ficoidites furcatus</i>, of Mr. Artis.)</span></div> -</div> - -<p>The fossil trunks or stems called <i>Stigmariæ</i>, or <i>Variolæ</i>, (from the pits or areolæ with which -they are studded,) occur as abundantly in the coal formation as the <i>Sigillariæ</i>, of which tribe of -plants unequivocal proof has at length been obtained that they are the roots. These bodies -are more or less regularly cylindrical, and vary in length from a few inches to fifteen or twenty -feet, the largest being several inches in diameter. Their surface is covered with numerous -oval or circular depressions, in the middle of each of which there is a rounded papilla, or tubercle. -These variolæ are disposed round the stem in quincunx order. When these roots are broken -across, a small cylindrical core or pith is exposed, which extends in a longitudinal direction -throughout the stem, like a medullary column. This central axis, which is often separable from -the surrounding mass, is composed of bundles of vascular tissue disposed in a radiated manner, -and separated from each other by medullary rays. This internal organization presents the -same correspondence with that of the stems of Sigillariæ, as does the structure of the roots of -a dicotyledonous tree with that of its branches and stems.</p> - -<p>The Stigmariæ are almost invariably present in the bed called the "Under Clay," which -underlies the coal, and when observed in this situation, long tapering sub-cylindrical fibres are -found attached to the tubercles; and these processes or rootlets are often several feet in length. -Their form and mode of attachment are shown at <span class="smcap">C, D</span>; the rootlets terminate in bifurcations, -as seen at <span class="smcap">A, B</span>.</p> - -<p>The specimen here figured is part of a root nearly six feet long, and three inches in diameter; -some of the rootlets were two feet long. It is imbedded in shale; from Elsecar colliery.<a name="FNanchor_19" id="FNanchor_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_19" id="Footnote_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19"><span class="label">[19]</span></a> A Stigmaria with rootlets, many feet in length, is placed over the doorway in the room devoted to fossil vegetables in -the Gallery of Organic Remains in the British Museum.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[ 60 ]</a></span></p></div> - -<div><a id="Plate_22"></a> -<div class="fig_cap_pl">Plate XXII.</div> -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 551px;"> -<img src="images/plate22.png" width="551" height="753" alt="" /> -</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[ 61 ]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="caption3nb">PLATE XXII.</p> - -<p class="caption4nb">"<span class="smcap">Warty Stigmaria.</span>"</p> - -<div class="tdc"> -<div class="spl">(<i>Stigmaria ficoides</i>, Brongniart.<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;"><i>Phytolithus verrucosus</i>, Martin's Petrificata Derbiensia, Pl. II.</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;"><i>Ficoidites verrucosus</i>, of Artis.)</span></div> -</div> - -<p>In this species of Stigmaria the tubercles vary considerably in size, and give a verrucose, -or warty, aspect to the surface. The specimen figured on a small scale, fig. 2, and a portion -of the natural size, fig. 1, was between five and six feet in length, and four inches in diameter. -A groove visible on the external surface indicates the inner axis, which by compression has -been pressed from its natural central position; see fig. 2, <span class="smcap">A, B, C, D</span>: figs. 6, 7, 8, 9, show in the -corresponding transverse sections the position of this body.</p> - -<p>The mode of attachment of the rootlets to the tubercle on the main root, is represented -fig. 5. Fig. 3, exhibits the characters of the two kinds of variolæ, or tubercles.</p> - -<p>When Dr. Buckland's Bridgewater Essay was published, the true nature of these fossil -remains was unknown. It was supposed by Messrs. Lindley and Hutton, that the original was -an aquatic plant, having a short dome-shaped trunk, from which radiated numerous long -horizontal branches; and that when the plant was perfect, and the branches floating on the -water, its appearance resembled that of an Asterias.<a name="FNanchor_20" id="FNanchor_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a> This dome-shaped trunk is now known -to be merely the base of the stem of the tree. See <i>Supplementary Notes</i>, art. <a href="#SupNote_20"><i>Stigmaria</i></a>.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_20" id="Footnote_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20"><span class="label">[20]</span></a> Dr. Buckland's Bridgewater Essay, vol. ii. p. 95.</p></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[ 62 ]</a></span></p> - -<div><a id="Plate_23"></a> -<div class="fig_cap_pl">Plate XXIII.</div> -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 523px;"> -<img src="images/plate23.png" width="523" height="606" alt="" /> -</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[ 63 ]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="caption3nb">PLATE XXIII.</p> - -<p class="caption4nb">"<span class="smcap">Great Stigmaria.</span>"</p> - -<div class="tdc"> -<div class="spl">(<i>Stigmaria ficoides</i>, of Brongniart.<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;"><i>Ficoidites major</i>, of Artis.)</span></div> -</div> - -<p>The fossil here represented is a fragment of a Stigmaria having larger tubercles than the -species previously described. The tubercles are oval at the base, somewhat compressed, longitudinally -farrowed at the top, with a pit in the furrow.</p> - -<p>This root is from five to six inches in diameter; the axis is seen near the compressed side, -in the transverse section at the bottom of the figure.</p> - -<p>From a sandstone quarry, near Rotherham, Yorkshire.</p> - -<p>The specimen figured by Mr. Parkinson, <i>ante</i>, <a href="#Plate_3">Plate III.</a> fig. 1, appears to be the fragment -of a Stigmaria of this kind in ironstone: the internal axis is seen in the transverse section -pressed from its natural position to near the outer surface.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[ 64 ]</a></span></p> - -<div><a id="Plate_24"></a> -<div class="fig_cap_pl">Plate XXIV.</div> -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 576px;"> -<img src="images/plate24.png" width="576" height="737" alt="" /> -</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[ 65 ]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="caption3nb">PLATE XXIV.</p> - -<p class="caption4nb">"<span class="smcap">Crested Aspidiaria.</span>"</p> - -<div class="tdc"> -<div class="spl">(<i>Aspidiaria cristata</i>, of Presl.<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;"><i>Sigillaria appendiculata</i>, Brongniart.</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;"><i>Aphyllum cristatum</i>, Artis.)</span></div> -</div> - -<p>The fossil here represented is part of the stem of a tree nearly forty feet long, and two feet -in diameter, found imbedded in sandstone at Banktop, Yorkshire.</p> - -<p>The cicatrices of the petioles are obovate, and have a central oblong crest or ridge; the -interstices form deep angular furrows.</p> - -<p>The stems with this type of sculpturing, are supposed to belong to a group of extinct -vegetables, which held an intermediate place between the Sigillariæ, previously described, and -the Lepidodendra; together with the latter, and certain true Coniferæ and arborescent ferns, -these trees appear to have constituted the principal forests of the Carboniferous epoch.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[ 66 ]</a></span></p> - -<div><a id="Plate_25"></a> -<div class="fig_cap_pl">Plate XXV.</div> -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 519px;"> -<img src="images/plate25.png" width="519" height="702" alt="" /> -</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[ 67 ]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="caption3nb">PLATE XXV.</p> - -<p class="caption4nb">"<span class="smcap">Frondose Megaphyton.</span>"</p> - -<div class="tdc"> -<div class="spl">(<i>Megaphyton distans</i>, of Lindley and Hutton's Fossil Flora of Great Britain.)</div> -</div> - -<p>Very large stems not channelled, with regular cicatrices of great size, arranged longitudinally, -occur in the sandstone and grits of the Carboniferous formation, and are supposed to belong to a -tribe of extinct plants, more nearly allied to the arborescent ferns of our tropical climes, than to -any other existing trees.</p> - -<p>The specimen figured is part of a stem ten feet in length, from a quarry near Rowmarsh -in Yorkshire.</p> - -<p>This stem has a coarse fibrous surface, furrowed longitudinally; the cicatrices left by the -shedding of the leaves are of a horseshoe shape with the points directed upwards.</p> - -<p>This group of stems has been separated by writers on fossil botany into several genera, as -<i>Bothrodendron</i>, <i>Ulodendron</i>, &c.<a name="FNanchor_21" id="FNanchor_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a> In some of these the scars are five inches in diameter.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_21" id="Footnote_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21"><span class="label">[21]</span></a> See Dr. Buckland's Bridgewater Essay, plate 56.</p></div> - -<p>There are many fine examples of these fossils in the British Museum.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[ 68 ]</a></span></p> - -<div><a id="Plate_26"></a> -<div class="fig_cap_pl">Plate XXVI.</div> -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 520px;"> -<img src="images/plate26.png" width="520" height="712" alt="" /> -</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[ 69 ]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="caption3nb">PLATE XXVI.</p> - -<p class="caption4nb">"<span class="smcap">Lepidodendron, or Scaly-tree.</span>"</p> - -<div class="tdc"> -<div class="spl">(<i>Aphyllum asperum</i>, Rough Aphyllum, of Artis.)</div> -</div> - -<p>"The Lepidodendra (Scaly-trees) are a tribe of plants whose remains abound in the Coal -formation, and rival in number and magnitude the Calamites and Sigillariæ previously described. -The name is derived from the imbricated or scaly appearance of the surface, occasioned by the -little angular scars left by the separation of the leaves. Some of these trees have been found -almost entire, from their roots to the topmost branches. One specimen, forty feet high, and -thirteen feet in diameter at the base, and divided towards the summit into fifteen or twenty -branches, was discovered in the Jarrow coal-mine, near Newcastle.<a name="FNanchor_22" id="FNanchor_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_22" id="Footnote_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22"><span class="label">[22]</span></a> Wonders of Geology, sixth edition, vol. ii. p. 722.</p></div> - -<p>"The foliage of these trees consists of simple linear leaves, spirally arranged around the stem, -and which appear to have been shed from the base of the tree with age. The markings produced -by the attachment of the leaves are never obliterated, and the twigs and branches are generally -found covered with foliage. The originals are supposed by M. Adolphe Brongniart, notwithstanding -their gigantic size, to have been closely related to the Lycopodia, or Club-mosses."<a name="FNanchor_23" id="FNanchor_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_23" id="Footnote_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_23"><span class="label">[23]</span></a> Medals of Creation, p. 144.</p></div> - -<p>Associated with the stems of Lepidodendra, and oftentimes imbedded in masses of their -foliage, and in some instances attached to the extremities of the branches, are numerous oblong -or cylindrical scaly cones, garnished with leaves: an imperfect specimen is figured in <a href="#Plate_9">Plate IX.</a> -fig. 1, and the vertical section of another in <a href="#Plate_3">Plate III.</a> fig. 6. These cones have received the name -of <i>Lepidostrobi</i> (Scaly-cones), and are the seed-vessels or fruits of the Lepidodendra.<a name="FNanchor_24" id="FNanchor_24"></a><a href="#Footnote_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_24" id="Footnote_24"></a><a href="#FNanchor_24"><span class="label">[24]</span></a> See Medals of Creation, p. 147, and lign. 31, p. 149.</p></div> - -<p>These fossils often form the nuclei of the ironstone nodules from Coalbrook Dale, and are -invested with a pure white hydrate of alumina; the leaflets, or more properly bracteæ, are often -replaced by galena, or sulphuret of lead, giving rise to specimens of great beauty and interest, as -examples of the electro-chemical changes which these fruits of the carboniferous forests have -undergone.</p> - -<p>The fossils figured in this Plate, are portions of a stem eleven feet in length, from near -Hoyland, Yorkshire. Fig. 1, is from the upper part, and shows the carbonized scales attached; -fig. 2, represents part of the lower end, in which the scales are decorticated, from the adhesion of -the bark to the surrounding shale.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>A. Shows the cicatrix, with its transverse gland that connects the scale, in the upper part<br /> -of the trunk.</p> - -<p>B. Exposes the interstice between the scales in the lower portion of the stem.</p> - -<p>C. A section of the hollow cicatrix.</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[ 70 ]</a></span></p> - -<div><a id="Plate_27"></a> -<div class="fig_cap_pl">Plate XXVII.</div> -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 534px;"> -<img src="images/plate27.png" width="534" height="794" alt="" /> -</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[ 71 ]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="caption3nb">PLATE XXVII.</p> - -<p class="caption4nb">"<span class="smcap">Lychnophorite.</span>"</p> - -<div class="tdc"> -<div class="spl">(<i>Lychnophorites superus</i>, of Artis.)</div> -</div> - -<p>The fossil figured under the above name by Mr. Artis, is part of a large branch of a tree, the -surface of which is covered with the cicatrices of leaf-stalks, as in the Lepidodendron. The form -of the cicatrix and point of attachment is shown at <span class="smcap">B</span>; figure <span class="smcap">A</span>, is the restored outline of a leaf.</p> - -<p>"Dr. Martins refers the fossil plants of this type to a recent shrubby genus of syngenesious -plants, which cover the plains of Brazil, and which he names <i>Lychnophora</i>, whence he formed -this fossil genus, by changing the termination to <i>ites</i>, according to the common usage."—<i>Artis.</i></p> - -<p>The specimen represented is in sandstone, from Swinton Common, near Rotherham, Yorkshire.</p> - -<p>This tree seems to be closely allied to the Lepidodendra.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[ 72 ]</a></span></p> - -<div><a id="Plate_28"></a> -<div class="fig_cap_pl">Plate XXVIII.</div> -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 540px;"> -<img src="images/plate28.png" width="540" height="610" alt="" /> -</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[ 73 ]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="caption3nb">PLATE XXVIII.</p> - -<p class="caption4nb">"<span class="smcap">Eared Neuropterite.</span>"</p> - -<div class="tdc"> -<div class="spl">(<i>Neuropteris auriculata</i>, Brongniart. Hist. Veg. Foss. tab. 66.<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;"><i>Filicites Osmunda</i>, of Artis.)</span></div> -</div> - -<p>The general aspect of this beautiful filicite very much resembles that of our well-known -flowering fern, the elegant <i>Osmunda regalis</i>; the auriculated or one-eared base of the lanceolated -leaflets forms, however, a distinguishing character. It belongs to the genus <i>Neuropteris</i> (nerved-leaf -fern) of M. Brongniart, which comprises many species of delicately-veined ferns: the veins -in this fossil plant are very fine, arched, and rise obliquely from the base of the leaflet.</p> - -<p>The leaflets are often found detached, and in many instances, though completely carbonized, -are so firm, and so slightly attached to the shale, that they may be separated by a pair of -forceps: when removed, their impression remains on the stone, as is shown in the light-coloured -part of the figure 2; the form and distribution of the rib, and nervures or veins, are seen -in fig. 3.</p> - -<p>From Elsecar colliery.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[ 74 ]</a></span></p> - -<div><a id="Plate_29"></a> -<div class="fig_cap_pl">Plate XXIX.</div> -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 560px;"> -<img src="images/plate29.png" width="560" height="797" alt="" /> -</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[ 75 ]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="caption3nb">PLATE XXIX.</p> - -<p class="caption4nb">"<span class="smcap">Trifoliate Sphenopterite.</span>"</p> - -<div class="tdc"> -<div class="spl">(<i>Sphenopteris trifoliata</i>, Brongniart, Hist. Veg. Foss. tab. 53, fig. 3.<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;"><i>Filicites trifoliatus</i>, of Artis.</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;"><i>Cheilanthites</i>; from its supposed analogy to the recent genus <i>Cheilanthes</i>. Göppert.</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;"><i>Trans. Academy of Bonn</i>.)</span></div> -</div> - -<p>This is a rare species of fern from the coal shale of Yorkshire, Elsecar Colliery. It has -the leaf or frond tripinnate; the pinnæ, lobes, or wings, alternate with an odd one; the leaflets -are ternate, with roundish, convex lobes.</p> - -<p>This plant has been referred to the tropical ferns, and is nearly allied to the genera <i>Davallia</i>, -or <i>Cheilanthes</i>; but from the almost general absence of the organs of fructification in fossil ferns, -it is impossible to refer them with any certainty to living genera. It belongs to the -Sphenopteres, or wedge-shaped-leaf ferns, of M. Brongniart.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">A</span>, shows the cast or matrix of the under side of the leaf; <span class="smcap">B</span>, the upper side in relief.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[ 76 ]</a></span></p> - -<div><a id="Plate_30"></a> -<div class="fig_cap_pl">Plate XXX.</div> -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 734px;"> -<img src="images/plate30.png" width="734" height="579" alt="" /> -</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[ 77 ]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="caption3nb">PLATE XXX.</p> - -<p class="caption4nb">"<span class="smcap">Milton Filicite.</span>"</p> - -<div class="tdc"> -<div class="spl">(<i>Pecopteris Miltoni</i>, Brongniart, Hist. Veg. Foss. tab. 114,<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;"><i>Filicites Miltoni</i>, Artis.)</span></div> -</div> - -<p>This exquisite specimen exhibits part of two leaves attached to the stem, the under surface -of the fronds, on which the fructification is beautifully displayed, being exposed. The frond is -tripinnate, the stipes large and strong, the leaflets linear with the tip rounded. The -fructification is arranged in lines near the margin; but slight traces of the venation of the -leaflets are distinguishable.</p> - -<p>From Milton, in Yorkshire.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[ 78 ]</a></span></p> - -<div><a id="Plate_31"></a> -<div class="fig_cap_pl">Plate XXXI.</div> -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 526px;"> -<img src="images/plate31.png" width="526" height="735" alt="" /> -</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[ 79 ]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="caption3nb">PLATE XXXI.</p> - -<p class="caption4nb">"<span class="smcap">Plumose Pecopterite.</span>"</p> - -<div class="tdc"> -<div class="spl">(<i>Pecopteris plumosa</i>, Brongniart, Hist. Veg. Foss. tab. 121.<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;"><i>Filicites plumosus</i>, Artis.)</span></div> -</div> - -<p>This elegant fern is characterized by the plumose or wavy character of the stipes or stems of -the fronds, which are tripinnate; the leaflets are lanceolate and sessile,—that is, are closely -attached by their base, without a stalk. The fructification is seen disposed near the margins of -the leaflets on the left hand upper part of the specimen.</p> - -<p>From the same locality as the last.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[ 80 ]</a></span></p> - -<div><a id="Plate_32"></a> -<div class="fig_cap_pl">Plate XXXII.</div> -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 512px;"> -<img src="images/plate32.png" width="512" height="678" alt="" /> -</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[ 81 ]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="caption3nb">PLATE XXXII.</p> - -<p class="caption4nb">"<span class="smcap">Decurrent Filicite.</span>"</p> - -<div class="tdc"> -<div class="spl">(<i>Alethopteris decurrens</i>, of Göppert.<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;"><i>Pecopteris heterophylla</i>, Lindley and Hutton, tab. 38.</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;"><i>Filicites decurrens</i>, of Artis.)</span></div> -</div> - -<p>The drawing represents but a small portion of the specimen, which indicated a plant of -gigantic size.</p> - -<p>"The leaf or frond of this fern is very large, tripinnate or quadripinnate; the stipes is broad -and undulated; the leaflets are sessile, linear-lanceolate; the ribs pinnate, the secondary ribs -perpendicular to the main rib; the first leaflet on the superior side of the pinnule adheres by its -side to the rachis."—<i>Artis.</i></p> - -<p>This fern, which closely resembles some recent species, (<i>Pteris aurita</i>,) occurs in great -abundance in the shale at Alverthorpe near Wakefield. Notwithstanding the profusion with -which the foliage of many kinds of ferns is distributed throughout the coal formation, the -undoubted stems of tree-ferns are so rare, that it may admit of question whether some of the -leaves which from the analogy of their structure to recent forms have been referred to the ferns, -may not have belonged to the stems of unknown trees with which they are associated in the -strata; for as, in the animal kingdom, distinct types of living organisms are often found blended -in the extinct races, so in the vegetable, it is possible, that foliage and stems, of apparently -discordant types, may have belonged to the same extinct species or genus of trees. This -problem can only be solved by diligent and continued research in the richest localities of -coal-plants.</p> - -<p>M. Brongniart remarks that every bed of coal is the product of a special vegetation, often -different from that which preceded, and that which followed it. Each bed thus resulting from a -distinct vegetation, is characterized by the predominance of certain impressions of plants, and the -experienced miners distinguish in many cases the beds they are working, by their practical -knowledge of the plants that prevail.</p> - -<p>The same beds of coal, and the deposits which cover it, ought therefore to contain the -different parts of the plants that were living at the period of its formation; and by carefully -studying the association of these different fossils, forming thus little special floras, generally of -but few species, we may hope to acquire data by which we may advance the means of reconstructing -the anomalous vegetable forms of the ancient world. M. Brongniart strongly urges -attention to this circumstance in the examination of the coal strata, with the view of determining -the identity of the scattered leaves, stems, and fruits, in any particular stratum. By such a -procedure, much addition would be made to our knowledge of the entire structures of many of -the fossil plants of which we now only know the fragments. Thus we may hope to ascertain the -foliage of the Sigillariæ, the roots of which, by a similar method, have but recently been -determined to be the fossils called <i>Stigmariæ</i>.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[ 82 ]</a></span></p> - -<div><a id="Plate_33"></a> -<div class="fig_cap_pl">Plate XXXIII.</div> -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 528px;"> -<img src="images/plate33.png" width="528" height="725" alt="" /> -</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[ 83 ]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="caption3nb">PLATE XXXIII.</p> - -<p class="caption4nb">"<span class="smcap">Carpolithe, or Fossil Seed-vessel.</span>"</p> - -<div class="tdc"> -<div class="spl">(<i>Carpolithus marginatus</i>, of Artis.)</div> -</div> - -<p>The carbonized husks or shells of nuts, and other carpolithes, or seed-vessels, are not unfrequently -met with in the coal and coal-shale. In the slab of shale figured, there are three -specimens of an oval nut, <span class="smcap">B, C</span>, which is striated longitudinally. These are associated with other -vegetable remains, among which part of a Lepidostrobus, the supposed cone or strobilus of a -species of Lepidodendron (see description of <a href="#Plate_9">Plate IX.</a>), is conspicuous at a.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[ 84 ]</a></span></p> - - - - -<p class="caption3 pmt4"><a name="PART_II" id="PART_II"></a>PART II.</p> - -<h2>FOSSIL FAUNA.</h2> - -<p class="caption3 pmb4">Plates XXXIV. to LXXIV. inclusive.</p> - -<p> <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[ 85 ]</a></span></p> - -<p> <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[ 86 ]</a></span></p> - -<div><a id="Plate_34"></a> -<div class="fig_cap_pl">Plate XXXIV.</div> -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 670px;"> -<img src="images/plate34.png" width="670" height="483" alt="" /> -</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[ 87 ]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="caption3nb">PLATE XXXIV.</p> - -<p class="caption4nb">(<i>Plates XXXIV. to LXXIV. inclusive, are from Parkinson's Organic Remains.</i>)</p> - -<p class="caption4nb"><span class="smcap">Fossil Tubipore</span>, from Derbyshire.</p> - -<div class="tdc"> -<div class="spl">(<i>Syringopora geniculata</i>, of Phillips, from the Mountain Limestone, Derbyshire.)</div> -</div> - -<p>The specimen figured is a mass of limestone, on the surface of which is spread out in high -relief a delicate tubiporite, or fossil coral, allied to the Tubipora, or "Organ-pipe coral," so -generally preserved in cabinets of natural curiosities, from the beauty and elegance of its -crimson tubes. The fossil, however, though somewhat resembling the recent coral in its general -form, belongs to an extinct genus.</p> - -<p>This Syringopora appears to have been very abundant in the sea in which the strata of -mountain or carboniferous limestone were deposited, for it forms entire beds of great extent. -A beautifully figured marble results from this coral, when the interstices of its tubes have been -filled up with compact calcareous matter. A small polished slab is represented in fig. 2. At -Matlock, vases, and other ornamental articles, are made of it; and the sections of the coral -tubes impart considerable variety of figures.<a name="FNanchor_25" id="FNanchor_25"></a><a href="#Footnote_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_25" id="Footnote_25"></a><a href="#FNanchor_25"><span class="label">[25]</span></a> Articles of this kind may be obtained of Mr. Tennant, 149, Strand.</p></div> - -<p>Some slabs of this fossil coral are of a dull red hue, which there is every reason to conclude -is due to the colour of the original; and not only are traces of the natural tints of the living -zoophyte preserved, but even the animal membrane of the coral; and this may be exposed by -immersing a fragment of the marble in dilute muriatic (hydrochloric) acid. Mr. Parkinson thus -describes the result of his first experiment:—</p> - -<p>"A fragment of the marble (<a href="#Plate_34">Plate XXXIV.</a> fig. 2) was exposed to the action of muriatic -acid in a very dilute state. As the calcareous earth was dissolved, and the carbonic acid escaped, -I was delighted to observe the membranaceous substance appear, depending from the stone in -light, flocculent, elastic flakes. Many of these retained a deep red colour, and appeared in -a beautiful and distinct manner, although not absolutely retaining the form of the tubipore. -A faithful representation of this appearance is given in fig. 3."</p> - -<p>This experiment of Mr. Parkinson was highly important, as proving the previously almost -incredible fact, that animal membrane, when hermetically sealed, as it were, in the solid stone, -was as indestructible as the rock itself. It suggested, too, the probability that vestiges of other -animal tissues might be traced in organic remains, and encouraged subsequent observers to seek -<span class="pagenum x-ebookmaker-drop"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[ 88 ]</a></span> -for evidence of the soft parts of animal bodies entombed in the strata. It was the first step in the -right direction, and led to the detection of many highly interesting phenomena. In Dr. Buckland's -Bridgewater Essay will be found figures and descriptions of the eyes of crustacea: of the -wings, elytra or wing-covers, and the integuments of the body of insects; of the skin of reptiles; -and, in the "Wonders of Geology," and "Medals of Creation," of the membranes of the air-bladder, -and of the capsule of the eye of fishes; of the soft parts of the animalcules called -foraminifera, &c. The bodies of mollusca, or shell-fish, converted into a dark brown mass (<i>mollushite</i>), -occur in such abundance in some deposits, as to yield a rich manure from the quantity of -phosphate of lime. The excrementitious substances termed by Dr. Buckland "Coprolites," are -also used for agricultural purposes.</p> - -<div><a id="Plate_35"></a> -<div class="fig_cap_pl">Plate XXXV.</div> -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 509px;"> -<img src="images/plate35.png" width="509" height="703" alt="" /> -</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[ 89 ]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="caption3nb">PLATE XXXV.</p> - -<p class="caption4nb"><span class="smcap">The subjects here figured are Fossil Corals.</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1.</span> (<i>Syringopora ramulosa</i>.) A fragment of another species of the coral previously described; -from the mountain limestone.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 2</span>, represents four connected tubes of the recent organ-pipe coral (<i>Sarcinula musica</i>) of -New Holland, to show the structure of this type of Zoophytes. Coloured figures of -the live polypes of this coral are given in Wonders of Geology, sixth edition, vol. ii. -plate vi.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 3.</span> A polished slab of marble, the white markings in which are produced by sections of the -tubes of the same species of coral as that represented in fig. 1.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 4.</span> (<i>Catenipora escharoides.</i>) The fossil here delineated is well known to collectors by the -name of "<i>chain-coral</i>" derived from the elegant cateniform markings produced by -transverse sections of the parallel tubes, which being of an oval form, and in close -apposition, give rise to chain-like figures, as shown in figs. 5 and 6. From Dudley.</p></div> - -<p>This fossil coral abounds in that division of the Silurian formation termed the Wenlock or -Dudley limestones, wherever these deposits occur. The most exquisite specimens are obtained -from the Falls of the Ohio, at Louisville, in the United States of America. A coral reef of the -Silurian epoch here exists in the bed of the mighty stream of fresh water, almost as perfect as -when growing in its native sea! The river dashes over the entire mass in the season of high -water; but in those periods when the stream is low, the ridge of coral is exposed, and its surface -then presents the most extraordinary display of Silurian corals, of numerous species and genera, -standing in relief on the more compact masses of the rock. The substance of the corals, being -siliceous, resists the action of the cataract, while the softer calcareous matter which filled up the -interstices of the tubes, lamellæ, &c. of the zoophytes, is washed away atom by atom; and natural -dissections are formed, which art would in vain attempt to imitate. Dr. Yandell, of the Medical -College, Louisville, and Dr. Clapp, of New Albany, have splendid collections from the Falls, -which every geologist and intelligent traveller who visits Kentucky should not fail to examine: -the masses of Astreæ, Madrepores, &c. are so fresh in their aspect, as not to be readily distinguished -from the recent specimens of the same genera which are placed beside them.<a name="FNanchor_26" id="FNanchor_26"></a><a href="#Footnote_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_26" id="Footnote_26"></a><a href="#FNanchor_26"><span class="label">[26]</span></a> See Sir Charles Lyell's Travels in the United States; and Drs. Yandell and Shumard's "Contributions to the Geology of -Kentucky." Louisville, 1847.</p></div> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 5</span>, is a transverse section of a mass of chain-coral from Dudley.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 6.</span> The same, as seen by transmitted light.</p></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[ 90 ]</a></span></p> - -<div><a id="Plate_36"></a> -<div class="fig_cap_pl">Plate XXXVI.</div> -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 559px;"> -<img src="images/plate36.png" width="559" height="716" alt="" /> -</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[ 91 ]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="caption3nb">PLATE XXXVI.</p> - -<p class="caption4nb"><span class="smcap">Various Fossil Corals from different Formations.</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Figs.</span> 1, 2, 3. (<i>Cyathophyllum turbinatum</i>, of Goldfuss.) These three turbinated or top-shaped -corals are referable to a genus of which many species are exceedingly abundant in the -Wenlock or Dudley limestone of the Silurian System. They belong to the Anthozoa, -or flower-like corals. The living animal, of which the <i>coral</i> is but the durable earthy -fabric or skeleton, bore a close analogy to the sea-anemone, or animal flower (<i>Actinia</i>), -of our coasts. Each of these specimens belonged but to a single animal: the Cyathophylla -are not, like the tubipores previously described, an aggregation of numerous -individual polypes.<a name="FNanchor_27" id="FNanchor_27"></a><a href="#Footnote_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a></p></div> - - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_27" id="Footnote_27"></a><a href="#FNanchor_27"><span class="label">[27]</span></a> For a popular account of the nature of Corals and the animals which form them, see Wonders of Geology, vol. ii. -Lect. vi. p. 589.</p></div> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 4.</span> A small coral (<i>Fungia</i>) from Dudley.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 5.</span> On this block of mountain limestone there are the remains of two different kinds of -corals. The upper cylindrical part is a fragment of Cyathophyllum, to the lower -part of which is attached a species of another genus (<i>Michelinia</i>).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 6</span>, is a small coral (<i>Fungia numismalis</i>, of Goldfuss), common in the Oolite.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 7.</span> A piece of encrinital limestone, from Derbyshire, having a conical cast—that is, the stone -has been moulded in the interior or cavity—of a turbinated coral (<i>Turbinolia</i>).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 8.</span> A longitudinal section, showing the transverse cells and lamellæ of the same kind of -coral (<i>Cyathophyllum</i>) as figs. 1, 2, 3.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 9.</span> A species of Turbinolia (<i>Turbinolia complanata</i>, of Goldfuss).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 10.</span> A small turbinated coral (<i>Turbinolia mitrata</i>, of Hesinger), from the Silurian strata of -Gothland.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 11.</span> a Turbinolia from the Silurian deposits of Sweden.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 12.</span> A remarkable coral (<i>Petraia</i>, of Munster), from the Devonian strata.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Figs.</span> 13 & 14, are sections of Cyathophylla, like figs. 1, 2, 3, to exhibit the internal structure.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Figs.</span> 15 & 16. Two elegant simple corals (<i>Caryophyllia centralis</i>, of Mantell), from the chalk of -Kent. The form and disposition of the lamellæ of the cavity, as seen at the upper -part of the specimens, are shown at <i>a</i> and <i>b</i>.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 17.</span> A transverse and polished section of a species of Cyathophyllum, from the Devonian -strata, at Blackenberg on the Rhine.</p></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[ 92 ]</a></span></p> - -<div><a id="Plate_37"></a> -<div class="fig_cap_pl">Plate XXXVII.</div> -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 539px;"> -<img src="images/plate37.png" width="539" height="725" alt="" /> -</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[ 93 ]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="caption3nb">PLATE XXXVII.</p> - -<p class="caption4nb"><span class="smcap">Various Fossil Compound Corals.</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1.</span> A beautiful specimen of Star-coral (<i>Astrea ananas</i>, of Goldfuss), from the Silurian strata -of Sweden. At <i>a</i>, is shown "the mode in which, as in proliferous flowers, new -polypes bud from the centre of the parent disk. At <i>b</i>, is represented the growth -in the recent <i>Madrepora stellaris</i> of Linnæus."—<i>Mr. Parkinson.</i></p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 2.</span> An elegant Cyathophyllum (<i>C. dianthus</i>, of Goldfuss), from the Silurian formation of -Sweden. At <i>c</i>, (the lower part of the plate,) is shown its probable mode of increase.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Figs.</span> 3 & 6. A columnar compound coral (<i>Lithostrotion striatum</i>, of Lhwyd), from the mountain -limestone of Derbyshire; fig. 3, is a transverse section of fig. 6, showing the -basaltiform arrangement of the columns.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 4.</span> "A fossil madrepore, from Lincolnshire."—<i>Mr. Parkinson.</i></p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 5.</span> A very elegant and abundant coral (<i>Caryophyllia annularis</i>, of Parkinson), in the bed -termed "Coral Rag," of the oolite of Wiltshire, Berkshire, &c. Large conglomerated -masses of this branched species form a considerable proportion of the fossil -coral-reef which traverses some parts of the oolite: and when this bed is worked -for road materials, blocks of this coral, more or less changed into calcareous spar, -may be seen lying on the way-side. Near Faringdon, in Berkshire, a quarry in -the Coral-rag has yielded many beautiful examples.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 7.</span> Called "Spider-stone," by Mr. Parkinson. It is a species of <i>Astrea</i>: <i>d</i>, is an enlarged -view of one of the polype-cells.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 8.</span> A beautiful fossil coral, from Transylvania (apparently a species of Lithostrotion?).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 9.</span> The specimen figured is from the mountain limestone of the Mendip Hills. (It is the -<i>Michelinia tenuisepta</i>, of Phillips; <i>Manon favosum</i>, of Goldfuss?) It is described by -Mr. Parkinson as "bearing somewhat of a honeycomb appearance."</p></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[ 94 ]</a></span></p> - -<div><a id="Plate_38"></a> -<div class="fig_cap_pl">Plate XXXVIII.</div> -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 540px;"> -<img src="images/plate38.png" width="540" height="723" alt="" /> -</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[ 95 ]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="caption3nb">PLATE XXXVIII.</p> - -<p class="caption4nb"><span class="smcap">Fossil Corals, and Coral Marbles.</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1</span>, is a polished slab of the carboniferous limestone, well known as the Kilkenny marble, -and much used for chimney-pieces. The figures exposed on the surface are produced -by sections of enclosed corals (some species of Cyathophyllum), which are transmuted -into white calcareous spar.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 2.</span> A coral of the same kind (<i>Cyathophyllum turbinatum</i>), from the mountain limestone of -Derbyshire.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 3.</span> A polished slice of Derbyshire marble, the markings on which are derived from sections -of enclosed branches of corals (<i>Syringopora</i>), resembling that figured in Pl. XXXIV.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 4.</span> An elegant compound coral, called "Spider-stone" by collectors (<i>Astrea arachnoides</i>, -of Dr. Fleming); from Wiltshire: the geological habitat uncertain; probably the -Oolite.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 5.</span> This specimen appears to be a cluster of corals belonging to the genus Cyathophyllum.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 6.</span> A magnified sketch of one of the cells of fig. 4.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 7.</span> A polished transverse section of a coral; the precise relation of this species is not certain.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 8.</span> This is a very abundant coral in some of the beds of mountain limestone, (<i>Lithodendron -fasciculatum</i>, of Phillips.) The specimen figured is from Clifton, near Bristol. The -marble cups, and other ornaments, manufactured from the rocks near that place, -often exhibit sections of this species.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 9.</span> A mass of coral from Ingleborough, (<i>Cyathophyllum fungites.</i>)</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 10.</span> A polished slice of a beautiful marble richly marked by the sections of the enclosed -corals (<i>Astrea undulata</i>, of Dr. Fleming); from Switzerland: probably from the -Oolitic or Jurassic formation.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 11.</span> Vertical section of a fossil coral, showing the transverse arrangement of the internal cells.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Figs.</span> 12 & 13. These specimens are polished sections of a very beautiful compound coral (<i>Astrea -Tisburiensis</i>, of Miss Benett), which occurs in a silicified state in the Portland beds -that are quarried at Tisbury, in Wiltshire. Masses of chert (a kind of coarse -silex or flint), wholly made up of this coral, are often met with, and when sliced -and polished are extremely beautiful and interesting; the originally calcareous -fabric of the zoophytes being perfectly transmuted into silex, and the interstices -filled up with a similar substance, but of a different colour.<a name="FNanchor_28" id="FNanchor_28"></a><a href="#Footnote_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_28" id="Footnote_28"></a><a href="#FNanchor_28"><span class="label">[28]</span></a> Specimens of the Tisbury Astrea, and of most if not all of the coralline marbles figured and described, may be obtained -of Professor Tennant; and also vases, &c. of the various marbles of Derbyshire.</p></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[ 96 ]</a></span></p> - -<div><a id="Plate_39"></a> -<div class="fig_cap_pl">Plate XXXIX.</div> -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 552px;"> -<img src="images/plate39.png" width="552" height="690" alt="" /> -</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[ 97 ]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="caption3nb">PLATE XXXIX.</p> - -<p class="caption4nb"><span class="smcap">Various Fossil Corals and Sponges, or Amorphozoa.</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1.</span> A coral from the Dudley limestone. (<i>Favosites?</i>)</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 2</span>, is a vertical section of figs. 4 and 5, to show the internal arrangement of the cells.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 3.</span> The under surface of a very common species (<i>Favosites Gothlandica</i>, of Goldfuss); from the -Wenlock limestone of Dudley. A magnified view of part of the surface, to show -the honeycomb structure, is given in fig. 7.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 4</span>, the under, and fig. 5, the upper surface, of a small coral (<i>Cyclolites ?</i>) from the Oolite.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 6.</span> A silicified branched sponge, (<i>Spongites lobatus</i>, of Dr. Fleming,) from the chalk of -Berkshire.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 9</span>, is a beautiful silicified, lobate, spongoid body, (<i>Siphonia</i>,) probably from the greensand. -Siliceous cruciform spicula obtained from this fossil are represented in fig. 8.</p></div> - -<p>Zoophytes of this kind, like many of the sponges, have their tissues strengthened by, and -largely composed of spicula, which vary in form and size in the different species and genera. -Many sponges and Siphoniæ in flint, and in the chert of the greensand, consist almost entirely of -spicula, which may be easily detected by a slightly magnifying power.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 10.</span> Another common Dudley Coral. (<i>Porites pyriformis</i>, of Mr. Lonsdale.)</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 11.</span> A beautiful coral (<i>Explanaria flexuosa</i>, of Dr. Fleming), from the Coral Rag of Steeple -Ashton, Wilts. The outline indicates the mode of increase, according to Mr. -Parkinson, of this form of zoophyte.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 12.</span> This is a portion of a delicate ramose sponge (<i>Spongites ramosus</i>, of Mantell), whose -remains are abundant in the chalk-flints, and have given rise to the irregularly -branched siliceous nodules. A specimen nine inches long, with seven branches, is -figured in Fossils of the South Downs, Pl. XV. fig. 11. Siliceous spicula are -thickly interspersed throughout the mass.</p></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[ 98 ]</a></span></p> - -<div><a id="Plate_40"></a> -<div class="fig_cap_pl">Plate XL.</div> -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 547px;"> -<img src="images/plate40.png" width="547" height="713" alt="" /> -</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[ 99 ]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="caption3nb">PLATE XL.</p> - -<p class="caption4nb"><span class="smcap">Fossil Corals, &c.</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1.</span> The shells of Oysters, and other mollusca, are subjected to the ravages of a parasitical -sponge, (<i>Cliona</i>, of Dr. Grant,) which is beset with minute siliceous spines or spicula, -and inhabits hollows formed in the substance of the shell. Shells thus honeycombed, -as it were, may often be found on the sea-shore with the excavated parts filled up by -sponge. I have shells collected by my eldest son on the shores of New Zealand, that -are hollowed out in a similar manner, and occupied by sponge. Whether these cavities -are produced by mechanical means, or are the result of the decay and absorption of the -shell induced by the growth of the parasite, are questions still undetermined. There -are several kinds of shells found fossil, which were infested with a similar parasitical -sponge; and when the cavities thus produced have been filled up by flint, and the -shell has subsequently decomposed, or been worn away, the surface of the flint is -studded with the casts of the cells, in the form of small irregular globular bodies, -connected by filaments or strings of flint. The fossil, fig. 1, is a fossil of this kind, -described by Mr. Parkinson as being "covered with minute round bodies, the nature -of which is unknown;" fig. 12, is an enlarged view of five of these globular casts -connected by filaments.</p></div> - -<p>The origin of these fossils was first pointed out by the Rev. W. Conybeare.<a name="FNanchor_29" id="FNanchor_29"></a><a href="#Footnote_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a> The fibrous -shells of a fossil genus of bivalves named <i>Inoceramus</i>, of which several species abound in the -Chalk, appear to have been particularly subjected to depredations of this kind. Hence among -partially water-worn flints, specimens of the siliceous casts are common; figs. 8, and 10, are -examples from the Hackney gravel-pits.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_29" id="Footnote_29"></a><a href="#FNanchor_29"><span class="label">[29]</span></a> See Medals of Creation, vol. i. p. 396, fig. 94.</p></div> - -<p>Mr. Morris has named these fossils, <i>Clionites</i>; fig. 1, is <i>C. Parkinsoni</i>.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Figs.</span> 2, 4, 7, are portions of a recent species of jointed zoophyte (<i>Isis</i>), from a modern concretionary -deposit on the shores of the Mediterranean, Sicily.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 3.</span> A branched fossil coral (<i>Millepora ramosa</i>, of Dr. Fleming), imbedded in compact oolitic -limestone from Wiltshire. A portion of the surface magnified is represented in fig. 11.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 5</span>, appears to be a fungiform Spongite; its locality is not mentioned.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 6.</span> Portion of a fossil coral (<i>Ceriopora</i>), from Switzerland.</p> -<span class="pagenum x-ebookmaker-drop"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[ 100 ]</a></span> -<p><span class="smcap">Figs.</span> 8, & 10. These pebbles have the surface covered with casts of Clionites (<i>Clionites Conybeari</i>, -of Mr. Morris.<a name="FNanchor_30" id="FNanchor_30"></a><a href="#Footnote_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a>)</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_30" id="Footnote_30"></a><a href="#FNanchor_30"><span class="label">[30]</span></a> Mr. Morris thus defines the generic character of these fossil bodies:—"Reticular masses of a more or less compressed -globular, elliptical, or polygonal form; rugose and sometimes papillose; connected by minute tubuli or fibrillæ. Dendritical, -dichotomous, or irregularly aggregated." <i>Clionites Conybeari</i> is characterized by "Cells irregular, somewhat polygonal, -with one or more papillæ; surface finely tuberculated, connecting threads numerous." Note from Mr. Morris, April, 1850. -</p> - -<p> -The fossils, however, do not appear to be the silicified sponge (<i>Cliona</i>) by which the ravages in the shell have been -effected; they are merely casts of the cavities produced.</p></div> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 9.</span> Fragments of the radicle processes of attachment of some Apiocrinite or Lily-shaped -animal in chalk; see description of <a href="#Plate_51">Plate LI.</a></p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 14.</span> A section of a siliceous nodule; probably the cellular appearance is inorganic: fig. 13, -is a magnified section of the cells.</p></div> - -<div><a id="Plate_41"></a> -<div class="fig_cap_pl">Plate XLI.</div> -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 519px;"> -<img src="images/plate41.png" width="519" height="704" alt="" /> -</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[ 101 ]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="caption3nb">PLATE XLI.</p> - -<p class="caption4nb"><span class="smcap">A Silicified cup-shaped Sponge, from Touraine.</span></p> - -<div class="tdc"> -<div class="spl">(<i>Chenendopora Parkinsoni</i>, of Michelin.<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;"><i>Spongites Townsendi</i>, of Mantell.)</span></div> -</div> - -<p>This beautiful plate of a petrified zoophyte allied to the Spongia, formed the frontispiece -to Mr. Parkinson's second volume. The fossil delineated is from Touraine in France, and -is one of the most perfect examples of this kind hitherto observed. It belongs to a group -of cup-shaped <i>Amorphozoa</i>, (as these organisms are now named by naturalists, from the great -irregularity of shape which they assume,) termed <i>Chenendopora</i>. The original organic substance -is transmuted into silex, and the interstices are filled up with carbonate of lime. The same -species occurs in the greensand in the Vale of Pewsey in Wiltshire, and, I believe, also in the -white-chalk; for many cyathiform flints from the South Downs appear to have the same -internal structure.</p> - -<p>In the so-called "gravel-pits," near Faringdon, in Berkshire,—which are quarries of a loosely-aggregated -grit of the greensand, almost wholly made up of the relics of shells, corals, amorphozoa, -&c.—numerous sponges of this genus are met with. One beautiful species (<i>Chenendopora -fungiformis</i>) has acquired, from its cup-like form, the local name of "petrified salt-cellar."<a name="FNanchor_31" id="FNanchor_31"></a><a href="#Footnote_31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_31" id="Footnote_31"></a><a href="#FNanchor_31"><span class="label">[31]</span></a> Wonders of Geology, vol. ii. p. 637; and Medals of Creation, "Excursion to Faringdon," vol. ii. p. 923.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[ 102 ]</a></span></p></div> - -<div><a id="Plate_42"></a> -<div class="fig_cap_pl">Plate XLII.</div> -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 542px;"> -<img src="images/plate42.png" width="542" height="704" alt="" /> -</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[ 103 ]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="caption3nb">PLATE XLII.</p> - -<p class="caption4nb"><span class="smcap">The Fossils represented in this Plate are chiefly Zoophytes in Flint.</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1.</span> A flint from the gravel-pits at Hackney. Its form is derived from the enclosed -zoophyte, part of whose structure is exposed in the upper portion of the figure. -This fossil zoophyte (<i>Choanites Königi</i>, of Mantell) is very abundant in some of the -chalk strata, and many of the most beautifully marked pebbles cut and polished for -brooches by the lapidaries of Brighton, Bognor, and the Isle of Wight, are the -silicified soft parts of this animal. The original was of a subglobular form, and -probably of a soft fleshy consistence; it had a deep central cavity, whence numerous -tubes diverged, and ramified throughout the mass; it was fixed at the base by radicle -or root-like processes.<a name="FNanchor_32" id="FNanchor_32"></a><a href="#Footnote_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_32" id="Footnote_32"></a><a href="#FNanchor_32"><span class="label">[32]</span></a> See Medals of Creation, p. 264. "Thoughts on a Pebble," (eighth edition,) contains coloured figures and a full -description of these fossils.</p></div> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 2.</span> This is another characteristic and abundant fossil zoophyte of the chalk and flint. -The specimen figured is a water-worn pebble, and therefore gives but obscure -indications of the form and structure of the original. The fungiform flints—called -in Sussex petrified mushrooms—belong to the same genus (<i>Ventriculites</i>, of Mantell): -and highly interesting specimens occur in which some part of the zoophyte -is invested with flint, and the other part expanded in the chalk. The original was -probably a polyparium—that is, the skeleton or support of an aggregation of coral-polypes—of -a funnel shape, the polype-shells being situated on the inner surface: -the base was attached by root-like fibres.<a name="FNanchor_33" id="FNanchor_33"></a><a href="#Footnote_33" class="fnanchor">[33]</a> The polype-cells are cylindrical and -regular, and clusters of beautiful casts of them often occur on flints.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_33" id="Footnote_33"></a><a href="#FNanchor_33"><span class="label">[33]</span></a> Consult Medals of Creation, pp. 270-279: and Wonders of Geology, sixth edition, p. 638.</p></div> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 3.</span> This specimen is described by Mr. Parkinson as "a pear-shaped alcyonite from -Switzerland." It is probably one of those fossil zoophytes allied to the sponges -(called <i>Siphonia</i>), in which the upper part is of a bulbous or pear-like form, and -is supported by a stem with root-like processes at the base. The bulb has a central -cavity studded with irregular pores, that communicates with the parallel longitudinal -tubes of which the stem is composed: a structure admitting of that ready ingress -and egress of the sea-water, which this class of organisms requires. There are -numerous species in the greensand of the chalk formation.<a name="FNanchor_34" id="FNanchor_34"></a><a href="#Footnote_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_34" id="Footnote_34"></a><a href="#FNanchor_34"><span class="label">[34]</span></a> Medals of Creation, p. 258, Lign. 56.</p></div> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[ 104 ]</a></span></p> -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 4.</span> A variety of Siphonia (<i>Jerea excavata</i>, of Michelin), from the greensand of Wiltshire.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 5.</span> A silicified Siphonia from Saumur.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 6.</span> A Ventriculite from a gravel-pit; the markings are produced by the exposed and -partially abraded outer integument, which in perfect examples consists of a regular -net-work of sub-cylindrical fibres.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 7</span>, is a transverse section of a Siphonia (<i>Siphonia pyriformis</i> of Goldfuss).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 8.</span> A nearly perfect specimen of a similar fossil. In fig. 7, are shown sections of tubes -passing from the periphery to the centre; in fig. 8, the central aperture of the cavity -of the bulb, and part of the stem, are displayed.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Figs.</span> 9, & 10, are imperfect specimens of Choanites: fig. 10, is a vertical section showing the -central cavity and the connected tubes.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 11</span>, is another example of <i>Siphonia pyriformis</i>.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 12</span>, a vertical, and fig. 13, a transverse section, of the same species of Siphonia.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 14.</span> A small turbinated calcareous spongite from Switzerland.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 15.</span> The appearance of the animal membrane exposed by immersion of the fossil (fig. 14), -in diluted hydrochloric acid.</p></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[ 105 ]</a></span></p> - -<div><a id="Plate_43"></a> -<div class="fig_cap_pl">Plate XLIII.</div> -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 551px;"> -<img src="images/plate43.png" width="551" height="718" alt="" /> -</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[ 106 ]</a></span></p> - -<p class="caption3nb">PLATE XLIII.</p> - -<p class="caption4nb"><span class="smcap">Fossil Corals, and other Zoophytes.</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Figs.</span> 1, 2, 3, & 4, are representations of different aspects of a simple coral (<i>Fungia polymorpha</i>, -of Goldfuss); the locality is uncertain. Fig. 1, the base; fig. 2, a magnified -representation of part of the same; fig. 3, magnified view of part of the lamellated -surface of fig. 4.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 5.</span> The nature of this fossil is not obvious; it may be a rolled Siphonia.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 6</span>, is a fine specimen of a Siphonia (<i>Jerea pyriformis</i>, of Lamouroux). At both extremities -the apertures of the numerous tubuli are seen.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Figs.</span> 7, 8, & 9, are varieties of the same species of fossil sponge (<i>Scyphia articulata</i>, of Goldfuss), -from Switzerland.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 10.</span> A spongite of a very peculiar form.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 11.</span> A spongite investing a fossil shell (<i>Nerita</i>), from Faringdon.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 12</span>, is an imperfect specimen of a Ventriculite (<i>Ventriculites alcyonoides</i>, of Mantell), from -the chalk of Wiltshire.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 13.</span> A calcareous spongite which has been immersed in dilute hydrochloric acid to show its -structure.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 14.</span> A pebble deriving its shape from a zoophyte apparently related to the Ventriculites -(<i>Spongites labyrinthicus</i>, of Mantell). The aperture at the base has arisen from the -decomposition of the process of attachment.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 15.</span> A pebble enclosing part of the base of a Ventriculite; the circular spots on the large -end are sections of the ramifications of the stirps or base of the zoophyte; for this -figure and the following are drawn in an inverted position.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 16</span>, is a similar fossil, split vertically, and showing the enclosed stem of the Ventriculite.</p></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[ 107 ]</a></span></p> - -<div><a id="Plate_44"></a> -<div class="fig_cap_pl">Plate XLIV.</div> -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 563px;"> -<img src="images/plate44.png" width="563" height="707" alt="" /> -</div> -</div> - - -<p class="caption3nb">PLATE XLIV.</p> - -<p class="caption4nb"><span class="smcap">Fossil Zoophytes.</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1.</span> A spongite (<i>Scyphia costata</i>, of Goldfuss), from Switzerland. The fossil spongeous bodies -named <i>Scyphia</i>, are characterized by the "mass or body being either cylindrical, -simple or branched; fistulous, and terminating in a rounded pit; entirely composed -of a firm reticulated tissue."<a name="FNanchor_35" id="FNanchor_35"></a><a href="#Footnote_35" class="fnanchor">[35]</a> Like the other bodies comprised in the group of -Amorphozoa, the form in this genus is exceedingly diversified, and as the structure is -often but obscurely shown, the determination of these fossils is oftentimes impossible. -It is however convenient, in the present state of our knowledge, to distinguish the -principal kinds by names which may be modified or abandoned, when the structure -and natural affinities of the original organisms are more accurately determined.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_35" id="Footnote_35"></a><a href="#FNanchor_35"><span class="label">[35]</span></a> Medals of Creation, p. 237.</p></div> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 2.</span> Another species of Scyphia from Switzerland; a small portion of the surface magnified -is seen at <i>a</i>.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 3.</span> The peculiar form and tissue of another genus of Amorphozoa (<i>Cnemidium rimulosum</i>, of -Goldfuss), are shown in this beautiful specimen.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 4</span>, is a section of a chalk flint, from Wycombe Heath; the purple body, partially invested -by a white border, is evidently a mass of the soft parts of some zoophyte, which -served as a nucleus to the siliceous nodule. A purple or pink hue often prevails in -the sections of zoophytes immersed in flint, and doubtless depends on the original -colour of the living animal.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 5.</span> A very fine spongite (<i>Chenendopora fungiformis</i>, of Michelin), from France.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 6.</span> This is evidently a fossil zoophyte, but the structure exposed is not sufficiently -characteristic to determine the genus.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 7.</span> A beautiful fungiform Scyphia.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 8.</span> This elegant specimen, which Mr. Parkinson highly valued, is evidently a <i>Choanite</i> -imbedded in flint. The body retains a pink colour, and is surrounded by a white -band, which is probably the remains of the cortical or external tissue of the original -zoophyte. I have seen many transverse sections in which the central mass was -either of a pink or purple colour, and encircled by a white zone, in the squared flints -of the walls of churches and other ancient edifices in Sussex.<a name="FNanchor_36" id="FNanchor_36"></a><a href="#Footnote_36" class="fnanchor">[36]</a></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_36" id="Footnote_36"></a><a href="#FNanchor_36"><span class="label">[36]</span></a> Polished specimens of the pebbles of the Isle of Wight, exhibiting sections of the Choanites, Ventriculites, &c., may be -obtained of <i>Mr. Fowlestone</i>, Lapidary, 4, Victoria Arcade, Ryde; who also has generally on sale a good series of the fossils -of the Island. The minute organisms that occur in flints, many of which are highly interesting objects when seen by transmitted -light under a good microscope, can be procured of <i>Mr. Topping</i>, that well-known preparer of microscopic objects, -New Winchester Street, Pentonville Hill; and fossil infusorial earths, &c. in great perfection of <i>Mr. Poulton</i>, Microscopic -Artist, Reading, Berks.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[ 108 ]</a></span></p></div> - -<div><a id="Plate_45"></a> -<div class="fig_cap_pl">Plate XLV.</div> -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 531px;"> -<img src="images/plate45.png" width="531" height="695" alt="" /> -</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[ 109 ]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="caption3nb">PLATE XLV.</p> - -<p class="caption4nb"><span class="smcap">Fossil Corals and other Zoophytes.</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1.</span> "A fossil body, from near Bath, the surface of which is covered by stelliform markings, -which seem to have been formed by a coralloid."—<i>Parkinson.</i> This fossil is supposed -by Mr. Morris to be the cast of one of those mollusca which form and inhabit hollows -in stone, coral, &c. (hence termed <i>Lithodomi</i>). In the present instance, the mollusk -had bored into a mass of coral, the imprints of the stellular polype-cells of which -remain on the surface of the cast. It closely resembles fig. 3, <a href="#Plate_36">Plate XXXVI.</a> of -Faujas St. Fond, Hist. Mont. St. Pierre, which is described as a coral; it is the -<i>Astrea geometrica</i>, of Goldfuss.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 2.</span> A fossil coral from Maestricht. At <i>b</i>, is shown an enlarged view of one of the stars.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 3.</span> "A siliceous fossil from Essex."—<i>Mr. Parkinson.</i> (<i>Ventriculites racemosus</i>, of Mr. -Toulmin Smith.) I must confess myself unable to determine the nature of this -specimen.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Figs.</span> 4, & 6. Corals from the cretaceous strata of St. Peter's Mountain, Maestricht (<i>Gorgonia -bacillaris ?</i> of Goldfuss). At <i>a</i>, is shown one of the cells in fig. 6, magnified.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 5.</span> A pebble, split asunder, exposing the remains of a spongite, which formed the nucleus -of the flint.<a name="FNanchor_37" id="FNanchor_37"></a><a href="#Footnote_37" class="fnanchor">[37]</a></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_37" id="Footnote_37"></a><a href="#FNanchor_37"><span class="label">[37]</span></a> For an account of the formation of flint, see Wonders of Geology, vol. i. p. 300. (<i>6th Edition.</i>)</p></div> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 7.</span> Another spongite in a pebble; from Sewardstone, Essex.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 8.</span> A water-worn, silicified, or rather chalcedonic Ventriculite, from France.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 9.</span> A very beautiful transverse section of the stem of a Ventriculite in a flint; the colour of -the original being retained. This was another precious gem in the estimation of the -amiable author of "The Organic Remains of a Former World."</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 10.</span> A portion of a Choanite in flint; from gravel, Islington.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 11.</span> A perfect specimen of a small simple coral (Fungia), from Maestricht.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 12.</span> A spongite in a pebble; similar to fig. 5. Such specimens are very common in the -shingle along the sea-shore at Brighton, Dover, &c.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 13.</span> A fossil coral in limestone, from Maestricht. It is too imperfectly defined to determine -the species or genus; an enlarged sketch of the structure is given at <i>c</i>.</p></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[ 110 ]</a></span></p> - -<div><a id="Plate_46"></a> -<div class="fig_cap_pl">Plate XLVI.</div> -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 503px;"> -<img src="images/plate46.png" width="503" height="693" alt="" /> -</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[ 111 ]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="caption3nb">PLATE XLVI.</p> - -<p class="caption4nb"><span class="smcap">Pentacrinus.</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1.</span> Specimen of a recent <i>Pentacrinus Caput Medusæ</i>, from the Caribbean Sea.</p></div> - -<p>The Lily-shaped animals (<i>Crinoidea</i>), so named from a fancied resemblance of some species -when in a state of repose to a closed lily, may be compared to a Feather-star (<i>Comatula</i>) fixed to -a jointed column, with its mouth upwards; the base of the stem being attached to the rock by -root-like processes. The only known living genus inhabits the seas of the West Indies, and the -specimen figured represents the body (or upper part of the animal), with a considerable portion -of the stem remaining attached. The Crinoidea are divided into two groups; Encrinites, having -the ossicula (little bones) of the stem rounded, and Pentacrinites, in which the ossicula of the -column are pentagonal, or angular. The Crinoidea are characterized by having a fixed base, -a column or stem composed of numerous separate articulated pieces of a solid calcareous substance, -supporting on its summit a vase, or receptacle, formed by a series of closely adjusted -plates, which contain the body, or viscera. The upper part of the receptacle is covered by -a plated integument, on one side of which an aperture or mouth is placed. From the upper -margin proceed five articulated tentacula or arms, which subdivide into branches that in some -species are very numerous and of extreme tenuity. On the inside, the arms are beset with -articulated cirri or feelers. The joints composing the column are perforated by a central opening; -there are also side-arms, that radiate from the column in groups of five at different points. -When the animal is alive, the skeleton is covered by a soft integument, as in the star-fishes, and -the arms spread out and expand, forming a net, by which living prey is captured and conveyed -to the mouth by the tentacula, in the same manner as in the fresh-water polype or Hydra.</p> - -<p>The fossil remains of Crinoidea consist of the ossicula of the column, arms, and tentacula; -of the plates of the vase, or receptacle; and of the peduncle, or base of attachment. This -family of Radiaria, though now of such excessive rarity, swarmed in the seas that deposited the -ancient secondary strata; whole mountain chains and extensive tracts of country are composed -of strata almost entirely made up of their fossil remains.<a name="FNanchor_38" id="FNanchor_38"></a><a href="#Footnote_38" class="fnanchor">[38]</a> The number and species of genera is -very great.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_38" id="Footnote_38"></a><a href="#FNanchor_38"><span class="label">[38]</span></a> Wonders of Geology, vol. ii. p. 645. Medals of Creation, p. 312.</p></div> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 2</span>, is a remarkably beautiful specimen of the receptacle of a Pentacrinite from Gloucestershire, -showing the arms introverted, as if the animal had suddenly perished while -in the act of closing over its prey; the stem is wanting.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 3.</span> A spongite (<i>Chenendopora subplana</i>, of Michelin) from the greensand of the Vale of -Pewsey, in Wiltshire.</p></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[ 112 ]</a></span></p> - -<div><a id="Plate_47"></a> -<div class="fig_cap_pl">Plate XLVII.</div> -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 522px;"> -<img src="images/plate47.png" width="522" height="670" alt="" /> -</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[ 113 ]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="caption3nb">PLATE XLVII.</p> - -<p class="caption4nb"><span class="smcap">Fossil Remains of Crinoidea.</span></p> - -<p>In this beautiful plate Mr. Parkinson has figured a great variety of ossicula and portions -of stems belonging to many species and genera of Crinoidea; the markings or sculpturing on the -articulating surfaces of the columnar ossicula are represented with great accuracy. It is not -within the plan of this work to give detailed descriptions of these numerous detached parts; a -few of the most interesting objects only will be particularized.</p> - -<p>The specimens figured in the upper part of the plate, figs. 1 to 28, are cylindrical ossicula, -and portions of stems of Encrinites: those in the lower division are for the most part pentagonal, -and therefore belong to Pentacrinites.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 24.</span> The "Tortoise Encrinite," of Mr. Parkinson, (<i>Marsupites Milleri</i>, of Mantell,) from the -chalk of Kent. The specimen figured is the receptacle or body of a very remarkable -crinoideal animal which forms the link that unites the Lily-shaped animals with the -Star-fishes; like the former, the receptacle is composed of articulated plates, closed -at the top by a tessellated plate-work with a buccal aperture, and surrounded by -five flexible arms; but the original animal, like the Star-fishes, was destitute of a -stem, and could float through the water at pleasure. Its true structure was first -pointed out by me in 1822;<a name="FNanchor_39" id="FNanchor_39"></a><a href="#Footnote_39" class="fnanchor">[39]</a> the name Marsupite was suggested by the purse-like -form. In the figure, the base of the receptacle is uppermost. Fig. 30, is a single -plate of a Marsupite attached to a piece of chalk.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_39" id="Footnote_39"></a><a href="#FNanchor_39"><span class="label">[39]</span></a> See "Fossils of the South Downs."</p></div> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Figs.</span> 31, 35, 38, 39, 40, 41, 74, 75, 76, 77. These are portions of a small species of Encrinite -(<i>Apiocrinus ellipticus</i>) peculiar to the white chalk, in some localities of which the -detached ossicula and peduncles are abundant. At Northfleet, near Gravesend, -these fossils are often met with. Figs. 75, and 76, are portions of the receptacle -with part of the column; figs. 31, 38, and 39, are parts of the processes of attachment. -I have never seen any specimen with the arms.<a name="FNanchor_40" id="FNanchor_40"></a><a href="#Footnote_40" class="fnanchor">[40]</a></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_40" id="Footnote_40"></a><a href="#FNanchor_40"><span class="label">[40]</span></a> Medals of Creation, p. 321.</p></div> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 34.</span> This is part of the receptacle and stem of another small chalk Encrinite (<i>Bourgeticrinus</i>, -of D'Orbigny) from Kent; it is remarkable for the very slight increase in bulk of -the receptacle, and the peculiar form of the plates of which it is composed.</p></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[ 114 ]</a></span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Figs.</span> 36 & 37. Two views of the receptacle of a very remarkable crinoidean animal (<i>Pentremites -florealis</i>, of Say), from the cherty carboniferous limestone of Kentucky. This -zoophyte, though resembling the Crinoidea in having a plated receptacle supported -by an articulated stem, has a remarkable affinity to the Sea-urchins (<i>Echinidæ</i>) -in the porous bands and pentagonal aperture, and in being destitute of arms or -tentacula. Some of the Kentucky limestone beds swarm with the remains of these -zoophytes.<a name="FNanchor_41" id="FNanchor_41"></a><a href="#Footnote_41" class="fnanchor">[41]</a></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_41" id="Footnote_41"></a><a href="#FNanchor_41"><span class="label">[41]</span></a> Medals of Creation, p. 327.</p></div> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 47.</span> "Two ossicula of the Lily Encrinite immersed in diluted muriatic acid, by which -the animal membrane was exposed, and is seen hanging in flocculæ from the bottom -of the fossil,"—<i>Mr. Parkinson.</i></p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Figs.</span> 57, 64, 66. Part of the stem, and the articulating surfaces of two ossicles of a very elegant -pentacrinite (<i>Pentacrinus scalaris</i>, of Goldfuss), from the Lias of Lyme Regis.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Figs.</span> 53, 56, 59, 61, 62, 63, 65, 67. Portions of stems, and the various modifications of the -ossicula of another Lias Pentacrinite (<i>Pentacrinus basaltiformis</i>, of Goldfuss).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 79.</span> This elegant little crinoidean receptacle was named the "Clove Encrinite," by -Mr. Parkinson, from its form; (<i>Eugeniacrinus caryophyllatus</i>, of Goldfuss). It is -from the Oolite of Mount Randen, in Switzerland.<a name="FNanchor_42" id="FNanchor_42"></a><a href="#Footnote_42" class="fnanchor">[42]</a></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_42" id="Footnote_42"></a><a href="#FNanchor_42"><span class="label">[42]</span></a> Ibid. p. 327.</p></div> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Figs.</span> 80, 81, 82, & 83. Appear to be fossil corals of the genus Ceriopora.</p></div> - -<div><a id="Plate_48"></a> -<div class="fig_cap_pl">Plate XLVIII.</div> -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 548px;"> -<img src="images/plate48.png" width="548" height="700" alt="" /> -</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[ 115 ]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="caption3nb">PLATE XLVIII.</p> - -<p class="caption4nb"><span class="smcap">The Lily Encrinite</span> (<i>Encrinites monileformis</i>).</p> - -<p>This exquisite species of the extinct Crinoideans which swarmed in the seas of the secondary -ages of Geology, is equally interesting and attractive to the amateur collector and the scientific -observer. The specimen figured is a charming example of the "<i>Stone Lily</i>" partly expanded, -attached to a block of limestone studded with encrinal ossicula. Mr. Parkinson informed me -that it was formerly in the collection of Mr. Jacob Forster, and cost him twenty guineas; -from five to ten guineas is now the usual price for a specimen in a good state of preservation, -with any part of the column attached. This Encrinite is not known to occur in England. The -specimens seen in collections are for the most part from Lower Saxony: this species has only -been found in the limestone strata called "<i>Muschelkalk</i>" one of the subdivisions of the <i>Trias</i>, -or New Red Sandstone formation, of Germany.<a name="FNanchor_43" id="FNanchor_43"></a><a href="#Footnote_43" class="fnanchor">[43]</a> The most celebrated locality of these fossils -is in Brunswick, near the village of Erkerode, about two miles from the town bearing the -same name. The bed in which they are found is a soft argillaceous cream-coloured limestone, -about one foot and a half in thickness; and the stone is composed chiefly of trochites, or detached -ossicula of the stems, and a few fragile shells and corals.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_43" id="Footnote_43"></a><a href="#FNanchor_43"><span class="label">[43]</span></a> Medals of Creation, vol. i. p. 322. Wonders of Geology, vol. ii. pp. 534, 549.</p></div> - -<p>An elaborate account of the structure of the skeleton of the Lily Encrinite is given by -Mr. Miller, in his valuable work, "The Natural History of the Lily-shaped Animals," (1 vol. -4to. 1821.) Mr. Parkinson had previously carefully investigated the different parts which -enter into the composition of the receptacle and column, and had given them names analogous -to those employed to designate the bones of the skeleton in vertebrated animals. This nomenclature -has very properly been abandoned; but I subjoin Mr. Parkinson's description of the -figures, to record his ingenuity and skill in dissecting organic remains:—</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>"<span class="smcap">Fig. 1</span>, The Lily Encrinite, with part of its vertebral column attached. In this specimen -is seen the extensive capacity for motion yielded by the peculiar form of the vertebra; -in the superior part of the column; and by the fortunate removal of a portion of the -fingers, a fair view is given of the natural arrangement of the tentacula.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 2.</span> The pentagonal base, composed of the ossa innominata, and forming with the scapulæ -and clavicles, the pelvis, in which were contained the organs of digestion, &c.</p></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[ 116 ]</a></span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 3.</span> The Lily Encrinite, detached from its vertebral column.</p></div> - -<table summary="data"> -<tr> - <td class="tdr"><i>a</i>,</td> - <td class="tdl">the centre of its base, formed by five cuneiform ossicula, or <i>ossa innominata</i>.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">a,</td> - <td class="tdl">one of the <i>ossa innominata</i> detached.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr"><i>b</i>,</td> - <td class="tdl">the ribs, or <i>articuli trapezoides</i>; forming, with the preceding bones, the pentagonal base.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">b,</td> - <td class="tdl">one of the ribs detached, showing its internal surface.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr"><i>c</i>,</td> - <td class="tdl">the clavicles.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">c 1,</td> - <td class="tdl">the interior surface.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">c 2,</td> - <td class="tdl">the superior surface.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr"><i>d</i>,</td> - <td class="tdl">the scapulæ.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">d 1,</td> - <td class="tdl">the inferior surface.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">d 2,</td> - <td class="tdl">the superior surface.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr"><i>e</i>,</td> - <td class="tdl">the arms.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">f,</td> - <td class="tdl">the two first bones of the arms united.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr"><i>g, h,</i></td> - <td class="tdl"><i>i, k, l, m</i>, the bones of the fingers gradually diminishing.</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 4.</span> Part of the supposed base, or organ of attachment, of the Lily Encrinite.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 5.</span> The supposed base, or organ of attachment, of the '<i>Cap Encrinite</i>.'"</p></div> - -<div><a id="Plate_49"></a> -<div class="fig_cap_pl">Plate XLIX.</div> -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 538px;"> -<img src="images/plate49.png" width="538" height="692" alt="" /> -</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[ 117 ]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="caption3nb">PLATE XLIX.</p> - -<p class="caption4nb"><span class="smcap">Remains of Encrinites.</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1.</span> A polished slab of limestone formed of portions of the stems of encrinites; the white -figures are produced by sections of the calcareous spar into which the ossicula are -transmuted. The dark spots are the cavities of the entrochites, filled with mineral -matter of a different colour.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 2</span>, is the pentagonal base of the receptacle of the Derbyshire Encrinite.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 3.</span> A mass of Derbyshire encrinal marble, with numerous portions of stems lying in relief.</p></div> - -<p>The Derbyshire encrinal marble is so extensively employed in the manufacture of tables, -chimney-pieces, vases, &c., that it must be familiar to every reader; and yet probably but few -are aware of its origin, or of the nature of the fossil remains of which it is composed, and that -give rise to the elegant figures in which its beauty consists. On Middleton Moor, near Matlock, -extensive quarries of this marble are worked, and good specimens of the ossicula and stems -may be easily obtained.<a name="FNanchor_44" id="FNanchor_44"></a><a href="#Footnote_44" class="fnanchor">[44]</a></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_44" id="Footnote_44"></a><a href="#FNanchor_44"><span class="label">[44]</span></a> See Medals of Creation for "A Geological Excursion from Matlock to Middleton Moor, returning by Stonnis," p. 968.</p></div> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 4.</span> Part of the stem of a large Encrinite, (<i>Cyathocrinus rugosus</i>, of Miller,) from the Wenlock -limestone, Dudley.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 5.</span> A fine specimen of the lower part of the stem, and the root-like processes of attachment -of the base, of the same species as fig. 4: from Dudley.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 6</span>, is called the "<i>Screw or Pulley-stone</i>" of Derbyshire. These curious fossils are found -in the chert (a kind of flint) which occurs in veins and layers in some of the -limestone strata: they are siliceous casts of the interior cavities of the stems, and -small branches of ossicula, of Encrinites. Plate XL VII. fig. 10, is a detached -specimen of this kind.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 7</span>, is described by Mr. Parkinson as "a piece of marble from Shropshire, in which is -discovered a part of the pentagonal base of the Turban or Shropshire Encrinite."</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 8</span>, is part of the column of the same species. These specimens belong to the Rose -Encrinite (<i>Rhodocrinus verus</i>, of Miller).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 9.</span> The receptacle of a very remarkable form of Encrinite, called by Mr. Parkinson "the -<i>Cap Encrinite</i> of Derbyshire." I can find no notice of this beautiful and unique -specimen in the work of Miller or of subsequent authors; neither am I aware of any -data by which a relation can be established between this receptacle and the ossicula -and stems, so abundant in the carboniferous limestone of Derbyshire.</p></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[ 118 ]</a></span></p> - -<div><a id="Plate_50"></a> -<div class="fig_cap_pl">Plate L.</div> -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 544px;"> -<img src="images/plate50.png" width="544" height="716" alt="" /> -</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[ 119 ]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="caption3nb">PLATE L.</p> - -<p class="caption4nb"><span class="smcap">Encrinites and Pentacrinites.</span></p> - -<p class="tdc pmb1">The Pear Encrinite of Bradford; Mr. Parkinson.</p> - -<div class="tdc"> -<div class="spl">(<i>Apiocrinus rotundus</i>, of Miller.<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">—— <i>Parkinsoni</i>, of Bronn.)</span></div> -</div> - -<p>The most generally known of the British Crinoidea, from its size, and abundance in one -particular locality, is the "<i>Pear Encrinite</i>" of Bradford in Wiltshire, some of the quarries -of the oolite on the heights above that picturesquely-situated town, yielding not only immense -quantities of detached plates and ossicula, but also numerous examples of the receptacle, -and occasionally the entire skeleton from the peduncle of the base to the extremities of the arms. -The lamented Mr. Channing Pearce, and his father (now of Percy Place, Grosvenor, Bath), -when resident at Bradford, paid such unremitting attention to the collection of these fossils, -that perfect specimens were obtained, exhibiting the entire structure of the originals; of these -some fine examples are preserved in the British Museum. Sir Charles Lyell mentions a very -interesting fact relating to the occurrence of these Crinoidea in the strata. He states that the -upper surface of a bed of limestone at Bradford is incrusted with a continuous pavement -formed by the stony roots of the Apiocrinites; and upon this is a layer of clay in which are the -stems and bodies (receptacles) of innumerable examples; some erect, others lying prostrate; -while throughout the clay are scattered detached arms, stems, and receptacles. This submarine -forest of Crinoideans must therefore have flourished in the clear sea-water till invaded by -a current loaded with mud, which overwhelmed the living zoophytes, and entombed them -in the argillaceous deposit in which their remains are now imbedded.<a name="FNanchor_45" id="FNanchor_45"></a><a href="#Footnote_45" class="fnanchor">[45]</a></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_45" id="Footnote_45"></a><a href="#FNanchor_45"><span class="label">[45]</span></a> See Wonders of Geology, vol. ii. p. 653.</p></div> - -<p>The receptacle of this Apiocrinite is pyriform and very smooth, the plates are large and thin, -with radiating articulated surfaces; the stem is short, smooth, and strong, the arms are simple, -and like those of the Marsupite; the peduncle spreads out into an expanded base, which is firmly -attached to the rock; sections of this part are generally of a purple colour.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1.</span> Part of the column of the Bradford Encrinite. 2. Part of the receptacle; a minute -incrusting coral (<i>Bryozoa</i>) is attached to the lower part, giving the stem a rough -appearance.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Figs.</span> 3, & 4. Surface of detached plates of the receptacle.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 5.</span> Portion of the column partly covered with a cortical covering of a purple colour -possibly the original investing membrane.</p></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[ 120 ]</a></span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 6.</span> A receptacle, in which a few of the ossicula of the arms remain attached to the margin.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 7.</span> Another receptacle, in which the plates called by Mr. Parkinson "clavicles and scapulæ," -are retained in their natural positions.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 8.</span> A receptacle, in which the principal plates are well defined: these are named by -Mr. Parkinson as follow: <i>a</i>, clavicle; <i>b</i>, scapula; <i>c</i>, ossicula of the arms; <i>d</i>, the last -series of the same. The ossicles forming the elongated tentacula, Mr. P. termed -"<i>bones of the fingers</i>."</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 9.</span> Portion of an encrinital stem with digitated processes: the nature of this fossil is -unknown to me.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 10.</span> Three united ossicula of a Pentacrinite with depressions for side-arms: from the -Lias of Lyme Regis.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 11.</span> A distorted pentacrinal ossicle; said to be from Africa.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Figs.</span> 12, & 14, are vertical polished sections of the peduncle, or base of the stem, of the Bradford -Encrinite.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 13.</span> Vertical section of the peduncle of a Pentacrinite from Soissons.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 15.</span> A polished slab of pentacrinal marble from Charmouth, Dorsetshire.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 16.</span> Variously contorted pentacrinal stems with numerous side-arms, from Charmouth.</p></div> - -<div><a id="Plate_51"></a> -<div class="fig_cap_pl">Plate LI.</div> -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 547px;"> -<img src="images/plate51.png" width="547" height="726" alt="" /> -</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[ 121 ]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="caption3nb">PLATE LI.</p> - -<p class="caption4nb"><span class="smcap">Fossil Crinoidea, or Lily-shaped Animals.</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1.</span> Part of the receptacle of the "<i>Nave Encrinite</i>" of Mr. Parkinson (<i>Actinocrinus</i>, of -Miller). Mountain limestone.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 2.</span> A portion of the receptacle of a "<i>Rose Encrinite</i>" (<i>Rhodocrinus</i>), viewed from the base.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 3.</span> The "Nave Encrinite" (<i>Actinocrinus triacontadactylus</i>, or thirty-fingered, of Miller), from -the mountain limestone. This is a good example of the structure of the receptacle -in this group of Crinoideans, which is distinguished by the arms passing off at right -angles from the periphery of the receptacle, like the spokes of a wheel; whence the -name, Nave Encrinite. The upper part is covered by closely adapted plates, and -the buccal aperture or mouth is situated at the side. The stem of this group is -thickly beset with side-arms. (Fig. 7 is a very small detached one.) The arms are -numerous (amounting to thirty in the species figured), and of great length; these -subdivide into jointed filaments of extreme minuteness. Slabs of limestone are often -entirely covered with them, and many layers are wholly made up of their aggregated -remains. The plates of the receptacle are generally highly ornamented: in one -species the sculpturing so closely resembles that of the <i>Marsupites ornatus</i> of the -chalk, that it was with difficulty I convinced Mr. Parkinson that the latter did not -possess a stem, and therefore was not an Actinocrinite.<a name="FNanchor_46" id="FNanchor_46"></a><a href="#Footnote_46" class="fnanchor">[46]</a></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_46" id="Footnote_46"></a><a href="#FNanchor_46"><span class="label">[46]</span></a> See Medals of Creation, p. 325; Wonders of Geology, p. 664; Miller's Crinoidea, p. 94.</p></div> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Figs.</span> 4, & 5. Portions of receptacles of Actinocrinites.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Figs.</span> 6, & 8. Fragments of stems of a Pentacrinite (<i>Pentacrinus scalaris</i>, of Goldfuss); from -Gloucestershire.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 9.</span> A Pentacrinite expanded on a slab of Lias-shale. Gloucestershire.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 10.</span> Stem, receptacle, and arms of a Crinoidean (probably a <i>Cyathocrinite</i>); it is drawn in an -inverted position. The figure is stated by Mr. Parkinson to be copied "from a plate -by Dr. Capeller." Neither the locality, nor the stratum from which it was obtained, -is mentioned.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 11.</span> Part of the stem of a Pentacrinite (<i>P. basaltiformis</i>, of Miller); from the Lias. -Gloucestershire.</p></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[ 122 ]</a></span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 12.</span> The receptacle of a Crinoidean (<i>Platycrinus lævis</i>, of Miller); from the mountain limestone, -Ireland. Fig. 13, ossicles of the arms; and fig. 14, joints of the stems, slightly -magnified.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 15.</span> "The superior part of the Briaræan pentacrinite."—<i>Mr. Parkinson.</i> (<i>Pentacrinus Briareus</i>, -of Miller.) The specimen is a slab of Lias, almost wholly made up of crinoideal -remains. In relief on the surface are the stems and dislocated ossicles of the receptacle; -the latter are thus enumerated by Mr. Parkinson;—<i>a</i>, scapula; <i>b</i>, clavicle; -<i>c</i>, first bone of the arm; <i>d</i>, second arm-bone; <i>e</i>, commencement of the two series of -bones forming the fingers.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 16</span>, is another slab of pentacrinal Lias limestone, with portions of a stem and numerous side-arms: -these are generally electrotyped, as it were, with a brilliant pyrites, giving -a rich metallic lustre to the animal remains. In the British Museum there are many -splendid specimens of this highly interesting family of Radiaria. I would especially -direct the intelligent visitor's attention to a slab of stone, many feet in height and -breadth, on which a group of Pentacrinites is displayed, as palpable and perfect as if -the animals were sporting in their native element. This matchless specimen is from -Germany.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 17.</span> One of the small auxiliary lateral tentacles of a Pentacrinite.</p></div> - -<div><a id="Plate_52"></a> -<div class="fig_cap_pl">Plate LII.</div> -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 513px;"> -<img src="images/plate52.png" width="513" height="730" alt="" /> -</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[ 123 ]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="caption3nb">PLATE LII.</p> - -<p class="caption4nb"><span class="smcap">Pentacrinites.</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1.</span> This specimen displays the usual appearance of the mode in which the arms of -Pentacrinites are spread out in relief on the pyritous lias limestone of Charmouth.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 2.</span> The arms, from the upper part of the receptacle to their third or fourth subdivision of -the Briaræan Pentacrinite. Charmouth.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 3.</span> A small specimen, showing the ramifications and delicacy of the extremities of the arms -or tentacula.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 4.</span> "A fossil body, supposed to be a species of oval encrinite."—<i>Mr. Parkinson.</i> This -fossil is certainly a coral, probably some species of Turbinolia, from the Devonian -formation.</p></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[ 124 ]</a></span></p> - -<div><a id="Plate_53"></a> -<div class="fig_cap_pl">Plate LIII.</div> -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 564px;"> -<img src="images/plate53.png" width="564" height="722" alt="" /> -</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[ 125 ]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="caption3nb">PLATE LIII.</p> - -<p class="caption4nb"><span class="smcap">Fossil Star-Fishes and Echini.</span></p> - -<p>The radiated animals popularly called Star-fishes, from their stellular figure, are so -abundant along our sea shores, that the nature of the common five-rayed species (<i>Asterias</i>, or -<i>Uraster rubens</i>)<a name="FNanchor_47" id="FNanchor_47"></a><a href="#Footnote_47" class="fnanchor">[47]</a> must be familiar to most of my readers. This species belongs to the group in -which the rays are elongated, and far exceed in length the diameter of the disk; in another subdivision -(the <i>Goniaster</i>, or Cushion-star), the body is angular, and the lobes or rays are short, and -do not exceed in length the diameter of the body. In another group (the <i>Comatula</i>, or Feather-star), -the rays are fringed with long jointed tentacula, which divide and subdivide like those of -the Crinoidea; and these star-fishes may, in fact, be regarded as free Lily-shaped animals.<a name="FNanchor_48" id="FNanchor_48"></a><a href="#Footnote_48" class="fnanchor">[48]</a> -There is another tribe in which the arms are elongated into slender rays, without grooves or -tentacula; these are called the Serpent Star-fishes (<i>Ophiura</i>). Species of all these groups occur -in a fossil state.<a name="FNanchor_49" id="FNanchor_49"></a><a href="#Footnote_49" class="fnanchor">[49]</a></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_47" id="Footnote_47"></a><a href="#FNanchor_47"><span class="label">[47]</span></a> See Professor Forbes's delightful "History of the British Star-Fishes."</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_48" id="Footnote_48"></a><a href="#FNanchor_48"><span class="label">[48]</span></a> In the young state the Comatulæ have a jointed stem, and are attached to other bodies; being in this stage true -Crinoideans.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_49" id="Footnote_49"></a><a href="#FNanchor_49"><span class="label">[49]</span></a> Medals of Creation, p. 332.</p></div> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1.</span> "Part of a fossil lunated star from the chalk of Kent."—<i>Mr. Parkinson.</i> (<i>Goniaster semilunata</i>, -of Parkinson; <i>Goniaster Parkinsoni</i>, of Prof. E. Forbes). Remains of Star-fishes -are by no means rare in the chalk strata of Kent; in those of Sussex they are -far less common. When the "Fossils of the South Downs" was published, in 1822, -a few fragments only had been discovered. Of late years, some beautiful examples -have been obtained from the chalk-pits near Arundel and Worthing, by Mr. Dixon, -Mr. Coombe, Mrs. Smith, of Tunbridge Wells, and other collectors. The cabinet -of the Marquess of Northampton is very rich in this class of fossils. Several unique -examples of new species have been obtained from the chalk near Maidstone.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 2.</span> "An echinite, from France."—<i>Mr. Parkinson.</i> The locality of this fossil is uncertain; -no similar specimen is known either to Mr. Morris, or the other eminent palæontologists -I have consulted; and the original cannot be discovered. I have reason to -believe it was purchased, after Mr. Parkinson's death, together with the greater -number of the fossils already described, by an American gentleman, and taken to the -United States.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 3.</span> "Part of a stellite or fossil star-fish, resembling <i>Pentagonaster regularis</i>."—<i>Mr. -Parkinson.</i> This well-known chalk species (<i>Goniaster Mantelli</i>, of Prof. E. Forbes), -occurs frequently in an imperfect state in the quarries near Gravesend. The collection -of the Marquess of Northampton contains a perfect and exquisite specimen -attached to a flint, from that locality.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 4.</span> A beautiful example of the Turban Echinite (<i>Cidaris Parkinsoni</i>, of Dr. Fleming), from -Wiltshire.</p></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[ 126 ]</a></span></p> - -<p>The <i>Cidaris</i>, or Turban Echinite, belongs to the family of radiated animals, of which the -recent Sea-urchin (<i>Echinus sphæra</i>) is a well-known example. The globular shell or envelope of -these animals is composed of numerous calcareous polygonal plates, arranged in regular and -elegant patterns, like the lines of the meridian on a globe. These plates are externally covered -with papillæ of various sizes, to which spines of corresponding magnitude are articulated. In -some of the <i>Cidares</i> the principal tubercles are very large, and their spines several inches in length. -The number and variety of the animals of this family that occur in a fossil state are so great, that -a work expressly devoted to the subject would be required to thoroughly investigate the -characters and relations of the known species. An elementary knowledge of this class of fossil -remains may be obtained by reference to "Medals of Creation," chap. xi. p. 240.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 5.</span> Part of the case of a Cidaris attached to a flint by its outer surface, surrounded by -upwards of twenty spines; the interior of the shell, of a light pink colour, is exposed. -This exquisite fossil is now in the cabinet of the Marquess of Northampton. It was -purchased by Mr. Parkinson for the sum of twenty guineas; but this was in the -palmy days of the study of organic remains, before the terms Geology and Palæontology -were invented, and when a choice relic of "a former world" was cheap at -any price, in the opinion of the enthusiastic collector.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 6.</span> A Turban Echinite (<i>Cidaris</i> (<i>Hemicidaris</i>, of Agassiz) <i>crenularis</i>, of Lamarck): from the -Coral Rag of Wiltshire.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 7.</span> A siliceous cast—that is, a flint that has been moulded in the interior of the shell, and -received the impress of the internal structure—of "<i>Cidaris corollaris</i>," of Parkinson; -(<i>Cyphosoma correlare</i>, of Agassiz): from Sussex.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 8.</span> Cidaris with spines, from the Oolite of Stonesfield.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 9.</span> A specimen of one of the Cidares with large tubercles (<i>Cidaris coronatus</i>, of Goldfuss); -from the Coral Rag, Oxfordshire.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 10.</span> An elegant chalk echinus (<i>Cidaris Königi</i>, of Mantell;<a name="FNanchor_50" id="FNanchor_50"></a><a href="#Footnote_50" class="fnanchor">[50]</a> <i>Cyphosoma Milleri</i>, of Agassiz; -<i>C. granulosus</i>, of Goldfuss): from Kent.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_50" id="Footnote_50"></a><a href="#FNanchor_50"><span class="label">[50]</span></a> Fossils of the South Downs, p. 189. (1822.)</p></div> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 11.</span> A fine species from the chalk at Gravesend (<i>Cidaris vesiculosus</i>, of Goldfuss).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 12.</span> A peculiar type of Cidaris (<i>Salenia scutigera</i>, of Goldfuss), from the freestone or upper -greensand of Warminster, Wilts.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 13.</span> Another species of the same genus (<i>Salenia stellulata</i>, of Agassiz); from Warminster.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 14.</span> An enlarged view of part of the structure around the vertex of fig. 13.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 15.</span> A species of Feather-star (<i>Comatula pectinata</i>, of Goldfuss); from Solenhofen.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Figs.</span> 17, 18, 19, 20. "Minute <i>Stellitæ</i> (that is, fossil Star-fish); from Verona."—<i>Mr. Parkinson.</i> -These are probably the bodies or disks of <i>Ophiuræ</i> deprived of their arms.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 16.</span> The nature of the specimen figured is unknown to me.</p></div> - -<div><a id="Plate_54"></a> -<div class="fig_cap_pl">Plate LIV.</div> -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 565px;"> -<img src="images/plate54.png" width="565" height="712" alt="" /> -</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[ 127 ]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="caption3nb">PLATE LIV.</p> - -<p class="caption4nb"><span class="smcap">Various Species of Fossil Sea-Urchins.</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1.</span> A large, discoidal echinite, of the type called <i>Clypeus</i> or <i>Shield-echinus</i>, (<i>Clypeus sinuatus</i>, -of Leske,) from the Coral Rag of Oxfordshire. This species abounds in the beds of -this division of the Oolite in Berkshire, Wiltshire, Gloustershire, &c.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 2.</span> "<i>Echinanthites orbicularis</i> (<i>Pygurus</i>) of Leske."—Mr. Parkinson.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 3.</span> An imperfect flint cast of an echinus (<i>Discoidea</i>), from the South Downs.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 4.</span> The Helmet Echinite, (<i>Ananchytes ovatus</i>, of Lamarck,) from the Chalk of Kent. This is -a characteristic species of the white chalk, and abounds in the strata of the North -and South Downs. At Northfleet, near Gravesend, the quarry-men find beautiful -specimens.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 5.</span> An oval echinite (<i>Nucleolites</i>,) from Verona.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 6.</span> A portion of a very flat echinite, in which the rays or ambulacra are in a floriform -arrangement, (<i>Echinodiscus bisperforatus</i>, of Parkinson; <i>Lobophora biperforata</i>, of -Desor,) from Tertiary Strata, Verona.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 7.</span> A small discoidal echinite (<i>Discoidea subuculus</i>, of Leske,) from the upper greensand of -Warminster.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 8.</span> The floriform radiated part of the shell of an echinite (<i>Clypeaster</i>), from the tertiary -strata of Malta.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 9.</span> A cast in flint of part of the interior of the case or shell of an echinite.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 10.</span> An elegant conical echinite (<i>Conulus albogalerus</i>, of Leske; <i>Galerites</i>, of Agassiz), common -in the chalk of Kent and Sussex.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 11.</span> View of the base of fig. 10, showing the situation of the two apertures of the shell.</p></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[ 128 ]</a></span></p> - -<div><a id="Plate_55"></a> -<div class="fig_cap_pl">Plate LV.</div> -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 572px;"> -<img src="images/plate55.png" width="572" height="731" alt="" /> -</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[ 129 ]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="caption3nb">PLATE LV.</p> - -<p class="caption4nb"><span class="smcap">Fossil Sea-Urchins, or Echinites.</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1.</span> The shell of a Turban Echinite (<i>Cidaris saxatilis</i>, of Parkinson), broken in two, and each -piece imbedded in the same fragment of flint. From Kent.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 2.</span> A round Buckler Echinite (<i>Echinodiscus</i> (<i>Clypeaster</i>) <i>subrotundus</i>, of Parkinson), from Italy.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 3.</span> The upper surface of an Echinite (<i>Spatangites</i> (<i>Disaster</i>, of Agassiz) <i>ovalis</i>, of Parkinson); -from Scarborough.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 4.</span> View of the upper, and fig. 5, of the lower surface of an Echinite, (<i>Spatangus</i> -(<i>Hemipneaster</i>, of Agassiz) <i>radiatus</i>, of Parkinson,) from the cretaceous strata of St. -Peter's Mountain, Maestricht.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 6.</span> A small Echinite (<i>Echinites</i> (<i>Nucleolites</i>, of Leske) <i>pyriformis</i>, of Parkinson), from the -cretaceous strata of Maestricht.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 7.</span> A small Echinite of a different genus (<i>Echinites</i> (<i>Cassidulus</i>, of Lamarck,) <i>Lapis cancri</i>, of -Parkinson), from Maestricht.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 8.</span> An Echinite (<i>Spatangites</i> (<i>Nucleolites</i>) <i>brissoides ovalis</i>, of Parkinson). Locality unknown.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 9.</span> A beautiful specimen of a large heart-shaped Echinite of a recent species (<i>Spatangus -purpureus</i>), from a modern tertiary deposit, Malta.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 10.</span> An Echinite (<i>Echinodiscus</i> (<i>Clypeaster</i>) <i>laganum</i>, of Parkinson), from a tertiary deposit, -Verona.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 11.</span> This Is a very abundant Spatangus or heart-shaped echinite, (<i>Spatangus cor marinum</i>, of -Parkinson; <i>Cor testudinarium,</i> of Goldfuss; <i>Micraster cor anguinum</i>, of Agassiz,) in -the chalk of Kent, and some parts of Sussex. Siliceous casts, forming cordiform -flints, with deep imprints of the pentapetalous rays on the vertex, are common -among the stones of the ploughed fields of the Downs.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 12.</span> A <i>Spatangite</i>, (<i>Spatangus</i> (<i>Micraster</i>, of Agassiz) <i>lacunosus</i>, of Parkinson), from tertiary -strata, Malta,</p></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[ 130 ]</a></span></p> - -<div><a id="Plate_56"></a> -<div class="fig_cap_pl">Plate LVI.</div> -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 560px;"> -<img src="images/plate56.png" width="560" height="723" alt="" /> -</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[ 131 ]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="caption3nb">PLATE LVI.</p> - -<p class="caption4nb"><span class="smcap">Echinites and Echinital Spines.</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1.</span> A fragment of the shell of a Turban Echinite, with three clavated or club-shaped spines -attached, on chalk, from Kent (<i>Cidaris claviger</i>, of König). The inner surface of the -fragment of shell is exposed.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 2.</span> A crushed shell of an elegant species of Turban Echinite (<i>Cidaris sceptrifera</i>, of Mantell), -on a block of chalk; with two displaced spines near it. The sceptre-like form of the -spines suggested the specific name. The chalk has been carefully cut away so as to -display the shell and spines as much as possible without detaching them. From -Sussex; common in the chalk near Gravesend.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 3.</span> Part of the shell, with two spines of another species (<i>Cidaris vesiculosus</i>, of Goldfuss), -from Kent.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 4.</span> "A fossil echinital spine resembling a belemnite."—<i>Mr. Parkinson.</i> I am unable to -determine either the species or locality of this fossil: it is indeed doubtful whether it -is a spine of an echinus.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Figs.</span> 5 to 19, represent various kinds of echinital spines of Turban Echinites or Cidarites.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 5.</span> "A fossil spine named '<i>Bacolo di Santo Paulo</i>,' by Scilla."—<i>Mr. Parkinson.</i> From Verona.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Figs.</span> 6, 8, 9, 10, 11, 14, 15, 16, 17, & 18, are, I believe, referable to various species of Cidaris -that occur in the Oolite or Jurassic deposits.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Figs.</span> 9 and 11. Species of <i>Cidaris glandiferus</i>, of Goldfuss.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 15</span>, is a well known form, which occurs in thousands in the Oolite Limestone, the Coral Rag, -of Caen, and other localities in Wiltshire; it belongs to a beautiful Cidarite (<i>Cidaris -Blumenbachii</i><a name="FNanchor_51" id="FNanchor_51"></a><a href="#Footnote_51" class="fnanchor">[51]</a>), which is occasionally found with similar spines attached.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_51" id="Footnote_51"></a><a href="#FNanchor_51"><span class="label">[51]</span></a> See Wonders of Geology, vol. ii. p. 500, figs. 3 and 6.</p></div> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 12.</span> "A flat serrated spine from Verona."—<i>Mr. Parkinson.</i> It belongs to the <i>Cidaris -Schmidelii</i>, of Goldfuss.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 7.</span> The interior of the upper part or vertex of a large Echinus, from the tertiary strata of -Malta. The greater portion of the shell is broken away, but a small fragment -showing the outer surface remains on the upper left hand of the specimen. The five -large petalous ambulacra are beautifully seen. Perfect examples of this echinite -(<i>Echinanthus Clypeaster altus</i>, of Parkinson), are not uncommon.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 19.</span> A spine of <i>Cidaris sceptrifera</i>, from the chalk of Kent.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 20.</span> An elegant Turban Echinite, (<i>Hemicidaris crenularis</i>, of Lamarck,) common in the Coral -Rag of Wiltshire. Groups of this beautiful echinoderm, with numerous spines -attached, are found at Caen. I have seen on one slab of limestone, upwards of -twenty individuals with the spines radiating round the shell, as if the animals were -alive on a mud bank in shallow water.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 21.</span> A fragment of the shell with two spines (<i>Cidaris claviger</i>), attached to a flint; from Kent.</p></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[ 132 ]</a></span></p> - -<div><a id="Plate_57"></a> -<div class="fig_cap_pl">Plate LVII.</div> -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 556px;"> -<img src="images/plate57.png" width="556" height="713" alt="" /> -</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[ 133 ]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="caption3nb">PLATE LVII.</p> - -<p class="caption4nb"><span class="smcap">Fossil Shells.</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Figs.</span> 1, & 3. Upper and under view of a discoidal spiral univalve shell (<i>Euomphalus pentangulatus</i>, -of Sowerby), from the mountain limestone of Derbyshire. The extinct -genus Euomphalus, a name suggestive of the deeply excavated disk, comprises many -species which occur in the Silurian, Devonian, and Carboniferous formations. The -shell has chambers, or rather obsolete cavities sealed up by a shelly partition, in the -abandoned part of the spire.<a name="FNanchor_52" id="FNanchor_52"></a><a href="#Footnote_52" class="fnanchor">[52]</a></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_52" id="Footnote_52"></a><a href="#FNanchor_52"><span class="label">[52]</span></a> Medals of Creation, pp. 425-427.</p></div> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 2.</span> An elegant univalve shell, completely silicified or transmuted into flint (<i>Natica canrena</i>, -of Parkinson, <i>Natica Gentii</i>, of Sowerby), from the upper greensand of Blackdown.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Figs.</span> 4, & 6. Two views of the same specimen; a univalve (<i>Nerita conoidea</i>, of Lamarck), in -which the apex or upper part is destroyed, and the interior of the shell is filled with -yellowish brown chalcedony; in fig. 4, a cast of the spire is seen, and in fig. 6, the -mouth of the shell, with the chalcedony partially filling up the interior. From -tertiary strata near Paris.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 5.</span> A beautiful fossil univalve shell, from the "Red Crag" of Suffolk, known to collectors -as the "Essex reversed whelk," from the spire being coiled in the opposite direction -to the common mode; the mouth is consequently situated to the left of the observer; -the same species occurs with the spire in the usual direction. This shell is the -<i>Murex</i> (<i>Fusus</i>) <i>contrarius</i>, of Parkinson.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Figs.</span> 7, & 8. Under and upper view of another species of Euomphalus (<i>E. rugosus</i>, of Sowerby), -from the Wenlock limestone, Dudley.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 9.</span> An enlarged view of fig. 10. "A shell of the genus <i>Sigaretus</i>."—<i>Mr. Parkinson.</i> -Mr. Morris thinks it is merely an operculum of a small univalve.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 11.</span> A chambered cephalopodous shell (<i>Lituites lituus</i>, of Hisinger), from Silurian strata, -Sweden.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Figs.</span> 12, & 13. These curious contorted bodies are named "<i>Vermiculitæ</i>" by Mr. Parkinson. -They occur in the cream-coloured limestone of Pappenheim and Solenhofen. They -are termed "<i>Lumbricaria colon</i>" by Goldfuss; and "<i>Cololites</i>" by M. Agassiz; the -last-named eminent naturalist has demonstrated that they are the fossilized intestines -of fishes.<a name="FNanchor_53" id="FNanchor_53"></a><a href="#Footnote_53" class="fnanchor">[53]</a></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_53" id="Footnote_53"></a><a href="#FNanchor_53"><span class="label">[53]</span></a> See Dr. Buckland's Bridgewater Essay, vol. ii. plate 15.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[ 134 ]</a></span></p></div> - -<div><a id="Plate_58"></a> -<div class="fig_cap_pl">Plate LVIII.</div> -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 558px;"> -<img src="images/plate58.png" width="558" height="737" alt="" /> -</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[ 135 ]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="caption3nb">PLATE LVIII.</p> - -<p class="caption4nb"><span class="smcap">Fossil Shells.</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1.</span> "Part of a hexahedral Serpulite."—<i>Mr. Parkinson.</i></p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 2.</span> A silicified mass of delicate filiform serpulæ, from the upper greensand of Devonshire -(<i>Serpula filiformis</i>, of Sowerby).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 3.</span> Portion of a species of <i>Siliquaria</i>, from tertiary strata, France. It is the shell of an -Annelide related to <i>Dentalium</i>.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 5.</span> A spiral Serpulite (it resembles the <i>Serpula conica</i>); probably from the cretaceous beds -of the Isle of Rugen.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 6</span>, is a piece of polished sandstone, from the upper greensand of Wiltshire, "the -markings on which are produced by sections of a species of Serpula (<i>Vermetus -concavus</i>, of Sowerby)."—<i>Mr. Morris.</i></p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 7.</span> A species of <i>Vermetus</i>; from Bayonne?</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Figs.</span> 8, & 9. A species of <i>Vermetus</i> which abounds in the coarse arenaceous limestone of -Bognor Rocks, in Sussex (<i>Vermetus Bognoriensis</i>, of Sowerby).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 10.</span> "A section of the shell of a Nautilus, to show that the siphuncle sometimes suffered -distension."—<i>Mr. Parkinson.</i></p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 11.</span> A species of Serpula (<i>Serpula ampullacea</i>, of Sowerby), from the chalk of Kent.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 12.</span> A fragment of the back or dorsal part of the shell of a fossil Nautilus (<i>Nautilus centralis</i>, -of Sowerby), from the London clay, Brentford. The outer shell is broken away, -and the siphuncle, traversing five of the septa of the chambers, is exposed.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 13.</span> "The outline of the back of a Nautilus."—<i>Mr. Parkinson.</i></p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 14.</span> An Orthoceratite (<i>Orthoceras annulatum</i>, of Sowerby; <i>O. undulatum</i>, of Kissinger), -from the Wenlock Limestone, Dudley.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 15.</span> A fragment of a fossil Nautilus (<i>Nautilus Parkinsoni</i>, of Mr. Edwards), from the -London clay of Harwich. It shows the situation of the siphuncle and the form -of the septa, as indicated by the sinuous transverse lines.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 16.</span> A polished section of a Nautilus (<i>N. truncatus</i>, of Sowerby), from the Inferior Oolite -of Yeovil, Somersetshire. The chambers are filled up with crystalline limestone, -with the exception of the six outermost cells, in which are left hollows that are -lined with calcareous spar.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 17.</span> Polished section of an Orthoceratite, from the Silurian strata of Oëland, Sweden.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 18.</span> The discoidal part of a Lituite from the same locality as fig. 17.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 19.</span> a polished slab of grey marble, from the Devonian formation of the Rhine. The -figures are sections of <i>Orthoceratites</i>, <i>a</i>; and <i>Lituites</i>, <i>b</i>.</p></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[ 136 ]</a></span></p> - -<div><a id="Plate_59"></a> -<div class="fig_cap_pl">Plate LIX.</div> -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 559px;"> -<img src="images/plate59.png" width="559" height="730" alt="" /> -</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[ 137 ]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="caption3nb">PLATE LIX.</p> - -<p class="caption4nb"><span class="smcap">Fossil Cephalopoda, &c.</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1.</span> A fossil shell named Hippurite (<i>Hippurites bioculatus</i>, of D'Orbigny), from the south -of France. This shell belongs to a family termed <i>Rudistes</i>, whose characters -are somewhat problematical,—some naturalists referring them to the bivalves, -and others to the univalves. The Hippurite is generally of an elongated conical -form, and has internally two obtuse longitudinal ridges; the base is sometimes -partitioned by transverse septa.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 5</span>, is a longitudinal section of a specimen in which septa are displayed. The aperture -is closed by a moveable operculum, or upper valve, as in the specimen fig. 1. The -substance of the shell is cellular and very thick, and when fractured, resembles -that of the lamelliferous corals. Some kinds attain a large size, and are called -"petrified horns" by the inhabitants of the districts in the Pyrenees where they -abound. Though Hippurites are abundant in the chalk of the south of France, and -in Spain and Portugal, none have been found in England. The <i>Spherulite</i>, a -nearly allied genus, which has no internal longitudinal ridges, occurs in the chalk -of Sussex: it was first discovered near Lewes. (<i>Spherulites Mortoni</i>, of Mantell.)<a name="FNanchor_54" id="FNanchor_54"></a><a href="#Footnote_54" class="fnanchor">[54]</a></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_54" id="Footnote_54"></a><a href="#FNanchor_54"><span class="label">[54]</span></a> Medals of Creation, p. 428.</p></div> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 2.</span> The siphuncle of a very large Orthoceratite ("related to the genus <i>Ormoceras</i>," Mr. -Morris), from the Rhine.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Figs.</span> 3 & 4, "show the direction in which the siphuncle in Orthoceratites intersects the septa."</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 6.</span> Siphuncle of an orthoceratite (related to <i>Orthoceras duplex</i>, of Kissinger), from the -Silurian strata, Sweden.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 7.</span> An Orthoceratite (<i>O. pyriforme</i>, of Sowerby), from the Silurian strata, Dudley.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Figs.</span> 8-15. Various kinds of Belemnites.</p></div> - -<p>In the "<a href="#SupNote_2"><i>Supplementary Notes</i></a>" I have, under the head, "<i>Belemnites</i>," explained somewhat -fully the nature of those fossils which, by the name of "thunderbolts," have for so many -centuries excited the interest and perplexed the ingenuity of collectors of fossil remains. -Referring the reader to that note, I shall therefore in this place merely give such specific -names of the specimens figured by Mr. Parkinson as I have been able to determine.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 8.</span> "A Belemnite of large size," Mr. Parkinson. This specimen is part of the phragmocone -from near the lower apical portion, partially invested with the fibrous rostrum -or guard. It is the species named <i>Belemnites giganteus</i> by M. D'Orbigny; from -the Oxford clay of Wiltshire.</p> -<span class="pagenum x-ebookmaker-drop"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[ 138 ]</a></span> -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 9.</span> The guard of a Belemnite, eroded by some Annelide.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 10</span>, is a vertical section of a fragment of a Belemnite, showing the alveolus or cavity -for the reception of the apex of the phragmocone in the upper part.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 11.</span> The distal or apical part of the rostrum or guard of a Belemnite. The annexed -outline of a transverse section exhibits the radiated structure.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 12.</span> The distal part of the guard of a chalk Belemnite (<i>Belemnitella mucronata</i>); from -Norwich. Siliceous casts of the phragmocone of <i>Belemnitella</i> are occasionally met -with in the flints of the South Downs. This phragmocone has a longitudinal flat -band or ridge, extending down the dorsal aspect: the chambers are very numerous; -the slit or fissure in the ventral aspect of the guard, is occupied by a thin expansion -of the phragmocone.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 13.</span> A Belemnite from the great oolite of Stonesfield (<i>Belemnites fusiformis</i>, of Parkinson). -The upper part shows the alveolus for the reception of the apex of the phragmocone.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 14.</span> A fragment of a guard split vertically, the flat surface showing a section of the -alveolus filled with spar. This specimen belongs to the <i>Belemnites cylindriformis</i>, -of Parkinson.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 15.</span> a Belemnite (<i>Belemnites coniformis</i>, of Parkinson), having part of the guard broken -off, to show the alveolus or hollow in which the apical part of the phragmocone -is received. The removed portion has the cast of the alveolus attached to it.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 16</span>, of which fig. 17, is an enlarged view, is a species of chambered foraminiferous -shell, called <i>Nodosaria</i> (<i>N. raphanistrum</i>, of Lamarck); from Sienna. See description -of <a href="#Plate_62">Plate LXII.</a></p></div> - -<div><a id="Plate_60"></a> -<div class="fig_cap_pl">Plate LX.</div> -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 575px;"> -<img src="images/plate60.png" width="575" height="714" alt="" /> -</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[ 139 ]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="caption3nb">PLATE LX.</p> - -<p class="caption4nb"><span class="smcap">Ammonites.</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1.</span> A Belemnite (<i>Belemnitella mucronata</i>) attached to a flint. Kent.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 2.</span> Cast of part of a straight-chambered shell (<i>Baculites Fraujasii</i>, of Lamarck), in which the -septa, or partitions, are deeply and regularly sinuated. In fossils of this kind, the -cast of each chamber is distinct from the others; but the series is held together by -the flexuosities of the septa. From Maestricht.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 3.</span> A limestone cast of the chamber of an Ammonite: from Bath. The elongated channel -in the middle indicates the position of the siphuncle.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 4.</span> Fragment of an Ammonite, showing cavities of two chambers, and the canal of the -siphuncle, partly lined with calcareous spar.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 5.</span> Polished sections of an Ammonite (<i>Ammonites Walcotii</i>) from the Lias, Whitby. The -chambers are filled with semi-transparent spar. The siphunculus is seen running -along the dorsal, or outer margins of the volutions. The dark appearances observable -in several parts of the siphuncle result from the carbonization of the animal membrane -with which the tube was lined in the living state.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 6.</span> "An <i>Oval Ammonite</i>."—<i>Mr. Parkinson.</i> This is evidently the cast of a discoidal shell -pressed into an elliptical form. In the Chalk-marl, casts of Ammonites, Nautilites, -&c. are very commonly more or less distorted by compression. The marl appears to -have remained in a plastic state after the decomposition of the shell in which it was -moulded, and to have admitted of being squeezed into close contact with the -surrounding matrix; when the stratum became consolidated the cast retained its -accidental shape, and adhering but slightly to the investing marl, was separable by a -properly directed blow. This explains the otherwise unintelligible fact of a cast -being closely invested by the rock, and all traces of the shell in which it was formed -absent. When both the cast and the matrix became solid and uncompressible before -the shell was decomposed, then loose casts were formed; as is common in the Portland -stone, &c. The fossil figured appears to be an indifferent example of a common -chalk-marl species (<i>Ammonites Mantelli</i>, of Sowerby).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 7.</span> A beautiful cast of an Ammonite, in which the foliaceous septa transmuted into pyrites -(sulphuret of iron, or <i>marcasite</i>), are exquisitely shown.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 8.</span> A very fine specimen of an Ammonite (<i>Ammonites latus</i>, of Sowerby), from the "<i>Galt</i>;" -a subdivision of the Lower chalk, in which Ammonites, with their pearly shells -beautifully preserved, are abundant. From Folkstone, in Kent; a celebrated locality -for these and other fossils of the same cretaceous deposits.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 9.</span> Sections of a pyritous cast of an Ammonite, showing the sinuous edges of the septa.</p></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[ 140 ]</a></span></p> - -<div><a id="Plate_61"></a> -<div class="fig_cap_pl">Plate LXI.</div> -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 570px;"> -<img src="images/plate61.png" width="570" height="723" alt="" /> -</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[ 141 ]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="caption3nb">PLATE LXI.</p> - -<p class="caption4nb"><span class="smcap">Fossil Cephalopoda, &c.</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1.</span> Part of the cast of a species of Hamite (<i>Hamites intermedius</i>, of Sowerby), from the -Gait of Folkstone. The name <i>Hamites</i> was employed by Mr. Parkinson to designate -a genus of chambered shells, in which the direction of the spire, instead of being -straight, as in <i>Baculites</i>, or discoidal, as in <i>Ammonites</i>, was bent like a hook beyond -the inner reflected part. All the specimens here figured are but fragments.<a name="FNanchor_55" id="FNanchor_55"></a><a href="#Footnote_55" class="fnanchor">[55]</a></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_55" id="Footnote_55"></a><a href="#FNanchor_55"><span class="label">[55]</span></a> Medals of Creation, vol. ii. p. 500.</p></div> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Figs.</span> 2, & 5. Portions of <i>Hamites intermedius</i>, of Sowerby.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 3.</span> <i>Hamites plicatilis</i>, of Sowerby.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 4.</span> A fragment of <i>Hamites rotundus</i>, of Sowerby.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Figs.</span> 6, & 7. Two views of a species of an extinct genus, the shells of which, though not -chambered, are supposed to have been inhabited by Cephalopoda, like the recent -Argonaut. The specimen (<i>Bellerophon costatus</i>, of Sowerby) is from the Mountain -limestone of Derbyshire.<a name="FNanchor_56" id="FNanchor_56"></a><a href="#Footnote_56" class="fnanchor">[56]</a></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_56" id="Footnote_56"></a><a href="#FNanchor_56"><span class="label">[56]</span></a> Ibid p. 477.</p></div> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Figs.</span> 8, & 9. An Ammonite with a contracted aperture, and three deep constrictions across -the disk. From the Inferior oolite of Normandy.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Figs.</span> 10, & 11. Two specimens of "<i>Scaphites</i>, or Boat-like Ammonite," of Mr. Parkinson. -A remarkable cretaceous genus of extinct cephalopoda. The specimens figured are -from the Lower chalk of Sussex (<i>Scaphites costatus</i>, of Mantell; <i>S. equalis</i>, of Sowerby).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 12.</span> Cast of a spiral chambered shell, called <i>Turrilite</i>, of which many species occur in the -lower cretaceous strata (<i>Turrilites costatus</i>, of Langius). The quarries of lower chalk -at St. Catharine's Mount, near Rouen, in Normandy, have long been celebrated for -the number and perfection of specimens of this elegant type of cephalopodous shells. -The first known English examples of this genus, as well as of Scaphites, were -discovered by me in the chalk marl, at Hamsey, near Lewes, in Sussex, in 1810. -Several very fine specimens of a large species (<i>Turrilites tuberculatus</i>), some of which -are more than two feet in length, have been obtained from the same strata. The -tubercles on the casts of this species are the bases of strong spines. The siphunculus, -in the state of a pyritous cast, is preserved in some examples.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Figs.</span> 13 to 27. These figures all refer to a very curious group of fossils, termed <i>Nummulites</i>, -from the supposed resemblance of some of the flat disks to a piece of money. The -complexity of their internal structure, and the supposed resemblance of their organization -to that of the true Cephalopoda, led to many erroneous opinions as to the -<span class="pagenum x-ebookmaker-drop"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[ 142 ]</a></span> -nature of the originals. That eminent physiologist, Dr. W. B. Carpenter, has recently -investigated the intimate structure of the whole group, and the results are given in -a beautiful and masterly memoir in the Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society -of London.<a name="FNanchor_57" id="FNanchor_57"></a><a href="#Footnote_57" class="fnanchor">[57]</a> Dr. Carpenter has clearly shown that these fossils belong to the -<i>Foraminifera</i>, and not, as some eminent naturalists have supposed, to the <i>Bryozoa</i>, or -"<i>Moss-corals</i>." As the family to which they belong comprises a numerous assemblage -of minute organic remains, many of which are delineated in the next plate (Plate -LXII.), the reader is referred to the "<i>Supplementary Notes</i>," for a general description -of the <a href="#SupNote_12"><i>Foraminifera</i></a>, in which is given a restored figure of the supposed living animal -of the Nummulite, from Dr. Carpenter's memoir.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_57" id="Footnote_57"></a><a href="#FNanchor_57"><span class="label">[57]</span></a> No. 21, for February 1850. "On the Microscopic Structure of Nummulina, Orbitolites and Orbitoides."</p></div> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 13.</span> The usual appearance of the common species of Nummulite (<i>Nummulina lævigata</i>). -From Egypt.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 14.</span> A specimen rubbed down, and exposing the internal cellular structure.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 15.</span> An example in which the outer investment is partly removed.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 16.</span> A vertical section of the same.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 17.</span> This fossil, of which fig. 18, is a vertical section (<i>Nummulites obtusa</i>, of Sowerby), -appears to belong to a different genus; probably <i>Orbitolites</i>, or <i>Marginopora</i>. Tertiary -strata.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 19.</span> A vertical section of a Nummulite, showing a cavity in the centre, probably from -decomposition.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 20.</span> A section of another species of Nummulite (<i>N. dispansa ?</i> of Sowerby);<a name="FNanchor_58" id="FNanchor_58"></a><a href="#Footnote_58" class="fnanchor">[58]</a> Tertiary -strata, India.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_58" id="Footnote_58"></a><a href="#FNanchor_58"><span class="label">[58]</span></a> See Sowerby's Mineral Conchology, vol. i.; and Mantell's Fossils of the South Downs.</p></div> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Figs.</span> 21 to 26, are various sections of a fossil Nummulite, of which fig. 37, represents the flat -surface (<i>Nummulites complanata</i>, of Parkinson. This fossil belongs to the genus -<i>Discospira</i> of Mr. Morris).<a name="FNanchor_59" id="FNanchor_59"></a><a href="#Footnote_59" class="fnanchor">[59]</a></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_59" id="Footnote_59"></a><a href="#FNanchor_59"><span class="label">[59]</span></a> "<i>Discospira</i>, Nov. Gen. Disciform, volutions distrial, not embracing the previous ones, cells numerous." <i>Mr. Morris</i>, 1850.</p></div> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 28.</span> A species of Foraminifera (<i>Fasciolites</i>, of Parkinson; <i>Alveolina elliptica</i>, of D'Orbigny).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 29.</span> A transverse section.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Figs.</span> 30, & 31. Enlarged views of the same fossil. Fig. 31. A longitudinal section.</p></div> - -<div><a id="Plate_62"></a> -<div class="fig_cap_pl">Plate LXII.</div> -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 559px;"> -<img src="images/plate62.png" width="559" height="736" alt="" /> -</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[ 143 ]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="caption3nb">PLATE LXII.</p> - -<p class="caption4nb"><span class="smcap">Fossil Foraminifera.</span></p> - -<p>With the exception of figs. 23, 24, 29, 31 and 32, all the specimens delineated in this Plate -belong to the Foraminifera. The figures represent magnified views; the natural size is indicated -in some instances by a minute outline. Under the article "Foraminifera," in the "<i>Supplementary -Notes</i>," a general account is given of the structure and economy of the living animalcules. -A list of names is subjoined.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Figs.</span> 1, & 2. <i>Rotalia trochiliformis</i>, of Lamarck. Tertiary.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 3.</span> <i>Rotalia Beccarii</i>, of Linnæus. Tertiary.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 4.</span> <i>Cristellaria rotulata</i>, Lamarck. Chalk.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Figs.</span> 5, 6, 7. <i>Lituola nautiloidea</i>, Lamarck. Chalk.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 8.</span> <i>Spirolina depressa</i>, Lamarck. This and the specimens to fig. 21 inclusive, are tertiary -fossils.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 9.</span> <i>Spirolina cylindracea</i>, Lamarck.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 10.</span> <i>Orthocerina clavulus.</i></p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 11.</span> <i>Biloculina ringens</i>, Lamarck.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Figs.</span> 12, & 13. <i>Quinqueloculina cor anguinum</i>, Lamarck.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Figs.</span> 14, 15, & 16. <i>Quinqueloculina.</i></p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Figs.</span> 17, 18, 19. <i>Triloculina trigonula</i>, Lamarck.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 20.</span> <i>Quinqueloculina opposita</i>, Lamarck.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 21.</span> <i>Peneroloplis opercularis</i>.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 22.</span> <i>Adelosina</i>, of D'Orbigny; a recent species.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Figs.</span> 23, & 24. <i>Gyrogonites</i>. The fossils here figured on a magnified scale as microscopic shells -of the same family as those above described, received the name of Gyrogonites, or -twisted stones. They prove to be the seed-vessels of a species of the common fresh-water -plant, the <i>Chara</i>. The fruit of this genus consists of minute nuclei, with an -external calcareous covering, composed of five spirally twisted plates, which unite at -the summit. These fossils occur by myriads in many of the fresh-water secondary -and tertiary limestones, as well as in the calcareous deposits now in progress of -formation in our lakes. In the lacustrine limestones of the Isle of Wight (at -Binstead, White Cliff, &c.), beautiful specimens may be obtained.<a name="FNanchor_60" id="FNanchor_60"></a><a href="#Footnote_60" class="fnanchor">[60]</a> Professor -E. Forbes has discovered Gyrogonites in the Wealden strata of the Isle of Purbeck, -associated with shells of the genera <i>Planorbis</i>, <i>Physa</i>, <i>Paluolina</i>, &c.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_60" id="Footnote_60"></a><a href="#FNanchor_60"><span class="label">[60]</span></a> See Geological Excursions round the Isle of Wight. 2d Edit. 1850, p. 108.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[ 144 ]</a></span></p></div> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 25.</span> <i>Polystomella crispa</i>, of Linnæus. From the tertiary strata of the Apennines.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 26.</span> <i>Cristellaria ?</i></p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Figs.</span> 27, & 28. <i>Rotalia Beccarii</i>. Apennines.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 30.</span> <i>Cristellaria galea</i>, of Lamarck. Apennines.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 29.</span> Cast of a species of Area; a bivalve shell, from tertiary strata, Bordeaux.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 31.</span> A curious pteropodous shell (<i>Vaginella depressa</i>), from tertiary strata, Basterot.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 32.</span> This appears to be an imperfect specimen of a bivalve having a fibrous structure, like -<i>Pinna</i>. It is probably a fragment of an Inoceramus.</p></div> - -<div><a id="Plate_63"></a> -<div class="fig_cap_pl">Plate LXIII.</div> -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 574px;"> -<img src="images/plate63.png" width="574" height="729" alt="" /> -</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[ 145 ]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="caption3nb">PLATE LXIII.</p> - -<p class="caption4nb"><span class="smcap">Trigoniæ.</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Figs.</span> 1, & 2, represent the structure of the hinge in both valves of a genus of bivalves of -which numerous fossil species are met with in the secondary strata, and two or three -species still exist in the Pacific Ocean. The genus is named <i>Trigonia</i>, from the form -of the hinge, and the specific names below are those given by Mr. Parkinson.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 3.</span> <i>Trigonia clavellata</i>, of Parkinson, from the Kimmeridge clay, Hartwell, Bucks.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 4.</span> <i>Trigonia costata</i>, Oxford clay, Wilts.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 5.</span> <i>Trigonia excentrica</i>; upper greensand, Blackdown. Like most of the shells from this -locality, the Trigoniæ are transmuted into silex.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 6.</span> <i>Trigonia dædalea</i>, Blackdown.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 7.</span> —— <i>spinosa</i>, Blackdown.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 8.</span> Enlarged view of the spines of the above.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 9.</span> <i>Trigonia alæformis</i>, Blackdown.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 10.</span> —— <i>rudis</i>, Blackdown.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 11.</span> a bivalve shell of the genus <i>Productus</i> (<i>P. antiquatus</i>, of Sowerby?), from the Mountain -limestone. See description of fig. 9, <a href="#Plate_67">Plate LXVII.</a></p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 12.</span> Cast of a species of <i>Trigonia</i> (<i>T. clavellata</i>), from the Portland rock. Many beds of -this oolitic limestone are almost entirely made up of casts of Trigoniæ, and chiefly of -this species.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 13.</span> <i>Trigonia sinuata</i>, from Blackdown.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Figs.</span> 14 to 18. "Different views of a species of <i>Harpax</i>."—<i>Mr. Parkinson.</i> (<i>Plicatula spinosa</i>). -From the Lias, Gloucestershire.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 14.</span> The inner surface of the flat valve.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 15.</span> Inner surface of the convex valve.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 16.</span> Magnified hinge teeth of the flat, and fig. 17, of the convex valve.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 18.</span> Magnified view of the adpressed spines on the external surface of the shell.</p></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[ 146 ]</a></span></p> - -<div><a id="Plate_64"></a> -<div class="fig_cap_pl">Plate LXIV.</div> -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 569px;"> -<img src="images/plate64.png" width="569" height="747" alt="" /> -</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[ 147 ]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="caption3nb">PLATE LXIV.</p> - -<p class="caption4nb"><span class="smcap">Fossil Shells.</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1.</span> A perfect specimen of one valve, showing the character of the hinge of <i>Cucullæa decussata</i>, -of Parkinson. London clay. Herne Bay.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 2.</span> Interior view of <i>Crassatella tumida</i>, of Lamarck. Eocene strata, Paris.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 3.</span> <i>Cardium Hillanum</i>, of Sowerby. A beautiful silicified bivalve from Blackdown.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 4.</span> <i>Nucula ovum</i>, of Sowerby. A common bivalve, in the Lias, Yorkshire.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 5.</span> Inner view of <i>Cyrena deperdita</i>, of Parkinson. Plastic clay, Woolwich.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 6.</span> <i>Lima gigantea</i>, of Sowerby, from Lyme Regis. This is a young and small specimen -of a large bivalve that occurs in great perfection in the Lias.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 7.</span> <i>Cardinia Listeri</i>, of Sowerby. From the Lias, Gloucestershire.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 8.</span> Cast of a bivalve; genus uncertain.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Figs.</span> 9 to 12. These fossils are the <i>Trigonellites</i> of Mr. Parkinson; and have since been -referred to a genus named <i>Aptychus</i>. Their true relations are very problematical. -Though found in pairs, there is no hinge or natural connexion. Some naturalists -suppose they may belong to the internal organization of Ammonites, because certain -kinds have been found collocated with particular species of that genus of Cepholopoda. -At present I do not think there is any satisfactory evidence as to their -real nature. Species occur in the Kimmeridge clay, and other subdivisions of the -Oolite formation.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Figs.</span> 9, & 12. <i>Trigonellites lata</i>, of Mr. Parkinson.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Figs.</span> 10, & 11. —— <i>lamellosa</i>.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Figs.</span> 13, & 14. <i>Corbida revoluta</i>, of Sowerby. London clay, Highgate.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 16.</span> An imperfect specimen of <i>Lysianassa</i> (<i>Mya</i>) <i>literata</i>, from the fullers' earth of the -Oolite, Wiltshire.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Figs.</span> 15, & 17. <i>Cardita senilis</i>, of Sowerby. From the Red crag of Suffolk.</p></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[ 148 ]</a></span></p> - -<div><a id="Plate_65"></a> -<div class="fig_cap_pl">Plate LXV.</div> -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 576px;"> -<img src="images/plate65.png" width="576" height="723" alt="" /> -</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[ 149 ]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="caption3nb">PLATE LXV.</p> - -<p class="caption4nb"><span class="smcap">Fossil Shells.</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1.</span> A single valve, viewed interiorly, of a fine shell (<i>Panopæa Aldrovandi</i>, of Faujas St. -Fond) from the Pleistocene or Newer Tertiary strata, that form a chain of low hills -near Palermo, in Sicily. The shells in these deposits comprise almost all the genera -and species that now inhabit the Mediterranean. They occur in the most beautiful -state, deprived only of their colour; and groups are often met with of extreme -elegance. The cabinet of the Marquess of Northampton contains an extensive and -unrivalled series of these fossils, collected during his Lordship's residence at -Palermo.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Figs.</span> 2, & 4. A boring bivalve (<i>Fistulana</i> or <i>Lithodomus</i>) from the Oolite, Bath.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Figs.</span> 3, & 5. Valves of a small Oyster from the Crag of Essex.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 6.</span> A group of Lithodomi in limestone from the Oolite, Bradford, Wilts.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 7.</span> A detached specimen from the same, showing the enclosed bivalve.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Figs.</span> 8, & 10. Fine but imperfect specimens of a species of <i>Teredo</i> (<i>Teredina personata</i>, of -Lamarck), from the Plastic clay of Epernay, France.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 9.</span> A snail-shell (<i>Helix arbustorum</i>) found associated, and evidently contemporaneous, -with bones of Mammoth, and extinct species of Deer, and other mammalia. From -Brentford, in a bed of light calcareous earth, twenty feet below the surface.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 11.</span> "A concamerated Teredo."—<i>Mr. Parkinson.</i> I am unable to ascertain the nature -of this fossil.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 12.</span> A species of <i>Fistulana</i>, from France.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 13.</span> External surface of <i>Chama squamosa</i> of Brander. London clay, Hordwell.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Figs.</span> 14, & 15, are the anchylosed caudal vertebræ of the tails of fishes. From the London clay, -Isle of Sheppey.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 16.</span> "A small oyster with a spathose structure."—<i>Mr. Parkinson.</i> This shell is probably -the flat valve of a species of <i>Dianchora</i>, of Sowerby; from the Chalk.</p></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[ 150 ]</a></span></p> - -<div><a id="Plate_66"></a> -<div class="fig_cap_pl">Plate LXVI.</div> -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 550px;"> -<img src="images/plate66.png" width="550" height="741" alt="" /> -</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[ 151 ]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="caption3nb">PLATE LXVI.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fossil Bivalve Shells.</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1.</span> A fossil Oyster (<i>Ostrea Marshii</i>, of Sowerby), from the Cornbrash of the Oolite, -Wiltshire.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 2.</span> The fossil Cockscomb Oyster, (<i>Ostrea carinata</i>, of Lamarck,) from the Lower chalk, -Havre, France.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 3.</span> The elegant fossil shell here figured is a peculiar and most abundant species in the Lias -formation; specimens are not uncommon, in which every part of the shell is as -perfect as if just thrown up on the sea-shore. It belongs to the genus Gryphites -(<i>Gryphea incurva</i>, of Sowerby,) the shells of which are nearly related to the oysters, but -are distinguished by the deep concave under-valve, and its curved beak, and the -almost flat upper shell. The testaceous substance is of a finer laminated structure -than in the Ostrea, and the hinge-ligament is inserted in an elongated curved groove.<a name="FNanchor_61" id="FNanchor_61"></a><a href="#Footnote_61" class="fnanchor">[61]</a></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_61" id="Footnote_61"></a><a href="#FNanchor_61"><span class="label">[61]</span></a> Medals of Creation, vol. i. p. 387.</p></div> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 4.</span> "<i>Ostrea vel frons folium.</i>"—<i>Mr. Parkinson.</i> This species appears to be the <i>Ostrea -gregarea</i> (?) of Sowerby, which occurs in the chlorite marl or firestone of the Lower -chalk in Sussex and Kent.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 5.</span> The fossil is the cast of an oyster-like bivalve, called Perna, (<i>Perna quadrata</i>, of -Sowerby,) which is easily recognisable, even in casts, by the line of distinct teeth -which compose the hinge. This species is abundant in the Portland limestone, -particularly in the quarries around Swindon, in Wiltshire; but from the close -adhesion of the outer surface of the shell to the surrounding stone, they can seldom -be extracted, the casts only being readily obtainable. In the Kimmeridge clay, which -lies above the Portland rock, the shells may be met with in great perfection. The -best locality is near Hartwell, in Buckinghamshire, where the clay is extensively dug -for the brick manufactures.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Figs.</span> 6, & 7. Two views of a small shell of the genus <i>Crenatula</i>, from Bedfordshire.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 8.</span> Portion of a very large species of Perna (<i>Perna maxillata</i>, of Sowerby), from tertiary -strata. Piedmont. The figure shows the inner surface of the shell with part of the -broad crenulated hinge.</p></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[ 152 ]</a></span></p> - -<div><a id="Plate_67"></a> -<div class="fig_cap_pl">Plate LXVII.</div> -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 578px;"> -<img src="images/plate67.png" width="578" height="717" alt="" /> -</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[ 153 ]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="caption3nb">PLATE LXVII.</p> - -<p class="caption4nb"><span class="smcap">Fossil Shells of Brachiopoda, &c.</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1.</span> A species of <i>Radiolites</i> (<i>R. agariciformis</i>, of M. D'Orbigny), from the Cretaceous strata of -France. This genus is only known in a fossil state; it belongs to the same group -of shells (order, <i>Rudistes</i>) as the Spherulites and Hippurites: the lower valve is -conical, and much larger than the upper, which is slightly convex; it is deeply channelled longitudinally.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 2.</span> Smooth valve of a species of Corbula (<i>Corbula gallica</i>, of Lamarck); abundant in some -of the Eocene deposits of the Paris basin.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 3.</span> A single valve; the inner surface is shown in the figure, of a remarkable genus of shells -(<i>Crania personata</i>, of Lamarck), frequently occurring attached to Echinites and other -bodies of the white chalk.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 4.</span> A species of <i>Terebratula</i> (<i>T. diphya</i>, of Lamarck). The shells of this genus belong -to that division of mollusks termed <i>Brachiopoda</i> (arm-feet), from their having -internally two spiral fleshy arms developed from the sides of the alimentary orifice. -These organs are supported by shelly processes, curiously modified in different genera, -which often occur in a fossil state. Although the fossil Terebratulæ are very numerous, -the recent species are but few, and are inhabitants of the seas off Australia. They form -two natural groups; in the one the shells are smooth, but perforated all over with -minute openings or foramina; and these are often filled with a dark substance, which -is the carbonized soft parts: in the other division the shells are plicated or furrowed, -and are not foraminiferous.<a name="FNanchor_62" id="FNanchor_62"></a><a href="#Footnote_62" class="fnanchor">[62]</a> The Spirifers, another group of Brachiopoda, have a pair -of internal spiral appendages.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_62" id="Footnote_62"></a><a href="#FNanchor_62"><span class="label">[62]</span></a> On the structure of shells the reader should consult the admirable papers of Dr. Carpenter, in the British Association -Reports.</p></div> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 5.</span> <i>Terebratula coarctata</i>, of Parkinson. Bradford clay, Wilts.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Figs.</span> 6, & 7, show the internal structure of recent Terebratulæ from New Holland. The -complicated shelly apophyses which supported the arms are quite perfect.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 8.</span> <i>Terebratula triquetra</i>, of Parkinson (<i>T. diphya</i>, of Lamarck); another example of the -species, fig. 4.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Figs.</span> 9, & 10. Different parts of the same specimen of a brachiopodous bivalve belonging to -the genus <i>Productus</i>, so named from the lengthened or produced form of the convex -<span class="pagenum x-ebookmaker-drop"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[ 154 ]</a></span> -valve. "This is generally filled with limestone, which conceals the internal structure; -but, with a slight blow, the shell divides, when the edge of the small valve -rests against the inside of the produced cylindrical part of the larger one; generally -about half an inch from the top of the shell: one side of the valve, before hidden, -fig. 9 <i>a</i>, is then exposed, as shown in fig. 10."—<i>Mr. Parkinson.</i></p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 9.</span> <i>a</i>, the beak of the upper valve; <i>c</i>, a cavity in the superior part of the shell.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 10.</span> The under part of the shell; <i>b</i>, a depression receiving the beak of the upper valve, a.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 10*.</span> The inner surface of another upper valve, having a longitudinal fissure. The species -figured is the <i>Productus Martini</i> of Mr. Sowerby. From the mountain limestone of -Derbyshire; in which deposit numerous examples occur.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 11.</span> a large species of Spirifer (<i>Spirifer striatus</i>, of Sowerby), from the mountain limestone -of Derbyshire. In this species the upper valve is broken away, and one of the large -spiral apophyses is seen lying imbedded in the limestone with which the cavity of the -shell is filled.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 13</span>, is a beautiful example of part of one of the spiral appendages of the same species.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 12.</span> "A patch of square scales of a fish from Dorsetshire."—<i>Mr. Parkinson.</i> These -evidently belong to a Lepidoid fish (<i>Dapedius</i>), whose remains are common in the -Lias;<a name="FNanchor_63" id="FNanchor_63"></a><a href="#Footnote_63" class="fnanchor">[63]</a> perfect specimens are often obtained. The British Museum contains some -beautiful examples of this fossil fish.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_63" id="Footnote_63"></a><a href="#FNanchor_63"><span class="label">[63]</span></a> Wonders of Geology, vol. ii. p. 529.</p></div> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Figs.</span> 14, & 15. A curious fossil bivalve, from the Devonian strata of the Eifel. The flat valve -is shown in fig. 14; and the deep conical valve in fig. 15; <i>a</i>, tooth in the posterior -margin; <i>b</i>, a part of the surface magnified, to show its cellular structure. The -species is <i>Calceola sandalina</i>, of Lamarck.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 16.</span> A species of Spirifer; <i>a</i>, medial convexity of the upper valve; <i>b</i>, the triangular foramen -at the beak.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 17.</span> Spirifer (<i>S. cuspidatus</i>, of Mr. Martin), from the Mountain limestone of Derbyshire.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 18</span>, represents a common appearance in certain chalk flints. Although I have examined -hundreds, and some in which the form was more definite than in the specimen -figured, I am not able to offer any probable suggestion as to their origin, should they -be organic bodies, of which there is much doubt.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 19.</span> "<i>Coronulites diadema.</i>"—<i>Mr. Parkinson.</i> Probably a species of Balanus, from a tertiary -deposit.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 20.</span> Cast of one of the shells of a bivalve (<i>Pentamerus</i>), from the Wenlock limestone of -Dudley.</p></div> - -<div><a id="Plate_68"></a> -<div class="fig_cap_pl">Plate LXVIII.</div> -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 564px;"> -<img src="images/plate68.png" width="564" height="734" alt="" /> -</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[ 155 ]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="caption3nb">PLATE LXVIII.</p> - -<p class="caption4nb"><span class="smcap">Fossil Crustacea.</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Figs.</span> 1, & 3. "Fossil Crabs, from Sheppey."—<i>Mr. Parkinson.</i> The London clay of this -celebrated locality contains an abundance of the fossil remains of Crustacea; and the -visitor may purchase of the local collectors fossil crabs and lobsters, as readily as the -recent species from the neighbouring sea. Good specimens are however rare, and -command high prices. The specimens figured are two common species.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1.</span> <i>Cancer Leachii</i>, of MM. Desmarest and Brongniart.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 3.</span> <i>Inachus Lamarckii.</i></p></div> - -<p>These fossils show the usual mode in which the crustaceæ occur in the hardened clay of -Sheppey. The thorax is bent over the abdomen, and the pair of large chelate claws drawn -towards each other.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 2.</span> Fossil Insects from the lithographic stone of Pappenheim. "<i>a</i>, an insect with a -bifurcated caudal extremity; <i>b</i>, the sting which has passed out of its sheath; c, the -termination in a single point."—<i>Mr. Parkinson.</i></p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 4.</span> "A fossil Shrimp, from Anspach."—<i>Mr. Parkinson.</i></p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 5.</span> "Impression of an unknown fossil."—<i>Mr. Parkinson.</i></p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 6.</span> "The claw of a Crab, from Maestricht, &c."—<i>Mr. Parkinson.</i> Claws of this kind are -frequent in the soft sandy limestone of St. Peter's Mountain, but no other vestiges -of the Crabs to which they belonged have been met with. The cause of this has -been ascertained: the claws belong to a species of Hermit Crab (<i>Pagurus Faujasii</i>, -of Desmarest), which like the living species had the body covered by a delicate -membrane, the claws only possessing a durable crustaceous shell.<a name="FNanchor_64" id="FNanchor_64"></a><a href="#Footnote_64" class="fnanchor">[64]</a></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_64" id="Footnote_64"></a><a href="#FNanchor_64"><span class="label">[64]</span></a> Wonders of Geology, p. 338.</p></div> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 7.</span> "An extended trilobite, from Dudley."—<i>Mr. Parkinson.</i> Among the organic remains of -the inhabitants of the seas, in whose abysses were formed the Silurian, Devonian, and -other ancient sedimentary strata, an extinct family of crustaceans, comprising -numerous genera, are among the most characteristic and remarkable. The name -"<i>Trilobite</i>," first given by Mr. Parkinson, expresses the most obvious character of -the longitudinally trilobed, convex, segmented, carapace of the body, of the most -common forms; but so great is the number of species, and so dissimilar the groups, -now known, that the nomenclature of this class of fossils is greatly extended. In -Sir R. I. Murchison's splendid work on the Silurian System, the genera and species -of the formations therein comprised are beautifully illustrated. The specimen -<span class="pagenum x-ebookmaker-drop"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[ 156 ]</a></span> -figured is an expanded specimen of the species commonly known as the <i>Dudley -Locust</i> or <i>Insect</i>, (<i>Calymene Blumenbachii</i>), from the Wenlock limestone, Dudley.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 8.</span> A coiled-up specimen; in this view are seen both ends of the crustaceous covering of -the animal: <i>a</i>, "the eye enlarged."</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 9</span>, is part of the head of the same species.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 10.</span> "A fossil Crab from the East Indies."—<i>Mr. Parkinson.</i> Beautiful specimens of this -species of Crab (<i>Gonoplax Latreilli</i>, of Mr. Edwards) have been obtained from the -tertiary strata of India.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 11.</span> Another form of Trilobite (<i>Ogygia Buchii</i>, (<i>Asaphus</i>,) of the Silurian System), from the -Llandeilo flagstones.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 12.</span> "Remains of some large unknown insect."—<i>Mr. Parkinson.</i> This figure is not -sufficiently defined to admit of interpretation.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 13</span>, "Part of a trilobite with tuberculated head," (<i>Calymene variolare</i>,) from the Wenlock -limestone, of Dudley.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 14.</span> Posterior part of a trilobite with a caudal style or process, (<i>Asaphus caudatus</i>,) from -the Wenlock shale, Dudley.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 15.</span> A nodule of ironstone from Coalbrook Dale, in which is imbedded a small crustacean -allied to the recent King Crab or <i>Limulus</i>; a genus abundant in the seas of India and -America.<a name="FNanchor_65" id="FNanchor_65"></a><a href="#Footnote_65" class="fnanchor">[65]</a> (<i>Limulus trilobitoides</i>, of Dr. Buckland. <i>Bellinurus bellulus</i>, of Mr. König.)</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_65" id="Footnote_65"></a><a href="#FNanchor_65"><span class="label">[65]</span></a> Medals of Creation, vol. i. p. 550.</p></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[ 157 ]</a></span></p> - -<div><a id="Plate_69"></a> -<div class="fig_cap_pl">Plate LXIX.</div> -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 575px;"> -<img src="images/plate69.png" width="575" height="724" alt="" /> -</div> -</div> - - -<p class="caption3nb">PLATE LXIX.</p> - -<p class="caption4nb"><span class="smcap">Fossil Fishes and Reptiles.</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1.</span> "A fossil body resembling part of a Tortoise, from Gloucestershire."—<i>Mr. Parkinson.</i> -This specimen is probably one of the mandibles of a remarkable extinct genus -(<i>Ceratodus</i>) of fishes, whose dental organs, like those of the recent <i>Chimæra</i>, consisted -of consolidated plates instead of separate teeth; each side of the jaw was formed by -one of these mandibular processes; the upper margin is deeply undulated. The bone-bed -of the Lias at Aust Cliff near Westbury, Somersetshire, is rich in these remains.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 2.</span> The plastron, or inferior aspect of the carapace of a fossil Turtle (<i>Chelonia breviceps</i>), -from the London Clay of the Isle of Sheppey. <i>a</i>, fragment of the <i>entosternal</i> plate; -<i>b, b</i>, <i>hyosternal</i> plates; <i>c, c</i>, <i>hyposternals</i>; <i>d</i>, <i>xiphisternals</i>.<a name="FNanchor_66" id="FNanchor_66"></a><a href="#Footnote_66" class="fnanchor">[66]</a></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_66" id="Footnote_66"></a><a href="#FNanchor_66"><span class="label">[66]</span></a> See Parkinson, p. 269.</p></div> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 3.</span> The cranium of the same species of Turtle, from the Isle of Sheppey. -Equally rich in the remains of Chelonian reptiles, as in those of Fishes, Crustaceans, Serpents, -and Mollusks, the little Island at the mouth of the Medway has yielded to the indefatigable -researches of Mr. Bowerbank the most extensive series of fossil Turtles hitherto discovered in -England. The various genera and species will be figured and described in a work now in -progress by Professors Bell and Owen, under the auspices of the Palæontographical Society.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 4.</span> A Serpula (<i>S. antiquata ?</i>), from the chalk, Sussex.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 5.</span> A dorsal vertebra of a fossil crocodilian reptile (<i>Steneosaurus</i>), from the Oxford Clay of -Honfleur. <i>a, b</i>, costal depressions.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 6.</span> A dorsal convexo-concave vertebra of a crocodilian or gavial-like reptile (<i>Streptospondylus</i>), -from the same locality. This figure shows the remarkable character whence the -name of this genus: the convexity of the body of the vertebra (<i>a</i>) being situated -anteriorly as in mammalia, the reverse of the position of the bones forming the -vertebral column in the existing Crocodilians and Lacertians. <i>b</i>, the posterior -concavity; <i>c</i>, a deep depression beneath the neural arch.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 7.</span> Sketch of the lower jaw of an extinct gavial-like reptile (<i>Steneosaurus</i>): the vertebra, -fig. 5, probably belongs to the same species. From Honfleur. This figure, and -figs, 5, 6, and 8, are copied from Cuvier, "<i>Annales du Muséum</i>"</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 8.</span> A caudal vertebra of the Fossil Animal of Maestricht (<i>Mosasaurus</i>); a, the chevron bone -or inferior spinous process (<i>hœmapophysis</i>), anchylosed to the middle of the body of -the vertebra.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 9.</span> Fossil scale of a ganoid fish (probably <i>Lepidotus</i>), from Kent.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 10.</span> Fossil tooth of a fish of the Shark family (<i>Notidanus microdon</i>, of Agassiz,) from the -chalk of Kent.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 11.</span> Recent "tooth of one of the Dog-fish," (Mr. Parkinson,) for comparison with fig. 10.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 12.</span> Tooth of an extinct group of squaloid fishes (<i>Ptychodus decurrens</i>, of Agassiz,) from the -chalk of Kent.<a name="FNanchor_67" id="FNanchor_67"></a><a href="#Footnote_67" class="fnanchor">[67]</a></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_67" id="Footnote_67"></a><a href="#FNanchor_67"><span class="label">[67]</span></a> See Medals of Creation, vol. ii. p. 617.</p></div> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 13.</span> a ctenoid (or comb-like) scale of a fish, (probably of a species of <i>Beryx</i>,) from the -chalk of Kent.</p></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[ 158 ]</a></span></p> - -<div><a id="Plate_70"></a> -<div class="fig_cap_pl">Plate LXX.</div> -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 568px;"> -<img src="images/plate70.png" width="568" height="745" alt="" /> -</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[ 159 ]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="caption3nb">PLATE LXX.</p> - -<p class="caption4nb"><span class="smcap">Fossil Reptiles and Fishes.</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1.</span> A reduced figure of the celebrated specimen of the jaws, &c. of the "Fossil Animal of -Maestricht," (<i>Mosasaurus Hoffmani</i>,) from the cretaceous strata of St. Peter's -Mountain. See "<i>Supplementary Notes</i>," art. <a href="#SupNote_15"><i>Mosasaurus</i></a>.</p></div> - -<div class="hanging2em"> -<p>"<i>a, b.</i> The left side of the lower jaw, nearly whole, and seen on its outer side.</p> - -<p><i>c, d.</i> Right side of the lower jaw, viewed on the inner side, the posterior part of which,<br /> -a little concealed by the palate bones, is continued to <i>e</i>.</p> - -<p><i>f, g.</i> The right side of the upper jaw, seen on its inner side, and with the palate bone.<br /> -This part is nearly in its natural position in relation to the corresponding ramus of<br /> -the lower jaw.</p> - -<p><i>h, i.</i> A fragment of the left side of the upper jaw, displaced and fallen across the lower<br /> -jaw.</p> - -<p><i>k, l, m; k', l', m', o'.</i> The two palate bones displaced and thrown one over the other, and<br /> -also over the right side of the lower jaw. In the original specimen a portion of bone<br /> -is placed from <i>m</i> to <i>p</i>, and another at <i>q</i>, which are omitted to render the figure more<br /> -intelligible."—<i>Mr. Parkinson.</i></p> -</div> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Figs.</span> 2 to 18, are fossil teeth of various kinds of fishes, principally of the Shark and Ray -families.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 2.</span> Tooth of a shark (<i>Lamna</i>), from Malta.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 3.</span> Tooth of a shark (<i>Galeus pristodontus</i>), chalk marl, Kent.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 4.</span> Tooth of a Saurian, the upper and lower end imperfect: probably of a species of -Steneosaurus, from Bath.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Figs.</span> 5, & 8. Teeth of a shark (<i>Otodus</i>,) London Clay, Isle of Sheppey.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 6.</span> Tooth of a fish, (<i>Spherodus</i>,) from the Oolite, Gloucestershire.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 7.</span> Part of the fossil jaw with three rows of teeth of a fish, (of the Pycnoid<a name="FNanchor_68" id="FNanchor_68"></a><a href="#Footnote_68" class="fnanchor">[68]</a> family,) from -the Oolite, Gloucestershire.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_68" id="Footnote_68"></a><a href="#FNanchor_68"><span class="label">[68]</span></a> Medals of Creation, vol. ii. p. 641.</p></div> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 9.</span> Tooth of a species of <i>Lamna</i>, from Sheppey.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 10.</span> Tooth of a species of <i>Hybodus</i>,<a name="FNanchor_69" id="FNanchor_69"></a><a href="#Footnote_69" class="fnanchor">[69]</a> Stonesfield.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_69" id="Footnote_69"></a><a href="#FNanchor_69"><span class="label">[69]</span></a> Ibid. p. 621.</p></div> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[ 160 ]</a></span></p> -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 11.</span> A very large tooth of a Shark, (<i>Carcharias megalodon</i>,) from the tertiary deposits of -Malta.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 12.</span> Fragment of a bone, with two teeth, probably of a species of <i>Pycnodus</i>.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 13.</span> "The mandible and tooth of a recent fish (<i>Diodon</i>), to compare with the fossils figs. 16, -and 17."—<i>Mr. Parkinson.</i></p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 14.</span> "Fossil palate of a fish, from Sheppey."—<i>Mr. Parkinson.</i> This evidently belonged to a -species of <i>Ray</i>; possibly to the Eagle rays (<i>Miliobatis</i>).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 15.</span> Tooth of a fish allied to the <i>Cestracionts</i>, or Port Jackson Shark, (probably of the genus -<i>Acrodus</i>,<a name="FNanchor_70" id="FNanchor_70"></a><a href="#Footnote_70" class="fnanchor">[70]</a>) from Bath; commonly called "<i>Leech palates</i>" by the quarry-men.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_70" id="Footnote_70"></a><a href="#FNanchor_70"><span class="label">[70]</span></a> Medals of Creation, p. 614.</p></div> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Figs.</span> 16, & 17. "Fossil palates of fishes of the Ray kind, from Sheppey."—<i>Mr. Parkinson.</i> -These appear to belong to the Miliobates (<i>M. micropleuris</i>, of Agassiz). Beautiful -examples of these fossils have been obtained from the Bracklesham clay, on the coast -of the West of Sussex. The late Frederic Dixon, Esq. of Worthing, whose -untimely death is so much to be deplored, had a matchless suite of specimens from -that locality.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 18.</span> A fine specimen of a fossil tooth of a fish of an extinct genus, of which many species -occur in the chalk (<i>Ptychodus polygurus</i>, of Agassiz). The teeth of various species -of this genus of Sharks abound in the chalk of almost every part of England.<a name="FNanchor_71" id="FNanchor_71"></a><a href="#Footnote_71" class="fnanchor">[71]</a></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_71" id="Footnote_71"></a><a href="#FNanchor_71"><span class="label">[71]</span></a> Ibid. p. 616; and plate vi. fig. 2.</p></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[ 161 ]</a></span></p> - -<div><a id="Plate_71"></a> -<div class="fig_cap_pl">Plate LXXI.</div> -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 579px;"> -<img src="images/plate71.png" width="579" height="728" alt="" /> -</div> -</div> - - -<p class="caption3nb">PLATE LXXI.</p> - -<p class="caption4nb"><span class="smcap">Fossil Remains of Mammalia.</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>Fig. 1. "a fossil tooth, probably of some animal of the whale kind."—<i>Mr. Parkinson.</i> I am not -able to determine the nature of this specimen.</p> - -<p>Fig. 2. The antlers and skull of the Fossil Elk, of Ireland, (<i>Megaceros Hibernicus</i>.) The original -was nearly eleven feet across, from the point of one antler to another. A perfect -skeleton of this extinct gigantic deer is exhibited in the Gallery of Organic Remains -in the British Museum. For an account of this animal see Wonders of Geology, -vol. i. p. 132; and <i>Supplementary Notes</i>, <a href="#SupNote_13">p. 189</a>. The following measurements of the -specimen figured are given by Mr. Parkinson;</p></div> - -<table summary="data"> -<tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">Feet.</td> - <td class="tdc" colspan="2">Inches.</td> - <td></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><i>a</i> to <i>b</i></td> - <td class="tdr">10</td> - <td class="tdr">10</td> - <td></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><i>c</i> to <i>d</i></td> - <td class="tdr">5</td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - <td></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><i>e</i> to <i>f</i></td> - <td class="tdr">3</td> - <td class="tdr">7</td> - <td class="tdl">½</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><i>g</i> to <i>h</i></td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - <td class="tdr">6</td> - <td></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><i>i</i> to <i>k</i></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td class="tdr">10</td> - <td class="tdl">½</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><i>d</i> to <i>l</i></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - <td></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Diameter of the horn at <i>m</i></td> - <td class="tdr">0</td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - <td class="tdl">¼</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Circumference, "</td> - <td class="tdr">0</td> - <td class="tdr">8</td> - <td></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><span style="margin-left: 3.5em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 3.5em;">at the root</span></td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - <td class="tdr">11</td> - <td></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Length of the cranium from <i>n</i> to <i>o</i></td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - <td class="tdr">0</td> - <td></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Width<span style="margin-left: 2em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 2em;">"</span><span style="margin-left: 4em;"><i>p</i> to <i>q</i></span></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td class="tdr">0</td> - <td></td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p>"A similar pair, found ten feet under ground in the county of Clare, was presented to -Charles the Second, and placed in the guard-room of Hampton Court Palace."</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 3.</span> Fragment of the fossil horn of some species of Cervus or Deer, from Etampes, in France.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 4.</span> Two teeth of a ruminant, (a species of <i>Bos</i> or <i>Ox</i>,) in breccia, from Gibraltar.<a name="FNanchor_72" id="FNanchor_72"></a><a href="#Footnote_72" class="fnanchor">[72]</a></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_72" id="Footnote_72"></a><a href="#FNanchor_72"><span class="label">[72]</span></a> Wonders of Geology, vol. i. p. 186.</p></div> - -<p>The remaining figures. Figs. 5, 6, 7, 8, represent the worn surfaces of molars or grinding teeth -of the extinct species of Elephants termed Mammoths, (<i>Elephas primigenius</i>, of M. Bojanus.)</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 9</span>, shows the structure of part of the tooth.</p></div> - -<p>These were regarded by Mr. Parkinson as referable to two or more species of Mammoth; but -Professor Owen, after an examination of the vast number of specimens that modern researches -have brought to light, and which are deposited in the public and private collections of Great -Britain, concludes that the specimens here figured belong to but one species. The differences -observable in the surface of the crowns, are due to abrasion, and to the latitude of variety to -which the highly complex molars of this extinct Elephant were subject.<a name="FNanchor_73" id="FNanchor_73"></a><a href="#Footnote_73" class="fnanchor">[73]</a></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_73" id="Footnote_73"></a><a href="#FNanchor_73"><span class="label">[73]</span></a> British Association, Report for 1843. Fossil Mammalia, p. 213.</p></div> - -<p>For an account of the Mastodon and Mammoth, see Wonders of Geology, vol. i. pp. 151-161.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[ 162 ]</a></span></p> - -<div><a id="Plate_72"></a> -<div class="fig_cap_pl">Plate LXXII.</div> -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 543px;"> -<img src="images/plate72.png" width="543" height="739" alt="" /> -</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[ 163 ]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="caption3nb">PLATE LXXII.</p> - -<p class="caption4nb"><span class="smcap">Fossil Teeth of Mammalia.</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1.</span> A right lower molar tooth of an extinct species of Hippopotamus (<i>H. major</i>, of -Cuvier), from France.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 2.</span> Upper molar of an extinct species of Rhinoceros (<i>R. leptorhinus</i>, of Cuvier), from -the bone-cave near Torquay, Devonshire.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 3.</span> The crown of a molar tooth of the "gigantic Tapir" of Baron Cuvier; the <i>Dinotherium</i> of M. Kaup.<a name="FNanchor_74" id="FNanchor_74"></a><a href="#Footnote_74" class="fnanchor">[74]</a></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_74" id="Footnote_74"></a><a href="#FNanchor_74"><span class="label">[74]</span></a> Wonders of Geology, vol. i. p. 174.</p></div> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 4</span>, "the outer, and fig. 5, the inner, surface of the fourth molar of <i>Palæotherium medium</i>, -of M. Cuvier."—<i>Mr. Parkinson.</i> From the eocene tertiary deposits of Paris.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 6</span>, the outer, and fig. 7, the inner, aspect of an upper molar of the same animal.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Figs.</span> 8, & 9. Lower molars of <i>Amplotherium commune</i>, of M. Cuvier.<a name="FNanchor_75" id="FNanchor_75"></a><a href="#Footnote_75" class="fnanchor">[75]</a></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_75" id="Footnote_75"></a><a href="#FNanchor_75"><span class="label">[75]</span></a> Ibid, p, 256.</p></div> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 10.</span> An ungueal or bone of the claw, of a gigantic animal of the Sloth tribe (<i>Megalonyx -Jeffersoni</i>); the figure is half the linear diameter of the original.<a name="FNanchor_76" id="FNanchor_76"></a><a href="#Footnote_76" class="fnanchor">[76]</a></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_76" id="Footnote_76"></a><a href="#FNanchor_76"><span class="label">[76]</span></a> Ibid. p. 169.</p></div> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 11.</span> Vertical section of a tooth of the same. These remains of a colossal animal of -that remarkable group of mammalia—the Edentata—are from Big-bone Cave, in -Kentucky. The Megalonyx resembled the Megatherium in its general characters -but was one-third smaller. See <i>Supplementary Notes</i>, <a href="#SupNote_10">p. 184</a>.</p></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[ 164 ]</a></span></p> - -<div><a id="Plate_73"></a> -<div class="fig_cap_pl">Plate LXXIII.</div> -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 581px;"> -<img src="images/plate73.png" width="581" height="698" alt="" /> -</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[ 165 ]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="caption3nb">PLATE LXXIII.</p> - -<p class="caption4nb"><span class="smcap">Megatherium and Fossil Bears.</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1</span>, is a sketch, on a very small scale, of the skeleton of a colossal extinct animal of the -Sloth tribe, discovered in the alluvial deposits of the Pampas, and preserved in -the museum at Madrid. A plaster model of a skeleton, restored from the -remains of various individuals, dispersed in different collections, is just completed, -and exhibited to the public in the Gallery of Organic Remains of the British -Museum.<a name="FNanchor_77" id="FNanchor_77"></a><a href="#Footnote_77" class="fnanchor">[77]</a> This extinct animal is named the <i>Megatherium</i> (<i>gigantic wild animal</i>) -<i>Cuvieri</i>. It was seven feet high, and nine long, and therefore larger than the -largest rhinoceros. It possessed no incisor teeth; and the grinders, which are -seven inches long, are of a prismatic form, and like those of the sloths, are -composed of dentine and cement. They are so formed that the crown always -presents two cutting, wedge-shaped, salient angles; they are therefore admirably -adapted for cutting and bruising vegetable substances. The entire fore-foot is -about a yard in length, and armed with strong claws. The Megatherium held -an intermediate place between the sloths, armadillos, and ant-eaters. The celebrated -specimens of different parts of the skeleton of this colossal creature, preserved in -the Hunterian Museum of the College of Surgeons of England, were collected -and presented by Sir Woodbine Parish.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_77" id="Footnote_77"></a><a href="#FNanchor_77"><span class="label">[77]</span></a> See Wonders of Geology, pp. 164-167.</p></div> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 2.</span> The hindmost grinder of the upper jaw of the <span class="smcap">Fossil Bear</span> (<i>Ursus spelæus</i>) of the -Caverns, from Gaylenreuth.<a name="FNanchor_78" id="FNanchor_78"></a><a href="#Footnote_78" class="fnanchor">[78]</a></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_78" id="Footnote_78"></a><a href="#FNanchor_78"><span class="label">[78]</span></a> Ibid. vol. i. p. 176.</p></div> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 3.</span> The middle upper grinder.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 4.</span> The foremost upper grinder.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 5.</span> The hindmost grinder of the lower jaw.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 6.</span> The penultimate grinder of the lower jaw.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 7.</span> The antepenultimate lower grinder.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 8.</span> The foremost lower grinder.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 9.</span> The canine tooth of the Fossil Bear.</p></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[ 166 ]</a></span></p> - -<div><a id="Plate_74"></a> -<div class="fig_cap_pl">Plate LXXIV.</div> -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 605px;"> -<img src="images/plate74.png" width="605" height="727" alt="" /> -</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[ 167 ]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="caption3nb">PLATE LXXIV.</p> - -<p class="caption4nb"><span class="smcap">Tooth of the Mastodon.</span></p> - -<p>A <span class="smcap">molar</span> tooth of the <i>Mastodon giganteus</i>, from Big-bone Lick, Kentucky; of the natural size.</p> - -<p>From the great number of bones and teeth of animals of the extinct elephantine genus, -to which the name of Mastodon was given by Cuvier (from the structure of the crowns of the -teeth), that have of late years been brought to England, and are dispersed in our public and -private collections, the intelligent reader must be familiar with the forms, characters, and gigantic -proportions, of that stupendous tribe of animals which once ranged through the primeval forests -not only of America, but also of some parts of Europe. From a perfect skeleton lately set -up in the British Museum (in the same room with that of the Megatherium), a correct idea may -be obtained of this peculiar type of mammalian structure. From this specimen it appears -that the great Mastodon of the Ohio was not unlike the elephant In its general outline, though -somewhat longer and thicker. It had a trunk or proboscis, tusks which curved upward, and -four molar teeth in each jaw, but no incisors. But another remarkable peculiarity, and which -entirely separates the Mastodon from the Elephant, is that the young animal had a pair of tusks, -placed horizontally in the lower jaw, and of these tusks one only became developed, and that -in the adult male: both were early shed in the female. In the midst of a collection of Mastodon -bones imbedded in mud, a mass of small branches, grass, and leaves, in a half bruised state, -and a species of reed common in Virginia, were discovered; the whole appeared to have been -enveloped in a sac, probably the stomach of the animal. In another instance traces of the -proboscis were observed. The tusks are composed of ivory, and vary somewhat in the direction -and degree of their curvature. The bones of this colossal quadruped are found remarkably fresh -and well preserved, and are generally impregnated with iron. No living instance of this -creature is on record, and there can be no doubt that its race has long since been extinct.</p> - -<p>"Big-bone Lick, where so many remains of the Mastodon and other extinct quadrupeds -have been dug up, is distant from Cincinnati about twenty-three miles in a south-west direction. -This celebrated bog is situated in a nearly level plain, in a valley bounded by gentle slopes, -which lead up to flat table-lands composed of blue argillaceous (Silurian) limestone, and marl. -The general course of the meandering stream which flows through the plain, is from east to -west. There are two springs on the southern or left bank, rising from marshes, and two on the -opposite bank; the most western of which, called the Gum Lick, is at the point where a small -tributary joins the principal stream. The quaking bogs on this side are now more than fifteen -acres in extent; but all the marshes were formerly larger, before the surrounding forest was -partially cleared away. Within the memory of persons now living, the wild bisons or buffaloes -crowded to these springs; but they have retreated many years, and are now as unknown to the -inhabitants as the Mastodon itself. The bog in the spots where the salt springs rise is so soft, -that a pole may be forced down into it many yards perpendicularly.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[ 168 ]</a></span></p> - -<p>"The greater numbers both of the entire skeletons and the separate bones have been taken -up from black mud, about twelve feet below the level of the Creek. It is supposed that the -bones of the mastodons found here could not have belonged to less than one hundred individuals: -those of the fossil Elephant (<i>Elephas primigenius</i>) to twenty; besides which a few bones of the -Megalonyx, and of a species of stag, horse, and bison, are stated to have been collected. The -greatest depth of the black mud has not been ascertained; it is composed chiefly of clay, with -a mixture of calcareous matter and sand, and contains 5 parts in 100 of sulphate of lime, with -some animal matter. Layers of gravel occur in the midst of it at various depths. It contains -remains of seeds, and of several species and genera of fresh-water and terrestrial shells. It -is impossible to view this plain without at once concluding that it has remained unchanged -in all its principal features, from the period when the extinct quadrupeds inhabited the banks -of the Ohio and its tributaries.</p> - -<p>"There are two buffalo paths or trails still extant in the woods, and both lead directly -to springs: the one which strikes off in a northerly direction from the Gum Lick, may be traced -eastward through the forest for several miles. It is three or four yards wide, and only partially -overgrown with grass, and sixty years ago was as bare, hard, and well trodden, as a high road. -It is well known that during great droughts in the Pampas of South America, the horses, deer, -and cattle, throng to the rivers in such numbers, that the foremost of the crowd are pushed into -the stream by the pressure of others behind, and are sometimes carried away by thousands, -and drowned. In their eagerness to drink the saline waters and lick the salt, the heavy -mastodons and elephants seem in like manner to have pressed upon each other, and sunk in the -soft quagmires of Kentucky."<a name="FNanchor_79" id="FNanchor_79"></a><a href="#Footnote_79" class="fnanchor">[79]</a></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_79" id="Footnote_79"></a><a href="#FNanchor_79"><span class="label">[79]</span></a> Extracted from Sir Charles Lyell's "Travels in North America," vol. ii. chap. xvii. 1845.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[ 169 ]</a></span></p></div> - - - - -<h2><a name="SUPPLEMENTARY_NOTES" id="SUPPLEMENTARY_NOTES">SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES.</a></h2> - -<hr class="tb" /> - - - -<p><a id="SupNote_1"></a>I. <span class="smcap">Fossil Bears of the Caverns.</span> (<a href="#Plate_73">Plate LXXIII.</a>) For many centuries certain caves in -Germany have been celebrated for their osseous treasures, particularly those in Franconia. The -most remarkable of these caverns is that of Gaylenreuth, which lies to the north-west of the village -of that name, on the left bank of the river Wiesent, on the confines of Bayreuth.<a name="FNanchor_80" id="FNanchor_80"></a><a href="#Footnote_80" class="fnanchor">[80]</a> The entrance -to this cave is in the face of a perpendicular rock, and leads to a series of chambers from fifteen -to twenty feet high, and several hundred feet in extent, terminating in a deep chasm. The cave -is quite dark; and the icicles and pillars of stalactite, reflected by the light of the torches, which -it is necessary to use, present a highly picturesque effect. The floor is literally paved with bones -and fossil teeth, and the pillars and corbels of stalactite also contain similar remains. The bones -are generally scattered and broken, but not rolled; they are lighter and less solid than recent -bones, and are often incrusted with stalactites. Three-fourths of the bones belong to two -species of bears (<i>Ursus</i>), the remainder to hyænas, tigers, wolves, foxes, gluttons, weasels, and -other small carnivora. Those belonging to bears are referable to two extinct species: the -largest has the skull more prominent on the front than any living species; it is named <i>Ursus -spelæus</i>, or cavern bear; the other has a flat forehead, and is the <i>Ursus priscus</i> of Cuvier. The -Hyena was allied to the spotted hyena of the Cape, but differed in the form of the teeth and -skull. Bones of the Elephant and Rhinoceros are said to have been discovered, together with -those of existing animals, and fragments of sepulchral urns of high antiquity.<a name="FNanchor_81" id="FNanchor_81"></a><a href="#Footnote_81" class="fnanchor">[81]</a></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_80" id="Footnote_80"></a><a href="#FNanchor_80"><span class="label">[80]</span></a> See Medals of Creation, vol. ii. p. 869, for an interesting account of the present state of these caverns, by my friend. -Major Willoughby Montague.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_81" id="Footnote_81"></a><a href="#FNanchor_81"><span class="label">[81]</span></a> Dr. Buckland's "Reliquia Diluviana" contains a full account of the most remarkable ossiferous caverns and their -contents.</p></div> - -<p>Similar ossiferous caves occur in England; of these, the most remarkable now accessible are -Kent's Hole, near Torquay, and Banwell Cave, in the Mendip Hills, near the village of -Banwell. The latter may be easily visited, as the Exeter railway passes within three miles of -the village, and there is a station, with vehicles to convey passengers to Banwell.</p> - -<p><a id="SupNote_2">II.</a> <span class="smcap">The Belemnite.</span> (Plates LIX. and LX.) Among the innumerable relics which abound -in the secondary deposits, there are perhaps no fossil bodies that have excited so much curiosity, or -given rise to so many fanciful conjectures as to their nature and origin, as the long, cylindrical, -fusiform, crystalline stones, called <i>Belemnites</i> by naturalists, and <i>thunderbolts</i> by common -observers. Mr. Parkinson gives an amusing account (vol. iii. p. 122) of the discordant opinions -entertained at various times respecting the nature of these bodies.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[ 170 ]</a></span></p> - -<p>It would be irrelevant to dwell on the history of the successive attempts that have been -made to elucidate the origin and structure of the Belemnite. It will suffice to describe concisely -the present state of our knowledge as to the organization of the original.</p> - -<p>Mr. Miller, in 1823,<a name="FNanchor_82" id="FNanchor_82"></a><a href="#Footnote_82" class="fnanchor">[82]</a> showed that the Belemnite was the rostrum or osselet of an animal -allied to the Sepia, or Cuttle-fish, and gave a restored outline of the supposed form of the -original, with the Belemnite in its presumed natural situation. Dr. Buckland and M. Agassiz -imagined that they had traced a natural connexion between certain species of Belemnites that -abound in the Lias, and the ink bag and other soft parts of the Sepiæ or Calamaries found -associated with them; and they suggested the name of <i>Belemno-sepia</i> for the supposed animal of -the Belemnite,<a name="FNanchor_83" id="FNanchor_83"></a><a href="#Footnote_83" class="fnanchor">[83]</a></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_82" id="Footnote_82"></a><a href="#FNanchor_82"><span class="label">[82]</span></a> Geological Transactions, New Series, vol. ii.; and Dr. Buckland's Bridgewater Essay.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_83" id="Footnote_83"></a><a href="#FNanchor_83"><span class="label">[83]</span></a> Bridgewater Essay, p. 374.</p></div> - -<p>In 1842, the late Mr. Channing Pearce described, under the name of <i>Belemnoteuthis antiquus</i>, -a naked (destitute of a shell,) cephalopod, which occurs in immense numbers in certain beds -of the Oxford clay, especially at Christian Malford, in Wiltshire. This animal has at the -lower apical part a conical osselet of a horny substance, and fibrous structure, enclosing a -chambered siphunculated shell, which becomes gradually thinner at the upper part, and forms -a cup-like receptacle, in which is placed the ink-bag. The soft body of an elongated oval form, -with a pair of lateral palleal fins, two large sessile eyes, and with eight uncinated arms and -a pair of long tentacula, are preserved in a more or less distinct and perfect state in several -specimens that have lately been discovered. Mr. Channing Pearce, Mr. Cunnington, and other -collectors of these interesting remains, were convinced that this cephalopod was entirely distinct -from the animal to which the Belemnite belonged.</p> - -<p>In 1844, Professor Owen laid before the Royal Society "A description of certain Belemnites -preserved with a great proportion of their soft parts in the Oxford clay, at Christian Malford, -Wilts."<a name="FNanchor_84" id="FNanchor_84"></a><a href="#Footnote_84" class="fnanchor">[84]</a> In this memoir (for which one of the royal medals of the Society was awarded) the -author describes as the soft parts of the Belemnite the remains of the animal which Mr. Channing -Pearce had two years previously shown to belong to a different genus (<i>Belemnoteuthis</i>). Belying -on the correctness of Professor Owen's views, I gave an abstract of this memoir in my "<i>Medals -of Creation</i>," and stated that belemnites had been discovered with the osselet, receptacle, and ink-bag, -in their natural position, and with remains of the mantle, body, fins, eyes, and the tentacula, -with their horny rings and hooks.<a name="FNanchor_85" id="FNanchor_85"></a><a href="#Footnote_85" class="fnanchor">[85]</a></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_84" id="Footnote_84"></a><a href="#FNanchor_84"><span class="label">[84]</span></a> Philos. Trans. Part I. 1844. p. 65.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_85" id="Footnote_85"></a><a href="#FNanchor_85"><span class="label">[85]</span></a> Medals of Creation, vol. ii. p. 467.</p></div> - -<p>The discovery by my son (Mr. Reginald Neville Mantell) of some remarkably perfect specimens -of belemnites in the Oxford clay, exposed in the railway works on which he was engaged, near -Trowbridge, in Wilts, led me to examine the structure of the Belemnoteuthis with more -attention than I had hitherto done, as well as the evidence adduced by Professor Owen in proof -that the fossil osselet, the Belemnite, belonged to the same genus of cephalopoda. I found that <i>no -specimen had been obtained in which the phragmocone, or terminal chambered part of the Belemnoteuthis</i> -(of Pearce), <i>was situated in the alveolus of a Belemnite</i>; but Professor Owen having assumed that the -osselet of the former must have originally been protected by a rostrum, or guard, described -the soft parts as belonging to the animal of the Belemnite, conceiving that the phragmocone -of the Belemnoteuthis was that of a Belemnite that had slipped out of the guard.</p> - -<p>In a communication to the Royal Society, in 1848, I demonstrated how utterly at variance -with the facts were these conclusions, and pointed out the essential distinctive characters that -separated the two extinct genera, so far as the specimens then discovered would warrant.<a name="FNanchor_86" id="FNanchor_86"></a><a href="#Footnote_86" class="fnanchor">[86]</a> Other -<span class="pagenum x-ebookmaker-drop"><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[ 171 ]</a></span> -illustrative examples of the Belemnite have since been obtained; and -in a supplementary paper read before the Royal Society, February 14th, -of the present year (1850), I have stated what appears to me to be the -extent of our present knowledge of the organization of the Belemnite. -I subjoin an abstract of that paper, which embodies the result of an -examination of many hundred specimens of Belemnites and Belemnoteuthites. -The annexed outline, or diagram, shows the known structures -of the Belemnite; of the soft parts of the animal, a few imperfect carbonaceous -traces, apparently of the mantle, around and between the -shelly processes of the upper part of the phragmocone, are the only -vestiges I have been able to detect. The most perfect Belemnite hitherto -discovered consists of,</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_86" id="Footnote_86"></a><a href="#FNanchor_86"><span class="label">[86]</span></a> Philos. Trans. 1848, p. 171.</p></div> - -<div class="fig_right" style="width: 116px;"> -<img src="images/page171.png" width="116" height="596" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>1. An external <i>Capsule</i> (<i>e</i>) which invested the osselet or sepiostaire, -and extending upwards, constituted the external sheath of the receptacle.</p> - -<p>2. The <i>Osselet</i>, characterized by its fibrous radiated structure, terminating -distally in a solid rostrum or guard (<i>i</i>), having an alveolus, or -conical hollow (<i>g</i>), to receive the apical portion of the chambered -phragmocone, and expanding proximally into a thin cup, which became -confluent with the capsule, and formed the receptacle (<i>b, b</i>,) for the -viscera.</p> - -<p>3. The <i>Phragmocone</i> (<i>d</i>), or chambered, siphunculated (<i>c</i>), internal -shell; the apex of which occupied the alveolus (<i>g</i>) of the guard, and -the upper part constituted a capacious chamber, from the basilar margin -of which proceeded two long, flat, testaceous, processes (<i>a, a</i>,).</p> - -<p>These structures comprise all that are at present known of the -animal to which the fossil commonly called "<i>Belemnite</i>," belonged.</p> - -<p>Of the <i>Belemnoteuthis</i>, the cephalopod which Professor Owen -considers to be a Belemnite, many examples of the body with eight -uncinated arms and a pair of long tentacula, and with an ink-bag, and -palleal fins, have been discovered. The osselet of this animal, like that -of the Belemnite, has a fibro-radiated structure, investing a conical -chambered shell; but this organ, for reasons fully detailed in the memoir, -could never have been contained within the alveolus of a Belemnite.</p> - -<p>No <i>certain</i> evidence has been obtained of the occurrence of an -<i>ink-bag</i> in natural connexion with a Belemnite.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Diagram of the known Structures of the</span> <i>Belemnites Puzosianus</i>, <span class="smcap">from Trowbridge.</span></p> - -<p> -<i>a, a</i>, dorsal processes.<br /> -<br /> -<i>b, b</i>, the receptacle.<br /> -<br /> -<i>c, c</i>, the siphuncle.<br /> -<br /> -<i>d, d</i>, the phragmocone.<br /> -<br /> -<i>e</i>, the capsule.<br /> -<br /> -<i>f</i>, the inferior end of the phragmocone.<br /> -<br /> -<i>g</i>, the alveolus of the guard.<br /> -<br /> -<i>h</i>, vertical section of the guard.<br /> -<br /> -<i>i</i>, the guard, or rostrum of the osselet.<br /> -<br /> -<i>k</i>, sulcus, or furrow, on the ventral aspect of this species of Belemnite.<br /> -<br /> -<i>l</i>, capsule, or periostricum.<br /> -<br /> -<i>m</i>, the dorsal line.<br /> -<br /> -<i>n</i>, transverse section, showing the fibrous radiated structure of the guard.<br /> -</p> - -<p>In the annexed outline the several parts are represented in their -natural relative positions. The capsule, or most external investment, (<i>e</i>) -is seen only in section, being removed to expose the rostrum or guard -(the fossil body generally known as the Belemnite). The upper three-fourths -of the rostrum are also taken away, to show the phragmocone -which it originally enveloped. The straight transverse lines denote the -<span class="pagenum x-ebookmaker-drop"><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[ 172 ]</a></span> -chambers of the phragmocone; the latter is seen extending downwards till it terminates in a point -or apex; that part of the cavity in the guard is called the <i>alveolus</i>. The <i>siphuncle</i>, or tube which -extends through the entire series of chambers, and is situated on the ventral margin, is indicated -at <i>c, c</i>. The dorsal processes (<i>a, a</i>) are seen on their inner aspect at the upper part; the diverging -lines (<i>m</i>) between them indicate the impressions of the soft parts, of which some traces remain.</p> - -<p><a id="SupNote_3">III.</a> <span class="smcap">Fossil Remains of Birds.</span>—<i>The Moa, or Dinornis of New Zealand.</i> The bones of birds are -of extreme rarity in a fossil state. Throughout the immense series of the palæozoic and secondary -formations—the accumulated sedimentary deposits of innumerable ages—no unquestionable indications -of the existence of this class of highly organized beings have been brought to light.</p> - -<p>In the Triassic, or New Red argillaceous sandstones of the valley of the Connecticut River, -in North America, some very remarkable phenomena have, however, been discovered, and which -in the opinions of many eminent observers render it highly probable, that at the period when -these strata were deposited, numerous birds, some of colossal magnitude, abounded on the then -dry land. When slabs of these sandstones are split asunder, or exposed, so as to exhibit the -sedimentary surface which separates one layer from another, the foot-prints of many species of -bipeds are perceived deeply impressed on the stone, and disposed in such manner as to prove -that they are the tracks of animals that walked over the surface of the deposit when it was in a -soft or plastic state. The close analogy of these imprints to those of birds' feet, not only in their -general resemblance, but also in the disposition of the tracks, and in the relation of the distance -of the stride, and the depth and shallowness of the impressions, to the size of the respective -feet, tends to corroborate the inference first enunciated by Professor Hitchcock, and subsequently -confirmed by other geologists, that these mysterious markings on the rock, are natural records of the -existence of various tribes of birds during the Triassic period;<a name="FNanchor_87" id="FNanchor_87"></a><a href="#Footnote_87" class="fnanchor">[87]</a> but unfortunately the only -certain evidence of the correctness of this opinion—remains of the skeletons—is wanting; not -a vestige of a vertebrated animal of a higher class than fishes and reptiles has been discovered.<a name="FNanchor_88" id="FNanchor_88"></a><a href="#Footnote_88" class="fnanchor">[88]</a></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_87" id="Footnote_87"></a><a href="#FNanchor_87"><span class="label">[87]</span></a> Travels in North America, vol. ii. pl. 7.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_88" id="Footnote_88"></a><a href="#FNanchor_88"><span class="label">[88]</span></a> See Wonders of Geology, vol. ii. p. 556. Ornithichnites, or Fossil Footprints of Birds; Medals of Creation, vol. i. p. 808.</p></div> - -<p>In the vast fluviatile formation—the Wealden—of the south-east of England, which abounds -in the remains of terrestrial plants and reptiles, many fragments of bones of such tenuity as to -indicate that they belonged to animals capable of flight, have from time to time been collected -since my first discovery and announcement, in 1822, of supposed birds' bones in the strata of -Tilgate Forest. Some of these relics were declared by Baron Cuvier, and subsequently by -Professor Owen, to be unquestionably those of birds; probably some species of waders. But -recent observations have rendered it doubtful whether all the specimens of this class from the -Wealden, like those from Stonesfield, are not to be regarded as referable to flying reptiles -(Pterodactyles).<a name="FNanchor_89" id="FNanchor_89"></a><a href="#Footnote_89" class="fnanchor">[89]</a></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_89" id="Footnote_89"></a><a href="#FNanchor_89"><span class="label">[89]</span></a> Wonders of Geology, vol. i. p. 438, 440. I still think it probable, however, that bones of birds will be detected -among the Wealden fossils.</p></div> - -<p>In the chalk of Kent several bones of a very large flying animal have been obtained from -a quarry at Burham, near Maidstone; some of these are figured and described in Professor -Owen's beautiful work on British Fossil Mammals and Birds, as those of a bird allied to the -Albatross; but the occurrence in the same quarry of jaws with teeth, and other undoubted -remains of a gigantic Pterodactyle,<a name="FNanchor_90" id="FNanchor_90"></a><a href="#Footnote_90" class="fnanchor">[90]</a> and the absence in the specimens figured of osteological -characters exclusively ornithic, seem to support the conclusion that these also must be ascribed to -flying reptiles.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_90" id="Footnote_90"></a><a href="#FNanchor_90"><span class="label">[90]</span></a> These fossils are in the splendid museum of J. S. Bowerbank, Esq. of Highbury Grove, Islington.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[ 173 ]</a></span></p></div> - -<p>In the most ancient tertiary strata unquestionable vestiges of birds occur; in the Sub-Himalaya -eocene deposits, they are associated with bones of the extinct elephantine mammalia -of India; in those of the Paris basin with the remains of the Palæotheria, &c. In the miocene -and pliocene formations, the bones and even egg-shells of several species and genera have been -detected. The remains of birds, however, even in comparatively recent deposits, were of such -rare occurrence as to be ranked by the collector of fossils among the most precious of his -acquisitions; but a few years ago, a most extraordinary discovery in our Antipodean colony. -New Zealand, astonished and delighted the palæontologist, by placing before him hundreds -of bones of numerous extinct genera of birds, some of which far exceed in magnitude those of -the most gigantic living species, the Ostrich.</p> - -<p>In various localities of the maritime districts of New Zealand, there had been observed -in the beds of rivers and streams, fossil bones of birds of colossal magnitude, belonging to many -species and several genera, associated with similar relics of smaller species. These bones had -attracted the attention of the natives long ere the country was visited by Europeans; and -traditions are rife among the New Zealanders that this race formerly existed in great numbers, -and served as food to their remote ancestors. They also believe that some of the largest species -have been seen alive within the memory of man; and even affirm that individuals still exist -in the unfrequented and inaccessible parts of the interior of the country. They call the bird -<i>Moa</i>, and state that its head and tail were adorned with magnificent plumes of feathers, which -were worn by their ancient chiefs as ornaments of distinction.</p> - -<p>Nine years since, a fragment of a thigh-bone of a bird larger than that of the Ostrich was -brought to England by Mr. Rule, and submitted to the examination of Professor Owen, who pronounced -it to belong to a gigantic bird of the <i>Struthious</i> (Ostrich) order. A few years afterwards -several collections of vertebræ, bones of the extremities, &c. were transmitted to England by -Messrs. Williams, Wakefield, Earle, &c., which corroborated that opinion, and proved that there -formerly existed in the islands of New Zealand, colossal birds of a type distinct from any known -in other parts of the world. In 1846 and 1847, my eldest son, Mr. Walter Mantell, who has -resided in New Zealand several years, made an extensive and highly interesting collection of -these fossil remains, which arrived in England in 1848. This series contains <i>skulls</i>, with the -<i>mandibles or beaks</i>, bones of other parts of the skeleton, and <i>portions of the egg-shells</i>, of several -extinct species and genera of birds; presenting remarkable deviations from the previously known -types to which they are most nearly allied.</p> - -<p>This valuable accession to our knowledge of the osteology of this extinct race of Ostrich-like -birds—some individuals of which must have attained a height of from ten to twelve feet—has -yielded important results as to the form, structure, and economy, of these colossal bipeds, and the -prevailing characters of the terrestrial fauna of New Zealand in very remote periods. The -collection, consisting of above 700 specimens, is now in the British Museum: it was obtained -chiefly from a bed of <i>menaccanite</i> or titaniferous iron-sand, that had evidently been washed down -by torrents from the volcanic region of Mount Egmont; that snow-capped ridge which forms -so striking a feature in the physical geography of the North Island, and is the source of the -fresh-water streams that discharge themselves into the ocean along the western shore. The -tract of sand from which my son dug up these relics, is on the coast near the embouchure -of a small river called Waingongoro, between Wanganui and Waimate. That stream evidently -once flowed into the sea far from its present course, for lines of cliffs extend inland from the -now dry sand-spit, and bear marks of the erosive action of currents.<a name="FNanchor_91" id="FNanchor_91"></a><a href="#Footnote_91" class="fnanchor">[91]</a> A few months since, -<span class="pagenum x-ebookmaker-drop"><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[ 174 ]</a></span> -I received from my son another most interesting collection of fossil bones (comprising above -500 specimens), chiefly obtained from the eastern shores of the Middle Island of New Zealand, -when engaged as Government Commissioner for the settlement of native claims. These were -dug up from a morass of small extent, lying in a little creek or bay at Waikouaiti, some twenty -miles north of Otago. This swamp, which is only visible at low water, is composed of vegetable -fibres (apparently of the <i>Phormium tenax</i>), sand, and animal matter. The bones are of a deep -brown colour, and almost as fresh as if recently taken from a tar-pit. Among the specimens -are crania and mandibles, and bones of enormous size. The most remarkable are <i>the entire -series of phalangeals, and the two tarso-metatarsals</i>, (26 in number,) <i>of the right and left foot of -the same individual bird</i> (<i>Dinornis robustus</i>), which were found standing erect, one a yard in -advance of the other; as if the bird had sunk into the mire, and unable to extricate itself, had -perished on the spot. These bones were carefully exhumed and numbered seriatim, and are the -only instances of the bones of the foot and metatarsus found in natural connexion; they are, consequently, -the first certain examples known of the structure of the feet of the colossal birds of -New Zealand. The foot of the Moa, to which these bones belonged, must have been 16 inches -long, and 18 inches wide; and the height of the bird about ten feet. (<i>See the Frontispiece.</i>)</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_91" id="Footnote_91"></a><a href="#FNanchor_91"><span class="label">[91]</span></a> I must refer for details to the Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society, No. XV. August 1848.</p></div> - -<p>It would extend this article far beyond the limits assigned to this work, were I to attempt -even a cursory account of all the facts and inferences connected with these discoveries. The -anatomical and physiological characters of many species and genera will be found in the admirable -Memoirs on the <i>Dinornis</i>, <i>Palapteryx</i>, <i>Notornis</i>, &c. by Prof. Owen, in the Transactions of the -Zoological Society.<a name="FNanchor_92" id="FNanchor_92"></a><a href="#Footnote_92" class="fnanchor">[92]</a></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_92" id="Footnote_92"></a><a href="#FNanchor_92"><span class="label">[92]</span></a> I regret to state that the egg-shells, and many highly interesting bones, belonging to unknown genera of birds, from -Rangatapu or Waingongoro, in my son's first collection, remain undescribed. My notes and observations on the geological -position of the ossiferous deposits of the North Island of New Zealand, derived from the sketches and letters of Mr. Walter -Mantell, are published in the Geological Journal; those on his collection of fossils from the Middle Island will appear in the -same publication in the course of the present year (1850).</p></div> - -<p>From the facts at present known as to the position of the ossiferous deposits of New Zealand, -there is reason to conclude that they bear the same relation to the present state of the country, -as the alluvial loam and clay containing the bones of mammoths, Irish Elks, &c. to that of Great -Britain. I think we may safely infer that at a period geologically recent, but historically -very remote, those islands were densely peopled by tribes of ostrich-like birds of species and -genera which have long since become extinct; that many species existed contemporary with -the Maories or native human inhabitants, and that the last of the family were exterminated, -like the Irish Elk, and the Dodo, by man. If, as the natives affirm, some of the race still exist -in the unfrequented parts of the country, they are probably diminutive species, like the Apteryx -or <i>Kivi-Kivi</i>, which is the only living representative known to naturalists, of this once numerous -tribe of colossal Struthionidæ. The only fossil osseous remains from New Zealand not referable to -birds are bones of two species of Seals, and one femur and a few other bones of a Dog. Associated -with the relics of the Dinornis and other extinct genera, and unquestionably coeval with them, -are crania, mandibles, and other bones, of the living species of Apteryx, Albatross, Penguin, -Notornis, Nestor, Water-hen, &c.</p> - -<p>The fragments of egg-shells of Dinornis, from Rangatapu, belong to three distinct types, -each of very large size; my son, to convey an idea of the magnitude of one egg, of which he -dug up a large portion, says, "a gentleman's hat would make a capital egg-cup for it." The -markings on the surface of the shells bear a greater resemblance to those on the eggs of the Rhea -and Cassowary than of the Ostrich.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[ 175 ]</a></span></p> - -<p>A remarkable fact mentioned by my son throws some light as to the comparatively recent -extirpation of the Moa. In one spot the natives pointed out some little mounds covered with -herbage, as consisting of heaps of ashes and bones, the refuse of the fires and feasts left by their -remote ancestors. Upon digging into them, a quantity of burnt bones was discovered: these -belonged to Man, Moa, and Dog, and were promiscuously intermingled. These calcined bones -present no traces whatever either of the earthy powder or manaccanite sand which the cells -and pores of the fossil bones invariably contain. If, as the natives affirm, these are the -rejectamenta of the feasts of the aborigines, the practice of cannibalism by the New Zealanders -must have been of very ancient date, and could not have originated, as Professor Owen -supposed, from the want of animal food in consequence of the extirpation of the colossal birds. -(See <i>ante</i>, p. xi.)</p> - -<p><a id="SupNote_4">IV.</a> <span class="smcap">Botanical arrangement of Fossil Vegetables.</span>—Mr. Artis, in the Introduction of -his work, offers some judicious observations as to the proper method in which the study of Fossil -Botany should be pursued. He remarks, "that from the imperfect state in which fossil vegetables -are generally found, the ordinary characters by which recent plants are referred to their congeners, -can scarcely ever be detected in them. The sexual organs on which the systems of -Linnæus and Jussieu are founded, and even the integuments of those organs while in the state -of flowering, have uniformly perished. The external parts of the seed or fruit exist, indeed, -in a fossil state, but they are almost always insulated from the other organs. If leaves are found, -it is almost certain that scarcely any portion of the stem will be attached to them; if the -external parts of a trunk, then very rarely any vestiges of the branches and foliage. And when -traces of the internal structure can be discovered, it is seldom that the external character of the -stem remains.</p> - -<p>"In consequence of this deficiency of the essential characters on which the determinations -of the botanist are founded, there exists a necessity for examining more minutely and accurately -than has yet been done, the internal structure of recent plants; their habits of growth, the -cicatrices or scars left on the stem by the leaves that are spontaneously shed, the different -appearances which their fruits exhibit in their various stages of development—all these points -must be minutely studied before we can obtain any certainty as to the identity of fossil and -living species of plants.</p> - -<p>"It is not by publishing detached and unconnected delineations and descriptions of fossil -plants, as they occasionally occur, that the knowledge of them can be considerably promoted. -A systematic arrangement must be formed; and the first step to this is the accurate determination -of the species. <i>Hoc opus, hic labor est.</i>"</p> - -<p>"It will be seen," he observes, "in the course of this work, how easy it would be to -imagine parts of the same specimen to be different species, when they happen to be broken -and dispersed. I can confidently assert, that in at least a thousand different specimens which -I have had in my possession, not more than a hundred distinct species can be recognised. -Furthermore, still fewer indeed can be referred to any living species; for it is not the fern-like -leaf of a plant, the palm-like cicatrix, or the cane-like joint of a stem, that will suffice -to identify them with those tribes of the vegetable kingdom. The whole anatomy of the -plant must be studied. The subject has, indeed, been begun by Professor Martins, in his -comparison of certain fossil stems of plants with those of the living plants growing in the Brazils, -but the study is as yet too new to afford certain results. Accordingly, several of that professor's -opinions are at variance with those of M. Adolphe Brongniart, who has also compared the recent -<span class="pagenum x-ebookmaker-drop"><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[ 176 ]</a></span> -and fossil vegetables together on this plan. But by following up the comparison, which has -been so successfully adopted by Baron Cuvier, in the study of fossil animals,<a name="FNanchor_93" id="FNanchor_93"></a><a href="#Footnote_93" class="fnanchor">[93]</a> similar results -may be expected, and a knowledge of the extinct plants be at length attained."</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_93" id="Footnote_93"></a><a href="#FNanchor_93"><span class="label">[93]</span></a> Recherches sur les Ossemens Fossiles.</p></div> - -<p>Mr. Artis then gives an abstract of the systems of Baron Schlotheim, Count Sternberg, -Professor Martins, and M. Adolphe Brongniart, which I am Induced to subjoin as a useful -record of the state of fossil botany twelve years ago:—</p> - -<p>"The Baron Schlotheim, who published in 1804 the first part of a Flora der Vorwelt, -followed up his researches of this kind by a catalogue of his cabinet, under the title of 'Die -Petrefactenkunde auf ihrem jetzigen Standpunkte erläutert,' published in 1820, to which two -Appendices have since been added in 1822 and 1823.</p> - -<p>"The arrangement made by the Baron, so far as regards the vegetable part of his cabinet, -is as follows. His specimens are first divided into five Sections, or Orders:—</p> - -<p>1. <span class="smcap">Dendrolithes</span>, containing the remains of trees, which are subdivided into three -sub-sections.</p> - -<p>A. <i>Lithoxylites</i>, of which no characters are given, but from the specimens mentioned by -him, he evidently arranges in this place the wood-stone and wood-opal of the mineralogists.</p> - -<p>B. <i>Lithanthracites</i>, in which are placed the bituminized stems, and other parts of trees.</p> - -<p>C. <i>Bibliolithes</i>.—Fossil leaves, mostly of the later formations.</p> - -<p>2. <span class="smcap">Botanolithes.</span>—Comprising those kinds of fossil plants which cannot be considered -either as trees or shrubs, nor as belonging to the plants of the old coal formation.</p> - -<p>All the specimens belonging to the preceding sections are merely enumerated, and not distinguished -by generic and trivial names, as is the case with the following.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Phytotypolithes.</span>—Fossil plants of the stone-coal formation. These are divided systematically -into genera and species. The genera are as follow:—</p> - -<p> -a. <i>Palmacites</i>, containing fifteen species.<br /> -b. <i>Casuarinites</i>, " five.<br /> -c. <i>Calamites</i>, " ten.<br /> -d. <i>Filicites</i>, " twenty-three.<br /> -e. <i>Lycopodiolithes</i>, " five.<br /> -f. <i>Poacites</i>, " four.<br /> -</p> - -<p>In the whole sixty-two species.</p> - -<p>4. <span class="smcap">Carpolithes.</span>—Of which he enumerates fifteen species as present in his collection. This -division is considered as a genus, as is also the next.</p> - -<p>5. <span class="smcap">Anthotypolithes.</span>—The cabinet contains only one species, namely the <i>Anthotypolithes -ranunculiformis</i>."</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>In 1820, Gaspard Count Sternberg published in German, the first number of a work which -has been translated by the Comte de Bray, under the title of "Essai d'un Exposé Geognostico-Botanique -de la Flore du Monde Primitif." Of this translation a second and third part -appeared in 1823 and 1824. In these successive numbers the Count has communicated the state -of his knowledge as it grew up under his hands, in consequence of his own labours and those -of his friend, Baron Schlotheim. The genera, as they are successively developed in the work, -are the following:—</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[ 177 ]</a></span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>1. <i>Lepidodendron.</i>—Stem scaly; the scales leaf-bearing, surrounding the stem spirally. -In a subsequent number, what are here called scales, are denominated scale-like cicatrices.</p> -</div> - -<p>This genus is subdivided in the first number into two sub-genera, but this division is not -noticed in the additional species quoted in the succeeding numbers.</p> - -<p class="ind3em"><i>Lepidotæ.</i>—Scales convex.</p> - -<p class="ind3em"><i>Alveolariæ.</i>—Scales sub-concave.</p> - - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>2. <i>Variolariæ.</i>—Stem shield-bearing, or warty; shields leaf-bearing, surrounding the -stem spirally.</p> - -<p>3. <i>Calamitæ.</i>—Stem striated, intercepted with sutures at the articulations.</p> - -<p>4. <i>Syringodendron.</i>—Stem arborescent, in the form of pipes agglutinated together, with -naked glandules surrounding the stem spirally.</p> -</div> - -<p>In the second number the following genera are given:—</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>5. <i>Rhytidolepis.</i>—Stem arborescent, streaked longitudinally with elevated wrinkles; shields<br /> -surrounding the stem spirally.</p> - -<p>6. <i>Flabellaria.</i>—Leaves part stalked, divided and expanded like a fan.</p> - -<p>7. <i>Schlotheimia.</i>—Stem jointed, contracted at the articulation, verticillate.</p> - -<p>8. <i>Annularia.</i>—Leaves disposed in a whirl, inserted in a proper ring.</p> - -<p>9. <i>Nœggerathia.</i>—Stem as thick as a goose-quill; leaves alternate, approximate, reverse-ovate,<br /> -half embracing the stem, pectinato-toothed at the top, the remainder of<br /> -the edge uncut.</p> - -<p>10. <i>Osmunda.</i> } This and the following have no generic characters assigned to them,<br /> -<span style="margin-left: -2em;">11.</span> <i>Asplenium.</i> } the recent genera being referred to.</p> - -<p>12. <i>Rotularia.</i>—Leaves verticillate, expanded in the form of a small wheel.</p> -</div> - -<p>The third number contains the following additional genera:—</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>13. <i>Lepidolepis.</i>—Scale-like cicatrices truncated at their top.</p> - -<p>14. <i>Thuites</i>, of which he gives no characters, but refers to his figures.</p> - -<p>15. <i>Antholites.</i></p> - -<p>16. <i>Carpolites.</i></p> - -<p>17. <i>Conites.</i>—Fossil strobili.</p> - -<p>18. <i>Sphenopteris.</i></p> - -<p>19. <i>Polypodiolithus.</i></p> - -<p>20. <i>Myriophyllites.</i></p> - -<p>21. <i>Phyllites.</i></p> - -<p>22. <i>Algacites</i>, which the French translator, on obtaining the opinion of Professor Agardh,<br /> -has changed into <i>Sargassum</i>; that celebrated algologist having considered it as<br /> -identically the same as that genus of recent algæ.</p> -</div> - -<p>The genera thus successively established, may be arranged in the following order:—</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>A. Fossil plants of unknown origin, in which the stem is large, and forms the only, or at<br /> -least the most prominent character; including, 1. <i>Lepidodendron</i>; 2. <i>Variolaria</i>;<br /> -3. <i>Calamites</i>; 4. <i>Syringodendron</i>; 5. <i>Rhytidolepis</i>; 13. <i>Lepidolepis</i>.</p> - -<p>B. Fossil plants, of unknown origin, in which the leaves form the prominent character;<br /> -including, 6. <i>Flabellaria</i>; 7. <i>Schlotheimia</i>; 8. <i>Annularia</i>; 9. <i>Nœggerathia</i>; 12. <i>Rotularia</i>.</p> - -<p>C. Fossil parts of unknown plants; including, 15, <i>Antholites</i>; 16. <i>Carpolites</i>; 17. <i>Conites</i>.</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[ 178 ]</a></span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>D. Fossil plants, or parts of plants referable to living types; including, 10. <i>Osmunda</i>; -11. <i>Asplenium</i>; 14. <i>Thuites</i>; 18. <i>Sphenopteris</i>; 19. <i>Polypodiolites</i>; 20. <i>Myriophyllites</i>; -22. Algacites.</p> -</div> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>In November 1821, Professor Martins read to the Botanical Society of Ratisbon, a paper -which was afterwards published in its Memoirs for 1822. This paper was entitled, "<i>De Plantis -nonnullis Antediluvianis ope specierum inter tropicos viventium illustrandis</i>;" in it several of the -species mentioned by Baron Schlotheim and Count Sternberg are referred to the orders and -genera of recent plants; and the following genera are proposed:—</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>1. <i>Filicites</i>, analogous to the Arborescent ferns.</p> - -<p>2. <i>Palmacites</i>, analogous to the Palmæ.</p> - -<p>3. <i>Bambusites</i>, analogous to Bambusia, and other arborescent grasses; these are the<br /> -<i>Calamites</i> of other authors.</p> - -<p>4. <i>Yuccites</i>, analogous to the Cuciphoræ, Dracenæ, Pandani, Yuccæ, and Velloriæ, of<br /> -botanical writers.</p> - -<p>5. <i>Cactites</i>, analogous to the Cacti.</p> - -<p>6. <i>Euphorbites</i>, analogous to the Cereiform species of Euphorbia.</p> - -<p>7. <i>Lychnophorites</i>, analogous to <i>Lychnophora</i>, a genus of plants found by Martius in Brazil,<br /> -which belongs to the order of the Compositæ, and is allied to the <i>Vernoniæ</i> of Linnæus<br /> -and the <i>Pollalestæ</i> of Humboldt.</p> -</div> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>M. Adolphe Brongniart has given the following classification of fossil plants, in his Essay -"<i>Sur la Classification et la Distribution de Végétaux Fossiles</i>" inserted in the "Mémoires du Muséum -d'Histoire Naturelle;" and also printed separately in quarto, Paris, 1822:—</p> - - -<p class="caption3">STEMS.</p> - - -<p>Class I.—Stems whose internal organization is recognisable.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>1. <span class="smcap">Exogenites.</span>—Wood formed of regular concentric layers.</p> - -<p>2. <span class="smcap">Endogenites.</span>—Wood composed of insulated bundles of vessels, which are more numerous<br /> -towards the circumference than at the centre.</p> -</div> - - -<p>Class II.—Stems whose internal organization is no longer distinct, but which are characterised -by their external form.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>3. <span class="smcap">Culmites.</span>—Stem jointed, smooth; a single impression at each articulation.<a name="FNanchor_94" id="FNanchor_94"></a><a href="#Footnote_94" class="fnanchor">[94]</a></p> - -<p>4. <span class="smcap">Calamites.</span>—Stem jointed, regularly striated; impressions rounded, small, numerous,<br /> -forming a ring round each articulation, or sometimes wanting.<a name="FNanchor_95" id="FNanchor_95"></a><a href="#Footnote_95" class="fnanchor">[95]</a></p> - -<p>5. <span class="smcap">Syringodendron.</span>—Stem channelled, not jointed; impressions dot-like or linear,<br /> -arranged in quincunx.<a name="FNanchor_96" id="FNanchor_96"></a><a href="#Footnote_96" class="fnanchor">[96]</a></p> - -<p>6. <span class="smcap">Sigillaria.</span>—Stem channelled, not jointed; impressions in the form of disks, arranged<br /> -in quincunx.</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[ 179 ]</a></span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>7. <span class="smcap">Clathraria.</span>—Stem neither channelled, nor jointed; impressions in the form of -rounded disks, disposed in quincunx.<a name="FNanchor_97" id="FNanchor_97"></a><a href="#Footnote_97" class="fnanchor">[97]</a></p> - -<p>8. <span class="smcap">Sagenaria.</span>—Stem without joints, or furrows, covered with conical rhomboidal tubercles -disposed in quincunx, having at their upper extremity an impression in the form of a -disk.<a name="FNanchor_98" id="FNanchor_98"></a><a href="#Footnote_98" class="fnanchor">[98]</a></p> - -<p>9. <span class="smcap">Stigmaria.</span>—Stem without joints, or furrows; impressions rounded, distant, disposed in -quincunx.<a name="FNanchor_99" id="FNanchor_99"></a><a href="#Footnote_99" class="fnanchor">[99]</a></p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_94" id="Footnote_94"></a><a href="#FNanchor_94"><span class="label">[94]</span></a> These stems appear to M. Brongniart to belong to the arborescent grasses, to <i>Calamus</i> or its allied genera.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_95" id="Footnote_95"></a><a href="#FNanchor_95"><span class="label">[95]</span></a> M. de Candolle suggested to M. Brongniart that these stems belong to some plants of the natural order of Equisetaceæ.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_96" id="Footnote_96"></a><a href="#FNanchor_96"><span class="label">[96]</span></a> M. Brongniart considers these remains to belong to genera which are entirely extinct.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_97" id="Footnote_97"></a><a href="#FNanchor_97"><span class="label">[97]</span></a> M. Brongniart shows in his paper the great agreement between these two genera, and the stems of ferns, in every respect -excepting magnitude, and considers them as evidently owing their origin to plants of that natural order rather than to -the palms.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_98" id="Footnote_98"></a><a href="#FNanchor_98"><span class="label">[98]</span></a> The stems of this genus are referable, in the opinion of M. Brongniart, to those of plants belonging to the family of -<i>Lycopodiaceæ</i>, notwithstanding the great difference of size between them and those of the recent plants of that natural -order.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_99" id="Footnote_99"></a><a href="#FNanchor_99"><span class="label">[99]</span></a> These stems, M. Brongniart supposes, belong rather to plants of the natural order of <i>Aroideæ</i>, than to the <i>Euphorbiaceæ</i>, -or to the Palms to which they have been ascribed by other authors.</p></div> - -<p class="caption3">FOLIAGE.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>10. <span class="smcap">Lycopodites.</span>—Leaves linear, or setaceous, without ribs, or traversed by a single rib, -inserted all round the stem, or in a double row.</p> -</div> - -<p>This genus is subdivided into four sections, as follow:—</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p><i>a.</i> Leaves narrow, lanceolate, inserted in a regular manner all round a stem having -the characters of Sagenaria.</p> - -<p><i>b.</i> Leaves setaceous, inserted in a double row only; stem not reticulated. These he -considers as the proper Lycopodites.</p> - -<p><i>c.</i> Leaves broad, without any apparent ribs, inserted irregularly all round the stem. -These differ much from the rest of the genus.</p> - -<p><i>d.</i> Leaves blunt, short, closely applied to the stem.</p> -</div> - - -<p>Class III.—11. <span class="smcap">Filicites.</span>—Frond disposed on a flat surface, symmetrical; secondary rib -simple, forked, or rarely anastomosing.</p> - -<p>These are divided Into five sub-genera:—</p> - -<div class="hanging2em"> -<p><i>a.</i> <i>Glossopteris.</i>—Frond simple, not jagged, traversed by a single mid-rib, without -distinct secondary ribs.</p> - -<p><i>b.</i> <i>Sphenopteris.</i>—Pinnules wedge-shaped, rounded or lobed at the extremity; ribs -palmate or radiating from the base of the pinnule.</p> - -<p><i>c.</i> <i>Neuropteris.</i>—Pinnules rounded, not lobed, nor adhering to the rachis by their base; -ribs scarcely visible beyond the base, in general very distinct, and two-forked.</p> - -<p><i>d.</i> <i>Pecopteris.</i>—Frond pinnatifid; pinnules adherent by their base to the rachis,> -traversed by a mid-rib; secondary ribs pinnate.</p> - -<p><i>e.</i> <i>Odontopteris.</i>—Pinnules adhering to the rachis by the whole of their base; mid-rib -none; secondary ribs running out perpendicularly from the rachis.</p> -</div> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>12. <span class="smcap">Sphœnophyllites.</span>—Leaves verticillate, wedge-shaped, truncate; ribs radiating, two-forked.<a name="FNanchor_100" id="FNanchor_100"></a><a href="#Footnote_100" class="fnanchor">[100]</a></p> - -<p>13. <span class="smcap">Asterophyllites.</span>—Leaves verticillate, with a single rib.<a name="FNanchor_101" id="FNanchor_101"></a><a href="#Footnote_101" class="fnanchor">[101]</a></p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[ 180 ]</a></span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>14. <span class="smcap">Fucoides.</span>—Frond not symmetrical, often disposed on a flat surface; ribs none, or -badly defined.</p> - -<p>15. <span class="smcap">Phyllites.</span>—Leaves with ribs well defined, repeatedly divided, or anastomosing.<a name="FNanchor_102" id="FNanchor_102"></a><a href="#Footnote_102" class="fnanchor">[102]</a></p> - -<p>16. <span class="smcap">Poacites.</span>—Leaves linear; ribs parallel.</p> - -<p>17. <span class="smcap">Palmacites.</span>—Leaves fan-shape.</p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_100" id="Footnote_100"></a><a href="#FNanchor_100"><span class="label">[100]</span></a> M. Brongniart considers these to belong to some extinct genus of plants, allied to, although perfectly distinct from, the -recent genus <i>Marsilea</i>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_101" id="Footnote_101"></a><a href="#FNanchor_101"><span class="label">[101]</span></a> These the author thinks are the remains of an extinct genus of plants.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_102" id="Footnote_102"></a><a href="#FNanchor_102"><span class="label">[102]</span></a> The character of the ribs here given belongs exclusively to leaves of plants of the dicotyledonous tribe; as those of the -next genus <i>Poacites</i> equally restricts them to the other great tribe of monocotyledonous plants.</p></div> - - -<p>Class IV. <i>Organs of fructification.</i></p> - -<p>Order I. <span class="smcap">Carpolithes.</span>—Fruits or seeds.</p> - -<p>Order II. <span class="smcap">Antholithes.</span>—Flowers.<a name="FNanchor_103" id="FNanchor_103"></a><a href="#Footnote_103" class="fnanchor">[103]</a></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_103" id="Footnote_103"></a><a href="#FNanchor_103"><span class="label">[103]</span></a> These orders are too little known to be divided at present into genera.</p></div> - -<p>The numerous additions and modifications, which subsequent experience and discoveries -have led M. Brongniart to introduce into his classification, will be found in an article recently -published (1849) in the "Dictionnaire Universel d'Histoire Naturelle," under the title of -"Tableau des Genres de Végétaux Fossiles, considérés sous le point de vue de leur classification -botanique et de leur distribution géologique."</p> - - -<p><a id="SupNote_5">V.</a> <span class="smcap">Fossil Cephalopoda, Nautilus, Ammonite</span>, &c.—The fossil remains of the molluscous -animals, named <i>Cephalopoda</i>, from their organs of prehension being arranged around the head or -upper part of the body, are the most ancient, numerous, and interesting, of this class of animated -nature in the mineral kingdom. These relics are among the most varied and striking of the extinct -beings that occur in the sedimentary strata, from the most ancient secondary formations, to the -most recent tertiary. The living species are but a feeble representation of the countless myriads -which must have swarmed in the ancient seas.</p> - -<p>The animal of the Cephalopods is composed of a body, which is either enclosed in a shell, as -in the Nautilus, or contains a calcareous osselet or support, as in the Sepia or Cuttle-fish; it has -a distinct head, and eyes as perfect as in the vertebrated animals, with complicated organs of -hearing, and a powerful masticating apparatus, surrounded by arms or tentacula. Below the -head there is a tube which acts as a locomotive instrument, to propel the animal backwards, by -the forcible ejection of the water that has served the purpose of respiration, and which can be -ejected with considerable force by the contraction of the body.</p> - -<p>Their fossil remains consist of the external shell and the internal osselet; and in the naked -tribes, of the soft parts of the body, the ink-bag, &c., as noticed in the account of the Belemnite -and Belemnoteuthis.</p> - -<p>The shell varies exceedingly in the different genera. In the group characterised by smooth -septa, and a medial or submedial siphuncle, as the Nautilus, the earliest or most ancient type is -straight, as in the <i>Orthoceras</i> (<a href="#Plate_58">Plate LVIII.</a> fig. 14) of the palæozoic formations; the intermediate -forms present various modifications of the spiral, and terminate in the completely discoidal shell of -the living genus; while the other group, that with sinuous or foliated septa and a dorsal siphuncle, -commences in a discoidal type—the Ammonite, which gradually passes through the various -modifications of <i>Crioceras</i>, <i>Scaphites</i> (<a href="#Plate_61">Plate LXI.</a> fig. 10), <i>Hamites</i> (<a href="#Plate_61">Plate LXI.</a> fig. 3), <i>Turrilites</i> -(<a href="#Plate_61">Plate LXI.</a> fig. 12), &c.; and finally becomes extinct in the straight Baculites (<a href="#Plate_55">Plate LX.</a> fig. 2).</p> - -<p>In argillaceous strata, as the Kimmeridge and Oxford clay, London clay, &c., the shells of -Cephalopoda are oftentimes beautifully preserved; the chambers are frequently filled with the -solid matrix, but in many instances these cavities are lined either with brilliant pyrites or spar. -Stony or sparry casts of the cells or chambers, the shell having perished, are another common -<span class="pagenum x-ebookmaker-drop"><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[ 181 ]</a></span> -state in which vestiges of these animals occur. Sometimes the cast of each chamber is isolated, -so as to present a series from the innermost to the outermost cell. Sections of those casts, in -which the chambers are filled up with spar, constitute specimens of great beauty and interest. -The so-called snake-stones are, of course, mere casts of Ammonites;<a name="FNanchor_104" id="FNanchor_104"></a><a href="#Footnote_104" class="fnanchor">[104]</a> those of Whitby, from the -lias limestone, are well known to every collector; the casts of a very large species are common in -the oolite, especially at Swindon, in Wiltshire, and in the neighbourhood of Bath.</p> - - -<p><a id="SupNote_6">VI.</a> <span class="smcap">The Carboniferous Deposits, or Coal Measures.</span>—The various deposits of Coal have -manifestly been formed under different local circumstances. Some have been peat-bogs, to -which repeated additions have been made by successive subsidences of the land; others have -been deposited at the bottom of lakes and rivers, and these are associated with remains of fresh-water -shells and Crustacea; others have accumulated in the abyss of the ocean, having been -formed by the drifting and engulfing of immense rafts of trees and other vegetable matter, like -those of the Mississippi; others in inland seas, the successive layers of vegetables having been -supplied by periodical land-floods. There can be no doubt that coal has been, and may be, -produced under all these conditions; and at different periods, and in various localities, all these -causes may have been in operation. But the great series of ancient coal-formations present a -remarkable uniformity of character, not only throughout Europe, but also in America and other -parts of the world. A coal-field (as a group of strata of this kind is commonly termed), is -generally composed of a series of layers of coal, clay, shale, and sand, of variable thicknesses, -based on grit or limestone, abounding in marine shells and corals; and the most remarkable -phenomenon is the constant presence <i>beneath</i> every bed of coal, of a thick stratum of earthy clay, -and of a layer of shale or slaty clay above it. One of the series of triple deposits of which a coal-field -consists, presents therefore the following characters:—</p> - -<p>1. <i>Under-clay</i>; the lowermost stratum. This is a tough argillaceous earth or clay, which on -drying becomes of a grey colour, and very friable; it is occasionally black, from an intermixture -of carbonaceous matter. This bed almost invariably contains an abundance of <i>Stigmariæ</i> (see -Plates XXII. XXIII.), of considerable length, with their rootlets attached, and which extend in -every direction through the clay (as shown in the figures 1, 2, 6, pp. 199, 201). These roots -commonly lie parallel with the planes of the stratum, and nearer to the top than to the bottom.</p> - -<p>2. <i>Coal.</i>—A carbonized mass, in which the external forms of the plants and trees composing -it are obliterated, but the internal structure, in many instances, remains. Large trunks, and -stems, and leaves, are rarely found in it.</p> - -<p>3. <i>The Roof</i>, or upper bed.—This consists of slaty clay, abounding in leaves, trunks and -branches, fruit, &c.; it includes layers and nodules of ironstone, inclosing leaves, insects, -Crustacea, &c. In some localities beds of fresh-water shells, in others of marine shells, are -intercalated with the shale; finely laminated clay, micaceous sand, grit, and pebbles of limestone, -sandstone, &c. are also often interstratified. The principal illustrative specimens of the leaves, -fruit, &c. (as those in <a href="#Plate_30">Plate XXX.</a> to <a href="#Plate_34">Plate XXXIV.</a>) are found in this bed.</p> - -<p>Thus an uninterrupted series of strata, in which triple deposits of this kind are repeated, -(often thirty or forty times, and through a thickness of several thousand feet,) constitutes the -predominant character of the ancient coal formations wherever they have been explored. The -difficulties attending a satisfactory solution of this problem, are fully stated in the last edition of -my Wonders of Geology (Vol. ii. Lecture vii.), and to that work I must refer the reader for a -more extended consideration of this highly interesting subject.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_104" id="Footnote_104"></a><a href="#FNanchor_104"><span class="label">[104]</span></a> See Medals of Creation, vol. ii. chap. i.; and Thoughts on a Pebble, pp. 20, 69.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[ 182 ]</a></span></p></div> - - -<p><a id="SupNote_7">VII.</a> <span class="smcap">Coal.</span>—The numerous fossil plants from the carboniferous strata that are figured in -this work, render it necessary to put the general reader in possession of a concise view of the -nature and mode of formation of those ancient accumulations of vegetable matter, which now -constitute the beds of mineral fuel termed coal.</p> - -<p>Although at the present time no one at all conversant with geology doubts the vegetable -origin of <span class="smcap">Coal</span>, the period is not distant when many eminent philosophers were sceptical on this -point; and the truth in this, as in most other questions In natural philosophy, was established -with difficulty. The experiments and observations of the late Dr. Macculloch mainly contributed -to solve the problem as to the vegetable origin of this substance; and that eminent geologist -successfully traced the transition of vegetable matter from peat-wood, brown coal, lignite, and jet, -to coal, anthracite, graphite, and plumbago. Nor must the important labours of Mr. Parkinson -in this field of research be forgotten. The first volume of the "Organic Remains of a former -World," which treats of vegetable fossils, contains much original and valuable information on the -transmutation of vegetable matter, by bituminous fermentation, into the various mineral substances -in which its original nature and structure are altogether changed and obliterated; and that work -may still be consulted with advantage by the student.</p> - -<p>But though the vegetable origin of all coal will not admit of question, yet evidence of the -original structure of the plants or trees whence it was derived is not always attainable. The -most perfect coal seems to have undergone a complete liquefaction, and if any portions of the -vegetable tissue remain, they appear as if imbedded in a pure bituminous mass. The slaty coal -generally preserves traces of cellular or vascular tissue, and the spiral vessels and dotted cells of -coniferous trees may often be detected by the microscope. In many instances the cells are filled -with an amber-coloured resinous substance; in others the organization is so well preserved, that -on the surface of a block of coal cracked by heat, the vascular tissue, and the dotted glands, may -be observed. Some beds of coal appear to be wholly composed of minute leaves or disintegrated -foliage; for if a mass recently extracted from the mine be split asunder, the exposed surfaces are -found covered with delicate laminæ of carbonized leaves and fibres matted together; and flake -after flake may be peeled off through a thickness of many inches, and the same structure be -apparent. Rarely are any large trunks or branches observable in the beds of coal; but the -general appearance of the carboniferous mass is that of an immense deposit of delicate foliage -shed and accumulated in a forest, and consolidated by great pressure while undergoing that -peculiar process by which vegetable matter is converted into carbon.</p> - -<p>The essential conditions for the transmutation of vegetable substances into coal, appear to be -the imbedding of large quantities of recent vegetables beneath deposits which shall exclude the -air, and prevent the escape of the gaseous elements when released by decomposition from their -organic combination; hence, according as these conditions have been more or less perfectly -fulfilled, coal, jet, lignite, brown-coal, peat-wood, &c. will be the result.</p> - - -<p><a id="SupNote_8">VIII.</a> <span class="smcap">Fossil Corals.</span>—The real nature even of recent Corals is in general so imperfectly -understood by the intelligent reader who has not paid especial attention to the department -of natural history which treats of the class of animated nature termed Zoophytes, that in -describing the Fossil Corals In my Wonders of Geology, I felt it necessary to devote one Lecture -to the consideration of Corals and Crinoidea, in order to afford a popular exposition of the -structure and economy of these highly Interesting tribes of animal existence.<a name="FNanchor_105" id="FNanchor_105"></a><a href="#Footnote_105" class="fnanchor">[105]</a></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_105" id="Footnote_105"></a><a href="#FNanchor_105"><span class="label">[105]</span></a> See Wonders of Geology, vol. ii. Lect. vi. p. 588.</p></div> - -<p>A very prevalent error regarding their nature Is, that the beautiful stony substances generally -<span class="pagenum x-ebookmaker-drop"><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[ 183 ]</a></span> -called corals, are fabricated by the animalcules which inhabit the cells when living, in the same -manner as is the honeycomb of the bee and wasp. This opinion is utterly erroneous: the coral -is secreted by the integuments or membranes with which when recent it was invested and -permeated; in like manner as are the bones of the skeleton in the higher orders of animals -by the tissues designed for that especial purpose, and wholly without the cognisance or control -of the creature of which they constitute the internal support.</p> - -<p>A general idea of the nature of the compound coral-zoophytes may be obtained by the -examination of the common <i>Flustra</i> or Sea-mat. This form of polyparia, when taken out of -the water, appears to the naked eye like a patch of fine varnished net-work, adhering to a piece -of sea-weed or stone; when viewed with a magnifying lens of moderate power, the surface -is found beset with pores regularly disposed: and if the Flustra be examined while immersed in -sea-water, its surface is seen to be invested by a gelatinous substance, and every pore is the -aperture of a cell, whence issues a tube fringed at the extremity with long tentacula or feelers. -These expand, then suddenly contract, withdraw into the cell, and again issue forth: the whole -surface of the Flustra being studded with the hydra-like animalcules; each enjoying a distinct -existence, the entire group being united by one common integument or calcareous frame-work. -When the Flustra is exposed to the air, the polypes soon perish, the animal matter rapidly -decomposes, and the calcareous lace-like skeleton alone remains. In the larger and more -compact corals the phenomena are similar, differing only in degree. In a fossil state, the durable -remains of the corals consist for the most part of the calcareous frame-work (or polyparium, -as it is termed), which often possesses a crystalline structure; and in some instances is completely -transmuted into silex, as in specimens from Antigua, the Falls of the Ohio, and from Tisbury -in Wiltshire. (See <a href="#Plate_38">Plate XXXVIII.</a> figs. 12, 13.)</p> - -<p>I must refer to the Wonders of Geology for a more extended notice of fossil corals, and -other zoophytes, and will only add that the calcareous and siliceous spines or spicula, not only -of sponges, but also of Gorgoniæ, and other corals, are often met with in a fossil state.<a name="FNanchor_106" id="FNanchor_106"></a><a href="#Footnote_106" class="fnanchor">[106]</a></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_106" id="Footnote_106"></a><a href="#FNanchor_106"><span class="label">[106]</span></a> See Wonders of Geology, vol. ii. Lect. vi. p. 634.</p></div> - - -<p><a id="SupNote_9">IX.</a> <span class="smcap">Cuvier's Discoveries.</span> <i>The Fossil Quadrupeds of Montmartre.</i> (<a href="#Plate_72">Plate LXXII.</a>)—The -Palæotheria, Anoplotheria, and other genera of extinct quadrupeds related to the <i>Tapir</i>, whose -remains were first noticed in the gypseous limestone of Montmartre, near Paris, and which have -since been found in many other localities of the same strata, are familiar to every one, from the -just celebrity attached to the labours of the illustrious Cuvier, who restored as it were these -lost denizens of an earlier world, in their native character and forms, and distinguished them -by names long since become classical in the sciences which treat of the ancient history of the -earth and its inhabitants.</p> - -<p>The gypsum quarries spread over the flanks of Montmartre were many years since known -to contain fossil bones of extinct quadrupeds, and some of these had been figured and described -in 1768 by Guettard, and afterwards by Pralon, Lamanon, and Parumot: but it was not till the -attention of M. Cuvier was directed to the subject by some specimens put into his hands by -M. Vuarin, that the interest and importance of these fossils were understood. The curiosity -of Baron Cuvier was so much excited by an inspection of a large collection of these bones, soon -after he had been successfully engaged in the investigation of the remains of fossil Elephants -and Mastodons, that he immediately began to obtain specimens from the quarries, and by -liberally rewarding the workmen, and by unremitting personal research, he soon accumulated -an immense quantity of bones of all sorts, belonging to numerous individuals. He now perceived -<span class="pagenum x-ebookmaker-drop"><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[ 184 ]</a></span> -that a new world was open to his view: and to use his own expressive language, he found -himself in an ancient charnel-house, surrounded by a confused multitude of mangled skeletons -of a great variety of unknown beings. To arrange each fragment in its proper place, and -restore order to these heterogeneous materials, seemed at first a hopeless task: but a knowledge -of the immutable laws by which the organization of animal existence is governed, soon -enabled him to assign to each bone, and even fragment, its proper place in the skeleton; and -the forms of beings hitherto unseen by mortal eye appeared before him. "I cannot," he -exclaims, "express my delight in finding how the application of one principle was instantly -followed by the most triumphant results. The essential character of a tooth and its relation -to the skull being determined, all the other elements of the fabric immediately fell into their -proper places; and the vertebra, ribs, bones of the legs, thigh, and feet, seemed to arrange themselves -even without my bidding, and in the very manner I had predicted." The principles of -the correlation of structure which his profound researches in comparative anatomy had enabled -him to establish, conducted to these important results, and laid the foundation of that science -which has since received the name of Palæontology.<a name="FNanchor_107" id="FNanchor_107"></a><a href="#Footnote_107" class="fnanchor">[107]</a> The mode of induction adopted by this -illustrious philosopher, has been the mighty instrument by which subsequent labourers in this -department of science have so largely contributed to our knowledge of the ancient condition -of the earth, and of the structure and economy of the tribes of beings which have successively -dwelt upon it. The examination of the fossil teeth (in <a href="#Plate_72">Plate LXXII.</a> figs. 4-9) showed that the -animals were herbivorous; and the crown of the tooth being composed of two or three simple -crescents, as in certain pachydermata, proved that they differed from the ruminants, which have -double crescents, and each four bands of enamel. The two principal genera first established were -the <i>Palæotherium</i> and <i>Anoplotherium</i>. The first approximates to the Tapirs in the number and -disposition of the teeth; the second is remarkable in having no projecting canines, and in all -the teeth forming a continued series, as in the human race. Remains of both these genera -have been found in the eocene tertiary strata of the Isle of Wight,<a name="FNanchor_108" id="FNanchor_108"></a><a href="#Footnote_108" class="fnanchor">[108]</a> and on the coast of -Hampshire.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_107" id="Footnote_107"></a><a href="#FNanchor_107"><span class="label">[107]</span></a> A concise exposition of the Cuvierian inductive philosophy will be found in Wonders of Geology, pp. 137-147.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_108" id="Footnote_108"></a><a href="#FNanchor_108"><span class="label">[108]</span></a> See my Geological Excursions round the Isle of Wight. For an account of the fossil animals of Paris, refer to -Wonders of Geology, p. 254.</p></div> - - -<p><a id="SupNote_10">X.</a> <span class="smcap">Fossil Edentata.</span> <i>Megatherium, and Megalonyx</i>. (Plates LXXII. and LXXIII.)—The -remains of these and other allied forms of the extinct gigantic Edentata, which once inhabited -South America, occur in immense quantities throughout the Pampas—those vast plains which present -a sea of waving grass for 900 miles. These plains consist of alluvial loam and sand, containing -fresh-water and marine shells of existing species; they were evidently once, like Lewes Levels, -a gulf or arm of the sea. Since the publication of Mr. Parkinson's work, vast numbers of bones -have been exhumed, and many most interesting specimens sent to England by Sir Woodbine -Parish, and Charles Darwin, Esq., in whose charming "Journal of Researches into the Natural -History and Geology of the Countries visited during the Voyage of H.M.S. Beagle round -the World," will be found many highly graphic notices of the discovery of these remains.<a name="FNanchor_109" id="FNanchor_109"></a><a href="#Footnote_109" class="fnanchor">[109]</a> -Mr. Darwin, under the head of <i>Bahia Blanca</i>,<a name="FNanchor_110" id="FNanchor_110"></a><a href="#Footnote_110" class="fnanchor">[110]</a> describes the remains of no less than nine great -quadrupeds found imbedded within the space of 200 square yards. They consisted of three -heads and other bones of the <i>Megatherium</i>, of enormous dimensions; and bones of the <i>Megalonyx</i>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[ 185 ]</a></span> -Of the <i>Scelidotherium</i>, an allied animal, Mr. Darwin obtained an almost perfect skeleton; it must -have been as large as a rhinoceros; in the structure of the head, it approaches nearest the Cape -ant-eater, in other respects it is related to the armadilloes. Remains of a different species of -Mylodon, of another gigantic edental quadruped, and of a large animal with an osseous dermal coat -in compartments, very like that of the Armadillo. Of this last, which has been named <i>Glyptodon</i>, -there is a very fine specimen in the Hunterian Museum. Teeth and bones of an extinct species -of horse, and of an unknown pachyderm, a huge beast with a long neck like the camel. Lastly -the <i>Toxodon</i> (so named from the remarkable curvature of the teeth); this is perhaps one of the -strangest animals ever discovered. In size it equals the elephant or megatherium, but the -structure of its teeth shows it to have been intimately related to the gnawers—the order which -at the present day includes the smallest quadrupeds. In many details it approaches to the -pachydermata; judging from the position of its eyes, it was probably aquatic, like the Dugong -and Manatee, to which it is also allied.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_109" id="Footnote_109"></a><a href="#FNanchor_109"><span class="label">[109]</span></a> Published by Mr. Murray, in one vol. 1845. The anatomical description of the fossil Edentata brought home by -Mr. Darwin, by Professor Owen, will be found in the "Zoology of the Voyage of the Beagle."</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_110" id="Footnote_110"></a><a href="#FNanchor_110"><span class="label">[110]</span></a> Mr. Darwin's Journal, chap. v. p. 81.</p></div> - -<p>The beds containing the above fossil remains, consist of stratified gravel and reddish mud, -and stand only from fifteen to twenty feet above the level of high water; hence the elevation of -the land has been small since the great quadrupeds wandered over the surrounding plains; and -the external features of the country must then have been very nearly the same as now.</p> - -<p>In another place, Mr. Darwin observes,—"The number of the remains of these large -quadrupeds imbedded in the grand estuary deposit which forms the Pampas and covers the -granitic rocks of Banda Oriental, must be extraordinarily great. I believe, a straight line drawn -in any direction through the Pampas, would cut through some skeleton or bones. Besides those -which I found during my short excursions, I heard of many others; and the origin of such names -as, 'the stream of the animal,' 'the hill of the giant,' is obvious. At other times, I heard of the -marvellous property of certain rivers, which had the power of changing small bones into large; -or as some maintained, the bones themselves grew. As far as I am aware, not one of these -animals perished, as was formerly supposed, in the marshes or muddy river-beds of the present -land, but their bones have been exposed by the streams intersecting the subaqueous deposit, in -which they were originally imbedded. We may conclude that the whole area of the Pampas -is one wide sepulchre of these extinct gigantic quadrupeds."<a name="FNanchor_111" id="FNanchor_111"></a><a href="#Footnote_111" class="fnanchor">[111]</a></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_111" id="Footnote_111"></a><a href="#FNanchor_111"><span class="label">[111]</span></a> Mr. Darwin's Journal, p. 135. The reader interested in these extraordinary fossil remains should visit the British -Museum, and the Hunterian Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons in Lincoln's Inn Fields.</p></div> - - -<p><a id="SupNote_11">XI.</a> <span class="smcap">Flint.</span>—<i>Animal Remains in siliceous nodules.</i>—So many beautiful specimens of siliceous -petrifactions—that is, animal and vegetable remains transmuted into silex or flint—are figured -in the subjoined plates, that it may be useful to offer a few remarks on this subject.<a name="FNanchor_112" id="FNanchor_112"></a><a href="#Footnote_112" class="fnanchor">[112]</a> In -many instances the organic remains in chalk-flints are simply incrusted by the silex; such is the -state of numerous sponges which are as it were invested by the flint, and have all their pores and -tubes filled up by the same material, the original tissue appearing as a brown calcareous -substance. In other examples, the sponge has been enveloped in a mass of liquid flint, and has -subsequently perished and decomposed; in this manner have been formed those hollow nodules, -which on being broken present a cavity containing only a little white powder, or some fragments -of silicified sponge; in many instances the cavity is lined with quartz crystals, or mammillated -chalcedony. Frequently but part of the zoophyte is permeated by the silex, and the other -portion is in the state of a friable calcareous earth imbedded in the chalk. Sponges and other -zoophytes often form the nuclei of the flint nodules; the original substance of the organic -<span class="pagenum x-ebookmaker-drop"><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[ 186 ]</a></span> -body being in general silicified, and the most delicate internal structure preserved. Shells, -corals, and the minute cases of foraminifera, are often immersed as it were in pure flint, appearing -as if preserved in a semi-transparent medium.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_112" id="Footnote_112"></a><a href="#FNanchor_112"><span class="label">[112]</span></a> See Wonders of Geology, vol. i. pp. 74-105, for a general view of the process of petrifaction.</p></div> - -<p>But there are innumerable flint nodules in which no traces of spongeous tissue are apparent, -and veins, dikes, and sheets of tabular flint, that are in a great measure free from organic -remains; containing only such as may be supposed to have become imbedded in a stream of -fluid silex that flowed over a sea-bottom. Wood perforated by lithodomi and silicified, is -occasionally met with; and fuci or algæ are sometimes found, appearing as if floating in the -liquid flint.</p> - -<p>For the most part, the minute shells in the chalk and flint are filled with amorphous mineral -matter; but in many examples, (as I have ascertained by direct experiment,) the soft parts of -foraminifera remain in the shell.</p> - - -<p><a id="SupNote_12">XII.</a> <span class="smcap">Foraminifera.</span>—<a href="#Plate_62">Plate LXII.</a> contains figures of several species belonging to various -genera of those minute fossil shells, the discoidal involute forms of which were once considered -to belong to the Cephalopoda, and to be related to the Nautilus, Spirula, &c., but which are now -grouped in one family, under the name of <i>Foraminifera</i>; a term derived from the foramina or -perforations with which their shells are traversed, and which have relation to the peculiar -organization of the animals.</p> - -<p>Since microscopic observations have become so general, thanks to the genius and enthusiasm -of Ehrenberg, these fossil bodies have acquired a degree of interest and importance, unsurpassed -by more obvious organic remains. Whole mountain chains and extensive tracts of country are -now known to be almost entirely composed of the aggregated shells of a few genera of these -<i>microzoa</i>.<a name="FNanchor_113" id="FNanchor_113"></a><a href="#Footnote_113" class="fnanchor">[113]</a> In other deposits their remains are associated with those of <i>Infusoria</i>,<a name="FNanchor_114" id="FNanchor_114"></a><a href="#Footnote_114" class="fnanchor">[114]</a> (both animal -and vegetable,) still more infinitesimal. As much error prevails among collectors as to the -real nature of the fossil foraminifera, I am induced to annex the following remarks.<a name="FNanchor_115" id="FNanchor_115"></a><a href="#Footnote_115" class="fnanchor">[115]</a></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_113" id="Footnote_113"></a><a href="#FNanchor_113"><span class="label">[113]</span></a> A convenient term to express animal organisms that can only be distinctly examined by the aid of the microscope: -strata in a great measure composed of such fossil remains may be distinguished as <i>microzoic</i> deposits.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_114" id="Footnote_114"></a><a href="#FNanchor_114"><span class="label">[114]</span></a> This term was first employed to denote the various minute forms of animal organization that appear in vegetable -infusions; as Rotifers, Monads, Vorticella, &c. But with these, numerous vegetable forms generally appear, as Gaillonella, -Bacellaria, Navicula, &c.: these were formerly also regarded as animals, and were consequently comprised under the same -general appellation.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_115" id="Footnote_115"></a><a href="#FNanchor_115"><span class="label">[115]</span></a> The best scientific account of these animals will be found in M. D'Orbigny's work on the "Foraminifères Fossiles du -Bassin Tertiaire de Vienne, (Autriche)." Paris, 1846. 1 vol. 4to, with plates.</p></div> - -<p>The foraminifera are marine animals of low organization, and, with but few exceptions, -extremely minute: in an ounce of sea-sand between three and four millions have been distinctly -enumerated. When living, they are not aggregated, but always individually distinct; they are -composed of a body (or vital mass) of a gelatinous consistence, which is either entire, and round, -or divided into segments, placed either on a simple or alternate line, or coiled spirally, or -involuted round an axis. This body is covered with an envelope or shell, which is generally -testaceous, rarely cartilaginous, and is modelled on the segments, and follows all the modifications -of form and contour of the body. From the extremity of the last segment, there issue, sometimes -from one, sometimes from several openings of the shell, or through numerous pores or foramina, -very elongated, slender, contractile, colourless filaments, more or less divided and ramified, -serving for prehension, and capable of entirely investing the shell. The body varies in colour, -but is always identical in individuals of the same species,—it is yellow, fawn-coloured, red, -<span class="pagenum x-ebookmaker-drop"><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[ 187 ]</a></span> -violet, blue, &c. Its consistence is variable; it is composed of minute globules, the aggregation -of which determines the general tint. It is sometimes entire, round, and without segments, as -in <i>Gromia</i>, <i>Orbulina</i>, &c., which represent, at all ages, the embryonic state of all the other genera. -They increase, without doubt, by the entire circumference. When the body is divided by lobes -or segments, the primary lobe, as in the permanent condition of the Gromia, is at first round or -oval, according to the genus; once formed it never enlarges, but is enveloped externally by -testaceous matter; it may be compared to a ball on which is applied a second larger one, then a -third still larger, and so on during the life of the animal.</p> - -<p>The annexed figure of the animal of <i>Nummulina</i> (as given by MM. Joly and Leymerie) will -serve to convey a general idea of the living Foraminifera.</p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 306px;"> -<img src="images/page187.png" width="306" height="292" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption"><p>THE ANIMAL OF THE NUMMULINA.]</p></div> -</div> - -<p>The segments, as the body increases, are agglomerated in six different ways, and these modifications -are the basis of M. D'Orbigny's classification. The discoidal forms, as the <i>Rotalia</i>, -<i>Rosalina</i>, <i>Cristellaria</i>, &c. are involuted like the nautilus, and divided by septa or partitions, the -different lobes of the body occupying contemporaneously every chamber, and being connected by -a tube or canal that extends through the entire series. In the spiral forms, the <i>Textilaria</i>, &c. -the same structure is apparent. These two groups are the most abundant in the cretaceous -strata; many beds of the white chalk consist almost wholly of the aggregated shells of the -Rosalinæ, Rotaliæ, and Textilariæ.<a name="FNanchor_116" id="FNanchor_116"></a><a href="#Footnote_116" class="fnanchor">[116]</a> Whatever the form of the body, the filaments always consist of -a colourless matter as transparent as glass; they elongate from the base to six times the diameter -of the shell. They often divide and subdivide, so as to appear branched. Though alike in form -in the different genera, they vary much in their position. In some they form a bundle which -<span class="pagenum x-ebookmaker-drop"><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[ 188 ]</a></span> -issues from a single opening, and is withdrawn into the same by contraction; in others the -filaments project only through each of the pores in the shell which covers the last segment; in -others they issue from both the large aperture and the foramina. In fine, these filaments or -pseudopodia fulfil in the foraminifera the functions of the numerous tentacula in the Asteriadæ, -or Star-fishes, serving as instruments of locomotion and attachment.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_116" id="Footnote_116"></a><a href="#FNanchor_116"><span class="label">[116]</span></a> See Wonders of Geology, p. 299</p></div> - -<p>Neither organs of nutriment nor of reproduction have been detected. In the genera having -one large aperture from which the filaments issue and retract, we can conceive nutriment to be -absorbed by that opening; but this cannot be the case in the species which have the last cell -closed up; in these the filaments issuing through the foramina are probably also organs of nutrition. -M. D'Orbigny considers the Foraminifera as constituting a distinct class in zoology; less -complicated than the Echinoderms and the Polypiaria in their internal organization, they have -by their filaments the mode of locomotion of the first, and by their free, individual existence—not -aggregated and immovably fixed—they are more advanced in the scale of being than the latter. -To me they appear to be merely hydra-form polypes of the most simple structure, protected -by shells;<a name="FNanchor_117" id="FNanchor_117"></a><a href="#Footnote_117" class="fnanchor">[117]</a> those composed of different segments, I conceive to be a single aggregated individual, -and not a successive series of beings.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_117" id="Footnote_117"></a><a href="#FNanchor_117"><span class="label">[117]</span></a> An admirable paper on the "<i>Polystomella crispa</i>," by Mr. Williamson, of Manchester, (Trans. Micros. Society of London, -vol. ii.) should be consulted on this question.</p></div> - -<p>The white chalk is well known to be largely composed of a few kinds of foraminifera, but the -occurrence of the soft bodies of these animalcules in a fossil state was first discovered by me, in -1845, in chalk-flints, and was announced in a paper, read before the Geological Society, entitled, -"<i>Notes of a Microscopical Examination of Chalk and Flint</i>."<a name="FNanchor_118" id="FNanchor_118"></a><a href="#Footnote_118" class="fnanchor">[118]</a> This statement was regarded -by some eminent palæontologists as so "startling and unsatisfactory," that I resumed the investigation, -and communicated the result to the Royal Society, in a memoir "<i>On the Fossil Remains -of the Soft Parts of Foraminifera discovered in the Chalk and Flint of the South-East of England</i>;"<a name="FNanchor_119" id="FNanchor_119"></a><a href="#Footnote_119" class="fnanchor">[119]</a> -and with the kind assistance of that able chemist and microscopist, Mr. Henry Deane, of Clapham -Common, I obtained, by immersing chalk in dilute hydrochloric acid, and mounting the residue in -Canada balsam, several specimens of the entire integuments of the bodies of Rotaliæ, as distinct -as if recent! This fact is now admitted; and the experiment has been successfully repeated in -India, by Mr. Carter, on the limestones of that country;<a name="FNanchor_120" id="FNanchor_120"></a><a href="#Footnote_120" class="fnanchor">[120]</a> and in America, by Dr. Bailey, &c.<a name="FNanchor_121" id="FNanchor_121"></a><a href="#Footnote_121" class="fnanchor">[121]</a> -In some limestone recently collected by my eldest son, Mr. Walter Mantell, in the Middle -Island of New Zealand, and which, like our cretaceous strata, is almost entirely made up of -foraminifera, I have detected the soft parts of the bodies of Rotaliæ in the cells of the fossil shells, -as distinctly as in the chalk of England; and two of the species appear to be identical with -European forms.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_118" id="Footnote_118"></a><a href="#FNanchor_118"><span class="label">[118]</span></a> These "Notes" were withdrawn, and published in the Annals of Natural History for August, 1845.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_119" id="Footnote_119"></a><a href="#FNanchor_119"><span class="label">[119]</span></a> Published in Philos. Trans. Part iv. for 1846.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_120" id="Footnote_120"></a><a href="#FNanchor_120"><span class="label">[120]</span></a> "On the existence of Beds of Foraminifera, recent and fossil, on the South-East of Arabia," by H. J. Carter, Esq. -Assistant Surgeon, Bombay. Proceedings of the Bombay Asiatic Society, 1848.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_121" id="Footnote_121"></a><a href="#FNanchor_121"><span class="label">[121]</span></a> A remarkable foraminiferous deposit of chalk detritus occurs at Charing, in Kent, and was first examined and described -by William Harris, Esq.; it contains immense numbers of many kinds of foraminifera, and of the cases or shells of entomostraca, -of the genus Cytherina, with spicules of sponges, &c.—See Wonders of Geology, vol. 1. p. 324.</p></div> - -<p>M. D'Orbigny gives the following summary of the distribution of the known fossil species of -Foraminifera:—</p> - -<p>There are 228 species in the Tertiary deposits of Vienna alone, of which twenty-seven species -are known living in the Adriatic and the Mediterranean.</p> - -<p>Foraminifera are unknown in the Silurian and Devonian formations.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[ 189 ]</a></span></p> - -<p>One species only is known in the Carboniferous system of Russia, the <i>Fusulina cylindrica</i>.</p> - -<p> -Jurassic or Oolitic formation Genera 5 Species 20<br /> -Cretaceous " 34 " 280<br /> -Tertiary " 56 " 450<br /> -Living in the present seas " 68 " 1,000<br /> -</p> - -<p>Of these last, 575 species inhabit tropical seas, 350 the seas of temperate, and 75 the seas of -cold climates.</p> - - -<p><a id="SupNote_13">XIII.</a> <span class="smcap">Fossil Elk of Ireland</span>, or <i>Cervus megaloceros</i>. (<a href="#Plate_71">Plate LXXI.</a>)—The shell-marls of -Ireland contain in abundance the bones of an animal, which like the Dodo, was once contemporary -with the human species, but has long been extinct: the last individuals of the race were, in all -probability, exterminated by the early Celtic tribes. The remains of this noble creature -generally occur in the deposits of marl that underlie the peat-bogs, which are apparently, like -those of Scotland, the sites of ancient lakes or bays. In Curragh immense quantities of these -bones lie within a small area; the skeletons appear to be entire, and are found with the skull -elevated, and the antlers thrown back on the shoulders, as if a small herd of these Elks had -sought refuge in the marshes, and had been engulfed in the morass, in the same manner as the -Mastodons of America. (See description of <a href="#Plate_74">Plate LXXIV.</a>, ante, p. 167.)</p> - -<p>This creature far exceeded in magnitude any living species of elk or deer. The skeleton is -upwards often feet in height to the top of the skull, and the antlers are from ten to fourteen feet from -one extremity to the other. The fine perfect skeletons in the British Museum, College of Surgeons, -and in the Museum at Edinburgh, render a particular description unnecessary. The bones -are generally well preserved, of a dark brown colour, with patches of blue phosphate of iron. In -some instances they are in so fresh a condition, that the hollows of the long bones contain marrow -having the appearance of fresh suet. Remains of this majestic animal have been found collocated -with ancient sepulchral urns, stone implements, and rude canoes, in such manner, as to leave no -doubt that this now extinct deer was coeval with the early human inhabitants of these Islands. -Its bones and antlers have been found at Walton, in Essex, associated with the remains of the -Mammoth, or fossil elephant.<a name="FNanchor_122" id="FNanchor_122"></a><a href="#Footnote_122" class="fnanchor">[122]</a></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_122" id="Footnote_122"></a><a href="#FNanchor_122"><span class="label">[122]</span></a> Wonders of Geology, p. 134.</p></div> - - -<p><a id="SupNote_14">XIV.</a> <span class="smcap">Fossil Infusoria</span>—<i>Infusorial Earths</i>.—In the note on Foraminifera some account is -given of various rocks composed of the fossil remains of those minute animals; but the durable -relics of the yet more infinitesimal organisms designated by the terms <i>Infusoria</i>, or <i>Infusorial -animalcules</i>, form deposits of equal interest and importance. Strata of great extent and thickness -are wholly, or in great part, made up of innumerable layers, consisting of the aggregated siliceous -cases or shields of Infusoria: and similar structures are found to be the chief constituents of the -white earthy deposits of lakes, rivers, and basins of brackish water, in every part of the world.</p> - -<p>Slowly, imperceptibly, but incessantly, are the vital energies of the feeblest and minutest -animal and vegetable existences separating from the element in which they live, the most -enduring of mineral substances, silex—fabricating it into structures of the most exquisite forms -and sculpturing, and thus adding to the accumulations of countless ages, which make up the -sedimentary strata of the crust of the globe.</p> - -<p>In the "Medals of Creation"<a name="FNanchor_123" id="FNanchor_123"></a><a href="#Footnote_123" class="fnanchor">[123]</a> will be found a summary of what was then known as to the -formation and composition of many tertiary deposits which the indefatigable Ehrenberg, Dr. -Bailey, and other eminent observers, had carefully investigated and described. The five years -<span class="pagenum x-ebookmaker-drop"><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[ 190 ]</a></span> -that have since elapsed have been fruitful in results of the most important and interesting -character; from every quarter of the world, from the loftiest mountain peaks, and from the -deepest recesses of the ocean which the plummet can reach, from the ashes of volcanoes and -from the snow of the glaciers, the durable remains of Infusoria have been obtained. That -excellent scientific periodical, Silliman's American Journal, contains numerous interesting -communications on this subject from the eminent chemical professor of the Military College -at West Point, Dr. J. W. Bailey; and the labours of Mr. Bowerbank, Williamson, and other -active members of the Microscopical Society of London, have yielded much interesting information -on the infusorial deposits of our own country.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_123" id="Footnote_123"></a><a href="#FNanchor_123"><span class="label">[123]</span></a> Medals of Creation, vol. i. p. 211.</p></div> - -<p>The present note will be restricted to remarks on the nature of the organisms which enter -so largely into the composition of certain tertiary deposits; since the opinion once entertained -of the animal nature of many infusoria, now regarded as true vegetables, materially affects the -geological conclusions respecting the persistence of certain species of organisms through long -periods of time, during which the mollusca, zoophytes, &c. underwent repeated mutations both -in the species and genera. Thus, for example, the <i>polierschiefer</i>, or polishing-slate of Bilin, -and the berghmehl of Tuscany, are described by Ehrenberg as masses of the siliceous shells -of animalcules of such extreme minuteness, that a cubic inch of the stone contains upwards of -forty millions; the infusorial earth of Richmond, in Virginia, in like manner, is stated to be -made up of the siliceous skeletons of animalcules of infinitesimal minuteness. But later investigations -have (I conceive) satisfactorily established, that the greater part of these fossil organisms -belongs to the vegetable and not to the animal kingdom.<a name="FNanchor_124" id="FNanchor_124"></a><a href="#Footnote_124" class="fnanchor">[124]</a> The whole of the figures in <a href="#Plate_4">Plate IV.</a> -of the "Medals of Creation," described as living Infusoria, on the authority of Ehrenberg, are -undoubted vegetables, belonging to the great botanical groups called <i>Diatomaceæ</i> (from the -angular segments into which they separate by partial division), and <i>Desmidiaceæ</i>.<a name="FNanchor_125" id="FNanchor_125"></a><a href="#Footnote_125" class="fnanchor">[125]</a> The entire -family of <i>Bacillaria</i> belongs to this group. These simplest forms of vegetable structures abound -in every lake or stream of fresh and brackish water, in every pool, or bay, and throughout the -ocean, from the equator to the poles; they secrete siliceous envelopes, which present an endless -variety of form and structure, and after the death and decomposition of the perishable tissues -of the plants, remain as perfectly transparent colourless shields of pure silica; such are the -<i>Gaillonellæ</i>, <i>Euastra</i>, <i>Closteria</i>, <i>Naviculæ</i>, <i>Synhedræ</i>, <i>Podospheniæ</i>, <i>Xanthidia</i>, &c., which constitute -so large a proportion of the infusorial earths described by Ehrenberg and other authors.<a name="FNanchor_126" id="FNanchor_126"></a><a href="#Footnote_126" class="fnanchor">[126]</a></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_124" id="Footnote_124"></a><a href="#FNanchor_124"><span class="label">[124]</span></a> In my little work on Recent Infusoria, entitled "Thoughts on Animalcules, or a Glimpse of the Invisible World -revealed by the Microscope," I have expressed my conviction of the vegetable nature of these organisms, as a reason for -omitting figures and descriptions of any of the species in a work on living fresh-water animalcules.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_125" id="Footnote_125"></a><a href="#FNanchor_125"><span class="label">[125]</span></a> The name Diatomaceæ is restricted by M. Brébisson to those species which have a siliceous envelope, or cuticle; and that -of <i>Desmidiæ</i> to those which are not siliceous, but reducible by heat to carbon.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_126" id="Footnote_126"></a><a href="#FNanchor_126"><span class="label">[126]</span></a> The reader interested in this subject should consult the beautiful work of Mr. Hassall on the Desmidiaceæ, published -by Messrs. Reeve & Benham.</p></div> - -<p>The extent of this infinitesimal flora throughout regions where no other forms of vegetation -are known, is strikingly demonstrated by the observations of the eminent botanist and traveller. -Dr. Hooker, in his account of the Antarctic regions.</p> - -<p>"Everywhere," he states, "the waters and the ice alike abound in these microscopic vegetables. -Though too small to be visible to the unassisted eye, their aggregated masses stained the -iceberg and pack-ice wherever they were washed by the sea, and imparted a pale ochreous -colour to the ice. From the south of the belt of ice which encircles the globe, to the highest -latitudes reached by man, this vegetation is everywhere conspicuous, from the contrast between -its colour and that of the white snow and ice in which it is imbedded. In the eightieth degree -<span class="pagenum x-ebookmaker-drop"><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[ 191 ]</a></span> -of south latitude all the surface ice carried along by currents, and the sides of every berg, and -the base of the great Victoria barrier itself—a perpendicular wall of ice, from one to two -hundred feet above the sea-level—were tinged brown from this cause, as if the waters were -charged with oxide of iron. The majority of these plants consist of simple vegetable cells, -enclosed in indestructible silex (as other <i>Algæ</i> are in carbonate of lime); and it is obvious that -the death of such multitudes must form sedimentary deposits of immense extent.</p> - -<p>"The universal existence of such an invisible vegetation as that of the Antarctic ocean, is u -truly wonderful fact, and the more so, from its being unaccompanied by plants of a high order. -This ocean swarms with mollusca, and entomostracous crustaceans, small whales, and porpoises; -and the sea with penguins and seals, and the air with birds: the animal kingdom is everywhere -present, the larger creatures preying on the smaller, and these again on those more minute; all -living nature seems to be carnivorous. This microscopic vegetation is the sole nutrition of the -herbivorous animals; and it may likewise serve to purify the atmosphere, and thus execute in -the antarctic latitudes the office of the trees and grasses of the temperate regions, and the broad -foliage of the palms of the tropics."<a name="FNanchor_127" id="FNanchor_127"></a><a href="#Footnote_127" class="fnanchor">[127]</a></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_127" id="Footnote_127"></a><a href="#FNanchor_127"><span class="label">[127]</span></a> From Dr. Hooker's account of the botany of the South Polar regions in Sir J. Ross's Voyages of Discovery.</p></div> - -<p>Dr. Hooker also observes, that the siliceous cases of the same kind of Diatomaceæ now -living in the waters of the South Polar Ocean, have contributed in past ages to the formation -of European strata; for the tripoli and the phonolite stones of the Rhine contain the siliceous -shields of identical species. Such are the comments of one of our most eminent botanists on -the phenomena under review. The reader will probably ask,—What, then, are the essential -characters which separate the animal from the vegetable kingdom? To this question it is -impossible to give a satisfactory reply: perhaps the only distinction that will be generally -admitted by zoologists and botanists is the following:—<i>animals require organic substances for their -support; vegetables derive their sustenance from inorganic matter</i>.</p> - -<p>The facts thus cursorily reviewed throw much doubt on many of M. Ehrenberg's statements -as to the identity of species of animalcules now living, with those whose remains occur in the -eocene, and in the secondary strata. The so-called <i>Xanthidia</i> of the chalk, are certainly -altogether distinct from the recent diatomæ to which the name was first applied; the chalk -organisms are probably the gemmules of sponges or other zoophytes.<a name="FNanchor_128" id="FNanchor_128"></a><a href="#Footnote_128" class="fnanchor">[128]</a></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_128" id="Footnote_128"></a><a href="#FNanchor_128"><span class="label">[128]</span></a> It would be convenient to distinguish these fossils by another name, and thus avoid the perpetuation of the error; -I would propose that of <i>Spiniferites</i>, in allusion to the numerous spines with which all the species are beset.</p></div> - -<p>Infusorial earths may therefore be composed either of microscopic vegetable or animal remains, -or of both. The brackish and fresh-water deposits I have examined are siliceous and almost wholly -diatomaceous: the marine calcareous strata composed of microscopic organisms, consist chiefly of -various kinds of foraminifera, a large proportion belonging to the polythalamia, or chambered -shells. I am not certain as to the animal or vegetable nature of some of the beautiful siliceous disks -(<i>Coscinodisci</i>, <i>Arachnoidisci</i>, <i>Actinocyclus</i>, &c.) so abundant in the Richmond, Barbadoes, and Bermuda -infusorial earths, and which occur in so splendid a state in the Guano deposits of Ichaboe.</p> - -<p>With the corrections which the above remarks will enable the reader to make, I would refer -to the account of Fossil Infusoria in the Medals of Creation, and Wonders of Geology. <a name="FNanchor_129" id="FNanchor_129"></a><a href="#Footnote_129" class="fnanchor">[129]</a></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_129" id="Footnote_129"></a><a href="#FNanchor_129"><span class="label">[129]</span></a> See also "Thoughts on Animalcules."</p></div> - - -<p><a id="SupNote_15">XV.</a> <span class="smcap">The Mosasaurus</span>, or <i>Fossil Reptile of Maestricht</i>. (<a href="#Plate_70">Plate LXX.</a>) The occasional -discovery of bones and teeth of an unknown animal in the limestone of St. Peter's Mountain, near -Maestricht, and the innumerable shells, corals, teeth of fishes, claws of crabs, echini, and other -<span class="pagenum x-ebookmaker-drop"><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[ 192 ]</a></span> -organic remains, had long since attracted the attention of naturalists, and rendered these quarries -celebrated throughout Europe. In 1770, M. Hoffman, the surgeon of the Fort, who had for some -years been assiduously collecting the fossils of this locality, had the good fortune to discover -a specimen which has conferred an enduring celebrity on his name. Some workmen, on blasting -the rock in one of the caverns of the interior of the mountain, perceived to their astonishment -the jaws of a large animal attached to the roof of the chasm. The discovery was immediately -made known to M. Hoffman, who repaired to the spot, and for weeks presided over the arduous -task of separating the mass of stone containing these remains from the surrounding rock. His -labours were rewarded by the successful extrication of the specimen, which he conveyed in -triumph to his house. This extraordinary discovery soon became the subject of general conversation, -and upon reaching the ears of the Canon of the cathedral which stands on the mountain, -excited in that functionary a determination to claim the fossil, in right of being lord of the -manor; and he unfortunately succeeded, after a long and harassing lawsuit, in obtaining this -precious relic. It remained for years in his possession, and Hoffman died without regaining his -treasure, or receiving any compensation. At length the French revolution broke out, and the -armies of the republic advanced to the gates of Maestricht. The town was bombarded; but at -the suggestion of the committee of savans who accompanied the French troops to select their -share of plunder, the artillery was not suffered to bombard that part of the city in which the -celebrated fossil was known to be preserved. In the mean time, the Canon of St. Peter's, -shrewdly suspecting the reason why such peculiar favour was shown to his residence, removed -the specimen, and concealed it in a vault; but when the city was taken, the French authorities -compelled him to give up his ill-gotten prize, which was immediately transmitted to the Jardin -des Plantes, at Paris, where it still forms one of the most striking objects in that magnificent -collection.<a name="FNanchor_130" id="FNanchor_130"></a><a href="#Footnote_130" class="fnanchor">[130]</a></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_130" id="Footnote_130"></a><a href="#FNanchor_130"><span class="label">[130]</span></a> Faujus St. Fond, in whose beautiful work on the fossils of St. Peter's Mountain the above account is given, remarks -with much sang froid, "La <i>justice</i>, quoique tardive, arrive enfin avec le tems!" The reader will probably think that although -the Canon was justly despoiled of his ill-gotten treasure, the French <i>savans</i> were a very equivocal personification of <i>Justice</i>!</p></div> - -<p>The beautiful model of this most interesting fossil in the British Museum, was presented to -me by Baron Cuvier. It is four and a half feet long, and two and a half wide; it consists of the -jaws, with teeth, palatal bones, and the tympanic bone, or <i>os quadratum</i>, a bone possessed by -reptiles, as well as birds, and in which the auditory cells are contained. There are likewise some -fine portions of jaws, with teeth, in the British Museum, presented by Camper. The original -animal was probably a terrestrial reptile, holding an intermediate place between the Monitors and -Iguanas. It was about twenty-five feet long.</p> - -<p>I discovered, many years since (1820), some vertebræ in the chalk near Lewes, which closely -resemble the corresponding bones of the Mosasaurus, and in all probability belong to another -species. In the cretaceous strata of New Jersey, Dr. Harlan found and described, and my -friend. Dr. Morton, of Philadelphia, sent me, in 1834, teeth which cannot be distinguished from -those of Maestricht. Vertebræ, and other bones, have since been obtained from the same deposits -by Professor Rogers, and described by Professor Owen in the Geological Journal.</p> - - -<p><a id="SupNote_16">XVI.</a> <span class="smcap">Fossil Reptiles.</span> Although when Mr. Parkinson's work was published many fossil bones -and teeth of reptiles had been discovered in various parts of England, yet the abundance and -variety, and the extraordinary modification of form and structure of this class of vertebrated animals, -which prevailed throughout the secondary geological formations, were not for a moment suspected. -The few examples of the remains of fossil reptiles described by Mr. Parkinson, serve to mark the -<span class="pagenum x-ebookmaker-drop"><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[ 193 ]</a></span> -degree of knowledge which then existed respecting a department of palæontology that rapidly -acquired an importance and interest unsurpassed by any other branch of fossil osteology.</p> - -<p>The announcement of the founder of palæontology,<a name="FNanchor_131" id="FNanchor_131"></a><a href="#Footnote_131" class="fnanchor">[131]</a> that there was a period when the lakes -and rivers of our planet were peopled by reptiles, and cold-blooded oviparous quadrupeds of -appalling magnitude were the principal inhabitants of the dry land; when the seas swarmed with -saurians, exclusively adapted for a marine existence, and the regions of the atmosphere were -traversed by winged lizards instead of birds; was an enunciation so novel and startling, as to -require all the prestige of the name of Cuvier, to obtain for it any degree of attention and -credence, even with those who were sufficiently enlightened to admit, that a universal deluge -would not account for the physical mutations which the surface of the earth and its inhabitants -had, in the lapse of innumerable ages, undergone.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_131" id="Footnote_131"></a><a href="#FNanchor_131"><span class="label">[131]</span></a> In the "Ossemens Fossiles;" tom. v. Reptiles Fossiles.</p></div> - -<p>Subsequent discoveries have established the truth of this proposition to an extent beyond -what even its promulgator could have surmised; and the "<i>Age of Reptiles</i>" is now admitted into -the category of established facts.</p> - -<p>During the incalculable ages which the formation of the various systems of secondary strata -must have comprised, we find no evidence in the fossils hitherto observed, of the existence of birds -and mammalia, as the characteristic types of the faunas of the dry land. On the contrary, -throughout the immense accumulations of the spoils of the ancient islands and continents, amidst -innumerable relics of reptiles of various orders and genera, a few jaws and bones of two or three -kinds of extremely small marsupials, and the bones of a species of wader, are the sole indications -of the presence of the two grand classes of Aves and Mammalia, which now constitute the chief -features of the terrestrial zoology of almost all countries.</p> - -<p>The earliest indications of air-breathing vertebrata in the ancient secondary formations are -those of small saurian reptiles in the carboniferous strata; a few vestiges occur in the succeeding -group, the Permian. In the next epoch, the Triassic, colossal Batrachians (<i>Labyrinthodonts</i>) appear; -and on some of the strata of this formation are the footmarks of numerous bipeds, presumed to be -those of birds; but at present the evidence of the bones of the animals that made those imprints -is required to establish the hypothesis.</p> - -<p>In the succeeding eras, the Lias, Oolite, Wealden, and Cretaceous, swarms of reptiles of -numerous genera and species everywhere prevail; reptiles fitted to fly through the air, to roam -over the land, to inhabit the lakes, rivers, and seas; and yet not one identical with any existing -forms! These beings gradually decline in numbers and species as we approach the close of the -secondary periods, and are immediately succeeded in the eocene epoch, by as great a preponderance -of warm-blooded vertebrata—birds and mammalia—as exists at the present time; and an -equal decadence in the class of reptiles. With the Cretaceous Formation the "Age of Reptiles" -may be said to terminate.</p> - - -<p><a id="SupNote_17">XVII.</a>—<span class="smcap">Fossil Reptiles of the Wealden.</span> <i>The Iguanodon.</i> The fluviatile deposits (termed -<i>Wealden</i>), which in the south-east of England, and in the north of Germany, are intercalated -between the oolitic and cretaceous formations, abound in the bones of terrestrial, fresh-water, -and marine reptiles, comprising some of the most colossal land-saurians which have hitherto been -brought to light. These remains belong to various genera of Chelonians, Saurians, and Crocodilians; -and with these are associated those of flying lizards (<i>Pterodactyles</i>), Plesiosauri, gigantic -whale-like reptiles (<i>Cetiosauri</i>), and of other oviparous quadrupeds of unknown species and genera.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[ 194 ]</a></span></p> - -<p>The occurrence of fossils of this nature in the strata forming the districts denominated the -Wealds of Sussex and Kent, was first brought under the notice of geologists in 1822, in my -work on the "Fossils of the South Downs," in which the remains of several unknown reptiles -were described; and among them the teeth and bones of that extraordinary herbivorous lizard, -the <i>Iguanodon</i>, on which I am induced to offer a few observations in this place; the recent discovery -of some previously undetermined parts of the skeleton, having materially elucidated the -structure and economy of the original.<a name="FNanchor_132" id="FNanchor_132"></a><a href="#Footnote_132" class="fnanchor">[132]</a></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_132" id="Footnote_132"></a><a href="#FNanchor_132"><span class="label">[132]</span></a> The following is the description of the specimens first discovered, given in the "Fossils of the South Downs; or, Illustrations -of the Geology of Sussex," 1 vol. 4to. 1822: "Incisors and molar teeth evidently belonging to the same species of -animal: they differ from any previously known; the masticating surface is perfectly smooth and rather depressed in the -centre; these teeth consist of the crown only, and are quite solid. An incisor tooth 1.3 inch long Is slightly bowed and -smooth on its inner surface; but it has externally a ridge which extends longitudinally down the front. Its sides are angular -and the edges finely crenated." From the resemblance of these teeth in their general form to those of the Iguana, a common -land lizard in the West Indies, I subsequently proposed the name of <i>Iguanodon</i> (implying an animal having teeth like the -Iguana) for the fossil reptile. The teeth of an Iguana four or five feet long are not larger than those of a mouse; the -Iguanodon's teeth are as large as the incisors of the rhinoceros. The Iguana's teeth, when used, are chipped off at the points, -no existing reptile being capable of performing mastication; the teeth of the Iguanodon, on the contrary, are ground down -like the worn molars of herbivorous mammalia, as I pointed out in my first memoir in the Philos. Trans. 1825.</p></div> - -<p>Since the first announcement of the discovery of the remains of the Iguanodon, vast quantities -of bones belonging to a great number of individuals of all ages have been collected; but until a -few years since, not a vestige of the jaws had been observed, notwithstanding the most diligent -research. In the early part of the year 1848, I was surprised and highly gratified by receiving -from Capt. Lambart Brickenden (at that time a personal stranger to me), who then resided at -Warminglid, near Cuckfield, in Sussex, the greater part of the right side (or <i>ramus</i>) of the lower -jaw, with several successional teeth in their natural position, of an adult Iguanodon.<a name="FNanchor_133" id="FNanchor_133"></a><a href="#Footnote_133" class="fnanchor">[133]</a> See p. 202.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_133" id="Footnote_133"></a><a href="#FNanchor_133"><span class="label">[133]</span></a> This beautiful and most instructive specimen is now in my possession; it is figured of the natural size in Philos. Trans. -Part ii. for 1848, Plate XVI., as well as the portion of upper jaw in the British Museum, Plate XIX. The character of the -upper and lower teeth of the Iguanodon are well represented in Plate XVIII. of the same memoir. -</p> - -<p>A specimen very similar to that discovered by Capt. Brickenden, but of a young individual, was found soon afterwards -in a quarry near Horsham; but I was not allowed the privilege of figuring or describing it!</p></div> - -<p>In the course of last summer I obtained a very instructive fragment of the middle part of the -right ramus of the lower jaw of a much larger Iguanodon, found by Mr. Fowlestone, with some -enormous bones of the extremities, in the Wealden strata of the Isle of Wight. A portion of -the upper jaw (without teeth) was discovered some years since in Tilgate Forest, and is deposited, -with the whole of the collection I formed at Brighton, in the gallery of organic remains of the -British Museum. These three specimens are the only parts of the jaws of the Iguanodon, with -the exception of a fragment of the angular bone, that I have had the opportunity of examining. -The other portions of the skeleton hitherto discovered are the following: the tympanic bone;<a name="FNanchor_134" id="FNanchor_134"></a><a href="#Footnote_134" class="fnanchor">[134]</a> -cervical, dorsal, lumbar, and caudal vertebræ, and chevron bones; ribs; the iliac bones, and -sacrum composed of six anchylosed vertebræ;<a name="FNanchor_135" id="FNanchor_135"></a><a href="#Footnote_135" class="fnanchor">[135]</a> the coracoid, scapula and clavicles; humerus, -radius? metacarpals; femur, tibia and fibula, metatarsals and ungueals. The cranium, carpals, -and tarsals, have not been discovered.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_134" id="Footnote_134"></a><a href="#FNanchor_134"><span class="label">[134]</span></a> This may or may not belong to the Iguanodon: no tympanic bone has been found in such connexion with other parts -of the skeleton as to afford certain proof that this maxillary element is referable to the Iguanodon.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_135" id="Footnote_135"></a><a href="#FNanchor_135"><span class="label">[135]</span></a> In the Megalosaurus, the sacrum consists of five anchylosed vertebræ.</p></div> - -<p>With the exception of the assemblage of bones promiscuously grouped together in a block of -<i>Kentish rag</i> (of the greensand formation), found in a quarry near Maidstone, by Mr. Bensted, -<span class="pagenum x-ebookmaker-drop"><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[ 195 ]</a></span><a name="FNanchor_136" id="FNanchor_136"></a><a href="#Footnote_136" class="fnanchor">[136]</a> -a few connected caudal vertebræ, and two or three instances in which a femur, tibia, and fibula -and some metatarsals, were found in contiguity, all the bones were isolated. They have been -obtained from the quarries in St. Leonard's and Tilgate Forests, near Loxwood, Rusper, -Horsham, Cuckfield, and Battel; and from the cliffs at Hastings, and in Sandown, and Brixton, -and Brook Bays, on the southern shore of the Isle of Wight.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_136" id="Footnote_136"></a><a href="#FNanchor_136"><span class="label">[136]</span></a> This most instructive specimen is in a glass-case on the floor near the window, in the middle room of the Gallery of -Organic Remains in the British Museum. All the Wealden reptilian remains of a large size, collected by me when residing -in Sussex, are in the upright glass cases in the same apartment.</p></div> - -<p>So anomalous is the osteology of the Iguanodon compared with that of existing saurians, that -from my discovery of the first vestige of this reptile—a fragment of a tooth—thirty years ago, -to the recent important acquisition of the jaws, I have had to contend with the opposition of -eminent naturalists, who have refused assent to the physiological inferences suggested by the -specimens which were from time to time brought to light, because the modifications of structure -in a colossal herbivorous reptile, essentially differed from the hypothetical archetype skeleton of the -class to which it belonged. When the first discovered teeth were shown to Baron Cuvier, he -pronounced them to be the incisors of a Rhinoceros; the metatarsals, those of a Hippopotamus; -the fragment of a femur, with a medullary canal, that of some large mammalian. But the candour -and liberality of the founder of Palæontology were worthy of his transcendent genius; upon -receiving further evidence, he immediately acknowledged the error, and expressed his conviction -that the teeth and bones belonged to an herbivorous reptile more extraordinary than any that had -previously been brought under his notice.<a name="FNanchor_137" id="FNanchor_137"></a><a href="#Footnote_137" class="fnanchor">[137]</a></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_137" id="Footnote_137"></a><a href="#FNanchor_137"><span class="label">[137]</span></a> See Cuvier's Ossemens Fossiles, tom. v. part. ii. It is much to be wished that those who aspire to emulate this great -man in scientific fame, would also endeavour to imitate him in the yet nobler attributes of his character. It is stated by -Professor Owen, in Brit. Assoc. Reports on Fossil Reptiles, that the bones of the Iguanodon were interpreted by me with the -aid of Cuvier and Clift. This is a mistake. Baron Cuvier died before I had obtained any considerable portion of the -skeleton; and neither Mr. Clift nor Mr. Owen at that time could afford me any assistance in determining the nature of the -isolated bones I occasionally brought to the Hunterian Museum for comparison. Any aid I ever received in my investigations -is most fully acknowledged in my works.</p></div> - -<p>Even the lower jaw, which presents characters so peculiar as to admit, as I conceive, of but -one interpretation—that enunciated in my memoir on the teeth and jaws of the Iguanodon,<a name="FNanchor_138" id="FNanchor_138"></a><a href="#Footnote_138" class="fnanchor">[138]</a>—has -been adduced as affording a signal instance of the incorrectness of my physiological deductions. -And why? Because in the entire class of living reptiles there is not a single species that has -cheeks and flexible lips, which, according to my view of the subject, the Iguanodon must have -possessed. But I do not hesitate to affirm that the structure and arrangement of the teeth, and -the mammalian character of the bones of the extremities, are in perfect accordance with my -exposition of the probable structure and functions of the maxillary organs of the original. The -naturalists who advance these objections, forget that among the existing mammalia there is one -genus, the <i>Ornithorhynchus</i>, or Duck-billed Platypus, that exhibits as striking a deviation from -the typical maxillary structure of its class, as does the Iguanodon. If before the discovery of -New Holland the jaw-bones of the Ornithorhynchus had been found in a fossil state in the strata -of Tilgate Forest, and I had ventured to infer that the original, though a true mammalian, and -giving suck to its young, had the extremities of the jaws covered with flat horny beaks, like -those of a duck, instead of with the fleshy lips and integuments which are the peculiar attributes -of its class, what censures would not my temerity have called forth! We cannot too often be -reminded of the profound remark of William Penn: "Experience, which is continually contradicting -theory, is the only test of truth."</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_138" id="Footnote_138"></a><a href="#FNanchor_138"><span class="label">[138]</span></a> See Philosophical Transactions, Part II. 1848.</p></div> - -<p>The following are the physiological inferences relating to the structure and habits of the -Iguanodon, which Dr. Melville and myself conceive our investigations have established: the -<span class="pagenum x-ebookmaker-drop"><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[ 196 ]</a></span> -discovery of the cranium, and of perfect examples of the upper and lower jaws with both -successional and mature molars in their natural position, may modify, but, we believe, will in no -material respect invalidate these conclusions.</p> - -<p>In instituting a comparison between the maxillary organs of the Iguanodon, and those of -the existing herbivorous lizards, we are at once struck with their remarkable deviation from all -known types in the class of reptiles. In the <i>Amblyrhynchi</i> (of the Galapagos Islands), the most -exclusively vegetable feeders of the Saurian order, the alveolar process beset with teeth is -continued round the front of the mouth: the junction of the two rami of the lower jaw at the -symphysis presenting no edentulous interval whatever, the lips not being more produced than in -other reptiles; but this creature only bruises its food; it cannot grind or masticate it. In fact, -the edentulous, expanded, scoop-shaped, procumbent symphysis of the lower jaw of the -Iguanodon, has no parallel among either recent or fossil reptiles; and we seek in vain for organs -at all analogous, except among the herbivorous mammalia. The nearest approach is to be found -in certain <i>Edentata</i>; as for example in the <i>Cholæpus didactylus</i>, or Two-toed Sloth, in which the -anterior part of the lower jaw is destitute of teeth, and much prolonged. The correspondence is -still closer in the extinct gigantic <i>Mylodons</i>, in which the symphysis resembles the blade of a -turf-spade, and has no traces of incisor sockets; and were not this part of the jaw elevated -vertically in front, and the two sides confluent, it would present the very counterpart of that of -the Iguanodon. The great number and size of the vascular foramina distributed along the outer -side of the dentary bone in the Wealden reptile, and the magnitude of the anterior outlets which -gave exit to the vessels and nerves that supplied the front of the mouth, indicate the great -development of the integuments and soft parts with which the lower jaw was invested.</p> - -<p>The sharp ridge bordering the deep groove of the symphysis, in which there are also several -foramina, evidently gave attachment to the muscles and integuments of the under lip; and there -are strong reasons for supposing that the latter was greatly produced, and capable of being -protruded and retracted so as to constitute, in conjunction with a long extensile tongue, a suitable -instrument for seizing and cropping leaves and branches, which, from the construction of the -teeth, we may infer was the food of the Iguanodon.</p> - -<p>Thus we find the mechanism of the maxillary organs of the Wealden herbivorous saurian, -as demonstrated by recent discoveries, in perfect harmony with the remarkable dental characters -which rendered the first known teeth so enigmatical. In the Iguanodon we have a solution of -the problem, how the integrity of the type of organization peculiar to the class of cold-blooded -vertebrata was maintained, and yet adapted by simple modifications to fulfil the conditions -required by the economy of a gigantic terrestrial reptile, destined to obtain support exclusively -from vegetable substances; in like manner as the extinct colossal sloth-like Edentata of South -America. In fine, we have in the Iguanodon the type of the terrestrial herbivora, which in that -remote epoch of the earth's physical history—the <i>Age of Reptiles</i>—occupied the same relative -station in the terrestrial fauna, and fulfilled the same general purposes in the economy of nature, -as the Mylodons, Mastodons, and Mammoths, of the tertiary periods, and the large pachyderms -of modern times.</p> - -<p>Although some important data are still required to complete our knowledge of the structure -of the Iguanodon, we are warranted in concluding that this colossal herbivorous reptile was as -bulky as the elephant, and as massive in its proportions: for, living exclusively on vegetable -substances, the abdominal region must have been largely developed. Its limbs must have been -of proportionate size to support and move so enormous a carcass. The hinder extremities -probably presented the unwieldly contour of those of the Hippopotamus, and were based on -<span class="pagenum x-ebookmaker-drop"><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[ 197 ]</a></span> -strong short feet, protected by broad horny ungueal phalanges, or nails. The fore-legs appear to -have been less bulky, and adapted for seizing and pulling down plants and branches: the -teeth and jaws demonstrate the nature of its food; and the fossil remains of coniferous trees, -arborescent, ferns, and cycadeous plants, with which its relics are commonly associated, indicate -the character of the flora adapted for its sustenance.<a name="FNanchor_139" id="FNanchor_139"></a><a href="#Footnote_139" class="fnanchor">[139]</a></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_139" id="Footnote_139"></a><a href="#FNanchor_139"><span class="label">[139]</span></a> Philosophical Transactions, for 1848, pp. 196-198.</p></div> - - -<p><a id="SupNote_18">XVIII.</a> <span class="smcap">The Pelorosaurus.</span>—The humerus of a terrestrial reptile of enormous magnitude, has -lately been discovered by Mr. Peter Fuller of Lewes, in the quarry near Cuckfield, from which -many remains of the Iguanodon and Hylæosaurus were obtained in my early researches. This -bone more nearly resembles the humerus of the Crocodiles, than that of the Lizards. It Is four -and a half feet in length, and of corresponding proportions; it has a large medullary canal. -As to the size of the animal to which it belonged, while disclaiming the idea that any certain -conclusion can be drawn from a single bone, I may mention, with the view of conveying some -general notion, that in a Gangetic crocodile eighteen feet long, the humerus is one foot: -according to this scale the fossil animal would be eighty-one feet in length. I have proposed the -name of <i>Pelorosaurus</i> (from πἑλωρ—<i>pelòr</i>—monster), or Colossal-saurian, for this new genus of -reptiles which Inhabited the country of the Iguanodon.<a name="FNanchor_140" id="FNanchor_140"></a><a href="#Footnote_140" class="fnanchor">[140]</a></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_140" id="Footnote_140"></a><a href="#FNanchor_140"><span class="label">[140]</span></a> A memoir on this fossil was read before the Royal Society, Feb. 14th, 1850; an abstract has been published in the Proceedings -of the Society. It is entitled, "On the <span class="smcap">Pelorosaurus</span>; an undescribed gigantic terrestrial reptile, whose remains -are associated with those of the Iguanodon and other saurians in the strata of Tilgate Forest." It will appear in the Phil. -Trans. Part 11. 1850.</p></div> - - -<p><a id="SupNote_19">XIX.</a> <span class="smcap">Silicification</span>, <i>or petrifaction by flint</i>.—The various forms in which silex occurs have -depended on its state of fluidity. In quartz crystals the solution was complete; in agate -and chalcedony it was in a gelatinous state, assuming a spheroidal or orbicular disposition -according to the motion given to its particles. Its condition appears also to have been modified -by the influence of organic matter. In some polished slices of siliceous nodules, the transition -from flint to agate, chalcedony, and crystallized quartz, is beautifully shown. The curious -fact that the shells of Echinites In chalk are almost invariably filled with flint, while their -crustaceous shells are changed into calc-spar, is probably in many instances to be attributed -to the animal matter having undergone silicification; for the most organized parts are those -which appear to have been most susceptible of this transmutation. In some specimens the -oyster is changed into flint, while the shell Is converted into crystallized carbonate of lime. In -a trigonia from Tisbury, formerly In the cabinet of the late Miss Benett, of Norton House, near -Warminster, the body of the mollusk was completely metamorphosed into pure chalcedony, the -branchiæ or gills being as clearly defined as when the animal was recent. In specimens of wood -from Australia (presented to the British Museum by Sir Thomas Mitchell), which are completely -permeated by silex, there are on the external surface some spots of chalcedony, that have -apparently originated from the exudation of the liquid silex from the interior in viscid globules -filled with air, which burst, and then collapsed, and became solidified in their present form.</p> - -<p>In silicified wood, the permeation of the vegetable tissues by the mineral matter appears -to have been effected by solutions of silex of a high temperature. In some examples mineralization -has been effected simply by replacement: the original substance has been removed, atom -by atom, and the silex substituted in its place. One of the most eminent naturalists and mineralogists -of the United States, Mr. J. D. Dana,<a name="FNanchor_141" id="FNanchor_141"></a><a href="#Footnote_141" class="fnanchor">[141]</a> suggests that the reason why silica is so common -<span class="pagenum x-ebookmaker-drop"><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[ 198 ]</a></span> -a material in the constitution of fossil wood and shells, as well as in pseudo-morphic crystals,<a name="FNanchor_142" id="FNanchor_142"></a><a href="#Footnote_142" class="fnanchor">[142]</a> -consists in the ready solution of silex in water at a high temperature (a fact affirmed by -Bergman<a name="FNanchor_143" id="FNanchor_143"></a><a href="#Footnote_143" class="fnanchor">[143]</a>) under great pressure, whenever an alkali is present, as is seen at the present time -in many volcanic regions, and its ready deposition again when the water cools. A mere -heated aqueous solution of silica, under a high pressure, is sufficient to explain the phenomenon -of the silicification of organic structures. Mr. Dana states that "a crystal of calc-spar in -such a fluid, being exposed to solution from the action of the heated water alone, the silica -deposits itself gradually on a reduction of temperature, and takes the place of the lime, atom by -atom, as soon as set free. Every silicified fossil is an example of this pseudo-morphism; -but there seems to be no union of the silica with the lime, for silicate of lime is of rare -occurrence."<a name="FNanchor_144" id="FNanchor_144"></a><a href="#Footnote_144" class="fnanchor">[144]</a></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_141" id="Footnote_141"></a><a href="#FNanchor_141"><span class="label">[141]</span></a> American Journal of Science, for January, 1845.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_142" id="Footnote_142"></a><a href="#FNanchor_142"><span class="label">[142]</span></a> Pseudo-morphic crystals are crystals moulded in the cavities left by other crystals, which they have replaced. See Dr. -Blum on pseudo-morphous minerals; and Mr. Jefferey's experiments on the solution of silica in heated vapour; Wonders of -Geology, p. 100.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_143" id="Footnote_143"></a><a href="#FNanchor_143"><span class="label">[143]</span></a> Bergman first determined the solubility of silex in simple water, aided by heat, and demonstrated its existence in the -Geysers, and other boiling springs of Iceland. <i>Parkinson</i>, <i>Org. Rem.</i>, vol. i. p. 324.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_144" id="Footnote_144"></a><a href="#FNanchor_144"><span class="label">[144]</span></a> See my "Notes on a microscopical examination of chalk and flint," Annals of Natural History, August 1845.</p></div> - - -<p><a id="SupNote_20">XX.</a> <span class="smcap">Stigmaria, Sigillaria,</span> &c.—The most remarkable peculiarity of the flora of the carboniferous -period is the immense numerical preponderance of the vascular or higher tribes of cryptogamic -plants, which amount to two-thirds of the species described. With these are associated a -few Palms, Coniferæ, Cycadeæ, and dicotyledonous plants, allied to the <i>Cacteæ</i> and <i>Euphorbiaceæ</i>. -The number and magnitude of the vegetables bearing an analogy to the <i>Ductulosæ</i>, but differing -from existing species and genera, constitute therefore the most important botanical feature of -the carboniferous flora. Thus we have plants allied to the Equisetum, or mare's-tail (<i>Calamites</i>), -eighteen inches in circumference, and from thirty to forty feet high; Zamia-like coniferæ -(<i>Sigillariæ</i>) fifty feet high; and arborescent club-mosses (<i>Lepidodendra</i>) attaining an altitude -of sixty or seventy feet. Of this ancient flora, the fossil plants whose stems have been named -<i>Sigillaria</i> (see <a href="#Plate_21">Plate XXI.</a>), and their roots Stigmaria, are especially remarkable in consequence -of the peculiar circumstances under which upright examples of these trees are occasionally -met with. Referring for details to "Wonders of Geology," Lecture VII., I purpose describing -in this place the facts recently brought to light, which prove that certain species of Stigmaria -are the roots of Sigillariæ; while others in all probability belong to Lepidodendra:—an opinion -maintained more than thirty years ago by the Rev. H. Steinhauer.<a name="FNanchor_145" id="FNanchor_145"></a><a href="#Footnote_145" class="fnanchor">[145]</a> To the late Mr. Binney -we are indebted for the first confirmation of the inference of my friend, M. Adolphe Brongniart, -(derived from an examination of the structure of those bodies,) that the Stigmariæ are the veritable -roots of Sigillariæ. At St. Helen's, near Liverpool, Mr. Binney discovered, in 1844, an upright -trunk of a Sigillaria, nine feet high, to which were attached ten roots, several feet long, -that extended into the under clay in their natural position;<a name="FNanchor_146" id="FNanchor_146"></a><a href="#Footnote_146" class="fnanchor">[146]</a> and these roots were unquestionable -Stigmariæ, the tubercles with their attached rootlets being clearly displayed. -In the floor of the Victoria Mine at Dunkinfold, near Manchester, at the depth of 1,100 feet -from the surface, Mr. Binney also discovered a magnificent specimen of Sigillaria, which -exhibited on its stem the respective characters of three supposed species, and had stigmaria-roots -extending twenty feet.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_145" id="Footnote_145"></a><a href="#FNanchor_145"><span class="label">[145]</span></a> Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, New Series, vol. i.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_146" id="Footnote_146"></a><a href="#FNanchor_146"><span class="label">[146]</span></a> See Medals of Creation, vol. i. p. 143.</p></div> - -<p>In the Sydney coal-field at Cape Breton, Mr. Richard Brown has observed several upright -<span class="pagenum x-ebookmaker-drop"><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[ 199 ]</a></span> -stems of Sigillariæ and Lepidodendra, with stigmaria-roots attached; and the same fact has been -noticed in the Picton coal, in Nova Scotia. The following figures and notes from Mr. Brown's -description of these interesting phenomena, will place the subject before the reader in a clear -point of view.<a name="FNanchor_147" id="FNanchor_147"></a><a href="#Footnote_147" class="fnanchor">[147]</a></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_147" id="Footnote_147"></a><a href="#FNanchor_147"><span class="label">[147]</span></a> "Description of an upright Lepidodendron with Stigmaria-roots in the roof of the Sydney Main Coal, in the Island -of Cape Breton. By Richard Brown, Esq."—<i>Geological Journal</i>, No. 13, for June, 1847, p. 46.</p></div> - -<p>The main bed of coal is six feet in thickness, and is overlaid, as usual, by a roof of shale -abounding in foliage and fragments of branches. As the coal is dug out, large masses of the -shale fall in, and occasionally hollow spaces, called by the workmen <i>pot-holes</i>, are left in the roof; -the fallen masses being the roots and truncated stems of Sigillariæ and other trees, which -separate at the parting formed by the coaly bark covering the roots, when the supporting coal -is removed.</p> - -<p>The following sketch represents one of the specimens of the base of a stem of a Lepidodendron, -with the roots (<i>stigmariæ</i>) attached. This figure (1) shows the position of the tree above the bed -of main coal, with the inclination and length of two of the principal roots, so far as they could be -distinctly traced; and the following sketch (2) represents the trunk, with its branching roots, -constructed from careful measurements of the dimensions and position of each root, drawn on the -spot. The stem at the part marked A, was encrusted with a coaly bark, covered by the usual -cicatrices of the Lepidodendra, and the roots at B, C, D, with a similar carbonaceous investment, -impressed with the characteristic pits or areolæ of Stigmariæ.</p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 331px;"> -<img src="images/page199a.png" width="331" height="137" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption"><i>Fig. 1.</i><br /> -STEM OF LEPIDODENDRON WITH ROOTS.</div> -</div> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 275px;"> -<img src="images/page199b.png" width="275" height="108" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption"><i>Fig. 2.</i></div> -</div> - -<p>In the Instance of the upright stems of Sigillariæ in the same coal-field, the roots were also -unequivocally Stigmariæ. Fig. 3, represents one of these erect stems, sixteen Inches high and -twelve inches in diameter at the top, which dropped from the roof of the bed after the coal had -<span class="pagenum x-ebookmaker-drop"><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[ 200 ]</a></span> -been removed. Part of the coaly bark remains at <i>c</i>. The decorticated part of the trunk is covered -with minute scales as far as the point <i>h</i>, a few inches below the first ramification of the roots. -The carbonaceous crust investing the roots was thick at the upper part, but gradually became -thin, and at <i>a</i>, and <i>b</i>, was a mere friable pellicle, that fell off upon the slightest touch.</p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 333px;"> -<img src="images/page200a.png" width="333" height="225" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption"><i>Fig. 3.</i><br /> -STEM OF SIGILLARIA ALTERNANS, <sup>1</sup>/<sub>12</sub> <i>natural size</i>.</div> -</div> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 355px;"> -<img src="images/page200b.png" width="355" height="168" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption"><i>Fig. 4.</i></div> -</div> - -<p>The exact position of the tree in relation to the underlying coal is shown in the above section. -Fig. 4. Immediately over the coal there is a bed of hard shale, six inches in depth, in which no -fossils are found; this is overlaid by a softer shale abounding in coal-plants; all the upright -stems were rooted in the six-inch shale. Upon clearing the base of this tree, a complete set of -conical tap-roots was discovered, arranged as in the annexed sketch. Fig. 5. There are four large -tap-roots in each quarter of the stump, and five inches below these another set of smaller tap-roots; -the total number amounting to eighteen. The horizontal roots are seen to branch off in -a regular manner, the base being divided into four nearly equal parts by deep channels, extending -from the centre to the points <i>i, k, l, m</i>.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[ 201 ]</a></span></p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 195px;"> -<img src="images/page201a.png" width="195" height="176" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption"><i>Fig. 5.</i><br /> -<i>The under surface of Fig. 3, showing the conical tap-roots -of the tree, <sup>1</sup>/<sub>12</sub> natural size.</i></div> -</div> - -<p>Mr. Brown remarks, that these short thick tap-roots were evidently adapted only to a soft -wet soil, such as we may conceive was the nature of the first layer of mud deposited upon a bed -of peat which had settled down slightly below the level -of the water. He supposes, from the presence of a -layer of shale without fossil plants immediately over -the coal, that the prostrate stems and leaves which -occur in such large quantities in the next superincumbent -bed, fell from trees growing on the spot, and were -entombed in layers of mud held in suspension in the -water, which at short intervals inundated the low -marshy ground on which they grew; for had the -plants been drifted from a distance, he conceives they -would also occur in the first layer of shale, as well as -in those higher up.</p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 363px;"> -<img src="images/page201b.png" width="363" height="153" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption"><i>Fig. 6.</i><br /> -STEM OF A SIGILLARIA BROKEN OFF CLOSE TO THE ROOTS, <sup>1</sup>/<sub>12</sub> <i>natural size</i>.</div> -</div> - -<p>Having thus shown that the <i>Sigillaria alternans</i> -was provided with roots adapted for a soft muddy soil, -Mr. Brown next describes the specimen represented in -Fig. 6, which is the stem of the same species of tree -broken off near the roots; the hollow cylinder of bark (<i>a</i>) having been bent down and doubled -over by the pressure of the surrounding mud, so as effectually to close up the aperture, leaving -only a few irregular cicatrices, of three or four inches in length, converging at the apex; the -structure, arrangement, and number of the tap-roots, as well as the horizontal ramifications, are -similar to those in Fig. 5. This fossil clearly explains the nature of the "<i>dome-shaped</i>" plant -figured in the "Fossil Flora of Great Britain."<a name="FNanchor_148" id="FNanchor_148"></a><a href="#Footnote_148" class="fnanchor">[148]</a></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_148" id="Footnote_148"></a><a href="#FNanchor_148"><span class="label">[148]</span></a> The figures 3, 4, 5, 6, and the descriptions, are from the paper of Richard Brown, Esq., published in the Journal of the -Geological Society of London, for March, 1849, entitled, "Description of erect Sigillariæ, with conical tap-roots, found in -the roof of the Sydney Main Coal, in the Island of Cape Breton."</p></div> - -<p>"The roots of the preceding fossils repeatedly ramify as their distance from the stem -increases, and ultimately terminate in broad flattened points. The whole of the spreading roots -of these trees (the <i>Sigillariæ</i>) cover only an area of thirty square feet each; whilst those of the -Lepidodendron (Fig. 1), whose stem is only two or three inches larger in diameter, covered -a space of two hundred square feet. Since it is well known, from numerous examples, that the -<span class="pagenum x-ebookmaker-drop"><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[ 202 ]</a></span> -Lepidodendra were lofty trees, with spreading branches, which therefore required wide bases for -support, may we not conclude that Sigillariæ of the species described were, on the contrary, trees -of low stature, without heavy branches?"</p> - -<p>I cannot quit this subject without again adverting to the remarkable phenomenon mentioned -In a previous note, namely, that in the bed of pulverulent earth—the <i>under-clay</i>—on which the -coal invariably reposes, the roots (or Stigmariæ) of large trees are generally the only organic -remains met with. The constant occurrence of these fossils in the under-clay, and their rarity in -the coal and shale, was long ago pointed out by Mr. Martin, Dr. Macculloch, and other geologists; -but the importance of the fact was not appreciated till Mr. Logan drew attention to it. In the -Welsh coal-field, through a depth of 1,200 feet, there are sixty beds of coal, each of which lies on -a stratum of clay abounding in Stigmariæ. In the Appalachian coal formation of the United -States, the same phenomena occur.</p> - -<p>Thus it appears that the under-clay is the natural soil in which the roots (<i>Stigmariæ</i>) of the -Sigillariæ and Lepidodendra grew; the coal above it is composed of the carbonized stems and -foliage of those trees; and the roof or coal-shale is formed by the leaves and branches of a forest -overwhelmed and buried beneath the transported detritus of distant rocks. These phenomena may -be explained by supposing that a plain, densely clothed with a luxuriant intertropical vegetation, -was either inundated by an irruption of the sea, or overwhelmed by a flood, from the sudden -breaking up of the barrier of an inland lake; or by the subsidence of the country on which the -forests grew. But when we find an uninterrupted series, in which triple deposits of this -character are repeated through many thousand feet, the solution of the problem is beset with -difficulties, which the hypothesis of repeated periodical subsidences, however ingenious, does -not, in my opinion, remove.<a name="FNanchor_149" id="FNanchor_149"></a><a href="#Footnote_149" class="fnanchor">[149]</a></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_149" id="Footnote_149"></a><a href="#FNanchor_149"><span class="label">[149]</span></a> See Wonders of Geology, pp. 669, 718, 731.</p></div> - -<p><a id="Iguanodon"></a><span style="font-size: 1.75em;">∵</span> <span class="smcap">Jaw of the Iguanodon.</span>—<i>Additional note to</i> p. 194.—Since the preceding pages were -struck off, I have, through the kindness and liberality of <span class="smcap">Samuel H. Beckles</span>, Esq., of Hastings, -obtained two portions of jaws from the Wealden of the Sussex Coast. One of these is a fragment -of the left side of the lower jaw, with six well-defined dental sockets; the other specimen -exhibits the position of the mature molars and the successional teeth in the upper jaw; and -confirms the accuracy of the views of Dr. Melville and myself as to the ruminant character of -the arrangement of the dental organs in the upper and lower jaws of the Iguanodon, as described -in my memoir on the structure of the jaws and teeth; Philos. Trans. 1848, p. 183. When this -specimen is completely developed, it will probably exhibit distinctly the relative position of the -germs and mature teeth, and the form of the inner alveolar parapet.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[ 203 ]</a></span></p> - - - - -<h2><a name="INDEX" id="INDEX">INDEX.</a></h2> - -<div class="tdc" style="width:50%"> -[ <a href="#Alph_A">A</a> ][ <a href="#Alph_B">B</a> ][ <a href="#Alph_C">C</a> ][ <a href="#Alph_D">D</a> ][ <a href="#Alph_E">E</a> ][<a href="#Alph_F">F</a> ] -[ <a href="#Alph_G">G</a> ][ <a href="#Alph_H">H</a> ][ <a href="#Alph_I">I</a> ][ <a href="#Alph_J">J</a> ][ <a href="#Alph_K">K</a> ][<a href="#Alph_L">L</a> ] -[ <a href="#Alph_M">M</a> ][ <a href="#Alph_N">N</a> ][ <a href="#Alph_O">O</a> ][ <a href="#Alph_P">P</a> ][ <a href="#Alph_Q">Q</a> ][<a href="#Alph_R">R</a> ] -[ <a href="#Alph_S">S</a> ][ <a href="#Alph_T">T</a> ][ <a href="#Alph_U">U</a> ][ <a href="#Alph_V">V</a> ][ <a href="#Alph_W">W</a> ][<a href="#Alph_X">X</a> ] -[ <a href="#Alph_Y">Y</a> ][ <a href="#Alph_Z">Z</a> ] -</div> - -<p class="p0"> -<a id="Alph_A">A</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Acrodus, tooth of, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.<br /> -Actinocrinus, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.<br /> -—— triacontadactylus, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.<br /> -Adelosina, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.<br /> -Age of reptiles, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>.<br /> -Alethopteris decurrens, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.<br /> -—— lonchitidis, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.<br /> -—— Serlii, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.<br /> -Algæ, fossil, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.<br /> -Alveolina elliptica, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.<br /> -Ammonites, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.<br /> -—— latus, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.<br /> -—— Mantelli, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.<br /> -—— ovalis, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.<br /> -—— Walcotii, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.<br /> -Ananchytes ovatus, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.<br /> -Annularia brevifolia, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.<br /> -Anoplotherium commune, teeth of, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.<br /> -Antarctic ocean, diatomaceæ of, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.<br /> -Aphyllum asperum, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.<br /> -—— cristatum, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.<br /> -Apiocrinus ellipticus, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.<br /> -—— Parkinsoni, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.<br /> -—— rotundus, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.<br /> -Aptychus, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.<br /> -Area, fossil, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.<br /> -Artis, Mr., on fossil botany, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.<br /> -—— work of, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.<br /> -Asaphus caudatus, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.<br /> -Aspidiaria cristata, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.<br /> -Asterias, fossil, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.<br /> -Asterophyllites, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.<br /> -Astrea ananas, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.<br /> -—— arachnoides, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.<br /> -—— geometrica, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.<br /> -—— Tisburiensis, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.<br /> -—— undulata, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.<br /> -<br /> -<br /> -<a id="Alph_B">B</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Baculites Fraujasii, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.<br /> -Bahia Blanca, fossils of, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.<br /> -Bears, fossil teeth of, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.<br /> -—— fossil, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.<br /> -Beckles, S. H., Esq., fossils by, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.<br /> -Belemnitella mucronata, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.<br /> -Belemnite, description of, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.<br /> -Belemnites, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.<br /> -—— coniformis, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.<br /> -—— cylindriformis, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.<br /> -—— fusiformis, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.<br /> -—— giganteus, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.<br /> -—— Puzosianus, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.<br /> -Belemnoteuthis antiquus, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.<br /> -Bellerophon costatus, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.<br /> -Bellinurus bellulus, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.<br /> -Benett, Miss, the late, fossils by, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.<br /> -Bergman, on Silica, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>.<br /> -Big-bone Lick, account of, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.<br /> -Biloculina ringens, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.<br /> -Binney, Mr., on Stigmariæ, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>.<br /> -Birds, fossil remains of. New Zealand, <a href="#Page_x">x</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.<br /> -Botanical arrangement of fossil plants, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.<br /> -Bourgeticrinus, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.<br /> -Bovey coal, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.<br /> -Bowerbank, J. S., Esq., on fossil fruits of Sheppey, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.<br /> -Brachiopoda, fossil, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.<br /> -Bradford encrinite, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.<br /> -Brickenden, Capt. Lambart, discovery of jaw of Iguanodon, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.<br /> -Brongniart, M., fossil botany of, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.<br /> -—— on fossil fruits of Sheppey, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.<br /> -Brown, Mr. Richard, on upright Sigillariæ, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>.<br /> -Buckland, Dr., on Belemno-sepia, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.<br /> -—— on Stigmariæ, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.<br /> -<br /> -<br /> -<a id="Alph_C">C</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Calamites approximatus, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.<br /> -—— decoratus, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.<br /> -—— dubius, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.<br /> -—— ramosus, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.<br /> -—— Suckovii, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Calceola sandalina, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.<br /> -Calymene Blumenbachii, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.<br /> -—— variolare, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.<br /> -Cancer Leachii, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.<br /> -Cannibalism of New Zealanders, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.<br /> -Cap Encrinite, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.<br /> -Cape Breton, coal-field of 199.<br /> -<span class="pagenum x-ebookmaker-drop"><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[ 204 ]</a></span> -Carboniferous deposits, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.<br /> -Carcharias megalodon, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.<br /> -Cardinia Listeri, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.<br /> -Cardita senilis, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.<br /> -Cardium Hillanum, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.<br /> -Carpenter, Dr., on foraminifera, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.<br /> -Carpolithus marginatus, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.<br /> -Caryophyllia annularis, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.<br /> -—— centralis, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.<br /> -Catenipora escharoides, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.<br /> -Caves, ossiferous, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.<br /> -Cephalopoda, fossil, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.<br /> -Ceratodus, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.<br /> -Ceriopora, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.<br /> -Chain-coral, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.<br /> -Chama squamosa, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.<br /> -Chara, fossil seeds of, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.<br /> -Cheilanthes microlobus, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.<br /> -Cheilanthites, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.<br /> -Chelonia breviceps, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.<br /> -Chenendopora fungiformis, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.<br /> -—— Parkinsoni, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.<br /> -—— subplana. 111.<br /> -Choanites Königi, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.<br /> -Cidaris Blumenbachii, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.<br /> -—— claviger, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.<br /> -—— corollaris, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.<br /> -—— coronatus, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.<br /> -—— crenularis, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.<br /> -—— fossil, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.<br /> -—— glandiferus, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.<br /> -—— granulosus, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.<br /> -—— Königi, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.<br /> -—— Parkinsoni, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.<br /> -—— saxatilis, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.<br /> -—— sceptrifera, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.<br /> -—— Schmidelii, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.<br /> -—— vesiculosus, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.<br /> -Clapp, Dr., fossil corals by, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.<br /> -Cliona, of New Zealand, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.<br /> -Clionites, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.<br /> -Clypeaster, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.<br /> -—— altus, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.<br /> -Clypeus sinuatus, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.<br /> -Cnemidium rimulosum, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.<br /> -Coal, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.<br /> -Coal measures, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.<br /> -Cololites, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.<br /> -Comatula, fossil, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.<br /> -—— pectinata, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.<br /> -Conulus albogalerus, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.<br /> -Coprolites of fishes, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.<br /> -Coral marble, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.<br /> -Corals, fossil, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.<br /> -—— fossil, from the Ohio, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.<br /> -Corbula gallica, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.<br /> -—— revoluta, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.<br /> -Coronulites diadema, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.<br /> -Crabs, fossil, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.<br /> -Crania personata, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.<br /> -Crassatella tumida, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.<br /> -Crenatula, fossil, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.<br /> -Crinoidea, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.<br /> -Cristellaria galea, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.<br /> -—— rotulata, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.<br /> -Crustacea, fossil, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.<br /> -Cucullæa decussata, <a href="#Page_147">147</a><br /> -Cucumites, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.<br /> -Cupanoides, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.<br /> -Cuvier, Baron, discoveries of, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.<br /> -Cyathocrinite, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.<br /> -Cyathocrinus rugosus, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.<br /> -Cyathophyllum dianthus, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.<br /> -—— fungites, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.<br /> -—— turbinatum, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.<br /> -Cyclopteris orbicularis, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.<br /> -Cyphosoma correlare, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.<br /> -—— Milleri, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.<br /> -Cyrena deperdita, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.<br /> -<br /> -<br /> -<a id="Alph_D">D</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Dana, J. D., Esq., on silicification, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.<br /> -Dapedius, scales of, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.<br /> -Darwin, Mr., Journal of, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.<br /> -—— on fossil Edentata, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.<br /> -Deane, Mr. Henry, on Rotaliæ, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.<br /> -Derbyshire Cap Encrinite, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.<br /> -Desmidiaceæ, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.<br /> -Dianchora, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.<br /> -Diatomaceæ, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.<br /> -Dinornis of New Zealand, <a href="#Page_x">x</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.<br /> -Dinotherium, tooth of, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.<br /> -Disaster ovalis, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.<br /> -Discoidea, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.<br /> -—— subuculus, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.<br /> -Discospira, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.<br /> -D'Orbigny, M., on foraminifera, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.<br /> -Dudley fossil locust, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.<br /> -<br /> -<br /> -<a id="Alph_E">E</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Echinanthites orbicularis, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.<br /> -Echinanthus altus, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.<br /> -Echini, fossil, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.<br /> -Echinital spines, fossil, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.<br /> -Echinodiscus bisperforatus, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.<br /> -—— laganum, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.<br /> -—— subrotundus, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.<br /> -Echinites lapis cancri, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.<br /> -—— pyriformis, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.<br /> -Edentata, fossil, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.<br /> -Eggs of Dinornis, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.<br /> -Elephas primigenius, teeth of, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.<br /> -Elk fossil, of Ireland, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.<br /> -Encrinital limestone, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.<br /> -—— marble, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.<br /> -Encrinites, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.<br /> -—— monileformis, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.<br /> -Essex reversed Whelk, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.<br /> -Eugeniacrinus caryophyllatus, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.<br /> -Euomphalus pentangulatus, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.<br /> -—— rugosus, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.<br /> -Euphorbites vulgaris, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.<br /> -Explanaria flexuosa, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.<br /> -<br /> -<br /> -<a id="Alph_F">F</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Faringdon, fossil zoophytes of, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.<br /> -Fasciolites, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.<br /> -Favosites Gothlandica, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.<br /> -Feet of Moa, <a href="#Page_x">x</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.<br /> -Ferns, fossil, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.<br /> -Ficoidites furcatus, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.<br /> -—— major, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.<br /> -—— verrucosus, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.<br /> -Filicites decurrens, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.<br /> -—— Miltoni, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.<br /> -—— Osmunda, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>.<br /> -—— plumosus, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.<br /> -—— trifoliatus, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.<br /> -Fishes, fossil, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.<br /> -Fistulana, fossil, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.<br /> -<span class="pagenum x-ebookmaker-drop"><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[ 205 ]</a></span> -Flint, fossils in, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.<br /> -Flustra, structure of, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.<br /> -Foraminifera, account of, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.<br /> -—— fossil, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.<br /> -—— —— of India, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.<br /> -—— —— of New Zealand, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.<br /> -Forbes, Prof E., fossils by, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.<br /> -Fossil plants, arrangement of, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.<br /> -Fowlestone, Mr., fossils by, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.<br /> -Frontispiece, description of, <a href="#Page_x">x</a>.<br /> -Fruits, fossil, of Isle of Sheppey, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.<br /> -Fuller, Mr. Peter, fossils by, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.<br /> -Fungia, fossil, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.<br /> -—— numismalis, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.<br /> -—— polymorpha, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.<br /> -Fusus contrarius, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.<br /> -<br /> -<br /> -<a id="Alph_G">G</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Galerites, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.<br /> -Galeus pristodontus, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.<br /> -Gloucestershire Pentacrinite, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.<br /> -Goniaster Mantelli, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.<br /> -—— Parkinsoni, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.<br /> -—— semilunata, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.<br /> -Gonoplax Latreilli, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.<br /> -Gorgonia bacillaris, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.<br /> -Gryphea incurva, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.<br /> -Guard or rostrum of Belemnite, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.<br /> -Gyrogonites, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.<br /> -<br /> -<br /> -<a id="Alph_H">H</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Hamites intermedius, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.<br /> -—— plicatilis, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.<br /> -—— rotundus, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.<br /> -Hamsey, near Lewes, fossils from, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.<br /> -Harris, W., Esq., on Charing deposits, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.<br /> -Helix arbustorum, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.<br /> -Hemicidaris crenularis, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.<br /> -Hermit crab, fossil, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.<br /> -Hippopotamus, fossil teeth of, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.<br /> -Hippurites bioculatus, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.<br /> -Hoffman, M., discovery of Mosasaurus, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.<br /> -Honey-stone, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.<br /> -Hooker, Dr., on Diatomaceæ, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.<br /> -Hybodus, tooth of, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.<br /> -Hydatica columnaris, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.<br /> -—— prostrata, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.<br /> -<br /> -<br /> -<a id="Alph_I">I</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Iguanodon, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.<br /> -—— discovery of, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>.<br /> -Inachus Lamarckii, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.<br /> -Infusorial earths, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.<br /> -Insects, fossil, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.<br /> -Ireland, fossil Elk of, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.<br /> -Ironstone nodules, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.<br /> -<br /> -<br /> -<a id="Alph_J">J</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Jaw of Iguanodon, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.<br /> -Jerea excavata, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.<br /> -—— pyriformis, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.<br /> -<br /> -<br /> -<a id="Alph_K">K</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Kentucky crinoidea, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.<br /> -Kilkenny marble, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.<br /> -Knorria taxina, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.<br /> -<br /> -<br /> -<a id="Alph_L">L</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Lamna, tooth of, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.<br /> -Lapis syringoides, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.<br /> -Leaves, dicotyledonous, in travertine, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.<br /> -Lepidotus, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.<br /> -Lepidodendron, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.<br /> -—— upright, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.<br /> -—— with stigmariæ, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.<br /> -Lepidostrobi, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.<br /> -Lepidostrobus ornatus, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.<br /> -Lignite, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.<br /> -Lily encrinite, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.<br /> -Lima gigantea, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.<br /> -Limulus trilobitoides, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.<br /> -Lithodendron fasciculatum, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.<br /> -Lithodomi, fossil, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.<br /> -Lithostrotion striatum, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.<br /> -Lituites lituus, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.<br /> -Lituola nautiloidea, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.<br /> -Lobophora biperforata, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.<br /> -Lumbricaria colon, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.<br /> -Lychnophorites superus, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.<br /> -Lycopodites squamatus, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.<br /> -Lyell, Sir Charles, on Apiocrinites, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.<br /> -—— on Big-bone Lick, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.<br /> -Lysianassa literata, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.<br /> -<br /> -<br /> -<a id="Alph_M">M</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Maestricht, fossil reptile of, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.<br /> -Mammalia, fossil teeth of, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.<br /> -Manon favosum, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.<br /> -Mantell, Mr. R. N., fossils by, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.<br /> -—— Walter, Esq., on fossil birds of New Zealand, <a href="#Page_x">x</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.<br /> -Marsupites Milleri, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.<br /> -Martius, M., fossil flora of, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.<br /> -Mastodon, tooth of, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.<br /> -Megaceros Hibernicus, antlers of, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.<br /> -Megalonyx, tooth and claw of, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.<br /> -—— Jeffersoni, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.<br /> -Megaphyton distans, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.<br /> -Megatherium Cuvieri, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.<br /> -Mellite, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.<br /> -Melville, Professor, on the Iguanodon, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.<br /> -Michelinia, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.<br /> -—— tenuisepta, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.<br /> -Micraster cor anguinum, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.<br /> -—— lacunosus, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.<br /> -Miliobatis, fossil, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.<br /> -Millepora ramosa, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.<br /> -Miller, Mr., on Belemnite, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.<br /> -—— on Crinoidea, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.<br /> -Moa, or Dinornis, of New Zealand, <a href="#Page_x">x</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.<br /> -Morris, Mr., on Clionites, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.<br /> -—— on Discospira, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.<br /> -Mosasaurus, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.<br /> -<span class="pagenum x-ebookmaker-drop"><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[ 206 ]</a></span> -Murchison, Sir R. I., Silurian System, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.<br /> -Mya literata, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.<br /> -Myriophyllites gracilis, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.<br /> -<br /> -<br /> -<a id="Alph_N">N</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Natica Gentii, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.<br /> -Nautilus centralis, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.<br /> -—— Parkinsoni, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.<br /> -—— truncatus, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.<br /> -Nerita conoidea, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.<br /> -Neuropteris, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.<br /> -—— auriculata, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>.<br /> -New Zealand, fossil birds of, <a href="#Page_x">x</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.<br /> -Nipa, fruits of, fossil, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.<br /> -Nipadites, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.<br /> -—— Parkinsoni, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.<br /> -Nodosaria raphanistrum, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.<br /> -Nodules with leaves, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.<br /> -Notidanus microdon, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.<br /> -Nucleolites, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.<br /> -—— pyriformis, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.<br /> -Nucula ovum, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.<br /> -Nummulina, animal of, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.<br /> -—— Dr. Carpenter on, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.<br /> -—— lævigata, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.<br /> -Nummulites, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.<br /> -—— complanata, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.<br /> -—— dispansa, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.<br /> -—— obtusa, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.<br /> -<br /> -<br /> -<a id="Alph_O">O</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Ogygia Buchii, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.<br /> -Ohio, Falls of the, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.<br /> -Ophiura, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.<br /> -Ophiuræ, fossil, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.<br /> -Orbitolites, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.<br /> -Ormoceras, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.<br /> -Ornithorhynchus, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.<br /> -Orthoceras annulatum, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.<br /> -—— duplex, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.<br /> -—— pyriforme, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.<br /> -—— undulatum, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.<br /> -Orthocerina clavulus, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.<br /> -Osselet of Belemnite, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.<br /> -Ostrea Marshii, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.<br /> -—— carinata, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.<br /> -—— gregarea, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.<br /> -Otodus, tooth of, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.<br /> -Owen, Professor, on Belemnites, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.<br /> -—— —— on Dinornis, <a href="#Page_x">x</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.<br /> -—— —— Elephants' teeth, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.<br /> -Ox, fossil teeth of, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.<br /> -<br /> -<br /> -<a id="Alph_P">P</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Pagurus Faujasii, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.<br /> -Palæotherium medium, teeth of, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.<br /> -Pampas, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.<br /> -Pandanocarpum Parkinsonis, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.<br /> -Panopæa Aldrovandi, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.<br /> -Parish, Sir Woodbine, fossils by, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.<br /> -Parkinson, Mr., notice of, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.<br /> -Pear encrinite, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.<br /> -Pearce, Channing, Esq., fossils by, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.<br /> -—— on Belemnites, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.<br /> -Pecopteris, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.<br /> -—— heterophylla, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.<br /> -—— Miltoni, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.<br /> -—— oreopteridis, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.<br /> -—— plumosa, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.<br /> -Pelorosaurus, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.<br /> -Peneroloplis opercularis, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.<br /> -Pentacrinites, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.<br /> -Pentacrinus, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.<br /> -—— basaltiformis, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.<br /> -—— Briareus, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.<br /> -—— scalaris, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.<br /> -Pentagonaster regularis, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.<br /> -Pentamerus, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.<br /> -Pentremites florealis, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.<br /> -Perna quadrata, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.<br /> -—— maxillata, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.<br /> -Petraia, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.<br /> -Petrifaction by flint, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.<br /> -Petrified figs, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.<br /> -—— melons, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.<br /> -Phragmocone of Belemnite, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.<br /> -Platycrinus lævis, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.<br /> -Plicatula spinosa, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.<br /> -Polystomella crispa, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.<br /> -Porites pyriformis, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.<br /> -Productus, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.<br /> -—— antiquatus, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.<br /> -—— Martini, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.<br /> -Psaronius, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.<br /> -Ptychodus decurrens, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.<br /> -—— polygurus, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.<br /> -Pulley-stone, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.<br /> -<br /> -<br /> -<a id="Alph_Q">Q</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Quadrupeds, fossil, of Montmartre, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.<br /> -Quinqueloculina ringens, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.<br /> -—— opposita, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.<br /> -<br /> -<br /> -<a id="Alph_R">R</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Radiolites agariciformis, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.<br /> -Rangatapu, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.<br /> -Reptiles, fossil, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.<br /> -—— —— of the Wealden, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>.<br /> -Rhinoceros leptorhinus, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.<br /> -Rhizolithes, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.<br /> -Rhodocrinus verus, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.<br /> -Rhytidolepis fibrosa, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.<br /> -Rotalia Beccarii, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.<br /> -—— trochiliformis, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.<br /> -<br /> -<br /> -<a id="Alph_S">S</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Salenia scutigera, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.<br /> -—— stellulata, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.<br /> -Scaphites costatus, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.<br /> -Scelidotherium, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.<br /> -Schlotheim, Baron, fossil botany, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.<br /> -Scyphia articulata, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.<br /> -—— costata, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.<br /> -Seed-vessels, fossil, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.<br /> -Serpula antiquata, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.<br /> -—— conica, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.<br /> -—— filiformis, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.<br /> -Serpulite, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.<br /> -Shark's teeth, fossil, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.<br /> -Shells, fossil, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.<br /> -Shrimp, fossil, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.<br /> -Shropshire Encrinite, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.<br /> -Shumard, Dr., on Geology of Kentucky, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.<br /> -<span class="pagenum x-ebookmaker-drop"><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[ 207 ]</a></span> -Sigaretus, fossil, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.<br /> -Sigillaria, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.<br /> -—— alternans, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.<br /> -—— appendiculata, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.<br /> -—— fibrosa, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.<br /> -—— tesselata, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.<br /> -—— upright, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.<br /> -—— with stigmariæ, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.<br /> -Siliceous nodules, fossils in, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.<br /> -Silicification, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.<br /> -Siliquaria, fossil, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.<br /> -Siphonia, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.<br /> -—— pyriformis, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.<br /> -Spatangites ovalis, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.<br /> -Spatangus cor marinum, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.<br /> -—— lacunosus, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.<br /> -—— purpureus, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.<br /> -—— radiatus, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.<br /> -Sphenophyllum erosum, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.<br /> -Sphenopteris, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.<br /> -—— trifoliata, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.<br /> -Spherodus, tooth of, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.<br /> -Spherulites, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.<br /> -Spicules of fossil sponges, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.<br /> -Spines of Echinites, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.<br /> -Spiniferites, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.<br /> -Spirifer cuspidatus, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.<br /> -—— striatus, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.<br /> -Spirolina depressa, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.<br /> -—— cylindracea, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.<br /> -Spongites labyrinthicus, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.<br /> -—— lobatus, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.<br /> -—— ramosus, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.<br /> -Staarenstein, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.<br /> -Star-fishes, fossil, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.<br /> -Starry-stone, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.<br /> -Steinhauer, Rev. J., on Stigmariæ, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>.<br /> -Stems, fossil, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.<br /> -Steneosaurus, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.<br /> -Sternberg, Count, fossil flora of, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.<br /> -Sternbergia transversa, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.<br /> -Stigmaria, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>.<br /> -—— ficoides, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.<br /> -—— in under-clay, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.<br /> -—— with lepidodendron, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.<br /> -Stigmariæ, with sigillariæ, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.<br /> -Streptospondylus, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.<br /> -Syringopora geniculata, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.<br /> -—— ramulosa, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.<br /> -<br /> -<br /> -<a id="Alph_T">T</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Teeth, fossil, of Anoplotherium, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.<br /> -—— —— Bears, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.<br /> -—— —— Dinotherium, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.<br /> -—— —— Elephants, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.<br /> -—— —— Hippopotamus, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.<br /> -—— —— Mastodon, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.<br /> -—— —— Megalonyx, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.<br /> -—— —— Ox, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.<br /> -—— —— Palæotherium, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.<br /> -—— —— Rhinoceros, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.<br /> -—— of Sharks, fossil, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.<br /> -Terebratula coarctata, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.<br /> -—— diphya, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.<br /> -—— triquetra, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.<br /> -Teredina personata, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.<br /> -Teredo, fossil, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.<br /> -Tisbury, fossil corals of, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.<br /> -Tortoise encrinite, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.<br /> -Toxodon, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.<br /> -Trigonellites, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.<br /> -—— lamellosa, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.<br /> -—— lata, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.<br /> -Trigonia alæformis, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.<br /> -—— clavellata, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.<br /> -—— costata, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.<br /> -—— dædalea, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.<br /> -—— excentrica, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.<br /> -—— rudis, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.<br /> -—— sinuata, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.<br /> -—— soft parts silicified, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.<br /> -—— spinosa, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.<br /> -Trigonocarpum olivæforme, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.<br /> -Trilobites, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.<br /> -Triloculina trigonula, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.<br /> -Tubipore, fossil, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.<br /> -Turban encrinite, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.<br /> -Turbinolia complanata, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.<br /> -—— mitrata, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.<br /> -Turrilites costatus, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.<br /> -—— tuberculatus, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.<br /> -Turtles, fossil, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.<br /> -<br /> -<br /> -<a id="Alph_U">U</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Under-clay, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.<br /> -Ursus spelæus, teeth of, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.<br /> -—— priscus, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.<br /> -<br /> -<br /> -<a id="Alph_V">V</a>.<br /> -<br /> -<br /> -Vaginella depressa, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.<br /> -Ventriculites, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.<br /> -—— alcyonoides, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.<br /> -—— racemosus, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.<br /> -Vermetus ampullacea, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.<br /> -—— Bognoriensis, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.<br /> -—— concavus, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.<br /> -Victoria barrier, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.<br /> -<br /> -<br /> -<a id="Alph_W">W</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Waikouaiti, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.<br /> -—— fossils from, <a href="#Page_x">x</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.<br /> -Waingongoro, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.<br /> -Wenlock limestone corals, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.<br /> -Wetherellia, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.<br /> -Williamson, Mr., on Polystomella, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.<br /> -Wood, fossil coniferous, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.<br /> -—— calcareous, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.<br /> -—— cupreous, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.<br /> -—— jasperized, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.<br /> -—— pyritous, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.<br /> -—— silicified, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.<br /> -<br /> -<br /> -<a id="Alph_X">X</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Xanthidia, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.<br /> -<br /> -<br /> -<a id="Alph_Y">Y</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Yandell, Dr., fossil corals by, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.<br /> -<br /> -<br /> -<a id="Alph_Z">Z</a>.<br /> -<br /> -Zamia pectinata, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.<br /> -</p> - - -<p>K. CLAY, PRINTER, BREAD STREET HILL.</p> - - - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<div class="transnotes"> - -<p>Transcriber's Note</p> - - -<p>Minor typos were corrected. Illustrations were relocated so as to avoid -splitting paragraphs. Some tables were rejoined and page splits moved -above or below them. 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