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diff --git a/old/64413-0.txt b/old/64413-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 7933097..0000000 --- a/old/64413-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,4761 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook of Magic, Pretended Miracles and Remarkable -Natural Phenomena, by Anonymous - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you -will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before -using this eBook. - -Title: Magic, Pretended Miracles and Remarkable Natural Phenomena - -Author: Anonymous - -Release Date: January 28, 2021 [eBook #64413] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -Produced by: deaurider, Charlie Howard, and the Online Distributed - Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was - produced from images generously made available by The Internet - Archive) - -*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MAGIC, PRETENDED MIRACLES AND -REMARKABLE NATURAL PHENOMENA *** - - - - - MAGIC, - - PRETENDED MIRACLES, - - AND - - REMARKABLE - - NATURAL PHENOMENA. - - - _PHILADELPHIA_: - AMERICAN SUNDAY-SCHOOL UNION, - NO. 146 CHESTNUT STREET. - - _LONDON_: - RELIGIOUS TRACT SOCIETY. - - -NOTE.--The _American Sunday-school Union_ have made an arrangement -with the _London Religious Tract Society_, to publish, concurrently -with them, such of their valuable works as are best suited to our -circulation. In making the selection, reference will be had to the -general utility of the volumes, and their sound moral tendency. They -will occupy a distinct place on our catalogue, and will constitute a -valuable addition to our stock of books for family and general reading. - -As they will be, substantially, reprints of the London edition, the -credit of their general character will belong to our English brethren -and not to us; and we may add, that the republication of them, under -our joint imprint, involves us in no responsibility beyond that of a -judicious selection. We cheerfully avail ourselves of this arrangement -for giving wider influence and value to the labours of a sister -institution so catholic in its character and so efficient in its -operations as the _London Religious Tract Society_. - -☞ The present volume is issued under the above arrangement. - - - - -CONTENTS. - - - CHAPTER I. - - PAGE - The magi of the east--Magical power attributed to numbers, - plants, and minerals 5 - - - CHAPTER II. - - Feats of modern magicians--Their wonders explained--The - snake-charmers of India--A Chinese delusion--The magician of - Cairo 10 - - - CHAPTER III. - - Machines considered magical in ancient times--Remarkable modern - automata--Minute engines--The calculating machine 30 - - - CHAPTER IV. - - Terrestrial phenomena--Footmarks on rocks--The Logan - stone--Sounds in stones--The cave of St. Paul--Atmospherical - phenomena--Intermitting springs--Waters of magical power 41 - - - CHAPTER V. - - Chemical wonders--Ice obtained in a red-hot vessel--The - corpse candles of Wales--Luminous appearances after - death--Sadoomeh the magician--The laughing gas--Sulphuric - ether--Chloroform--Gunpowder compared with gun-cotton 62 - - - CHAPTER VI. - - Light and its phenomena--Magic pictures--The optical - paradox--Chinese metallic mirrors--Effect of an - optical instrument on a superstitious mind--Origin of - photography--The Talbotype--The Daguerreotype--Sunlight - pictures 87 - - - CHAPTER VII. - - Heat, the cause of many wonders--Its universal diffusion - and application--Story of a burning-glass--The Augustine - friars and the Jesuits--Impostures as to the endurance - of heat--Burning mirrors--The blow-pipe--The Giants’ - Causeway--Application of currents of heated air--Travelling - by steam 107 - - - CHAPTER VIII. - - The magic swan--Properties of the magnet--The mariners’ - compass--Process of magnetizing--The dip of the - needle--Magnetic properties in various substances 124 - - - CHAPTER IX. - - The electrical kite--Candles magically lighted--St. Elmo’s - fire--The chronoscope--The electric clock--The electric - telegraph--Sub-marine telegraphs--The overruling providence - of God 133 - - - CHAPTER X. - - Claims of the church of Rome to miraculous power--The - Franciscans and Dominicans--Tale of bishop Remi--The - effect of relics--Friars’ pretended dispossession of evil - spirits--Tragical event--Appearance of the virgin Mary to - shepherds exposed--Pretended miracle of the Greek church 154 - - - CHAPTER XI. - - Real miracles--A miracle defined by archbishop Tillotson--The - miracles of Moses--The miracles of our Lord Jesus Christ--The - miracles of the apostles--Collision with those who pretended - to supernatural power--The magicians of Egypt--Magical arts - at Ephesus--The miraculous power of the Saviour inherent, - that of the prophets and apostles derived--Cessation of - miraculous gifts 177 - - - - -MAGIC, PRETENDED MIRACLES, - -ETC - - - - -CHAPTER I. - - The magi of the east--Magical power attributed to numbers, plants, - and minerals. - - -The magi formed one of the six tribes into which the nation of the -Medes was divided in ancient times. To them was entrusted the special -charge of religion; and, as priests, they were superior in education -and training to the people in general. Among the Persians, “the lovers -of wisdom and the servants of God” were, according to Suidas, called -magi. It seems also, that they extended themselves into other lands, -and that among the Chaldeans they were an organized body. - -We read in the inspired book of Daniel, of “the magi,” or “wise men,” -among whom the prophet himself was classed; and others, we know, -directed by “the star in the east,” went to the infant Saviour, when -born, at Bethlehem, “as Christ the Lord,” and presented to him their -offerings, “gold, and frankincense, and myrrh.” Among the Greeks and -Romans, the same class of persons was styled Chaldeans and magi. - -For a time, the magi surpassed the rest of the world in knowledge, -and were the friends, companions, and counsellors, of its mightiest -sovereigns. But their science, from having no solid basis, sank, after -a while, into insignificance. On the ruins of its reputation other -persons sought to build theirs. A man who knew, or could perform some -things, with which others had no acquaintance, or for which they -had no power, announced himself as a magician. Nor were the people -indisposed to concede to him the credit he desired, especially if he -claimed alliance with spiritual beings; and, in not a few instances, -they attributed his marvels to such agency. Thus, then, the magician -may be traced to the _magus_, or magian; and magic, to the so-called -philosophy of the east. - -Magic squares are of great antiquity. A square of this kind is divided -into several other small equal squares, or cells, filled up with the -terms of any progression of numbers, but generally an arithmetical one; -so that those in each band, whether horizontal, vertical, or diagonal, -shall always make the same sum. The ancients ascribed to them great -virtues; and the disposition of numbers formed the basis and principle -of many of their talismans. Accordingly, a square of one cell, filled -up with unity, was the symbol of the Deity, on account of the unity -and immutability of God; for they remarked that this square was, by -its nature, unique and immutable; the product of unity by itself being -always unity. The square of the root two, was the symbol of imperfect -matter, both on account of the four elements, and of its being supposed -impossible to arrange this square magically. A square of nine cells was -assigned or consecrated to Saturn; that of sixteen to Jupiter; that of -twenty-five to Mars; that of thirty-six to the sun; that of forty-nine -to Venus; that of sixty-four to Mercury; and that of eighty-one, or -nine on each side, to the moon. Those who can find any relation between -two planets, and such an arrangement of numbers, must have minds -strongly tinctured with superstition; yet so it was in the mysterious -philosophy of Iamblichus, Porphyry, and their disciples. - -Plants, as well as numbers, were long considered to be endowed with -magical properties. Pliny enumerates those which, according to -Pythagoras, were supposed to have the power of concealing waters. To -others were attributed extraordinary effects. The _asyrites_, as it was -denominated by the Egyptians, was used under the idea that it acted -as a defence against witchcraft; and the _nepenthes_, which Helen -presented, in a potion, to Menelaus, was believed, by the same people, -to be powerful in banishing sadness, and in restoring the mind to -its accustomed, or even to greater cheerfulness. Whatever may be the -virtues of such herbs, they were used rather from an idea of their -magical than of their medicinal qualities; every cure was cunningly -ascribed to some mysterious and occult power. - -From the same superstition, metals and stones were supposed to be -endowed with singular virtues: the opal, to grow pale at the touch -of poison; the emerald, to remove intoxication; and the carbuncle, -“only to be found in the head of the dragon, the hideous inhabitant -of the island of Ceylon,” to shine in the darkness. As the metal -called gold always bore the highest value, it was concluded, from an -absurd analogy, that its power to preserve health and cure disease -must likewise surpass that of all other applications. Multitudes gave -themselves to busy idleness in attempting to render it potable, and -to prevent it from again being converted into metal. Not only did -they labour in obscure situations, but in the splendid laboratories -of nobles and sovereigns. Men of rank, impelled by one common frenzy, -formed secret alliances; and even proceeded to such extravagance as to -bring ruinous debts on themselves and their posterity. The object of -which they were in pursuit was “an elixir of life.” - -In Italy, Germany, France, and other countries, the common people often -denied themselves the necessaries of life, to save as much as would -purchase a few drops of the tincture of gold, which was superstitiously -or fraudulently offered for sale. So fully did they confide in the -efficacy of this imaginary power, that on it generally depended their -only hope of recovery. Positively was the desired boon promised, but -only to mock expectation. Our times are in the hands of God; and at his -will the dust returns to the dust from whence it was taken, and the -spirit to him who gave it. - -How fearful was the ignorance that prevailed in the bygone times to -which a reference has been made! What gratitude should we feel for the -advantages we enjoy! Let us, then, constantly remember that as to us -much has been given, so of us much will be required; and that one kind -of knowledge surpasses all others: “This,” said the adorable Redeemer, -“is life eternal, that they might know thee the only true God, and -Jesus Christ, whom thou hast sent,” John xvii. 3. - - - - -CHAPTER II. - - Feats of modern magicians--Their wonders explained--The - snake-charmers of India--A Chinese delusion--The magician of - Cairo. - - -Wonder-workers have often appeared. Some of them have lately repeated -their most remarkable feats in London and various places in England, -varied by others of inferior interest. Large and astonished assemblies -have witnessed their performance, and public journals have described -them as absolutely “inexplicable.” And yet, though the writer has no -personal acquaintance with any modern “magician,” he has no doubt -that all their feats may be accounted for, from sleight-of-hand, -confederacy, ingenious contrivance, or the application of some natural -law. A few illustrations shall now be given. - -Many delusions are entirely dependent on _sleight-of-hand_; a rapidity -of manipulation being attained by long practice, as in the marvellous -movements of the fingers of a highly accomplished instrumental -performer; while the power may become so great as to defy the -observation of the acutest vision. The late Mr. Walker, minister at -Demattar, in the Mears, told sir Walter Scott of a young country girl, -who threw turf, stones, and other missiles, with such dexterity, that -it was, for a time, impossible to ascertain the agency employed in the -disturbances of which she was the sole cause. - -A friend of the writer has a remarkable nicety of touch, and, at -pleasure, a rapid movement of the hands, by which he can rival many -magical feats. Thus he conveys balls under cups, and appears to change -them into fruit, to the astonishment of lookers-on. He also takes two -horn cups of exactly the same size, and produces the impression that -he causes one to fall through the other, when this is impossible, and -all that is done is effected by dexterous and rapid manipulation, -illustrating the proverb, “The hand is quicker than the eye.” - -Many astounding feats, which form a part of all popular magical -exhibitions, are performed by this leger-de-main. Apparently, the -performer receives a lady’s wedding-ring and breaks it in pieces; burns -a five-pound note handed to him by a spectator; reduces a hat to a -hideous shape; or crushes a bonnet into fragments, and then restores -them uninjured to the respective parties, amidst the acclamations of -the multitude. But all that is done is with indescribable rapidity to -substitute articles of his own to undergo the process of destruction, -and, at the right moment, to exhibit those which have been presented -by the spectators, and are preserved in safety. - -Another cause of wonderment is _confederacy_. A modern performer has -been accustomed to hand a box to one of his audience, requesting that -in it might be placed any article that he had, and that it might be -passed on from one to another for the same purpose. While this has been -done, he has proceeded to his table, and apparently waited the filling -of the box. At length, while the box has been held up at a distance, -he has placed his rod to his eye and described the collection that has -been made. He has said, perhaps, “I can see in that box a piece of -ribbon, a lozenge, a few grains, part, I dare say, of a pinch of snuff, -and a lady’s card; I will try and read it--Miss--Clara--Henderson;” -and so he passes through the chief part of the series. And yet, as -his patrons look on with astonishment, they do not think of what is -most likely to be the fact, that a confederate, sitting as one of the -audience, made a list of the articles as they were deposited in the -box, and despatched it in portions or altogether, so that their names -might reach the eye of the performer from some part of his table. - -A third means of wonder-working is that of _ingenious contrivance_. We -will illustrate this by two popular feats. A number of handkerchiefs -taken from the audience by more than one popular performer, were placed -in a small washing-tub, into which water was poured, and they were -washed for a few minutes. They were then placed in a vessel like the -figure, below, and immediately afterwards the performer said to the -persons in front: “I will give you these;” and taking off the top, when -he was expected to throw out the wet handkerchiefs, all that fell was -a number of flowers. He now brought out a box, which he opened, and -showed it to be empty; then shutting it, and uttering a few cabalistic -words, he opened it again, and there were the handkerchiefs, all dry, -folded, and scented, which he distributed to their respective claimants. - -[Illustration] - -[Illustration: A] - -[Illustration: B] - -Another experiment of a popular performer was called “coffee for the -million.” Producing a vessel like the diagram A; the performer filled -it with unground coffee, and placing it under a cover B, he said, -“There, when you have done that, let it simmer for three-quarters-of-an -hour; but, perhaps, you will not like to wait so long; here then it -is;” and on removing the cover, the vessel appeared full of hot liquid -coffee. In another vessel of the same kind he obtained lump-sugar from -rape-seed; and in a third, warm milk from horse-beans; and pouring out -the coffee into cups, sent them round to regale his auditory, amidst -their loud and approving shouts at so great a transformation. - -[Illustration] - -As these feats are the result of considerable ingenuity, it is probable -that the devices employed would not readily occur to spectators in -general, while they would utterly escape those whose object is merely -amusement, and who, if they thought at all, would be likely to describe -the result as supernatural. We proceed, then, to the unravelling of -the mystery. Let it be observed, in reference to the first experiment, -that a number of handkerchiefs are collected in the early part of -the evening for various illusions, and that many of them appear for -a time on the performer’s table. Provided with a collection of these -articles, from the handsome silk handkerchief to one trimmed with -lace, used by a fashionable lady, he could easily substitute his own -of the same kind for those of his auditory, as the curtain falls, -according to the arrangements of the evening, between the collection of -the handkerchiefs and the subsequent process. His own handkerchiefs, -therefore, are washed and placed in the vase already described; and -the so-called change into flowers is nothing more than the retention of -the handkerchiefs in the lower part of the apparatus, which the figure -illustrates, while the upper part holds the flowers till they are -scattered among the spectators. Meanwhile, all that is required is done -to their handkerchiefs. It is not absolutely necessary that they should -be washed; for folding, pressing, and a little eau-de-Cologne, would -complete the preparation; but granting that they are washed, there is -still no difficulty, though this mystifies the spectators, who have the -idea that drying is a long affair; for it may be effected in a minute -or two by a machine that is readily obtained. The box brought out has -them deposited in it, but as it is double, one interior is first shown, -which, of course, contains nothing, for the inner drawer holding the -handkerchiefs remains in the case; but when a few sounds are uttered -and the professor touches a secret spring behind, which disengages -the inner box, he draws it out with the outer one; and presents the -handkerchiefs to the audience. In the diagram A, the box is shown -as empty. At B, we have a representation of the box containing the -handkerchiefs. It is only necessary to add that the box is very nicely -made; the part within the other drawn out to the end, defies detection. - -[Illustration] - -The preparation of coffee, milk, and sugar, may be easily explained; -for if the vessels containing respectively the unground coffee, the -rape-seed, and the horse-beans, always placed under a cover, be put on -a part of the table having a circular trap-door--and for this there is -full provision in the cover of the table extending to the floor--a -confederate may readily substitute one for the other. - -[Illustration] - -The Rev. W. Arthur, in his work on the Mysore, directs us to results -of a different kind:--“Whilst walking in the verandah,” he says, “some -snake-charmers approached, and forthwith began to show us their skill. -They produced several bags and baskets, containing serpents of the most -poisonous kind--the cobra di capello; then blew upon an instrument -shaped like a cocoa-nut, with a short tube inserted, and producing -music closely allied to that of the bag-pipe. The animals were brought -forth, raised themselves to the music, spread out their head, showing -the spectacle mask fully distended, and waved about with considerable -grace, and little appearance of venom. The men coquetted with them, and -coiled them about their persons, without any sign of either dislike -or fear. This power of dealing with creatures so deadly is ascribed -by the natives to magic. Europeans generally account for it by saying -that the fangs are extracted. But the most reasonable explanation seems -to be, that when the snake is first caught, by a dexterous movement -of the charmer, the hand is slipped along the body, until it reaches -the neck, which he presses so firmly, as to compel an ejection of -the virus; thus destroying, for a time, all power to harm; and that -this operation is repeated as often as is necessary, to prevent the -dangerous accumulation. If this be true--and I believe it is--nothing -is necessary to the safe handling of these reptiles, but a knowledge -of the laws which regulate the venomous secretion. The wonder seems to -lie in the power they possess of attracting the snakes by their rude -music, and seizing them in the first instance. But enough is known to -make it evident that, in what all natives and many Europeans regard -as mysterious and magical, there is nothing but experience, tact, and -courage.” - -A strange and repulsive feat is thus described by the Rev. G. Smith, -in his recent work on “China.” “Aquei conducted us into a room, where -he was sitting with his two wives, handsomely attired, looking from a -window on the crowd assembled in the street to witness the performances -of a native juggler. The latter, after haranguing the crowd with much -animation in the Nanking dialect, (as is usual with actors,) proceeded -to one part of the crowd, and took thence a child, apparently five or -six years old, who, with struggling resistance, was led into the centre -of the circle. The man then, with impassioned gesture, violently threw -the child on a wooden stool, and, placing him on his back, flourished -over him a large knife; the child all the time sobbing and crying as -if from fright. Two or three older men from the crowd approached, -with earnest remonstrances against the threatened deed of violence. -For a time, he desisted, but, soon after, returning to the child, who -was still uttering most pitiable cries, he placed him with his back -upwards, and, notwithstanding the violent protests of the seniors, -he suddenly dashed the knife into the back of the child’s neck, which -it appeared to enter till it had almost divided it from the head; -the blood meanwhile flowing copiously from the wound, and streaming -to the ground, and over the hands of the man. The struggle of the -child grew more and more feeble, and at last altogether ceased. The -man then arose, leaving the knife firmly fixed in the child’s neck. -Copper cash was then thrown liberally into the ring, for the benefit -of the principal actors. These were collected by assistants, all of -them viewing the influx of the coins with great delight, and bowing -continually to the spectators, and reiterating the words, ‘To seoz,’ -‘Many thanks.’ After a time, the man proceeded towards the corpse, -pronounced a few words, took away the knife, and called aloud to the -child. Soon there appeared the signs of returning animation. The -stiffness of death gradually relaxed, and at last he stood up among the -eager crowd, who closed around him, and bountifully rewarded him with -cash. The performance was evidently one which excited delight in the -bystanders, who, by their continued shouts, showed their approbation of -the acting.” - -It is almost superfluous to add, that the deception consisted in the -construction of the blade and the handle of the knife, so that, by -making a sawing motion on the throat of the child, a stream of coloured -liquid, resembling blood, is pumped out; a little acting on the part -of the performer and the child is amply sufficient for all the rest. - -[Illustration] - -Within the last few years, we have had accounts of a magician in Egypt, -first described in a valuable work on that country by Mr. Lane, which -produced an extraordinary impression. The magician, it was said, caused -a boy to see certain persons called for, in a little ink, placed in -his hand, in the centre of a double magic square, somewhat like the -figure. One of the most profound writers of the age even wrote: “There -will be no lack of confidence to pronounce; and the authority so -pronouncing will assume the name and tone of philosophy, that there -was nothing more in the whole matter than artful contrivance; that -there was no intervention of an intelligent agency extraneous to that -of the immediate ostensible agent. But can this assumption be made -on any other ground than a prior general assumption that there is no -such preternatural intervention in the system of the world? But how to -_know_ that there is not? The negative decision pronounced in confident -ignorance, is a conceited impertinence, which ought to be rebuked by -that philosophy whose oracles it is affecting to utter. For what any -man knows, or can know, there may be such intervention. That it is not -incompatible with the constitution of the world, is an unquestionable -fact with the unsophisticated believers in the sacred records. And not -a few occurrences in later history have totally defied every attempt at -explanation in any other way.”[A] - -And yet sir Gardiner Wilkinson, who subsequently travelled in Egypt, -and visited the magician, says:-- - -“On going to see him, I was determined to examine the matter with -minute attention, at the same time that I divested myself of every -previous bias, either for or against his pretended powers. A party -having been made up to witness the exhibition, we met, according to -previous agreement, at Mr. Lewis’s house on Wednesday evening, the -8th of December. The magician was ushered in, and having taken his -place, we all sat down, some before him, others by his side. The party -consisted of colonel Barnet, our consul-general, Mr. Lewis, Dr. Abbott, -Mr. Samuel, Mr. Christian, M. Prisse, with another French gentleman, -and myself, four of whom understood Arabic very well; so that we had no -need of any interpreter. The magician, after entering into conversation -with many of us on different subjects, and discussing two or three -pipes, prepared for the performance. He first of all requested that a -brazier of live charcoal should be brought him, and, in the mean while, -occupied himself in writing upon a long slip of paper five sentences of -two lines each, then two others, one of a single line, and the other -of two, as an invocation to the spirits. Every sentence began with -‘Tuyurshoon.’ Each was separated from the one above and below it by -a line, to direct him in tearing them apart. A boy was then called, -who was ordered to sit down before the magician. He did so, and the -magician having asked for some ink from Mr. Lewis, traced with a pen on -the palm of his right hand a double square, containing the nine numbers -in this order, or in English--making fifteen each way; the centre one -being five--the evil number. This I remarked to the magician, but he -made no reply. A brazier was brought and placed between the magician -and the boy, who was ordered to look stedfastly into the ink, and -report what he should see. I begged the magician to speak slowly enough -to give me time to write down every word, which he promised to do, -without being displeased at the request; nor had he objected, during -the preliminary part of the performance, to my attempt to sketch him -as he sat. He now began an incantation, calling on the spirits by -the power of ‘our lord Soolayman,’ with the words ‘tuyurshoon’ and -‘haderoo’ (be present) frequently repeated. - -“He then muttered words to himself, and tearing apart the different -sentences he had written, he put them, one after another, into the -fire, together with some frankincense. This done, he asked the boy -if any one had come. _Boy._ ‘Yes, many.’--_Magician._ ‘Tell them to -sweep.’--_B._ ‘Sweep.’--_M._ ‘Tell them to bring the flags.’--_B._ -‘Bring the flags.’--_M._ ‘Have they brought any?’--_B._ ‘Yes.’--_M._ -‘O, what colour?’--_B._ ‘Green.’--_M._ ‘Say, Bring another.’--_B._ -‘Bring another.’--_M._ ‘Has it come?’--_B._ ‘Yes, a green one.’--_M._ -‘Another.’--_B._ ‘Another.’--_M._ ‘Is it brought?’--_B._ ‘Yes, another -green one--they are all green.’ This boy was then sent away, and -another was brought, who had never before seen the magician, having -been chosen with another, by Mr. Lewis, on purpose; but after many -incantations, incense, and long delay, he could see nothing, and fell -asleep over the ink. The other boy was then called in, but he, like -the other, could not be made to see anything; and a fourth was brought -in, who had evidently acted his part before. He first saw a shadow, -and was ordered to ‘tell him to sleep;’ and, after the flags and the -sultan as usual, some one suggested that lord Fitzroy Somerset should -be called for. He was described in a white Frank dress, a long, high, -white hat, _black stockings_, and white gloves, tall, and standing -before him _with black boots_. I asked how he could see his stockings -with boots? The boy answered, ‘Under his trowsers.’ He continued, ‘His -eyes are white, moustaches, no beard, but little whiskers, and yellow -or light hair; he is thin, thin legs, thin arms; in his left hand he -holds a stick, and in the other a pipe; he has a black handkerchief -round his neck, his throat buttoned up, his trowsers are long, he wears -green spectacles.’ The magician, seeing some of the party smiling at -the description and its inaccuracies, said to the boy, ‘Don’t tell -lies, boy.’ To which he answered, ‘I do not; why should I?’--_M._ -‘Tell him to go.’--_B._ ‘Go.’ Queen Victoria was next called for, who -was described as short, dressed in black trowsers, a white hat, black -shoes, white gloves, red coat, with lining, and black waistcoat, with -whiskers, but no beard nor moustaches, and holding in his hand a glass -tumbler. He was asked if the person were a man or a woman? He answered, -‘A man.’ We told the magician that it was our queen! He said, ‘I do not -know why they should say what is false; I knew she was a woman, but the -boys describe as they see.’ - -“From the manner in which the questions were put, it is very evident -that, when a boy is persuaded to see anything, the appearances of -the sweeper, the flags, and the sultan, are the result of leading -questions. The boy pretends or imagines he sees a man or a shadow, and -he is told to order some one to sweep: he is therefore prepared with -his answer; and the same continues to the end, the magician always -telling him what he is to call for, and consequently what he is to see. -The descriptions of persons asked for are almost universally complete -failures.” - -After these and other details, sir Gardiner says, “I am decidedly of -opinion that the whole of the first part is done solely by leading -questions, and that whenever the descriptions succeed in any point, the -success is owing to accident, or to unintentional prompting in the mode -of questioning the boys.”[B] - -A subsequent traveller, lord Nugent, places the state of the case in a -new light:-- - -“It is enough to say, that not one person whom Abd-el-Kader described -bore the smallest resemblance to the one named by us; and all those -called for were of remarkable appearance. All the preparations, all -the ceremony, and all the attempts at description, bore evidences of -such a coarse and stupid fraud, as would render any detail of the -proceeding, or any argument tending to connect it with any marvellous -power, ingenious art, or interesting inquiry, a mere childish waste of -time. How, then, does it happen, that respectable and sensitive minds -have been staggered by the exhibitions of this impostor? I think that -the solution which Mr. Lane himself suggested as probable is quite -complete. When the exhibition was over, Mr. Lane had some conversation -with the magician, which he afterwards repeated to us. In reply to -an observation of Mr. Lane’s to him upon his entire failure, the -magician admitted that ‘he had often failed since the death of Osman -Effendi;’--the same Osman Effendi that Mr. Lane mentions in his book as -having been of the party on every occasion on which he had been witness -of the magician’s art, and whose testimony the _Quarterly Review_ cites -in support of the marvel, which (searching much too deep for what -lies very near, indeed, to the surface,) it endeavours to solve by -suggesting the probability of diverse complicated optical combinations. - -“And, be it again observed, optical combinations cannot throw one -ray of light upon the main difficulty, the means of procuring the -resemblance required of the absent person. I now give Mr. Lane’s -solution of the whole mystery, in his own words, my note of which I -submitted to him, and obtained his ready permission to make public in -any way I might see fit. This Osman Effendi, Mr. Lane told me, was -a Scotchman, formerly serving in a British regiment, who was taken -prisoner by the Egyptian army during our unfortunate expedition to -Alexandria, in 1807; that he was sold as a slave, and persuaded to -abjure Christianity, and profess the Mussulman faith; that, applying -his talents to his necessities, he made himself useful by dint -of some little medical knowledge he had picked up on duty in the -regimental hospital; that he obtained his liberty at the instance of -the Sheik Ibraim, (M. Burckhardt,) through the means of Mr. Salt; -that, in process of time, he became second interpreter of the British -consulate; that Osman was, very probably, acquainted, by portraits -or otherwise, with the general appearance of most Englishmen of -celebrity, and certainly could describe the peculiar dresses of -English professions, such as army, navy, church, and the ordinary -habits of persons of different professions in England; that, on all -occasions when Mr. Lane was witness of the magician’s success, Osman -had been present at the previous occasions, had heard who should be -called to appear, and so had, probably, obtained a description of the -figure, when it was to be the apparition of some private friend of -persons present; that, on these occasions, he very probably had some -pre-arranged code of words, by which he could communicate secretly -with the magician. To this it must be added, that his avowed theory of -morals was, on all occasions, that ‘we did our whole duty if we did -what we thought best for our fellow-creatures and most agreeable to -them.’ Osman was present when Mr. Lane was so astonished at hearing -the boy describe very accurately, the person of M. Burckhardt, with -whom the magician was unacquainted, but who had been Osman’s patron, -and who, also, knew well the other gentleman whom Mr. Lane states in -his book that the boy described as appearing ill and lying on a sofa, -and Mr. Lane added that he had, _probably_, been asked by Osman about -that gentleman’s health, whom Mr. Lane then knew to be suffering under -an attack of rheumatism. He concluded, therefore, by avowing that -there was no doubt in his mind, connecting all these circumstances -with the declaration the magician had just made, that Osman had been -the confederate. Thus I have given in Mr. Lane’s words, not only with -his consent, but at his ready offer, what he has no doubt is the -explanation of the whole of the subject which he now feels to require -no deeper inquiry; and which has been adopted by many as a marvel -upon an exaggerated view of the testimony that he offered in his book -before he had been convinced, as he now is, of the imposture. I gladly -state this, on the authority of an enlightened and honourable man, to -disabuse minds that have wandered into serious speculation on a matter -which I cannot but feel to be quite undeserving of it.”[C]--So true is -it, that, while many effects, which appear mysterious to the multitude, -may be explained by those of greater knowledge, others, which, for a -time, defy penetration, are, at length, clearly exhibited in their true -light. It becomes us, therefore, carefully to examine testimony, to -receive that only which will bear scrutiny, and to suspend our judgment -whenever we are unacquainted with the _whole_ case. The best of men are -prone to err; and well is it, if, ceasing from them, we have been led -by Divine grace to trust implicitly in the God of truth. - - - - -CHAPTER III. - - Machines considered magical in ancient times--Remarkable modern - automata--Minute engines--The calculating machine. - - -The light of modern science has revealed to us many important secrets. -In the dark ages there were but few books; it was then the fashion to -write them in Latin; and as, from their costliness, they could only -be obtained by men of wealth, so they could be understood alone by -such as had enjoyed the advantages of education. Science is now easily -accessible, but, though it is not necessary for us all to become -philosophers, there is no good reason why people generally should -not be acquainted with some of the most remarkable phenomena of the -natural world. The inspired psalmist has said, “The works of the Lord -are great, sought out of all them that have pleasure therein;” and it -becomes all, according to their means and opportunities, to lay this -truth to heart. We proceed now to consider some effects regarded as -magical, which are satisfactorily explained on natural principles, -beginning with mechanics. - -An ability to construct wonderful or magical machines was manifest -among the ancients. Archytas, a native of Tarentum, in Italy, who -lived four hundred years before the birth of our Lord and Saviour, is -said to have made a wooden dove, which flew and sustained itself for -some time in the air. Other clever contrivances are also mentioned. “A -magician,” says D’Israeli, “was annoyed, as philosophers still are, by -passengers in the street; and he, particularly so, by having horses led -to drink under his window. He made a magical horse of wood, according -to one of the books of Hermes, which perfectly answered his purpose, by -frightening away the horses, or, rather, the grooms! The wooden horse, -no doubt, gave some palpable kick.” - -It is worthy of remark, that tales of ancient times must be received -with caution. We find it necessary, even at a much later period. The -tricks which now amuse or astonish the populace at a country fair, -would be greatly exaggerated in a credulous age, and often assume -even the most portentous colouring. Nor is it difficult to guess, and -sometimes to discover, the stages of similar and great mystifications. -The following instance is rather remarkable. On Charles V. entering -Nuremberg, a celebrated German astronomer, whose real name was Johann -Müller, but who styled himself Regiomontanus, exhibited some automata -which he had constructed. These were an eagle of wood, which, placed -on the gate of the city, rose up and flapped its wings, while the -emperor was passing below; and a fly, made of steel, which walked round -a table. Now all this is sufficiently credible. But what is the record -of the chroniclers only a few years after? That the wooden eagle sprang -from the tower and soared in the air; and that the steel fly flew three -times round the emperor, and then alighted buzzing on his hand! - -In many instances, the mechanism of modern times is surprisingly -minute. A watchmaker in London presented his majesty George III. -with a repeating watch he had constructed, set in a ring. Its -size was something less than a silver two-pence; it contained one -hundred-and-twenty-five different parts, and weighed, altogether, no -more than five pennyweights and seven grains! - -In an exhibition of Maillardet, which the writer has seen, the lid of a -box suddenly flew open, and a small bird of beautiful plumage started -forth from its nest. The wings fluttered, and the bill opening with -the tremulous motion peculiar to singing birds, it began to warble. -After a succession of notes, whose sound well filled a large apartment, -it retired to its nest, and the lid closed. Its performances occupied -about four minutes. In the same exhibition were an automatic spider, -a caterpillar, a mouse, and a serpent; all of which exhibited the -peculiar movements of the living creatures. The spider was made of -steel: it ran on the surface of a table for three minutes, and its -course tended towards the middle of the table. The serpent crawled -about in every direction, opened its mouth, hissed, and darted forth -its tongue. - -Several years ago, a watchmaker, residing in a town in which the -writer lived, made a working model of a steam-engine, the packing-case -of which was a walnut-shell. On showing it one day to a gentleman, -the machine was suddenly stopped, the mechanic remarking, “There is -something wrong in one of the safety-valves.” “Safety-valve!” exclaimed -the observer; “I have not yet been able to detect the fly-wheel!” - -The most curious specimen of minute workmanship, however, with which -we are acquainted, is a high-pressure engine, the work of a watchmaker -having a stand at the Polytechnic Institution, and first exhibited in -1845. Each part was made according to scale, it worked by atmospheric -pressure, in lieu of steam, with the greatest activity, yet it was so -small, that it stood on a fourpenny-piece, with ground to spare, and, -with the exception of the fly-wheel, it might be covered with a thimble. - -D’Alembert describes a flute-player, constructed by Vaucanson, which -he saw exhibited at Paris in 1738. The writer has also seen one, in -which a figure appeared seated, and then rose and played a tune, the -motions of the fingers seeming to accord with the notes. He cannot -answer for the music having been produced by the movements of the hands -of the automaton. D’Alembert affirms, however, that the automaton of -Vaucanson really projected the air with its lips against the embouchure -of the instrument, producing the different octaves by expanding and -contracting their openings, giving more or less air, and regulating the -tones by its fingers, in the manner of living performers. The height -of the figure, with the pedestal, containing some of the machinery, -was nearly six feet; it commanded three octaves, several notes of -which musicians find it difficult to produce. Some years ago, two -automaton flute-players were exhibited in this country, of the size of -life, which performed ten or twelve duets. That they actually played -the flute might be proved, by placing the finger on any hole that was -unstopped for a moment by the automata. - -M. Vaucanson produced a flageolet-player, who beat a tambourine with -one hand. The flageolet had only three holes, and some notes were made -by half-stopping these. The lowest note was produced by a force of -wind equal to an ounce, the highest by one of fifty-six French pounds. -A duck was, however, considered to be his chef-d’œuvre; it dabbled in -the mire, swam, drank, quacked, raised and moved its wings, and dressed -its feathers with its bill; it even extended its neck, took barley -from the hand and swallowed it, during which process the muscles of -the neck were seen in motion, and it also digested the food by means -of materials provided for its solution in the stomach. The inventor -made no secret of the machinery, which excited, at the time, great -admiration. - -Maelzel, the inventor of the metronome, or time-measurer, frequently -used to aid pupils in music, exhibited in Vienna in 1809, another -automaton of singular power; which appeared in the uniform of a -trumpeter in the Austrian dragoon regiment Albert, with his instrument -placed to his mouth. When the figure was pressed on the left shoulder, -it played not only the Austrian cavalry march, and all the signals of -that army, but also a march and allegro by Weigl, which was accompanied -by the whole orchestra. The dress of the figure was then changed into -that of a French trumpeter of the guards, when it began to play a -French cavalry march, all the signals, the march of Dussek, and an -allegro of Pleyel, accompanied again by the full orchestra. Maelzel -publicly wound up his instrument only twice on the left hip. The sound -of the trumpet was pure and peculiarly agreeable. - -About thirty years ago, Maillardet exhibited, in Spring Gardens, a -variety of automata, which the writer had an opportunity of seeing -at a later period. One was the figure of a boy, who wrote sentences, -and drew certain objects with remarkable promptitude and correctness. -Another was a pianiste, seated at a piano-forte, on which she played -eighteen tunes. All her movements were graceful. Before beginning a -tune, she made a gentle inclination of the head to her auditors; her -bosom heaved, and her eyes followed the motion of her fingers over the -finger-board. When the automaton was once wound up, it would continue -playing for an hour; and the principal part of the machinery employed -was freely exposed to public view. It has been doubted whether the -music was actually produced by the automaton: since the time now -referred to, the writer has examined another, in which the keys of the -instrument were certainly acted upon by the touch. - -He has also seen, at various times, several very curiously constructed -automata: the figure of a lady, who could walk along a level surface, -throwing out the limbs, and moving the head from side to side; a -tippler, who could pour out wine from a decanter into a glass, open -his mouth, and swallow the fluid, and thus proceed till the bottle was -drained; and a performer on the slack rope, whose exceedingly rapid -movements of the body, the arms, and the head, all consistent and -graceful, were truly amazing. - -A very beautiful automaton was exhibited, a few years ago, in Paris, -and subsequently in London. It appeared in a court suit, sitting at -a table, in the attitude of writing. Several questions, inscribed on -tablets, were placed on the table on which the whole apparatus stood, -and visitors might select any one or more at pleasure. The tablet, -containing a question, on being handed to the attendant, was placed -in a drawer, and, as soon as it was closed, the figure traced on -paper an appropriate reply. On the question being given, “Who may be -volatile without a crime?” the answer was, “A butterfly.” And as the -figure could draw a response as well as write it, when the question was -put, “What is the symbol of fidelity?” it drew, in outline, the form -of a greyhound. In the same way it proceeded throughout the series of -questions. - -In some instances, the effect of automata is increased by the -exhibiter proposing certain questions, and receiving responses from -the figure--as shaking the head, to denote a negative; or nodding, to -indicate assent. It is evident that here the inquiries or remarks are -thrown in to accord with the motions that the figure is contrived to -make. When, however, a performer, as one has recently done, puts a -whistle in the mouth of an automaton, and then, sitting down by its -side, plays a tune on a guitar, desiring the figure to accompany him; -the hasty sounds with which the figure seems inclined to begin, the -irregularity with which it proceeds, and the long and loud closing -note, may all be easily supplied by some confederate. Surprising -as are the effects produced by many automata, it would be wrong to -infer that their only results are the wonder of the multitude, or -gain or applause to their inventors. “They gave rise,” as sir David -Brewster has remarked, “to the most ingenious mechanical devices, and -introduced, among the higher order of artists, habits of nice and -accurate execution in the formation of the most delicate pieces of -machinery.” Those combinations of wheels and pinions, which almost -eluded observation, “reappeared in the stupendous mechanism of our -spinning-machines and our steam-engines. The elements of the tumbling -puppet were revived in the chronometer, which now conducts our navy -through the ocean; and the shapeless wheel which directed the hand -of the drawing automaton (of Maillardet,) has served, in the present -age, to guide the movements of the tambouring-engine. Those mechanical -wonders, which in one century enriched only the conjurer who used -them, contributed in another to augment the wealth of the nation; and -those automatic toys which once amused the vulgar, are now employed in -extending the power, and promoting the civilisation of our species. In -whatever way, indeed, the power of genius may invent or combine, and to -whatever bad or even ludicrous purposes that invention or combination -may be originally applied, society receives a gift which it can never -lose; and though the value of the seed may not at once be recognised, -though it may lie long unproductive in the ungenial soil of human -knowledge, it will; some time or other, evolve its germ, and yield to -mankind its natural and abundant harvest.”[D] - -A singular fact is connected with the early history of the Astronomical -Society of London. A valuable set of tables, for reducing the observed -to the true places of stars, was in course of preparation, at the -expense of the society, including above three thousand stars, and -comprehending all known to those of the fifth magnitude, inclusive, -and all the most useful of the sixth and seventh. An incident which -now occurred, gave rise to one of the most extraordinary of modern -inventions. To insure accuracy in the calculation of certain tables, -separate computers had been employed; and two members of the society -having been chosen to compare the results, detected so many errors, as -to induce one of them to express his regret that the work could not be -executed by a machine. For this, the other member, Mr. Babbage, at once -replied, that “this was possible;” and, persevering in the inquiry -which had thus suggested itself, he produced a machine for calculating -tables with surprising accuracy. - -The calculating part of the machinery occupies a space of about ten -feet broad, ten feet high, and five feet deep. It consists of seven -steel axes, erected over one another, each of them carrying eighteen -wheels, five inches in diameter, having on them small barrels, and -inscribed with the symbols 0, 1, to 9. The machine calculates to -eighteen decimal places, true to the last figure; but, by subsidiary -contrivances, it is possible to calculate to thirty decimal places. -Mr. Babbage has since contrived a machine, much more simple in its -construction, and far more extensive in its application. - -In thus enumerating various displays of mechanical genius, we are -reminded that the prophet Isaiah, after describing the diverse labours -of the husbandman, adds, “This also cometh forth from the Lord of -hosts, which is wonderful in counsel, and excellent in working.” In all -the evidence we have of human talent, then, let us acknowledge that -“every good gift and every perfect gift is from above, and cometh down -from the Father of lights, with whom is no variableness, neither shadow -of turning,” Jas. i. 17. Would that the gifts of God were always used -for the Divine glory! - - - - -CHAPTER IV. - - Terrestrial phenomena--Footmarks on rocks--The Logan - stone--Sounds in stones--The cave of St. Paul--Atmospherical - phenomena--Intermitting springs--Waters of magical power. - - -In proceeding to illustrate the operation of natural laws, we may look -now at some of the phenomena connected with the globe we inhabit, of -which, where little knowledge is possessed, erroneous and frequently -superstitious opinions are still entertained. - -Marvellous tales are often told of rocks. There is, for example, a -tradition of a nobleman being engaged in the chase, or pursued by his -enemies, without being hurt; whose horse left the prints of his feet -on a mass of stone, over which he passed. But, unhappily for the tale, -other impressions have been observed besides those of the horse’s feet; -and it is affirmed by various naturalists, deserving of credit, that -they must have been made by very different animals, at a remote period, -before the stone had completely hardened. Other instances of the same -kind might easily be given. In the British Museum, there is a slab -having similar impressions, obviously produced by the same means. It -was dug from a great depth; a mass of stone, many feet in thickness, -having been formed above the layer which received, in a soft state, the -impression from the feet of several animals. - -Other impressions, of which we read or hear, are nothing more than -tricks of art. Such, most probably, is the impression of the foot -of Budda upon the Peak of Adam, at Ceylon; the print of the foot of -the idol Gaudama, in the Burmese empire, which has been three times -reproduced; and most certainly this is the case with the so-called -impressions of the feet of our blessed Lord and Saviour, shown to the -present day, on Mount Olivet. - -The cave of St. Paul, at Civita Vecchia, the former capital of the -island of Malta, is an excavation, about nineteen feet in height, and -fifty in circumference; in a soft, white, limestone rock, more friable -than chalk. A belief that the stone was endowed with miraculous medical -virtues, led people to carry away large quantities of it during the -sway of the knights. In 1770, when visited by Brydone, the cave was -in the highest celebrity; not only every house in the island had a -medical chest of it, but large quantities were sent to different -countries in Europe, and even to the East Indies. It was supposed to -have a miraculous power which preserved it from diminution; which may -be accounted for by a natural law--the calcareous process of formation -still going on--while its healing power is to be attributed to its -having some of the properties of magnesia; which leads, according -to Dr. Walsh, to its still being given as a purgative-sudorific in -eruptive or fever complaints. - -One instance of gross superstition, as connected with rocks, is too -important to be omitted. The trial by ordeal appears to have been very -early practised among the Celtic tribes of Europe, who were always -under the influence of an artful and domineering priesthood. Thus, it -is said that in cases of doubtful accusation the Druids made use of the -rocking-stones which were common in Britain, and that the culprit was -acquitted or condemned according as he succeeded or failed in shaking -them. Mason alludes to this trial in the following lines:-- - - “Behold yon huge - And unknown sphere of living adamant, - Which, poised by magic, rests its central weight - On yonder pointed rock; firm as it seems, - Such is its strange and virtuous property, - It moves obsequious to the gentlest touch - Of him whose heart is pure; but to a traitor, - Though e’en a giant’s prowess nerved his arm, - It stands as fixed as Snowdon.” - -A little knowledge would have disabused the mind of this delusion. The -celebrated Logan or Logging-stone, near the Land’s End in Cornwall, is -an immense block, weighing about sixty tons. The surface in contact -with the under rock is, however, of very small extent; and the whole -mass is so nicely balanced, that, notwithstanding its magnitude, the -strength of a single man is sufficient to make it oscillate, when -applied to the under edge. It is the nature of granite to disintegrate -or decompose by the action of the air and moisture; a huge mass is thus -split into several blocks, and at length, by the continued operation of -the elements, one is suspended on the rest. - -[Illustration] - -Sounds emitted from rocks have often been regarded as portentous. Mr. -G. Bennett, when at Macao, had his attention directed to a mass of -granite rocks, appearing as if separated by some convulsion of nature, -many of which were found, when trodden on, to be movable. The first, -and by far the most sonorous, was partially excavated underneath; -and, by striking it upon the upper part, a deep sound, “like that of -a church bell,” was produced. “The battered appearance of the stone -above,” it is said, “bore several proofs of how many visitors had made -this lion roar.” Many of the other rocks were also sonorous, but not so -loud as the first, and, from their situations, “they were movable when -trodden on; but it could not be seen, whether, like the preceding, they -were excavated, and, in consequence of being so, sonorous.” - -In the chain of El-Heman, and not far from the Red Sea, is the Jebal -Narkous, or “Mountain of the Bell.” It forms one of a ridge of low -calcareous hills, which are connected by a sandy plain, extending, -with a gentle rise, to their base. It is composed of a light-coloured -friable sandstone, about the same as the rest of the chain; but an -inclined plane of almost impalpable sand rises at an angle of about -forty degrees with the horizon, and is bounded by a semi-circle of -rocks, presenting broken, abrupt, and pinnacled forms, and extending to -the base of this remarkable hill. Its height is about four hundred feet. - -Lieutenant Wellsted observed, that the shape and arrangement of the -rocks resembled, in some respects, a whispering-gallery; but he -ascertained, by experiment, that their irregular surface rendered -them but ill-adapted for the production of an echo. Seated on a rock -at the base of the sloping eminence, he directed a Bedouin to ascend; -and it was not till he had reached some distance that the lieutenant -perceived the sand in motion, rolling down the hill to the depth of a -foot. It did not, however, descend in one continued stream, but, as -the Arab scrambled upwards, it spread out laterally and above, until a -considerable portion of the surface was in motion. As the sand began -to fall, the sounds produced might be compared to the faint strains -of an Eolian harp when its strings first catch the breeze. When the -sounds became more violently agitated by the increased velocity -of the descent, the noise more nearly resembled that produced by -drawing the moistened fingers over glass. As it reached the base, -the reverberations attained the loudness of distant thunder, causing -the rock on which lieutenant Wellsted was seated to vibrate; and the -camels, animals not easily frightened, became so alarmed, that their -drivers could only retain them with difficulty. The noise, it was -remarked, did not issue from every part of the hill alike, the loudest -being produced by disturbing the sand on the northern side, about -twenty feet from the base, and about ten from the rocks that bound it -in that direction. The tradition is, that the bells of a convent were -buried here; the Bedouins trace the sounds to several wild and fanciful -causes; but, in the experiment now described, it was evident that the -sounds sometimes fell quicker on the ear, and at other times were more -prolonged, according to the Arab’s increasing or retarding the velocity -of his descent. - -Dr. Chladni made many curious experiments on the figures assumed by -sand and similar substances, when strewed over vibrating sonorous -bodies. The reader may easily try an experiment of this kind. Let a -square piece of glass be taken, such as that used for windows, not less -than four or five inches over, the edges of which are to be smoothed -by grinding. Spread over the plate, as evenly as possible, a little -sand, and, holding it between the thumb and fore-finger, in the middle, -pass the bow of a violin against one of its edges, drawing it either -upwards or downwards, in a direction perpendicular to its surface. A -tremulous motion will be immediately observed, and the sand will assume -some particular and fixed figure. If the bow be passed over the middle -of one of the sides, the sand will arrange itself in the direction of -the two diagonals, dividing the square into four isosceles triangles. -If the bow be applied at any point which is one-fourth the length of -the square from any angle, the arrangement of the sand will represent -the two diameters of the square, dividing it into four equal figures -of the same form. If the square be held at the two extremities of -either diameter, and the bow be applied to the extremities of the other -diameter, the sand will take the figure of an oval, having its major -axis in the same direction as one of the diameters. - -Other experiments of the same kind have since been made by M. Voigt, -and also by the celebrated Oersted. The latter covered a plate of -metal or glass with the lycopodium seed, or the seed of the club-moss, -instead of sand; he then tried to produce a sound in the manner of -Chladni, and instantly he saw the dust distribute itself into a number -of little regular tumuli, which put themselves in motion at their -extremities, or formed the figures discovered by this naturalist. They -always ranged themselves in the form of a curve, the convexity of which -was in proportion to the point touched by the violin bow, or towards -the point which has an analogous situation; the nearer that each of -these little heaps was to these points, the greater was its height, -a circumstance which gave remarkable regularity to the figure. The -interior of the small elevations thus obtained, were in constant motion -during the continuance of the sound, and the duration of the vibrations -might be observed on a plate from four to six inches in diameter. At -one moment the height increased, at another it diminished, and the dust -had the appearance of arranging itself in small globules, which rolled -one above another. - -We may now return from these very interesting facts, to others on a -far larger scale. Near the Kom-el-Hett’an, or the mound of sandstone, -which makes the site of one of the palaces and temples of Amunoph III., -are two sitting colossi, which seem to assert the grandeur of ancient -Thebes. The easternmost of the two is doubtless the statue reported -by ancient authors to utter a sound at the rising of the sun. It was -said to resemble the breaking of a metallic ring, or harp-string. The -superstition of its Roman visitors ascribed the colossus to Memnon, and -a multitude of inscriptions attributed to him miraculous powers. The -memory of its daily performance is still retained in the traditional -appellation of Salamat, “salutations,” by the modern inhabitants -of Thebes. It is said to have “saluted” the emperor Adrian and his -queen Sabina twice; but some persons, of course of humble rank, were -disappointed on their first visit, and obliged to return another -morning to satisfy their curiosity. - -And yet there is ample reason to believe that the whole was an artifice -of the priests. In the lap of the statue is a stone; and as sir -Gardiner Wilkinson discovered, on examining the inscriptions, that -one Ballilla had compared the sound the stone emitted, when struck, -to the striking of brass, he determined to put the matter to the -test. Accordingly, posting some peasants below, and ascending to the -lap of the statue, he struck the sonorous block with a small hammer, -and inquiring what was heard by the peasants, they answered, “You -are striking brass.” “This,” says sir Gardiner, “convinced me that -the sound was the sound that deceived the Romans, and led Strabo to -observe that it appeared to him as the effect of a slight blow.” “The -Theban priests,” he adds, “must have been considerable gainers by the -credulity of those who visited their _lion_.” - -The reader who may have taken the delightful walk from Tunbridge Wells -to the High Rocks, and examined particularly those huge masses, will -not fail to remember the one called “the Bell Rock.” On entering the -space between this one and the next, it may be struck with a stick, -when a sound will be heard like that produced, on a large metallic body -being smitten. - -In the road cut by Napoleon between Savoy and France, and about two -miles from Les Echelles, there is a gallery twenty-seven feet high and -broad, and nine hundred and sixty feet in length, formed in the solid -rock. When this road was nearly complete, and the excavations commenced -at each end almost met, the partition was broken through by a pick-axe, -and a loud and deep sound was heard. We are indebted to Mr. Bakewell -for the following solution of this phenomenon. The mountain rises full -one thousand feet above the passage, and fifteen hundred above the -valley. The air, on the eastern side of the mountain, is sheltered both -on the south and west from the sun’s rays; and consequently must be -much colder than on the western side. The mountain, therefore, formed -a partition between the hot air of the valley, and the cold air of the -ravines on the eastern side. When the opening was made, the cold, and -therefore denser air, rushed into that rarefied by heat, and a loud -report was produced, in the same manner as when a bladder, placed over -an exhausted air-pump receiver, is burst. - -Baron Humboldt informs us, on credible authority, that subterranean -sounds, resembling the tones of an organ, are heard on the banks of the -Oroonoko. He supposes that they arise from a difference of temperature -between the external atmosphere and the air confined in the crevices -of the adjacent granitic rocks. He concludes that, as the temperature -of the confined air is greatly increased during the day from the -conduction of heat by the rocks; and as the difference of temperature -between it and the atmosphere will reach its maximum about sunrise, the -sounds are produced by the escaping current. - -The following illustrative experiment is not a little curious:--If a -tube formed of some elastic and sonorous substance be taken, and a jet -of inflamed hydrogen be introduced, a musical sound will be heard. This -will take place in a tube closed at one end, if it be large enough -to admit a sufficient quantity of atmospheric air to support the -combustion of the gas; but if the tube be open at both extremities, -the musical sound will be clear and full. Various conclusions have -been arrived at in reference to this phenomenon; but they have been -set aside by the experiments of Mr. Faraday, who attributes the sounds -produced by flames in tubes to a continual series of detonations or -explosions. - -The first philosopher who exhibited the longitudinal vibration of -solids was Dr. Chladni. According to him, the best method of producing -these vibrations in rods, is by rubbing them, in the direction of their -length, with some soft substance, covered with powdered resin, or by -the finger. When glass tubes are employed, they should be rubbed with a -piece of rag spread over with fine sand, the tube being held by one of -the ends. - -“In all longitudinal vibrations,” says the same writer, “the tones -depend merely on the length of the sonorous body, and on the quality -of the substance, the thickness and form being of no consideration; -yet the tones are not varied by the specific gravity of the vibrating -substance; for fir-wood, glass, and iron, give almost the same tone -as brass, oak, and the shanks of tobacco-pipes.” He also mentions -several kinds of longitudinal vibration; in one, to use his own words, -“there is a certain point in the middle at which the vibration of -each half-stops; in the next there are two, each at the distance of a -fourth part from the end; and, in the following, there are three, or -more. The tones correspond with the natural series of the numbers 1, -2, 3, 4, etc. If a rod be fastened at one end, during the first kind -of longitudinal vibration, the alternate expansion and contraction of -the whole rod will take place in such a manner, that they stop at the -fixed end; in the next tone there is a resting-point at the distance of -one-third from the free end; and in the following there are two. The -tones correspond with the numbers 1, 3, 5, 7, and the first of these -tones is an octave lower than the first tone of the same rod when -perfectly free.” - -When examining the nature of sonorous bodies, Dr. Chladni imagined -the possibility of producing musical sounds by rubbing glass tubes -longitudinally. It, however, became a difficult question to determine -in what way an instrument of this kind should be constructed. After -much and long-continued unsuccessful thought, he returned home one -evening exhausted with walking, and he had scarcely closed his eyes -to fall asleep in his chair, when the arrangement he had so long been -seeking, occurred to his mind. He soon after completed an instrument, -which in every respect answered his expectations. - -The euphone, signifying an instrument having a pleasant sound, -consists of forty-one fixed and parallel cylinders of glass, equal in -length and thickness. In its external appearance it resembles a small -writing-desk, which, when opened, presents a series of glass tubes -about sixteen inches long, and the thickness of a quill. They are fixed -in a perpendicular sounding-board, at the back of the instrument. When -used, the tubes are wetted with a sponge, and stroked in the direction -of their length with wet fingers; the intensity of the tone being -varied by greater or less pressure. - -The singular phenomenon of sound occasioned by the vibration of soft -iron, produced by a galvanic current, was recently discovered by Mr. -Sage, and has been since verified by the observations of a French -philosopher, M. Marian. The experiments were made on a bar of iron, -which was fixed at the middle, in a horizontal position, each half -being inclosed in a large glass tube. By appropriate arrangements, -the galvanic circle was completed; and the longitudinal sound could -be distinguished, although it was feeble. The origin of the sound has -therefore been ascribed to a vibration in the interior of the iron bar; -and to the same cause are probably attributable many phenomena. - -We now pass on to the violent agitation of the air, which is often -productive of surprising results. A quantity of feathers, for example, -was scattered one day over the market-place of Yarmouth, to the great -astonishment of a large number of persons assembled there. But what -was the cause? The timid considered that the phenomenon predicted some -great calamity; the inquisitive indulged in a thousand conjectures; -and the curious in natural history sagely accounted for it by a gale -of wind in the north, blowing wild-fowl feathers from the island of -St. Paul’s! Yet, not one of them was right. No guess would explain the -cause, and yet it arose from the prank of a frolicsome boy. Astley, -afterwards well known as sir Astley Cooper, had taken two of his -mother’s pillows to the top of the church, and when he had climbed as -far as he could up the steeple, he ripped them open, and scattered -their contents to the wind. - -The _Philosophical Magazine_ contains an account of a singular snow -phenomenon that occurred in Orkney. The paper was contributed by Mr. -Clouston, of Stromness. “One night a heavy fall of snow took place, -which covered the plain to a depth of several inches. ‘Upon this pure -carpet,’ says the writer, ‘there rested next morning thousands of large -masses of snow, which contrasted strangely with its smooth surface.’ -These occurred generally in patches, from one acre to a hundred in -extent, while clusters were often half-a-mile asunder. The fields so -covered looked as if they had been scattered over with cart-loads of -manure, and the latter covered with snow; but, on examination, the -masses were all found to be cylindrical, like hollow fluted rollers, or -ladies’ swan-down muffs, bearing a strong resemblance to the latter. -The largest measured 3½ feet long, and 7 feet in circumference. The -centres were nearly but not quite hollow; and by placing the head -within when the sun was bright, the concentric structure of the -cylinder was apparent. They did not occur in any of the adjoining -parishes, and were limited to a space of about five miles. The first -idea, as to the origin of these bodies, was, that they had fallen from -the clouds, and portended some direful calamity. But, had they fallen -from the atmosphere, their symmetry and loose texture must have been -destroyed. The writer having examined them, was soon convinced that -they had been formed by the wind rolling up the snow as boys form -snow-balls. Their round form, concentric structure, fluted surface, and -position with respect to the weather side of eminences, proved this; -and it was also evident, from the fact of their lying lengthways, with -their sides to the wind; and sometimes their tracks were visible in the -snow for twenty or thirty yards in the windward direction, whence they -had evidently gathered up their concentric layers.” - -A correspondent of the _Athenæum_, in a letter, dated Naples, -January 3rd, 1847, mentions another very striking phenomenon. He was -standing on a cliff overlooking the Mediterranean, accompanied by an -Italian friend. The air was perfectly tranquil, and yet in a moment -he felt himself grasped and encircled, as it were, by an unseen and -irresistible power, and, in spite of his struggles, he felt himself -sailing through the air at a balloon speed. After a few moments of -his aërial travelling, he was pitched halfway down the cliff into the -centre of an empty lime-kiln, not far from the sea. Nor was he alone; -there was another heavy fall; for his friend stood opposite him. -As they were encircled by a force, equal at all points, though the -shock was violent, they fell on their feet, but sank directly to the -ground, and there sat gazing at one another, unable either to move or -speak. Happily, no bones were broken; but so severe were the internal -injuries experienced, as to confine them to their beds for some time, -and they expect the internal effects of their involuntary and dangerous -voyage to remain for a considerable time. - -As the population of the coasts of the Mediterranean are exceedingly -ignorant and superstitious, it is not surprising that the people in -the neighbourhood said that the Shal’ombre, the evil spirits, in the -lime-kiln, must have drawn the travellers in; and attributed their -deliverance to the intercession of the souls in purgatory for the acts -of charity they had performed! - -To avoid any calamities, which the mariners of Naples generally -attribute to demoniacal influence, they resort to the practice of -witchcraft. Few are the barks that venture to the coral fishery, or the -coasting-trade, without having a magician on board. Persons of this -class, however, who practise the art supposed to be required at sea, -or who even reveal it to others, cannot receive absolution from an -ordinary confessor. It is comprehended under the head of “malaficia,” -one of the reserved sins to be found in the printed list of directions -appended to every confessional in Italy. - -And yet, were witchcraft available in any case, it could not be in -connexion with the natural operation, which the mariners call “trombe -di mare.” The travellers suffered, in fact, from a strong wind, -connected with the phenomenon of a water spout, observed, for the most -part, at sea, but sometimes also on shore. Its usual appearance is -that of a dense cloud, like a conical pillar, which seems to consist -of condensed vapour, and is seen to descend with the apex downwards. -When over the sea, there are generally two cones, one projecting from -the cloud, the other from the water below it. They sometimes unite, -and then a flash of lightning is observed; on other occasions, they -disperse before any junction takes place. The effect appears to be, -at least partly, electrical; the cones being in opposite states, the -positive and negative attraction ensue; and, when union takes place, -which is indicated by the flash, the bodies are restored to their -equilibrium. - -The magicians on the coast practise what they call the art of “cutting” -the “trombe.” As soon as it is seen approaching in the direction of a -boat, the wizard goes forward, sends all the crew aft, that they may -not be eye-witnesses of what he does; and using certain signs or words, -and making a movement with his arms as if in the act of cutting, the -enemy falls in two, and disappears. - -We are reminded by these circumstances of “the news from the country,” -which the _Spectator_ describes as brought to him by sir Roger de -Coverley. One part of it was, that Moll White was dead, and that about -a month after one of the baronet’s barns fell down, which led to the -shrewd remark: “I do not think the old woman had anything to do with -it.” Nor do we think that the wizard of the Mediterranean has anything -to do with “cutting the wind.” The probability is, that he seizes on -the time for his movements, which, from experience, he knows to precede -the dispersion of the cloud, and thus acquires credit to which he has -not the slightest claim. - -This chapter may appropriately be concluded by a reference to the -waters of the earth, which are often represented as endued with a -supernatural power. The Ilissus, rising on Mount Hymettus, to the east -of Athens, and overflowing its banks, furnishes a supply of excellent -water to the monastery of Sergiani. On one side, are three small -caverns in the rock, with double entrances; apparently the work of -nature, but probably aided by art. They are still supposed, as they -have been during past ages, to have a mystic virtue; and “no remedy,” -says Dodwell, is considered so efficacious for a sick child as “to drag -it two or three times from one cave to another; by which it is either -killed or cured. Several ancient wells are observed in the rock on each -side of the river. Near these, the foundation of a wall crosses the bed -of the Ilissus.” - -Springs, in various parts of this and other countries, alternately -ebbing and flowing, have been, and are still, in some cases, supposed -to be under the ban of witchcraft. And yet the phenomena are easily -explained by natural laws. If the shorter end of a bent tube, A, whose -branches are of an unequal length, be placed in a basin of water, and -the air is drawn from it, we have a syphon, which will decant the -water into any vessel. Now such tubes as these are naturally formed -in the earth, and if the water be drained into a cavity, B, having a -syphon-like channel, C, it is evident that it will flow as long as the -syphon can act, and it will then cease. - -[Illustration] - -Seneca describes a spring near to Tempe, in Thessaly, the waters of -which are fatal to animals, and penetrate iron and copper. Yet, it is -probable, as Dr. Thomson states, that “this spring contained either -free sulphuric acid, or a highly acidulous salt of that acid. This -acid has been detected in a free state, as well as hydrochloric acid, -in the water of the Rio Vindagre, which descends from the volcano -of Paraiè, in Columbia, South America. Sulphuric acid is also found -in the waters of other volcanic regions. The sour springs of Byron, -in the Genessee country, about sixty miles south of the Erie canal, -contain sulphuric acid. Such waters would rapidly corrode both iron -and copper, converting the former into green, the latter into blue -vitriol--sulphates of both metals.”[E] - -It would be easy to extend these instances, in connexion with -the phenomena of the globe, but the present will suffice to show -that a little knowledge of natural science is an antidote to many -superstitions. We proceed now to illustrations of agencies in active -operation of a different character. - - - - -CHAPTER V. - - Chemical wonders--Ice obtained in a red-hot vessel--The - corpse candles of Wales--Luminous appearances after - death--Sadoomeh the magician--The laughing gas--Sulphuric - ether--Chloroform--Gunpowder compared with gun-cotton. - - -The word chemistry is, probably, derived from a Coptic root, signifying -obscure or secret; and the German word _geheim_ is traced to the same -origin. The objects of this department of science are, to investigate -the nature and properties of the elements of matter and their mutual -actions and combinations; to ascertain the proportions in which they -unite and the modes of separating them when united; and to inquire into -the laws which affect and rule these agencies. A few of the wonders -connected with this science may, therefore, appropriately follow the -terrestrial phenomena which have just been considered. - -The Romish church has rendered chemistry available in connexion -with one of its prodigies, the so-called blood of St. Januarius. A -substance is shown to the deluded worshippers in a phial, appearing -in a congealed state; but, as masses are performed by the priests, -it becomes fluid. The illusion practised in this case may, however, -be easily effected by reddening sulphuric ether with orchanet, the -_onosma_ of Linnæus, and then saturating the tincture with spermaceti. -This preparation is solid at ten degrees above the freezing point, and -melts and boils at twenty degrees. Let the phial which contains it when -coagulated, be held in the hand for a few minutes, and the temperature -of the substance rises, and it becomes fluid. Even the warmth of a -public assembly is sufficient for this purpose. - -Marcus, the chief of one of the sects in the second century, who wished -to amalgamate with Christianity the doctrines and rules of pagan rites, -filled with white wine three cups of transparent glass; and, while -he was praying, the liquid in one of the cups became like blood; in -another, of a purple colour; and in the third, sky-blue. But these -effects might easily be produced by chemical action. Professor Beyruss, -at the court of the duke of Brunswick, promised that his white dress -should become red during a repast; and the change took place, to the -astonishment of the prince and his guests. M. Vogel, who relates this -fact, does not reveal the means employed; but observes that, by pouring -lime-water on the juice of beet-root, a colourless liquid is obtained, -that a piece of cloth dipped in it and quickly dried becomes red in a -few hours by the contact of the air alone; and that this effect may be -accelerated in a room where champagne and other beverages charged with -carbonic acid gas are abundantly used. Still more rapidly might the -chance be effected in some temple, in the midst of rising incense and -burning torches; and the veil which covered things deemed sacred, might -thus have been seen to change from white to the colour of blood--a -presage of fearful disasters. - -A series of remarkable experiments was performed by professor Boutigny, -at the British Association at Cambridge, in 1845. He commenced by -showing, that when cold water is poured on a hot metallic surface, the -heat is not communicated to it; and that the water assumes a spheroidal -form, and continues to roll about, upheld at a minute distance from -the heated surface, without boiling. The water was poured into a hot -platinum cup kept in rapid motion, and resembled a small globe of -glass dancing about. There was no hissing noise nor appearance of -steam, though the globule of water must, nevertheless, have evaporated -rapidly; for, after gradually diminishing in size, in the course of -about two minutes it disappeared. The same result takes place when any -substance capable of assuming a globular form is placed on a heated -surface. In proof of this, the professor placed in the heated cup of -platinum, iodine, ammonia, and some inflammable substances; each of -which became globular, and danced about like the globule of water, but -without emitting smell or vapour, or being inflamed, until the platinum -cup was cooled. - -Another experiment was yet more curious. Professor Boutigny heated a -silver weight, of the same shape as the weight of a clock, until it -was red-hot, and then lowered it by a wire into a glass of cold water, -without there being any more indication of action in the water than if -the weight had been quite cold. Professor Boutigny advanced no theory -to account for these peculiar actions, further than that a film of -vapour intervenes between the heated body and the substance, which -prevents the communication of heat. The facts, however, he thought -were of importance in a practical point of view, both as regards -the tempering of metals, and in the explanation of the causes of -steam-boiler explosions. It would seem, from experiments in tempering -metals, that, if the metal be too much heated, the effect of plunging -it into water will be diminished. In steam-boilers, also, if the -heated water be introduced into a heated surface, the heat may not -be communicated to the water, and the boiler may become red-hot, and -without any great emission of steam; until, at length, when the boiler -cools, a vast quantity of steam would become suddenly generated and the -boiler burst. - -The last and most curious experiment performed by professor Boutigny, -was the freezing of water in a red-hot vessel. Having heated a platinum -cup red-hot, he poured into it a small quantity of water, which was -kept in a globular form, as in the other experiments. He then poured -into the cup some liquid sulphurous acid; when a sudden evaporation -ensued, and, on quickly inverting the cup, there came out a small mass -of ice. The principle of this experiment, which called forth loud -and continued applause, is this:--sulphurous acid has the property -of boiling water when it is at a temperature below the freezing -point; and, when poured into the heated vessel, the suddenness of the -evaporation occasions a degree of cold sufficient to freeze water. - -Liquid carbonic acid takes a high position for its freezing qualities. -Mr. Adams, of Kensington, manufactures this curious liquid as an -article of commerce, and has, occasionally, as much as nine gallons of -it in store. In drawing it from its powerful reservoirs, it evaporates -so rapidly as to freeze, and it is then a light porous mass, like snow. -If a small quantity of this is drenched with ether, the degree of cold -produced is even more intolerable to the touch than boiling water; a -drop or two of the mixture producing blisters, just as if the skin had -been burned! Mr. Adams states that, in eight minutes he has frozen a -mass of mercury weighing ten pounds. - -In one department of knowledge--that of vapours and gases--on which -chemistry casts so much light, we discover many remarkable phenomena. -Few persons have resided, for example, in the fenny and swampy -districts of our island, without seeing, at least occasionally, the -ignis fatuus, Will-o’-the-wisp, or Jack-o’-lantern, hovering a few -feet above the surface of stagnant water. - - “Wild fires dancing o’er the heath,” - -may be observed, indeed, at almost all times of the year, but it is -chiefly in autumn, and particularly in November, that they flit in mazy -circles and irregular evolutions; sometimes at the edge of a morass, -over the tops of withered sedges, reeds, and brushwood; and, at others, -over palings and hedgerows, or the still surface of the oozy bog. - -It has been argued by some, that they are effects produced by luminous -insects, as the glow-worm, the gnat, and the mole-cricket. But this -theory is very unsatisfactory, and the cause which is now generally -acknowledged to be the real one, is far more natural. There is a -substance readily obtained, but of very offensive odour, called -phosphoret of lime; and, if a piece of this be taken and dropped into a -pool of water, little flames will be seen on its surface. These arise -from the power of the substance to decompose water, in consequence of -which, the hydrogen ascends to the surface, and ignites on coming in -contact with the air. - -Dr. Weissenborn has given the following interesting statements:--“In -the year 1818, I was fortunate enough to get a fine view of the ignes -fatui operating on an extensive scale. I was then at Schnepfenthal, -in the duchy of Gotha; and in a clear November night, between eleven -and twelve o’clock, when I had just undressed, the bright moonshine -allured me to the window, to survey the expanse of boggy meadows, which -spread two or three English miles in length, a quarter-of-a-mile from -the foot of the hillock on which the house in which I then was, is -standing. Through the first third of the meadows there was a winding -rivulet, of the breadth of seven or eight feet, which then turns off -into an artificial bed, whilst the old bed continues in the direction -of the meadows, which are bounded on one side by a range of brushwood, -and on the other by cultivated grounds, with marshy dells here and -there. My intimate acquaintance with the locality, together with -the bright moonshine, enabled me to discover every object round the -meadow-ground, sufficiently well to judge of the position and direction -of the luminous phenomena, the display of which I saw as soon as I had -posted myself at the window. I perceived a number of reddish yellow -flames on different parts of the expanse of almost level ground. I -descried, perhaps, no more than six at a time, but dying away and -appearing in other places so rapidly, that it was impossible to count -them; but I should say, on a rough calculation, there were about twenty -or twenty-five within a second. Some were small and burned dimly; -others flashed with a bright flame, in a direction almost parallel -with the ground, and coinciding with that of the wind, which was -rather brisk. After having for some time looked with amazement at the -brilliant scene, as a whole, I tried to study its details, and soon -found that the flames which were nearest originated in a quagmire, the -position of which I knew exactly, by a solitary cluster of willows; -and I could trace a succession of flashes from that spot to a certain -point of the margin of the wood across the rivulet and meadow. The -distance of the two points from each other was more than half-a-mile, -and the flames travelled over it, perhaps, in less than a second. The -first flash was not always observed in the immediate neighbourhood -of the quagmire; but the succession of flames lay always in the same -straight line, and in the direction of the wind; whilst other sets were -observed, though not with the same distinctness, in the more distant -parts of the meadow-ground. - -“After about an hour, a bank of mist began to overspread the meadows, -but I saw the light still glimmering through it, whilst I dressed -myself, in order to examine the phenomenon in its laboratory. However, -when I reached the meadows, the atmospheric conditions which gave rise -to the ignes fatui had ceased to exist.” Weissenborn then expresses his -belief that the phosphoric hydrogen gas, exhaled by certain swamps, -is kindled into flame by coming in contact with the atmospheric air; -but, as the hydrogen is not saturated with phosphorus, (the greater -portion of the latter being precipitated in passing through the water -as red oxide of phosphorus,) there is a certain electric condition -of the atmosphere necessary to cause the combustion. Thus, under -common circumstances, the gas is evolved and dissipated without being -observed; but when the state of the atmosphere is competent to effect -its combustion, the proper degree of electrical tension is lost at -the place where the explosion is effected; and, until it is restored, -or the gas comes in contact with that layer of the atmosphere which -possesses the requisite degree of electrical tension, a considerable -body of bog gas may collect, and be carried in the direction of the -wind, so as to give rise to a sort of quick fire, with occasional -flashes; in those places of the stream of gas where there happens to be -a considerable volume of it. The lights, which still frequently excite -apprehensions in Wales, and are popularly termed “corpse candles,” have -the same origin as the “ignes fatui.” - -At the village of Wigmore, in Herefordshire, there are fields which -may be, and two houses which really are, illuminated with a natural -gas. This vapour, with which the subjacent strata seem to be charged, -is obtained in the following manner:--a hole is made in the cellar of -the house, or other locality, with an iron rod; a hollow tube is then -placed therein, fitted with a burner similar to those used for ordinary -gas-lights, and immediately on applying a flame to the jet, a soft and -brilliant light is obtained, which may be kept burning at pleasure. The -gas is very pure, quite free from any offensive smell, and does not -stain the ceilings, as is generally the case with the manufactured -article. Besides lighting rooms, etc., it has been used for cooking; -and, indeed, seems capable of the same applications as prepared -carburetted hydrogen. There are several fields in which the phenomenon -exists, and children are seen boring holes and setting the gas on fire -for amusement. It is now several months since the discovery was made; -and a great many of the curious have visited, and still continue to -visit, the spot. - -If the Chinese are not manufacturers, they are, nevertheless, gas -consumers and employers on a large scale; and have evidently been so, -ages before the knowledge of its application was acquired by Europeans. -Beds of coal are frequently pierced by the borers of salt water; and -the inflammable gas is forced up in jets twenty or thirty feet in -height. From these fountains, the vapour has been conveyed to the -salt-works in pipes, and there used for the boiling and evaporation of -the salt; other tubes convey the gas intended for lighting the streets, -and the larger apartments and kitchens. As there is still more gas -than is required, the excess is conducted beyond the limits of the -salt-works, and forms separate chimneys or columns of flame. - -A singular counterpart to this employment of natural gas, is witnessed -in the valley of the Kanawha, in Virginia. The origin, the means of -supply, the application to all the processes of manufacturing salt, and -of the appropriation of the surplus for the purposes of illumination, -are remarkably alike at such distant points as China and the United -States. - -It has sometimes been stated of a departed person, that a luminous -appearance was observed to rest upon, and occasionally to surround, a -corpse. Such an effect has been described as supernatural--a Divine -attestation to extraordinary excellence; and, doubtless, Roman -Catholics have made the most of such circumstances in reference to -those whom they have denominated saints, and to whom a place has been -assigned in their calendar. And yet there was no departure in any such -instance from the ordinary laws of nature. Sir H. Marsh, in an essay on -“The Evolution of Light from the Human Subject,” states, that electric -sparks have been known to issue from the skin of some individuals -when rubbed lightly and quickly with a linen cloth. Not only has this -physician heard of such cases, but two had actually come under his -observation. - -He was led to consider the subject by the following statement made to -him. “About an hour and-a-half before my sister’s death, we were struck -by appearances proceeding from her head, in a diagonal direction. She -was, at the time, in a half-recumbent position, and perfectly tranquil. -The light was pale as the moon, but quite evident to mamma, myself, -and sisters, who were watching over her at the time. One of us, at -first, thought that it was lightning; till, shortly after, we fancied -we perceived a sort of tremulous glimmer playing round the head of the -bed; and then, recollecting that we had read something of a similar -nature having been observed previous to dissolution, we had candles -brought into the room, fearing our dear sister would perceive it, and -that it might disturb the tranquillity of her last moments.” - -A similar appearance around the person, and in the room, of a man who -fell a sacrifice to lingering disease in a remote district of the -south-west of Ireland, is recorded. All the witnesses agree in having -seen the light; many, however, came to the conclusion that it was -caused by supernatural agency, and a proof of miraculous interposition, -and even evidence of Divine favour. Considerable excitement was -occasioned in the south of Ireland by the following case, related by -Dr. D. Donavan, in the _Dublin Medical Press_, Jan. 15, 1840:--“I was -sent for,” the Doctor says, “in December, 1828, to see Harrington. -He had been under the care of my predecessor, and had been entered -in the dispensary book as a phthisical patient; and, on reference to -my note-book, I find that the stethoscopic and other indications of -phthisis were indubitable. He was under my care for about five years; -during which time, strange to say, the symptoms continued stationary; -and I had discontinued my attendance for about two years, when the -report became general, that mysterious lights were every night seen in -his cabin. The subject attracted a great deal of attention; and, like -everything else in Ireland, at once assumed a sectarian complexion; -some attributing the light to the miraculous interference of Heaven; -others, to the practice of the black art. Not regarding these views as -affording an explanation of the mystery, I determined to subject the -matter to the ordeal of my own senses; and, for this purpose, visited -the cabin for fourteen nights; and on three nights, only, did I witness -anything unusual. Once I perceived a luminous fog, resembling the -aurora borealis, and twice I saw the scintillations, like the sparkling -phosphorescence sometimes exhibited by the sea infusoria. From the -close scrutiny I made, I can, with certainty, say, that no imposition -was either employed or attempted. How are these appearances to be -accounted for? In answering this question, I would observe, that they -are never seen but in cases of extensive disease, and when considerable -alteration of structure has taken place. Processes analogous to -decomposition are witnessed in the human subject while the living -principle remains.” - -On these, and similar facts, Dr. Marsh remarks: “Disease is but a -step toward dissolution, in which the vital powers are impaired; and, -unless the malady be checked, by the use of proper means, a period -will quickly approach when the chemical action will entirely prevail -over the whole frame. Phosphorescent matter may be generated in -organic bodies at a period of incipient decomposition; and when we -consider that phosphuretted hydrogen undergoes spontaneous combustion, -when brought in contact with the oxygen of the atmosphere, and that -the component parts of which this gas is formed exist in the body -in great abundance, an easy solution is at hand, accounting for the -luminous appearances which have been witnessed in dissecting-rooms, in -burial-grounds, and in marine substances, as well as on the approach of -dissolution.” - -The Arabs are well known as believers in wonders; and of one of their -magicians, named Sadoomeh, the following story is told. “In order to -give one of his friends a treat, he took him to the distance of about -half-an-hour’s walk into the desert, on the north of Cairo, where -they both sat down upon the pebbly and sandy plain; and the magician -having uttered a spell, they suddenly found themselves in the midst of -a garden, like one of the gardens of Paradise, abounding with flowers -and fruit-trees of every kind, springing up from a soil covered with -verdure brilliant as the emerald, and irrigated by numerous streamlets -of the purest water. A repast of the most delicious viands and fruit -was spread before them by invisible hands; and they both ate and drank -to satiety, taking copious draughts of the various wines. At length -the magician’s guest sank into a deep sleep, and when he awoke he -found himself again in the pebbly and sandy plain, with Sadoomeh still -by his side.” “The reader will probably attribute this vision,” says -Mr. Lane, who relates the tale, “to a dose of opium or some similar -drug; and such I suppose to have been the means employed; for I cannot -doubt the integrity of the narrator, though he would not admit such -an explanation; regarding the whole as an affair of magic, ‘jinn,’ or -genii.” - -A story of Gassendi, one of the most distinguished of naturalists, -mathematicians, and philosophers of France, in the sixteenth century, -will place this solution in a still clearer light. As he was taking -a morning walk near Deigne, in Provence, his ears were assailed by -repeated exclamations of “A sorcerer! a sorcerer!” On glancing behind -him, he beheld a mean and simple-looking man, with his hands tied, -whom a mob of the country-people were hurrying to prison. Gassendi’s -character and learning had given him great authority with them, and he -desired to be left alone with the man. They immediately surrendered -him, and Gassendi said to him, in private, “My friend, you must tell -me sincerely, whether you have made a compact with the devil or not: -if you confess it, I will give you your liberty immediately; but, if -you refuse to tell me, I will give you immediately into the hands of a -magistrate.” The man answered, “Sir, I will own that I go to a meeting -of wizards every day. One of my friends has given me a drug, which I -take to effect this, and I have been received as a sorcerer these three -years.” He then described the proceedings of these meetings, and spoke -of the different devils, as if he had been all his life acquainted -with them. “Show me,” said Gassendi, “the drug which you take to attend -this infernal meeting, for I intend to go there with you to-night.” -The man replied, “As you please, Sir; I will take you at midnight, as -soon as the clock strikes twelve.” Accordingly, he met Gassendi at the -appointed hour, and, showing him two boluses, each of the size of a -walnut, he desired him to swallow one, as soon as Gassendi had seen him -swallow the other, and then they lay down together on a goat-skin. The -man soon fell asleep, but Gassendi remained awake and watched him, and -perceived that he was greatly disturbed in his slumbers, and writhed -and twisted his body about, as if he had been troubled by bad dreams. -At the expiration of five or six hours he awoke, and said to Gassendi, -“I am sure, Sir, you ought to be satisfied with the manner in which -the great goat received you; he conferred on you a high honour when -he permitted you to kiss his tail the first time he ever saw you.” It -was thus apparent that the deleterious opiate had operated upon his -imagination. Gassendi, compassionating his weakness and credulity, -took pains to convince him of his self-delusion; and, showing him -the bolus, he gave it to a dog, who soon fell asleep, and suffered -great convulsions. The poor fellow was set at liberty to undeceive -his brethren, who had, like him, been lulled by the noxious drug into -imagining themselves sorcerers. - -In India there is a native plant, which, after it has flowered, is -dried and sold in the bazaars of Calcutta, for smoking. The Hindoos -call it “ganpah,” and they give the name of “bang” or “subjee” to -the large leaves and capsules which they use for the same purpose. -The plant is a species of hemp; the smoking of which is considered -so delightful, according to Dr. Thomson, as to have been denominated -by such epithets as “Assuager of sorrow,” “Increaser of pleasure,” -“Cementer of friendship,” “Laughter-mover,” and others of the same kind. - -On the same authority it is stated, that in Nepaul, the resin only -is used; in some places it is collected by native coolies, walking -through the fields of hemp at the time the plants give forth the resin, -which, adhering to the skin, is scraped off from it, and kneaded into -balls. It is taken in doses, from a grain to two grains, and causes -a delightful delirium. When repeated, however, it is followed by -catalepsy, or that state of insensibility which allows the body to be -moulded into any form like a Dutch-jointed doll, the limbs remaining in -the position in which they were placed, though contrary to the law of -gravity, and continuing so for many hours. - -We are well acquainted with various means of acting in an extraordinary -manner on the human frame. The writer, in common with multitudes, has -witnessed, for example, the operation of nitrous oxide, often called -“the laughing-gas.” It acts, however, very differently on different -persons; some laugh immoderately, others become depressed, others -assume the airs of vanity and importance which accord with their most -cherished dispositions; and some can only be forcibly restrained from -deeds of great violence. It is certainly a most singular sight to see -a person laughing most boisterously, or strutting with all the hauteur -of a newly-made potentate, suddenly subside as the action of the gas -ceases, into a very unobtrusive individual. - -We may now briefly allude to one of the most extraordinary applications -of the present times. The late sir Humphry Davy made many experiments -on the effects of various gases on the human lungs. He found, in his -own person, that the inhalation of nitrous oxide removed head-ache, -and greatly assuaged the pain of cutting a wisdom-tooth. In his works, -edited by Dr. John Davy, is the following passage:-- - -“As nitrous oxide, in its extensive operation, appears capable of -destroying physical pain, it may probably be used with advantage during -surgical operations in which no great effusion of blood takes place.” -Here is the germ of the recent application of ether. - -“The effects of this inhalation, as indicated by the patient’s own -recollection,” says a writer in the _North British Review_, “are very -various. In general they are somewhat as follows:--A pleasing sense -of soothing succeeds the first irksomeness of the pungent vapour--a -soothing of both mind and body. Ringing in the ears takes place, with -some confusion of sight and intellectual perception. The limbs are -felt cold and powerless; the hands and feet first, then the knees; -and the feeling is as if these parts had ceased to be peculiar -property, and dropped away. This sensation may gradually creep over -the whole frame; the patient becoming, in more senses than one, truly -etherealized; reduced to the condition of no body and all soul. The -objects around are either lost sight of or strangely perverted; fancied -shadows flit before the eyes, and then a dream sets in--sometimes calm -and placid, sometimes active and bustling, sometimes very pleasurable, -sometimes frightful, as a nightmare. Emerging, the figures and scenes -shift rapidly, and grow fainter and fainter; present objects are -caught by the eye once more, the ringing of the ears is heard again, -consciousness and self-control return, a tendency to excited talking is -very manifest, movement is unsteady, and, both in mind and body, a kind -of intoxication is declared. It is, however, of a light and airy kind; -very pure, very pleasant, and very passing, and, when gone, leaving -very little trace behind. - -“Experience has fully shown that the brain may be acted on so as to -annihilate, for the time, what may be termed the faculty of feeling -pain; the organ of general sense may be lulled into profound sleep, -while the organ of special sense, and the organ of intellectual -function remain wide awake, active, and busily employed. The patient -may feel no pain under very cruel cutting, and yet he may see, -hear, taste, and smell, as well as ever, to all appearance; and he -may also be perfectly conscious of everything within reach of his -observation--able to reason on such events most lucidly, and able to -retain both the events and the reasoning in his memory afterwards. -We have seen a patient following the operator with her eyes most -intelligently and watchfully, as he shifted his place near her, lifted -his knife, and proceeded to use it; wincing not at all during its use; -answering questions by gesture, very readily and plainly; and, after -the operation was over, narrating every event as it occurred; declaring -that she knew and saw all; stating that she knew and felt that she was -being cut, and yet that she felt no pain whatever. Patients have said, -quietly, ‘You are sawing now,’ during the use of the saw in amputation; -and afterwards they have declared most solemnly, that though quite -conscious of that part of the operation, yet they felt no pain. We -have seen a patient enduring amputation of a limb without any sign -of suffering, opening her eyes during the performance, at its most -painful part, descrying a country practitioner at some distance--under -whose care she had formerly been, and whom she had not seen for some -considerable time--addressing him by name, and requesting that he might -not leave town without seeing her.” - -Since the period to which the writer just quoted refers, Dr. -Simpson, of Edinburgh, has discovered a substitute for sulphuric -ether--chloroform, or the perchloride of formyle. It is stated to -possess over sulphuric ether the following advantages:--1. A greatly -less quantity of chloroform than of ether is requisite to produce the -desired effect. 2. Its action is much more rapid and complete, and -generally more enduring. 3. The inhalation and influence of chloroform -are far more agreeable and pleasant than those of ether. 4. The use -of chloroform is less expensive than that of ether. 5. Its odour is -not unpleasant; nor does it exhale in a disagreeable form from the -lungs of the patient, as so generally happens with sulphuric ether. -6. Being required in much less quantity, it is much more portable and -transmissible than sulphuric ether. 7. No special kind of inhaler -or instrument is necessary for its exhibition. A little of the -liquid diffused upon the interior of a hollow-shaped sponge, or on a -pocket-handkerchief, or a piece of linen or paper, or held over the -mouth and nostrils, so as to be fully inhaled, generally suffices, in -about a minute or two, to produce the effect. This agent, however, -requires to be used to annul pain under the direction of a judicious -medical practitioner; it may otherwise be productive of serious -consequences. - -A prodigious force often arises from chemical affinity. Of this, -gunpowder presents a familiar instance. It is formed of nitre, -sulphur, and charcoal, which, in the ordinary state, are only combined -mechanically; but no sooner is this compound ignited, than these -substances are brought, by chemical action, into such close contact, -as to evolve a mighty and destructive power. It seemed likely to be -thrown into the shade by the discovery of gun-cotton as an explosive -agent, which excited extraordinary interest throughout Europe. On -projectile experiments being made, a gun, charged with thirty grains -of prepared cotton, propelled an equal charge of shot, with greater -force and precision, at a distance of forty yards, than were gained -by the same gun loaded with a hundred-and-twenty grains of gunpowder. -A rifle, charged with fifty-four and-a-half grains of gunpowder, -sent a ball through seven boards, half-an-inch in thickness, at a -distance of forty yards; the same rifle, charged with forty grains of -gun-cotton, caused the ball to enter the eighth board. Another rifle, -which had been used for elephant-shooting, and consequently carried a -much larger ball, charged with forty grains of gun-cotton, forced the -ball through eight boards, at a distance of ninety yards. In no case -was the discharge accompanied by a greater recoil than usual; and the -reports were not louder than those accompanying the discharge of guns -and rifles loaded with gunpowder. According to the specification of the -patentee, M. Schönbein, cotton is preferred for this purpose, freed -from extraneous matters; and it is considered desirable to operate on -the clean fibres of the cotton in a dry state, by means of nitric and -sulphuric acids. These are mixed together in the proportion of one -measure of nitric acid to three measures of sulphuric acid, in any -suitable or convenient vessel not liable to be affected by the acids. -A great degree of heat being generated by the mixture, it is left to -cool until its temperature falls to sixty or fifty degrees Fahrenheit. -The cotton is then immersed in it; and, in order that it may become -thoroughly saturated with the acids, it is stirred with a rod of glass, -or other material, not affected by the acids. The cotton should be -introduced in as open a state as practicable. The acids are then poured -or drawn off, and the cotton gently pressed by a presser of glazed -earthenware, to take out the acids, after which it is covered up in -the vessel, and allowed to stand for about an hour. It is subsequently -washed in a continuous flow of water, until the presence of the acids -is not indicated by the ordinary test of litmus paper. To remove any -uncombined portions of the acids which may remain after the cleansing -process, the patentee dips the cotton in a weak solution of carbonate -of potash, composed of one ounce of carbonate of potash to one gallon -of water, and partially dries it by pressing, as before. The cotton is -then highly explosive, and may be used in that state; but, to increase -its explosive power, it is dipped in a weak solution of nitrate of -potash, and, lastly, dried in a room heated by hot air, or steam, to -about one hundred and fifty degrees Fahrenheit. - -The advantages and disadvantages of this substance have thus been -stated by professor Brande:--“The disadvantages are, that the effects -are less regular than those of gunpowder; that it is more dangerous, -because inflaming at a lower temperature; that it does not take -fire when compressed in tubes; that it burns slowly in all kinds of -cartridges; that guns and pistols must be altered to admit of its -use; that it is not adapted for the use of the army; that the barrel -of the gun is moistened by the water produced during combustion. The -advantages, on the other hand, may be stated as follows:--Its extreme -cleanliness, leaving no residue after combustion; its freedom from -all bad smell; the facility and the safety of its preparation; the -possessing treble the force of gunpowder; its explosion producing -no smoke, and less noise than that of gunpowder; its filamentary -nature admitting of its being used over head in mining operations; -its not being liable (as a granulated substance is) to the accidents -of leakage; its occasioning very little recoil.”--Every benevolent -mind must wish to hear no more of “the confused noise of battle and -of garments rolled in blood;” and that the time may soon arrive when -men shall “beat their swords into ploughshares, and their spears -into pruning-hooks;” when “they shall learn war no more,” but yield -themselves heartily and devotedly to the benignant sway of the Prince -of peace. There seems, however, no reason to conclude that gun-cotton -will be employed for any hostile purpose, the Board of Ordnance having -definitely decided against its adoption in the military and naval -services. The principal objection to it is, the very low temperature at -which it explodes. The mere heating of a gun, from a number of charges -successively fired, has been proved sufficient to cause an instant -explosion of gun-cotton. - -In mining, it is likely to be of great use. In the slate-quarries at -Penrhyns it has been found far superior to gunpowder. A huge mass of -sixty tons’ weight, for instance, was gently pushed from its firmly -compacted bed by the explosion of only eight ounces of cotton, while -the slate was not splintered. In other great works it will also be of -service. In a cutting on the Syston and Peterborough railway, not far -from Stamford, experiments showed the average powers of the gun-cotton -to be in the proportion of one to six of gunpowder; so that, in a hard -freestone foundation, about five feet thick, and with an entire depth -of twenty-eight feet, where six holes were necessary for gunpowder, -only one was required for gun-cotton. In all blasting operations, -whether in open cuttings, tunnels, or deep mines, a great saving of -time, labour, and cost, is thus likely to be effected. - - - - -CHAPTER VI. - - Light and its phenomena--Magic pictures--The optical - paradox--Chinese metallic mirrors--Effect of an optical - instrument on a superstitious mind--Origin of photography--The - Talbotype--The Daguerreotype--Sunlight pictures. - - -The cause of those sensations which we refer to the eyes, or that which -produces the sense of seeing, is light. The phenomena of vision have -always been regarded as among the most interesting branches of natural -science. The knowledge of the laws which regulate the phenomena of -light, constitutes the science of optics, which explains the cause of -many most striking illusions. - -Magic pictures have been produced, which, when seen in a certain point -through a glass, exhibit an object different from that be held by the -naked eye. Niceron tells us that he executed at Paris, and deposited in -the library of the Minimes of the Place Royale, a picture of this kind; -when seen by the naked eye, it represented fifteen portraits of Turkish -sultans, but, when viewed through the glass, it was a portrait of Louis -XIII. - -The writer has often seen a singular transformation effected by an -ingenious device, called the optical paradox: thus an eagle may be -changed into a lion, and a dog into a cat. - -[Illustration] - -[Illustration] - -For this purpose, a wooden three-sided box must be prepared, and -through the open part may slide the various drawings to be used, as B. -Connected with this, there must be a pillar, C, and a horizontal bar -holding a tube, D, having in it a glass placed exactly over the centre. -The change is partly dependent on the glass, the sides of which are -flat and diverge from its hexagonal base upwards, to a point in the -axis of the glass, like a pyramid, E, forming an isosceles triangle. -All that is now necessary to the completion of the change, is in the -border of the drawing, in which the various parts required for the new -figure are cleverly introduced; so that when the distance of the glass -from the eye is rightly adjusted, each angular side will take up its -portion from the border, and present to the eye the various parts in an -entire figure. The shape of the glass prevents the appearance of any -particular figure in the centre, as the eagle, for instance; while the -lion, arranged in portions and drawn on the circle of refraction at six -different parts of the border, yet artfully disguised by blending with -it, the transformation will be completely produced. - -A paper has lately been read to the Academy of Sciences at Paris, by M. -Stanislaus Julien, on the metallic mirrors made in China, and to which -the name of “magic mirrors” has been given. Hitherto all attempts by -Europeans to obtain information as to the process, in the localities -where they are manufactured, have proved failures, some of the persons -applied to being unwilling to reveal the secret, and others being -ignorant of the process. These mirrors are called magical, because, -if they receive the rays of the sun on their polished surface, the -characters, or flowers _in relief_, which exist on the other side, are -faithfully reproduced. The following information has been obtained -by M. Julien, from the writings of an author named Ou-tseu-hing, who -lived between 1260 and 1341:--“The cause of this phenomenon is the -distinct use of fine copper and rough copper. If, on the under side, -there be produced, by casting in a mould, the figure of a dragon in -a circle, there is then engraved deeply on the disc a dragon exactly -similar. Then, the parts which have been cut are filled with rather -rough copper; and this is, by the action of fire, incorporated with -the other metal, which is of a finer nature. The face of the mirror -is next prepared, and a slight coating of tin is spread over it. If -the polished disc of a mirror so prepared be turned towards the sun, -and the image be reflected on a wall, it presents distinctly the clear -portion and the dark portion, the one of the fine, and the other of the -rough copper.” Ou-tseu-hing states, that he had ascertained this by a -careful inspection of the fragments of a broken mirror. - -It is easy for an ignorant and superstitious mind to confound a very -harmless and simple instrument with one of magical power. We have an -example of this in Dodwell’s description of his residence at Athens. -On his first admission within the venerable walls of the Acropolis, -it was necessary to offer a small present to the disdar, or Turkish -governor, and an additional sum to make drawings and observations -without being molested by the servants of the garrison. The disdar -proved to be a man of bad faith and insatiable rapacity, and, after -experiencing numerous vexations from the mercenary Turk, Dodwell was -at length released from his importunities by a singular circumstance. -As he was one day engaged in drawing the Parthenon, with the aid of -his camera obscura, the disdar, whose surprise was excited by the -novelty of the sight, asked, with a sort of fretful inquietude, what -new conjuration he was performing with that extraordinary machine. -Dodwell endeavoured to explain it, by putting in a clean sheet of -paper, and making him look at the instrument; but he no sooner saw the -Temple of Minerva reflected on the paper in all its lines and colours, -than he imagined the effect was produced by some magical process; his -astonishment appeared mingled with alarm, and, stroking his long black -beard, he repeated several times the words Allah, Masch-Allah--a term -of admiration with the Turks, signifying that which is made by God. - -Again he looked into the camera obscura, with a kind of cautious -diffidence, and, at that moment, some of his soldiers happening to -pass before the reflecting-glass, were beheld by the astonished disdar -walking upon the paper. He now became outrageous; he assailed Dodwell -with various opprobrious epithets, one of which was Bonaparte--the -appellation being at the time synonymous to that of magician, or of -any one supposed to be endowed with supernatural talents--and declared -that, if Dodwell chose, he might take away all the stones in the -temple, but that he would not permit his soldiers to be conjured into -a box. “When I found,” says Dodwell, “that it was no use to reason -with his ignorance, I changed my tone, and told him that, if he did -not leave me unmolested, I would put him into my box; and that he -should find it a very difficult matter to get out again. His alarm was -now visible; he immediately retired, and ever after stared at me with -a mixture of apprehension and amazement. When he saw me come to the -Acropolis, he carefully avoided my approach; and never afterwards gave -me any further molestation.” - -[Illustration] - -The portable camera obscura, represented by the diagram, has often -yielded much pleasure in the domestic circle, while the larger ones, -which are publicly exhibited, are highly interesting. No person, -perhaps, has witnessed the neatness of outline, the precision of -form, the truth of colouring, and the sweet gradations of tint, thus -apparent, without regretting that an imagery so exquisite and faithful -to nature could not be made to fix itself permanently on the tablet of -the machine. Yet, in the estimation of all, such a wish seemed destined -to take its place among other dreams of beautiful things; the splendid -but impracticable conceptions in which men of science and ardent -temperament have sometimes indulged. Such a dream, however, has been -realized of late. - -[Illustration] - -Mr. Thomas Wedgewood, the celebrated porcelain manufacturer, so early -as 1802, published, in the journals of the Royal Institution, a -method of copying paintings upon glass, and of making profiles by the -agency of light upon nitrate of silver. The experiments he made were -repeated by sir Humphry Davy; but several years after, MM. Niepcé -and Daguerre, and Mr. Fox Talbot, laid the foundation of the present -state of photographic drawing. The former engaged in a long series of -experiments to render metallic surfaces peculiarly sensitive; the aim -of the latter was to produce this effect on paper. The camera obscura -used for this purpose is a rectangular box, with a double convex lens, -A, at one end, and a glass reflector, B, which is generally a piece -of looking-glass, at the other. Now, supposing the rays of light to -proceed from an extensive landscape, and pass through this small convex -lens, as we well know they may do, what will be the effect produced? -The scene will, in the first place, be thrown on the reflector, which -is fixed at an angle of forty-five degrees to the horizon. Now it -follows, from a law well known to opticians, that these rays will -be reflected to the top of the box, immediately over the mirror; so -that if a ground glass, or any other medium capable of receiving the -reflected image, be placed there, a representation of the landscape -may be observed. As then, it is proved, by innumerable experiments, -that reflected light has, in proportion to its power, as much influence -on prepared or photographic paper, as the direct rays of the sun; it -follows that, if a piece of it be placed in the same situation as the -ground glass, the reflected image, be it a landscape, a figure, or -an artificial object, will be formed on it. All that is, therefore, -required to be done, in using the camera obscura for photographic -drawing, is to place upon the opening at the top of the box the -prepared paper, and immediately to cover it with the lid, C, so that -it may not be acted upon by any other light than that reflected from -the mirror. The time required for producing the necessary effect will -depend on several circumstances, such as the preparation of the paper -and the intensity of the light when the experiment is made; the latter, -however, is by far the more important. On a bright sun-shining day, -the drawing will be produced in one-half the time, and with far more -sharpness of outline, than on a dull wintry day, when the sun struggles -with the mists by which its radiant beams are encumbered. “The Pencil -of Nature,” is the expressive title of a collection of photographic -drawings, produced by Mr. Talbot. Upon the third part of this work, we -find the following acute criticism in the _Athenæum_, No. 920. - -“The subjects are ‘The Entrance Gateway of Queen’s College, Oxford;’ -‘The Ladder,’ in which we have three figures from the life; and ‘A -View of the Author’s Residence, Lacock Abbey, in Wiltshire.’ In the -first of these, the truth-telling character of photographic pictures -is pleasingly shown. It appears, by the turret clock, that the view -was taken a little after two, when the sun was shining obliquely upon -the building. The story of every stone is told, and the crumbling of -its surface under the action of atmospheric influences is distinctly -marked. The figures in ‘The Ladder’ are prettily arranged, but the face -of the boy is distorted, from the circumstance of its being so very -near the edge of the field of view embraced by the lens of the camera -obscura. In looking at this photograph, we are led at once to reflect -on the truth to nature observed by Rembrandt, in the disposition of -his lights and shadows. We have no violent contrasts; even the highest -lights and the deepest shadows seem to melt into each other, and the -middle tints are but the harmonizing gradations. Without the aid of -colour, with simple brown and white, so charming a result is produced, -that, looking at the picture from a little distance, we are almost -led to fancy that the introduction of colour would add nothing to its -charm.” - -The following is the patent process for obtaining a negative -picture:--Take a sheet of paper, with a smooth surface, and a close -and even texture, and without the water-mark, and wash one side of -it, by means of a soft camel’s-hair brush, with a solution composed of -one hundred grains of crystallized nitrate of silver dissolved in six -ounces of distilled water, having previously marked with a cross the -side which is to be washed. When the paper has been dried cautiously at -the fire, or spontaneously in the dark, immerse it for a few minutes -(two minutes, at a temperature of sixty-five degrees,) in a solution -of iodide of potassium, consisting of five hundred grains to one pint -of distilled water. The paper is then to be dipped in water, and -then dried, by applying blotting-paper to it lightly, and afterwards -exposing it to the heat of a fire, or allowing it to dry spontaneously. -The paper thus prepared is called iodized paper, and may be kept for -any length of time in a portfolio not exposed to light. When a sheet of -paper is required for use, wash it with the following solution, which -we shall call No. 1; take one hundred grains of nitrate of silver, -dissolved in two ounces of distilled water, and add to this one-third -of its volume of strong acetic acid. Make another solution, No. 2, by -dissolving crystallized gallic acid in cold distilled water, and then -mix the two solutions together in equal proportions, and in no greater -quantity than is required for immediate use, as it will not keep long -without spoiling. This mixture, called gallo-nitrate of silver, by the -patentee, is then to be spread, by a soft camel’s-hair brush, on the -marked side of the iodized paper; and, after allowing the paper to -remain half-a-minute to absorb the solution, it should be dipped in -distilled water and dried lightly; first with blotting-paper, and then -by holding the paper at a considerable distance from the fire. When -dry, the paper is ready, and it is advisable to use it within a few -hours. - -The paper, which is highly sensitive to light, must now be placed -in the camera obscura, in order to receive on its marked surface a -distinct image of the landscape or person whose picture is required. -After remaining in the camera from ten seconds to several minutes, -according to the intensity of the light, it is taken out of the -camera in a dark room. If the object has been strongly illuminated, -or if the paper has been long in the camera, a sensible picture will -be seen on the paper; but, if the time of exposure has been short, -or the illumination feeble, the paper will “appear entirely blank.” -An invisible image, however, is impressed on the paper, and may -be rendered apparent by the following process:--Take some of the -gallo-nitrate of silver, and, with a soft camel’s-hair brush, wash the -paper all over with this liquid, then hold it before a gentle fire, -and, in a short time, the image will begin to appear; and those parts -upon which the light has acted most strongly will become brown or -black, while the others remain white. The image continues to grow more -and more distinct for some time, and, when it becomes sufficiently so, -the operation must be terminated, and the picture fixed. In order to -effect this, the paper must be dipped first into water, then partly -dried by blotting-paper, and afterwards washed with a solution of -bromide of potassium, consisting of one hundred grains of the salt, -dissolved in eight or ten ounces of water. The picture is then finally -washed in water and dried as before. In place of bromide of potassium, -a strong solution of common salt may be used. - -By this process we get a negative picture--having the lights dark -and the shades light--and from it positive pictures may be obtained -as follows:--Dip a sheet of good paper in a solution of common salt, -consisting of one part of a saturated solution, to eight parts of -water, and dry it first with blotting-paper, and then spontaneously. -Mark one of its sides, and wash that side with a solution of nitrate -of silver, which we shall call No. 3, consisting of eighty grains of -salt, to one ounce of distilled water. When this paper is dry, place it -with its marked side uppermost on a flat board or surface of any kind, -and above it put the negative picture, which should be pressed against -the nitrated or positive paper by means of a glass plate and screws. -In the course of ten or fifteen minutes of a bright sunshine, or of -several hours of common daylight, a fine positive picture will be found -on the paper beneath the negative picture. When this picture has been -well washed or soaked in water, it is washed over with the solution -of bromide of potassium, already mentioned, or plunged in a strong -solution of common salt.[F] - -A singular result of the application of this invention occurred to an -accomplished traveller, who ascended Mount Etna, in order to obtain -representations of that remarkable volcano. No sooner was the camera -fixed on the edge of the crater, and the sensitive paper introduced, -than a partial irruption took place, and the traveller had to fly for -his life. On the cessation of the irruption, he returned; doubtless, -with the expectation of merely collecting the fragments of his valuable -instrument; when, to his great astonishment and delight, he discovered -not only that his camera was absolutely uninjured, but that it -contained an admirable representation of the crater and the irruption. - -A brief account of the process of the Daguerreotype may now be given. A -plate of silvered copper, about as thick as a shilling, is well cleaned -and polished by rubbing it with cotton, fine pumice powder, and dilute -nitric acid, and afterwards exposed to the heat of a spirit-lamp, -placed below it, till a strong white coating is formed on the polished -surface. On the plate being cooled suddenly by means of a cold slab of -stone or of metal, the white coating is removed by repeatedly polishing -it with dry pumice and cotton, and then three times more with the -dilute nitric acid and pumice powder. - -A careful cleaning being thus given to the plate, it is placed in a box -containing iodine, till it becomes visibly covered with a golden film -of that substance, which must neither be pale nor purple. It is then -placed in the camera till a distinct picture of whatever appears before -it is formed upon the surface; it remains there for a period depending -on the intensity of the light, and is then removed to a metallic box, -having in it a cup containing at least three ounces of mercury. Placed -below the cup is a spirit-lamp, which throws off the mercurial vapour; -and, in exact proportion as this vapour deposits itself on the parts -of the plate which have been acted upon by the light, is the picture -developed on the surface of the plate, by the adhesion of the white -mercurial vapour to the different parts which had been impressed by -the light. As soon as the picture appears complete, the plate is -placed in a trough of sheet-copper, containing either a saturated -solution of common salt, or a weak solution of hyposulphite of soda. -Thus, the coating of iodine will be dissolved, the yellow colour quite -disappearing; hot, but not boiling, distilled water is then poured over -the plate, and any drops which remain are removed by blowing upon them. - -The picture being now finished, is preserved from dust by placing it -in a frame, and covering it with glass. In every successful operation, -the picture is almost as perfect in its details as that of the camera -obscura itself; but, as the light of the sun is only white, there can -be, of course, none of the varied tints of nature. The shades are -supplied by the black polish of the metallic surface which, when it -reflects a luminous object, the white vapour of the mercury appears -in shade, and thus gives us either a positive or a negative picture, -according to the light in which it is viewed. - -Various improvements have gradually been made in the processes of the -Daguerreotype and the Talbotype, which our limited space forbids us to -describe. Mr. Beard has added colour to his Daguerreotype portraits, -which is uniform and so transparent as not to affect the likeness -in any degree, while the life-like effect is greatly heightened. M. -Claudet has found that, when the sun is rendered red by the vapours of -the atmosphere, it not only produces no effect upon the Daguerreotype -plate, but that it destroys the effect previously produced by the -white light. If the image of the red sun be taken in the camera -obscura, it produces upon the Daguerreotype plate a black image. By -covering a Daguerreotype plate previously affected by light with a -red, orange, or yellow glass, the radiation through these coloured -media has also the property of destroying the action produced by white -light. The most interesting part of M. Claudet’s statement refers to -the fact that, after the destroying action of the red, orange, and -yellow radiations, the plate is restored to its former sensitiveness; -so that, after having been affected by white light, and restored by -the destructive action of the red, orange, and yellow radiations, it -is possible to produce a photographic effect, as upon a plate just -prepared with iodine and bromine. This alternate acting and destroying -action may be repeated _ad infinitum_, without altering the final -state of the plate. This curious fact proves, evidently, that, in the -Daguerreotype process, light does not alter the chemical compound on -the plate, and that the affinity for mercury is the result of some new -property imparted by the action of the rays of light. M. Claudet’s -experiments prove, also, that the red and yellow rays are endowed -with a photographic action of their own, which, as well as that of -the blue and violet rays, gives an affinity for mercurial vapour. The -photographic action of the red ray is destroyed by the yellow, that -of the yellow by the red; the red and yellow destroy the photographic -action of the blue, and the blue destroys the action of the others. -The photographic, or the destroying action of any particular ray -cannot be continued by any other. It appears, therefore, that each -radiation changes the state of the plate, and each change produces the -sensitiveness to mercurial vapour when it does not exist, and destroys -this sensitiveness when it does exist.[G] - -M. Regnault has laid before the Academy of Sciences, at Paris, some -photographic specimens on paper, obtained by M. Blanquart-Evrard, by -a modification of the usual process. In the preparations hitherto -described, one part of the process presented serious difficulties, -namely, that of the use of gallic acid in order to produce the -impression. It happened frequently, that a proof taken in too mild a -light, or of too large dimensions, could not receive the necessary -force before disappearing, as it may be said, under the uniform colour -produced by the mixture of the gallic acid with the aceto-azotate of -silver, with which the paper is imbued. After having ascertained that -the gallic acid produces this uniform colour on the impression, only -because it is combined in small quantity with the aceto-azotate of -silver, M. Blanquart-Evrard removes all the difficulty. After taking -the proof from the camera obscura, he plunges it into a vessel of -large dimensions, covered with a layer of one centimètre of gallic -acid of cold saturation. The bath is agitated during the immersion; -and the action may be thus prolonged until the impression has obtained -the necessary force to secure a good result. The proof is then -washed, and the gallic acid is replaced by a solution of bromure of -potassium, or chloruret of sodium, in which it is left for about a -quarter-of-an-hour.[H] - -The chromatype, discovered by Mr. Hunt, consists in washing good -letter-paper with the following solution:-- - - Bi-chromate of potash 10 grains - Sulphate of copper 20 grains - Distilled water 1 ounce - -Papers prepared with this are of a pale yellow colour; they may be -kept for any length of time without injury, and are always ready for -use. For copying botanical specimens or engravings, nothing can be -more beautiful. After the paper has been exposed to the influence of -sunshine, with the objects to be copied superposed, it is washed over -in the dark with a solution of nitrate of silver of moderate strength. -As soon as this is done, a very vivid positive picture makes its -appearance; and all the fixing these photographic pictures require is, -well washing in pure water. - -M. Niepcé de St. Victor finds that, if a sheet of paper on which there -is writing, printed characters, or a drawing, be exposed for a few -minutes to the vapour of iodine, and there be applied immediately -afterwards a coating of starch, moistened by slightly acidulated -water, a faithful tracing of the writing, printing, or drawing, will -be obtained. M. Niepcé has also discovered that a great number of -substances, such as nitric acid, chlorurets of lime and mercury, act -in a similar manner; and that various vapours, particularly those of -ammonia, have the effect of vivifying the images which are obtained by -photography. - -In the words of a writer in the _North British Review_:--“While -the artist is thus supplied with every material for his creative -genius, the public will derive a new and immediate advantage from the -productions of the solar pencil. The home-faring man--whom fate or -duty chains to his birth-place, or imprisons in his fatherland--will, -without the fatigues and dangers of travel, scan the beauties and -wonders of the globe; not in the fantastic or deceitful images of a -hurried pencil, but, in the very picture which would have been painted -on his own retina, were he magically transported to the scene. The -gigantic outline of the Himalaya and the Andes will stand self-depicted -upon his borrowed retina--the Niagara will pour out before him, in -panoramic grandeur, her mighty cataract of waters, while the flaming -volcano will toss into the air her clouds of dust and her blazing -fragments. The scene will change, and there will rise before him -Egypt’s colossal pyramids, the temples of Greece and Rome, and the -gilded mosques and towering minarets of eastern magnificence. But -with not less wonder, and with a more eager and affectionate gaze, -will he survey those hallowed scenes which faith has consecrated and -love endeared. Painted in its cheerless tints, Mount Zion will stand -before him, ‘as a field that is ploughed;’ Tyre, as a rock on which -the fishermen dry their nets; Gaza, in her prophetic ‘baldness;’ -Lebanon, with her cedars prostrate among ‘the howling firs;’ Nineveh -made as a grave, ‘and seen only in the turf that covers it;’ and -Babylon the great, the golden city, with its impregnable walls, its -hundred gates of brass, now ‘sitting in the dust, cast up as an heap,’ -covered with ‘pools of water,’ and without even the ‘Arab’s tent,’ or -the ‘shepherd’s fold.’ But though it is only Palestine in desolation -that a modern sun can delineate, yet the seas which bore on their -breast the Divine Redeemer, and the everlasting hills which bounded -his view, stand unchanged by time and the elements, and, delineated -on the faithful tablet, still appeal to us with an immortal interest. -But the scenes which are thus presented to us by the photographer have -not merely the interest of being truthful representations: they form, -as it were, a record of every visible event that takes place while the -picture is delineating. The dial-plate of the clock tells the hour and -minute when it was drawn, and with the day of the month, which we know, -and the sun’s altitude, which the shadows on the picture often supply, -we may find the very latitude of the place which is represented. All -stationary life stands self-delineated on the photograph:--the wind, if -it blows, will exhibit its disturbing influence; the rain, if it falls, -will glisten on the house-top; the still clouds will exhibit their -ever-changing forms; and even the lightning’s flash will imprint its -fire-streak on the sensitive tablet.” - - - - -CHAPTER VII. - - Heat, the cause of many wonders--Its universal diffusion and - application--Story of a burning-glass--The Augustine friars and - the Jesuits--Impostures as to the endurance of heat--Burning - mirrors--The blow-pipe--The Giants’ Causeway--Application of - currents of heated air--Travelling by steam. - - -Heat is everywhere present: every body that exists contains it in -quantity to which we can assign no limits. The endless variety of forms -which are spread over and beautify the surface of the globe, are to be -traced to its influence. Without it, the land and the water would fall -into one formless and impenetrable mass, and the air now essential to -life, prove absolutely poisonous. We shall find in connexion with it, -therefore, many extraordinary phenomena. - -When Labat the Jesuit visited the Peruvians, he took the naked arm of -one of them, and, concentrating on it the rays of the sun by means of a -powerful lens, soon made him cry out with pain, while the others looked -on with wonder, not unmixed with indignation. How could this effect be -produced? was instantly the question; and, as promptly, the cause was -declared to be infernal. In vain did Labat assert that it was merely -natural. The Peruvians made many attempts to obtain possession of the -lens in order to destroy it, and deliver themselves from the power of -that which they regarded as able to bring upon them the vengeance of -the gods. - -Much surprise has sometimes been awakened by an apparent insensibility -to intense heat. An instance of this occurred when a rivalry existed -between the Augustine friars and the Jesuits. The father-general of -the Augustine friars was dining with the Jesuits; and, when the table -was removed, he entered into a formal discourse of the superiority of -the monastic order, and charged the Jesuits with assuming the title of -“_fratres_,” while they held not the three vows which other monks were -obliged to consider sacred and binding. The general of the Augustine -friars was very eloquent and very authoritative--and the superior of -the Jesuits was very unlearned. - -The Jesuit avoided entering the lists of controversy with the Augustine -friar, but arrested his triumph by asking him if he would see one of -his friars, who pretended to be nothing more than a Jesuit, and one of -the Augustine friars who religiously performed the three vows, show -instantly which of them would be readier to obey his superior? - -The Augustine friar consented. The Jesuit then turning to one of his -brothers, the friar Mark, who was waiting upon them, said, “Brother -Mark, our companions are cold; I command you, in virtue of the holy -obedience you have sworn to me, to bring here, instantly, out of the -kitchen-fire, and in your hands, some burning coals, that they may -warm themselves over your hands.” Father Mark instantly obeyed; and, -to the astonishment of the Augustine friar, brought in his hands a -supply of red burning coals, and held them to whoever chose to warm -himself; and, at the command of his superior, returned them to the -kitchen hearth. The general of the Augustine friars, with the rest of -his brotherhood, stood amazed; he looked wistfully on one of his monks, -as if he wished to command him to do the like. But the Augustine monk, -who perfectly understood him, and saw this was not a time to hesitate, -observed, “Reverend father, forbear, and do not command me to tempt -God: I am ready to fetch you fire in a chaffing-dish, but not in my -bare hands.” The triumph of the Jesuits was complete, and it is not -necessary to add, that “the _miracle_” was noised about, and that the -Augustine friars could never account for it, notwithstanding their -strict performance of the three vows! And yet here was no mystery. -According to sir James Mackintosh, “In the _Mercure de France_, there -is a very curious account of experiments made at Naples to discover the -means by which jugglers have appeared to be incombustible. They seem to -be completely discovered, and chiefly to consist in, first, gradually -habituating the skin, the mouth, throat, and stomach, to great degrees -of heat; second, in rubbing the skin with hard soap, and in covering -the tongue with hard soap, and over that with a layer of powdered -sugar. By these means, the professor at Naples is enabled to walk over -burning coals, to take into his mouth boiling oil, and to wash his -hands in melted lead. The miracles of several saints, the numerous -escapes from the fiery ordeal, and tricks now played by the Hindoo -jugglers, are thus perfectly explained; and all these prodigies may be -performed in a fortnight by any apothecary’s apprentice.” - -Other instances of endurance are merely pretended. In country places, -a conjurer sometimes appears in the streets, professing that he is -able to eat fire; and yet he only rolls together a ball of flax or -hemp, lights it, rolls round it some more of the same material, slips -it cunningly into his mouth, and breathes through it to revive the -flame; and so long as he inspires the air through the nostrils, and not -through the mouth, he suffers no injury. A performer, named Richardson, -in the seventeenth century, pretended to pour melted lead upon his -tongue; but it is probable that he used the fusible metal formed of -bismuth, tin, and lead, which melts at a low temperature, and which the -writer has seen fused on a card, and poured into the hand with impunity -by a person accustomed to handle hot substances. - -Not many years ago, a man named Chaubert professed to be incombustible; -but it has been proved that the human body is capable of bearing a very -high degree of heat. Men of unquestionable integrity have surpassed -all his wonders. Sir Charles Blagden exposed himself in a heated room -where the heat was one or two degrees above 260°, and remained eight -minutes in this situation. Eggs and a beef-steak were placed on a tin -frame, near the thermometer, and in the space of twenty minutes the -eggs were roasted quite hard, and in forty-seven minutes the steak was -not only dressed, but almost dry. Another beef-steak, similarly placed, -was rather over-done in thirty-three minutes. Chantrey, the celebrated -sculptor, accompanied by five or six friends, also entered a furnace, -and, after remaining two minutes, brought out a thermometer which stood -at 320°. Some pain was experienced in this experiment, but it placed -beyond all doubt that the human body has a remarkable power of enduring -heat. Chaubert excited much wonder by taking phosphorus into his mouth; -but, as that substance, when deprived of air, will not burn, he always -closed his lips, and retired to eject the phosphorus immediately -afterwards. - -We turn now from the resistance of heat by chemical means, to some -striking examples of its power. - -The name of the Giants’ Causeway arose, probably, from an idea of the -supernatural power, entertained in times of ignorance and superstition. -And yet it is demonstrated that vast masses of rock are to be traced -to causes strictly natural. Basalt is of very frequent occurrence -on the surface of the globe, and is frequently detected in a variety -of volcanoes, both extinct and active. The greatest mass of basalt -hitherto observed is that in the Deccan, which constitutes the -surface of many thousand square miles of that part of India. In other -instances, it occurs in horizontal tabular masses, and is columnar. -Sometimes, the basaltic columns are curved, and of this there is -a beautiful example in the island of Staffa. Now basalt is not a -crystalline substance, for as it is not capable, as all crystals are, -of cleavage in the line of its planes, or at some angle with them, it -is concretional. Its structure resembles an onion, or any bulbous root, -for, in the centre, is a solid mass, about which are others just like -the parts of the vegetable products already mentioned. These portions -of basalt are at first of an oval form, and then they gradually -become rudely hexagonal. Some non-columnar basalts show no trace of -any particular arrangement of parts, while others have a globular -structure, so that when the rock becomes much decomposed, it has the -appearance of numerous bomb-shells and cannon-balls cemented together. - -Here, then, we have an extraordinary effect of heat. Mr. Gregory Watt -took seven hundred weight of the substance named rowley rag, kept it in -fusion more than six hours, and cooled it so gradually, that eight days -elapsed before it was taken from the furnace. The shape of the mass was -uneven and while the thinner portion was, in consequence of more rapid -cooling, vitreous, the thicker was stony; the one state passing into -the other. Numerous spheroids were also formed, some being two inches -in diameter. They were radiated with distinct fibres, the latter also -forming concentric coats, when circumstances were favourable to such -an arrangement. When the temperature had been sufficiently continued, -the centres of the spheroids became compacted before they had attained -the diameter of half-an-inch. When two spheroids came into contact, no -penetration ensued; but the two bodies became mutually compressed and -separated by a plane, well defined, and invested with a rusty colour. -When several met, they formed prisms. In reasoning on these facts, Mr. -G. Watt observes: “In a stratum composed of an indefinite number in -superficial extent, but only one in height, of impenetrable spheroids, -if their peripheries should come in contact in the same plane, it seems -obvious that their mutual action would form them into hexagons; and if -these were resisted below, and there was no opposing cause above them, -it seems equally clear that they would extend their dimensions upwards, -and thus form hexagonal prisms, whose length might be indefinitely -greater than their diameters.” - -That the great power in operation in the formation of basaltic columns -is heat, appears to be indisputable. There is, for example, a bed of -sandstone in furnaces for smelting metals, and, in the course of time, -it requires to be repaired. Portions, taken out, on such occasions, -have been found to have a columnar appearance: the heat of the furnace -having changed the form of the substance, not by any fusion of its -parts, but by a peculiar arrangement of them, thus giving them the -specified figure. - -Another astonishing result of this natural power is seen in the -eruption of a volcano. The eye of a traveller, perhaps, as it is turned -towards Vesuvius, discerns a dark red spot on the mountain’s side, -issuing from an orifice near to the crater. But soon, that deep burning -light apparently spreads out, or flows on into a long wide stream, -descends the entire length of the great cone, and reaches to the plain -below. But, as the first light was seen through and behind the mists -which follow the departure of the sun, so now its extended influence is -only rendered visible by the increasing gloom. But, as the eye is still -attracted towards this remarkable eminence, a pillar of fire is seen -rising up from the crater high into the air; while innumerable lights -appear, like so many natural fire-works rushing upwards, and falling in -a glowing shower, on the outer sides of the crater, which soon present -the aspect of a heap of fire. Large and red-hot stones are flung forth -from time to time, from the same troubled source, to fall, roll down -the sides of the crater, and lose their brightness. - -Mountains that are liable to volcanic action, before an eruption takes -place, are generally the most fertile, and the most attractive of all -eminences. Illustrations of this remark are found upon a magnificent -scale in Mexico; and, among the rest, that of Jorullo, in the extensive -intendency of Valladolid, lying on the west coast of America, between -the intendencies of Mexico and Guadalaxara, (pronounced Quadalahàra.) -Mechoacan, a part of it, is an expanse of table-land which enjoys a -fine and temperate climate, and is intersected with hills and charming -valleys, presenting an appearance unusual in the torrid zone, of -extensive and well-watered meadows. On the twenty-ninth of September, -1759, from the centre of a thousand burning cones was thrown up the -volcano of Jorullo; a mountain of scoriæ and ashes, seventeen hundred -feet high, in an extensive plain, and covered with most luxuriant -vegetation. When plains, hills, and valleys, are thus spoken of, the -reader should remember, that all of them are reared upon the lofty -chain of the Andes, for volcanic eruptions only, so far as we know, -take place in mountainous regions. - -But some of the most remarkable examples are to be met with in the -Spice Islands, or Moluccas. The pointed and conical mountains, which -characterize this group of islands, exhibit great fertility. Nothing -can surpass the richness of vegetation with which their sides are -covered, nor the balmy healthfulness of the breezes that encircle -round them, to temper the heats of the sultry zone. But the nature of -these mountains is closely connected with volcanic action; so that, -in fearful apprehension, we might look at each one of these beautiful -peaks, as if it were destined one day to be torn from its station and -thrown into the sea. - -“I will stretch out mine hand upon thee, and roll thee down from the -rocks, and will make thee a burnt mountain,” was one of the Divine -denunciations against Babylon, Jer. li. 25. Judgment has not thus -fallen on Ternate, one of the most lovely of the cluster just adverted -to; but the top of the highest rock has been torn off, and hurled from -a height of five or six thousand feet, into the sea. A huge gap was -left behind, which seemed to a traveller when standing on the edge, -like a deep valley, or ravine, betwixt two mountains. As the portion -rent away in this tremendous struggle was split into fragments of -various sizes, there is, besides, a vast pile at the water’s edge, -a road, or causeway, strewed with half-vitrified pieces of rock and -cinders, from the margin of the rift to the declivity of the mountain; -so that the island, so lovely under other aspects, presents on this -side a fearful scene of desolation. What a striking comment on the -words, “I will make thee a burnt mountain;”--I will tear off thy -summit, shiver it into ten thousand pieces, and therewith overwhelm and -destroy the natural verdure of thy sides, which once looked so goodly -and so fair! Some time in March, 1839, another eruption took place -at Ternate; so that, long before these ejected matters could yield -to the decomposing action of the atmosphere, and afford a soil for -vegetable growth, another layer, of equally forlorn and broken kind, -was scattered over them. - -In connexion with these astounding phenomena, it may be remarked that -an apparatus has recently been contrived called the fire-annihilator, -the origin of which is not a little curious. It is said that the -inventor observed that the smoke hovering over a burning mountain -diminished its fury, and that, on analysing it and combining similar -elements, he discovered the means of extinguishing fires, and thus -of arresting at the outset what might otherwise prove a tremendous -calamity. - -Many processes of art, like the operations of nature, are dependent -on heat. By this agent, the most obdurate masses soften like wax, and -yield to the forms which are demanded by our wants and our tastes; and -compounds, knit together by stubborn affinities, are resolved by it -into their original elements. The baron Von Tchivanhausen constructed -a burning mirror in 1687, five feet three inches in breadth, and -reflecting the solar rays with extraordinary power. When exposed to -its force, wood took fire, and continued to burn, notwithstanding -a most violent wind; and water, contained in an earthen vessel, -quickly boiled, so that eggs were cooked, and the liquid soon after -evaporated. Copper and silver were fused in a few minutes, and slate -was transformed into a kind of black glass, which, when held by a pair -of pincers, could be drawn out into filaments. This mirror afterwards -came into the possession of the king of France, and was kept in the -Jardins du Roi. Other mirrors have been formed of different substances. -At the Polytechnic Institution, some years ago, there were two metallic -discs placed at the extreme ends of the great hall, and when a vessel -of burning coals was held in the focus of one, and a piece of meat in -the focus of the other, the latter was cooked with marvellous rapidity -by a simple and apparently an unimportant instrument. - -The blow-pipe has immense power. Two volumes of hydrogen, and one -of oxygen gas, when pure, form a mixture which produces in this -instrument intense heat, and most substances may be fused by the flame. -In the experiments of Dr. E. Clarke, lime, strontion, and alumine, -yielded to its powers. The alkalis were fused and volatilized almost -the instant they came into contact with the flame: and rock crystal -became a transparent glass full of bubbles. Opal changed into a pearly -white enamel, and flint into one that was frothy. Blue sapphire was -melted; and Peruvian enamel changed into a transparent and colourless -glass. Lapis lazuli fused into transparent glass, with a slight tinge -of green. Iceland spar, next in difficulty, as to fusion, to its -native magnesia, melted at last into a limpid glass, giving out an -amethyst-coloured flame. Diamond first became opaque, and was then -gradually volatilized. Gold, mixed with borax as a flux, was fused; -platina wire melted the instant it was brought into contact with the -flame, and ran down in drops; brass wire burned with a green flame; and -iron wire with brilliant sparks. - -At a recent meeting of the British Association, Dr. Faraday exhibited -some diamonds, which he had received from M. Dumas, which had, by the -action of intense heat, been converted into coke. In one case, the -heat of the flame of oxide of carbon and oxygen had been used; in -another, the oxyhydrogen flame; and, in the third, the galvanic arc of -flame from a Bunsen battery of one hundred pairs. In the last case, -the diamond was perfectly converted into a piece of coke; and, in the -others, the fusion and carbonaceous formation were evident. Specimens -in which the character of graphite was taken by the diamond were also -shown. The electrical characters of these diamonds were stated also -to have been changed, the diamond being an insulator, while coke is a -conductor. - -A rope, nearly three miles long, was recently lying on the verge of -the borough of Gateshead, which was shortly before a stone in the -bowels of the earth. Smelted, the stone yielded iron. The iron was -converted into wire. The wire was brought to the wire-rope manufactory -of Messrs. R. S. Newall and Co., at the Teams, near Gateshead, and -there twisted into a line 4,660 yards long. It was supposed to be the -stoutest rope of the kind that was ever made. It weighs twenty tons, -five hundredweights, and cost the purchasers upwards of £1,134. It was -intended for the incline on the Edinburgh and Glasgow Railway, near the -latter city. A rope of hemp of equal strength would weigh thirty-three -tons and-a-half, and cost about three hundred pounds more. It would -also entail greater expense while in operation, (owing to its greater -weight,) and would sooner wear out. - -“The process,” says the _Pharmaceutical Journal_, “for purifying and -agglomerating caoutchouc, preparatory to its being cut into sheets, -and also for effecting the latter operation, are due to the ingenuity -of M. Sievier. The general principle is this:--Pieces of caoutchouc, -mixed, as they are in their native state, with various impurities, -are put into a strong metallic drum, through which passes an axle, -studded with chisel-shaped teeth. The interior of the drum is supplied -with similar ones, but stationary. Therefore, when the axle is made to -revolve, the caoutchouc becomes subjected to a most powerful rending -and kneading motion, in the course of which sufficient heat is evolved, -notwithstanding a current of cold water continually passes through the -drum, to agglutinate the material into a compact mass. This mass is -now subjected to the pressure of a powerful screw apparatus, and made -to assume the form of a cuboid, from which sheets of caoutchouc may be -eventually cut by the rapid vibratory action of a knife, kept moistened -with water. As solvents for caoutchouc, equal parts of coal naptha and -turpentine are commonly used; and, of late, the bisulphuret of carbon -has been much employed.” - -Mr. J. Wishaw has lately shown the advantages arising from the -application of currents of heated air to the following purposes: -seasoning timber, generally; preserving timber, purifying feathers, -blankets, clothing, etc.; drying coffee, roasting coffee, japanning -leather for table-covers, and other purposes; drying silks, drying -yarn, drying distillers’ tuns, drying papier-máché, and drying -vulcanized india-rubber. The process has also been successfully tested -for drying loaf-sugar, drying printing-paper, or setting the ink, to -enable books to be bound more quickly than usual; drying starch, and -converting it into dextine, or British gum; and preserving meat. It has -been also stated, that sixty suits of clothes, which had belonged to -persons who had died of the plague in Syria, had been subject to the -process of purification, at a temperature of about 240°, and afterwards -worn by sixty persons; not one of whom ever gave the slightest symptom -of being affected by the malady. In describing these processes, the -writer referred to the mode adopted by the North American Indians for -preserving the meat of the buffalo--that of drying it in the sun; -and stated that heated currents had been applied successfully. The -discovery seems highly important for shipping; as, instead of sailors -consuming salted provisions from one month’s end to another, they might -thus have an occasional supply of fresh meat. Meat treated in this way -occupies much less space, too, and is much lighter in weight. It is -believed that the juices of the meat contain about seven-eighths of -watery moisture: this, the current of heated air removes, leaving the -albumen and all the flavour and nutrition behind. - -That in the production of steam heat is of incalculable value, there -needs no proof. We derive special advantage from it, in the results -of that machinery which astonish us by their magnitude, as well as by -their elegance. Steam wafts us, in a few hours, from one extremity of -the land to the other, and renders America, once called the New World, -accessible in a few days. - -Another instance of its application, often overlooked, is thus -stated in the _Quarterly Review_:--“That extraordinary line of steam -communication between England and her eastern possessions, (somewhat -oddly called the _overland_ journey,) of which Australia and New -Zealand will hereafter form the extreme branches. The creation of the -last twelve years, this communication has already acquired a sort of -maturity of speed and exactness, notwithstanding the enormous distances -traversed, and the changes necessary in transit from sea to sea. The -Anglo-Indian mail in its two sections, and including passengers and -correspondence, possesses a sort of individuality as the greatest -and most singular line of intercourse on the globe. Two of the first -nations of Europe, France and Austria, struggle for the privilege of -carrying this mail across their territories. Traversing the length -of the Mediterranean, it is received on the waters of the ancient -Nile--Cairo and the Pyramids are passed in its onward course--the -desert is traversed with a speed which mocks the old cavalcades of -camels and loitering Arabs--it is re-embarked on the Red Sea, near a -spot sacred in scriptural history--the promontory projecting from the -heights of Mount Sinai, the shores of Mecca and Medina are passed in -its rapid course down this great gulf--it emerges through the straits -of Babelmandel into the Indian seas--to be distributed thence by -different lines to all the great centres of Indian government and -commerce, as well as to our more remote dependencies in the straits of -Malacca and the Chinese seas. There is a certain majesty in the simple -outline of a route like this, traversing the most ancient seats of -empire, and what we are taught to regard as among the earliest abodes -of man--and now ministering to the connexion of England with that great -sovereignty she has conquered, or created, in the east; more wonderful, -with one exception, than any of the empires of antiquity; and, -perchance, also, more important to the general destinies of mankind.” - - - - -CHAPTER VIII. - - The magic swan--Properties of the magnet--The mariners’ - compass--The process of magnetizing--The dip of the - needle--Magnetic properties in various substances. - - -A magician of former days had a figure of a swan, which floated on a -vessel of water, round the rim of which were placed the twenty-four -letters of the alphabet. Addressing the spectators, he was accustomed -to ask for a name to be given him, and it was correctly spelt by the -swan, as it moved from one letter to another till it had indicated -the whole. A little philosophy, in this instance, produced repeatedly -great astonishment. A magnetic bar was placed in the swan, and the -performer had a powerful magnet concealed in his own dress, and the -swan, of course, followed his motions. Thus, if he wanted the swan to -spell “Selina,” he moved first to S, then to E, and so on, through -the successive letters of that name, till the word was spelt. On one -occasion, however, the performer was not a little disconcerted--the -swan stopped in its course and refused to move. Again and again the -effort was made, but it was utterly in vain; the magician could only -acknowledge that some person was in the room aware of his secret, and -counteracting his movements. Sir Francis Blake Delaval avowed himself -to be the person: he produced a magnet which he had used on facing the -performer as he stood at the table; the swan was, therefore, placed -between two attractive instruments, and, of course, remained immovable. - -A magnet may be described as a piece of iron, which possesses the -property of turning towards the poles of the earth. This extraordinary -quality does not necessarily belong to all specimens of iron in its -native state, but only to one kind or variety called the oxide, on -account of its union with oxygen in a particular condition. The -possession of a special quality in this ore of iron was not discovered -from its polarity, or power of turning to the poles of the earth, but -from its property of attracting small pieces of iron, which are not -magnetic; and hence it was called the loadstone. - -There are many uses to which the magnet has been applied, and there -is a probability of its being much more extensively employed; but its -most important application is in the construction of the mariners’ -compass, which renders it possible freely to traverse the ocean. There -has been some controversy as to the discovery of the directive power -of the magnet, and the invention of the compass. It was once supposed -to have been unknown until about the thirteenth century, but it is -now generally acknowledged that the Chinese were acquainted with the -compass at least eleven hundred and fourteen years before the birth -of Christ. At the commencement of the thirteenth century, it was -certainly in use in Europe; for cardinal de Vitty mentions it with some -particularity, in a work entitled “The History of the East,” where he -says, “The iron needle, after contact with the loadstone, constantly -turns to the north star, which, as the axis of the firmament, remains -immovable, while the others revolve; and hence it is essentially -necessary to those navigating on the ocean.” This shows that the -compass was not invented in Europe, as commonly believed, by Gioia, -a pilot, and a native of Pasitano, a small village, situated near -Amalfi, who lived about the end of the thirteenth century, but, by -him, it appears to have been made fully available for the purposes of -navigation. - -As used by sailors in the Mediterranean at that period, it was a very -uncertain guide; for the compass then consisted of a magnetic needle -attached to two straws on a piece of cork, floating on water in a -basin, or glass vase. Gioia, therefore, placed the magnetic needle -upon a pivot, so that it was free to move in any direction, and thus -prevented that inconvenience and inaccuracy of observation which must -have resulted from the motion of the needle floating on water, agitated -by the tossing of the vessel. The magnetic needle was afterwards -attached to a card divided into thirty-two points, called the _rose -des vents_, so that the direction in which a vessel was sailing -could be minutely determined, and the means of ascertaining it was no -longer dependent on the accuracy of the eye in measuring distances. -The mariners’ compass is still constructed in the same manner, but -is inclosed in a box with a glass cover, and is thus preserved from -the influence of the wind. Another improvement has been made in so -suspending the box that, however the vessel may be pitched by the -waves, and rolled from side to side, the needle remains in a horizontal -position, and gives accurate indications of the direction in which the -vessel is sailing. - -In addition to the properties already mentioned, the loadstone has the -power of communicating its virtues to any piece of hard iron or steel, -and that, without diminution of strength; so that, if but one piece -had been discovered, it would have been sufficient for the production -of all the magnets that have ever been formed by man. Other means may -be adopted of accomplishing this purpose. Take a bar of iron, and, -striking it several times with a hammer, it will become magnetic. This -experiment may be performed with a common poker. The magnetism thus -communicated to a steel bar will be much increased in power, if it be -supported on another bar during the process of hammering. - -Gay Lussac, a French chemist of great celebrity, discovered a method -of making magnets by a process so simple, that it may, in all cases, -be applied successfully. Take a piece of thin iron wire and suspend -it in a vertical position. The earth itself being a magnet, induces a -magnetic power in the wire. To render this permanent, twist the wire -till it breaks, and a magnet will be obtained. - -Mrs. Somerville, well known for her excellent philosophical works, -made some experiments on the effect of solar light in the production -of permanent magnetism. If half of a small sewing needle be covered -with paper, and the exposed part be placed in the violet or indigo ray, -magnetism will be induced, and the same effect will be produced in a -smaller degree by the blue and green. - -To describe but one more mode; magnets are readily made by what is -called the single touch, and this is perhaps the most simple and most -effective way of proceeding. Place the steel bar to be magnetized on -a table, or any other convenient place, and, as nearly as possible, -north and south, which position is called by philosophers, the magnetic -meridian. This being done, draw over it perpendicularly a strong -magnet. In this operation, it is necessary to begin at one end of the -bar, and draw the magnet over its entire length, and then again in the -same direction. It must not be drawn backward and forward, for the -power communicated in one direction, would be destroyed by an opposite -motion. - -The following experiments are very instructive:--Suspend a magnetic -needle by a silk cord, so that it will hang in a horizontal position. -Then bring it over the centre of a large magnet lying upon a table, -and it will still retain its position; but, as it is brought near to -either end, it will be bent downwards, and, at the extremities, will -be vertical. This experiment illustrates what is called the dip of -the magnet. On the equator of the earth, the needle is horizontal, -or nearly so, but as it is brought near the poles it dips, and over -either magnetic pole would be vertical. The reason of this is evident -from the former experiment: at the equator, each pole of the needle is -attracted in an equal degree by the north and south poles of the earth; -but, if we proceed northward, the north pole of the magnet will be more -attracted than the south, and point towards it until at last it becomes -vertical. The poles of the earth’s rotation, that is, the points which -would form the terminations of its axis, did it revolve on one, are -not the magnetic poles; nor is the equator of the earth the magnetic -equator. They do not, however, greatly vary. - -Take, also, a bar magnet, and, placing it upon a table, cover it with a -sheet of writing-paper. Then sprinkle upon it some fine iron filings, -and they will arrange themselves in very beautiful curves round the -magnet, showing, as it is supposed, the circulation of the magnetic -fluid. From this experiment, we learn that the magnetic power is -greatest at the poles; and this is true in reference to the magnetism -of the earth, which increases in power from the magnetic equator to -the magnetic poles of the earth, as determined by a great variety -of interesting and delicate experiments. Sir Graves C. Haughton has -communicated a paper to the June number of Brewster’s _Philosophical -Magazine_, entitled “Experiments proving the common nature of -Magnetism, Cohesion, Adhesion, and Viscosity.” - -This paper contains two separate sets of experiments, the first of -which relates to the attraction the magnetic needle has for various -mineral, vegetable, and animal substances: and it is not a little -remarkable that antimony and bismuth, as well as copper, tin, and -cadmium, are, in these experiments, shown to have attractive powers -for the magnetic needle; though, in those made by Dr. Faraday, he has -ranged them amongst the class of dia-magnetics, that is, of those that -exhibited repulsion. Arsenic, too, which he found so intractable, -was made, in the present experiments, to assume the real magnetic -character, that is to say, the power of attracting and repelling, by -being kept for a short time in contact with a bar magnet. Iodine, -likewise, was found, on bringing it near the needle, to be able to -attract it. - -In most of these experiments, the needle was made to attach itself to -the substances by being forced towards them by a magnet, which was -gently withdrawn after contact was so effected. In this way, and by a -reference to the degrees of the compass traversed by the needle, a hair -of the head, or a spark of diamond, can be accurately measured. The -strength of the needle in its movement on a pivot was ascertained by -azimuths, of which a detailed account is given. - -The remainder of the memoir, which is contained in a supplementary -number of the Magazine, is devoted to a detail of about five hundred -experiments, in which non-ferruginous needles were made, by a -modification of the magnetic needle, of which they formed a portion, -to attach themselves to the same substances as in the preceding -experiments. Thus, for instance, needles of most of the remarkable -metals, as well as of glass, were found to have a strong affinity -for nearly every kind of substance, whether mineral, vegetable, or -animal, if its density was greater than that of cork or charcoal. -Brass surpassed all the metals in its power of attraction, and, what -is most remarkable, the magnetic needle was the lowest of all in the -scale, showing not much more than one-third of the attractive energy -of soft iron. Every substance of a crystalline or vitreous character -exhibited remarkable magnetic properties, and this could not be -mistaken, as it might be heightened at pleasure by contact with either -pole of a powerful magnet. Towards the close of the experiments, the -curious discovery was made, that needles of ivory, mother-of-pearl, -tortoise-shell, horn, etc., were singularly magnetic, and this is -traced to the albumen and gelatine they contained; and the inference -is drawn, from this and other facts, that the cohesive, adhesive, and -viscous properties of bodies are owing to real magnetic qualities, -and that, by drying, albuminous, gelatinous, and glutinous fluids -constitute various kinds of glass, which view is supported by what -takes place with the gelatinous hydrate of silicium. - -“The preceding experiments,” says the writer, “include a vast variety -of substances in the mineral, vegetable, and animal kingdoms, that -exhibit such strong attractive affinities for one another, that, -however much they may differ in their external appearances, and in -their very natures, they are bound together by common bonds that -connect them all into a single family; for we find the metal attaching -itself to crystalline, animal, and vegetable substances; and, again, -the crystal, whether we call it by the name of diamond, salt, or -sugar-candy, connecting itself readily to metallic, animal, and -vegetable bodies. In a similar way, animal bodies attach themselves to -those that are mineral and vegetable; and, to complete the circle, the -vegetable kingdom, by its woods, its gums, its lac, and its resins, is -connected with them all.” - - - - -CHAPTER IX. - - The electrical kite--Candles magically lighted--St. Elmo’s - fire--The chronoscope--The electric clock--The electric - telegraph--Sub-marine telegraphs--The overruling providence of - God. - - -In the auto-biographical memoirs of sir John Barrow, lately published, -he says, when describing some of the employments of his youth: “I had -fallen in with an account of Benjamin Franklin’s electrical kite, and a -kite being a very common object with school-boys, and a string steeped -in salt-water with a glass-handle to it not difficult to be had, I -speedily flew my kite, and obtained abundance of sparks (like those -obtained from an electrical machine). An old woman, curious to see -what I was about, was too tempting an opportunity to not to give her a -shock, which so frightened her, that she spread abroad in the village -that I was no better than I should be, for that I was drawing down fire -from heaven. The alarm ran through the village, and my poor mother -entreated me to lay aside my kite.” - -It was recently announced by a professor of magic, that several hundred -candles would be lighted by one pistol shot. Accordingly, the stage -appeared in partial darkness, but, through the gloom, ranges of candles -might be indistinctly perceived at different heights from the floor; -and, in a minute or two, the performer was seen to enter and discharge -a pistol, when all the candles were instantly ignited, and the array -of magical instruments appeared strongly illuminated, ready to be -employed in the subsequent exploits--an effect always followed by -enthusiastic acclamations. And yet there is no difficulty in explaining -this prodigy. Candles, carefully prepared to ignite readily, might have -above them an arrangement of wires, with the point of a wire just over -each wick, and the whole being connected with an electrical battery, -they could be ignited instantly, at a moment’s notice. The instant of -the performer’s entering, might be the signal for the discharge of the -battery by others, and the report of the pistol would prevent any sound -being heard on the removal of the wires, which the previous darkness -had effectually concealed. - -Lord Napier says, that when he was in the Mediterranean, some years -ago, and during an awful thunderstorm, he was retiring to rest, when -he heard suddenly a cry, from those aloft, of “St. Elmo and St. Anne!” -which induced him again to go on deck. On observing the appearance of -the masts, the maintop-gallant-mast-head was completely enveloped in -a blaze of pale phosphoric light; the other mast-heads presented a -similar appearance; the flame preserving its intensity for eight or -ten minutes, and then gradually becoming fainter. Yet this appearance, -which superstition declared to be miraculous, was only electrical; for, -while the solar heat is converting into vapour the water and moisture -of the earth, electricity is freely disengaged. “The clouds which -this power forms are in different electrical conditions, though the -electricity of the atmosphere, when serene, is invariably the same. -Hence the descent of clouds towards the earth, their mutual approach, -the force of atmospherical currents, and the ever-varying agencies of -heat and cold convert the aërial envelope of the globe into a complete -electrical apparatus; spontaneously exhibiting, in a variety of forms, -the play of the conflict of its antagonist powers. At the close of -a sultry day, and above level plains, the opposite electricities of -the earth and the air effect their re-union in noiseless flashes of -lightning, illuminating, as it were, in far-spread sheets, the whole -circuit of the horizon, and the entire canopy of the clouds. At other -times, the same elements light up the arctic constellations with their -restless wildfires--now diffusing their phosphoric flame, and flitting -around in fitful gleams, and now shooting up their auroral columns, -advancing, retreating, and contending, as if in mimicry of mortal -strife.”[I] - -That electricity and magnetism are identical, is evident from many -experiments. If a sewing-needle be placed in a wire, twisted in that -form called a helix, and a shock of electricity be then passed through -it, from a Leyden jar, the needle will be magnetized. The form of the -wire, and the manner of placing the needle, are shown in the figure. - -[Illustration] - -[Illustration] - -Again, if M be a piece of soft iron, of a horse-shoe shape, and -surrounded with copper-wire covered with a non-conducting substance, it -will become powerfully magnetic on connecting the ends of the wire with -a galvanic battery. If this be only of a moderate size, and a keeper, -I, be attached to M, it will suspend W, representing a very heavy -weight. - -Mr. Barlow has so arranged a globe, as to identify the dip of the -needle with electricity, a current of which appears to be always -passing round the earth. At G, in the opposite diagram, is a globe -having a wire covered with silk, coiled entirely over it, from one -pole, round and round to the other. The ends of this wire dip into two -cups, P and N, connected with the poles of a galvanic battery. When the -current passes from this, the small and delicately balanced magnets, -_m_, will show polarity, and dip, just the same as in the earth itself. - -[Illustration] - -Mr. Bain’s electric clock is a remarkable contrivance. Nothing can be -more satisfactory or complete. Allowing for wear and tear of materials -from friction, and the oxidating influence of the atmosphere, the -perpetual motion appears to be realized. As long as the electricity -of the earth continues, or, in other words, as long as the laws of -nature last, so long will Mr. Bain’s clock continue its oscillations, -and register the transit of time. The pendulum conducts, and is the -treasury of that power, and two simple wheels and their attachments, -with the dead escapement, complete the machine. By an ingenious -provision, Mr. Bain’s electric clock at the manufactory extinguishes -the gas-light which illuminates its dial, at half-past twelve precisely. - -Mr. Bain has invented and patented another kind of electric clock, -the clock being in Glasgow, and the pendulum in Edinburgh. By means -of the electric telegraph along the railway, constructed by Mr. Bain, -he intimated his wish that the pendulum at the other end of the line -should be put in motion. The clock was placed in the station-house -in Glasgow, the pendulum belonging to it in the station-house at -Edinburgh, the two being forty-six miles apart. They were joined by -means of the wire of the telegraph, in such a manner as that, by a -current of electricity, the machinery of the clock in Glasgow was -made to move correctly, according to the vibrations of the electrical -pendulum in Edinburgh. Thus, in like manner, were England and Scotland -united in one great chronometrical alliance, a single electrical -pendulum of this description, placed in the Observatory at Greenwich, -would give the astronomical time correctly throughout the country. - -[Illustration] - -The electric telegraph may be said to have originated in a trivial -incident. It occurred to professor Oersted, of Copenhagen, to try the -effect of a galvanic current on the needle of the compass. He found it, -on making the experiment, deflected, that is, turned aside from its -usual bearing of due north and south. Professor Wheatstone applied this -result very ingeniously. He arranged a series of needles, mounted like -that of the compass, and found that he could turn any of these aside by -galvanic currents, while the others remained at rest. It was evident, -therefore, that if each needle were supposed to denote a letter, any -letters might thus be indicated; and, consequently, if an arrangement -of needles standing for so many letters, respectively, were placed -at the distance of fifty or a hundred miles, and any of them were -acted on by means of wires traversing the distance, a message could be -despatched at one end of the line, and read off at the other from the -deflected needles, by any person duly acquainted with the arrangement. -A similar set of needles at the opposite end, would enable him, as -certainly, to transmit a reply. - -The engraving represents the front of the telegraph, exhibiting the -index, as it is denominated. The wires, which are suspended through -the length of the line, are attached at either end to the telegraphic -instruments, a branch wire being fastened to a large metallic surface, -imbedded in the earth for completing the electric current. When at -rest, the handles are down, and the pointers remain in their vertical -position. The signals are given by two magnetic needles, or pointers, -each suspended vertically on an axis passing through the dial, and, -behind, another pointer is fixed on each corresponding axis. A portion -of the conducting wire, many yards in length, is coiled round the -galvanometer frame, in which the magnet moves, so as to subject the -magnet to the multiplied deflecting force of the electric current. - -[Illustration] - -The battery is the motive power of the machine, occupying the same -relative position to it, as the boiler does to the locomotive; for, -though it does not produce any immediate result on the works, yet the -part it performs in the undertaking is essential. While travelling, -Mr. Cooke found great inconvenience to result from the spilling of the -acid solution used in Smee’s batteries; and, from this, he was led to -consider if the substitution of fine white Shanklin sand, saturated -with the diluted acid, would not avoid this difficulty. Experiments -having confirmed the truth of his conjecture, the change was -permanently arranged, and it was subsequently found so advantageous, -that the same method was tried in the permanent batteries, and, in like -manner, the result has proved satisfactory. At present, the generator -resembles, in its principal features, the one known as Wollaston’s -trough; and it is so arranged, that the series of plates of copper and -amalgamated zinc, arranged for the evolution of the electric fluid, -admit of being placed in a corresponding series of cells, filled with -well-washed and dry sand. The _United Service Gazette_ states, that -all that is necessary in order to use the instrument is, slightly to -moisten the sand with diluted sulphuric acid. - -The conducting wires are, at their ends, of less diameter, and are so -arranged as to form the coiled magnets. Those in the diagram are seen -in connexion with the works; the electric current, taking the course -indicated by the arrows, occasions the deflection of the needle. - -The following engraving represents the interior of the machine, and -shows the means by which the magnet is connected with the electric -current. The parts lettered _a_ are the key-shafts, which, on being -turned to the right or left by a handle, pushes one of the springs, -_c_, from its point of contact, _d_, and, by changing the course of the -electric current, produces a corresponding change in the position of -the needle. - -[Illustration] - -In making a communication to the person stationed at the point where -he wishes the information to be received, the operator, by turning -the handle to the right or left, breaks the electric current; then, -pressing the wire against pins connected with the battery-poles, -the coils of wire receive their full deflective force, and attract -the magnetic needles to either side, according to the course of the -current. Thus, if the stream of electricity passes into the coil on -the right, the upper part of the needle will be attracted towards it; -if the stream passes into the coil on the left, then the needle will, -in like manner, be attracted to it; thus, giving the whole motion -necessary to the pointers. The time which elapses between the moving -of the handles and the effect on the pointers, is imperceptible, -though we must believe that it really follows it. The dial is divided -into five circles, each containing a number of letters, or signs. The -left-hand needle moving to the left twice, gives _a_; three times, _b_; -once to the right and once to the left, _c_; once to the left and once -to the right, _d_; once to the right, _e_; twice, _f_; three times, -_g_. The order is then taken up by the right-hand needle moving once -to the left for _h_; twice for _i_; three times for _k_; once to the -right and once to the left for _l_; once to the left, and once to the -right, for _m_; once to the right for _n_; twice for _o_; and three -times for _p_. The remaining signs are made by two needles working -conjointly, so that the simultaneous movement of the _two_, once to the -left, indicates _r_; twice for _s_; three times for _t_; once to the -right, and once to the left, for _u_; once to the right for _w_; twice -for _x_; and three times for _y_. At the end of every word given, the -left-hand needle, moving once to the right, to the cross, indicates -that the word is completed. If the receiver understands the word, he -signifies it by moving the same pointer twice to the left, and twice to -the right, which means _yes_; if the communication is not understood, -then the needle points twice to the right, and twice to the left, -which indicates _no_. The original word is then repeated; if figures -are wanted, the motions for each letter are doubled. Previously to -giving a signal, the attention of the operator is called by the ringing -of a bell, which is accomplished by an apparatus as simple as it is -ingenious.[J] - -That communications by this means may often be of great importance, -is evident, from many newspaper paragraphs. The following appeared -in the early part of 1847: “On Friday evening the following message -was received at the Chesterfield station: ‘Tell Derby, a Mr. H. has -escaped from the York Asylum, and is supposed to have fire-arms about -his person. Search all the trains from York. He is tall, has a crooked -nose, and has a green coat with pockets at the side. Tell the police to -look out.’ To this message another succeeded from Leeds: ‘He is caught -at Leeds; they have him quite secure.’” - -An establishment has lately been opened near the Bank of England, in -which telegraphic intelligence may be despatched, or received, in all -the principal towns of our country. The difficulties which have existed -in reference to sub-marine telegraphs appear to have been overcome; -for the time occupied from the commencement of carrying the telegraph -across Portsmouth harbour, and transmitting signals, does not occupy -a quarter-of-an-hour. The telegraph, which has the appearance of an -ordinary rope, is coiled into one of the dockyard boats, one end of -it being made fast on shore; and, as the boat is pulled across, the -telegraphic rope is gradually paid out over the stern, its superior -gravity causing it to sink to the bottom immediately. The telegraph -consists of but this line; and, unlike those along the various -railways, requires no return wires to perfect the circuit. The electric -fluid is transmitted from the batteries in the dockyard, through the -submersed insulated wire to the opposite shore; the fluid returning to -the negative pole through the water without the aid of any metallic -conductor, except a short piece of wire thrown over the dockyard -parapet into the water, and connecting it with the batteries. The -fact of the water acting as a ready return conductor, is established -beyond question. In 1842, Mr. Snow Harris, when proving the efficiency -of his lightning-conductors in his experiments from this dockyard -to the Orestes, exemplified that water would serve to complete the -electric circuit. On that occasion, the distance traversed by the -return current through the water was but trifling compared with the -space accomplished in the present instance. The batteries used are -Smee’s; and a very delicate and accurate galvanic detector, invented by -Mr. Hay, the chemical lecturer of the dockyard, has also been brought -into requisition. Independent of the simplicity of this sub-marine -telegraph, it has an advantage which even the telegraphs on land do not -possess--in the event of accident, it can be replaced in ten minutes. - -At the last meeting of the British Association, the chairman, sir R. -H. Inglis, thus adverted to the progress of the electric telegraph, -from a report presented to the Legislative Council and Assembly of New -Brunswick, relative to a project for constructing a railway, and with -it a line of electro-magnetic telegraph, from Halifax to Quebec:-- - -“The system is daily extending. It was, however, in the United States -of America that it was first adopted on a great scale, by professor -Morse, in 1844; and it is there that it is now already developed most -extensively. Lines for above thirteen hundred miles are in action, and -connect those states with Her Majesty’s Canadian provinces; and it is -in a course of development so rapid that, in the words of the report -of Mr. Wilkinson to my distinguished friend, his excellency sir W. E. -Colebrook, the governor of New Brunswick, ‘no schedule of telegraphic -lines can now be relied upon for a month in succession, as hundreds -of miles may be added in that space of time. So easy an attainment -does such a result appear to be, and so lively is the interest felt -in its accomplishment, that it is scarcely doubtful that the whole -of the populous parts of the United States will, within two or three -years, be covered with a net-work, like a spider’s web, suspending its -principal threads upon important points, along the sea-board of the -Atlantic on one side, and upon similar points along the lake frontier -on the other.’ I am indebted to the same report for another fact, -which I think the association will regard with equal interest:--‘The -confidence in the efficiency of telegraphic communication has now -become so established, that the most important commercial transactions -daily transpire, by its means, between correspondents several -hundred miles apart. Ocular evidence of this was afforded me by a -communication a few minutes old between a merchant in Toronto, and his -correspondent in New York, distant about six hundred and thirty-two -miles.’ I am anxious to call your attention to the advantages which -other classes also may experience from this mode of communication, -as I find it in the same report:--‘When the Hibernia steamer arrived -in Boston, in January, 1847, with the news of the scarcity in Great -Britain, Ireland, and other parts of Europe, and with heavy orders for -agricultural produce, the farmers in the interior of the states of New -York, informed of the state of things by the magnetic telegraph, were -thronging the streets of Albany with innumerable team-loads of grain, -almost as quickly after the arrival of the steamer at Boston, as the -news of that arrival could ordinarily have reached them. I may add -that, irrespectively of all its advantages to the general community, -the system appears to give already a fair return of interest to the -individuals or companies who have invested their capital in its -application.’” - -Professor Morse states, as the result of improvements in this -telegraph, the president’s message, entire, on the subject of the war -with Mexico, was transmitted with perfect accuracy at the rate of -ninety-nine letters per minute. His skilful operators in Washington -and Baltimore printed these characters at the rate of ninety-eight, -one hundred-and-one, one hundred-and-eleven, and one of them actually -printed one hundred-and-seventeen per minute. He must be an expert -penman who can write legibly more than one hundred letters per minute; -consequently, this mode of communication equals, or nearly equals, the -most expeditious mode of recording thought! - -Here, then, we close our series of illustrations of what is popularly -termed “Natural Magic,” but, strictly speaking, of natural laws; having -glanced at the arrangements of mechanical skill, terrestrial phenomena, -chemical wonders, and the effects of light, heat, and electricity. - -In doing so, we are reminded of the words of the psalmist:--“Thy -faithfulness is unto all generations: thou hast established the earth, -and it abideth. They continue this day according to thine ordinances: -for all are thy servants,” Psa. cxix. 90, 91. - -The constancy of nature, thus so clearly indicated, is illustrated by -ordinary experience. The child who flies his kite in the air, or places -his little ship on the surface of the stream, or gathers together the -dry leaves to make a blaze, yea, even by the food that he eats, and -by his movements in his daily walks, proves that nature has laws, and -that in them there is continuance. In after-life, the fact is still -more obvious. Every day and every night bear their explicit testimony -to it. Water finds its way to the ocean by a thousand channels; it is -raised to the higher regions of the atmosphere to be dispersed in light -and fleecy clouds over the four quarters of the globe; and, at length, -accomplishes its circuit, by falling in showers on the dry and thirsty -ground. - -“It needs, however,” says Chalmers, “the aid of philosophy to learn -how unvarying nature is in all her processes--how even her seeming -anomalies can be traced to a law that is inflexible--for what might -appear at first to be the caprices of her waywardness, are, in fact, -the evolutions of a mechanism that never changes--and that, the more -thoroughly she is sifted and put to the test by the interrogations of -the curious, the more certainly will they find that she walks by a rule -which knows no abatement; and perseveres with obedient foot-step in -that even course, from which the eye of strictest scrutiny has never -yet detected one hair’s-breadth of deviation. It is no longer doubted -by men of science, that every remaining semblance of irregularity -in the universe is due, not to the fickleness of nature, but to the -ignorance of man--that her most hidden movements are conducted with -a uniformity as rigorous as fate--that even the fitful agitations of -the weather have their law and principle--that the intensity of every -breeze, and the number of drops in every shower, and the formation of -every cloud, and all the occurring alternations of storm and sunshine, -and the endless shiftings of temperature, and those tremulous varieties -of the air which our instruments have enabled us to discover, but have -not enabled us to explain--that still, they follow each other by a -method of succession, which, though greatly more intricate, is yet as -absolute in itself as the order of the seasons, or the mathematical -courses of astronomy. This is the impression of every philosophical -mind with regard to nature, and it is strengthened by each new -accession that is made to science. The more we are acquainted with her, -the more are we led to recognise her constancy, and to view her as a -mighty, though complicated machine, all whose results are sure, and all -whose workings are invariable!” - -Who is not filled with amazement in contemplating the power of the -Almighty? Only let it be his will to set one of his agents loose, and -the earth and all that it contains shall be burned up. Well may we -tremble at the thought of that “wrath which is revealed from heaven -against all ungodliness and unrighteousness of men!” On those who -believe not, the curse of Jehovah abides. Would that men considered -how fearful a thing it is to fall into the hands of the living God! -Convinced by the Holy Spirit of their guilt and danger, they would then -fly to the only hope set before them in the gospel. - - “In vain we seek for peace with God - By methods of our own: - Jesus, there’s nothing but thy blood - Can bring us near the throne. - - The threatening of thy broken law - Impress our souls with dread; - If God his sword of vengeance draw, - It strikes our spirits dead. - - But thine illustrious Sacrifice - Hath answered these demands; - And peace, and pardon, from the skies, - Came down by Jesus’ hands.” - -It has been well remarked by Bacon, that “it is heaven on earth to -live in charity, to turn upon the poles of truth, and to rest in -Providence.” The tenderness and minuteness of the Divine care are -taught us by our Lord himself: “Fear not them which kill the body, -but are not able to kill the soul: but rather fear him which is able -to destroy both soul and body in hell. Are not two sparrows sold for -a farthing? and one of them shall not fall on the ground without your -Father. But the very hairs of your head are all numbered. Fear ye not -therefore, ye are of more value than many sparrows,” Matt. x. 28–31. - -Let, then, all who are reconciled to God through the death of his Son, -be comforted by this truth. God is not far from every one of us; the -vast and the minute are alike under his control; and he has graciously -promised that all things shall “work together for good to them that -love God, to them who are the called according to his purpose.” - -In the ignorance and superstition of the human mind, applications are -sometimes made to those who are supposed to be endowed with magical -powers. Such practices are condemned in the Scriptures as vain and -wicked. Hence, says the prophet Isaiah, “When they shall say unto -you, Seek unto them that have familiar spirits, and unto wizards that -peep, and that mutter: should not a people seek unto their God? for the -living to the dead? To the law and to the testimony: if they speak not -according to this word, it is because there is no light in them,” Isa. -viii. 19, 20. - - - - -CHAPTER X. - - Claims of the church of Rome to miraculous power--The - Franciscans and Dominicans--Tale of bishop Remi--The effect of - relics--Friars’ pretended dispossession of evil spirits--Tragical - event--Appearance of the virgin Mary to shepherds - exposed--Pretended miracle of the Greek church. - - -The Romish church, in all ages, has affirmed that to it has been -granted the power of working miracles. Its “Lives of the Saints,” a -series extended avowedly through many centuries, abound with relations -of what are described as supernatural appearances, but which we can -only trace to a very different cause. - -The two following facts are given by Luther:--“In the monastery of -Isenach stands an image, which I have seen. When a wealthy person came -thither to pray to it, (it was Mary with her child,) the child turned -away its face from the sinner to the mother, as if it refused to give -ear to his praying, and was therefore to seek mediation and help from -Mary the mother. But, if the sinner gave liberally to that monastery, -then the child turned to him again; and if he promised to give more, -then the child showed itself very friendly and loving, and stretched -out his arms over him, in the form of a cross. But this image was -made hollow within, and prepared with locks, lines, and screws; and -behind it stood a knave to move them; and so were the people mocked and -deceived, taking it to be a miracle wrought by Divine Providence!” - -“A Dutchman, making his confession to a mass-priest at Rome, promised, -by an oath, to keep secret whatever the priest would impart to him, -till he came into Germany, upon which the priest pretended to give him -a leg of the ass on which Christ rode into Jerusalem, very neatly bound -up in a silken cloth, and said, ‘This is the holy relic on which the -Lord Christ did corporeally sit, and with his sacred legs touched this -ass’s leg!’ The Dutchman was wonderfully pleased, and carried the holy -relic with him into Germany, and when he came upon the borders, boasted -of his holy possession in the presence of four others of his comrades, -at the same time showing it to them; but each of the four having also -received a leg from the priest, and promised the same secrecy, he -inquired with astonishment, ‘Whether that ass had five legs!’” - -The frauds practised by the professed ministers of religion, during -the almost universal prevalence of popery, most affectingly display -the depravity of the human heart, and the impious tendency of false -religion. Never, perhaps, was a stratagem acted more infamous than -one in Berne, in the year 1509, the following account of which drawn -from Ruchet’s “Histoire de la Réformation en Suisse,” and Höttinger’s -“Hist. Eccles. Helvet.,” is given in Mosheim’s “Eccles. Hist.” A -similar account may be found in bishop Burnet’s Travels through -France, Italy, etc. The stratagem in question was the consequence of a -rivalship between the Franciscans and Dominicans, and more especially -of their controversy concerning the immaculate conception of the virgin -Mary. The former maintained, that she was born without the blemish of -original sin; the latter asserted the contrary. The doctrine of the -Franciscans, in an age of darkness and superstition, could not but be -popular; and hence, the Dominicans lost ground from day to day. To -support the credit of their order, they resolved, at a chapter held at -Vimpsen in the year 1504, to have recourse to fictitious visions and -dreams, in which the people at that time had an easy faith; and they -determined to make Berne the scene of their operations. A person named -Jetzer, who was extremely simple, and much inclined to austerities, -and who had taken their habit as a lay-brother, was chosen as the -instrument of the delusions they were contriving. One of the four -Dominicans, who had undertaken the management of this plot, conveyed -himself secretly into Jetzer’s cell; and, about midnight, appeared to -him in a horrid figure, surrounded with howling dogs, and seemed to -blow fire from his nostrils, by the means of a box of combustibles -which he held near his mouth. In this frightful form, he approached -Jetzer’s bed, told him that he was the ghost of a Dominican, who had -been killed at Paris, as a judgment from heaven for laying aside his -monastic habit; that he was condemned to purgatory for this crime; -adding, that, by his means, he might be rescued from his misery, which -was beyond expression. This story, accompanied with horrible cries and -howlings, frightened poor Jetzer out of the little wits he had, and -engaged him to promise to do all in his power to deliver the Dominican -from his torment. Upon this, the impostor told him, that nothing but -the most extraordinary mortifications, such as the discipline of -the whip, performed during eight days by the whole monastery, and -Jetzer’s lying prostrate, in the form of one crucified, in the chapel, -during mass, could contribute to his deliverance. He added, that the -performance of these mortifications would draw down upon Jetzer the -peculiar protection of the blessed virgin; and concluded by saying that -he should appear to him again, accompanied with two other spirits. - -Morning was no sooner come, than Jetzer gave an account of this -apparition to the rest of the convent, who all unanimously advised him -to undergo the discipline that was enjoined; and every one consented -to endure his share of the task imposed. The deluded simpleton obeyed, -and was admired as a saint by the multitude that crowded about the -convent, while the four friars, that managed the imposture, magnified, -in the most pompous manner, the miracle of this apparition, in their -sermons, and in their discourse. The night after, the apparition was -renewed, with the addition of two impostors, dressed like devils; -and Jetzer’s faith was augmented by hearing from the spectre all the -secrets of his life and thoughts, which the impostors had learned -from his confessor. In this, and some subsequent scenes, (the detail -of whose enormities we shall here omit,) the impostor talked much -to Jetzer of the Dominican order, which he said was peculiarly dear -to the blessed virgin; he added, that the virgin knew herself to be -conceived in original sin; that the doctors who taught the contrary -were in purgatory; that the blessed virgin abhorred the Franciscans -for making her equal with her Son; and that the town of Berne would be -destroyed for harbouring such plagues within her walls. In one of these -apparitions, Jetzer imagined that the voice of the spectre resembled -that of the prior of the convent, and he was not mistaken; but, not -suspecting a fraud, he gave little attention to this. The prior -appeared in various forms, sometimes in that of St. Barbara, at others, -in that of St. Bernard; at length, he assumed that of the virgin Mary; -and, for that purpose clothed himself in the habits that were employed -to adorn the statue of the virgin in the great festivals; the little -images, that on these days are placed on the altars, were made use of -for angels, which, being tied to a cord that passed through a pulley -over Jetzer’s head, rose up and down, and danced about the pretended -virgin to increase the delusion. The virgin thus equipped, addressed -a long discourse to Jetzer, in which, among other things, she told -him that she was conceived in original sin, though she had remained -but a short time under that blemish. She gave him, as a miraculous -proof of her presence, a host, or consecrated wafer, which turned from -white to red in a moment: and, after various visits, in which the -greatest enormities were transacted, the virgin-prior told Jetzer, -that she would give him the most affecting and undoubted marks of her -Son’s love, by imprinting on him the five wounds that pierced Jesus -on the cross, as she had done before to St. Lucia and St. Catharine. -Accordingly, she took his hand by force, and struck a large nail -through it, which threw the poor dupe into the greatest torment. - -The next night, this masculine virgin brought, as he pretended, some -of the linen in which Christ had been buried, to soften the wound, -and gave Jetzer a soporific draught, which had in it the blood of -an unbaptized child, some grains of incense, and of consecrated -salt, some quicksilver, and the hairs of the eye-brows of a child, -all of which, with some stupifying and poisonous ingredients, were -mingled together by the prior with magic ceremonies, and a solemn -dedication of himself to the devil in the hope of his succour. This -draught threw the poor wretch into a sort of lethargy, during which -the monks imprinted on his body the other four wounds of Christ, in -such a manner that he felt no pain. When he awoke, he found, to his -unspeakable joy, these impressions on his body, and came at last to -fancy himself a representative of Christ in the various parts of his -passion. He was, in this state, exposed to the admiring multitude on -the principal altar of the convent, to the great mortification of the -Franciscans. The Dominicans gave him some other draughts, that threw -him into convulsions, which were followed by a voice conveyed through -a pipe into the mouths of two images, one of Mary, and another of the -child Jesus; the former of which had tears painted upon its cheeks -in a lively manner. The little Jesus asked his mother, by means of -this voice, (which was that of the prior,) why she wept? and she -answered, that her tears were owing to the impious manner in which the -Franciscans attributed to her the honour that was due to him, in saying -that she was conceived and born without sin. - -The apparitions, false prodigies, and abominable stratagems of these -Dominicans were repeated every night; and the matter was at length so -grossly over-acted, that, simple as Jetzer was, he at last discovered -it, and had almost killed the prior, who appeared to him one night -in the form of the virgin, with a crown on her head. The Dominicans, -fearing, by this discovery, to lose the fruits of their imposture, -thought the best method would be to own the whole matter to Jetzer, -and to engage him, by the most seducing promises of opulence and -glory, to carry on the cheat. Jetzer was persuaded, or at least he -appeared to be so. The Dominicans, however, suspecting that he was not -entirely gained over, resolved to poison him; but his constitution was -so vigorous that, though they gave him poison five several times, he -was not destroyed by it. One day, they sent him a loaf prepared with -some spices, which, growing green in a day or two, he threw a piece of -it to a wolf’s whelps, that were in the monastery, and it killed them -immediately. At another time, they poisoned the host, or consecrated -wafer, but he escaped once more. In short, there were no means of -securing him, which the most detestable impiety and barbarity could -invent, that they did not put in practice; till, finding at last an -opportunity of getting out of the convent, he threw himself into the -hands of the magistrates, to whom he made a full discovery of this -infernal plot. The affair being brought to Rome, commissaries were sent -from thence to examine the matter; and the whole cheat being fully -proved, the four friars were solemnly degraded from their priesthood, -and were burned alive, on the last day of May, 1509. Jetzer died some -time after at Constance, having poisoned himself, as was believed by -some. Had his life been taken away before he had found an opportunity -of making the discovery already mentioned, this execrable and horrid -plot, which, in many of its circumstances, was conducted with art, -would probably have been handed down to posterity as a stupendous -miracle. - -When the Reformation was spread in Lithuania, prince Radzviil was so -affected by it, that he went in person to pay the pope all possible -honours. His holiness, on this occasion, presented him with a precious -box of relics. The prince having returned home, some monks intreated -permission to try the effect of these relics on a demoniac, who had -hitherto resisted every kind of exorcism. They were brought into the -church with solemn pomp, and deposited on the altar, accompanied -by an innumerable crowd. After the usual conjurations, which were -unsuccessful, they applied the relics. The demoniac instantly -recovered. The people called out, “A miracle!” and the prince, lifting -his hands and eyes to heaven, felt, it is said, his faith confirmed. -In this transport of joy, he observed that a young gentleman, who was -keeper of this treasure of relics, smiled, and by his motions ridiculed -the miracle. The prince indignantly took the young keeper of the relics -to task; who, on the promise of pardon, gave the following secret -intelligence concerning them. In travelling from Rome he had lost the -box of relics, and, not daring to mention it, he obtained a similar -one, which he had filled with small bones of dogs and cats, and other -trifles similar to what were lost. He hoped he might be forgiven for -smiling, when he found such a collection of rubbish was idolized with -such pomp, and had even the virtue of expelling demons! It was by the -assistance of this box that the prince discovered the gross impositions -of the monks and demoniacs, and Radzviil afterwards became a zealous -Lutheran.[K] - -To take another case, for which we are indebted to Scott’s “History of -the Lives of Protestant Reformers in Scotland.” At the east end of the -village of Musselburgh there was a chapel dedicated to the virgin Mary; -its proper name being Loretta, though it was vulgarly called Alareit, -or Lawreit. There was also a chapel of the same name in Perth, and -many credulous people of both these places, as well as the people of -Loretta, in Italy, believed that their chapel contained within it the -identical small brick-built house in which Mary had dwelt at Nazareth, -and that it had been conveyed miraculously from its original seat. -At the time now referred to, it was announced in Edinburgh, and the -neighbouring places, that a miracle would be performed on a certain -day, and a great number of persons consequently assembled. A stage was -erected on the outside of the chapel, and, at length, a young man, -apparently blind, was led forward. Many of those who were present -knew this person, and had, perhaps, often pitied his circumstances. -After various prayers and ceremonies, his eyes, to the satisfaction -of the people, appeared to be perfectly restored. Returning thanks -to the priests and friars, he now left the stage, and received the -congratulations of the people, some of whom gave him money. - -The true character of the treatment of his case will appear from -the following narrative. He had been a poor friendless boy, who had -attended the sheep belonging to the ruins of Scienna, or Sciennes, -about a quarter of a mile from Edinburgh. It was one of his amusements -to turn up the whites of his eyes; and, so effectually did he do this, -as to appear, at pleasure, perfectly blind. The nuns spoke of him to -some priests and friars, and they laid the plan which was afterwards -carried out. The child was secreted for some years from public view, -and, when it was supposed he was so altered as not to be recognised, he -was sent forth a blind mendicant, accompanied by a person who believed -he was born so, and had previously been supported by the nuns. Bound by -a solemn but rash vow to affect blindness, he travelled the country for -a considerable time, till at length the trick of his restoration was -played as has already been stated. - -Among the numerous publications of M. Guizot, is an edition of the -“Chronicles of Frodvard,” which, in addition to much historical matter, -ascribes many miracles to the bishops of Rheims. One of them, bishop -Remi, it is said, “was in the house of a wealthy female relative, -conversing with her on religious topics, when her butler announced -that there was no more wine in the cellars. The bishop, seeing her -embarrassment, having previously entered some of the lower apartments -himself, proposed to accompany her to the cellar. When they entered -it, he inquired whether there was not a little wine remaining in a -particular cask. The butler replied, that there was only enough to -preserve it from decay. The bishop then desired him to shut the door, -and not to stir from his position, and passing to the other end to -the cask, which was pretty large, he made the sign of the cross and -prayed. Soon the wine rose up out of the cask, and flooded over the -cellar-floor!” Now, the fact of the bishop’s visit to the cellar first; -of a butler, it might be, not very acute in vision, being desired, -after locking the door, to exclude all witnesses, and to stand at a -distance; and, of a relation of the bishop, who might easily be made a -confederate, being engaged; is surely more than sufficient to set aside -the whole tale. Moreover, the lady gave, as the result of the prodigy, -which many a conjuror has easily surpassed, a portion of her estate in -perpetuity to the bishop and his church! Prodigies of the Romish church -in abundance have had precisely the same issue. - -In an official and authorized Roman Catholic publication, printed in -1831, we are told that not less than twenty-six pictures of the virgin -Mary opened and shut their eyes at Rome during the years 1796 and 1797, -which was supposed to be an indication of her peculiar favour to the -inhabitants of that city for the opposition which they presented to the -French. Among the subscribers to this work are the four archbishops and -eleven bishops of Ireland. - -“An officer in the British army described to me,” says Mr. Hughes, “an -extraordinary scene which he witnessed in Messina, in 1811, occasioned -by a picture of the virgin, in a church much venerated by the populace. -An inhabitant going in, according to custom, to offer up his adoration -to the Madonna, suddenly ran out again, exclaiming, that ‘_the virgin -was weeping_ for calamity impending over the city.’ The people rushed -in crowds to the church; when, lo! to their astonishment and dismay, -the tears were, as reported, trickling over the cheeks of their beloved -patroness; upon which, the whole multitude began to weep, and howl, and -beat their breasts, expecting nothing less than an earthquake, or a -French invasion. At length one, more acute than the rest, observed that -some water was passing through the roof of the church, and dripping -upon the canvas, pointed out the circumstance; but he nearly fell a -victim to his want of judgment, for the people were determined to have -a miracle; nor could they be persuaded to disperse till the archbishop, -a venerable old man, mounted a ladder, and wiped the lady’s eyes with -a napkin; after this, he drew the picture into a more perpendicular -situation, telling his audience, that, as the cause was luckily -removed, _their patroness_ had promised to weep no more.”[L] - -The author of “Rome in the Nineteenth Century” says: “Private miracles -affecting individuals go on quite commonly every day without exciting -the smallest attention. These generally consist in procuring prizes -in the lottery, curing diseases, and casting out devils. The mode of -effecting this last description of miracle was communicated to me the -other day by an abate here, and, as I think it extremely curious, I -shall narrate it to you. - -“It seems that a certain friar had preached a sermon during Lent, upon -the state of the woman mentioned in Scripture possessed with seven -devils, with so much eloquence and unction, that a simple countryman -who heard him went home, and became persuaded that seven devils had -got possession of him. The idea haunted his mind, and subjected him -to the most dreadful terrors; till, unable to bear his sufferings, -he unbosomed himself to his ghostly father, and asked his counsel. -The father, who had some smattering of science, bethought himself, -at last, of a way to rid the honest man of his devils and his money -together. He told him it would be necessary to combat with the devils -singly, and, on the day appointed, when the poor man came with a sum of -money--without which the good father told him the devil never could be -dislodged--he bound the chain connected with an electrical machine in -an adjoining chamber round his body--lest, as he said, the devil should -fly away with him--and, having warned him that the shock would be -terrible when the devil went out of him, he left him praying devoutly -before an image of the Madonna; and after some time, gave him a pretty -smart shock, at which the poor wretch fell insensible on the floor from -terror. As soon as he recovered, however, he protested that he had seen -the devil fly away out of his mouth, breathing blue flames and sulphur, -and that he felt himself greatly relieved. Seven electrical shocks at -due intervals having extracted seven sums of money from him, together -with the seven devils, the man was cured, and a great miracle performed! - -“To us this transaction seemed a notable piece of credulous -superstition on the one hand, and fraudulent knavery on the other; but -to our friend the abate, it only seemed an ingenious device to cure of -his fears a simpleton, over whose mind reason could have no power--as -the physician cured a lady who fancied she had a nest of live earwigs -in her stomach, not by arguing with her on the absurdity of such a -notion, but by showing her that an earwig was killed by a single drop -of oil, and making her swallow a quantity of it. - -“But with respect to the man and his devils, I would ask, why inspire -superstitious terrors to conquer them by deceit, and why make him pay -so much money? Yet this is nothing to other things that are of daily -occurrence.” - -In some of the provinces of France, miracles are stated continually -to be performed, and the peasants blindly adopt all the extravagances -presented to their acceptance. In the little town of Fécamp there is -a fountain, the water of which is said to do wonders; and thousands -of pilgrims annually resort to it from the neighbouring country. The -curé distributes to each a bottle of this water, accompanying it with -some Latin words, receiving two sous for his trouble. This amounts to -a considerable sum. In another town, Andelys, there is also a fountain -which, it is said, possesses, once a year, the sovereign virtue of -curing rheumatism, palsy, and nervous affections. The pilgrims either -plunge the diseased member into the water, or throw themselves in -entirely, and, afterwards, follow the procession in their wet clothes. - -In the month of June, 1824, in a small village, called Artes, -near Hostalrich, about twelve leagues from Barcelona, there was a -constitutionalist, and therefore one opposed to the ruling power, -with which the priesthood was fully identified. This man being at the -point of death, his brother called on the curate, and requested him -to come and administer the sacraments. The curate refused; affirming -that the brother, as a constitutionalist, was a villain, an impious -wretch, an enemy to God and man; he was lost, without mercy, and that, -therefore, it was useless to confess him. The brother asked whence -this information was derived; the reply was, that God himself told -the curate this during the sacrifice of the mass. In vain the brother -reiterated his intreaties; the curate was inexorable. A few days after, -the constitutionalist expired, and the brother demanded for the body -the rites of sepulture. The curate refused, alleging that the soul -of the departed was lost, and that it was in vain to inter the body; -adding, “For during the night, the devils will come and carry it away; -and in forty days, you yourself will meet the same fate.” - -The Spaniard not treating this declaration with implicit faith, but, -with his suspicions awakened, watched during the night, with his -pistols loaded, beside the body of his brother. Between twelve and -one o’clock, a knock was heard at the door, and a voice exclaimed, “I -command you to open the door, in the name of the living God! Open! -if not, your instant ruin is at hand.” The Spaniard refused; and -shortly after he saw enter, by the window, three figures, covered -with the skins of wild beasts, provided with horns, claws, and tails; -and, as they were about carrying off the coffin containing the body, -the Spaniard fired, and shot one of them dead; the others took to -flight; he fired after them, and wounded both. One of them died in a -few minutes, the other escaped. In the morning, a discovery was made: -the people went to church, but there was no curate to officiate: it -was found shortly after, on examining those who had been shot, that -one was the curate, the other the vicar; the person wounded was the -sacristan, who confessed the whole plot. The case was brought before -the tribune of Barcelona.[M] - -And yet, despite of the frequent exposure of its wicked pretences, the -Romish church contends at this hour as earnestly for the possession of -miraculous endowments as it ever did. As it claims to be unchangeable, -this is manifestly its only course. Accordingly, it has been affirmed -of the last persons added to the Romish calendar, only a few years ago, -that they wrought miracles. The time of canonization is sagaciously -deferred till two centuries after the decease of the parties; but -there is no difficulty in seeing that all the avowed deviations from -the laws of nature attributed to the canonized, are impious pretences. -Dr. Harsnett, afterwards archbishop of York, said, long since, “None -but the pope and his scholars can cogge a miracle kindlie, and he and -his priests can despatch a miracle as easily as a squirrel can cracke -a nutte. A miracle in the bread, a miracle in the wine, a miracle in -the holy water, a miracle in holy oyle, a miracle in lamps, candles, -beades, bones, stones; nothing done in religion without a miracle and a -vice.” And even Petrarch thus wrote:-- - - “Fountain of grief, abode of anger, - School of errors, and temple of heresy; - Formerly Rome, now Babylon false and guilty; - Through whom there are so many tears and sighs; - O mistress of deceit; O prison of anger, - Where the good perish, and the bad are cherished and engendered, - Hell of the living! It will be a great miracle - If Christ is not angry with thee at last.” - -So recently as the beginning of the year 1847, the virgin Mary was -said to have appeared to two shepherds, in the district of Grenoble. -The so-called miracle was blazed forth far and wide, and an engraved -representation of the appearance was widely distributed. Nor was this -all: it was said that the virgin sat on a stone during the interview, -and that, on this being broken, after she was gone, there was found in -the interior an image of our Lord! But what are the facts that have -been discovered since? That the priests employed a lady to personate -the virgin; and that the figure in the stone was traced by a French -officer, who, with a companion, placed it on that spot for a joke; as, -in Italy, objects of modern manufacture are buried, and then dug up, -to be passed off on the unwary as really antique! In such instances, -however, money is frequently made; while the French officers had no -mercenary intentions. - -We close these exposures with a pretended miracle of the Greek church. -At the church of the Holy Sepulchre at Jerusalem, there is annually -a ceremony to which multitudes are attracted. It is pretended by the -Greek priests, that, on a particular day, a sacred fire proceeds from -the sepulchre: the pilgrims, therefore, congregated at Jerusalem, -attend there to light theirs; these are then extinguished, and -carefully preserved, to be added to the garment dipped in the Jordan -when they are buried. All, however, await the arrival of the Turkish -governor; for, “till he arrives, the miracle is not certainly to take -place.” - -To quote from some travellers who were present at the ceremony, during -the year 1846, we are informed that “it was a very remarkable scene. -The large area of the church was densely crowded; but, around the -sepulchre, a space of about four feet wide was kept clear by a double -line of Turkish soldiers. At short intervals of time, a number of -infatuated and highly-excited men and boys entered in, and, rushed -round and round with desperate energy, screaming and hallooing like -so many maniacs. Some stood upright on a friend’s shoulders, who ran -with the rest till an unlucky stumble threw both to the ground. One old -man was particularly conspicuous; he generally headed the rest, and -seemed to be fitter for a strait-waistcoat than to be the leader of a -religious procession. He danced, shouted, and threw himself into all -sorts of postures. At last he mounted on another frantic devotee, and -urged him to his utmost speed: they continued their mad course till he -was thrown down violently against two of the soldiers; they seized him -by the hair of his head, and hauled him out of the church. In a few -minutes, however, he returned and was more outrageous than before. -Thus, for two hours, the church was a scene of noise, confusion, and -frantic excitement. At two o’clock the governor arrived, and quietly -took his seat. The racing pilgrims were driven off the course, and, -shortly after, a procession of priests, headed by the patriarch, and -followed by a motley group of ragged fellows, bearing shabby banners, -walked slowly round three times, chanting some prayers. The patriarch -was a grey-headed old man, with a cunning expression of countenance; -his very look seemed to say, ‘I am about to act a lie--what fools -are you to believe it!’ There is a circular hole in the side of the -little chapel built over the sepulchre; close to it a man was posted, -protected by the soldiers. He was a rich pilgrim, probably an Armenian, -who had paid handsomely for the privilege of being the first to light -his tapers by the holy fire. The old patriarch, having divested himself -of most of his fine trappings, entered alone into the sanctuary. In a -minute after, he pushed through the hole a quantity of flaming cotton, -dipped in spirits of wine; the favoured pilgrim eagerly lighted a bunch -of tapers by it, and, escorted by the soldiers, hurried out of the -church. The excitement was now at its height; a scene followed which -baffles description. There was a tremendous rush towards the flame, -still held out by the patriarch, and each strove who should light his -taper the earliest. Those who could not get up to head-quarters were -obliged to procure a light from the more fortunate, and in three -minutes the church and adjoining chapels were in a blaze. Thousands -of wax-candles and flambeaux were glittering over the space; some had -forty or fifty long thin tapers bound together, which were intended -as valuable presents for friends at home. It was, for the time, like -Bedlam let loose: some were kneeling in ecstatic adoration, others -screaming, dancing, and jumping; the more zealous put the flame into -their mouths, or applied it to their faces or naked breasts. It is -asserted that the holy fire does not burn or hurt any one, but Mr. -Dalton noticed that few kept it long enough near to give it a fair -trial. In ten minutes every taper was extinguished, and the pilgrims -dispersed, carrying away the precious relics.”[N] - -In former parts of this volume, it has been shown that surprising -effects are frequently produced for the amusement of others, or -from the love of gain and celebrity, so common to fallen man. And, -doubtless, wherever true piety does not operate--the piety which is -displayed in supreme love to God, and pure and expansive benevolence -to man--there will be some manifestation of the “spirit” that worketh -in “the children of disobedience.” While “he that doeth righteousness -is righteous, he that committeth sin is of the devil; for the devil -sinneth from the beginning,” 1 John iii. 7, 8. - -To transgressors of every age our Lord still says, “Ye are of your -father the devil, and the lusts of your father ye will do,” John viii. -44. And bondage to the “god of this world” brings on his captives, -whether old or young, rich or poor, instructed or untaught, not only -guilt but misery; while “the end of these things is death,” Rom. vi. 21. - -But when we see impious pretences employed in order to hold the minds -of men in the most degrading vassalage, we have a fearful display of -enormous guilt, accumulated by a wilful subjection to “the father -of lies.” Satan was “a liar from the beginning.” To accomplish his -purposes, he can “transform himself into an angel of light;” and -still he leads multitudes “captive at his will.” Marvellous is the -forbearance of the Supreme Governor of the universe, who does not at -once ease him of his adversaries, but still richly and freely offers -the blessings of salvation to a world which lieth in the wicked one. -Who will not desire that the goodness of God may lead the greatest -transgressors to repentance? And, as one act of submission to the -prince of the power of the air is a fearful step towards an absolute -and eternal thraldom, it becomes each of us to imitate those who could -say, “We are not ignorant of his devices;” constantly to present at -the throne of grace the petition, “Lead us not into temptation, but -deliver us from evil;” and to trust implicitly in Him who, on the cross -having “spoiled principalities and powers, made a show of them openly, -triumphing over them in it,” 2 Cor. ii. 11; Matt. vi. 13; Col. ii. 15. - - - - -CHAPTER XI. - - Real Miracles--A miracle defined by archbishop Tillotson--The - miracles of Moses--The miracles of our Lord Jesus Christ--The - miracles of the apostles--Collision with those who pretended - to supernatural power--The magicians of Egypt--Magical arts at - Ephesus--The miraculous power of the Saviour inherent, that of - the prophets and apostles derived--Cessation of miraculous gifts. - - -We now enter on a brief consideration of unquestionable miracles. As -the grant of Divine revelation was made to some persons who were to -proclaim it to the whole human race, so, while holy men of God spake as -they were moved by the Holy Ghost, the broad seal of Heaven was placed -by miracles on their testimony. As a man’s signature gives validity -to his bond, or the credentials of an ambassador demonstrate his -right to transact the business of his sovereign; so the supernatural -works performed by the prophets, by our Lord Jesus Christ, and by -his apostles, prove as fully to those who witnessed them, that the -words they heard proceeded from God, as if they had listened to him -pronouncing them with an audible voice from the excellent glory; while -all to whom their testimony has been faithfully transmitted, may -cherish an equal confidence. - -It has been well remarked by archbishop Tillotson, that “there are two -things necessary in a miracle: that there should be a supernatural -effect, and that this effect should be evident to sense.” He adds, -“Neither in Scripture, nor in profane authors, nor in common use, is -anything called a miracle but what falls under the cognizance of the -senses; a miracle being nothing else but a supernatural effect evident -to sense, the great end and design whereof is to be the sensible proof -and conviction of something that we do not see.” The church of Rome -affirms that, in the celebration of the mass, the bread and wine are -changed into the very body and blood, soul and Divinity, of our Lord -Jesus Christ; though they retain exactly the same appearance that -they had before the change is said to have occurred. Hence, the same -writer argues, “For want of a supernatural effect evident to sense, -transubstantiation is no miracle; a sign or a miracle is always a thing -sensible, otherwise it could be no sign. Now, that such a change in -transubstantiation should really be wrought, and yet that there should -be no sign of it, is a thing very wonderful; but not to sense, for -our senses perceive no change. And that a thing should remain to all -appearance just as it was, hath nothing at all wonderful in it. We -wonder, indeed, when we see a strange thing done, but no man wonders -when he sees nothing done.” - -Numberless were the miracles wrought by Jehovah in ancient times, in -behalf of his chosen people. In vain does infidelity object that the -contents of the books of Moses _may_ not be true; since, had they been -false, it was absolutely impossible that they could have obtained any -credit. The number of the people must have amounted to three millions, -and every adult person was a competent judge whether the things related -to have taken place within his own memory had really happened. - -The Israelites would not have believed that the Red Sea was divided -to give them a passage--that, during their pilgrimage of forty years -in the wilderness, a miraculous cloud had guided them by day, and -become at night a fire casting round its radiance--that they had been -supplied with manna from heaven, falling on six successive days around -their camp, and on the last of them a double quantity, to prevent -its being gathered on the sabbath--that God had published his law on -the mount that might not be touched, amidst thunders, and lightning, -and tempest--and that he had punished its violation by terrible -plagues--for them to believe these things would have been absolutely -impossible, had the whole narrative been a fiction. A romance would -have excited their ridicule, and the yoke which, on the ground of the -invention, was to be placed about their necks, would have been rejected -with the utmost indignation. It is also morally impossible that the -books of Moses could have been received in the age immediately after -his death, if their contents had been false; and highly improbable -that, though true, they would have been considered his writings, if -they had been set forth by some other person in his name, and had not -appeared till he was lying in his grave. - -It would be easy to show that the wondrous acts recorded are traced -explicitly to Divine operation. In illustration of this, the following -passages may be taken: “I am the Lord, your Holy One, the Creator -of Israel, your King.” “Thus saith the Lord, which maketh a way in -the sea and a path in the mighty waters;” alluding, most probably, -to the passage of Israel through the Red Sea, and, afterwards, to -their crossing the Jordan, both of which events were unquestionably -miraculous. - -That one great object kept in view by the Redeemer in performing -miracles was, to furnish convincing proofs of his Divine mission, is -evident from the uniform tenor of the inspired narratives. Nicodemus -reasoned justly when he said, “Rabbi, we know that thou art a teacher -come from God: for no man can do these miracles that thou doest, except -God be with him,” John iii. 2. The same conviction was possessed by the -chief priests and the Pharisees, for they said, after the resurrection -of Lazarus, “This man doeth many miracles: if we let him thus alone all -men will believe on him,” John xi. 47, 48. Our Lord himself appeals -to his miracles: “I have greater witness than that of John, for the -works which the Father hath given me to finish, the same works that I -do bear witness of me, that the Father hath sent me,” John v. 36. It -is impossible, therefore, that any statement could be more plain and -decisive. Our Lord rests his claim to be believed on the wonders he -wrought. Again, he says, “If I had not done among them the works which -none other man did, they had not had sin; but now they have no cloak -for their sin.” Thus, we see the wonders which Christ wrought were -unparalleled. He healed the sick, he penetrated the minds of men by his -own infinite power. And hence, the unbelief of those who witnessed his -mighty deeds appeared in all its aggravated and naked enormity; “their -sin remained.” But, in direct opposition to this, there would have -been a plea for unbelief had pretended miracles been true. Had it been -a fact, instead of a fable, that Æsculapius had cured disease at his -oracle, or that the god of the oracle of Claros had known the thoughts -of men’s hearts, then, and then only, there would have been a cover for -their iniquity. - -Were we to select one miracle as demonstrative that Jesus was sent by -the Father, and of the acceptance of his work; and, still further, -of the futility of every objection that can be raised against it; it -should be that of the resurrection of the Lord Jesus Christ. “See,” -says Saurin, “how many extravagant suppositions must be advanced if -the resurrection of our Saviour be denied. It must be supposed that -guards, who had been particularly cautioned by their officers, sat down -to sleep; and that, nevertheless, they deserved credit when the body -of Jesus was stolen. It must be supposed that men who had been imposed -on in the most odious and cruel manner in the world, hazarded their -dearest enjoyments for the glory of an impostor. It must be supposed -that ignorant and illiterate men, who had neither reputation, fortune, -nor eloquence, possessed the art of fascinating the eyes of all the -church. It must be supposed either that five hundred persons were all -deprived of their senses at a time, or that they were all deceived -in the plainest matters of fact; or, that this multitude of false -witnesses had found out the secret of never contradicting themselves or -one another, and of being always uniform in their testimony. It must be -supposed that the most expert courts of judicature could not find out a -shadow of a contradiction in a palpable imposture. It must be supposed -that the apostles, sensible men in other cases, chose precisely those -places and those times which were most unfavourable to their views. It -must be supposed that millions madly suffered imprisonments, tortures, -and crucifixion, to spread an illusion. It must be supposed that ten -thousand miracles were wrought in favour of falsehoods, or all these -facts must be denied. And then, it must be supposed that the apostles -were idiots, that the enemies of Christianity were idiots, and that all -the primitive Christians were idiots.” - -The apostles of our Lord were invested with miraculous powers: “God -also bearing them witness, both with signs and wonders, and with -divers miracles and gifts of the Holy Ghost, according to his own -will,” Heb. ii. 4. As the apostles asserted a direct and unequivocal -claim to miraculous powers, and as these are declared in the New -Testament to have been exerted by them, falsehood, if proved, would -destroy the veracity of their writings, and the validity of all the -doctrines and precepts they contained. But, let the case be duly -weighed, and it will be seen, that, to support their pretensions by -artifice and chicanery, was absolutely impossible. A few might be -deceived, an empire could not be; and great must be the infatuation of -supposing that a few obscure men could blind the eyes of the people -among whom they lived. In the face of the utmost hostility, in the -midst of the greatest perils, in defiance of cruel persecutions, and -with the crucifixion of their Lord before their eyes, they could not -have claimed the exercise of miraculous powers if they had not been -actually possessed. Had they resembled the Romanists, to whom we have -referred, would it have been possible to escape detection? - -It is worthy of special remark, that more than one account is given -us in sacred history of the messengers of God entering into collision -with those who pretended to supernatural power. Thus a memorable -contest took place between Moses and the magicians of Pharaoh’s court. -Different opinions are entertained as to the means by which the latter -performed their feats, some contending that they were mere tricks, and -others that evil spirits were in active operation. On this controverted -question we do not enter; it is sufficient for the present purpose to -remark, that the superiority of the servants of Jehovah was placed -beyond all dispute. The rod of Aaron swallowed up the rods of the -magicians; at the plague of flies and the murrain on the cattle, they -were compelled to say, “This is the finger of God;” and at length they -“could not stand before Moses because of the boils, for the boils were -upon the magicians and all the Egyptians,” Exod. ix. 11. - -Another instance of a later date is equally conclusive. The gospel -was proclaimed at Ephesus, where the arts which pretended to lay open -the secrets of nature, and to arm the hand of man with supernatural -powers, were especially apparent. Indeed, in the age of our Lord and -his apostles, pretended adepts in the occult sciences were numerous; -they travelled from country to country, and were found in great numbers -in Asia, deceiving the credulous multitude, and profiting by their -expectations. They were sometimes Jews, who referred their skill, and -even their forms of proceeding, to Solomon, who is still regarded in -the east as the head or prince of magicians. In Asia Minor, Ephesus had -a high reputation for magical arts. Here, then, “God wrought special -miracles by the hands of Paul.” The appeal to the wonder-workers of a -country which contained so magnificent a temple to Diana, that it was -reckoned among the wonders of the world, was singularly striking. -Accustomed as the Ephesians were to produce strange results by some -species of magic, they would naturally ascribe miracles to a similar -agency. It was necessary, therefore, that the miracles which were to -serve as the credentials of Christianity, should be especially marked, -and placed beyond the reach of all their enchantments and incantations. -And it seems an instance not the less remarkable, because easily -overlooked, of the adaptation of means to an end, that in Ephesus, -in which, of all others, magic was resorted to, the powers granted -to the first heralds of redeeming mercy sufficed to place them at an -immeasurable distance above the most consummate magicians. - -Another fact is equally entitled to attention. Certain Jews travelling -in that country, and professing to cast out the evil spirits which -frequently possessed the bodies of men, took upon them, as avowed -exorcists, to employ the name of the Lord Jesus, from the success with -which it was used by the apostle Paul. Amongst these were the seven -sons of Sceva, a Jew, who addressed an evil spirit in the name of -Christ, thinking, perhaps, that their number would give special force -to their adjuration. The spirit, however, answered, “Jesus I know, -and Paul I know, but who are ye?” nor was he content with refusing to -be thus ejected; for, causing the man in whom he dwelt to put forth -supernatural strength, “he leaped upon the young men and overcame them, -and forced them to flee out of the house naked and wounded.” These -facts soon became notorious; fear fell alike on the Jews and Greeks -residing at Ephesus; the most potent appeal had been made to those -accustomed to use charms and incantations; and numbers were led at once -to renounce their arts of magic. - -Very celebrated were the “Ephesian letters,” which appear to have been -a sort of magical formula written on paper or parchment, designed to -be fixed as amulets on different parts of the body, such as the hands -and the head. Erasmus says, that they were certain signs or marks -which rendered their possessor victorious in everything. Eustatius -mentions an opinion that Crœsus, when on his funeral pile, was very -much benefited by the use of them; and that when a Milesian and an -Ephesian were wrestling in the Olympic games, the former could gain no -advantage, as the latter had Ephesian letters bound round his heel; -but these being removed he lost his superiority, and was thrown thirty -times. Many of these were, probably, among the books of which we read, -Acts xix. 19; while others were most likely occupied by descriptions -of the prevailing modes of practising “enchantments.” But all were -promptly and cheerfully consigned to the flames. Thus the sincerity -of the converts was evident by no trifling sacrifice, for, when they -counted the price of these books, they “found it fifty thousand pieces -of silver. So mightily grew the word of God and prevailed.” - -That there was a difference between the operations of the apostles and -the agency of our Lord, should be clearly perceived. The power of the -Saviour was inherent--that of the apostles was derived. How manifest is -the miraculous agency of Christ shown in the cure of the leper! “Lord, -if thou wilt,” said he to the Saviour, “thou canst make me clean.” -Jesus answered, “I will--be thou clean,” and immediately he was made -whole. Our Lord made no appeal to any other power. At the grave of -Lazarus, indeed, he “lifted up his eyes, and said, Father, I thank thee -that thou hast heard me.” But this prayer appears to have been offered -not on his own account, but for the sake of those who surrounded him, -and who needed such a seal to his mission to establish their faith. -Therefore, he added, “And I know that thou hearest me always: but -because of the people which stand by I said it, that they may believe -that thou hast sent me.” And as on other occasions, he said, “Thy sins -are forgiven thee”--“Arise, take up thy bed and walk”--“I command thee -to come out of her,” so now he cried with a loud voice, “Lazarus, -come forth. And he that was dead came forth, bound hand and foot with -grave-clothes: and his face was bound about with a napkin. Jesus saith -unto them, Loose him, and let him go,” John xi. 42–44. - -Our Lord had previously said, “Therefore, doth my Father love me, -because I lay down my life, that I might take it again. No man taketh -it from me, but I lay it down of myself. I have power to lay it down, -and I have power to take it again. This commandment have I received of -my Father,” John x. 17, 18. In like manner, Jesus said to Martha, “I am -the resurrection, and the life: he that believeth in me, though he were -dead, yet shall he live: and whosoever liveth and believeth in me shall -never die,” John xi. 25, 26. How strikingly contrasted was the language -of the apostles! In the case of the lame man laid at the beautiful gate -of the temple, Peter said, “Silver and gold have I none; but such as -I have give I thee: In the name of Jesus Christ of Nazareth, rise up -and walk.” These words, uttered on the first miracle of the apostles, -expressed the great principle on which they performed every other, and -the spirit in which they wrought all their wondrous deeds. - -The apostle, like the prophet, laid down his authority, and resigned -his commission with his life; but our Lord Jesus Christ not only -exercised his power amidst his last sufferings and death, but extended -his authority beyond the grave. “I lay down my life of myself; no man -taketh it from me; I have power to lay it down, and I have power to -take it again.” And though he said, “This commandment have I received -of my Father,” he also added, “I and my Father are one”--“thereby,” as -the Jews distinctly perceived, “making himself equal with God.” - -Even the diversity of gifts distributed among primitive saints, -proved the infinite resources of Him by whom they were granted. Though -bestowed by the Holy Spirit, they were purchased by the blood and -supplied by the grace of the Son of God. Speaking of the outpouring of -the Spirit, and its results, Jesus said, “He shall receive of mine, and -shall show it unto you.” Most emphatically does he lay claim to all the -fulness of the Godhead, when he adds, “All things that the Father hath -are mine: therefore said I, that he shall take of mine, and show it -unto you.” Thus, the gift of tongues, of miracles, of prophecy, and of -interpretation, proved the infinite power of the Giver, on whose will -the extent and diversity of the operation alike depended. Some had one -power and some another: but all these wrought that one and the selfsame -Spirit, dividing to every man severally as he would. 1 Cor. xii. 11. - -The miraculous endowments of early times were, however, transient. -Certain facts appear to be conclusive on this point. No gift was more -highly estimated, or considered more necessary for the propagation -of the gospel, than the gift of tongues. And yet, this was, -unquestionably, of short duration. The only reference made to it in -all the documents of antiquity, is in the work of Irenæus against the -heretics. He says, “We hear of many in the church imbued with prophetic -gifts, speaking with all kinds of tongues.” But though he must have -required the gift as much as any--for he was called to labour for -the diffusion of the gospel among the pagan Celts--yet he expressly -declares, “It was not the least part of his trouble, that he was forced -to learn the language of the country, a rude and barbarous dialect, -before he could effect any good among them.” Augustine, it is evident, -knew nothing of supernatural power like that which some had possessed -at a former period. “In the primitive times,” he says, “the Holy Spirit -fell upon believers, and they spoke in tongues which they had not -learned, as the Spirit gave them utterance. These were signs suitable -for the time. It was right that the Holy Spirit should thus be borne -witness of in all tongues, throughout the world. That testimony being -given, it passed away.” With equal explicitness Chrysostom affirms, “Of -miraculous powers not so much as a single vestige or trace remains.” - -In vain do Romanists contend for the continuance of miracles. Never -have they been able to produce a solitary instance in which the gift -of tongues has been exercised. And yet, if any member of their church -might have been expected to be so endowed, it certainly would have -been Francis Xavier, who has been called “the apostle of the Indies.” -But even he confesses that, ignorant of the language of the people to -whom he went, he was incapable of doing any service to the Christian -cause, and was little more than a mute statue among them, till he could -acquire some competent knowledge of their tongues. - -Miracles have passed away; but we still possess the glorious gospel of -the blessed God. A power, however, more than human is needed to apply -it to the heart. To open the blind eyes, to unstop the deaf ears, to -give spiritual discernment to the mind, to break down prejudice, to -humble pride, to “cast down imaginations and every high thing that -exalteth itself against the knowledge of God,” is the work of the Holy -Spirit. Paul, as he cast around him “the good seed of the kingdom,” -might have given up all in despair, but for interposing Omnipotence. “I -have planted,” he said, “Apollos watered; but God gave the increase. So -then neither is he that planteth anything, neither he that watereth; -but God that giveth the increase.” - -There is, however, a great diversity in the operations of the same -Divine Spirit. Some are brought at once “from the power of Satan unto -God;” and ever will the time and circumstances of their conversion -be held in remembrance. Others are led by a slow and gradual -process--perhaps scarcely perceptible, and affording few points of -prominent recollection, out of darkness into “marvellous light.” Still -the result is the same. All are brought to Jesus, and believe on him as -having died for their sins, and risen again for their justification; -all by virtue of union with him, under the sanctifying influence of the -Holy Spirit, are become new creatures, enjoying the blessings of his -great salvation, holding communion with him, increasing in resemblance -to him, and yielding to him practical obedience and devotion. To him, -then, let us constantly look, to apply the truth to our own consciences -and hearts, to sanctify us wholly, body, soul, and spirit, and to -prosper every effort we make in behalf of others. - - - -FOOTNOTES - - -[A] Foster’s Contributions to the Eclectic Review, vol. i. p. 545. - -[B] Wilkinson’s Modern Egypt, vol. i. pp. 218–223. - -[C] Lord Nugent’s “Lands Classical and Sacred.” - -[D] Natural Magic, p. 286. - -[E] Philosophy of Magic. - -[F] North British Review. - -[G] Literary Gazette. - -[H] Athenæum. - -[I] Edinburgh Review. - -[J] For a fuller account of the electric telegraph, see “The Visitor,” -for January, February, and March, 1848; from which many facts, now -given, have been taken. - -[K] D’Israeli’s “Curiosities,” p. 87. - -[L] Hughes’s Travels, Vol. I. p. 125. - -[M] Foreign Quarterly Review. - -[N] “The Boat and the Caravan.” - - - - -Transcriber’s Notes - - -Punctuation, hyphenation, and spelling were made consistent when a -predominant preference was found in the original book; otherwise they -were not changed. - -Simple typographical errors were corrected; unbalanced quotation -marks were remedied when the change was obvious, and otherwise left -unbalanced. - -Illustrations in this eBook have been positioned between paragraphs and -outside quotations. 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