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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d7b82bc --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +*.txt text eol=lf +*.htm text eol=lf +*.html text eol=lf +*.md text eol=lf diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..58a8858 --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #64180 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/64180) diff --git a/old/64180-0.txt b/old/64180-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index a47f0dd..0000000 --- a/old/64180-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,15051 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook of The National Geographic Magazine, Vol. III. -(Complete), 1891, by Various - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you -will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before -using this eBook. - -Title: The National Geographic Magazine, Vol. III. (Complete), 1891 - -Author: Various - -Release Date: December 30, 2020 [eBook #64180] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -Produced by: Ron Swanson - -*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE, -VOL. III. (COMPLETE), 1891 *** - -{i} - - -THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE - -VOLUME III, 1891 - - - - -[Illustration: National Geographic Society seal] - - - - -WASHINGTON - -PUBLISHED BY THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY - -1892 - - -{ii} - - -OFFICERS OF THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY - -1891 - - - GARDINER G. HUBBARD, _President_ - - HERBERT G. OGDEN | - EVERETT HAYDEN | - A. W. GREELY | _Vice-Presidents_ - C. HART MERRIAM | - HENRY GANNETT | - - CHARLES J. BELL, _Treasurer_ - - MARCUS BAKER | - C. A. KENASTON | _Secretaries_ - - ROGERS BIRNIE, JR. | - G. K. GILBERT | - G. BROWN GOODE | - WILLARD D. JOHNSON | - W J MCGEE | _Managers_ - T. C. MENDENHALL | - W. B. POWELL | - B. H. WARDER | - - - - - PRINTERS - JUDD & DETWEILER - WASHINGTON - - ENGRAVERS - MOSS ENGRAVING CO. - NEW YORK - - -{iii} - - -_CONTENTS_. - - Page -South America: Annual Address by the President, GARDINER G. - HUBBARD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - -Geography of the Land: Annual Report by Vice-President HERBERT G. - OGDEN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 - -Geography of the Air: Annual Report by Vice-President A. W. - GREELY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 - -An Expedition to Mount St. Elias, Alaska; by ISRAEL C. RUSSELL . 53 - Introduction--The Southern Coast of Alaska . . . . . . . . . 55 - Part I--Previous Explorations in the St. Elias Region . . . . 58 - Part II--Narrative of the St. Elias Expedition of 1890 . . . 75 - Part III--Sketch of the Geology of the St. Elias Region . . . 167 - Part IV--Glaciers of the St. Elias Region . . . . . . . . . . 176 - Part V--Height and Position of Mount St. Elias . . . . . . . 189 - Appendix A--Official Instructions governing the Expedition . 192 - Appendix B--Report on topographic Work; by MARK B. KERR . . . 195 - Appendix C--Report on auriferous Sands from Yakutat Bay; by - J. STANLEY-BROWN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196 - Appendix D--Report on fossil Plants; by LESTER F. WARD . . . 199 - Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201 - -The Cartography and Observations of Bering's First Voyage; by - A. W. GREELY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 - -Height and Position of Mount St. Elias; by ISRAEL C. RUSSELL . . 231 - -The Heart of Africa; by E. C. HORE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238 - -Report of Committee on Exploration in Alaska . . . . . . . . . . 248 - -Notes--La Carte de France, dite de l'Etat Major, par M. J. COLLET 250 - - Polar Regions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252 - - The Crossing of Tibet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253 - - Statistics of Railways in United States . . . . . . . . . 255 - -Index to volume III . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257 - - Title-page and Imprimatur of Board of Mangers . . . . . . . . i - - Contents and Illustrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii - - Publications of the National Geographic Society . . . . . . . v - - Proceedings of the National Geographic Society . . . . . . . vii - - Officers of the Society for 1892 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiv - - Members of the Society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xv - - -{iv} - - -_ILLUSTRATIONS_. - - Page -Plate 1--South America (map) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 2--Sketch Map of Alaska . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 - 3--Map of the St. Elias Region, after La Pérouse . . . . . 59 - 4--Map of the eastern Shore of Yakutat Bay, after Dixon . 61 - 5--Map of the St. Elias Region, after Malaspina . . . . . 64 - 6--Map of Bay de Monti, after Malaspina . . . . . . . . . 64 - 7--Map of Disenchantment Bay, after Malaspina . . . . . . 67 - 8--Sketch Map of St. Elias Region, by MARK B. KERR . . . . 74 - 9--The Hubbard Glacier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 - 10--Wall of Ice on eastern Side of Atrevida Glacier . . . . 105 - 11--View on Atrevida Glacier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 - 12--Entrance of an Ice Tunnel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 - 13--Deltas in an abandoned Lake Bed . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 - 14--A River on Lucia Glacier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 - 15--Entrance to a glacial Tunnel . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 - 16--View of Malaspina Glacier from Blossom Island . . . . . 120 - 17--Moraines on Marvine Glacier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 - 18--View of the Hitchcock Range from near Dome Pass . . . . 144 - 19--View of Mount St. Elias from Dome Pass . . . . . . . . 146 - 20--View of Mount St. Elias from Seward Glacier . . . . . . 175 - 21--Carte Générale des Découvertes de l'Amiral de Fonte - (1752) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207 - -RUSSELL: Figure 1--Diagram illustrating the Formation of Icebergs 101 - 2--View of a glacial Lakelet . . . . . . . . . . 120 - 3--Section of a glacial Lakelet . . . . . . . . . 120 - 4--Diagram illustrating the Formation of marginal - Crevasses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 - 5--Crevasses near Pinnacle Pass . . . . . . . . . 130 - 6--Snow Crests on Ridges and Peaks . . . . . . . 143 - 7--Faulted Pebble from Pinnacle Pass . . . . . . 171 - 8--Faulted Pebble from Pinnacle Pass . . . . . . 171 - -{v} - - -PUBLICATIONS OF THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY. - - -REGULAR PUBLICATIONS. - -In addition to announcements of meetings and various circulars sent to -members from time to time, the Society issues a single serial -publication entitled THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE. During the -first two years of the existence of the Society this serial was issued -in quarterly numbers. With the beginning of the third year of the -Society and the third volume of the _Magazine_ the form of publication -was changed, and the serial now appears at irregular intervals in -parts or brochures (designated by pages and designed either for -separate preservation or for gathering into volumes) which consist -either of single memoirs or of magazine brochures made up of articles, -notes, abstracts, and other geographic matter, together with the -Proceedings and other administrative records of the Society. - -The _Magazine_ is mailed free to members of the Society and to -exchanges. The first two volumes, as well as the separate brochures of -the third and the complete volume, are sold at the prices given below -by the Secretary, Mr. F. H. Newell, U. S. Geological Survey, -Washington, D. C. - - To To the - Members. Public. - Volume I, 1889: 4 numbers, 334 pages, 16 plates - and 26 figures . . . . . . . . . $1 40 $2 00 - Volume II, 1890: 5 numbers, 344 pages, 10 plates - and 11 figures . . . . . . . . . 1 40 2 00 - Volume III, 1891: Comprising: - South America; Annual Address by the President, - Gardiner G. Hubbard: pp. 1-30, pl. 1, - March 28, 1891 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $0 15 $0 25 - Geography of the Land; Annual Report by - Vice-President Herbert G. Ogden: pp. 31-40, - April 30, 1891 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 25 - Geography of the Air; Annual Report by - Vice-President A. W. Greely: pp. 41-52, - May 1, 1891 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 25 - An Expedition to Mount St. Elias, by - I. C. Russell: pp. 53-204 (with 8 figures), - pls. 2-20, May 29, 1891 85 1 50 - Magazine brochure, pp. 205-261, i-xxxv, pl. 21, - February 19, 1892 40 75 - ----- ----- - 1 60 3 00 - - -{vi} IRREGULAR PUBLICATIONS. - -In the interests of exact bibliography, the Society takes cognizance -of all publications issued either wholly or partly under its auspices. -Each author of a memoir published in THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE -receives 25 copies, and is authorized to order any number of -additional copies at a slight advance on the cost of press-work and -paper; and these separate brochures are identical with those of the -regular edition issued by the Society. Contributors to the magazine -brochures are authorized to order any number of copies of their -contributions at a slight advance on cost of press-work and paper, -provided these separates bear the original pagination and a printed -reference to the serial and volume from which they are extracted; but -such separates are bibliographically distinct from the brochures -issued by the Society. The _Magazine_ is not copyrighted, and articles -may be reprinted freely; and a record of reprints, so far as known, is -kept. - -The following separates and reprints from volume III have been issued: - - _Editions uniform with the Brochures of the Magazine_. - - Pages 1-30, plate 1: 150 copies, March 28, 1891. - " 31-40, 25 " May 2, 1891. - " 41-52, 25 " " 2, 1891. - " 53-204, plates 2-20: 250 " " 29, 1891. - - _Special Editions_. - - Pages 205-230, plate 21: 50 copies, February 18, 1892. - " 231-237, 100 " " 16, 1892. - " v, 1,000 " " 19, 1892. - " xv-xxxv, 50 " " 13, 1892. - - _Reprints_. - - Pages 196-198, 100 copies, January 3, 1892. - - -{vii} - - -PROCEEDINGS OF THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY. - -(_Abstract of Minutes_.) - - -_March 6, 1891. 49th meeting_. - -Meeting held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club. Vice-President -Hayden in the chair. Attendance, 50. - -Captain E. C. Hore, master mariner, delivered an address on "A -narrative of ten years' work and travel in the African lake region." -_Abstract entitled "The Heart of Africa" printed in this volume, pp. -238-243_. - - -_March 13, 1891. Special meeting_. - -Meeting held in the Lecture Room of the National Museum. -Vice-President Ogden in the chair. Attendance, 850. - -Captain E. C. Hore repeated his former lecture with additions. -_Abstract printed in this volume, pp. 243-247_. - - -_March 20, 1891. 50th meeting_. - -Meeting held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club. Mr. G. K. -Gilbert in the chair. Attendance, 35. - -Vice-President Greely read a paper on "The cartography and -observations of Bering's first voyage." The paper was discussed by -Messrs Dall, Blodgett, Littlehales, and Vice-President Hayden. -_Printed in this volume, pp. 205-230, pl. 21_. - -Mr. J. Stanley-Brown presented a paper on "Auriferous sands from -Yakutat bay." _Printed in this volume, pp. 196-198_. - -Mr. I. C. Russell read a paper on "The geology of the Mount St. Elias -region, Alaska." The paper was discussed by Messrs Gilbert (who had -resigned the chair to Vice-President Hayden), Dall, Johnson, and -Russell. _Incorporated in the memoir forming pp. 53-204, pls. 2-20, of -this volume_. - - -{viii} _March 31, 1891. Special meeting_. - -Meeting held in the Law Lecture Room of Columbian University. -Vice-President Ogden in the chair. Attendance, 300. - -Mr. Sergius Stepniak delivered an address on "The Russian peasantry." - - -_April 3, 1891. 51st meeting_. - -Meeting held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club, Vice-President -Hayden in the chair. Attendance, 35. - -A paper on "The Mackenzie river and Colinson," by Vice-President -Greely, was read by title in the absence of the author. - -Ensign J. A. Hoogewerff, U. S. N., presented an account of the -"Magnetic work of the United States Naval Observatory." The paper was -discussed by Messrs Baker, Abbe, Ogden, Hayden, and Hoogewerff. - -Mr. F. H. Bigelow presented a paper on "Auroral streamers." - -Mr. Cleveland Abbe made some remarks on "Theories of magnetic -phenomena." - - -_April 11, 1891. Special meeting_. - -Meeting held in the Lecture Hall of the National Museum. President -Hubbard in the chair. Attendance, 750. - -Major J. W. Powell delivered an address on "The Grand cañon of -Colorado river." - - -_April 17, 1891. 52d meeting_. - -Meeting held in Lincoln Hall. President Hubbard in the chair. -Attendance, 1,000. - -Mr. Geo. W. Melville, Engineer-in-Chief, U. S. N., briefly explained -the purposes of arctic exploration. - -Civil Engineer R. E. Peary, U. S. N., addressed the Society on the -subject of his proposed northern Greenland expedition of 1891-92. The -lecturer exhibited and explained a number of lantern-slide views -illustrating arctic scenery and modes of traveling. - -On the conclusion of the address a United States flag, provided for -the purpose by Miss Ulrica Dahlgren, was presented by the President on -behalf of the Society to Lieut. Peary, who responded feelingly. - - -{ix} _April 24, 1891. Special meeting_. - -Meeting held in the Lecture Room of the National Museum. Attendance, -400. - -Mr. H. M. Wilson, of the United States Geological Survey, delivered an -address on the subject "India: Its geography and people." At the close -of the lecture Mr. Wilson exhibited and explained a number of -lantern-slides made from views taken by him while traveling in India. - - -_May 1, 1891. 53d meeting_. - -Meeting held in the Lecture Hall of the National Museum. -Vice-President Hayden in the chair. Attendance, 600. - -Mr. Courtenay De Kalb delivered an address on "The great Amazon: -Personal investigations on the Great River and in its upper valley." -At the close of the lecture Mr. De Kalb exhibited a number of -lantern-slide views, which he described. - - -_May 15, 1891. 54th meeting_. - -Meeting held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club. Vice-President -Hayden in the chair. Attendance, 25. - -At the request of the Board of Managers, Mr. Marcus Baker made a -statement relative to plans by the Board for further Alaskan -exploration in the vicinity of Mount St. Elias under the conduct of -Mr. I. C. Russell, to be prosecuted the coming season. - -Mr. Gilbert, complying with the request of the Chairman, addressed the -Society upon some of the questions involved in Alaskan geology. - -Dr. Sheldon Jackson, at the invitation of the Society, spoke on the -general aspects of the Alaskan coast and the inhabitants of the -country. - -Remarks were made, following Dr. Jackson's address, by the Chairman, -Mr. J. H. Blodgett, and others. - -In connection with the announcement of the proposed Field Day, June 3 -and 4 next, to the grottoes near Shendun, in the Shenandoah valley, -Virginia, Major Jed. Hotchkiss gave an interesting account of the -topography of the valley. - -An exhibition of lantern-slide views of Alaskan coast scenery -followed, the pictures being explained by Mr. I. C. Russell. - - -{x} _May 29, 1891. 55th meeting_. - -Meeting held in the Lecture Room of the National Museum. Attendance, -800. - -Reverend Dr. H. C. Hovey delivered an address on "Subterranean scenery -as found in the grottoes of the Shenandoah and other caverns of -Virginia," with illustrations from lantern-slide views exhibited for -the first time. Following the address, Major Hotchkiss illustrated -with free-hand sketches on the blackboard the topography of the valley -of Virginia, interspersing his remarks with war reminiscences. - - -_June 3 and 4. Field meeting_. - -About 80 members left Washington on special train June 3, arriving at -3 p.m. at Shendun, Virginia, where they were entertained by the -Grottoes company. Weir cave was visited that afternoon, and in the -evening a meeting was held in the hotel parlor, at which remarks were -made by Mr. G. K. Gilbert, Reverend Dr. H. C. Hovey, Major H. E. -Alvord, Captain Morton, General J. J. Reynolds, and Hon. J. Randolph -Tucker. The next morning Major Hotchkiss entertained the company with -a description of the resources of the Valley of Virginia, his remarks -being illustrated by free-hand sketches. The Cave of the Fountain was -then visited, and, after presenting a testimonial to Major Hotchkiss -for the hospitality of the Grottoes company, the party left for -Washington. - - -_October 15, 1891. Special meeting_. - -Meeting held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club. President -Hubbard in the chair. Attendance, 50. - -Professor T. McKenney Hughes, professor of geology at Cambridge -University, England, gave a sketch of geological problems and the -larger questions of geology in England. - -Messrs Powell, McGee, and Gilbert made remarks on the geologic -subjects touched upon by Professor Hughes. - - -_November 13, 1891. 56th meeting_. - -Meeting held in the Lecture Hall of Columbian University. President -Hubbard in the chair. Attendance, 400. - -The exercises consisted of an exhibition of Arctic photographs {xi} -by General A. W. Greely, U. S. A., comprising lantern-slide views from -photographs taken during the expedition to Lady Franklin bay in 1881, -and never before exhibited in the city. - - -_November 27, 1891. 57th meeting_. - -Meeting held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club. Vice-President -Hayden in the chair. Attendance, 65. - -Mr. Herbert G. Ogden made an oral communication on "The geographic -position of Mount St. Elias," illustrated by a chart exhibiting the -position of St. Elias, Icy bay, Yakutat bay, and the adjacent coast as -determined (1) from various surveys compiled by the United States -Coast and Geodetic Survey, (2) by Mark B. Kerr during the first -expedition of the Society, and (3) by I. C. Russell during the second -expedition. - -The communication was discussed by Messrs Mendenhall, Douglas, and -Vice-President Hayden. - -Mr. E. E. Howell then exhibited and briefly described a relief model -of the United States, constructed on the natural curvature, the -vertical scale being three times that of the horizontal. - -Remarks were made by Messrs Ogden, McGee, Johnson, Mendenhall, Howell, -Hayden, and others. - - -_December 4, 1891. Special meeting_. - -Meeting held in the Lecture Hall of Columbian University. - -Mr. William Eleroy Curtis delivered an address on "Portraits of -Columbus." The lecturer exhibited copies of all Columbus' portraits -extant, these having been prepared for the World's Columbian -exposition. - - -_December 11, 1891. 58th meeting_. - -Meeting held in the Lecture Hall of Columbian University. -Vice-President Greely in the chair. Attendance, 400. - -Mr. I. C. Russell gave an account of the Mount St. Elias exploration -of last summer, illustrated by a map and lantern slides. - - -_December 18, 1891. Special meeting_. - -Meeting held in the Lecture Hall of Columbian University. -Vice-President Hayden in the chair. Attendance, 100. - -Mr. F. H. Newell delivered an address on "Petroleum and natural gas." -The lecture was illustrated by lantern slides made from photographs -taken in the oil regions of the United States. - - -{xii} _December 23, 1891. 59th_ (_4th annual_) _meeting_. - -Meeting held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club. Vice-President -Greely in the chair. - -The annual report of the Secretaries was presented, amended, and -adopted. - -The annual report of the Treasurer was presented and referred to an -auditing committee consisting of Messrs P. H. Christie, Middleton -Smith, and E. E. Haskell. - -The annual election of officers for the year 1892 was then held, with -the following result: - - _President_--Gardiner G. Hubbard. - - _Vice-Presidents_--H. G. Ogden (land). - Everett Hayden (sea). - A. W. Greely (air). - C. Hart Merriam (life). - Henry Gannett (art). - - _Treasurer_--C. J. Bell. - - _Recording Secretary_--F. H. Newell. - - _Corresponding Secretary_--E. R. Scidmore. - - _Managers_--Marcus Baker. - H. F. Blount. - G. K. Gilbert. - John Hyde. - W J McGee. - T. C. Mendenhall. - W. B. Powell. - Edwin Willits. - -The following resolution was adopted: - -_Resolved_, That the Board of Managers be requested to consider -whether, instead of the present policy of publishing only a few -selected articles, these might not advantageously be replaced by a -greater variety of less lengthy and expensive works, and whether a few -pages of geographic notes might not be inserted. - -Mr. Hayden gave notice of the following proposed amendment to the -By-laws: - -In article IV, instead of five vice-presidents, read six -vice-presidents, and insert at the end of list of departments of -geographic science, after geographic art, the words "commercial -geography." - - -{xiii} _December 30, 1891. Special meeting_. - -Meeting held in the Lecture Hall of the National Museum. President -Hubbard in the chair. Attendance, 200. - -Professor Benjamin Sharp of the Academy of Natural Sciences of -Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, made an address upon Peary and the western -Greenland expedition. The lecture was illustrated by lantern slides -from photographs taken on the expedition while along the shores of -Greenland and at Peary's camp. - - -_January 8, 1892. 60th meeting_. - -Meeting held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club. Vice-President -Merriam in the chair. Attendance, 150. - -Mr. W J McGee delivered an address on "The Eastern Sierra Madre of -Mexico," his lecture being illustrated by lantern slides made from -photographs taken in the vicinity of Monterey, Saltillo, Matehuala, -Miquihuana, Doctor Arroyo, and the hacienda El Carmen. Professor R. T. -Hill described the similarity of topographic features of that region -to those of the Great Basin of the United States. - - -_January 15, 1892. Special meeting_. - -Meeting held in the Lecture Hall of Columbian University. -Vice-President Hayden in the chair. Attendance, 100. - -The President, Mr. Gardiner G. Hubbard, delivered his annual address -on the subject of "The Evolution of Transportation." Major J. W. -Powell prefaced the President's address by brief introductory remarks. - - -{xiv} - - -OFFICERS OF THE SOCIETY. - -1892. - - - _President_. - - GARDINER G. HUBBARD. - - - _Vice-Presidents_. - - HERBERT G. OGDEN. - EVERETT HAYDEN. - A. W. GREELY. - C. HART MERRIAM. - HENRY GANNETT. - - - _Treasurer_. - - CHARLES J. BELL. - - - _Secretaries_. - - F. H. NEWELL. E. R. SCIDMORE. - - - _Managers_. - - MARCUS BAKER. W J MCGEE. - HENRY F. BLOUNT. T. C. MENDENHALL. - G. K. GILBERT. W. B. POWELL. - JOHN HYDE. EDWIN WILLITS. - - -{xv} - - -MEMBERS OF THE SOCIETY. - -1892. - - - _a_, original members. _c_, corresponding members. - _l_, life members. * Deceased. - -In cases where no city is given in the address, Washington, D. C., is -to be understood. - - -ABBE, PROF. CLEVELAND, _a_, _l_, - Weather Bureau. - -ABERT, S. T., - 722 Seventeenth Street. - -ACKERMAN, ENS. A. A., U. S. N., _c_, - Navy Department. - -ACKLEY, LIEUT. COMDR. S. M., U. S. N., - Coast and Geodetic Survey. - -ADDISON, A. D., - 808 Seventeenth Street. - -AHERN, LIEUT. GEORGE P., U. S. A., _c_, - College of Montana, Deer Lodge, Mont. - -AHERN, JEREMIAH, - U. S. Geological Survey, Los Angeles, Cal. - -ALLEN, DR. J. A., - American Museum Natural History, New York, N. Y. - -ALTON, EDMUND, - Wormley's Hotel. - -ALVORD, MAJ. HENRY E., _c_, - Md. Agricultural College, College Park, Maryland. - -ANDREWS, ENS. PHILIP, U. S. N., - Navy Department. - -APLIN, S. A., JR., - Geological Survey. - -ASPINWALL, REV. J. A., - 17 Dupont Circle. - -AYRES, MISS SUSAN C., _a_, - 1813 Thirteenth Street. - -BABB, CYRUS C., - Geological Survey. - -BABER, HON. GEORGE, - 1416 K Street. - -BAKER, DR. FRANK, _a_, - Smithsonian Institution. - -BAKER, LUCIUS, _c_, - P. O. Drawer T, Fresno, Cal. - -{xvi} - -BAKER, MARCUS, _a_, - Geological Survey. - -BALDWIN, H. L., JR., _a_, - Geological Survey. - -BALL, CHAS. B., - 942 T Street. - -BANCROFT, REV. DR. CECIL F. P., _c_, - Phillips Academy, Andover, Mass. - -BARKER, COMDR. ALBERT S., U. S. N., - Navy Department. - -BARNARD, E. C., _a_, - Geological Survey. - -BARNES, CHARLES A., _c_, - P. O. Box 1198, Seattle, Wash. - -BARROLL, LIEUT. HENRY H., U. S. N., _c_, - Navy Department. - -BARTLE, R. F., - 947 Virginia Avenue SW. - -BARTLETT, COMDR. J. R., U. S. N., _a_, - Navy Department. - -BARTLETT, P. V. S., - U. S. Geological Survey, Berkeley, Cal. - -BASSETT, C. C., _a_, - Geological Survey. - -BATCHELDER, C. F., _c_, - 7 Kirkland Street, Cambridge, Mass. - -BAUER, LOUIS A., - Coast and Geodetic Survey. - -BAYLEY, DR. W. S., _c_, - Colby University, Waterville, Me. - -BEAMAN, W. M., - Geological Survey. - -BELL, A. GRAHAM, _a_, - Volta Bureau, 3414 Q Street. - -BELL, PROF. A. MELVILLE, - 1525 Thirty-fifth Street. - -BELL, C. J., _a_, - 1406 G Street. - -BERGMANN, H. H., - 511 Seventh Street. - -BERNADOU, ENS. JOHN B., U. S. N., _c_, - Navy Department. - -BIEN, JULIUS, _a_, - P. O. Box 3557, New York, N. Y. - -BIEN, MORRIS, _a_, - Geological Survey. - -BIGELOW, PROF. FRANK H., - 1416 K Street. - -{xvii} - -BIRCH, CHARLES E., - Hydrographic Office. - -BIRNEY, GEN. WILLIAM, - 458 Louisiana Avenue. - -BLAIR, H. B., _a_, - Geological Survey. - -BLODGETT, JAMES H., _a_, - 1237 Massachusetts Avenue. - -BLOUNT, HENRY F., - 1405 G Street. - -BODFISH, SUMNER H., _a_, - 58 B Street NE. - -BOURSIN, HENRY, - Douglas, Alaska. - -BOWERS, DR. STEPHEN, _c_, - Ventura, Cal. - -BRECKINRIDGE, GEN. J. C., U. S. A., - War Department. - -BRIGHT, RICHARD R., - Navy Department. - -BRITTON, A. T., - 1405 G Street. - -BROWNELL, ERNEST H., _c_, - Bristol, R. I. - -BUCKLEY, MISS M. L., - Bureau of Pensions. - -BURNETT, CHARLES A., _c_, - 620 Burke Building, Seattle, Wash. - -BURTON, PROF. A. E., _a_, - Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Boston, Mass. - -CAMPBELL, M. R., - Geological Survey. - -CANNON, H. B., - Department of Agriculture. - -CANTWELL, LIEUT. J. C., U. S. R. M., _c_, - 1818 Sacramento Street, San Francisco, Cal. - -CARMAN, MISS ADA, - 1351 Q Street. - -CARROLL, CAPT. JAMES, _c_, - Juneau, Alaska. - -CHAMBERLIN, PROF. T. C., _c_, - 772 Langdon Street, Madison, Wis. - -CHAPIN, FREDERICK E., - 3043 P Street. - -CHAPIN, DR. J. H., - Meriden, Conn. - -CHAPMAN, R. H., _a_, - U. S. Geological Survey, Berkeley, Cal. - -{xviii} - -CHATARD, DR. THOMAS M., _a_, - Geological Survey. - -CHENERY, LIEUT. COMDR. LEONARD, U. S. N., _c_, - University Club, New York, N. Y. - -CHESTER, COMDR. C. M., U. S. N., _c_, - U. S. Naval Academy, Annapolis, Md. - -CHRISTIE, JAMES II., _c_, - Olga, Wash. - -CHRISTIE, P. H., - Geological Survey. - -CLARK, E. B., _a_, - Geological Survey. - -CLARK, DR. WM. B., _c_, - Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md. - -CLOVER, LIEUT. COMDR. RICHARDSON, U. S. N., - Hydrographic Office. - -COLE, T. L., - 12 Corcoran Building. - -COLONNA, B. A., - 138 B Street NE. - -COLTON, FRANCIS, - The Shoreham. - -COMSTOCK, MRS. SARAH C., - 1464 Rhode Island Avenue. - -COOK, FRED. W., _c_, - P. O. Box 140, Sault de Ste. Marie, Mich. - -COURT, E. E., - Hydrographic Office. - -CRAIGHEAD, REV. DR. J. G., - 1223 Eleventh Street. - -CROFFUT, W. A., - Geological Survey. - -CUMMIN, ROBT. D., _a_, - Geological Survey. - -CUMMINGS, PROF. GEO. J., - Howard University. - -CUNNINGHAM, JOHN M., _c_, - Cosmos Club, San Francisco, Cal. - -CURTIS, WILLIAM E., _a_, - 2 Lafayette Square. - -DALL, MRS. CAROLINE H., - 1526 Eighteenth Street. - -DALL, WM. H., - National Museum. - -DALY, HON. CHAS. P., - 84 Clinton Place, New York, N. Y. - -DARTON, N. H., - Geological Survey. - -{xix} - -DAVIDGE, WALTER DORSEY, JR., - 1 Corcoran Building. - -DAVIDSON, PROF. GEORGE, _a_, _c_, - U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, San Francisco, Cal. - -DAVIS, ARTHUR P., _a_, - U. S. Geological Survey, Los Angeles, Cal. - -DAVIS, PROF. W. M., _a_, - 2 Bond Street, Cambridge, Mass. - -DAWSON, MISS A. B., - Geological Survey. - -DAY, DR. DAVID T., - Geological Survey. - -DAY, E. WARREN, - War Department. - -DENNEY, MISS L. A., - 707 Thirteenth Street. - -DENNY, A. A., _c_, - 1328 Front Street, Seattle, Wash. - -DIEBITSCH, EMIL, - U. S. Naval Station, Port Royal, S. C. - -DILLER, J. S., _a_, - Geological Survey. - -DOBBINS, J. W., - U. S. Geological Survey, Berkeley, Cal. - -DOUGLAS, E. M., _a_, - Geological Survey. - -DOW, CAPT. JOHN M., - 83 W. Seventy-first Street, New York, N. Y. - -DUNCKLEE, JOHN B., - 912 French Street. - -DUNNINGTON, A. F., _a_, - Geological Survey. - -DURAND, JOHN, - 164 Bd. Montparnasse, Paris, France. - -DUTTON, MAJ. C. E., U. S. A., _a_, - San Antonio, Tex. - -DYER, LIEUT. G. L., U. S. N., - Navy Pay Office, San Francisco, Cal. - -EDMANDS, PROF. J. RAYNER, - Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass. - -EDSON, JOHN JOY, - 1003 F Street. - -EDSON, JOSEPH R., _a_, - 1003 F Street. - -EIMBECK, WILLIAM, - Coast and Geodetic Survey. - -ELDRIDGE, G. H., - Geological Survey. - -{xx} - -ELIOT, CHARLES, - Room 50, 50 State Street, Boston, Mass. - -ELLICOTT, ENS. JOHN M., U. S. N., - 2023 I Street. - -ELMORE, HERBERT W., - Geological Survey. - -ERBACH, JOHN, - Geological Survey. - -EVANS, H. C., - 804 Eleventh Street. - -FAIRCHILD, PROF. H. L., _c_, - University of Rochester, Rochester, N. Y. - -FAIRFIELD, GEORGE A., _a_, - Coast and Geodetic Survey. - -FAIRFIELD, W. BROWNE, _a_, - Coast and Geodetic Survey. - -FARMER, R. A., - Geological Survey. - -FERNOW, B. E., _a_, - Department of Agriculture. - -FEUSIER, H. E. CLERMONT, - 819 Grove Street, San Francisco, Cal. - -FISCHER, E. G., _a_, - Coast and Geodetic Survey. - -FISCHER, L. A., - Coast and Geodetic Survey. - -FITCH, C. H., _a_, - 3025 N Street. - -FLEMER, J. A., - 412 A Street SE. - -FLETCHER, L. C., _a_, - Geological Survey. - -FLETCHER, DR. ROBERT, _a_, - Army Medical Museum. - -FLINT, CHARLES, - 1519 O Street. - -FLINT, COL. WESTON, - 1101 K Street. - -FLOYD, FRED. W., - 539 W. Twentieth Street, New York, N. Y. - -FOGG, LINDLEY, - Sixth Auditor's Office. - -FOSTER, PROF. RICHARD, - Howard University. - -FRASER, DANIEL, - 458 Pennsylvania Avenue. - -FREER, DR. JAMES A., - 1523 I Street. - -{xxi} - -FULLER, MISS ADELAIDE H., - 1321 Rhode Island Avenue. - -GAGE, N. P., _a_, - Seaton School. - -GANE, H. S., _c_, - Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md. - -GANNETT, HENRY, _a_, - Geological Survey. - -GANNETT, S. S., _a_, - Geological Survey. - -GARDNER, C. L., - 1710 Sixteenth Street. - -GARRISON, MISS CARL L., - Phelps School. - -GILBERT, G. K., _a_, - Geological Survey. - -GILL, WILSON L., _c_, - Room 57, 115 Broadway, New York, N. Y. - -GILMAN, DR. DANIEL C., _a_, - Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md. - -GOLDIE, R. H., _c_, - P. O. Box 1110, Seattle, Wash. - -GOODALL, F. H., - Second Auditor's Office. - -GOODALL, OTIS B., - 932 P Street. - -GOODE, DR. G. BROWN, _a_, - Smithsonian Institution. - -GOODE, R. U., _a_, - Geological Survey. - -GOODFELLOW, EDWARD, _a_, - Coast and Geodetic Survey. - -GOODISON, PROF. JOHN, - State Normal School, Ypsilanti, Mich. - -GORHAM, GEO. C., - 1763 Q Street. - -GRAHAM, MISS A. M., - 1234 Massachusetts Avenue. - -GRAHAM, ANDREW B., - 1230 Pennsylvania Avenue. - -GRANGER, F. D., - Coast and Geodetic Survey. - -GRAVES, WALTER H., - Geological Survey. - -GREELY, GEN. A. W., U. S. A., _a_, - 1914 G Street. - -GRIFFITH, G. BERKELEY, - 1630 Rhode Island Avenue. - -{xxii} - -GRISWOLD, W. T., _a_, - U. S. Geological Survey, Boise, Idaho. - -GROEGER, G. G., _c_, - 310 Chamber of Commerce Building, Chicago, Ill. - -GULLIVER, F. P., _c_, - Norwich, Conn. - -GUNION, MRS. REBECCA E., - 927 O Street. - -GURLEY, CHARLES L., - 1401 Sixteenth Street. - -HACKETT, M., _a_, - Geological Survey. - -HAGADORN, LIEUT. CHAS. B., U. S. A., _c_, - Fort Leavenworth, Kans. - -HALE, L. P., _c_, - Canton, N. Y. - -HARRINGTON, PROF. MARK W., - Weather Bureau. - -HARRIS, DR. T. W., - Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass. - -HARRISON, D. C., _a_, - Geological Survey. - -HARRISON, PROF. THOS. F., _c_, - 221 W. Forty-fifth Street, New York, N. Y. - -HARROD, MAJ. B. M., - City Engineer's Office, New Orleans, La. - -HART, PROF. ALBERT BUSHNELL, - 15 Appian Way, Cambridge, Mass. - -HART, JUAN, _c_, - El Paso, Tex. - -HASBROUCK, E. M., - 1610 Fifteenth Street. - -HASKELL, E. E., _a_, - Coast and Geodetic Survey. - -HAWKINS, GEO. T., - Geological Survey. - -HAY, PROF. ROBERT, - P. O. Box 562, Junction City, Kans. - -HAYDEN, EVERETT, _a_, - Hydrographic Office. - -HAYDEN, J. J., - 929 K Street. - -HAYES, DR. C. WILLARD, - Geological Survey. - -HAYES, PROF. ELLEN, _c_, - Wellesley College, Wellesley, Mass. - -HAYS, J. W., - Oxford, N. C. - -{xxiii} - -HAZARD, DANIEL L., - Coast and Geodetic Survey. - -HEATON, A. G., - 1618 Seventeenth Street. - -HEILPRIN, GILES F., - 1227 Pennsylvania Avenue. - -HENRY, A. J., _a_, - 948 S Street. - -HENSHAW, H. W., _a_, - Bureau of Ethnology. - -HERRLE, G., _a_, - Hydrographic Office. - -HERRON, WM. H., _a_, - Geological Survey. - -HILL, PROF. R. T., - 910 Fifteenth Street. - -HINDS, DR. CLARA BLISS, - 1331 Fourteenth Street. - -HINMAN, RUSSELL, - 806 Broadway, New York, N. Y. - -HITCHCOCK, PROF. C. H., _c_, - Dartmouth College, Hanover, N. H. - -HOBBS, DR. WM. H., _c_, - University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis. - -HODGKINS, PROF. H. L., _a_, - Columbian University. - -HODGKINS, W. C., - Coast and Geodetic Survey. - -HOLDEN, PROF. E. S., _c_, - Lick Observatory, Mount Hamilton, Cal. - -HOLDEN, MRS. L. E., - P. O. Box 1027, Salt Lake, Utah. - -HOLDEN, LUTHER L., - 7 Warren Square, Jamaica Plain, Mass. - -HOLLERITH, HERMAN, - 501 F Street. - -HOLMES, PROF. J. A., _c_, - Chapel Hill, N. C. - -HOLT, H. P. R., - Takoma Park, D. C. - -HORE, CAPT. EDWARD C., _c_, - Royal Geographical Society, London, England. - -HORNADAY, W. T., _a_, - 44 Niagara Street, Buffalo, N. Y. - -HORNBLOWER, J. C., - 1402 M Street. - -HOSKINS, PROF. L. M., _c_, - University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis. - -{xxiv} - -HOSMER, EDWARD STURGES, _l_, - 1330 L Street. - -HOTCHKISS, MAJ. JED., - Staunton, Va. - -HOVEY, REV. DR. H. C., - 60 Crescent Street, Middletown, Conn. - -HOWARD, ENS. W. L., U. S. N., _c_, - Navy Pay Office, San Francisco, Cal. - -HOWELL, D. J., _a_, - 918 F Street. - -HOWELL, EDWIN E., _a_, - 612 Seventeenth Street. - -HUBBARD, GARDINER G., _a_, - 1328 Connecticut Avenue. - -HUTCHINSON, JOHN, - 933 H Street. - -HUTCHINSON, W. J., - 1707 Massachusetts Avenue. - -HYDE, G. E., - Geological Survey. - -HYDE, JOHN, - 2820 P Street. - -IARDELLA, C. T., _a_, - Coast and Geodetic Survey. - -INGRAHAM, PROF. E. S., _c_, - Seattle, Wash. - -JACKSON, REV. DR. SHELDON, - 1830 Ninth Street. - -JENNEY, DR. W. P., - Geological Survey. - -JENNINGS, J. H., _a_, - Geological Survey. - -JEWETT, W. P., _c_, - 180 E. Third Street, St. Paul, Minn. - -JOHNSON, MISS ALICE BURGES, - 501 Maple Avenue. - -JOHNSON, A. B., _a_, - Light House Board. - -JOHNSON, E. KURTZ, - 1600 Massachusetts Avenue. - -JOHNSON, DR. H. L. E., - 1400 L Street. - -JOHNSON, J. B., - Howard University. - -JOHNSON, REV. J. G., - 381 Dearborn Avenue, Chicago, Ill. - -JOHNSON, JEROME F., - 1326 F Street. - -{xxv} - -JOHNSON, MRS. MARY DAVIS, _c_, - Sitka, Alaska. - -JOHNSON, STUART P., - U. S. Geological Survey, Berkeley, Cal. - -JOHNSON, WILLARD D., _a_, - U. S. Geological Survey, Berkeley, Cal. - -JUDD, JOHN G., - 420 Eleventh Street. - -JUDSON, EGBERT, _c_, - 402 Front Street, San Francisco, Cal. - -JUNKEN, CHARLES, - Coast and Geodetic Survey. - -JUNKEN, CHAS. A., - Ordnance Office, War Department. - -JÜSSEN, EDMUND, - In care W. Tudor, Temple, Ga. - -KARL, ANTON, _a_, - 1230 Eleventh Street. - -KAUFFMANN, S. H., _a_, - 1421 Massachusetts Avenue. - -KAVANAUGH, MISS K., - Sixth Auditor's Office. - -KENASTON, PROF. C. A., _a_, - Room 4, 26 Court Street, Brooklyn, N. Y. - -KENDALL, MISS ELIZABETH, _c_, - Wellesley College, Wellesley, Mass. - -KENNAN, GEORGE, _a_, - In care J. B. Pond, Everett House, New York, N. Y. - -KENNEDY, DR. GEO. G., _l_, - 284 Warren Street, Roxbury, Mass. - -KENNON, LIEUT. L. W. V., U. S. A., - War Department. - -KERR, H. S., _c_, - Salt Lake, Utah. - -KERR, MARK B., _a_, - 402 Front Street, San Francisco, Cal. - -KIMBALL, E. F., - Post Office Department. - -KIMBALL, DR. E. S., - 737 Thirteenth Street. - -KIMBALL, S. I., _a_, - Life Saving Service. - -KING, PROF. F. H., - 1500 University Avenue, Madison, Wis. - -KING, PROF. HARRY, _a_, - Geological Survey. - -KING, WM. B., - 1328 Twelfth Street. - -{xxvi} - -KLAKRING, ALFRED, - Hydrographic Office. - -KLOTZ, OTTO J., _c_, - Interior Department, Preston, Ontario, Canada. - -KNAPP, HON. LYMAN E., - Sitka, Alaska. - -KOCH, PETER, _a_, - Bozeman, Mont. - -KRAMER, WILLIAM, - -KÜBEL, S. J., - Geological Survey. - -LACKLAND, W. E., _a_, - Geological Survey. - -LADD, GEORGE E., - Melrose Highlands, Mass. - -LAMBERT, M. B., - Geological Survey. - -LAMBORN, DR. ROBERT H., - 32 Nassau Street, New York, N. Y. - -LAWSON, PROF. A. C., - University of California, Berkeley, Cal. - -LAWSON, MISS JEANNE W., - 1231 New Hampshire Avenue. - -LEACH, BOYNTON, - Hydrographic Office. - -LEVERETT, FRANK, _c_, - U. S. Geological Survey, Madison, Wis. - -LIBBEY, PROF. WILLIAM, JR., _c_, - 20 Bayard Avenue, Princeton, N. J. - -LINCOLN, JOHN J., - Geological Survey. - -LINDENKOHL, A., _a_, - Coast and Geodetic Survey. - -LINDENKOHL, H., _a_, - Coast and Geodetic Survey. - -LINDSLEY, WM. L., _c_, - Corner Banner and Republican Streets, Seattle, Wash. - -LITTLEHALES, G. W., - 928 Twenty-third Street. - -LOOKER, HENRY B., - 918 F Street. - -LOOKER, THOS. H., U. S. N., - 1312 Thirtieth Street. - -LOOMIS, HENRY B., _c_, - Seattle, Wash. - -LOVELL, W. H., - Geological Survey. - -{xxvii} - -LYONS, JOSEPH, - 1003 F Street. - -MCCARTENEY, LIEUT. CHAS. M., U. S. N., - Hydrographic Office. - -MCCRACKEN, R. H., _c_, - P. O. Box 495, San Antonio, Tex. - -MCGEE, MRS. ANITA NEWCOMB, - 2410 Fourteenth Street. - -MCGEE, W J, _a_, - Geological Surrey. - -MCGILL, MISS MARY C., - 336 C Street. - -MCGRATH, JOHN E., - Coast and Geodetic Survey. - -MCKEE, REDICK H., _a_, - U. S. Geological Survey, Berkeley, Cal. - -MCKINNEY, R. C., _a_, - Geological Survey. - -MCLAUGHLIN, DR. T. N., - 1226 N Street. - -MACKAYE, J. M., _c_. - Shirley, Mass. - -MAHER, JAMES A., _a_, - P. O. Box 35, Johnson City, Tenn. - -MANNING, VAN. H., JR., _a_, - Geological Survey. - -MARINDIN, HENRY L., - Coast and Geodetic Survey. - -MARKS, DR. A. J., _c_, - 419 Madison Street, Toledo, O. - -MARSHALL, R. B., - U. S. Geological Survey, Berkeley, Cal. - -MASON, PROF. O. T., - 1777 Massachusetts Avenue. - -MATTHEWS, DR. W., U. S. A., _a_, - Fort Wingate, N. M. - -MELVILLE, ENG. IN CHIEF GEO. W., U. S. N., _a_, _l_, - Navy Department. - -MENDENHALL, DR. T. C., - Coast and Geodetic Survey. - -MENOCAL, CIV. ENG. A. G., U. S. N., _a_, - 44 Wall Street, New York, N. Y. - -MERRIAM, DR. C. HART, _a_, - Department of Agriculture. - -MERRILL, PROF. J. A., _c_, - State Normal School, Warrensburg, Mo. - -MESTON, R. D., - 1227 L Street. - -{xxviii} - -METZGER, F. P., - Geological Survey. - -MILEY, A. E., - Sixth Auditor's Office. - -MINDELEFF, MME. JULIE, - 1401 Stoughton Street. - -MINDELEFF, VICTOR, - Ohio National Bank Building. - -MITCHELL, PROF. HENRY, _a_, - 18 Hawthorne Street, Roxbury, Mass. - -MOSMAN, A. T., _a_, - Coast and Geodetic Survey. - -MUIR, PROF. JOHN, - Martinez, Cal. - -MUIR, ENS. W. C. P., U. S. N., - In care Hon. J. L. Beckham, Shelbyville, Ky. - -MUNROE, HERSEY, - Geological Survey. - -MURLIN, A. E., - Geological Survey. - -MURRAY, B. P., - 10 Third Street NE. - -NELL, LOUIS, _a_, - Geological Survey. - -NEWELL, F. H., - Geological Survey. - -NILES, PROF. WM. H., - Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Boston, Mass. - -NORDHOFF, CHARLES, _a_, - Coronado, Cal. - -NORMAN-NERUDA, L., _c_, - Devonshire Club, St. James Street, London, England. - -NORTHUP, C. G., - U. S. Senate. - -NOYES, CROSBY S., - 1101 Pennsylvania Avenue. - -OGDEN, HERBERT G., _a_, - Coast and Geodetic Survey. - -O'HALLORAN, T. M., - Hydrographic Office. - -O'HARE, DANIEL P., - Geological Survey. - -OLDRINI, PROF. ALEXANDER, - 1437 L Street. - -OLNEY, CHAS. F., - 137 Jennings Avenue, Cleveland, O. - -OSBORN, LIEUT. A. P., U. S. N., _c_, - Navy Pay Office, San Francisco, Cal. - -{xxix} - -OSBORNE, DR. GEO. L., _c_, - State Normal School, Warrensburg, Mo. - -OTIS, HAMILTON, _c_, - Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Boston, Mass. - -OTIS, WILLIAM H., - U. S. Geological Survey, Berkeley, Cal. - -PALMER, T. S., - Department of Agriculture. - -PARKER, E. W., - Geological Survey. - -PARSONS, FRANCIS H., _a_, - 210 First Street SE. - -PEALE, DR. A. C., _a_, - Geological Survey. - -PEARY, CIV. ENG. R. E., U. S. N., - Navy Department. - -PELLEW, HENRY E., - 1637 Massachusetts Avenue. - -PENROSE, R. A. F., JR., - 1331 Spruce Street, Philadelphia, Pa. - -PERKINS, E. T., JR., _a_, - Geological Survey. - -PETERS, EUGENE, - 458 Pennsylvania Avenue. - -PETERS, LIEUT. G. H., U. S. N., _a_, - Navy Department. - -PETERS, WILLIAM J., _a_, - Geological Survey. - -PETROFF, IVAN, _c_, - 2148 Pennsylvania Avenue. - -PHILLIPS, ASA E., - District Engineer Department. - -PHILLIPS, R. HENRY, - Room 110, 1419 New York Avenue. - -PICKERING, PROF. EDWARD C., - Harvard Observatory, Cambridge, Mass. - -PICKING, CAPT. HENRY F., U. S. N., - Navy Department. - -PIERCE, JOSIAH, JR., - 11 South Street, Baltimore, Md. - -POLLOK, ANTHONY, - 620 F Street. - -*POND, EDWIN J., - -POWELL, MAJ. J. W., _a_, - Geological Survey. - -POWELL, PROF. W. B., _a_, - Franklin School. - -{xxx} - -PRENTISS, DR. D. WEBSTER, _a_, - 1101 Fourteenth Street. - -PRINCE, HON. L. BRADFORD, _c_, - Santa Fe, N. M. - -PROWELL, GEO. R., _c_, - Hanover, Pa. - -PUMPELLY, PROF. RAPHAEL, - U. S. Geological Survey, Newport, R. I. - -RAMSEY, F. M., _c_, - Lampasas, Tex. - -RANKIN, REV. DR. J. E., - Howard University. - -REID, PROF. HARRY FIELDING, _c_, - Case School of Applied Science, Cleveland, O. - -RENSHAWE, JNO. H., _a_, - Geological Survey. - -RICE, PROF. WM. NORTH, _c_, - Wesleyan University, Middletown, Conn. - -RICHARDSON, DR. C. W., - 1102 L Street. - -RICHARDSON, T. J., _c_, - 734 E. Fifteenth Street, Minneapolis, Minn. - -RICHMOND, CHAS. W., - In care U. S. Consul, Greytown, Nicaragua. - -RICHTER, MISS C. M., - 330 A Street SE. - -RICKSECKER, EUGENE, _a_, _c_, - P. O. Box 289, Seattle, Wash. - -RITTER, H. P., _a_, - Coast and Geodetic Survey. - -RIZER, COL. H. C., - Geological Survey. - -ROBBINS, A. G., _c_, - Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Boston, Mass. - -ROBERTS, A. C., _a_, - Hydrographic Office. - -ROCHESTER, GEN. WM. B., U. S. A., - 1320 Eighteenth Street. - -ROCK, MILES, - 1430 Chapin Street. - -ROGERS, JNO. B., _c_, - Columbia Athletic Club. - -ROTCH, A. LAWRENCE, - 3 Commonwealth Avenue, Boston, Mass. - -RUSSEL, LIEUT. EDGAR, U. S. A., _c_, - Fort Sam Houston, San Antonio, Tex. - -RUSSELL, ISRAEL C., _a_, - Geological Survey. - -{xxxi} - -SANDERS, HENRY P., - 1504 Twenty-first Street. - -SARGENT, PROF. C. S., _a_, - Brookline, Mass. - -SCHAAP, C. H., _c_, - P. O. Box 32, Sitka, Alaska. - -SCHLEY, CAPT. W. S., U. S. N., _a_, - Navy Department. - -SCHMIDT, FRED. A., - 504 Ninth Street. - -SCHMITT, EWALD, - 2235 Thirteenth Street. - -SCHWATKA, FREDERICK, _c_, - 1108 First Avenue, Rock Island, Ill. - -SCIDMORE, MISS ELIZA RUHAMAH, - 1502 Twenty-first Street. - -SCOTT, W. O. N., - 603 Fifteenth Street. - -SCUDDER, PROF. S. H., _a_, - Cambridge, Mass. - -SHALER, PROF. N. S., _a_, - 25 Quincy Street, Cambridge, Mass. - -SHEPARD, PROF. EDWARD M., - Drury College, Springfield, Mo. - -SHEPARD, J. L. N., _c_, - 402 Front Street, San Francisco, Cal. - -SHEPARD, CAPT. L. G., U. S. R. M., - Treasury Department. - -SINCLAIR, C. H., - Coast and Geodetic Survey. - -SINCLAIR, J. C., - 718 Arch Street, Philadelphia, Pa. - -SLOAN, ROBERT S., _c_, - Oswego. N. Y. - -SMITH, EDWIN, _a_, - Coast and Geodetic Survey. - -SMITH, REV. ERNEST C., _c_, - Framingham, Mass. - -SMITH, PROF. EUGENE A., _c_, - University, Ala. - -SMITH, MIDDLETON, _a_, - P. O. Box 572. - -SMOCK, DR. J. C., _c_, - State Geological Survey, Trenton, N. J. - -SNELL, MERWIN-MARIE, - Catholic University of America. - -SOMMER, E. J., _a_, - Coast and Geodetic Survey. - -{xxxii} - -SPENCER, JAS. W., - Geological Survey. - -STANLEY-BROWN, JOSEPH, - Geological Survey. - -STANWOOD, JAMES HUGH, _c_, - Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Boston, Mass. - -STEDMAN, J. M., _c_, - Trinity University, Durham, N. C. - -STEIN, ROBERT, - Geological Survey. - -STOCKTON, LT. COMDR. CHARLES H., U. S. N., _a_, _c_, - Naval War College, Newport, R. I. - -STONE, JAMES S., _c_, - 131 Vernon Street, Newton, Mass. - -SUTTON, FRANK, - Geological Survey. - -SWAN, HON. JAMES G., _c_, - Port Townsend, Wash. - -TALBOT, MRS. LAURA OSBORNE, - 927 P Street. - -TARR, R. S., _c_, - Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. - -TAYLOR, DANIEL F., - 918 F Street. - -TAYLOR, JAS. L., - 1515 Twentieth Street. - -THOMAS, MISS MARY VON E., _a_, - 235 New Jersey Avenue SE. - -THOMPSON, PROF. A. H., _a_, - Geological Survey. - -THOMPSON, GILBERT, _a_, - Geological Survey. - -THOMPSON, LAURENCE, _a_, - 1628 S Street. - -THOMPSON, CAPT. R. E., U. S. A., _a_, - War Department. - -THOMPSON, J. W., - 1419 I Street. - -TISDELL, WILLARD P., - 1323 Thirteenth Street. - -TITTMANN, O. H., _a_, - Coast and Geodetic Survey. - -TOWNSEND, MRS. JULIA C., - 1316 R Street. - -TOWSON, R. M., _a_, - Geological Survey. - -TURNER, J. HENRY, - Coast and Geodetic Survey. - -{xxxiii} - -TWEEDY, FRANK, _a_, - Geological Survey. - -URQUHART, CHAS. F., _a_, - Geological Survey. - -VAN HISE, PROF. C. R., _l_, - U. S. Geological Survey, Madison, Wis. - -VASEY, DR. GEORGE, _a_, - Department of Agriculture. - -VERGES, L. F., _c_, - Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Boston, Mass. - -VINAL, W. IRVING, _a_, - 1106 A Street NE. - -VIVIAN, THOMAS J., - 212 New Jersey Avenue. - -WADDEY, JOHN A., - Hydrographic Office. - -WADHAMS, LIEUT. A. V., U. S. N., _c_, - Andover, Mass. - -WALCOTT, CHAS. D., _a_, - National Museum. - -WALKER, ELTON D., _c_, - Fort Sheridan, Ill. - -WALLACE, HAMILTON S., _a_, - Geological Survey. - -WANAMAKER, HON. JOHN, - 1731 I Street. - -WARD, PROF. HENRY A., _c_, - 10 College Avenue, Rochester, N. Y. - -WARD, LESTER F., _a_, - 1464 Rhode Island Avenue. - -WARD, ROBERT DEC., - Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass. - -WARDER, B. H., - 1515 K Street. - -WARTEGG, ERNST VON HESSE, _c_, - Bern, Switzerland. - -WEED, WALTER HARVEY, _a_, - Geological Survey. - -WEIR, JOHN B., _a_, - The Fredonia. - -WELD GEO. F., - Metropolitan Club. - -WELLING, DR. JAMES C., _a_, - 1302 Connecticut Avenue. - -WELLS, E. HAZARD, - The "Post," Cincinnati, O. - -{xxxiv} - -WEST, PRESTON C. F., _c_, - Calumet, Mich. - -WHITE, DR. C. H., U. S. N., - In care A. B. Gilman, Haverhill, Mass. - -WHITE, DAVID, - Geological Survey. - -WHITING, HENRY L., - U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, West Tisbury, Mass. - -WILDER, GEN. J. T., _a_, _l_, - Johnson City, Tenn. - -WILDER, MISS MARY, - Johnson City, Tenn. - -WILLENBÜCHER, EUGENE, - Coast and Geodetic Survey. - -WILLENBÜCHER, W. C., - Coast and Geodetic Survey. - -WILLIAMS, CHARLES AUGUSTUS, - 1301 Eighteenth Street. - -WILLIAMS, DR. GEO. H., - 803 Cathedral Street, Baltimore, Md. - -WILLIAMS, PROF. H. S., _c_, - Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. - -WILLIAMS, WILLIAM, _c_, - University Club, New York, N. Y. - -WILLIS, BAILEY, _a_, - Geological Survey. - -WILLIS, MRS. BAILEY, - 1006 Twenty-second Street. - -WILLITS, HON. EDWIN, - Department of Agriculture. - -WILSON, H. M., _a_, - Geological Survey. - -WILSON, THOMAS, - 1218 Connecticut Avenue. - -WINCHELL, PROF. N. H., _c_, - 120 State Street, Minneapolis, Minn. - -WINES, M. W., - Coast and Geodetic Survey. - -WINSLOW, PROF. ARTHUR, - State Geological Survey, Jefferson City, Mo. - -WINSTON, ISAAC, - Coast and Geodetic Survey. - -WINTER, DR. JOHN T., - 1528 Ninth Street. - -*WOODWARD, A. E., - -{xxxv} - -WOODWARD, R. S., _a_, - Coast and Geodetic Survey. - -WRIGHT, ENS. BENJAMIN, U. S. N., - Coast and Geodetic Survey. - -YEATES, CHAS. M., _a_, _c_, - 404½ Liberty Street, Winston, N. C. - -YOUNG, F. A., - Coast and Geodetic Survey. - - * * * * * - -_Summary_. - - Active members 373 - Corresponding members 95 - Life members 6 - --- - Total 474 - - - -VOL. III, PP. 1-30, PL. 1, MARCH 28, 1891 - -THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE - - - - -SOUTH AMERICA - -ANNUAL ADDRESS BY THE PRESIDENT - -GARDINER G. HUBBARD - - - - -[Illustration: National Geographic Society seal] - - - - -WASHINGTON - -PUBLISHED BY THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY - -Price 25 Cents. - - -{1} - - -VOL. III, PP 1-30, PL 1., MARCH 28, 1891. - -THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE - - - - -SOUTH AMERICA. - -ANNUAL ADDRESS BY THE PRESIDENT, - -GARDINER G. HUBBARD. - -(_Presented to the Society December 19, 1890._) - - -Two years ago I selected for my annual address _Africa, or the Dark -Continent_; last year _Asia, the Land of Mountains and Deserts_; this -year I have chosen _South America, the Land of Rivers and Pampas_. - -[Illustration: VOL. III, 1891, PL. 1. SOUTH AMERICA. From the -International Cylopedia, by permission of Dodd, Mead & Company.] - - * * * * * - -The recent meeting of the Pan-American Congress has called attention -to South America, a part of our continent under republican forms of -government and rich in products which we lack, while it relies mainly -on other foreign countries for goods which we manufacture. North -America and South America should be more closely united, for the one -is the complement of the other. - -The prominent features of South America are its long ranges of -mountains--next to the Himalayas the highest in the world,--its great -valley, and its immense plateau extending from the Straits of Magellan -to the Caribbean sea. - - -THE MOUNTAINS. - -The Andes rise in the extreme south at Cape Horn, run in a -northerly course through Patagonia and southern Chili; thence -continuing in three nearly parallel ranges, the western chain called -the Andes, the others known as the Cordilleras, through Peru, {2} -Bolivia and Ecuador to Colombia. The Cordilleras and the Andes are -connected in several places by knots or cross-chains of mountains. In -Colombia the Andes turn to the northwest, reaching their lowest -elevation at the Panama canal, and continue thence, through Central -America and North America as the Rocky Mountains, to the Arctic ocean. -Near the source of the Magdalena and Cauca rivers in Colombia, the -eastern range is deflected to the east along the northern coast of -South America. The central range disappears between the Magdalena and -Cauca rivers. - -The Andes form the water-shed of the continent. The waters on the -western slope flow into the Pacific ocean. The rivers that rise on the -eastern slope, in northern Peru and Ecuador, force their way through -the Cordilleras and at their foot drain the montaña of Bolivia, Peru -and Brazil. In the southern part of Peru and upper Chili there is a -broad sierra or plateau, at an elevation of from twelve to fourteen -thousand feet. The streams that rise in this sierra either empty into -salt or alkaline lakes or sink into the ground. - -Unlike all other long ranges of mountains, the continental or eastern -side of the Cordilleras is nearly as precipitous as that extending to -the Pacific. Craters of extinct volcanoes and volcanoes now in -eruption are found in all parts of the chain. In Ecuador there are -fifty-two volcanoes, and twenty of these, covered with perpetual snow -and presided over by Chimborazo and Cotopaxi, rise out of a group of -mountains encircling the valley of Quito, and are all visible from a -single point. Three are active and five others have been in eruption -at one or more times since the conquest. One of these, Sangai, is the -most active volcano on the globe: it sends forth a constant stream of -fire, water, mud and ashes, and some assert that it has done so -without intermission for 300 years; 267 explosions have been counted -in one hour. This is also the land of earthquakes: in 1868, 50,000 -lives, we are told, were lost in one day; the tremor was felt over -four countries and from the Andes to the Sandwich Islands. The tidal -wave washed a gunboat of the United States on shore at Arica in lower -Peru, 1000 miles to the south, and sixteen hours later the wave was -felt across the Pacific at New Zealand. - -A range of mountains separates Eastern Venezuela and Guiana from the -valley of the Amazon. Other ranges south of the Amazon run -southwestwardly, following the Atlantic coast line from Cape St. Roque -to the Rio de la Plata. - - -{3} RIVER SYSTEMS. - -A great oceanic current flows along the western coast of Africa to the -equator, where it is deflected across the Atlantic ocean and becomes -the equatorial current. On reaching the coast of South America near -Cape St. Roque, it is again deflected north and south. Trade winds -blowing over the equatorial current reach the coast at Brazil -surcharged with vapor; as they follow up the valley of the Amazon the -vapors are partially condensed and frequent showers refresh the land; -but when the clouds at the foot-hills of the Andes meet the colder -winds from the south and strike the snow summits of the Cordilleras, -all the moisture is condensed, and the rain falls in tropical showers -for half the year and waters the largest and richest valley in the -world. - -In this valley, among the Cordilleras, three great rivers--the -Orinoco, the Amazon and La Plata--rise. The mountain ranges north and -south of the Amazon divide this great valley into three lesser -valleys, down which the Orinoco, the Amazon and La Plata flow, -watering three-fourths of South America. - - -_The Orinoco_. - -The headwaters of the Orinoco rise in two ranges of mountains; the -Cordilleras in the west, and the mountains of Venezuela many hundred -miles to the east. Four hundred tributaries, abounding in beautiful -falls and cataracts, unite to form this great river. - -The whole valley for 1600 miles is filled with dense and tangled -forests. Noble trees of unrivalled beauty blossom in endless -prodigality. Birds of gorgeous plumage nestle in their lofty recesses. -Tall ferns, vines, creeping plants and parasites form a dense tangle -of undergrowth, swarming with life. Myriads of insects in great -variety, reptiles of strange and singular form, lizards and venemous -serpents find their homes and sustenance in the wild, dense mass of -vegetation. - - -_The Amazon_. - -The valley of the Amazon collects its waters from a region 1800 miles -wide from north to south and 2500 miles long from the Andes to the -Atlantic ocean. Even at the foot of the Andes the Amazon is a mighty -river. The valley rapidly narrows to a width of 600 or 700 miles, and -then more gradually to the ocean, {4} where it is only 150 miles wide. -Its total fall from the foot-hills of the Andes to the Atlantic is -very slight, not over three or four hundred feet, and probably -considerably less. - -The rims of the valley are formed of diorite and sandstone, and are -raised only a little above the flood-plain, which is formed of mud and -silt, the detritus brought down by the Amazon and its tributaries. The -flood-plain is from fifty to one hundred miles wide, gradually -narrowing as it approaches the ocean. Through this valley the Amazon -cuts its way, separating often into channels which sometimes run -parallel to each other for several hundred miles, frequently forming -large islands, or expanding into lakes. Similar flood-plains are found -on all its larger tributaries. - -Up from the ocean into this valley an immense tidal wave rolls, with a -bore, twice a day, forcing back the current of the Amazon 500 miles -and inundating a portion of the flood-plain. - -In the early autumn the equatorial rise commences in the headwaters of -its tributaries, far south of the equator. The rains and melting snow -raise the streams, and these the waters of the Amazon. As the sun -crosses the equator and moves to the north the rain follows its -course, and the branches that have their source in the east and -northeast add their flood to the waters of the southerly branches. The -flood in the Amazon is thus continued for nearly six months, raising -its waters from 30 to 50 feet. The channels are filled, and the -flood-plains are overflowed. The whole valley becomes a net-work of -navigable waters, with islands and channels and lakes innumerable, -forming a great inland sea, which the Brazilians call the -Mediterranean of America. The upland, though only a little above the -flood-plain, is rarely overflowed. - -The plants and animals of the flood-plain were formerly considered as -distinct from those of the upland as are the plants and animals of -Europe from those of America; but later investigations show that there -is but little difference between the species. - -The sea breeze blows up the valley about a thousand miles. Then for -1500 miles the atmosphere is stagnant and sultry; the climate is that -of a permanent vapor bath. The dense foliage forms dark, lofty vaults -which the sunlight never penetrates, and over all hangs a perpetual -mist. The abundance and beauty of vegetation increases, and the trees -which at the mouth of the river blossom only once a year, here bloom -and bear fruit all the year round. - -{5} Many great rivers run into the Amazon from the north and the -south, most of them navigable, for many hundred miles. The Madeira, -its greatest tributary, after running 2000 miles, empties into the -king of rivers, without making any perceptible difference in its width -or depth. - -This mighty current, rushing into the ocean, meets the equatorial -current and for over one hundred miles keeps on nearly a straight -course, when the stronger and mightier oceanic current deflects it to -the north. At from 200 to 300 miles from land, the sea is strongly -tinged, and in April and May has nearly the clay-yellow hue of the -Amazon. And even further north, about 400 miles from its mouth, the -naturalist on the Amazon tells us, "we passed numerous patches of -floating grass mingled with tree trunks and withered foliage; among -these I espied many fruits of the Amazonian palm. And this was the -last I saw of the Amazon." - - -_The Rio de la Plata_. - -The La Plata, the outlet of the waters of central South America, is -formed by the union of the Uruguay and Parana, about 150 miles from -the ocean; a little lower down, at Montevideo, it is 62 miles wide and -widens rapidly to the Atlantic, where it discharges more water than -all the rivers of Europe. The tributaries of the Parana are -fan-shaped. Its most eastern branches rise in the mountains of Brazil, -within seventy miles of the Atlantic ocean; and 1500 miles away, on -the other side of the continent, its most western tributaries rise -only 125 miles from the Pacific. - -Steamers ascend the Parana, Paraguay and Cuyaba, 2100 miles to Cuyaba, -and the river with its branches is navigable for 5000 miles. - - -_The San Francisco_. - -The San Francisco, about 1800 miles long, rises near Rio de Janeiro -and flows north about 1200 miles between parallel ranges of mountains, -then turns east and forces its way through the coast range to the -Atlantic ocean. It runs through the gold and diamond regions of -Brazil, and has a considerable population along its banks. It has many -falls and rapids, and considerable slack-water navigation. - - -{6} GENERAL DESCRIPTION. - -In Asia, the different countries have natural boundaries; the people, -soil and climate of one country are unlike those of others. In Europe -there are few natural boundaries, though different races inhabit the -several states. - -In South America only one dominant race is found, and though natural -boundaries exist, yet they do not serve as boundaries to the different -states, other than Venezuela and Guiana. Venezuela and Guiana are -watered by the Orinoco and by several rivers that flow from the -Amazonian mountains to the ocean. The whole coast is low and fertile, -but hot and unhealthy. The principal product is sugar, raised by -negroes and coolies. The interior is sultry and thickly wooded; it is -inhabited by Indian tribes, the principal of which are the cannibal -Caribs, and by negroes as uncivilized as any of the tribes in Africa. -Guiana is controlled by the English, French, and Dutch. Cayenne, the -prison for French convicts, is the capital of French Guiana. - -Colombia and Ecuador occupy the northwestern part of South America. -They are situated on both sides of the Andes, and have every variety -of climate. The country is well watered; fertile but unhealthy on the -coast, fertile and healthy on the elevated plains, cold and barren on -the mountains. - -In Brazil, besides the Amazon, La Plata and San Francisco, there are -several large rivers with fertile valleys; but occasional droughts, -sometimes lasting for two years, will prevent portions of Brazil from -becoming densely inhabited. - -On the Pacific coast south of Ecuador, the rainfall becomes less and -less. For three thousand miles along the coast of Peru and Chili there -is no natural harbor; a plain from ten to fifty miles in width extends -from the Pacific to the foot-hills of the Andes. The Antarctic current -runs along this coast; the southeasterly winds blow over it on to the -land and cool the air; but as the winds are of low temperature their -scanty vapor is dissipated by the heat radiated from the land, and not -a drop of rain refreshes the thirsty soil. Many mountain torrents run -from the snow-clad summits of the Andes, and the beauty of their -narrow valleys forms a grateful contrast to the dry and barren sands -of the plain. - -In the southern part of Chili and in that part formerly called -Patagonia, rain is abundant and the country is fertile. - -The longest stretch of low and comparatively level land to be {7} -found in the world extends through the center of South America. A boat -starting from the Caribbean sea could sail up the Orinoco over a -thousand miles, then down the Casquiare, which runs from the Orinoco -into the Rio Negro, down that river to the Amazon, up the Amazon to -the Madeira, then up that river and one of its branches through Brazil -and Bolivia, and with a short portage of six and a half miles to one -of the branches of the Paraguay, down the Paraguay and La Plata to the -ocean. - -The level land crosses the La Plata and continues southward through -the Argentine Republic and Patagonia to the Straits of Magellan. -Within this plain lie all the interior of Venezuela and Brazil, a part -of Bolivia, all Paraguay, Uruguay, and the Argentine Republic. The -pampas resemble our prairies, but run from north to south, while the -prairies run from east to west. - -The streams in the plain south of the valley of the La Plata rise in -the Andes and flow southeastward to the Atlantic. - - -THE ABORIGINES. - -The aborigines of America, except the Esquimaux, are unlike the -natives of other countries; the most marked difference is in their -language. They are divided into a number of tribes differing from each -other in some respects, yet with manners, customs and religious -beliefs generally similar. - -In South America there are more than one hundred distinct languages, -and two thousand dialects. About five or six million Indians have as -many dialects as are found among the 800,000,000 inhabitants of Europe -and Asia. Their languages are polysynthetic, being of a higher type -than the agglutinative languages. In the polysynthetic tongue the -substantive, adjective and verb are joined or combined, and oftentimes -a whole sentence will be comprised in a single word. - -The natives in the valleys of the Orinoco and Amazon are forced to -cultivate a little ground on the flood-plains, as the forests are -thick and impenetrable. They live principally on the fruit of the palm -(of which there are five hundred varieties), cocoa and bananas, fish -and turtles. There are no roads or paths through the forests except -the numerous channels of the rivers, called igarapes or furos. The -tribes on the pampas live principally on game and wild cattle. - -Humboldt tells us that the navigator on the Orinoco sees with surprise -at night the palm trees illuminated by large fires. From {8} the -trunks of these trees are suspended the habitations of a tribe of -Indians, who make their fires on mats hung in the air and filled with -moist clay. The same palm tree furnishes also food and wine and -clothing, and thus supplies every want and even the luxuries of life. - -The Indian race as a whole is believed to be superior to both the -negro and the Malay, as neither of those races has ever attained to -the civilization of the Incas of Peru or of the Indians of Mexico and -the Aztecs of Central America. Many of their myths and folk tales are -common, not only to the Indians of one part of the country, but also -to other tribes in distant parts of the continent, and even to the -negroes of Africa, and the Arabs of upper Egypt. All the tribes on the -continent have substantially the same habits of life, the same methods -of warfare, the same general characteristics, and a language built -substantially on the same plan. - -From these observations it might seem that the Indian tribes of South -America were allied to those of Africa or to the Malays, but on -further consideration the similarity seems due rather to a like stage -of civilization than to identity of race. - - -THE INCAS OF PERU. - -In crossing from Arequipa in Peru to La Paz in Bolivia, the road -ascends the Andes, makes a slight descent into the barren, desolate -valley between the Andes and Cordilleras, crosses Lake Titicaca, and -then descends to La Paz. Lake Titicaca, the largest lake of South -America, is on a plateau between twelve and thirteen thousand feet in -height, the most elevated table land on the globe, excepting Thibet. -This lake is surrounded by lofty, snow-clad mountains, the highest of -which is Illampa, 22,300 feet in height. - -On this lake are the remains of the most ancient civilization of South -America. Cyclopean ruins of temples and fortresses stand as perpetual -monuments of a vanished culture; when and by whom they were erected, -we know not; their builders left no other record of their existence. -The wandering Indians told the first Spaniards that they existed -before the sun shone in the heavens. From one of the rocky islands of -Lake Titicaca, about the year 1000 or 1100, the Sun, parent of mankind -and giver of every good gift, taking compassion on the degraded -condition of {9} the Indians, sent two of his children, Manco Capac -and Mama Oello Huaco, to gather the wandering tribes into communities, -to teach them the arts of civilized life and to inculcate the worship -of the Sun. From Lake Titicaca, this brother and sister, husband and -wife, went down the valley to Cuzco, where they were bidden to found -an empire. Manco Capac was thus the first Inca. There were ten or -twelve Incas before the conquest of Peru. Their conquests extended -through the entire valley of the Cordilleras, until over four hundred -tribes, with a population of many millions, became subject to their -dominion. - -The territory of the Incas extended from the southern part of Chili -northward into Colombia, beyond Quito, a distance of two thousand -miles, and west to the Pacific Ocean. On the eastern slope of the -Cordilleras, toward the great plain of the Amazon, the Incas met a -stronger and more savage people, with whom they were in constant -warfare. In the several passes of the Cordilleras they constructed -fortifications to protect their borders and prevent invasion. - -The capital of the territory, Cuzco, was situated in a beautiful -valley ten thousand feet above the sea. Amidst the Alps, such a valley -would be buried in eternal snow, but within the tropics it enjoys a -perpetual spring. Here the Incas loved to dwell, and remains of -immense fortresses, palaces and temples, testify to their power and -culture, and to the number of their subjects. Tens of thousands of -laborers must have been required to construct such edifices. When we -reflect that these people had no beasts of burden except the llama, -which could only carry light loads, and no mechanical means for -transporting the vast blocks of stone used in constructing these -buildings, we are astonished at what they accomplished. The pyramids -of Egypt are not more wonderful. - -Great highways were built, running north, south and west, connecting -different parts of the Empire. One followed the valley between the -Cordilleras and Andes to Quito, another crossed the Andes and followed -the sea-coast north and south to the extreme limits of their country. -All traveling was on foot. Large and comfortable tambos, or inns, were -erected every few miles, and larger ones at the end of a day's -journey. Couriers were stationed at regular intervals, each of whom -had his allotted station, between which and the next it was his duty -to run at a certain pace bearing his message, and on his approach to -the {10} next station he signalled to the next chasquir, as the -couriers were called, to be ready to carry forward the message. In -this way, it is said, about 150 miles a day were made. - -These couriers traveled more quickly than the mail-carriers of Europe, -and the means of communication were then, Squier tells us, far better -than they are to-day. Many of these old tambos are still maintained. -One in which Squier spent the night was 180 feet in length, with rooms -forming three sides of a court. - -The country of the Incas had every variety of climate, and the -products were those of every part of the new world. On the coast, -perpetual summer reigns, with all the variety and beauty of tropical -vegetation. At a higher elevation, the trees are always green, and -while one kind sheds its blossoms and ripens its fruit another is -budding and unfolding its bloom. Meantime, on the top of the mountains -is eternal winter. In some places, as at Potosi, the changes of -temperature are frequent and extremes of heat and cold are experienced -in a single day. The weather in the early morning is frosty; in the -forenoon, mild and balmy; in the afternoon, scorching, and in the -evening, cool and delicious. - -On the Pacific slope of the Andes, reservoirs were constructed, from -which irrigating canals watered the whole plain now lying desolate and -barren. - -The conquered tribes were incorporated into the nation and became the -people of the Incas. If the conquered tribe was strong and warlike, -some of its members were removed to distant parts of the country and -were replaced by the inhabitants of those regions, to whom privileges -and immunities were given as compensation for the change of home. The -conquered tribes quickly realized the benefits of the rule of the -Incas and became faithful and loyal subjects. - -The government of the Incas was a paternal despotism controlling the -most minute affairs of daily life. Knowledge, the Incas taught, "was -not intended for the people, but for those of generous ability, for it -would render persons of low degree vain and arrogant." - -The Incas established a communal system similar to that of Russia. -One-third of the land belonged to the Inca, one-third to the priests -of the Sun, and the remainder to the people, who were required to -cultivate the land of the Inca and of the priests, as well as their -own. The land was divided among the families yearly, according to -their number. Every newly {11} married couple received a stated -portion which was increased as the family increased. - -Their only means of writing was by a cord, called quippus, about two -feet long, composed of threads of different colors twisted together, -from which a quantity of smaller threads hung like a knotted fringe. -The colors denoted sensible objects or sometimes abstract ideas, -though the principal use of the quippus was for arithmetical purposes. - -The civilization of the Incas appears to have been of a higher order -than that of the Mexicans. It is not probable that hieroglyphics were -in use among any of the South American Indians, though it is said that -traces of a pictorial alphabet have been found. The people were -contented and happy, although they were deprived of personal liberty, -although their daily life was supervised by their rulers, and although -they held only communal rights of property. They had neither ambition -nor strong love of country. - -When Pizarro landed in Peru there were two Incas, one at Cuzco and the -other at Quito, and the bitter conflict which was raging between them -made the conquest of both easy. Pizarro had only 180 followers, but -they were Spanish cavaliers, carrying fire-arms; and with this small -force he overturned the Incas and enslaved the people. The descendants -of the Quichuas, or the people of the Incas, still inhabit the land--a -mild, apathetic, servile and dejected race. It is said that after the -conquest the women put on a black mantle, which they have worn ever -since, as perpetual mourning for the last of the Incas. - -There are a few descendants of Spaniards in Peru, but the population -consists chiefly of the descendants of the Quichuas and mixed -Spaniards and Quichuas. The Peruvians of to-day are less civilized -than those who lived 400 years ago; they have less liberty and are -poorer. - - -DISCOVERY OF THE AMAZON. - -Great rivers have usually been discovered and explored by ascending -them from the ocean to their sources; the Congo and the Amazon were -explored downward from their sources to the ocean. - -Three hundred and fifty years ago, Gonzalo Pizarro, then governor of -Upper Peru, heard of a land of silver and gold, spices and precious -stones; a land where spring reigned and all tropical fruits abounded. -He determined to follow the little {12} stream which, rising in the -Andes, near Quito, flowed eastward; to explore the country, and find -the happy land. He set out with 350 Cavaliers, mounted on Spanish -horses and attended by 4000 Indian slaves. - -The first part of the route was easy; the little stream soon became a -river, then broadened into the Napo; but the farther they went, the -slower and more difficult was their progress as they passed from the -open forest and the cool and invigorating breezes of the Andes into -the sultry valley of the Napo. Their way now led through forests more -dense, darker and more impenetrable than those described by Stanley, -for the valley of the Amazon is richer than the valley of the Congo. -Natives armed with poisoned arrows opposed their progress; food became -scarce, treachery was on every side, and their number gradually -diminished by death and by desertion of the slaves. - -The natives told them of a greater river than the Napo which they -would find a few days' voyage farther down. This river, they said, -flowed through a more populous and richer country, where food was -abundant and gold was found in every stream. Pizarro determined to -build a bark and to send Orellano as commander to find and return with -food and succor. For this vessel, the forests furnished the timber; -the shoes of the horses were converted into nails, distilled gum was -used for pitch, and the garments of the soldiers were a substitute for -oakum. In two months, a brigantine was launched, the first European -vessel that ever floated on the waters of the Amazon. The Napo grew -broader and deeper as the little company rapidly floated down, until -it became a mile wide. Three days after they left Pizarro, they saw -before them a river, many times larger than the Napo, which the -Indians called Parana-tinega, King of Waters; but we call it the -Amazon. There was no cultivation, little food could be obtained, and -the Indians were hostile instead of friendly. What was to be done? -Behind them was the wilderness, before them the promised land. The -journey back would be difficult and dangerous; the temptation to -explore the wonderful river was too great to resist. One man alone was -faithful to Pizarro, and he was left on the bank while Orellano sailed -down the river. The wonder of the explorers daily increased as other -rivers larger than the Napo flowed into the Amazon, now on the north, -more frequently on the south. Month after month passed, the river grew -so broad that they could not see from one side to the other. {13} -Great islands were passed, channels running parallel with the main -stream larger than any river they had ever seen. Still on they went, -till after several months they reached the Atlantic Ocean. Then they -sailed north in their little boat, skirting the coast to Trinidad, -where they found a vessel which bore them to Spain. They recounted the -story of the great river; the wonderful country through which they -passed; and the rich mines of which they had heard. They told fabulous -tales of the Amazonians they had encountered, strong and masculine -women, armed with bows and arrows, living by themselves, admitting men -into their country only one month in the year, killing or sending away -the male children and training the girls to become amazons and -warriors. - -Orellano was received by the Queen; his treachery was forgotten and a -new expedition was sent out under his command; but he died before -reaching the river. - -Meantime, Pizarro and his followers slowly and with difficulty made -their way down the Napo, taking as many months to reach the Amazon as -Orellano had taken days. They looked in vain for their companions, but -found only the solitary man who had been left behind, scarcely alive, -and from him learned of Orellano's desertion. Further explorations -being impossible, they turned back, reached Quito two years after -their departure, their horses gone, their arms broken or rusted, the -skins of wild animals their only clothing. "The charnel house seemed -to have given up its dead, as they glided onward like a troop of -spectres." Half of the Indians had perished, and of the three hundred -and fifty cavaliers only eighty were left. - -Such was the end of an expedition which for dangers and hardships, -length of duration, and constancy displayed is probably unmatched in -the annals of American discovery. - - -GUIANA. - -Guiana is the only country of South America not inhabited by the Latin -race. It was acquired for Great Britain by one who acted contrary to -his instructions in attacking a power, Spain, with which his own -country was at peace. - -Gonzalo Pizarro, on his journey down the Napo in 1539, heard wonderful -stories of a golden city far away on the banks of the Orinoco, -surrounded by mountains of gold. Rumors of this golden city were -carried by English navigators to Great Britain, {14} with legends of a -prince of Guiana, whose body, first smeared with turpentine, was then -powdered with gold dust, so that he strode among his people a majestic -golden statue. Adventurers started in search of this El Dorado, some -from Peru, others from Quito and from Trinidad; but the golden city -was never found. They, however, brought back reports of chiefs whose -bodies sparkled with gold dust as they danced, who had golden eagles -dangling from their breasts and great pearls from their ears; they -told of mines of diamonds and gold, and of the natives who longed to -exchange their jewels for jews-harps. - -Sir Walter Raleigh determined to find this country and bring to his -queen its fabulous riches, for he believed that the silver and gold -mines of Mexico and Peru had made Spain the first state in -Christendom--"that purchaseth intelligence and creepeth into counsels -and endangereth and disturbeth all the nations of Europe." - -In 1595, Sir Walter sailed from England and arrived at the Isle of -Trinidad, where he overthrew the Spaniards, then sailed up the -Orinoco, or one of its branches, four hundred miles, until hunger and -sickness compelled him to return. Although he did not reach the golden -city, he could see the mountains far in the distance which he believed -surrounded it, and he found the shining sand on the banks of the -Orinoco. In Guiana he raised the flag of England and compelled the -Indians to swear fealty to his queen. - -Twenty years later, a prisoner in the Tower, he was released in order -to make a second voyage in search of this El Dorado for King James. He -sailed in 1617, accompanied by his eldest son; but disaster and -sickness met him at every step. He reached the Orinoco again, too -feeble to land. So his son and Captain Keymis went instead. Keymis -returned after a month of exploration, bringing Raleigh the news of -the death of his son in an attack on a Spanish town. He brought -reports of the golden city, of the mines of gold, diamonds and -emeralds, but neither gold, diamonds nor emeralds to confirm the truth -of these reports. Raleigh said, "I am undone;" Keymis replied, "I know -then, Sir, what course to take." He went to his cabin and killed -himself. - -Raleigh returned to England, a broken down old man. The Spaniards -demanded his life of James as they had demanded it of Elizabeth after -his first expedition, on the ground that in time of {15} peace Raleigh -had attacked the Spanish forces and invaded their country. Elizabeth -had refused, but James yielded. Raleigh was executed, but Guiana -became an English colony. - -The gold and silver mines of Peru have failed; little gold has been -found in Guiana, but its rich and fertile soil, watered by tropical -rains, has been a source of greater wealth than the gold mines of -Peru. - - -POPULATION OF SOUTH AMERICA. - -As the countries of South America were all settled at about the same -time and by the same race and have passed through a like history, they -can be considered as a whole. - -The United States and Canada, with a rough, uncongenial climate and -sterile soil, were settled by the Anglo-Saxons, the remainder of the -western continent by the Latin race and, excepting Brazil and Guiana, -by Spaniards. In North America the Anglo-Saxon race has dominated, -carrying civilization from the Atlantic to the Pacific, expelling and -exterminating the aborigines. There has been no mingling of the -Anglo-Saxon and Indian races, no backward step, but ever civil, -religious and intellectual progress. The Latin race conquered Central -America and South America, a perfect Eden of natural loveliness, one -hundred years prior to the settlement of the Anglo-Saxon; yet to-day -they constitute but a thin layer over a scarcely populated country. -Their leaders were men of unbounded ambition, rapacious, of great -endurance, but cruel and unscrupulous. They sought adventure, -expecting it would bring them gold and silver. For that end they -plundered, despoiled and enslaved the Indians. Gold and silver flowed -into their hands; luxury, effeminacy, and weakness followed. - -The Spaniards in America have scarcely retained the civilization they -brought from the old world. They have intermarried with the Indians, -and this mixed race is said to inherit the vices of each of their -ancestors without the virtues of either. - -A sparse population, mostly Spanish and foreigners, inhabit a zone ten -to twenty miles in depth along the coast of South America, from the -Bay of Panama to the Caribbean sea. All the cities and settlements, -excepting a few in the Argentine Republic, are near the coast. - -Back of this zone, on the Pacific, is a mixed Spanish-Indian -population, much larger than the Spanish and foreign population; {16} -and on the Atlantic a population which is Spanish-Indian, -Spanish-Negro, and Negro-Indian, occupies a zone from twenty to one -hundred miles wide. Beyond the first zone a few Spanish families and -foreigners are found at the gold and silver mines, on the pampas, at -the cattle ranches, and on a few haciendas in Peru and Chili. In -Brazil the Portuguese and some Englishmen and Germans raise coffee and -sugar, and oversee the diamond and gold fields. On the Amazon there -are a few small settlements to collect the India rubber and cacao of -that valley. - -Save these sparse settlements, the interior of South America is -inhabited by wild tribes of Indians, uncivilized save for the presence -of a few Catholic priests, who have given the Indians the cross and -the image of the Virgin Mary, which they worship, mingling the -Catholic religion with their old idolatries and barbarous rites. The -natives are believed to be more idle and less civilized than when the -Spaniards discovered America. - -The Spaniards are the grandees of the country; too proud to work, they -leave all business to the foreigners and all labor to the Indians, -retaining in connection with the half-breeds all political power. When -the regents appointed by Spain were expelled in the early part of the -present century, republics were established, but they were republics -only in name; the people were neither educated nor fitted for -self-government. Their presidents generally exercised the powers of -dictators and often assumed that title. They have rarely enjoyed a -long rule, for their power and position were sought by others. -Revolution in these countries has passed from the acute to the chronic -stage. - -A recent traveller in Peru, who wished to inspect its railroad system, -was informed that only 26 miles were in running order, the remainder -being under the control of the revolutionists who were then less than -80 miles from the capital. He asked why the rebels did not take Lima, -the capital, and was told, "because there is no unanimity among them; -they are suspicious of each other, and cannot depend upon any one -man." Instead of being anxious to serve their country they are only -interested in robbing her. - -Another traveller in Bolivia, who witnessed some of these revolutions, -says they sometimes occurred three times in as many weeks, and that it -would have been ludicrous had not their results been often violent and -tragic. There has been no settled government, no continued peace, no -permanent policy, in any Spanish {17} country. The hope for the future -is that the English, German, and French population will increase and -become permanently identified with the country; they will then take an -active interest in politics and direct the policy and administration -of the government. - -Commercial and banking business is in the hands of the French, -Germans, and English. The Italians carry on a small trade at corner -groceries and fruit stores; the French keep the hotels and -restaurants; the English and Germans are the shippers, merchants and -bankers. - -Regular lines of English, French, and German steamers run from Europe -to Panama and thence along the western coast of South America, -stopping at ports en route; some return by Panama, others sail around -Cape Horn to Europe by Buenos Ayres and Rio Janeiro. Other lines run -direct from Europe to Brazil, and twenty-four lines connect Europe and -the Argentine Republic; while there are only four lines of American -steamers trading to South America. - - -BRAZIL. - -We have given a general description of South America, but three -countries--Brazil, the Argentine Republic and Peru--require further -notice: Brazil, because it is the largest country, occupying -three-sevenths of South America, and the only considerable state that -was not settled by the Spaniards; the Argentine Republic, because it -is the largest and most populous of the Spanish states and, with Peru, -illustrates the political and financial phases through which the -Spanish republics have passed. - -The valley of the Amazon makes Brazil the most fertile region of the -world. The tropical woods are so thick and the creepers and -undergrowth so luxuriant that animal life is almost entirely confined -to the trees above and the waters below. - -The valley is not unhealthy, and, though under the equator, the -climate is tempered by the trade winds and the evaporation from the -vast Amazonian waters. Beyond the valley is the montaña district, -where the land is higher and the climate semi-tropical, where there -are few creepers, little underbrush, and open forests, and where both -animal and vegetable life is less abundant. Southward, beyond the -montaña district, are the evergreen pampas, where no trees grow and -where the animal and vegetable life are unlike either that of the -valley of the Amazon or that of the {18} montaña. As in Africa, so -here, men who live in the dark forest, die in the open. Mr. Stanley -selected thirty dwarfs from the tropical forests of Africa to take to -England, but as soon as they came into the grass-lands, the clear air -and bright sun, they languished and died before the coast was reached. - -Northeast of the pampas, on the Atlantic coast, south of the Amazon, -is a province bounded on the south by a range of high mountains, where -rain is abundant; at Maranhao, its seaport, there are 280 inches of -rainfall in the year. South of Maranhao there is much less rain; and -instead of two seasons, the wet and the dry, which prevail in the -valley of the Amazon, there are the four seasons of the year, but -without extremes of heat and cold. - -Over the greater part of Brazil grows the coffee tree, the -sheet-anchor of Brazilian prosperity, since it furnishes 60 per cent. -of all the coffee grown in the world. The plant is not indigenous to -Brazil, but was brought there about one hundred years ago from the old -world. - -Brazil, inhabited by the Portuguese, with an imperial government, has -been saved from the anarchy and insolvency of the Spanish republics. -Her railroads have been built with economy and have been generally -successful. It had a population in 1885 of 11,000,000; two-thirds of -whom were Indians and negroes, and many of the negroes were slaves. -Slavery existed longer in Brazil than in any other civilized country; -the lash was commonly used on the plantation, and work continued from -early in the morning until late at night until 1888, when a law was -passed finally emancipating 1,300,000 slaves. It was opposed by the -planters, who said freedmen would not work, but would let the coffee -and sugar plantations fall to ruin. It was probably this act which -caused the overthrow of the empire, for in revenge the planters joined -the insurgents in establishing the Republic. - -The Portuguese and Brazilians are more peaceable and orderly than the -Spaniards or Spanish-Americans; we may therefore reasonably hope that -Brazil will not repeat the history of the Spanish republics, which has -been one of disintegration, for these republics have separated into -two or more States. The greatest difficulty in maintaining its immense -domain will arise from the enormous distances and the time required to -travel between different parts of the country. From Rio de Janeiro to -Matto Grosso is 140 days' journey by land, and by water the distance -is 3000 miles. Communication is maintained by steamer {19} through the -Argentine Republic up the Rio de la Plata and its branches. Although -the country has many long and navigable rivers, yet the means of -intercommunication are very poor; for the rivers are little used, and -the forests, creepers, and undergrowth are so dense that the country -back of the river-banks is impenetrable, and even if roads should be -opened the soil is so luxuriant that they would be quickly overgrown -and soon become impassable. - -Lines of steamers have been subsidized by the Brazilian government and -run up the Amazon 2000 miles to Tabatinga, at the boundary line of -Peru; there connecting with lines subsidized by the Peruvian -government, which run 1500 miles farther up the river. These vessels -carry supplies to the settlers and bring back India rubber, -Brazil-nuts, cacao, quinine, and the beautiful woods of the forest. - -Yet steamers are rarely seen on the Amazon; they have few passengers, -and have not opened the country; we are told that the Mississippi -carries more vessels in a month, and the Yang-tse-kiang in a day, than -the Amazon in a year. - - -THE ARGENTINE REPUBLIC. - -The history of South American republics is illustrated in the -Argentine republic. - -It is a vast pampas or prairie, extending from Brazil to the Andes, -and from Bolivia with a southeasterly trend 2000 miles to southeastern -Terra del Fuego. - -The climate of the northern portion is tropical; of the central part, -semi-tropical; of the extreme south, temperate or cold. The country is -generally well watered excepting in the northwestern part, where the -land is dry and alkaline, like the arid regions of North America. The -soil is a rich, deep loam, from four to six feet in depth, excepting -in Patagonia and the western pampas, where there is a coarse gravel -and detritus from the Andes. Instead of the dense tropical forest of -the Amazon valley, the pampas are covered by a coarse grass, three or -four feet high, growing in large tussocks and all the year round of a -dark green. The strong grass crowds out all trees and almost all -plants, so that scarcely a flower relieves the uniform, everlasting -verdure. - -Instead of the arboreal animals of the Amazon there is the rhea or -American ostrich, "ship of the wilderness," adapted to the {20} -pampas, but unable to live in the forests. The gauchos have hunted it -for the last three centuries, but it is now passing away and will soon -be lost to the pampas, as the buffalo has been to the North American -prairie. - -The pampas are far better adapted to the raising of cattle than our -prairies, for the grass is always green and the winters are milder. -Cattle, horses, and sheep imported by the Spaniards and turned on to -the pampas rapidly increased, and now immense herds feed on the -plains. - -The Indians who inhabit the pampas, instead of being confined to one -locality and journeying only by canoe, like the Indians on the Amazon, -wander over the length and breadth of the pampas, hunting the ostrich -and cattle. The cattle are tended by gauchos, as the cow-boys are -called, half-breeds as wild as the herds they tend. Constant warfare -exists between the Indians and the gauchos, unless they unite to -attack the settlers. After one of the Indian raids the government dug -an immense ditch from a river to the Andes and drove the Indians to -the farther side, and since then there have been fewer raids--and -fewer Indians. - -The land was held in large blocks of many thousand acres, worked by -overseers and gauchos. The animals were killed by hundreds of -thousands for their skins. This state of things is, however, gradually -passing away, for during the last twenty years emigrants from the old -world have settled in the country as farmers and planters. - -The fourteen provinces which form the Argentine Republic have never -been welded into one nation, and have seldom had a moment's peace. The -gauchos have been a continual scourge, and the gaucho generals its -rulers and harriers combined. Unfortunately, here, as in other Spanish -states, one dictator has succeeded another. Thirty presidents, or -dictators, have reigned within fifty years. At one time five provinces -had each a separate dictator. The neighboring republic of Uruguay, -formerly a part of the Argentine Confederation, had 26 revolutions in -the twenty-three years from 1864 to 1887. - -For some time Buenos Ayres and its dictator ruled the republic; then -the country provinces rebelled, and civil war ensued; one province was -arrayed against another, and all against Buenos Ayres. The provinces -prevailed and the gaucho general, Rosas, occupied Buenos Ayres. -Scarcely was this civil war ended when a war arose with the republics -of Uruguay and Paraguay. - -{21} Money was required to pay the army and the cost of civil and -foreign wars. Every dictator had his friends for whom provision must -be made. Large debts were created; banks were chartered; $200,000,000 -of paper money were issued. There were several different circulating -mediums; each province strove to outdo the others in the issue of a -currency which quickly depreciated. Companies for different purposes -were organized, and many were subsidized, directly or indirectly. We -are told that in one case $1,500,000 was paid for a concession, and -that "Turkish officials, who have hitherto been the champion artists -in backsheesh, leave off where Argentine blackmailers begin; the price -of a drainage scheme at Buenos Ayres would buy a whole cabinet of -pashas at Galata." - -Railroads were built running from Buenos Ayres in different -directions, as each province demanded a railroad, with little regard -to its population or business. - -A road was commenced to cross the Andes and open communication between -the Atlantic and Pacific over mountains which had never been crossed -by a carriage of any kind. - -The country was not settled so rapidly as the rulers desired. -Inducements were therefore offered to immigrants. The passage money -from Europe and the expenses of the immigrant to his new home have -been paid and land for settlement sold at low rates. It is estimated -that over 1,000,000 foreigners have settled in the country during the -last twelve years, and the proportionate increase of population in the -same period has been twice as great as that of the United States. -Grazing lands have been sold at nominal prices to immigrants, or -leased for terms of years in lots of 6,000 acres at a rental of $100 a -year. Bonds were issued not only by the government but by the -provinces, by the municipalities and by the railroads, and all were -readily taken in England and Germany. To enable the emigrants to pay -for and to cultivate their land, the owner of real estate on -depositing his title deeds with the hypothecary banks and having a -valuation of his real estate, received cedulas, or bonds of the bank, -for one-half its appraised value; these cedulas for large amounts were -issued and sold in Europe; and thus, as ever, more money was required, -more bonds were issued. In 1889, a year of peace, the public debt was -increased 120 per cent., and it is now said to be over one thousand -four hundred millions of dollars, and the principal and interest of -two-thirds of this amount is payable in gold at a premium of 200 per -cent. - -{22} In 1890 there was no money to meet the interest and general -prostration ensued. - -It is difficult to ascertain the debt of the republic; but if the -accounts given in the English publications are correct the debt is -greater in proportion to its population and wealth than that of any -other country in the world. The only hope of the Argentine Republic is -to wipe out the debt by insolvency and bankruptcy. - - -PERU. - -A strip of land with 1200 miles of sea coast, without a natural -harbor, and 200 to 300 miles wide, consisting of a plain, mountains, a -plateau, and still another range of mountains--this is Peru. - -In the west, where the rain never falls, are numerous small rivers, -to-day mountain torrents, to-morrow dry, rocky beds. - -Between the lofty ranges of snow mountains is the highest plateau in -the world, after Thibet. The southern part of this plateau is dry and -desolate, the northern portion is well watered, with beautiful streams -running now through deep cañons and then through rich, fertile valleys -steadily descending toward the northeast; the valleys growing ever -broader, warmer and more delightful, until the montaña is reached, -only a few hundred feet above the Atlantic, where the streams have -become rivers, navigable to the ocean. - -The western slope of the mountains is dry and barren, so that -breadstuffs and provisions are imported from Ecuador on the north, or -from lower Chili, far to the south. Yet no other country has -contributed so much to the world's fertility; for here are the great -deposits of guano and nitrates, more valuable than mines of gold and -silver. These deposits yielded for over thirty years a net annual -revenue of $20,000,000. - -The eastern slope, rich and fertile, producing every tree and flower, -all fruits and vegetables grown in any part of the world; in the -mountains, mines of gold and silver, platinum and cinnabar, copper and -tin, lead and iron, coal and petroleum, nitrates and asphalt: a -bankrupt nation in the midst of untold wealth--such is Peru. - -To bring the minerals down to the ocean, tens of millions of dollars -were expended on thirteen roads; but though none of them were ever -finished, they reached a few of the poorer mines. Seven of these roads -were built by the government, the others by private parties. - -{23} The sales of guano and the production of gold and silver made -Peru a proud and wealthy nation. Everything prospered until the war -with Chili, from 1879 to 1883, ending in the defeat of Peru and the -loss of a portion of her territory, including a large part of her -guano deposit. She was unable to keep her railroads in operation, much -less to extend them, or to pay the interest on her bonds; and thus -bankruptcy followed defeat. At last, after fourteen years of default -and six years of negotiation, a contract was concluded with Peru by -Mr. M. P. Grace, of New York, in January, 1890, on behalf of the -bondholders. The bondholders became concessionaires, and in -consideration of the release of the bonded debt due to them by Peru, -receive valuable concessions, of money, of mines, of railroads, of -lands and of guano. These concessions include among other things a -government subsidy of $400,000 a year, secured from the customs of -Callao; the mines of Cerro de Pasco, which have yielded a yearly -average of $2,000,000 for over one hundred years; the entire railway -system (769 miles in length) of the state; a grant of 5,000,000 acres -for the extension of the Lake Titicaca railroad; a grant of 4,500,000 -acres for the extension of the Central or Oroya railroad to the -navigable waters of the Ucayala, one of the main tributaries of the -Amazon; the exclusive control of the guano deposit until 2,000,000 -tons have been sold, from which they expect to sell at least 80,000 -tons a year, which will net $1,000,000. The concessionaires on their -part agree to liquidate the Peruvian debt, to repair the railroads, -and construct 974 miles in extension of the existing system at an -estimated cost of $16,000,000, and to assume certain other obligations -to a limited amount. - -This, perhaps the most remarkable settlement ever made between a -bankrupt nation and its creditor, is due largely to Mr. Grace, and -cannot fail to develop the resources of Peru and restore her days of -prosperity. - - -TRADE RELATIONS WITH THE UNITED STATES. - -It appears from the foregoing statement that all the carrying trade to -and from South America, by water, is by foreign steamers; that only -four of these are American lines; that the railroads are generally -owned and operated by Englishmen; that the bankers and merchants are -Englishmen or Germans; that {24} many of the mines, cattle ranches, -coffee plantations and other estates are owned by non-resident -foreigners; and that the largest consumer of South American products -is the United States, although this country sells few of its -manufactures and products to South America. - -The English steamers, in the usual course of trade, load with English -dry-goods consigned to English houses in South America, where they are -sold and the proceeds invested in coffee and other products, which are -sent in the same vessels to the United States; there sold, and the -money invested in our produce for carriage to England. The English -therefore obtain the profits on manufacture, on the freight to South -America, on the sale of the goods in South America, on the freight -from South America to the United States, on the sale of those goods, -and finally on the freight of the American breadstuffs carried to -Europe. For the successful prosecution of any trade between two -countries, it is essential that each shall produce what the other -wants: Thus, we raise breadstuffs which are not grown on the Caribbean -sea nor in the valley of the Amazon, nor in Peru or upper Chili, and -we also manufacture goods required in all parts of South America, -where they have few factories; there, coffee, wool, India rubber, -cacao and other articles are produced, which we require. Here, -therefore, are the factors necessary for a prosperous trade. Such a -trade we formerly enjoyed with South America: In 1852, six hundred -United States vessels entered the harbor of Buenos Ayres, or more than -twice as many as those of all other nations combined; now only two per -cent. of the shipping entering that harbor belongs to us. Our war -came, iron steamers took the place of wooden sailing ships, we levied -a duty on coffee and rubber, South America levied a duty on our -manufactures, other countries subsidized lines of steamers, while we -refused all subsidies; and our trade with South America rapidly fell -off, as freights were carried cheaper in foreign than in American -ships, and the trade of South America passed from the United States to -England, Germany and France. - -It is said that we cannot regain this trade, because we cannot, -without protection maintain our own manufactures, much less compete -with the Europeans in an open market; and therefore that it will be a -waste of money to subsidize our vessels. But the larger the market the -cheaper we can manufacture, and we can {25} surely find a large and -new market for our breadstuffs. It is worth while to make the -experiment at least, to give our vessels the same subsidy and -protection that has been given to the European lines, and to our -merchants and bankers, an opportunity to regain the trade with South -America. At first the odds will be greatly against us; but if we show -the same energy and ability in cultivating trade with South America -that our fathers exhibited, and that we have shown in other -directions, we must ultimately succeed. - -It is now proposed to tax the products of South America, unless the -South American states reciprocate and admit our breadstuffs and -manufactures free. If this scheme can be carried out, a large and -prosperous commerce will be established between North America and -South America, and American houses will be started in the large cities -to dispose of our manufactures and ship the products to South America. -By this interchange, our manufacturers and farmers will find a market -for their goods and products, our mercantile navy freight for its -vessels, and our bankers and merchants a profitable business in the -large cities of South America. - - -RAILROADS. - -We have already referred to the several railroads which start from the -little ports on the Pacific coast and run up the valleys toward the -Andes. Three of these, among the most remarkable roads in the world, -ascend to a greater elevation than any others, and to a height which -in Europe or the United States, would be above the snow level. They -were intended to reach the gold and silver mines between the Andes and -Cordilleras. - -The first, called the Oroya or Central railroad, 111 miles in length, -starts from Callao on the Pacific, and crosses the Andes, at an -elevation of nearly 15,000 feet, to the plateau between the Andes and -the Cordilleras. It is expected that this road will be extended to the -navigable waters of the Amazon. - -Three hundred miles southward, the second road runs from Mollendo, -Peru, by Arequipa to Puno on Lake Titicaca, and thence northward on -the plateau 407 miles to San Rosas, on the route to Cuzco. The road -from Mollendo to Arequipa runs through a country so destitute of water -that the only supply for {26} the engines and stations is by an iron -pipe 8 inches in diameter, and 50 miles long, running from an -elevation of 7,000 feet to the sea-coast. - -Seven or eight hundred miles south of Mollendo, a line runs from -Valparaiso in Chili to Buenos Ayres, 870 miles. It crosses the Andes -through a tunnel two miles long, at an elevation of 10,568 feet above -the sea; after leaving the mountains it runs over the pampas two -hundred miles, without a curve or a grade over three feet above or -below the plain, and will soon be completed from ocean to ocean. - -From Rio de Janeiro several roads have been constructed over the -mountains west of that city to different parts of Brazil. One of these -runs westwardly toward Bolivia. - -Bolivia has recently granted concessions for the construction of a -road from La Paz to connect on the west with the Peruvian roads at -Lake Titicaca, and on the east with the Brazilian lines on the -Pacific; and thus ultimately a road will run from Mollendo on the -Atlantic ocean by Lake Titicaca and La Paz to Rio de Janeiro. - -There are now from 6000 to 7000 miles of road in operation in the -Argentine Republic, 5000 to 6000 in Brazil, and 3000 to 4000 miles in -the other states, making a total of about 15,000 miles of railroad in -operation. - -A proposition is now before the public for the construction of the -Pan-American railroad, from the Caribbean sea southward to the -Argentine Republic to connect with the Peruvian, with the Brazilian, -and ultimately with the Argentine roads. - -The route that seems to be most feasible starts at Cartagena, where -there is a splendid bay and harbor, within three days sail from -Galveston and six days from New York. It follows the valley of the -Magdalena river 800 miles to Dividal, 1700 feet above the sea. Here, -near the head waters of the Magdalena, the route crosses the eastern -Cordilleras at an elevation of about 6,500 feet to the head waters of -the Caqueta, or Yapura, a branch of the Amazon, and thence runs down -that river 375 miles to the mouth of the Engarros, only 550 feet above -tide-water. From the Caqueta river, the route passes through Ecuador -to Iquitos, Peru, crossing fourteen tributaries of the Amazon. From -Iquitos the route ascends the Amazon and the Ucayle, one of its -southern tributaries, 500 miles to Napal, then continues across the -montaña {27} and the numerous valleys of the Amazon about 600 miles, -to Santa Cruz in Bolivia, or 2400 miles from Cartagena; while a branch -will run up the Apurimac to Cuzco. - -This road would run for 2000 miles along the foot hills of the -Cordilleras, and in these mountains is probably the richest mining -region in the world; here gold, silver, copper, lead and coal mines -are found. The gold and silver mines do not seem to have been -thoroughly explored, although untold millions of the precious metals -have been extracted from them. These mines are generally in cold and -treeless regions, where coal, labor and food are difficult to obtain; -where freights are high and machinery of all kinds most expensive. -This road would greatly facilitate the opening and working of these -mines, and not only make them profitable but develop a large and -lucrative traffic. - -Much of Bolivia is above the navigable waters of the Amazon, and many -of its provinces are now land-locked and almost isolated from -communication with the outer world. The proposed road would cross many -branches of the Amazon, and thus connect with fifty thousand miles of -navigable waters, at least 9000 of which are above Iquitos; and it is -claimed that the business from 20,000 miles of navigable waters would -find by this route a nearer outlet to Europe and America than by Para. - -There is every variety of climate on the route. The valley of the -Magdalena is sultry; every afternoon the water grows tepid, and the -stones burning hot, in the sun's rays. In crossing the Cordilleras the -cool breezes of the mountains are met. The road then descends into the -valley of the Amazon, through a rich and not unhealthy region, though -it has the damp, hot, climate of a tropical country, and thence passes -through the montaña district, which is generally high, healthy and -fertile. - -This country, under a wise government, is capable of sustaining an -immense population and giving abundant support to such a railroad; but -it is now unexplored, excepting the valleys of the navigable rivers, -and is uninhabited save by wild and savage Indians, though these are -not numerous. - -The route up the Magdalena may be expensive by reason of the climate, -but not otherwise. The road in the mountain district will necessarily -be costly, and also in the sierras, because it must {28} cross the -numerous branches of the Amazon, and the precipitous mountains between -the valleys, and from the difficulty of obtaining labor and material -for construction. Mr. Orton, who crossed from one branch of the Napo -to another, says: - -"We crossed the stream and the intervening ridges, and their name is -legion; sometimes we were climbing up an almost vertical ascent, then -descending into a deep dark ravine to find a furious river, while on -the lowlands the path seemed lost in the dense bamboos, until the -Indians opened a passage with their machetes and we crept under the -low arcade of foliage." - -Even if the railroad were built, almost all the produce of the Amazon -and montaña country could be carried more cheaply by water to Para -than by rail to Cartagena; while goods from England and America would -be carried cheaper by steamer to the Isthmus of Panama, and thence to -all ports on the Pacific ocean, than by steamer to Cartagena and up -the Magdalena across the Andes to the valley of the Amazon, and then a -second time across the Andes to the Pacific ocean. The greater part of -the business to and from the mines would be by the railroad. - -At present, as there could not be sufficient business to pay the -operating expenses of such a road, it must rely on government -subsidies to build and operate it. - -Those who have given the most consideration to the subject say that -the road need not be an expensive one to operate, and in the important -element of time it would have a great advantage over the route via -Para. As a means of promoting the settlement of the country and -developing commerce, which cannot exist without population, the -railroad would seem to be a necessity, for navigation has neither -opened the country nor brought in emigrants and we may fairly assume -that it will not suffice in the future. - - -CONCLUSION. - -In conclusion I will quote from two writers on tropical America. -Buckle says: - -"Amidst the pomp and splendor of nature, no place is left for man; he -is reduced to insignificance by the majesty with which he is -surrounded. The forces that oppose are so formidable that he has never -been able to make head against them. - -"The energies of nature have hampered his spirit; nowhere else is the -contrast so painful between the grandeur of the external world and -{29} the littleness of the internal, and the mind, cowed by this -unequal struggle, has been unable to advance. - -"Here, where physical resources are the most powerful, where -vegetation and animals are most abundant, where the soil is watered by -the noblest rivers and the coast studded by the finest harbors, the -profusion of nature has hindered social progress and opposed that -accumulation of wealth without which progress is impossible." - -Mr. Bates, the naturalist, after a residence of many years on the -Amazon, closes his book as follows: - -"The superiority of the bleak north to tropical regions is only in its -social aspects, for I hold to the opinion that although humanity can -reach an advanced state of culture only by battling with the -inclemency of nature in high latitudes, it is under the equator alone -that the perfect race of the future will attain to complete fruition -of man's beautiful heritage, the earth." - -_Washington, January, 1891_. - - -{30} - - - - -VOL. III, PP. 31-40, APRIL 30, 1891 - -THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE - - - - -GEOGRAPHY OF THE LAND - -ANNUAL REPORT BY VICE-PRESIDENT - -HERBERT G. OGDEN - - - - -[Illustration: National Geographic Society seal] - - - - -WASHINGTON - -PUBLISHED BY THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY - -Price 25 Cents. - - -{31} - - -VOL. III, PP. 31-40, APRIL 30, 1891 - -THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE - - - - -GEOGRAPHY OF THE LAND. - -ANNUAL REPORT BY VICE-PRESIDENT - -HERBERT G. OGDEN. - -(_Presented to the Society January 23, 1891_.) - - -Very few of the geographic events of the past year have been of such -an essential nature as to require a reference in this report, and yet -some of them are of surpassing interest. Fraught, as many of them are, -with policies that must have a marked influence in the future in -developing the still uncivilized regions and increasing the prosperity -of the established communities, they present a field for research that -has already attracted the political economist, enlisted the labor of -the philanthropist, and excited the cupidity of commerce. - - * * * * * - -The division of Africa, as commonly referred to, has naturally aroused -the most profound attention of all civilized peoples. But few have -attempted to penetrate the darkness of the future with predictions of -the ultimate results of the partition of this great continent. That -civilization will eventually follow, we may feel reasonably assured; -and if we could but see the end in the establishment of powerful -nations without the repetition of history in the quarrels, strife, and -war that have preceded the settled order of political progression on -other continents, we might well hope the human had improved his -humanity and believe we had entered the border land of the millennium -that enthusiasts have so long held up to us as the final stage in the -progress of man. - -{32} The professions of the African powers are peaceful, but in the -division of these unknown millions of square miles it requires but -little penetration to discern the elements for protracted strife in -future generations. The agreement between Germany and England, by far -the most important of the compacts to extend the protection of -European nations to particular zones not embraced in the Kongo Free -State, exemplifies in a marked degree the disputes that may arise, and -with what avidity the civilized nations have sought mutual recognition -of their right to dominate in specified spheres. As might have been -expected, however, in an attempt to divide great areas that have not -even been mapped, and with an economic value still to be determined, -the boundaries of the spheres are oftentimes indefinite, and instead -of settling disputed questions, but defer them to the generations yet -to come. There are colonies, protectorates, and spheres of influence, -with boundaries sometimes so ill defined that we may conceive they -have been purposely left indeterminate, that at the proper time the -most powerful may push their frontiers to include regions that the -adventurous may proclaim desirable acquisitions. - -The area of Africa is computed at nearly 12,000,000 square miles; and -about 9,500,000 square miles are claimed by the powers as under their -control, protectorate, or influence within the tentative boundaries -that seem to have been very generally agreed upon. Fully 83 per cent. -of this area has been acquired during the past fifteen years. We have -seen during this period the possessions of Spain increase from 3,500 -to 200,000 square miles; England, from 280,000 to 2,000,000; France, -from 280,000 to 2,300,000, while Italy and Germany, that were without -a square rod a few years ago, now claim extensive areas--Italy about -360,000 and Germany over 1,000,000 square miles. Portugal, though not -less grasping, seems to have been less successful, as she has acquired -less than 100,000 square miles. Perhaps having encountered a more -powerful nation in her path may account for this, but the total area -within her "sphere" is nevertheless not insignificant, reaching as it -does over three-quarters of a million of square miles. In the Kongo -Free State we find another million square miles, which many believe -will ultimately become a Belgian colony; but in any event, occupying -as it does the larger part of the basin of the Kongo, it is destined -to be the scene of an activity in the development of the continent -fruitful of the most important results. - -{33} We must remember, too, that England now occupies Egypt, and that -with her protectorate over Zanzibar and her sphere of influence to the -northward of that state, that has not yet been limited, it is not -improbable that she will eventually reach the Mediterranean, -establishing a more extended influence in northern Africa than even -that which she has exerted over the southern end of the continent. -Should England's influence in the north result in the occupation of -all the territory that is apparently within her "sphere," we may -conceive some of the complications likely to arise, and see the -realization of the proviso in the recent Anglo-German agreement -granting her the right of way to build a railroad through the German -sphere east of Lake Tanganyika. Englishmen have expressed grave doubts -as to the wisdom of conceding to Germany this large territory east of -Lake Tanganyika, claiming it was rightfully theirs through discovery, -and as they are estopped from intercommunication to the westward of -the lake by the boundaries of the Kongo Free State, view with alarm -the possible intricacies of the situation when they may attempt to -exercise their rights in the German sphere. But doubtless there are -compensating advantages derived from the agreement, as many earnest -and able men commend the concessions made by their government in view -of the greater influence that has been acquired in other regions where -it has not heretofore been generally conceded. - -South of the Zambesi there are still other elements that promise fruit -for strife ere the region is recognized as settled to the satisfaction -of the contending powers. Boundaries now but illy defined must be -adjusted before the venturous pioneers shall know to which nation -their lands belong, and we may well foresee in the sections where -exploration develops riches and abundance that the peaceful measures -of arbitration will fail to satisfy the claims to dominance. We have, -too, an element in the south African republic that must ere long find -vent in a more pronounced movement to secure a seaport than that made -a few years ago. The fact that Delagoa bay, the finest harbor on this -section of the African coast, is the natural outlet for these people -and for the extensive regions adjacent that may eventually come under -their control, points to this bay becoming a bone of contention if the -powers interested do not conclude the present arbitration on a just -and satisfactory basis. On the lower Niger there are also points of -friction, and even the sands of the great {34} Sahara are becoming the -subject of dispute in the anxiety to establish power that may wield an -influence in distributing the wealth that may be found. - -From what regions of the continent the future wealth is to be derived -we cannot predict. The uncertainty is, perhaps, the consideration in -the problem of development that leaves vast areas with undefined -boundaries, though nominally within the sphere of influence of a -specified power. There are fully 2,000,000 square miles yet to be -explored before we may know the general geographic features of the -continent, and a much larger area that must be examined and studied by -experts before any reasonable estimate of its value and adaptability -to the schemes of civilized man can be approached. The great strides -that have been made in recent years in seizing upon the unclaimed -territories doubtless received the larger impetus from the revelations -in Mr. Stanley's explorations. The Kongo is recognized to be a natural -highway leading to a region believed to be susceptible of remunerative -development. Preparations have been made to construct a railroad -around the falls in the lower river to overcome the greatest practical -obstacle to its fullest utilization. We may reasonably expect -commercial enterprises on extensive scales to speedily follow the -completion of this road and hasten the acquisition of a more perfect -knowledge of the Kongo basin, not within the boundaries of the Kongo -Free State alone, but also the region drained by the great tributaries -from the north and the sections naturally dependent upon this great -river system. - -The Kongo is but one line on which the general advance is being made -upon the interior of the continent. The French seem determined upon -extending their influence on the northern and western coasts, and the -Portuguese, English, Germans, and Italians are pronounced in their -efforts on the eastern coast, while the English are careful, too, of -their interests from the south, and seem to have almost unlimited -scope north of Victoria Nyanza. The progress of the advancing -colonization will necessarily be accelerated or retarded by the -geographic conditions encountered in the different regions. In some, -it may be the difficulty of maintaining communication with older -settlements; in others, that the land is unproductive or the probable -gains not sufficiently attractive; and lastly, the great density of -the native population in certain districts is likely to prove a -hindrance that it may require many years to overcome. On the lower -Niger, in {35} the British west African colony, in Egypt, in Natal, on -the shores of Lake Victoria Nyanza, and in parts of the Kongo basin, -it is estimated that the native population is nearly as dense as in -India; but the climatic conditions are so unfavorable that it is not -probable that any attempt will be made to advance in these regions for -a more serious purpose than to maintain a foothold for the future. The -more attractive districts for the white man are thought to be much -less populous, and are not scourged with such an unhealthy climate. - -Even now the nations of Europe are planning to enter these great -unknown fields. There is an expedition on the western coast, under the -explorer Cameron, investigating the conditions for trade; and the -rumors of the organization of wealthy companies to work in the several -"spheres of influence" but impress upon us the fact that the Old World -is moving to lay bare the resources of the great continent, and we may -hope with an energy that will overcome all obstacles, open new fields -to mankind, and relieve the nations of the horrors of human traffic in -which they have been too long encouraged. But it would be vain to hope -there will be no bloodshed, for where man has great rival interests -history teaches us they are settled by the sword; and we can hardly -believe the peaceful methods of arbitration will have gained such sway -as to rob history in her predictions as to the regeneration of -"darkest Africa." - - * * * * * - -On the western hemisphere also there have been events of most -interesting import, in that they foreshadow a closer union of the -people of the two continents. Unlike Africa, in that this hemisphere -has been under the control of the more intelligent races of men for -several generations, so that discovery and the cruelties attending the -establishment of supremacy are virtually questions of the past, the -interests involved are on a different plane, though not on a higher -moral sphere, as we can conceive no greater Christian duty than the -regeneration of the uncivilized, but a sphere affecting the relations -of established communities that for generations have been wielding an -influence in the world's history on principles recognized to be the -product of civilization. The metes and bounds of the states are well -defined, with few exceptions, and the ambition for territorial -accretion has been so greatly subdued by the misfortunes of their -earlier histories, that the time seems to be propitious for {36} -advancing those greater questions of public policy that naturally -arise from their community of interests. The proposition to convene a -Pan-American congress was for several years viewed with suspicion, and -was even designated by some as chimerical, but the suggestion took -root. Many thoughtful men believed such a conference would lead to a -better understanding between the people of the states represented, and -that, while the fruits might not be made immediately apparent, the -foundation would be laid for lasting benefits. The interest manifested -by the different nations and the high character of the representatives -they sent to the conference clearly indicated that deliberations were -to be undertaken in good faith. We need not follow the deliberations -of this body, nor even revert to the many questions discussed. Since -the adjournment we are beginning to appreciate some of the results. -The recent establishment of the "Bureau of the American Republics" is -one of the first practical evidences of work accomplished. This bureau -is maintained by proportionate contributions from the nations -represented in the congress, and is intended to be the medium for -collecting and disseminating information on commercial, industrial, -and cognate subjects. If we consider the different characteristics of -the people of the two continents--their manners, customs and methods -of business--we can readily conceive the bureau has before it a labor -of no little magnitude, but one that, fairly accomplished, cannot fail -to be beneficial and of lasting value. - -Further evidence of the work of the congress is apparent in the -organization of a commission of experts to project the -long-contemplated inter-continental railway--a scheme that, dependent -upon individual effort, would doubtless require many years for -accomplishment, but undertaken under international auspices we may -hope will be pressed to a speedy conclusion. - -The assembly of delegates to consider a monetary unit for the -republics of the two continents is also the result of the congress. -The progress of this conference will doubtless be watched with -peculiar interest, coming as it does when our own people are in the -midst of a reactionary effort to habilitate silver as a standard coin. - -The revolution a year ago that gave birth to the United States of -Brazil, it was feared by many would lead to a state of anarchy that -would end disastrously to the new nation and perhaps involve -neighboring states. Fortunately these forebodings have {37} not been -realized, and the recent general election in Brazil, which seems to -have been conducted without violence, has caused a feeling of -confidence that we may well believe will continue and permit this -great state to enter heartily into the new era of material development -that seems opening to our sister republics. - - * * * * * - -Work on the construction of the Nicaragua canal has steadily -progressed during the year. A harbor for light-draft vessels has been -constructed at San Juan del Norte, and satisfactory progress has been -made in constructing the railway designed to facilitate the work of -excavation. It has been hoped by the friends of this project that the -canal would be constructed with funds raised by private subscription. -The admirable management of the preliminary work of surveying and -organization were good grounds for their belief; but the bill recently -introduced in Congress asking a guarantee for one hundred millions of -bonds to be issued, indicates that expectations of friends were too -sanguine, and that the financial backing that had been believed to be -assured has for some reason not been developed. This may be only a -temporary alarm, due to the general financial stringency that has -prevailed during the past few months, and on the recurrence of an -easier money market the necessity for the relief asked from Congress -will disappear. - - * * * * * - -The Panama canal project, supposed to have been abandoned in hopeless -financial ruin, has recently been revived, with new concessions -extending the period for construction, and, it is currently reported, -a scheme for a colossal lottery company for raising the means for -prosecuting the work. It seems incredible that this canal shall become -a fact in this generation; but if it is the feasible route its -projectors claim, it is not improbable that the demands of a future -generation may necessitate its construction. - - * * * * * - -A year ago I commented upon the improvement of the Mississippi river. -Since then one of the greatest floods on record has visited the lower -river country, devastating a large area. It brought to the settlers in -the valley, however, a new experience, and has inspired them with a -confidence in the levée system that finds expression in the demand for -levées of approved construction from Cairo to the Gulf. The flood of a -year ago covered many square miles. A large proportion of the area, -{38} however, was not protected by levées, and another large -proportion was only partially protected; and while, therefore, the -disaster impressed the general public with a belief that the levées -were a failure, the facts really point to the contrary. In former -notable floods it has not been unusual for one hundred or more miles -of levée to be washed away before the flood subsided, but on the -recent occasion there was a total length of less than five miles -destroyed in some 1,100 miles of levée that had been believed to be -safe. This is a remarkable showing, and has naturally inspired the -advocates of the system with greater confidence. It points to the -possibility of constructing levées at a reasonable expense that will -stand the pressure of water for the height that it has been computed -necessary to build them. There is a grave doubt, however, in the minds -of some as to whether the computed heights, the levées holding intact, -will afford sufficient cross-section to carry off the volume of water -draining from the catchment basins. Some interesting computations on -this subject have recently been made by General Greely, the chief -signal officer,[1] from observations made during an extended period. - -[Footnote 1: North American Review, May, 1890.] - -The question raised is not a new one, but, considered in the light of -the statistics presented, seems to involve the problem of the -improvement of the river with increasing difficulties. General -Greely's figures indicate that the cross-section of the lower river -will only permit carrying to the sea a volume of about sixty cubic -miles of water during an ordinary flood season, and that in the -extraordinary flood years, such as 1882 and 1890, the volume to be -carried down is about eighty cubic miles, showing an excess of about -twenty cubic miles over the capacity of the river in a specified time. -These figures should be taken in the nature of a warning; and while it -must be admitted that the intricacy of the problem precludes -precision, their probable reliability should be carefully studied -before an extended levée system is built intended to guarantee -protection against exceptional floods. - - * * * * * - -During recent years the complex and perplexing subject of geographic -nomenclature has received the careful consideration of a number of the -European nations, with a view to reaching a uniformity in treatment -and the transliteration of names of unwritten languages into Roman -characters. England, France, and {39} Germany have adopted -substantially the same system of rules. Recent publications from these -countries evidence the intention to apply them as rapidly as -circumstances will permit. Although we may rebel at first on seeing -such familiar names as Cairo spelled with a K, Mecca with double k, -and Muscat converted into Maskat, it is believed the general -principles adopted will eventually receive acquiescence--perhaps -half-hearted at first--and as the utility of the system becomes more -apparent through its universal adoption and we realize that maps from -whatever nation will give us the names of the same places in -substantially the same form, our prejudices must give way. - -Under the provisions of an executive order issued on the fourth of -September last, our own Government has virtually adopted the European -system in the treatment of foreign names, thus bringing us in accord -with the principal nations upon a most important subject to students -and geographers the world over. The executive order constitutes a -board composed of ten representatives from different departments and -bureaus of the Government service, to which all questions relating to -the work of the board that may arise in the departments are to be -referred, and requires all persons in the Government service to -respect the decisions that may be rendered. The board in its first -bulletin, recently issued, has announced its adoption of the English -system for the treatment of foreign names and transliteration into -Roman characters, and has presented principles to guide in reaching -decisions affecting home names. These principles will doubtless be -added to as new questions arise, so that at no very distant day we may -see formulated a set of rules that will be instructive as well as -useful in their application. The first bulletin seems to have been -received favorably, and we may hope, as the work of the board advances -and the importance of the subject is more generally realized, that it -will gain the hearty endorsement of the public and a support that must -largely increase the usefulness of its labors. - - * * * * * - -In conclusion, permit me to congratulate the society upon its first -attempt at scientific exploration in the field. The Mount St. Elias -expedition, under the leadership of Mr. I. C. Russell, with Mr. Mark -B. Kerr as topographer, left Seattle, Washington, in June last, and -after spending more than two months on the mountain sides, one-half -their time above the snow line, have {40} returned with notes, -specimens, and data of the greatest interest. The topography was -sketched over an area of about one thousand square miles, and includes -the determination of the geographical position and elevation of Mount -St. Elias and many neighboring peaks. Mount St. Elias is indicated to -be not so high by some 4,000 feet as the heretofore accepted -elevation, 19,500 feet. The difficulties attending the determination -of the height of this mountain are so great that the range between the -extreme elevations that have been given by different explorers is -nearly 6,000 feet. This is believed to be the first height for it that -has been derived from a carefully measured base, and it therefore -should receive great weight. But I regret to say that in the chain of -triangles connecting with the top of the mountain, the difficulty of -placing well-conditioned triangles seems to have been so great that -the observers were forced to accept very small included angles, which -necessarily casts a doubt upon the resulting distances. We must -therefore accept the new elevation with caution until it is verified -by further observations. - -The party was unfortunately prevented from reaching the top of Mount -St. Elias by severe storms, but the ascent was so nearly accomplished -that Mr. Russell is confident he found a practicable route; and it -seems probable that had he been started ten days or two weeks earlier -the first ascent of Mount St. Elias would have been recorded as a part -of the work of the expedition. - -The full report of this expedition is now nearing completion, and will -be published by the Society at an early date. To this I must refer you -for the interesting details, and experiences encountered by the -explorers. - -The expedition was organized by the Society, but in congratulating -ourselves we should not forget that our thanks are due to the United -States Geological Survey for the assignment of officers to conduct the -work in the field and for assistance rendered in the organization; and -we may hope the substantial results that have been secured will prove -as pleasing to that great national work as they are to your board of -managers. - -_Washington, January 23, 1891_. - - - - -VOL. III, PP. 41-52, MAY 1, 1891 - -THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE - - - - -GEOGRAPHY OF THE AIR - -ANNUAL REPORT BY VICE-PRESIDENT - -A. W. GREELY - - - - -[Illustration: National Geographic Society seal] - - - - -WASHINGTON - -PUBLISHED BY THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY - -Price 25 Cents. - - -{41} - - -VOL. III, PP. 41-52, MAY 1, 1891 - -THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE - - - - -GEOGRAPHY OF THE AIR. - -ANNUAL REPORT BY VICE-PRESIDENT - -A. W. GREELY. - -(_Presented to the Society January 23, 1891._) - - -In fulfilling the duties growing out of his official position in -connection with this Society, your Vice-President of the Geography of -the Air has been so closely occupied with executive and other official -duties devolving upon him as to preclude his giving that amount of -time and labor to this annual report that the subject merits. Indeed, -no report would be submitted this year had it not seemed better to -insure a continuity of these annual addresses, even if one of them -might not be up to the high standard which should be maintained for -them. - -It must have impressed every general reader of scientific journals -that the past year has been marked by the publication of an unusual -number of controversial articles relating entirely or in part to -meteorology. Some of the discussions of this subject appear to be in -the nature of speculation, which, by good authority, is defined to be -"chiefly the work of the imagination, and has little to do with -realities." The status of the meteorological discussion which has been -going on for some time seems to be this: A number of men, applying -themselves to investigation in separate branches or stages of the same -science, are attempting to reconcile their views, which, based as they -are upon entirely different processes of investigation, are not -entirely accordant. Some, at least, of these writers are still -apparently groping in the preliminary, the "natural history" stage of -the {42} science of meteorology, while one alone stands as the -exponent of the "natural philosophy" of meteorology. - -To me it seems that it could not have failed to impress any interested -reader who has followed the late publications on the convectional -theory that, in order to clear the ground for definite meteorological -discussion, it is necessary to determine the exact meaning of the -various technical terms employed by the various writers. Whether from -looseness of verbiage originally or from the not infrequent habit of -disputants when worsted to change their ground by claiming to be -misunderstood, we find that some writers are unwilling either to stand -by their first criticisms or to openly abandon them; they prefer to -explain away their defective statements and gradually shift around to -positions almost diametrically opposed to those originally assumed. - -The generally accepted theory as to cyclones attributes their -initiatory formation to an unequal distribution of temperature with -resulting mean diminution of pressure, and the movement of the air -from places of high to places of low pressure, the lower air ascending -with a gyratory motion, while air particles moving from opposite -directions form couples which produce rotation. When energetic motions -raise the ascending air to such a height that the temperature, cooled -dynamically in ascending, goes below the dew-point, then the great -store of latent heat thereby set free becomes, it is assumed, the main -source of energy in maintaining the upward convectional movement. The -subsidiary causes are attributed to the diminution of pressure on the -collapse of the vapor, and also to the direct absorption of the sun's -heat at the upper cloud surface. - -In anticyclones a slow gyratory descending motion of the air is -assumed. Ferrel considers the cyclone and anticyclone one system, and -believes that air flowing into the cyclone from a "high" at the ground -passes out into the higher atmospheric strata. - -Dr. Hann has put forth the hypothesis that the genesis of cyclones and -anticyclones may be sought in the general atmospheric circulation -through a difference of temperature of the air from the equator to the -poles. He speaks of a congestion in the upper or anti-trade winds, -where the air heaps up to a great height, this being the cause of the -anticyclones; and he maintains that the low temperature of the "high" -is due to ground radiation, and that no part of the high pressure is -the result of low temperature. - -{43} To this hypothesis of Dr. Hann, ascribing the genesis of storms -to the general circulation of the atmosphere, no application of the -laws of dynamics has yet been made with a view of developing it into -an acceptable "theory." If it should be established it does not follow -that it will in any way affect the truth of the commonly accepted -"convectional system," which, founded as it is on the well-known laws -of thermo-dynamics, is not likely to be successfully assailed. There -may be an improved nomenclature for the laws of statics and dynamics -that will express to the mind more clearly the relation of cause and -effect; but until the advance of scientific research modifies the -present formulation of these laws the convectional theory will be -generally accepted as giving the true interpretation of all the -phenomena to which it could be applied. - -Professor Russell, in commenting on this subject, expresses the -opinion that the low temperature is due to the convective interchange -of air at a low temperature in the upper strata with air of a high -temperature in lower strata, such convective interchange tending to -make the whole body of air of a temperature coinciding throughout with -the adiabatic rate of upward diminution, with the consequent result of -rendering the air at the surface of the earth cooler than previously -and the upper air warmer. When the upward diminution of temperature is -less than the adiabatic rate, in the forced circulation of air -crossing a mountain ridge, there occurs the dynamic heating which is -observed in the case of the foehn winds. The low temperature near the -earth he does not believe could ever be entirely produced by nocturnal -radiation from the ground. The high pressure, in his opinion, is -largely the result of greater density due to low temperature, as is -very clearly indicated by the fact that the temperature is almost -inversely proportional to the pressure, and that the places of lower -temperature substantially coincide with the places of greatest -pressure. - -In advancing hypotheses and inviting discussion the real object is, or -at least should be, to discover the essential cause or causes which -determine the initial formation and subsequent maintenance and -progress of the cyclone. Some real progress in charting lines of equal -density seems to have been made by M. Nils Ekholm following Professor -Abbe's system of "isostaths," one using the term density, the other -buoyancy. Professor Abbe also introduces the factor of the orographic -gradient, but the {44} latter is simply the measure of a resistance. -The objection to this form of determination is this, that it is a -measure of mass only. The density of two masses of air is determined -to be the same; but as the density may result from two entirely -different causes, their physical relations cannot be fully expressed -in units of gravity. The methods of Professor Abbe and of M. Nils -Ekholm undoubtedly give good results, partly from the coincidence that -humidity usually varies directly as the temperature. - -The method proposed by Captain James Allen in 1888, which is briefly -described in appendix 24 to the annual report of the Chief Signal -Officer for 1890, appears to afford the means of more clearly -expressing the relations that exist between the mass of the atmosphere -and the forces available for the generation and movement of storms. -Its tentative application at the Signal Office has anticipated and -explained storm movements not indicated or accounted for by the usual -methods. - -As pertinent to this matter, there is instanced a study of the -progress of thunder-storms made by Berg, who observes that the line of -storm front in every case investigated made a decidedly conspicuous -bend into the densest part of the lines representing the absolute -humidity. - - * * * * * - -Scientific conditions have so changed that in these later years it -becomes more and more difficult for investigators to publish any work -which may be characterized as _magnum opus_. Under this head, however, -must be classed Buchan's important memoir on the distribution of -atmospheric pressure, temperature, and wind direction over the whole -world; a large quarto volume, which contains much new material. It has -been incorporated with the results of observations during the -Challenger expedition, in which series this work appears. The isobars -and isotherms for each month in the year for the whole earth are -charted on Mercator's projection, and for the northern hemisphere on a -chart constructed on a polar projection. In connection with an -abstruse subject, to which Buchan has paid so much attention, the -diurnal variation of pressure, he opines from the Challenger -observations that the oscillations are due to the heat taken from the -solar rays directly in passing through the air and instantaneously -communicated through the whole mass from top to bottom by heating and -evaporation of water on innumerable dust particles. The afternoon -minimum, he thinks, is caused by upward currents removing a portion of -the lower air. Marked {45} differences exist between the continental -and insular types, since on islands the morning minimum is unusually -large and the afternoon minimum so small as to disappear, while in -continental types the reverse conditions obtain. - - * * * * * - -Werner Von Siemens, in answering Sprung's criticism on his general air -currents, after repelling certain statements of Sprung, describes his -own theories, which are worthy of restating: - -1. All winds are caused by the disturbances of indifferent -equilibrium, and the motion of the air is to restore equilibrium. - -2. These disturbances are caused through overheating of the layers of -air near the surface of the earth by insolation, through unsymmetrical -cooling of the higher layers by radiation, and through the heaping up -of air masses caused by obstructions. - -3. The disturbances are adjusted by ascending currents, wherein the -particular species of acceleration occurs in which the increase of -velocity is proportioned to the diminution of pressure. - -4. The upward currents correspond to equally great descending currents -in which there is a decrease of velocity corresponding to the -acceleration in the upward velocity. - -5. If the region of overheating of the air is limited locally, a local -upward current reaching to the highest layers of air arises, and -whirlwinds appear with interior spirally ascending currents and -outside similar spiral descending currents. The result of this is -dispersion of the superfluous heat of the lower air by which the -adiabatic equilibrium is disturbed throughout the whole column of air -taking part in the whirling motion. - -6. In case the region of disturbance of the indifferent (or adiabatic) -equilibrium is very extensive, as, for example, the whole of the -tropical zone, the temperature adjustment can no longer be -accomplished by locally ascending whirls, and a whirling current must -then arise involving the whole atmosphere. The same conditions apply -to these as to the local whirls of accelerated upward motion and -retarded descent in such a manner that the velocity at different -altitudes arising from heat converted to work is approximately -proportional to the prevailing pressure at the place. - -7. In consequence of the meridional motion produced and maintained by -conversion of heat into work, the whole atmosphere in every latitude -must rotate with approximately the same absolute velocity. Thus the -meridional currents produced by overheating combine with the currents -embracing the whole {46} wind system of the earth, with the result of -disseminating the excess of temperature and humidity of the torrid -zone over the temperate and arctic zones, thereby producing the -prevailing winds. - -8. This is accomplished by the production of alternating local -depressions and elevations of barometric pressure by the disturbance -of indifferent equilibrium in the upper layers of the air. - -9. "Highs" and "lows" are a consequence of the temperatures and -velocities of the upper currents. - -Whence it follows that the most important problem of meteorology is -the investigation of the causes and consequences of the disturbance of -indifferent equilibrium of the atmosphere, and the weightiest problem -in weather prediction is the investigation of the geographical origin -or extraction of air currents pursuing their course above us toward -the pole. - - * * * * * - -In Pomortsew's treatise on synoptic meteorology, published in Russia, -there are full chapters on prediction of weather, whether from -synoptic charts, from observations at a single place, or from -prognostics of great length based on researches on the succession of -warm and cold months. It also contains Pomortsew's investigations on -the types of pressure distribution in eastern Europe, as well as the -average path of cyclones. - - * * * * * - -The favorable opportunities afforded by the Eiffel tower have been -utilized by French meteorologists. M. Angot states that during the -anti-cyclone of November, 1889, the temperature on the tower was -several degrees higher than below. The change of weather set in -earlier, with a strong and warm wind, on the tower, while the air at -the ground was cold and calm. Wind observations on the tower show a -ratio of 3.1 at that height (303 meters) to the velocity at a height -of 21 meters, as determined from 101 days' observations, which, -remarkable at such a small height, discloses the peculiarity of high -mountain stations. - - * * * * * - -Partsch, writing on evidence of climatic changes within historical -times in the Mediterranean region, remarks that too much attention has -been given to changes in crops, the introduction of plants, and the -limits of domestic animals. He states that existing information as to -the harvest time of ancient days indicates an unchanged climate, while -the land-locked lakes in Tunis, which afford the best evidence on -rainfall variation, show absolutely no climatic change. - - * * * * * - -{47} Van Bebber, in writing on weather types, claims that a line drawn -from the center of a cyclone perpendicularly in the direction of the -heaviest gradients will in general be perpendicular to the subsequent -path of the "low," and that these lows leave high temperature on the -right hand. - - * * * * * - -Hill, in describing hail-stones and tornadoes in India, explains them -on the principle of the great diminution of temperature upwards in the -air, but a critic, in combating this theory, objects to the high and -low stations selected to show temperatures. - - * * * * * - -The so-called "weather plant" of the tropics has passed through the -process of investigation with the usual result. It appears surprising -that in these days it should be believed that any plant or animal can -foretell weather 48 hours in advance, particularly after considering -the vast amount of proof as to the enormous rapidity with which -weather-changes progress from day to day. - - * * * * * - -Hugo Meyer, in treating the precipitation of central Germany for the -ten years ending in 1885, pertinently remarks that the same -significance does not attach to the same rainfall for all places and -different times of the year, for this average value is not the amount -most likely to fall in any particular interval of time, since there is -a limit to the extent of the negative deviations on one side--that is, -0 or no rainfall, while on the positive side there is no limit. The -most probable depth of rainfall, therefore, is less than the mean -value, the preponderance of negative over positive deviations being -about 10 per cent. and sometimes as great as 20 per cent. - - * * * * * - -Professor W. M. Davis wrote an interesting review of Professor -Ferrel's popular treatise on the winds, published a year ago. -Commenting on the review, the editor of _Meteorologische Zeltschrift_, -Vienna, remarks on a very important omission in the treatise, namely, -the absence of all reference to the diurnal variation of the wind and -the many interesting relations it bears to other phenomena, a notable -omission in a treatise specially devoted to winds. The treatment of -the monsoon wind and its relation to the general circulation is highly -commended by the editor, and indicated as being all new. - - * * * * * - -Your Vice-President has elsewhere expressed his opinion that monsoon -winds, applying the term by liberal construction to signify winds -which recur with returning seasons, cannot with {48} any degree of -correctness be asserted to prevail in the United States. It is true -that the prevailing surface winds of the greater part of the United -States come from the western quadrants--that is, between southwest and -northwest--and so are in substantial harmony with the general -atmospheric circulation as shown by the upper-wind currents of Mount -Washington (from the northwest) and Pike's peak (from the southwest). -But, apart from the easterly and northeasterly trades on the Florida -coast, it appears from the records that in no case for any -considerable section of the country do 50 per cent. of the winds blow, -for any consecutive number of months, either from any single point or -from two neighboring points of the compass. Occasionally, however, the -local configuration of the country is such that winds are drawn up or -down valleys, and, being diverted from their free and proper -direction, the wind in such cases follows the trend of the valley or -depression. - - * * * * * - -In general your Vice-President would feel inclined to refer only -casually to the work proceeding from the Bureau over which he has the -honor to preside, but this year has been marked by special researches -and investigations of general interest. As the work of investigation -has been entrusted to the professors of the Signal Service, due credit -should not be refused them from their own official chief. - -Special reference should be made to the work of Professor Charles F. -Marvin, whose successful experiments on wind pressures and velocities -have attracted the attention of experts both in Europe and in this -country. Unfortunately there was available only a small sum (about one -hundred dollars) for the expense of experiments, but with this petty -sum, supplemented by his ingenuity, Professor Marvin has very -satisfactorily determined the coëfficients of the various forms of the -Robinson anemometer, with which instrument the velocity of the wind is -very generally determined. Following these investigations, the Royal -Meteorological Society of England reopened the question, which, after -a costly set of experiments with results widely differing from those -of Professor Marvin, had been considered closed. - -The general results of these researches, which are believed to be -sufficiently definite for general questions, are not only prized by -the scientist, but they are of value to the engineer and the builder. -Indeed, to all interested in costly structures or extended works -liable to harm from wind pressures, the factor of safety is {49} a -matter of no small pecuniary importance. These experiments show that, -as was formerly believed to be the case, the wind pressure varies as -the square of the velocity of the wind, expressed in miles per hour; -but a most important fact has developed, namely, that the pressure in -pounds per square foot is equal to the miles of hourly velocity -multiplied by 0.004 instead of 0.005, as was formerly assumed. - -Professor Marvin was not content with one system of experiments, but -he further attacked the problem in a direct manner by a method which -checked and verified his experiments with the whirling machine. On the -summit of Mount Washington, at an elevation of 6,300 feet, he obtained -simultaneously and under the same conditions, by automatic and -electrical apparatus, continuous registration of the pressure of the -wind in pounds per square foot and of the velocity in miles per hour. - -The results thus verified can be considered as conclusive from a -general standpoint. The corrections for the Robinson anemometer thus -determined from these experiments are comparatively unimportant at low -velocities, say from 10 to 15 miles per hour, being only a fraction of -a mile per hour. The uncorrected velocities, however, are in all cases -too large, and by greater and greater amounts the higher the velocity. -At 60 miles per hour the observed velocities are about 12 miles per -hour too high, and for an indicated velocity of 90 miles the -experiments show that the actual velocity is but a fraction over 69 -miles per hour. - -The anemometer formula found to satisfy most closely the entire range -of experiments has the following form for velocities in miles per -hour: - - Log. _V_ = 0.509 + 0.9012 log. _v_. - -This difference indicated by the formula may seem small and -insignificant, as it is in the case of light winds, but at very high -velocities the differences are very great. For instance, an actual -velocity of 60 miles per hour may occur at some time in almost any -locality of the United States for a few minutes, and even greater -velocities are occasionally reported, apart from severe tornadoes. -Under the old coëfficients for the Robinson anemometer an actual -velocity of 60 miles per hour would have been reported as 77 miles per -hour, which under the old factor of 0.005 would mean a pressure of -29.6 pounds per square foot; but when considered with reference to the -true velocity of 60 miles, under {50} the new factor of 0.004, the -pressure would only be 14.4 pounds per square foot--a reduction of -over 50 per cent. from the pressure-values formerly accepted. - -Professor Marvin has undertaken to verify, and also to extend to even -lower temperatures, the observations of Regnault as to the pressure of -aqueous vapor at low temperatures, especial attention being given to -temperature conditions from 0° centigrade to -50° centigrade. These -observations disclose, below 0° centigrade, small but constant -differences from the values assigned by Regnault. - -In all this work Professor Marvin has shown such ingenuity of -resource, such skill in adapting means to the end, and such deftness -in improvising and manufacturing the requisite instruments as have -elicited commendation from all who have seen his work and followed his -methods. Your Vice-President alludes to this not only to give that -credit rightfully due to Professor Marvin, but to illustrate this as a -type of the highly important work which is being done in all branches -of science here in Washington by young men sometimes illy equipped as -to means, and still more illy paid. Men engaged in work of original -investigation should receive higher pay than clerks in charge of -routine duties; but unfortunately the majority of them do not. - - * * * * * - -The work of Professor Hazen in charting tornadoes and in determining -their relative frequency and severity is directly in the line of the -Geography of the Air. - -Great attention had previously been given to this subject by -Lieutenant John P. Finley, who, with indefatigable industry, had -accumulated an enormous mass of data relative to these violent -outbursts of nature's forces. The figures and deductions previously -put forth under the authority of the Signal Service having been -questioned, the Chief Signal Officer felt obliged, in view of the -growing practical importance of the question, as indicated by the -great sums annually paid out in the Ohio valley and in the -trans-Mississippi region for protection against tornadoes, to reöpen -the subject. Instructions of the most conservative character were -given to Professor Hazen to determine carefully the prevalence and -number of tornadoes in the United States, the areas devastated by -them, and the number of lives lost annually. This work was carefully -scrutinized during its progress to see that it should be devoid of -theory and rest on the solid basis of fact. The results are most -assuring to every {51} one, and must serve to allay the unreasonable -fears of the inhabitants of the so-called "tornado districts." It -appears that there is no part of the United States in which annually -more than one square mile of devastation or severe destruction can be -expected for each 185,000 square miles, although cases of _limited -destruction_ may occur annually for about every 5,000 square miles of -area. In no state may destructive tornadoes be expected, on an -average, more than once in two years; and the area over which total -destruction can be expected is, as shown by the foregoing figures, -exceedingly small, even in localities most liable to these violent -storms. The annual death casualties from tornadoes have averaged, in -the last 18 years, 102 annually; but it is believed that the death -rate from lightning is greater than that from tornadoes, since during -March to August, 1890, the names of 110 are on record who have lost -their lives by lightning, although the data are incomplete, especially -as regards the southern states. These statistics cannot be passed by -lightly, however, and it is doubtful if in the main they are much in -error. By them it appears from five years' record that the average -annual death rate by lightning in the United States is 3.8 per million -of inhabitants, or 0.2 above the average. In Sweden, for sixty years, -the average has been 3.0; in France, for forty-nine years, 3.1; in -Baden, for seventeen years, 3.8; and in Prussia, for fifteen years, -4.4 per million. - -Other figures, given by a life-insurance agent in St. Louis, which the -author claims to have compiled with great care, place the average -annual rate of death from lightning in the United States at 206, being -more than double the deaths from tornadoes. It must be understood that -these figures are not vouched for, and must be very cautiously -received, as originating with companies interested pecuniarily in the -statistics. - -On the whole, therefore, it may be safely assumed that tornadoes are -not so destructive to life as thunder-storms. - - * * * * * - -Professor Thomas Russell has formulated a method for prediction of -cold waves. They always occur after "lows" and before "highs," and -different cold waves vary in extent from three "units" to sixty. A -"unit" of temperature-fall is taken as a fall of twenty degrees over -an area of 50,000 square miles. - -The temperature-fall curves in the United States are approximately -elliptical in shape. Perfect ellipses represent actual temperature -falls with an error not exceeding six degrees in {52} most cases. -These fall lines are intersections of planes with a cone which -graphically represents the totality of temperature-fall, the contents -of the cone being equal to the area of its base multiplied by its -altitude, which is the greatest fall in temperature at the center of -the cold wave. - -A formula has been devised, based on 127 special cases, representing -the amount of fall in terms of the amount of barometric depression in -a "low," and the amount of excess if a "high," and the density of the -isothermal lines in the region. - -From proper consideration of the type of low area, shape of isobars, -and position of the long axis, definite conclusions can be drawn as to -the subsequent shape of the elliptical twenty-degree temperature-fall -area and its position. - -A method has been devised, also by Professor Russell, for determining -the maximum fall of temperature at the center of the cold wave. The -maximum fall and extent of fall being known, from suitably prepared -tables, the area of twenty-degree fall can be derived. Previously -prepared pieces of card-board are laid in the proper position on a map -of suitable scale, and lines drawn around them. Between the line -representing the twenty-degree fall and the center, the other falls of -thirty degrees, forty degrees, etc., are sketched in. - - * * * * * - -The foregoing sketch of the geography of the air may appear too -superficial and limited for the purposes of this Society, but its -further elaboration was impracticable. Indeed, the subject of -meteorology could hardly have been touched upon this year had it not -been for the courtesy of Professor Russell in placing at my disposal -notes upon translations from foreign publications, especially from the -German; which publications I have been unable to examine save in a -casual way. - -The address, as it is, is submitted only in the hope that it may -serve, if no other purpose, at least to indicate the great interest -which now obtains in the geography of the air, and which manifests -itself in the production of meteorological pamphlets and publications -too numerous to permit any one charged with important executive duties -to examine them all, even in a non-critical way. - - - - -VOL. III, PP. 53-204, PLS. 2-20, MAY 29, 1891 - -THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE - - - - -AN EXPEDITION TO MOUNT ST. ELIAS, ALASKA - -ISRAEL C. RUSSELL - - - - -[Illustration: National Geographic Society seal] - - - - -WASHINGTON - -PUBLISHED BY THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY - -Price $1.50. - - -{53} - - -VOL. III, PP. 53-204, PLS. 2-20, MAY 29, 1891 - -THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE - - - - -AN EXPEDITION TO MOUNT ST. ELIAS, ALASKA - -BY ISRAEL C. RUSSELL. - -(_Accepted for publication March 18, 1891._) - - - - -CONTENTS. - - Page. -Introduction--The Southern Coast of Alaska . . . . . . . . . . . 55 - -Part I--Previous Explorations in the St. Elias Region . . . . . . 58 - Bering, 1741 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 - Cook, 1778 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 - La Pérouse, 1786 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 - Dixon, 1787 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 - Douglas, 1788 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 - Malaspina, 1792 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 - Vancouver, 1794 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 - Belcher, 1837 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 - Tebenkof, 1852 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 - United States Coast and Geodetic Survey, 1874, 1880 . . . . 70 - New York _Times_ Expedition, 1886 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 - Topham Expedition, 1888 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 - -Part II--Narrative of the St. Elias Expedition of 1890 . . . . . 75 - Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 - From Seattle to Sitka . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 - From Sitka to Yakutat Bay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 - Canoe Trip up Yakutat Bay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 - Base Camp on the Shore of Yakutat Bay . . . . . . . . . . . 86 - First Day's Tramp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 - Canoe Trip in Disenchantment Bay . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 - From Yakutat Bay to Blossom Island . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 - Blossom Island . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 - Life above the Snow-Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 - First Camp in the Snow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 -{54} Across Pinnacle Pass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 - First full View of St. Elias . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 - Summit of Pinnacle Pass Cliffs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 - Across Seward Glacier to Dome Pass . . . . . . . . . . . . 142 - Up the Agassiz Glacier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 - Camp on the Newton Glacier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 - Highest Point reached . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 - Alone in the highest Camp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154 - The Return . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158 - Suggestions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 - -Part III--Sketch of the Geology of the St. Elias Region . . . . . 167 - General Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167 - Yakutat System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167 - Pinnacle System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170 - St. Elias Schist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173 - Geological Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174 - -Part IV--Glaciers of the St. Elias Region . . . . . . . . . . . . 176 - Natural Divisions of Glaciers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176 - Alpine Glaciers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176 - Characteristics of Alpine Glaciers above the Snow-Line . . 180 - Characteristics of Alpine Glaciers below the Show-Line . . 183 - Piedmont Glaciers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185 - -Part V--Height and Position of Mount St. Elias . . . . . . . . . 189 - -Appendix A--Official Instructions governing the Expedition . . . 192 - -Appendix B--Report on topographic Work; by Mark B. Kerr . . . . . 195 - -Appendix C--Report on auriferous Sands from Yakutat Bay; by J. - Stanley-Brown . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196 - -Appendix D--Report on fossil Plants; by Lester F. Ward . . . . . 199 - -Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201 - - - - -ILLUSTRATIONS. - -Plate 2--Sketch Map of Alaska . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 - 3--Map of the St. Elias Region, after La Pérouse . . . . . 59 - 4--Map of the Eastern Shore of Yakutat Bay, after Dixon . 61 - 5--Map of the St. Elias Region, after Malaspina . . . . . 64 - 6--Map of Bay de Monti, after Malaspina . . . . . . . . . 64 - 7--Map of Disenchantment Bay, after Malaspina . . . . . . 67 - 8--Sketch Map of St. Elias Region, by Mark B. Kerr . . . . 74 - 9--The Hubbard Glacier; drawn from Photograph by A. L. - Broadbent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 - 10--Wall of Ice on Eastern Side of the Atrevida Glacier; - from a Photograph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 - 11--View on the Atrevida Glacier; from a Photograph . . . . 105 - 12--Entrance of an Ice-Tunnel; from a Photograph . . . . . 106 - 13--Deltas in an Abandoned Lake-Bed; from a Photograph . . 106 - 14--A River on the Lucia Glacier; from a Photograph - (reproduced from _The Century_, April, 1891) . . . . 106 -{55} 15--Entrance to a Glacial Tunnel; from a Photograph . . . . 107 - 16--View of the Malaspina Glacier from Blossom Island; - from a Photograph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 - 17--Moraines on the Marvine Glacier; from a Photograph . . 123 - 18--View of the Hitchcock Range from near Dome Pass . . . . 144 - 19--View of Mount St. Elias from Dome Pass; drawn from a - Photograph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 - 20--View of Mount St. Elias from Seward Glacier; drawn - from a Photograph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175 - -Figure 1--Diagram illustrating the Formation of Icebergs . . . . 101 - 2--View of a glacial Lakelet; from a Photograph . . . . . 120 - 3--Section of a glacial Lakelet . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 - 4--Diagram illustrating the Formation of marginal - Crevasses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 - 5--Crevasses near Pinnacle Pass; from a Photograph . . . . 130 - 6--Snow Crests on Ridges and Peaks; from Field Sketches . 143 - 7--Faulted Pebble from Pinnacle Pass . . . . . . . . . . . 171 - 8--Faulted Pebble from Pinnacle Pass . . . . . . . . . . . 171 - - - - -INTRODUCTION. - -THE SOUTHERN COAST OF ALASKA. - - -The southern coast of Alaska is remarkable for the regularity of its -general outline. If a circle a thousand miles in diameter be inscribed -on a map of the northern Pacific with a point in about latitude 54° -and longitude 145° as a center, a large part of its northern periphery -will be found to coincide with the southern shore of Alaska between -Dixon entrance on the east and the Alaska peninsula on the west. On -the northern part of this great coast-circle lies the region explored -in the summer of 1890 and described in the following pages. - -From Cross sound, at the northern end of the great system of islands -forming southeastern Alaska, westward along the base of the -Fairweather range, the mountains are exceedingly rugged, and present -some of the finest coast scenery in the world. There are but two -inlets east of Yakutat bay on this shore which afford shelter even for -small boats. These are Lituya bay and Dry bay. Ships may enter Lituya -bay, at certain stages of the tide, and find a safe harbor within; but -the approaches to Dry bay are not navigable. West of Yakutat bay the -coast is equally inhospitable all the way to Prince William sound. - -{56} As if to compensate for the lack of refuge on either end, there -is in the center of this great stretch of rock-bound coast, over 300 -miles in extent, a magnificent inlet known as Yakutat bay, in which a -thousand ships could find safe anchorage. On some old maps this bay is -designated as "Baie de Monti," "Admiralty bay" and "Bering bay," as -will be seen when its discovery and history are discussed on another -page. - -The southern shore of Alaska, for a distance of 200 miles along the -bases of the Fairweather and St. Elias ranges, is formed of a low -table-land intervening between the mountains and the sea. Yakutat bay -is the only bight in this plateau sufficiently deep to reach the -mountain to the northward. This bay has a broad opening to the sea; -the distance between its ocean capes is twenty miles, and its -extension inland is about the same. Its eastern shore is fringed with -low, wooded islands, among which are sheltered harbors, safe from -every wind that blows. The most accessible of these is Port Mulgrave, -near its entrance on the eastern side. - -The shores of Yakutat bay, on both the east and the west, are low and -densely wooded for a distance of twenty-five miles from the ocean, -where the foot-hills of the mountains begin. At the head of the bay -the land rises in steep bluffs and forms picturesque mountains, -snow-capped the year round. These highlands, although truly -mountainous in their proportions, are but the foot-hills of still -nobler uplifts immediately northward. The bay extends through an -opening in the first range to the base of the white peaks beyond. This -opening was examined a century ago by explorers in search of the -delusive "Northwest passage," in the hope that it would lead to the -long-sought "Strait of Annan"--the dream of many voyagers. It was -surveyed by the expedition in command of Malaspina in 1792, and on -account of his frustrated hopes was named "Puerto del Desengaño," or -"Disenchantment bay," as it has been rendered by English writers. - -The waters of Yakutat and Disenchantment bays are deep, and broken -only by islands and reefs along their eastern shores. A few soundings -made in Disenchantment bay within half a mile of the land showed a -depth of from 40 to 120 fathoms. The swell of the ocean is felt up to -the very head of the inlet, indicating, as was remarked to me by -Captain C. L. Hooper, that there are no bars or reefs to break the -force of the incoming swells. - -{57} The lowlands bordering Yakutat bay on the southeast are composed -of assorted glacial débris. Much of the country is low and swampy, and -is reported to contain numerous lakelets. Northwest of the bay the -plateau is higher than toward the southeast, and has a general -elevation of about 500 feet at a distance of a mile from the shore; -but the height increases toward the interior, where a general -elevation of 1,500 feet is attained over large areas. All of this -plateau, excepting a narrow fringe along the shore, is formed by a -great glacier, belonging to what is termed in this paper the -_Piedmont_ type. There are many reasons for believing that the plateau -southeast of Yakutat bay was at one time covered by a glacier similar -to the one now existing on the northwest.[1] - -[Footnote 1: This matter will be discussed in part IV of this paper, -where it is also shown that Yakutat bay itself was formerly occupied -by glacial ice.] - -The mountains on the northern border of the seaward-stretching -table-lands, both southeast and northwest of Yakutat bay, are abrupt -and present steep southward-facing bluffs. This escarpment is formed -of stratified sandstones and shales, and owes its origin to the -upheaval of the rocks along a line of fracture. In other words, it is -a gigantic fault scarp. The gravel and bowlders forming the plateau -extending oceanward have been accumulating on a depressed orographic -block (or mass of strata moved as a unit by mountain-making forces), -which has undergone some movement in very recent times, as is recorded -by a terrace on the fault scarp bordering it. West of Yakutat the -geological structure is more complex, and long mountain spurs project -into the platform of ice skirting the ocean. Filling the valleys -between the mountain spurs, there are many large seaward-flowing -glaciers, tributary to the great Piedmont ice-sheet. - - * * * * * - -This brief sketch of the geography of Yakutat bay, together with the -accompanying outline map of Alaska (plate 2), will, it is hoped, aid -in making intelligible the following historical sketch and the -narrative of the present expedition. - -[Illustration: PLATE 2. SKETCH MAP OF ALASKA.] - - -{58} - - -PART I. - -PREVIOUS EXPLORATIONS IN THE ST. ELIAS REGION.[2] - -[Footnote 2: For more complete bibliographic references than space -will allow in this paper, the reader is referred to Dall and Baker's -"Partial list of books, pamphlets, papers in serials, journals and -other publications on Alaska and adjacent regions;" in Pacific Coast -Pilot: Coasts and Inlets of Alaska; second series. U. S. Coast and -Geodetic Survey, Washington, 1879; 4°, pp. 225-375.] - - -BERING, 1741. - -The first discovery of the southern coast of Alaska was made by Vitus -Bering and Alexei Cherikof, in the vessels _St. Peter_ and _St. Paul_, -in 1741. On July 20 of that year, Bering saw the mountains of the -mainland, but anchored his vessels at Kyak island, 180 miles west of -Yakutat bay, without touching the continental shore. A towering, -snow-clad summit northeast of Kyak island was named "Mount St. Elias," -after the patron saint of the day. - - -COOK, 1778. - -The next explorer to visit this portion of Alaska was Captain James -Cook, who sailed past the entrance of Yakutat bay on May 4, 1778. -Thinking that this was the bay in which Bering anchored, he named it -"Bering's bay." Mount St. Elias was seen in the northwest at a -distance of 40 leagues, but no attempt was made to measure its height. - - -LA PÉROUSE, 1786.[3] - -[Footnote 3: Voyage de la Pérouse autour du monde. Four vols., 4°, and -atlas; Paris, 1797; vol. 2, pp. 130-150.] - -Yakutat bay, in which we are specially interested, was next seen by -the celebrated French navigator, J. F. G. de la Pérouse, in command of -the frigates _La Boussole_ and _L'Astrolabe_, on June 23, 1786. - -The chart showing the route followed by La Pérouse during this portion -of his voyage is reproduced in plate 3. In the splendid atlas -accompanying the narrative of his travels, the explorer pictures the -quaint, high-pooped vessels in which he {59} circumnavigated the -globe. These French frigates were the first to cruise off Yakutat bay. -The last vessel to navigate those waters was the United States revenue -steamer _Corwin_, which took our little exploring party on board in -September, 1890, and then steamed northward to the ice-cliffs at the -head of Disenchantment bay. So far as I am aware, the _Corwin_ is the -only vessel that has floated on the waters of that inlet north of -Haenke island. One hundred years has made a revolution in naval -architecture, but has left this portion of the Alaska coast still -unexplored. - -[Illustration: PLATE 3. MAP OF THE ST. ELIAS REGION, AFTER LA -PÉROUSE.] - -La Pérouse sailed northward from the Sandwich islands, and first saw -land, which proved to be a portion of the St. Elias range, on June 23. -At first the shore was obscured by fog, which, as stated in the -narrative of the voyage, "suddenly disappearing, all at once disclosed -to us a long chain of mountains covered with snow, which, if the -weather had been clear, we would have been able to have seen thirty -leagues farther off. We discovered Bering's Mount Saint Elias, the -summit of which appeared above the clouds." - -The first view of the land is described as not awakening the feelings -of joy which usually accompany the first view of an unknown shore -after a long voyage. To quote the navigator's own words: - -"Those immense heaps of snow, which covered a barren land without -trees, were far from agreeable to our view. The mountains appeared a -little remote from the sea, which broke against a bold and level land, -elevated about a hundred and fifty or two hundred fathoms. This black -rock, which appeared as if calcined by fire, destitute of all verdure, -formed a striking contrast to the whiteness of the snow, which was -perceptible through the clouds; it served as the base to a long ridge -of mountains, which appeared to stretch fifteen leagues from east to -west. At first we thought ourselves very near it, the summit of the -mountains appeared to be just over our heads, and the snow cast forth -a brightness calculated to deceive eyes not accustomed to it; but in -proportion as we advanced we perceived in front of the high ground -hillocks covered with trees, which we took for islands." - -After some delay, on account of foggy weather, an officer was -despatched to the newly discovered land; but on returning he reported -that there was no suitable anchorage to be found. It is difficult at -this time to understand the reason for this adverse report, unless a -landing was attempted on the western side of Yakutat bay, where there -are no harbors. - -{60} The name "Baie de Monti" was given to the inlet in honor of De -Monti, the officer who first landed. The location of this bay, as -described in the narrative and indicated on the map accompanying the -report of the voyage, shows that it corresponds with the Yakutat bay -of modern maps. - -Observations made at this time by M. Dagelet, the astronomer of the -expedition, determined the elevation of Mount St. Elias to be 1,980 -toises. Considering the toise as equivalent to 6.39459 English feet, -this measurement places the elevation of the mountain at 12,660 feet. -What method was used in making this measurement is not recorded, and -we have therefore no means of deciding the degree of confidence to be -placed in it. - -After failing to find an anchorage at Yakutat bay. La Pérouse sailed -eastward, and on June 29 discovered another bay, which he supposed to -be the inlet named "Bering's bay" by Captain Cook. It will be -remembered that Cook's "Bering's bay" is Yakutat bay as now known. It -is evident that the French navigator made an error in his -identification, as the inlet designated as Bering's bay on his chart -corresponds with that now known as Dry bay. On the maps referred to, a -stream is represented as emptying into the head of this bay and rising -a long distance northward; this is evidently Alsek river, the -existence of which was for a long time doubted, but has recently been -established beyond all question. - -Finding it impossible to enter Dry bay, La Pérouse continued eastward -and discovered Lituya bay, as now known, but which he named "Port des -Francais." Here his ships anchored, after experiencing great -difficulty in entering the harbor, and remained for many days, during -which trade was carried on with the Indians, while surveys were made -of the adjacent shores. - - -DIXON, 1787.[4] - -[Footnote 4: The Voyage around the World; but more particularly to the -Northwest Coast of America. Performed in 1788-1789, in the _King -George_ and _Queen Charlotte_; Captains Portlock and Dixon: 4°, -London, 1789.] - -Although the actual discovery of Yakutat bay is to be credited to the -French, the first exploration of its shores was made by an English -captain. On May 23, 1787, Captain George Dixon anchored his vessel, -the _Queen Charlotte_, within the shelter of its southeastern cape, -and, in honor of Constance John Phipps, Lord Mulgrave, named the haven -there discovered "Port {61} Mulgrave." The harbor is described in the -narrative of Dixon's voyage as being "entirely surrounded by low, flat -islands, where scarcely any snow could be seen, and well sheltered -from any winds whatever." - -The voyage of the _Queen Charlotte_ was not made for the purpose of -increasing geographic knowledge, but with a commercial object. Trade -was at once opened with the natives, but resulted less favorably than -was desired, as only sixteen sea-otter skins and a few less valuable -furs were secured. - -On the chart accompanying the narrative of Dixon's voyage the inlet -now known as Yakutat bay is named "Admiralty bay." - -A survey of the adjacent shores and inlets was made, and the -astronomical position of the anchorage was approximately determined. -The map resulting from these surveys, the first ever made of any -portion of Yakutat bay, is reproduced on a reduced scale as plate 4. - -[Illustration: PLATE 4. MAP OF THE EASTERN SHORE OF YAKUTAT BAY, AFTER -DIXON.] - -At the time of Dixon's voyage, the inhabitants numbered about seventy, -including men, women, and children, and were thus described: - -"They are of about middle size, their limbs straight and well shaped, -but, like the rest of the inhabitants we have seen on the coast, are -particularly fond of painting their faces with a variety of colors, so -that it is not any easy matter to discover their real complexion." - -An amusing instance is narrated of inducing a woman to wash her face, -when it was discovered that-- - -"Her countenance had all the cheerful glow of an English milk maid, -and the healthy red which flushed her cheeks was even _beautifully_ -contrasted with the whiteness of her neck; her eyes were black and -sparkling; her eyebrows the same color, and most beautifully arched; -her forehead so remarkably clear that the transparent veins were seen -meandering even in their minutest branches--in short, she was what -would be reckoned as handsome even in England. The symmetry of her -features, however, was marred, at least in the eyes of her English -admirer, by the habit of wearing a labret in the slit of her lower -lip." - -During our recent visit to Port Mulgrave we did not find the native -women answering to the glowing description of the voyager who -discovered the harbor; but this may be owing to the fact that we did -not prevail upon any of them to wash their faces. - -One other discrepancy must be noted between the records of Dixon's -voyage and my own observations, made one hundred {62} years later. The -houses of the natives are described in the narrative just cited as-- - -"The most wretched hovels that can possibly be conceived: a few poles -stuck in the ground, without order or regularity, recrossed and -covered with loose boards, ... quite insufficient to keep out the snow -and rain." - -While this description would apply to the temporary shelters now used -by the Yakutat Indians when on their summer hunting and fishing -expeditions, it by no means describes the houses in which they pass -the winter. These are large and substantially built of planks hewn -from spruce trees, and in some instances supported from the inside by -four huge posts, carved and painted to represent grotesque figures. In -the center of the roof there is a large opening through which the -smoke escapes from the fire kindled in an open space in the floor. But -few of the Indian villages of Alaska, excepting perhaps the homes of -the Thlinkets in the Alexandrian archipelago, are better built or more -comfortable than those at Port Mulgrave. - -On the map of Port Mulgrave already referred to, "Point Turner" and -"Point Carrew" appear. The former was named for the second mate of the -_Queen Charlotte_, who was the first of her officers to land; the -second name was probably designed to honor another officer of the -expedition, but of this I am not positive. - - -DOUGLAS, 1788.[5] - -[Footnote 5: Voyage of the _Iphigenia_; Captain Douglas: in Voyages -made in the years 1788-1789 from China to the Northwest Coast of -America. John Meares, 4°, London, 1790.] - -In 1788, another trading vessel, the ship _Iphigenia_, in command of -Captain Douglas, visited the southern shore of Alaska and anchored in -Yakutat bay; but no special account of the country or the inhabitants -is recorded in the narrative of the voyage. - - -MALASPINA, 1792.[6] - -[Footnote 6: Relacion del viage hecho por las goletas Sutil y Mexicana -en el año de 1792 para reconocer el estrecho de Fuca; con una -introduccion en que se da noticia de las expediciones executadas -anteriormente por los Españoles en busca del paso del noroeste de la -América [Por Don Dionisio Alcala Galiano]. Madrid, 1802 [accompanied -by an atlas]. Pp. CXII-CXXI.] - -About a hundred years ago the interest felt by the maritime nations of -Europe in a "Northwest passage," connecting the {63} northern Atlantic -with the northern Pacific, was revived by the renewal of the -discussion as to the authenticity of Maldonado's reported discovery of -the "Strait of Annan." The western entrance to this strait was -supposed to be about in the position of Yakutat bay. Spain, in -particular, after three hundred years of exploration and discovery in -all parts of the world, was still anxious to extend her conquests, -and, if possible, to discover the long-sought "Northwest passage." Two -of her ships, the _Descubierta_ and _Atrevida_, were then at Acapulco, -in command of Don Alejandro Malaspina, who was engaged in a voyage of -discovery. - -Malaspina, like Columbus, was a native of Italy in the service of -Spain. Orders were sent to him to cruise northward and test the truth -of Maldonado's report. The narrative of this voyage is supposed to -have been written by Don Dionisio Alcala Galiano, but his name does -not appear on the title page. Still more curious is the fact that -Malaspina's name is omitted from the narrative of his own voyage. On -his return to Spain, he was thrown into prison, on account of court -intrigues, and his discoveries were suppressed for many years. - -Malaspina left Acapulco on the first of May, 1791, and reached the -vicinity of the present site of Sitka on June 25. Two days later, -Mount Fairweather, or "Monte Buen-tiempo," as it is designated on -Spanish maps, was sighted. Continuing northwestward, the entrance to -Yakutat bay was reached. The opening through the first range of -mountains at its head seemed to correspond to Maldonado's description -of the entrance to the mythical "Strait of Annan." - -The eastern shore of Yakutat bay, called "Almiralty bay" on the -Spanish chart, was explored, and an excursion was made in boats into -Disenchantment bay as far as Haenke island. "Disenchantment bay," as -the name appears on modern charts, was named "Desengaño bay" by -Malaspina, as previously stated, in allusion to the frustration of his -hopes on not finding a passage leading to the Atlantic. Explorations -in Disenchantment bay were checked by ice, which descended from the -north and filled all of the inlets north of Haenke island. This is -indicated on the map forming plate 7 (page 67), which is reproduced -from the atlas accompanying the narrative of Malaspina's voyage. -Special interest attaches to this map for the reason that by comparing -it with that forming plate 8 (page 75), made 100 years later, the -retreat {64} of the glaciers during that interval can be -determined.[7] At the time of Malaspina's expedition, the Hubbard and -Dalton glaciers were united, and were probably also joined by some of -the neighboring glaciers which do not now reach tide-water; the whole -forming a confluent ice stream which occupied all of Disenchantment -bay northeast of Haenke island. - -[Footnote 7: It must be remembered, however, that the map, plate 8, is -not from detailed surveys; the portion referred to was sketched from a -few stations only and is much generalized.] - -A portion of the general map of the coast of southern Alaska, showing -the route followed by the _Descubierta_ and the _Atrevida_, and -depicting the topography of the adjacent shores, has been reproduced -in plate 5. It will be noticed that on this map Lituya bay is called -"Pt. des Francais," while Dry bay is designated as "Bering's bay." -These and other names were adopted from the maps of La Pérouse. A map -of "Bahia de Monti," from Malaspina's report, is reproduced in plate -6. - -[Illustration: PLATE 5. MAP OF THE ST. ELIAS REGION, AFTER MALASPINA.] - -[Illustration: PLATE 6. MAP OF BAY DE MONTI, AFTER MALASPINA.] - -An extract from Galiano's account of Malaspina's discoveries in -Yakutat and Disenchantment bays,[8] translated by Robert Stein, of the -U. S. Geological Survey, is here inserted, in order that the reader -may be able to form an independent judgment of the value of the -evidence just referred to as bearing on the retreat of the glaciers: - -"An observatory was established on shore, and some absolute altitudes -were taken in order to furnish a basis for the reckoning of the -watches; but the great concourse of Indians, their importunity and -thievishness, made it necessary to transfer all the instruments on -board. Still the latitude was determined, the watches were regulated, -the number of oscillations made by the simple pendulum was observed, -and the height of Mount St. Elias was measured, being 6,507.6 varas -[17,847 feet] above sea-level. The launches being ready, put to sea on -July 2 with the commander of the expedition, in order to reconnoitre -the channel promised by the opening, similar to that depicted by -Ferrer Maldonado in his voyage; but the small force of the tide -noticed at the entrance, and the indications of the natives, made it -plain not only that the desired passage did not exist there, but that -the extent of the channel was very short; which was also rendered -evident by the perpetual frost covering the inner west shore. The -launches anchored there, having penetrated into the channel with great -difficulty, the oars being clogged by the floating masses of snow; -they measured a base, made some marks, gathered various objects and -stones for the naturalists, and, having reached the line of perpetual -frost, {65} returned to the bay where they had anchored.[9] They there -observed the latitude to be 59° 59' 30", and six azimuths of the sun, -which gave the variation of the needle as 32° 49'. Before leaving that -anchorage the commander buried a bottle with record of the -reconnoissance and possession taken in the name of the king. They -called the harbor Desangaño, the opening Bahia de las Bancas, and the -island in the interior Haenke, in memory of D. Tadeo Haenke, botanist -and naturalist of the expedition. On the third day they set out on -their voyage to Mulgrave, where they arrived on the 6th, after -reconnoitering various channels and islands north of that port and -mapping them." - -[Footnote 8: Ibid., pp. XCIV-CXVI.] - -[Footnote 9: On the coast of the mainland east of Knight island.--I. -C. R.] - -Following the portion of the narrative above quoted, there is an -account of the natives, containing much information of interest to -ethnologists, but which it is not necessary to follow in a geographic -report. On July 5 the corvettes sailed westward, and made a -reconnoissance as far as Montegue island. Returning eastward, they -again sighted Mount St. Elias on July 22. - -"On the 28th they were three leagues west of the capes which terminate -in Bering bay [Dry bay]; the mountain of that name being about five -leagues distant from the coast and rising 5,368.3 varas [14,722 feet] -above the sea-level, and in latitude 59° 0' 42" and longitude 2° 4' -from Port Mulgrave." - -Mount Bering does not appear on any map that I have seen. Which of the -numerous high peaks in the vicinity of Dry bay should be designated by -that name remains to be determined. - -In a record of the astronomical work of Malaspina's expedition[10] -there are some interesting observations on the position and elevation -of Mount St. Elias, a translation of which, by Mr. Stein, is here -given: - -"True longitude of Mulgrave west of Cadiz, 133° 24' 12". On the same -day, the 30th of June [1792], at the observatory of Mulgrave, at 6h. -30' in the morning, the true altitude of the sun was observed to be -16° 14' 20", and its inclination being 23° 11' 30" and the latitude -59° 34' 20", the true azimuth of the sun from north to east was -concluded to be 71° 43' 0". But having measured on the same occasion -with the theodolite 110° 33' from the sun's vertical to the vertical -of Mount St. Elias, the difference between these two quantities is the -astronomic azimuth. Hence, from {66} the observatory of Mulgrave, said -mountain bears N. 38° 50' W., a distance of 55.1 miles, deduced by -means of good observations from the ends of a sufficient base. A -quadrant was used to measure the angle of apparent altitude of the -mountain, 2° 38' 6", and allowing for terrestrial refraction, which is -one-tenth of the distance of 55.1 miles, the true altitude was found -to be 2° 34' 39"; whence its elevation above sea-level was concluded -to be 2,793 toises [17,860 feet], and the length of the tangent to the -horizon, 152 miles, allowance being made for the increase due to -terrestrial refraction.... - -"Lastly, with the rhumb, or astronomic azimuth, and the distance from -the observatory of Mulgrave to Mount St. Elias, it was ascertained -that that mountain was 43' 15" to the north and 1° 9' to the west, -whence its latitude is found to be 60° 17' 35" and its longitude 134° -33' 10" west of Cadiz." - -[Footnote 10: Memorias sobre las observaciones astronomicas hechas por -les navegantes Españoles en distintos lugares del globe; Por Don Josef -Espinosa y Tello. Madrid, en la Imprente real, Año de 1809, 2 vols., -large 8°; vol. 1, pp. 57-60.] - -Taking the longitude of Cadiz as 6° 19' 07" W. (San Sebastian -light-house), the longitude of St. Elias from this determination would -be 140° 52' 17" W. - - -VANCOUVER, 1794.[11] - -[Footnote 11: A Voyage of Discovery to the Northern Pacific Ocean and -around the World, 1790-'95; new edition, 6 vols., London, 1801. The -citations which follow are from vol. 5, pp. 348-407.] - -The next vessels to visit Yakutat bay after Malaspina's voyage, so far -as known, were the _Discovery_ and _Chatham_, under command of Captain -George Vancouver. This voyage increased knowledge of the geography of -southern Alaska more than any that preceded it, and was also of -greater importance than any single expedition of later date to that -region. The best maps of southern Alaska published at the present day -are based largely on the surveys of Vancouver. - -The _Discovery_, under the immediate command of Vancouver, and the -_Chatham_, in charge of Peter Puget, cruised eastward along the -southern coast of Alaska in 1794. The _Discovery_ passed the entrance -to Yakutat bay without stopping, but the _Chatham_ anchored there, and -important surveys were carried on under Puget's directions. - -On June 28, the _Discovery_ was in the vicinity of Icy bay, where the -shore of the ocean seemed to be composed of solid ice. Eastward from -Icy bay the coast is described as "bordered by lowlands rising with a -gradual and uniform ascent to the foot-hills of lofty mountains, whose -summits are but the base from which Mount St. Elias towers -magnificently into the regions of {67} perpetual frost." A low -projecting point on the western side of the entrance to Yakutat bay -was named "Point Manby." The coast beyond this toward the northeast -became less wooded, and seemed to produce only a brownish vegetation, -which farther eastward entirely disappeared. The country was then bare -and composed of loose stones. The narrative contains an interesting -account of the grand coast scenery from St. Elias to the eastern end -of the Fairweather range; but this does not at present claim -attention. - -While the _Chatham_ continued her cruise eastward, Puget ascended -Yakutat bay nearly to its head, and also navigated some of the -channels between the islands along its eastern shore. A cape on the -eastern side, where the bay penetrates the first range of foot-hills, -was named "Point Latouche;" but the same landmark had previously been -designated "Pa. de la Esperanza" by Malaspina. The bay at the head of -the inlet, which Malaspina had named "Desangaño," was named "Digges -sound," after one of the officers of the _Chatham_. Boats were sent to -explore this inlet, but found it "closed from side to side by a firm, -compact body of ice, beyond which, to the back of the ice, a small -inlet appeared to extend N. 55° E. about a league."[12] - -[Footnote 12: Vancouver's Voyage, vol. 5, p. 389.] - -These observations confirm those made by Malaspina and indicated on -the chart reproduced on plate 7, where the ice front is represented as -reaching as far south as Haenke island. - -[Illustration: PLATE 7. MAP OF DISENCHANTMENT BAY, AFTER MALASPINA.] - -The evidence furnished by Malaspina and Vancouver as to the former -extent of the glaciers at the head of Yakutat bay is in harmony with -observations made by Vancouver's party in Icy strait and Cross -sound.[13] Early in July, 1794, these straits were found to be heavily -encumbered with floating ice. At the present time but little ice is -met with in that region. On Vancouver's charts there is no indication -that he was aware of the existence of Glacier bay, although one of his -officers, in navigating Icy strait, passed its immediate entrance. -These records, although somewhat indefinite and of negative character, -indicate that the fields of floating ice at the mouth of Glacier bay -were much more extensive a hundred years ago than at present; but they -do not show where the glaciers of that region formerly terminated. - -[Footnote 13: Ibid., pp. 417-421.] - -After the return of the _Chatham's_ boats from the exploration of {68} -Disenchantment bay, an exploration of the eastern shore of Yakutat bay -was made. The following extract indicates the character of work done -there: - -"Digges' sound [Disenchantment bay] was the only place in the bay that -presented the least prospect of any interior navigation, and this was -necessarily very limited by the close connected range of lofty snowy -mountains that stretched along the coast at no great distance from the -seaside. Mr. Puget's attention was next directed to the opening in the -low land, but as the wind was variable and adverse to the progress of -the vessel, a boat was again despatched to continue the investigation -of these shores, which are compact from Point Latouche and were then -free from ice. This opening was found to be formed by an island about -two miles long, in a direction S. 50° E. and N. 50° W., and about a -mile broad, lying at the distance of about half a mile from the -mainland. Opposite to the south part of this, named by Mr. Puget -KNIGHT'S ISLAND, is Eleanor's cove, which is the eastern extremity of -Beering's [Yakutat] bay, in latitude 59° 44', longitude 220° 51'. -Knight's island admits of a navigable passage all round it, but there -is an islet situated between it and the mainland on its northeast -side. From Eleanor's cove the coast takes a direction S. 30° W. about -six miles to the east point of a channel leading to the southwest -between the continent and some islands that lie off it. This was -considered to lead along the shores of the mainland to Point Mulgrave, -and in the event of its proving navigable, the examination of the bay -would have been complete, and the vessel brought to our appointed -place of meeting, which was now supposed to be no very great -distance." - -In endeavoring to reach Port Mulgrave by a channel leading between the -islands on the eastern side of the bay and the mainland, the _Chatham_ -grounded, and was gotten off with considerable difficulty. Many -observations concerning the geography and the natives are recorded in -the narrative of this exploration. - - -BELCHER, 1837.[14] - -[Footnote 14: Narrative of a Voyage round the World, performed in the -ship _Sulphur_ during the years 1836-1842; by Captain Sir Edward -Belcher: 2 vols., 8°, London, 1843.] - -The next account[15] of explorations around Yakutat bay that {69} has -come to hand is by Sir Edward Belcher, who visited that coast in Her -Majesty's ship _Sulphur_ in 1837. - -[Footnote 15: A fort was built by the Russians, in 1795, on the strip -of land separating Bay de Monti from the ocean, and was colonized by -convicts from Russia. In 1803, all of the settlers were killed and the -fort was destroyed by the Yakutat Indians. So complete was this -massacre that no detailed account of it has ever appeared. (Alaska and -its Resources, by W. H. Dall, 1870, pp. 316, 317, 323.)] - -In the narrative of this voyage, a brief account is given of the ice -cliffs at Icy bay, which are stated to have a height of about thirty -feet and to present the appearance of veined marble. Where the ice was -exposed to the sea it was excavated into alcoves and archways, -recalling to the narrator's mind the Chalk cliffs of England. "Point -Riou," as named by Vancouver, was not recognized, and the inference -seems to be that it was formed of ice and was dissolved away between -the visits of Vancouver and Belcher. - -Accompanying the narrative of Belcher's voyage is an illustration -showing Mount St. Elias as it appears from the sea near Icy bay, which -represents the mountain more accurately than some similar pictures -published more recently. - -The _Sulphur_ anchored in Port Mulgrave; but no account is given of -the character of the surrounding country. - - -TEBENKOF, 1852.[16] - -[Footnote 16: Atlas of the Northwest Coast of America from Bering -strait to Cape Corrientes and the Aleutian Islands [etc.]: 2°, St. -Petersburg, 1852. With index and hydrographic observations: 8°, St. -Petersburg, 1852.] - -Tebenkof's notes, which are often referred to by writers on Alaska, -consist principally of compilations from reports of Russian traders, -which were intended to accompany and explain an atlas of the shores of -northwestern America, published in 1852 in St. Petersburg and in -Sitka. - -Map number 7 of the atlas represents the southern coast of Alaska from -Lituya bay westward to Icy bay. On the same sheet there is a more -detailed chart of the islands along the eastern border of Yakutat bay. - -The height of St. Elias is given as 17,000 feet; its position, -latitude 61° 2' 6" and longitude 140° 4', distant 30 miles from the -sea.[17] It is stated that in 1839 the mountain "began at times to -smoke through a crater on its southeastern slope." At the time of an -earthquake at Sitka (1847) it is said to have emitted flames and -ashes. - -[Footnote 17: In a foot-note on page 33 it is stated that Captain -Vasilef, in the ship _Otkrytie_ (_Discovery_), ascertained the height -of Mount Fairweather to be 13,946 feet.] - -{70} It will be seen from the account of the exploration carried on -last summer that Mount St. Elias is composed of stratified rocks, with -no indication of volcanic origin; and these reports of eruption must -consequently be considered erroneous. - -The low country between Mount St. Elias and the sea is described by -Tebenkof as a tundra covered with forests and grass; "through cracks -in the gravelly soil, ice could be seen beneath." More recent -knowledge shows that this statement also is erroneous. The adjacent -ocean is stated to be shallow, with shelving bottom; at a distance of -half a verst, five to twelve fathoms were obtained, and at two miles -from land, thirty to forty fathoms (of seven feet). - -The Pimpluna rocks are said to have been discovered in 1779 by the -Spanish captain Arteiga. They were also seen in 1794 by the helmsman -Talin, in the ship _Orel_, and named after his vessel. These -observations are interesting, and indicate that possibly there may be -submerged moraines in the region where these rocks are reported to -exist. - -Many other observations are recorded concerning the mountains and the -bays in the vicinity of Yakutat. While of interest to navigation and -to geographers, these have no immediate connection with the region -explored during the recent expedition. - - -UNITED STATES COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY, 1874,[18] 1880.[19] - -[Footnote 18: Appendix No. 10, Report of the Superintendent of the -U. S. Coast Survey for the year 1875: Washington, 1878, pp. 157-188.] - -[Footnote 19: Pacific Coast Pilot, Alaska, part 1: Washington, 1883, -p. 212.] - -The surveys carried on in 1874 by the United States Coast Survey on -the shores of Alaska embraced the region about Yakutat bay. They were -conducted by W. H. Dall and Marcus Baker. Besides the survey of the -coast-line, determinations were made of the heights and positions of -several mountain peaks between Glacier bay and Cook inlet. Dall's -account of this survey contains a brief sketch of previous -explorations and a summary of the measurements of the higher peaks of -the region. This material has been used on another page in discussing -the height of Mount St. Elias. - -Besides the geographic data gathered by the United States Coast -Survey, many observations were made on geology and on the glaciers of -the region about Yakutat bay and Mount St. Elias. Exception must be -taken, in the light of more recent {71} explorations, to some of the -conclusions reached in this connection, as will appear in the chapter -devoted to geology and glaciers. - -A description of the St. Elias region in the Pacific Coast Pilot -supplements the paper in the coast survey report for 1875. This is an -exhaustive compilation from all available sources of information -interesting to navigators. It contains, besides, a valuable summary of -what was known at the time of its publication concerning the history -and physical features of the country to which it relates. In this -publication the true character of the Malaspina glacier was first -recorded and its name proposed. The description is as follows: - -"At Point Manby and eastward to the Kwik river the shore was bordered -by trees, apparently willows and alders, with a somewhat denser belt a -little farther back. Behind this rises a bluff or bank of high land, -as described by various navigators. About the vicinity of Tebienkoff's -Nearer Point the trees cease, but begin again near the river. The -bluff or table-land behind rises higher than the river valley and -completely hides it from the southward, and is in summer bare of -vegetation (except a few rare patches on its face) and apparently is -composed of glacial débris, much of which is of a reddish color. In -May, 1874, when observed by the U. S. Coast Survey party of that year, -the extensive flattened top of this table-land or plateau was covered -with a smooth and even sheet of pure white snow. In the latter part of -June, 1880, however, this snow had melted, and for the first time the -real and most extraordinary character of this plateau was revealed. -Within the beach and extending in a northwesterly direction to the -valley behind it, at the foot of the St. Elias Alps an undetermined -distance, this plateau, or a large part of it, is one great field of -buried ice. Almost everywhere nothing is visible but bowlders, dirt -and gravel; but at the time mentioned, back of the bight between Point -Manby and Nearer Point, for a space of several square miles the -coverlid of dirt had fallen in, owing to the melting of the ice -beneath, and revealed a surface of broken pinnacles of ice, each -crowned by a patch of dirt, standing close to one another like a -forest of prisms, these decreasing in height from the summit of the -plateau gradually in a sort of semicircular sweep toward the beach, -near which, however, the dirt and débris again predominate, forming a -sort of terminal moraine to this immense, buried, immovable glacier, -for it is nothing else. Trains of large bowlders were visible here and -there, and the general trend of the glacier seemed to be northwest and -southeast. - -"Between Disenchantment bay and the foot of Mount St. Elias, on the -flanks of the Alps, seventeen glaciers were counted, of which about -ten were behind this plateau, but none are of very large size, and the -sum total of them all seemed far too little to supply the waste of the -plateau if it were to possess motion. The lower ends of these small -glaciers come {72} down into the river valley before mentioned and at -right angles in general to the trend of the plateau. To the buried -glacier the U. S. Coast Survey has applied the name of Malaspina, in -honor of that distinguished and unfortunate explorer. No connection -could be seen between the small glaciers and the Malaspina plateau, as -the former dip below the level of the summit of the latter. The -Malaspina had no névé, nor was there any high land in the direction of -its axis as far as the eye could reach. Everywhere, except where the -pinnacles protruded and in a few spots on the face of the bluff, it -was covered with a thick stratum of soil, gravel and stones, here and -there showing small patches of bright green herbage. The bluff -westward from Point Manby may probably prove of the same character." - -Mount Cook and Mount Vancouver are named in the Pacific Coast Pilot, -and their elevations and positions are definitely stated. Mount -Malaspina was also named, but its position is not given. During the -expedition of last summer it was found impracticable to decide -definitely to which peak the name of the great navigator was applied. -So existing nomenclature was followed as nearly as possible by -attaching Malaspina's name to a peak about eleven miles east of Mount -St. Elias. Its position is indicated on the accompanying map, plate 8 -(page 75). - -Several charts of the southern coast of Alaska accompany the reports -of the United States Coast Survey for 1875, referred to above. A part -of these have been independently published. These charts were used in -mapping the coast-line as it appears on plate 8, and were frequently -consulted while writing the following pages. - - -NEW YORK TIMES EXPEDITION, 1886. - -An expedition sent out by the New York _Times_, in charge of -Lieutenant Frederick Schwatka, for the purpose of making geographic -explorations and climbing Mount St. Elias, left Sitka on the U. S. S. -_Pinta_, on July 10, 1886, and reached Yakutat bay two days later. As -it was found impracticable to obtain the necessary assistance from the -Indians to continue the voyage to Icy bay, whence the start inland was -planned to be made, Captain N. E. Nichols, the commander of the -_Pinta_, concluded to take the expedition to its destination in his -vessel. On July 17 a landing was made through the surf at Icy bay, and -exploration at once began. - -The party consisted of Lieutenant Schwatka, in charge; Professor -William Libbey, Jr.; and Lieutenant H. W. Seton-Karr. {73} The camp -hands were John Dalton, Joseph Woods, and several Indian packers.[20] - -[Footnote 20: The accounts of this expedition are as follows: Report -from Lieutenant Schwatka in the New York _Times_, October 17, 1886; -Some of the Geographical Features of Southeastern Alaska, by William -Libbey, Jr., in Bull. Am. Geog. Soc., 1886, pp. 279-300; Shores and -Alps of Alaska, by H. W. Seton-Karr, London, 1887, 8°, pp. L-XCV, -142-148; The Alpine Regions of Alaska, by Lieutenant Seton-Karr, in -Proc. Roy. Geog. Soc., vol. IX, 1887, pp. 269-285; The Expedition of -"The New York Times" (1886), by Lieutenant Schwatka, in _The Century -Magazine_, April, 1891, pp. 865-872.] - -From Icy bay the expedition proceeded inland, for about sixteen miles, -in a line leading nearly due north, toward the summit of Mount St. -Elias. The highest point reached, 7,200 feet, was on the foot-hills of -the main range now called the Karr hills. The time occupied by the -expedition, after leaving Icy bay, was nine or ten days. So far as -known, no systematic surveys were carried on. - -An interesting account of this expedition appeared in Seton-Karr's -book, "The Shores and Alps of Alaska." Many observations on the -glaciers and moraines of the region explored are recorded in this -work. The map published with it has been used in compiling the western -portion of the map forming plate 8, where the route of the expedition -is indicated. Another account, especially valuable for its records of -scientific observations, by Professor Libbey, was published by the -American Geographic Society. The Guyot, Agassiz and Tyndall glaciers, -the Chaix hills, and Lake Castani received their names during this -expedition. - -Lieutenant Schwatka's graphic and entertaining account of this -expedition, published in _The Century Magazine_ for April, 1891, gives -many details of the exploration and illustrates many of the -characteristic features of southern Alaska. - - -TOPHAM EXPEDITION, 1888. - -An expedition conducted by Messrs. W. H. and Edwin Topham, of London, -George Broka, of Brussels, and William Williams, of New York, was made -in 1888. Like the _Times_ expedition, it had for its main object the -ascent of Mount St. Elias. - -Icy bay was reached, by means of canoes from Yakutat bay, on July 13, -and an inland journey was made northward which {74} covered a large -part of the area traversed by the previous expedition. The highest -elevation reached, according to aneroid barometer and boiling-point -measurements, was 11,460 feet. This was on the southern side of St. -Elias. - -The only accounts of this expedition which have come to my notice are -an interesting article by William Williams in _Scribner's -Magazine_,[21] and a more detailed report by H. W. Topham, accompanied -by a map[22] and by a fine illustration of Mount St. Elias, in the -Alpine Journal.[23] - -[Footnote 21: New York, April, 1889, pp. 387-403.] - -[Footnote 22: Topham's map was used in compiling the western portion -of the map forming plate 8, and his route is there indicated.] - -[Footnote 23: London, August, 1889, pp. 245-371.] - -This brief review of explorations carried on in the St. Elias region -previous to the expedition sent out in 1890 by the National Geographic -Society is incomplete in many particulars,[24] but will indicate the -most promising sources of information concerning the country described -in the following pages. - -[Footnote 24: Yakutat bay has been visited by vessels of the United -States Navy and United States Revenue Marine and by numerous trading -vessels; but reports of observations made during these voyages have -not been found during a somewhat exhaustive search of literature -relating to Alaska.] - - -{75} - - -PART II. - -NARRATIVE OF THE ST. ELIAS EXPEDITION OF 1890. - - -ORGANIZATION. - -[Illustration: PLATE 8. SKETCH MAP OF MOUNT ST. ELIAS REGION, ALASKA, -By Mark B. Kerr.] - -A long-cherished desire to study the geography, geology, and glaciers -of the region around Mount St. Elias was finally gratified when, in -the summer of 1890, the National Geographic Society made it possible -for me to undertake an expedition to that part of Alaska. - -The expedition was organized under the joint auspices of the National -Geographic Society and the United States Geological Survey, but was -greatly assisted by individuals who felt an interest in the extension -of geographic knowledge. For the inception of exploration and for -securing the necessary funds, credit is due Mr. Willard D. Johnson. - -The names of those who subscribed to the exploration fund of the -Society are as follows: - - Boynton Leach. Henry Gannett. - Everett Hayden. Charles J. Bell. - Richardson Clover. J. S. Diller. - C. M. McCarteney. J. W. Powell. - C. A. Williams. J. G. Judd. - Willard D. Johnson. A. Graham Bell. - Israel C. Russell. Gardiner G. Hubbard. - Gilbert Thompson. A. W. Greely. - Harry King. J. W. Dobbins. - Morris Bien. J. W. Hays. - Wm. B. Powell. Edmund Alton. - Z. T. Carpenter. Bailey Willis. - Charles Nordhoff. E. S. Hosmer. - Rogers Birnie, Jr. - -I was chosen by the Board of Managers of the National Geographic -Society and by the Director of the United States Geological Survey to -take charge of the expedition and to carry on geological and glacial -studies. Mr. Mark B. Kerr, topographer on the Geological Survey, was -assigned as an assistant, with the duty of making a topographical map -of the region explored. {76} Mr. E. S. Hosmer, of Washington, D. C., -volunteered his services as general assistant.[25] - -[Footnote 25: Copies of all instructions governing the work of the -expedition are given in Appendix A.] - -Mr. Kerr left Washington on May 24 for San Francisco, where he made -arrangements for his special work, and reported to me at Seattle on -June 15. I left Washington on May 25 and went directly to Seattle, -where the necessary preparations for exploring an unknown and isolated -region were made. - -From the large number of frontiersmen and sailors who applied for -positions on the expedition, seven men were selected as camp hands. -The foreman of this force was J. H. Christie, of Seattle, who had -spent the previous winter in charge of an expedition in the Olympian -mountains, and was well versed in all that pertains to frontier life. -The other camp hands were J. H. Crumback, L. S. Doney, W. L. Lindsley, -William Partridge, Thomas Stamy, and Thomas White. - -The individual members of the party will be mentioned frequently -during this narrative; but I wish to state at the beginning that very -much of the success of the enterprise was due to the hard and faithful -work of the camp hands, to each one of whom I feel personally -indebted. - -Two dogs, "Bud" and "Tweed," belonging to Mr. Christie, also became -members of the expedition. - -All camp supplies, including tents, blankets, rations, etc., were -purchased at Seattle. Rations for ten men for one hundred days, on the -basis of the subsistence furnished by the United States Geological -Survey, were purchased and suitably packed for transportation in a -humid climate. Twenty-five tin cans were obtained, each measuring 6 x -12 x 14 inches, and in each a mixed ration sufficient for one man for -fifteen days was packed and hermetically sealed. These rations, thus -secured against moisture and in convenient shape for carrying on the -back (or "packing"), were for use above the timber line, where cooking -was possible only by means of oil stoves. The remainder of the -supplies, intended for use where fuel for camp-fires could be -obtained, were secured either in tin cans or in canvas sacks. - -For cooking above timber line, two double-wick oil stoves were -provided, the usual cast-iron bases being replaced by smaller -reservoirs of tin, in order to avoid unnecessary weight. Coal oil was -carried in five-gallon cans, but a few rectangular cans {77} holding -one gallon each were provided for use while on the march. Subsequent -experience proved that this arrangement was satisfactory. - -Four seven-by-seven tents, with ridge ropes, and two pyramidal -nine-by-nine center-pole tents, with flies, were provided, all made of -cotton drilling. The smaller tents were for use in the higher camps, -and the larger ones for the base camps. The tents were as light as -seemed practicable, and were found to answer well the purpose for -which they were intended. - -Each man was supplied with one double Hudson Bay blanket, a -water-proof coat, a water-proof hat (the most serviceable being the -"sou'westers" used by seamen), and an alpenstock.[26] Each man also -carried a sheet made of light duck, seven feet square, to protect his -blankets and to be used as a shelter-tent if required. Each member of -the party was also required to have heavy boots or shoes, and suitable -woolen clothing. Each man was furnished with two pieces of hemp -"cod-line," 50 feet in length, to be used in packing blankets and -rations. The lines were doubled many times, so as to distribute the -weight on the shoulders, and were connected with two leather straps -for buckling about the package to be carried. The cod-lines were used -instead of ordinary pack-straps, for the reason that they distribute -the weight on the shoulder over a broader area, and also because they -can be made immediately available for climbing, crossing streams, -etc., when required. Several extra lines of the same material were -also taken as a reserve, or to be used in roping the party together -when necessary. Several of the party carried rifles, for each of which -a hundred rounds of fixed ammunition were issued. Two ice-axes for the -party were also provided. - -[Footnote 26: Light rubber cloth was ordered from San Francisco for -the purpose of allowing each man a water-proof sheet to place under -his blankets, but was not received in time to be used.] - -A canvas boat was made by the men while en route for the field, but -there was no occasion to use it, except as a cover for a cache left at -one of the earlier camps. Subsequent experience showed that snow-shoes -and one or two sleds would have been serviceable; but these were not -taken. - -Our instruments were furnished by the United States Geological Survey. -The list included one transit, one gradienter, one sextant, two -prismatic compasses, one compass clinometer, {78} four pocket -thermometers, two psychrometers, one field-glass, two mercurial -barometers, three aneroids, steel tape-lines, and two photographic -outfits. - - -FROM SEATTLE TO SITKA. - -Preparations having been completed, the expedition sailed from Seattle -June 16, on the steamer _Queen_, belonging to the Pacific Coast -Steamship Company, in command of Captain James Carroll, and reached -Sitka on the morning of June 24. This portion of our voyage was -through the justly celebrated "inland passage" of British Columbia and -southeastern Alaska, and was in every way delightful. We touched at -Victoria and Wrangell, and, after threading the Wrangell narrows, -entered Frederick sound, where the first floating ice was seen. The -bergs were from a neighboring glacier, which enters the sea at the -head of a deep inlet, too far away to be seen from the course followed -by the _Queen_. The route northward led through Stephens passage, and -afforded glimpses of glaciers both on the mainland and on Admiralty -island. In Taku inlet several hours were spent in examining the -glaciers, two of which come down to the sea. One on the western side -of the fjord, an ice-stream known as the Norris glacier, descends -through a deep valley and expands into a broad ice-foot on approaching -the water, though it is not washed by the waves, owing to an -accumulation of mud about its extremity. Another ice-stream is the -Taku glacier, situated at the head of the inlet. It comes boldly down -to the water, and ends in a splendid sea-cliff of azure blue, some 250 -feet high. The adjacent waters are covered with icebergs shed by the -glacier. Some of the smaller fragments were hoisted on board the -_Queen_ for table use. The bold, rocky shores of the inlet are nearly -bare of vegetation, and indicate by their polished and striated -surfaces that glaciers of far greater magnitude than those now -existing formerly flowed through this channel. - -After leaving Taku inlet, a day was spent at Juneau; and then the -_Queen_ steamed up Lynn canal to Pyramid harbor, near its head. For -picturesque beauty, this is probably the finest of the fjords of -Alaska. Several glaciers on each side of the inlet come down nearly to -the sea, and all the higher mountains are buried beneath perpetual -snow. On returning from Lynn canal, the _Queen_ visited Glacier bay, -and here passengers were allowed a few hours on shore at the Muir -glacier. The day of our visit {79} was unusually fine, and a splendid -view of the great ice-stream with its many tributaries was obtained -from a hill-top about a thousand feet high, on its eastern border. The -glacier discharges into the head of the bay and forms a magnificent -line of ice-cliffs over two hundred feet high and three miles in -extent. - -This portion of the coast of Alaska has been described by several -writers; yet its bleak shores are still in large part unexplored. To -the west of the bay rise the magnificent peaks of the Fairweather -range, from which flow many great ice-streams. The largest of the -glaciers descending from these mountains into Glacier bay is called -the Pacific glacier. Like the Muir glacier, it discharges vast numbers -of icebergs into the sea. - -The day after leaving Glacier bay we arrived at Sitka, and as soon as -practicable called on Lieutenant-Commander O. F. Farenholt, of the -U. S. S. _Pinta_, who had previously received instructions from the -Secretary of the Navy to take us to Yakutak bay. We also paid our -respects to the Governor and other Alaskan officials, and made a few -final preparations for the start westward. - - -FROM SITKA TO YAKUTAT BAY. - -All of our effects having been transferred to the _Pinta_, we put to -sea early on the morning of June 25. - -Honorable Lyman E. Knapp, Governor of Alaska, taking advantage of the -sailing of the _Pinta_, accompanied us on the voyage. Mr. Henry -Boursin, census enumerator, also joined us for the purpose of -obtaining information concerning the Indians at Yakutak. - -The morning we left Sitka was misty, with occasional showers; but even -these unfavorable conditions could not obscure the beauty of the wild, -densely wooded shore along which we steamed. The weather throughout -the voyage was thick and foggy and the sea rough. We anchored in De -Monti bay, the first indentation on the eastern shore of Yakutat bay, -late the following afternoon, without having obtained so much as a -glimpse of the magnificent scenery of the rugged Fairweather range. - -At Yakutat we found two small Indian villages, one on Khantaak island -and the other on the mainland to the eastward (both shown on plate 8). -The village on Khantaak island is the older of the two, and consists -of six houses built along the water's edge. The houses are made of -planks, each hewn from a single {80} log, after the manner of the -Thlinkets generally. They are rectangular, and have openings in the -roofs, with wind guards, for the escape of smoke. The fires, around -which the families gather, are built in the centers of the spaces -below. The houses are entered by means of oval openings, elevated two -feet above the ground on platforms along their fronts. In the interior -of each there is a rectangular space about twenty feet square -surrounded by raised platforms, the outer portions of which are shut -off by partitions and divided into smaller chambers. - -The canoes used at Yakutat are each hewn from a single spruce log, and -are good examples of the boats in use throughout southern Alaska. They -are of all sizes, from a small craft scarcely large enough to hold a -single Indian to graceful boats forty or fifty feet in length and -capable of carrying a ton of merchandise with a dozen or more men. -They have high, overreaching stems and sterns, which give them a -picturesque, gondola-like appearance. - -The village on the mainland is less picturesque, if such a term may be -allowed, than the group of houses already described, but it is of the -same type. Near at hand, along the shore to the southward, there are -two log houses, one of which is used at present as a mission by -Reverend Carl J. Hendriksen and his assistant, the other being -occupied as a trading post by Sitka merchants. - -The Yakutat Indians are the most westerly branch of the great Thlinket -family which inhabits all of southeastern Alaska and a portion of -British Columbia. In intelligence they are above the average of -Indians generally, and are of a much higher type than the native -inhabitants of the older portion of the United States. They are quick -to learn the ways of the white man, and are especially shrewd in -bargaining. They are canoe Indians _par excellence_, and pass a large -part of their lives on the water in quest of salmon, seals, and -sea-otter. During the summer of our visit, about thirty sea-otter were -taken. They are usually shot in the primitive manner with -copper-pointed arrows, although repeating rifles of the most improved -patterns are owned by the natives, in spite of existing laws against -selling breech-loading arms to Indians. The fur of the sea-otter is -acknowledged to be the most beautiful, and is the most highly prized -of all pelts. Those taken at Yakutat during our visit were sold at an -average price of about seventy-five dollars. This, {81} together with -the sale of less valuable skins and the money received for baskets, -etc., made by the women for the tourist trade in Sitka, brought a -considerable revenue to the village. Improvident, like nearly all -Indians, the Yakutat villagers soon spend at the trading post the -money earned in this way. - -The Yakutats belong without question to the Thlinket stock; but visits -from tribes farther westward, who travel in skin boats, are known to -have been made, and it seems probable that some mixture of Thlinket -and Innuit blood may occur in the natives at Yakutat. But if such -admixture has occurred, the Innuit element is so small that it escapes -the notice of one not skilled in ethnology. - -We found Mr. Hendriksen most kind and obliging, and are indebted to -him for many favors and great assistance. Arrangements were made with -him for reading a base-barometer three times a day during July and -August. He also assisted us by acting as an interpreter, and in hiring -Indians and canoes. - -The weather continued thick and stormy after reaching Yakutat bay, and -Captain Farenholt did not think it advisable to take his vessel up the -main inlet, where many dangers were reported to exist. A canoe having -been purchased from the trader and others hired from the Indians, a -start was made from the head of Yakutat bay early on the morning of -June 28, in company with two of the _Pinta's_ boats loaded with -supplies, under the command of Ensign C. W. Jungen. - - -CANOE TRIP UP YAKUTAT BAY. - -Bidding good-bye to our friends on the _Pinta_, to whom we were -indebted for many favors, we started for our trip up the bay in a -pouring rain-storm. Our way at first led through the narrow, placid -water-ways dividing the islands on the eastern side of the bay. The -islands and the shores of the mainland are densely wooded, and -appeared picturesque and inviting even through the veil of mist and -rain that shrouded them. The forests consist principally of spruce -trees, so dense and having such a tangle of underbrush that it is only -with the greatest difficulty that one can force a way through them; -while the ground beneath the forest, and even the trunks and branches -of the living trees, are covered and festooned with luxuriant growths -of mosses and lichens. Our trip along these wooded shores, but half -revealed {82} through the drifting mist, was novel and enjoyable in -spite of discomforts due to the rain. We rejoiced at the thought that -we were nearing the place where the actual labors of the expedition -would begin; we were approaching the unknown; visions of unexplored -regions filled with new wonders occupied our fancies, and made us -eager to press on. - -About noon on the first day we pitched our tents on a strip of shingle -skirting the shore of the mainland to the east of Knight island. The -_Pinta's_ boats spread their white wings and sailed away to the -southward before a freshening wind, and our last connection with -civilization was broken. As one of the frontiersmen of our party -remarked, we were "at home once more." It may appear strange to some -that any one could apply such a term to a camp on the wild shore of an -unexplored country; but the Bohemian spirit is so strong in some -breasts, and the restraint of civilization so irksome, that the homing -instinct is reversed and leads irresistibly to the wilderness and to -the silent mountain tops. - -The morning after arriving at our first camp, Kerr, Christie, and -Hendriksen, with all the camp hands except two, went on with the -canoes, and in a few hours reached the entrance of Disenchantment bay. -They found a camping place about twelve miles ahead, on a narrow strip -of shingle beneath the precipices of Point Esperanza, and there -established our second camp. - -My necessary delay at Camp 1 was utilized, so far as possible, in -learning what I could concerning the adjacent country, and in making a -beginning in the study of its geology. Our camp was at the immediate -base of the mountains, and on the northeastern side of the wide -plateau bordering the continent. The plateau stretches southeastward -for twenty or thirty miles, and is low and heavily forested. The -eastern shore of the bay near our first camp is formed of bluffs about -150 feet high, which have been eaten back by the waves so as to expose -fine sections of the strata of sand, gravel and bowlders of which the -plateau is composed. All the lowlands bordering the mountains have, -apparently, a common history, and doubtless owe their origin -principally to the deposition of débris brought from the mountains by -former glaciers. When this material was deposited, or soon afterward, -the land was depressed about 150 feet lower than at present, as is -shown by a terrace cut along the base of the mountains at that -elevation. The steep mountain face {83} extending northwestward from -Camp 1 to the mouth of Disenchantment bay bears evidence of being the -upheaved side of a fault of quite recent origin. The steep inclination -and shattered condition of the rocks along this line are evidently due -to the crushing which accompanied the displacement. - -In the wild gorge above our first camp, a small glacier was found -descending to within 500 feet of the sea-level, and giving rise to a -wild, roaring stream of milky water. Efforts to reach the glacier were -frustrated by the density of the dripping vegetation and by the clouds -that obscured the mountains. - -A canoe trip was made to a rocky islet between Knight island and the -mainland toward the north. The islet, like the rocks in the adjacent -mountain range, is composed of sandstone, greatly shattered and -seamed, and nearly vertical in attitude. Its surface was densely -carpeted with grass and brilliant flowers. Many sea birds had their -homes there. From its summit a fine view was obtained of the -cloud-capped mountains toward the northeast, of the dark forest -covering Knight island, and of the broad plateau toward the southeast. -Some of the most charming effects in the scenery of the forest-clad -and mist-covered shores of Alaska are due to the wreaths of vapor -ascending from the deep forests during the interval in which the warm -sunlight shines through the clouds; and on the day of our visit to the -islet, the forests, when not concealed by mist, sent up smoke-like -vapor wreaths of many fantastic shapes to mingle with the clouds in -which the higher mountains disappeared. - -At Camp 1 the personnel of the party was unexpectedly reduced. Mr. -Hosmer was ill, and remained with me at camp instead of pushing on -with Kerr and Christie; and the weather continuing stormy, he -concluded to abandon the expedition and return to the mission at Port -Mulgrave. Having secured the services of an Indian who chanced to pass -our camp in his canoe, Mr. Hosmer bade us good-bye, ensconced himself -in the frail craft, and started for sunnier lands. It was subsequently -learned that he reached Yakutak without mishap, and a few days later -sailed for Sitka in a small trading schooner. Our force during the -remainder of the season, not including Mr. Hendriksen and the Indians, -whose services were engaged for only a few days, numbered nine men all -told. - -On the evening of June 30 we had a bright camp-fire blazing on the -beach to welcome the returning party. Near sunset a {84} canoe -appeared in the distance, and a shot was fired as it came round a bend -in the shore. We felt sure that our companions were returning, and -piled drift-wood on the roaring camp-fire to cheer them after their -hard day's work on the water. As the canoe approached, each dip of the -paddle sent a flash of light to us, and we could distinguish the men -at their work; but we soon discovered that it was occupied not by our -own party but by Indians returning from a seal hunt in Disenchantment -bay. They brought their canoe high on the beach, and made themselves -at home about our camp-fire. There were seven or eight well-built -young men in the party, all armed with guns. In former times such an -arrival would have been regarded with suspicion; but thanks to the -somewhat frequent visits of war vessels to Yakutat, and also to the -labors of missionaries, the wild spirits of the Indians have been -greatly subdued and reduced to semi-civilized condition during the -past quarter of a century. - -Just as the long twilight deepened into night, another craft came -around the distant headland, but less swiftly than the former one; and -soon our picturesque canoe, with Christie at the stern steering with a -paddle in true Indian fashion, grated on the shingle beach. Christie -has spent many years of his life with the Indians of the Northwest, -and has adopted some of their habits. On beginning frontier life once -more, he discarded the hat of the white man, and wore a blue cloth -tied tightly around his forehead and streaming off in loose ends -behind. The change was welcome, for it added to the picturesque -appearance of the party. - -The men, weary with their long row against currents and head-winds, -greatly enjoyed the camp-fire. Our Indian visitors, after lunching -lightly on the leaf-stalks of a plant resembling celery -(_Archangelica_), which grows abundantly everywhere on the lowlands of -southern Alaska, departed toward Yakutat. Supper was served in one of -the large tents, and we all rolled ourselves in our blankets for the -night. - -The next day, July 1, we abandoned Camp 1, passed by Camp 2, and late -in the afternoon reached the northwestern side of Yakutat bay, -opposite Point Esperanza. Our trip along the wild shore, against which -a heavy surf was breaking, was full of novelty and interest. The -mountains rose sheer from the water to a height of two or three -thousand feet. About their bases, like {85} dark drapery, following -all the folds of the mountain side, ran a band of vegetation; but the -spruce forests had mostly disappeared, and only a few trees were seen -here and there in the deeper cañons. The position of the terrace along -the base of the mountain, first noticed at Camp 1, could be plainly -traced, although densely covered with bushes. The mountain peaks above -were all sharp and angular, indicating at a glance that they had never -been subjected to glacial action. The sandstone and shales forming the -naked cliffs are fractured and crushed, and are evidently yielding -rapidly to the weather; but the characteristic red color due to rock -decay could not be seen. The prevailing tone of the mountains, when -not buried beneath vegetation or covered with snow, is a cold gray. -Bright, warm, summer skies are needed to reveal the variety and beauty -of that forbidding region. - -Our large canoe behaved well, although heavily loaded. Sometimes the -wind was favorable, when an extemporized sail lessened the fatigue of -the trip. The landing on the northwestern shore was effected, through -a light surf, on a sandy beach heavily encumbered with icebergs. As it -was hazardous to beach the large canoe with its load of boxes and -bags, the heavy freight was transferred, a few pieces at a time, to -smaller canoes, each manned by a single Indian, and all was safely -landed beyond the reach of the breakers. Camp 3 was established on the -sandy beach just above the reach of the tide and near the mouth of a -roaring brook. The drift-wood along the shore furnished abundant fuel -for a blazing camp-fire; our tents were pitched, and once more we felt -at home. - -Two canoes were dispatched, in care of Doney, to the camp on the -opposite shore (Camp 2), with instructions to bring over the -equipments left there. Kerr went over also for the purpose of making a -topographic station on the bluff forming Point Esperanza should the -morrow's weather permit. - -It was curious to note the care which our Indians took of their -canoes. Not only were they drawn high up on the beach, out of the -reach of all possible tides, but each canoe was swathed in wet cloths, -especially at the prow and stern, to prevent them from drying and -cracking. The canoes, being fashioned from a single spruce log, are -especially liable to split if allowed to dry thoroughly. - -The day after our arrival, all of our party and all of our camp {86} -outfit were assembled at Camp 3. Mr. Hendriksen and our Indian friends -took their departure, and the work for which we had come so far was -actually begun. - - -BASE CAMP ON THE SHORE OF YAKUTAT BAY. - -About the tents at Camp 3 the rank grass grew waist-high, sheltering -the strawberries and dwarf raspberries that bloomed beneath. A little -way back from the shore, clumps of alders, interspersed with spruce -trees, marked the beginning of the forest which covered the hills -toward the west and southwest. Toward the north rose rugged mountains, -their summits shrouded in mist; in the steep gorges on their sides the -ends of glaciers gleamed white, like foaming cataracts descending from -cloudland. - -The day following our arrival dawned bright and beautiful. Every cloud -vanished from the mountains as by magic, revealing their magnificent -summits in clear relief. We found ourselves at the base of a rugged -mountain range extending far southeastward and northwestward, its -first rampart so breached as to allow the waters of the ocean to -extend into the very midst of the great peaks beyond. Through this -opening we had a splendid view of the snow-clad mountains filling the -northern sky and stretching away in lessening perspective toward the -east until they blended with the distant clouds. - -Topographic work was started, and the preparation of "packs" for the -journey inland was begun at once; and all hands were kept busy. A -base-line was measured by Mr. Kerr, and a beginning was made in the -development of a system of triangulation which was carried on -throughout the season. - -Our stay at the camp on the shore extended over a week, and enabled us -to become familiar with many of the changes in the rugged scenery -surrounding Yakutat bay. The bay itself was covered with icebergs for -most of the time. Owing to the prevailing winds and the action of -shore currents, the ice accumulated on the coast adjacent to our camp. -For many days the beach toward both the north and the south, as far as -the eye could reach, was piled high with huge masses of blue and white -ice. When the bay was rough, the surf roared angrily among the -stranded bergs and, dashing over them, formed splendid sheets of foam; -while on bright, sunny days the bay gleamed and flashed in the -sunlight as the summer winds gently rippled {87} its surface, and the -thousands of icebergs crowding the azure plain seemed a numberless -fleet of fairy boats with crystal hulls and fantastic sails of blue -and white. When the long summer days drew to a close and gave place to -the soft northern twilight, which in summer lasts until the glow of -the returning sun is seen in the east, the sea and mountains assumed a -soft, mysterious beauty never realized by dwellers in more southern -climes. The hours of twilight were so enchanting, the varying shades -and changing tints on the mighty snow-fields robing the mountains were -so exquisite in their gradations that, even when weary with many hours -of toil, the explorer could not resist the charm, and paced the sandy -shore until the night was far spent. Sometimes in the twilight hours, -long after the sun disappeared, the summits of the majestic peaks -toward the east were transformed by the light of the after-glow into -mountains of flame. As the light faded, the cold shadow of the world -crept higher and higher up the crystal slopes until only the topmost -spires and pinnacles were gilded by the sunset glow. At such times, -when our eyes were weary with watching the gorgeous transformation of -the snow-covered mountains and were turned to the far-reaching seaward -view, we would be startled by the sight of a vast city, with -battlements, towers, minarets, and domes of fantastic architecture, -rising where we knew that only the berg-covered waters extended. The -appearance of these phantom cities was a common occurrence during the -twilight hours. Although we knew at once that the ghostly spires were -but a trick of the mirage, yet their ever-changing shapes and -remarkable mimicry of human habitations were so striking that they -never lost their novelty; and they were never the same on two -successive evenings. One of the most common deceptions of the mirage -is the transformation of icebergs into the semblance of fountains -gushing from the sea and expanding into graceful, sheaf-like shapes. -The strangest freaks due to the refraction of light on hot deserts, -which are usually supposed to be the home of the mirage, do not excite -the traveler's wonder so much as the phantom cities seen in the -uncertain twilight amid the ice-packs of the north. - -When the slowly deepening twilight transformed mountains and seas into -a dreamland picture, the harvest moon, strangely out of place in far -northern skies, spread a sheet of silver behind the dark headlands -toward the southeast, and then slowly appeared, not rising boldly -toward the zenith, but tracing a low {88} arch in the southern -heavens, to soon disappear into the sea toward the southwest. Brief as -were her visits, they were always welcome and always brought the -feeling that distant homes were nearer when the same light was visible -to us and to loved ones far away. The soft moonlight dimmed the -twilight, the after-glow faded from the highest peaks, and the short -northern night came on. - -After returning from the mountains, late in September, we were again -encamped on the northwestern shore of Yakutat bay. A heavy northeast -storm swept down from the mountains and awakened all the pent-up fury -of the waves. The beach was crowded with bergs, among which the surf -broke in great sheets of feathery foam; clouds of spray were dashed -far above the icy ramparts, carrying with them fragments of ice torn -from the bergs over which they swept; while the stranded bergs rocked -violently to and fro as the waves burst over them. Sometimes the -raging waters, angered by opposition, lifted the bergs in their mighty -arms and, turning them over and over, dashed them high on the beach. -It seemed as if spirits of the deep, unable to leave the water-world, -were hurling their weapons at unseen enemies on the land. The fearful -grandeur of the raging waters and of the dark storm-swept skies was, -perhaps, enhanced by the fact that the landward-blowing gale, combined -with a rising tide, threatened to sweep away our frail home. Each -succeeding wave, as it rolled shoreward, sent a sheet of foam roaring -and rushing up the beach and creeping nearer and nearer to our shelter -until only a few inches intervened between the highwater line and the -crest of the sand bank that protected us. The limit was reached at -last, however, and the water slowly retreated, leaving a fringe of ice -within arm's length of our tents. - -The wild scene along the shore was especially grand at night. The -stranded bergs, seen through the gloom, formed strange moving shapes, -like vessels in distress. The white banners of spray seemed signals of -disaster. An Armada, more numerous than ever sailed from the ports of -Spain, was being crushed and ground to pieces by the hoarse wind and -raging surf. Sleep was impossible, even if one cared to rest when sea -and air and sky were joined in fierce conflict. Our tents, spared by -the waves, were dashed down by the fierce north winds, and a lake in -the forest toward the west overflowed its banks and discharged its -flooding waters through our encampment. At last, tired and {89} -discomforted, we abandoned our tents and retreated to the neighboring -forest and there took refuge in a cabin built near where a coal seam -outcrops, and remained until the storm had spent its force. But I have -anticipated, and must return to the thread of my narrative. - - -FIRST DAY'S TRAMP. - -The impressions received during the first day spent on shore in a new -country are always long remembered. Of several "first days" in my own -calendar, there are none that exceed in interest my first excursions -through the forest and over the hills west of Yakutat bay. - -Every one about camp having plenty of work to occupy him through the -day, I started out early on the morning of July 2, with only "Bud" and -"Tweed" for companions. My objects were to reconnoiter the country to -the westward, to learn what I could concerning its geology and -glaciers, and to choose a line of march toward Mount St. Elias. - -To the north of our camp, and about a mile distant, rose a densely -wooded hill about 300 feet high, with a curving outline, convex -southward. This hill had excited my curiosity on first catching sight -of the shore, and I decided to make it my first study. Its position at -the mouth of a steep gorge in the hills beyond, down which a small -glacier flowed, suggested that it might be an ancient moraine, -deposited at a time when the ice-stream advanced farther than at -present. My surprise therefore was great when, after forcing my way -through the dense thickets, I reached the top of the hill, and found a -large kettle-shaped depression, the sides of which were solid walls of -ice fifty feet high. This showed at once that the supposed hill was -really the extremity of a glacier, long dead and deeply buried beneath -forest-covered débris. In the bottom of the kettle-like depression lay -a pond of muddy water, and, as the ice-cliffs about the lakelet melted -in the warm sunlight, miniature avalanches of ice and stones, mingled -with sticks and bushes that had been undermined, frequently rattled -down its sides and splashed into the waters below. Further examination -revealed the fact that scores of such kettles are scattered over the -surface of the buried glacier. This ice-stream is that designated the -_Galiano glacier_ on the accompanying map. - -Continuing on my way toward the mouth of the gorge in the {90} -mountains above, I forced my way for nearly a mile through dense -thickets, frequently making wide detours to avoid the kettle holes. At -length the vegetation became less dense, and gave place to broad open -fields of rocks and dirt, covering the glacier from side to side. This -débris was clearly of the nature of a moraine, as the ice could be -seen beneath it in numerous crevasses; but no division into marginal -or medial moraines could be distinguished. It is really a thin, -irregular sheet of comminuted rock, together with angular masses of -sandstone and shale, the largest of which are ten or fifteen feet in -diameter. When seen from a little distance the débris completely -conceals the ice and forms a barren, rugged surface, the picture of -desolation. - -After traversing this naked area the clear ice in the center of the -gorge was reached. All about were wild cliffs, stretching up toward -the snow-covered peaks above; several cataracts of ice, formed by -tributary glaciers descending through rugged, highly inclined -channels, were in sight; while the snow-fields far above gleamed -brilliantly in the sunlight, and now and then sent down small -avalanches to awaken the echoes of the cliffs and fill the still air -with a Babel of tongues. - -Pushing on toward the western border of the glacier, across the barren -field of stones, I came at length to the brink of a precipice of dirty -ice more than a hundred feet high, at the foot of which flowed a swift -stream of turbid water. A few hundred yards below, this stream -suddenly disappeared beneath an archway formed by the end of a glacial -tunnel, and its further course was lost to view. It was a strange -sight to see a swift, foaming river burst from beneath overhanging -ice-cliffs, roar along over a bowlder-covered bed, and then plunge -into the mouth of a cavern, leaving no trace of its lower course -except a dull, heavy rumbling far down below the icy surface. A still -grander example of these glacial streams, observed a few days later, -is described on another page. - -The bank of the gulf opposite the point at which I first reached it is -formed by a steep mountain-side supporting a dense growth of -vegetation. Here and there, however, streams of water plunge down the -slope, making a chain of foaming cascades, and opening the way through -the vegetation. It seemed practicable to traverse one of these stream -beds without great difficulty, and thus to reach the plateau which I -knew, from a more distant view, to exist above. - -{91} Crossing the glacial river above the upper archway, I reached the -mountain side and began to ascend. The task was far more difficult -than anticipated. The bushes, principally of alder and currant, grew -dense and extended their branches down the steep slope in such a -manner that at times it was utterly impossible to force a way through -them. Much of the way I crawled on hands and knees up the steep -watercourse beneath the dense tangle of vegetation overhanging from -either bank and interlacing in the center. On nearing the top I was so -fortunate as to strike a bear trail, along which the animal had forced -his way through the bushes, making an opening like a tunnel. Through -this I ascended to the top of the slope, coming out in a wild -amphitheatre in the side of the mountain. The bottom of the -amphitheatre was exceedingly rough, owing to confused moraine-heaps, -and held a number of small lakes. On account of its elevation, it was -not densely covered with bushes, and no trees were in sight except -along its southern margin. About its northern border ran a broad -terrace, marking the height of the great glacier which formerly -occupied the site of Yakutat bay. The terrace formed a convenient -pathway leading westward to a sharp ridge running out from the -mountains and connecting with an outstanding butte, which promised to -afford an unobstructed view to the westward. - -Pressing on, I found that the terrace on which I was traveling at -length became a free ridge, some three hundred feet high, with steep -slopes on either side, like a huge railroad embankment. This ridge -swept across the valley in a graceful curve, and shut off a portion of -the western part of the amphitheatre from the general drainage. In the -portion thus isolated there was a lake without an outlet, still -frozen. The snow banks bordering the frozen lake were traced in every -direction by the trails of bears. Continuing my tramp, I crossed broad -snow-fields, climbed the ridge to the westward, and obtained a -far-reaching, unobstructed view of the surrounding country. The -elevation reached was only about 1,500 feet above sea-level, but was -above the timber line. The mountain slopes toward the north were bare -of vegetation and generally covered with snow. - -The first object to claim attention was the huge pyramid forming the -summit of Mount St. Elias, which stood out clear and sharp against the -northwestern sky. Although thirty-six miles distant, it dominated all -other peaks in view and rose far above {92} the rugged crests of -nearer ranges, many of which would have been counted magnificent -mountains in a less rugged land. This was the first view of the great -peak obtained by any of our party. Not a cloud obscured the defination -of the mountain; and the wonderful transparency of the atmosphere, -after so many days of mist and rain, was something seldom if ever -equalled in less humid lands. - -Much nearer than St. Elias, and a little west of north of my station, -rose Mount Cook, one of the most beautiful peaks in the region. Its -summit, unlike the isolated pyramid in which St. Elias terminates, is -formed of three white domes, with here and there subordinate pinnacles -of pure white, shooting up from the snow-fields like great crystals. -On the southern side of Mount Cook there are several rugged and -angular ridges, which sweep away for many miles and project like -headlands into the sea of ice, known as the Malaspina glacier, -bordering the ocean toward the southwest. Between the main ridges -there are huge trunk glaciers, each contributing its flood of ice to -the great glacier below; and each secondary valley and each -amphitheatre among the peaks, no matter how small, has its individual -glacier, and the majority of these are tributary to the larger -ice-streams. All the mountains in sight exceeding 2,000 feet in -elevation were white with snow, except the sharpest ridges and boldest -precipices. The attention of the geologist is attracted by the fact -that all the foot-hills of Mount Cook are composed of gray sandstone -and black shale; and he also observes that the angular mountain crest -so sharply drawn against the sky furnishes abundant evidence that the -mountains were never subjected to the abrasion of a continuous -ice-sheet. - -As I stood on the steep-sloped ridge, the Atrevida and Lucia glaciers, -their surfaces covered from side to side with angular masses of -sandstone and shale, lay at my feet; while farther up the valley the -débris on the surface of the ice disappeared, and all above was a -winter landscape. The brown, desolate débris-fields on the glacier at -my feet extended far southward, and covered the expanded ice-foot in -which the glacier terminates. Most curious of all was the fact that -the moraines on the lower border of the glacier were concealed from -view by a dense covering of vegetation, and in places were clothed -with forests of spruce trees. - -To the southward, beyond the end of the Lucia glacier, and separated -from it by a torrent-swept bowlder-bed, lay a vast {93} plateau of ice -which stretched toward the south and west farther than the eye could -reach. This is the Malaspina glacier, shown on plate 8. Its borders, -like the expanded extremity of the Lucia glacier, are covered with -débris, on the outer margins of which dense vegetation has taken root. -All the central portion of the ice-sheet is clear of moraines, and -shone in the sunlight like a vast snow-field. The heights formerly -reached by the nearer glaciers were plainly marked along the mountain -sides by well-defined terraces, sloping with the present drainage. -When the Lucia glacier was at its flood the ridge on which I stood was -only 200 or 300 feet above its surface; now it approaches 1,000 feet. - -Turning toward the southeast, I could look down upon the waters of -Yakutat bay, with its thousands of floating icebergs, and could -distinguish the white breakers as they rolled in on Ocean cape. Beyond -Yakutat stretches a forest-covered plateau between the mountains and -the sea, and the eye could range far over the mountains bordering this -plateau on the northeast. In the distance, fully a hundred miles away, -stood Mount Fairweather, its position rendered conspicuous by a bank -of shining clouds floating serenely above its cold summit. - -The mountains directly east of Yakutat bay rise to a general height of -about 8,000 feet, but are without especially prominent peaks. In a -general way they form a rugged plateau, which has been dissected in -various channels to depth of 2,000 or 3,000 feet. Nearly all of the -plateau, including mountains and valleys, is covered with snow-fields -and glaciers; but none of the ice-streams, so far as can be seen from -a distance, descend below an elevation of about 4,000 or 5,000 feet. -This region is as yet untraversed; and when the explorer enters it, it -is quite possible that deep drainage lines will be found through which -glaciers may descend nearly or quite to sea-level. - -After drinking in the effect of the magnificent landscape and -endeavoring to impress every detail in the rugged topography upon my -memory, and having finished writing my notes, it was time to return; -for the sun was already declining toward the west. Wishing to see more -of the wonderful land about me, I concluded to descend the western -slope of the ridge upon which I stood, and to return to camp by -following a stream which issues from the Atrevida glacier directly -below my station and empties into Yakutat bay a mile or two south of -our third camp. - -{94} The quickest and easiest way down was to slide on the snow. Using -my alpenstock as a brake, I descended swiftly several hundred feet -without difficulty, the dogs bounding along beside me, when on looking -up I was startled to see two huge brown bears on the same snow -surface, a little to the left and not more than a hundred and fifty -yards away. Had my slide been continued a few seconds more I should -have been in exceedingly unwelcome company. I was unarmed, and -entirely unprepared for a fight with two of the most savage animals -found in this country. The bears had long yellowish-brown hair, and -were of the size and character of the "grizzly," with which they are -thought by hunters, if not by naturalists, to be specifically -identical. They were not at all disturbed by my presence, and in spite -of my shouts, which I thought would make them travel off, one of them -came leisurely toward me. His strides over the snow revealed a -strength and activity commanding admiration despite the decidedly -uncomfortable feeling awakened by his proximity and evident curiosity. -Later in the season I measured the tracks of an animal of the same -species, made while walking over a soft, level surface, and found each -impression to measure 9 by 17 inches, and the stride to reach 64 -inches. So far as I have been able to learn, this is the largest bear -track that has been reported. Realizing my danger, I continued my snow -slide, but in a different direction and with accelerated speed. The -upper limit of the dense thicket clothing the slope of the mountain -was soon reached, and my unwelcome companions were lost to sight. - -Following the bed of a torrent fed by the snow-fields above, I soon -came to the creek chosen for my route back to camp; the waters, brown -and turbid with sediment, welled out of a cavern at the foot of an ice -precipice 200 feet high, and formed a roaring stream too deep and too -swift for fording. The roaring of the brown waters and the startling -noises made by stones rattling down the ice-cliff, together with the -dark shadows of the deep gorge, walled in by a steep mountain slope on -one side and a glacier on the other, made the route seem uncanny. On -the sands filling the spaces between the bowlders there were many -fresh bear tracks, which at least suggested that the belated traveler -should be careful in his movements. - -This locality was afterward occupied as a camping place, and is shown -in the picture forming plate 10. The dark-colored ice, {95} mixed with -stones and earth, might easily be mistaken for stratified rock; but -the dirt discoloring the ice is almost entirely superficial. The crest -of the cliff is formed of débris, and is the edge of the sheet of -stones and earth covering the general surface of the glacier. Owing to -the constant melting, stones and bowlders are continually loosened to -rattle down the steep slope and plunge into the water beneath. - -I followed down the bank of the stream, by springing from bowlder to -bowlder, for about a mile, and then came to a steep bluff, the western -side of which was swept by the roaring flood. The banks above were -clothed with spruce trees and dense underbrush; but, there being no -alternative, I entered the forest and slowly worked my way in the -direction of camp. To traverse the unbroken forests of southern Alaska -is always difficult, even when one is fresh; and, weary as I was with -many hours of laborious climbing, my progress was slow indeed. One of -the principal obstacles encountered in threading these Arctic jungles -is the plant known as the "Devil's club" (_Panax horridum_), which -grows to a height of ten or fifteen feet, and has broad, palmate -leaves that are especially conspicuous in autumn, owing to their -bright yellow color. The stems of this plant run on the earth for -several feet and then curve upward. Every portion of its surface, even -to the ribs of the leaves, is thickly set with spines, which inflict -painful wounds, and, breaking off in the flesh, cause festering sores. -In forcing a way through the brush one frequently treads on the -prostrate portion of these thorny plants, and not infrequently is made -aware of the fact by a blow on the head or in the face from the -over-arching stems. - -I struggled on through the tangled vegetation until the sun went down -and the woods became dark and somber. Thick moss, into which the foot -sank as in a bed of sponge, covered the ground everywhere to the depth -of two or three feet; each fallen trunk was a rounded mound of green -and brown, decked with graceful equiseta and ferns, or brilliant with -flowers, but most treacherous and annoying to the belated traveler. In -the gloom of the dim-lit woods, the trees, bearded with moss, assumed -strange, fantastic shapes, which every unfamiliar sound seemed to -start into life; while the numerous trails made by the bears in -forcing their way through the thick tangle were positive evidence that -not all the inhabitants of the forest were creatures of the -imagination. My faithful companions, "Bud" and {96} "Tweed" showed -signs of weariness, and offered no objection when I started a fire and -expressed my intention of spending the night beneath the -wide-spreading branches of a moss-covered evergreen. Having a few -pieces of bread in my pocket, I shared them with the dogs, and -stretching myself on a luxuriant bank of lichens tried to sleep, only -to find the mosquitoes so energetic that there was no hope of passing -the night in comfort. - -After resting I felt refreshed, and concluded to press on through the -gathering darkness, and after another hour of hard work I came out of -the forest and upon a field of torrent-swept bowlders, deposited by -the stream which I had left farther up. I was surprised to find that -the twilight was not so far spent as I had fancied. The way ahead -being free of vegetation, I hastened on, and after traveling about two -miles was rejoiced by the sight of a camp-fire blazing in the -distance. The warm fire and a hearty supper soon made me forget the -fatigues of the day. - -This, my first day's exploration, must stand as an example of many -similar days spent on the hills and in the forests northwest of -Yakutat bay, of which it is not necessary to give detailed -descriptions. - - -CANOE TRIP IN DISENCHANTMENT BAY. - -On July 3, I continued my examination of the region about the head of -Yakutat bay by making a canoe trip up Disenchantment bay to Haenke -island. With the assistance of Christie and Crumback, our canoe was -launched through the surf without difficulty, and we slowly worked our -way through the fields of floating ice which covered all the upper -portion of the inlet. The men plied the oars with which the canoe was -fortunately provided, while I directed its course with a paddle. A -heavy swell rolling in from the ocean rendered the task of choosing a -route through the grinding ice-pack somewhat difficult. After four or -five hours of hard work, during which time several vain attempts were -made to traverse leads in the ice which had only one opening, we -succeeded in reaching the southern end of the island. - -The shores of Haenke island are steep and rocky, and, so far as I am -aware, afford only one cove in which a boat can take refuge. This is -at the extreme southern point, and is not visible until its entrance -is reached. A break or fissure in the rocks there admits of the -accumulation of stone and sand, and this {97} has been extended by the -action of the waves and tides until a beach a hundred feet in length -has been deposited. The dashing of the bowlders and sand against the -cliffs at the head of the cove by the incoming waves has increased its -extension in that direction so as to form a well-sheltered refuge. The -absence of beaches on other portions of the island is due to the fact -that its bordering precipices descend abruptly into deep water, and do -not admit of the accumulation of débris about their bases. Without -stones and sand with which the waves can work, the excavation of -terraces is an exceedingly slow operation. The precipitous nature of -the borders of the island is due, to some extent at least, to the -abrasion of the rocks by the glacial ice which once encircled it. - -Pulling our canoe far up on the beach, we began the ascent of the -cliffs. Hundreds of sea birds, startled from their nests by our -intrusion, circled fearlessly about our heads and filled the air with -their wild cries. The more exposed portions of the slopes were bare of -vegetation, but in the shelter of every depression dense thickets -obstructed the way. Many of the little basins between the rounded -knolls hold tarns of fresh water, and were occupied at the time of our -visit by flocks of gray geese. It is evident that the island was -intensely glaciated at no distant day. The surfaces of its rounded -domes are so smoothly polished that they glitter like mirrors in the -sunlight. On the polished surfaces there are deep grooves and fine, -hair-like lines, made by the stones set in the bottom of the glacier -which once flowed over the island and removed all of the rocks that -were not firm and hard. On many of the domes of sandstone there rest -bowlders of a different character, which have evidently been brought -from the mountains toward the northeast. - -The summit of the island is about 800 feet above the level of the sea, -and, like its sides, is polished and striated. The terraces on the -mountains of the mainland show that the glacier which formerly flowed -out from Disenchantment bay must have been fully 2,000 feet deep. The -bed it occupied toward the south is now flooded by the waters of -Yakutat bay. - -At the time of Malaspina's visit, 100 years ago, the glaciers from the -north reached Haenke island, and surrounded it on three sides.[27] At -the rate of retreat indicated by comparing {98} Malaspina's records -with the present condition, the glaciers must have reached Point -Esperanza, at the mouth of Disenchantment bay, about 200 years ago; -and an allowance of between 500 and 1,000 years would seem ample for -the retreat of the glaciers since they were at their flood. - -[Footnote 27: The map accompanying Malaspina's report and indicating -these conditions has already been mentioned, and is reproduced on -plate 7, page 67.] - -Reaching the topmost dome of Haenke island, a wonderful panorama of -snow-covered mountains, glaciers, and icebergs lay before us. The -island occupies the position of the stage in a vast amphitheatre; the -spectators are hoary mountain peaks, each a monarch robed in ermine -and bidding defiance to the ceaseless war of the elements. How -insignificant the wanderer who confronts such an audience, and how -weak his efforts to describe such a scene! - -From a wild cliff-enclosed valley toward the north, guarded by -towering pinnacles and massive cliffs, flows a great glacier, the -fountains of which are far back in the heart of the mountains beyond -the reach of vision. Having vainly sought an Indian name for this -ice-stream, I concluded to christen it the _Dalton glacier_, in honor -of John Dalton, a miner and frontiersman now living at Yakutat, who is -justly considered the pioneer explorer of the region. The glacier is -greatly shattered and pinnacled in descending its steep channel, and -on reaching the sea it expands into a broad ice-foot. The last steep -descent is made just before gaining the water, and is marked by -crevasses and pinnacles of magnificent proportion and beautiful color. -This is one of the few glaciers in the St. Elias region that has -well-defined medial and lateral moraines. At the bases of the cliffs -on the western side there is a broad, lateral moraine, and in the -center, looking like a winding road leading up the glacier, runs a -triple-banded ribbon of débris, forming a typical medial moraine. The -morainal material carried by the glacier is at last deposited at its -foot, or floated away by icebergs, and scattered far and wide over the -bottom of Yakutat bay. - -The glacier expands on entering the water, as is the habit of all -glaciers when unconfined, and ends in magnificent ice-cliffs some two -miles in length. The water dashing against the bases of the cliffs -dissolves them away, and the tides tend to raise and lower the -expanded ice-foot. The result is that huge masses, sometimes reaching -from summit to base of the cliffs, are undermined, and topple over -into the sea with a tremendous crash. Owing to the distance of the -glacier from Haenke island, we could {99} see the fall long before the -roar reached our ears; the cliffs separated, and huge masses seemed to -sink without a sound; the spray thrown up as the blue pinnacles -disappeared ascended like gleaming rockets, sometimes as high as the -tops of the cliffs, and then fell back in silent cataracts of foam. -Then a noise as of a cannonade came rolling across the waters and -echoing from cliff to cliff. The roar of the glacier continues all day -when the air is warm and the sun bright, and is most active when the -summer days are finest. Sometimes, roar succeeded roar, like artillery -fire, and the salutes were answered, gun for gun, by the great Hubbard -glacier, which pours its flood of ice into the fjord a few miles -further northeastward. This ice-stream, most magnificent of the -tide-water glaciers of Alaska yet discovered, and a towering mountain -peak from which the glacier receives a large part of its drainage, -were named in honor of Gardiner G. Hubbard, president of the National -Geographic Society. - -[Illustration: PLATE 9. HUBBARD GLACIER.] - -Looking across the waters of the bay, whitened by thousands of -floating bergs, we could see three miles of the ice-cliffs formed -where the Hubbard glacier enters the sea. A dark headland on the shore -of the mainland to the right shut off the full view of the glacier but -formed a strongly drawn foreground, which enhanced the picturesque -effect of the scenery. The Hubbard glacier flows majestically through -a deep valley leading back into the mountains, and has two main -branches, with a smaller and steeper tributary between. These branches -unite to form a single ice-foot extending into the bay. The western -branch has a dark medial moraine down its center, which makes a bold, -sweeping curve before joining the main stream. There is also a broad -lateral débris-belt along the bases of the cliffs forming its right -bank. The whole surface of the united glacier, and all of the white -tongues running back into the mountains beyond the reach of vision, -are broken and shattered, owing to the steepness and roughness of the -bed over which they flow. The surface, where not concealed by morainal -material, is snow-white; but in the multitude of crevasses the blue -ice is exposed, and gives a greenish-blue tint to the entire stream. -Where the subglacial slopes are steep, the ice is broken into -pinnacles and towers of the grandest description. - -On the steep mountain sides sloping toward the Hubbard glacier there -are more than a dozen secondary ice-streams which are tributary to it. -The amphitheatres in which the glacier has {100} its beginnings have -never been seen; but our general knowledge of the fountains from which -glaciers flow assures us that not only scores but hundreds of other -secondary and tertiary glaciers far back into the mountains contribute -their floods to the same great stream. - -After being received on board the _Corwin_, late in September, we had -an opportunity to view the great sea-cliffs of the Hubbard glacier -near at hand. Captain Hooper, attracted by the magnificent scenery, -took his vessel up Disenchantment bay to a point beyond Haenke island, -whence a view could be had of the eastern extension of the inlet. So -far as is known, the _Corwin_ was the first vessel to navigate those -waters. Soundings made between the island and the ice-foot gave forty -to sixty fathoms. At the elbow, where the southeastern shore of the -bay turns abruptly eastward, there is a low islet not represented on -any map previous to the one made by the recent expedition, which -commands even a wider prospect than can be obtained from Haenke -island. Future visitors to this remote coast should endeavor to reach -this islet, after having beheld the grand panorama obtainable from the -summit of Haenke island. The portion of Disenchantment bay stretching -eastward from the foot of Hubbard glacier is enclosed on all sides by -bold mountains, the lower slopes of which have the subdued and flowing -outlines characteristic of glaciated regions. Several glaciers occur -in the high-grade lateral valleys opening from the bay; but these have -recently retreated, and none of them have sufficient volume at present -to reach the water. The general recession, in which all the glaciers -of Alaska are participating, is manifested here by the broad débris -fields, which cover all the lower ice-streams not ending in the sea. -The absence of vegetation on the smooth rocks recently abandoned by -the ice also tells of recent climatic changes. - -A débris-covered glacier, so completely concealed by continuous sheets -of stones and earth that its true character can scarcely be -recognized, descends from the mountains just east of Hubbard glacier. -It is formed by the union of two principal tributaries, and, on -reaching comparatively level ground, expands into a broad ice-foot, -but does not have sufficient volume to reach the sea. Another glacier, -of smaller size but of the same general character, lies between the -Hubbard and Dalton glaciers. - -In a rugged defile in the mountains just west of Haenke island there -is another small dirt-covered glacier, which creeps down from the -precipices above and reaches within a mile of the water. {101} At its -end there is a cliff of black, dirty ice, scarcely to be distinguished -from rock at a little distance, from the base of which flows a turbid -stream. This glacier is covered so completely with earth and stones -that not a vestige of the ice can be seen unless we actually traverse -its surface. Its appearance suggests the name of _Black glacier_, by -which it is designated on the accompanying map. - -The visitor to Haenke island has examples of at least two well-marked -types of glaciers in view: The small débris-covered ice-streams, too -small to reach the water, are typical of a large class of glaciers in -southern Alaska, which are slowly wasting away and have become buried -beneath débris concentrated at the surface by reason of their own -melting. The Galiano glacier is a good example of this class. The -Hubbard and Dalton glaciers are fine examples of another class of -ice-streams which flow into the sea and end in ice-cliffs, and which -for convenience we call _tide-water glaciers_. Nowhere can finer or -more beautiful examples of this type be found than those in view from -Haenke island. - -The formation of icebergs from the undermining and breaking down of -the ice-cliffs of the tide-water glaciers has already been mentioned. -But there is another method by which bergs are formed--a process even -more remarkable than the avalanches that occur when portions of the -ice-cliffs topple over into the sea. The ice-cliffs at the foot of the -tide-water glaciers are really sea-cliffs formed by the waves cutting -back a terrace in the ice. The submerged terrace is composed of ice, -and may extend out a thousand feet or more in front of the visible -part of the ice-cliffs. These conditions are represented in the -accompanying diagram (figure 1), which exhibits a longitudinal section -of the lower end of a tide-water glacier where it pushes out into the -sea. - -[Illustration: FIGURE 1--_Diagram illustrating the Formation of -Icebergs_.] - -As the sea-cliff of ice recedes and the submerged terrace increases in -breadth there comes a time when the buoyancy of the {102} ice at the -bottom exceeds its strength, and pieces break off and rise to the -surface. The water about the ends of the glaciers is so intensely -muddy that the submerged ice-foot is hidden from view, and its -presence would not be suspected were it not for the fragments -occasionally rising from it. The sudden appearance of these masses of -bottom ice at the surface is always startling. While watching the -ice-cliffs and admiring the play of colors in the deep crevasses which -penetrate them in every direction, or tracing in fancy the strange -history of the silent river and wondering in what age the snows fell -on the mountains, which are now returning to their parent, the sea, -one is frequently awakened by a commotion in the waters below, perhaps -several hundred feet in front of the ice-cliffs. At first it seems as -if some huge sea-monster had risen from the deep and was lashing the -waters into foam; but soon the waters part, and a blue island rises to -the surface, carrying hundreds of tons of water, which flows down its -sides in cataracts of foam. Some of the bergs turn completely over on -emerging, and thus add to the tumult and confusion that attends their -birth. The waves roll away in widening circles, to break in surf on -the adjacent shores, and an island of ice of the most lovely blue -floats serenely away to join the thousands of similar islands that -have preceded it. The fragments of the glacier rising from the bottom -in this manner are usually larger than those broken from the faces of -the ice-cliffs, sometimes measuring 200 or 300 feet in diameter. Their -size and the suddenness with which they rise would insure certain -destruction of a vessel venturing too near the treacherous ice-walls. - -At the time of our visit to Haenke island, the entire surface of -Disenchantment bay and all of Yakutat bay as far southward as we could -see formed one vast field of floating ice. Most of the bergs were -small, but here and there rose masses which measured 150 by 200 feet -on their sides and stood 40 or 50 feet out of the water. The bergs are -divided, in reference to color, into three classes--the white, the -blue, and the black. The white ones are those that have fallen from -the face of the ice-walls or those that have been sufficiently exposed -to the atmosphere to become melted at the surface and filled with air -cavities. The blue bergs are of many shades and tints, finding their -nearest match in color in Antwerp blue. These are the ones that have -recently risen from the submerged ice-foot, or have turned over owing -to a change of position in the center of gravity. Rapid as is the -{103} melting of the ice when exposed to the air, it seems to liquefy -even more quickly when submerged. The changes thus produced finally -cause the bergs to reverse their positions in the water. This is done -without the slightest warning, and is one of the greatest dangers to -be guarded against while canoeing among them. The white color -presented by the majority of the bergs is changed to blue when they -become stranded, and the surf breaks over them and dissolves away -their porous surfaces. A few of the bergs are black in color, owing to -the dirt and stones that they carry on their surfaces or frozen in -their mass. Quantities of débris are thus floated away from the -tide-water glaciers and strewn over the bottoms of the adjacent -inlets. - -This digression may be wearisome, but one cannot stand on Haenke -island without wishing to know all the secrets of the great -ice-streams that flow silently before him. - -Returning from our commanding station at the summit of the island to -where we left our canoe, we were surprised and not a little startled -to find that the tide had run out and left the strand between our -canoe and the water completely blocked with huge fragments of ice. -There was no way left for us to launch our canoe except by cutting -away and leveling off the ice with our axe, so as to form a trail over -which we could drag it to the water. This we did, and then, poising -the canoe on a low flat berg, half of which extended beneath the -water, I took my place in it with paddle in hand, while Christie and -Crumback, waiting for the moment when a large wave rolled in, launched -the canoe far out in the surf. By the vigorous use of my paddle I -succeeded in reaching smooth water and brought the canoe close under -the cliff forming the southern side of the cove, where the men were -able to drop in as a wave rolled under us. - -We slowly worked our way down the bay through blue lanes in the -ice-pack, against an incoming tide, and reached our tents near sunset. -Thus ended one of the most enjoyable and most instructive days at -Yakutat bay. - - -FROM YAKUTAT BAY TO BLOSSOM ISLAND. - -Our camp on the shore of Yakutat bay was held for several days after -returning from Haenke island, but in the meantime an advance-camp was -established on the side of the Lucia glacier, from which Mr. Kerr and -myself made explorations ahead. - -{104} Before leaving the base-camp I visited Black glacier for the -purpose of taking photographs and studying the appearance of an old -glacier far spent and fast passing away. This, like the Galiano -glacier, is a good example of a great number of ice-streams in the -same region which are covered from side to side with débris. The cañon -walls on either side rise precipitously, and their lower slopes, for -the height of 200 or 300 feet, are bare of vegetation. The surface of -the glacier has evidently sunken to this extent within a period too -short to allow of the accumulation of soil and the rooting of plants -on the slopes. The banks referred to are in part below the upper limit -of timber growth, and the adjacent surfaces are covered with bushes, -grasses, and flowers. Under the climatic conditions there prevailing, -it is evident that the formation of soil and the spreading of plants -over areas abandoned by ice is a matter of comparatively few years. It -is for this reason that a very recent retreat of Black glacier is -inferred. Many of the glaciers in southern Alaska give similar -evidence of recent contraction, and it is evident that a climatic -change is in progress which is either decreasing the winter's snow or -increasing the summer's heat. The most sensitive indicators of these -changes, responding even more quickly than does the vegetation, are -the glaciers. - -The fourth of July was spent by us in cutting a trail up the steep -mountain slope to the amphitheatre visited during my first tramp. No -one can appreciate the density and luxuriance of the vegetation on the -lower mountain in that region until he has cut a passage through it. -Seven men, working continuously for six or seven hours with axes and -knives, were able to open a comparatively good trail about a mile in -length. The remainder of the way was along stream courses and up -bowlder-washes, which were free from vegetation. In the afternoon, -having finished our task, a half-holiday was spent in an exciting -search for two huge brown bears discovered by one of the party, but -they vanished before the guns could be brought out. - -The next day an advance-camp was made in the amphitheatre above timber -line, and there Mr. Kerr and myself passed the night, molested only by -swarms of mosquitoes, and the day following occupied an outstanding -butte as a topographical station. In the afternoon of the same day the -advance-camp was moved to the border of the Atrevida glacier at a -point already described, where a muddy stream gushes out from under -the ice. - -{105} Our next advance-camp, established a few days later, was at -Terrace point, as we called the extreme end of the mountain spur -separating the Lucia and Atrevida glaciers. These ice-streams were -formerly much higher than now, and when at their flood formed terraces -along the mountain side, which remain distinctly visible to the -present day. The space between the two glaciers at the southern end of -the mountain spur became filled with bowlders and stones carried down -on the side of the ice-streams, and, as the glaciers contracted, added -a tapering point to the mountain. Between the present surface of the -ice and the highest terrace left at some former time there are many -ridges, sloping down stream, which record minor changes in the -fluctuation of the ice. A portion of one of these terraces is seen to -the left in plate 10. - -[Illustration: PLATE 10. WALL OF ICE ON EASTERN SIDE OF THE ATREVIDA -GLACIER.] - -Terrace point, like all the lower portions of the mountain spurs -extending southward from the main range, is densely clothed with -vegetation, and during the short summers is a paradise of flowers. Our -tent was pitched on a low terrace just beyond the border of the ice. -The steep bluff rising to an elevation of some 200 feet on the east of -our camp was formed by glacial ice buried beneath an absolutely barren -covering of stones and dirt. On the west the ascent was still more -precipitous, but the slope from base to summit was one mass of -gorgeous flowers. - -[Illustration: PLATE 11. VIEW ON THE ATREVIDA GLACIER.] - -Kerr and myself made several excursions from the camp at Terrace -point, and explored the country ahead to the next mountain spur for -the purpose of selecting a site for another advance-camp. In the -meantime the men were busy in bringing up supplies. - -Our reconnoissance westward took us across the Lucia glacier to the -mouth of a deep, transverse gorge in the next mountain spur. The -congeries of low peaks and knobs south of this pass we named the -_Floral hills_, on account of the luxuriance of the vegetation -covering them; and the saddle separating them from the mountains to -the north was called _Floral pass_. - -In crossing the Lucia glacier we experienced the usual difficulties -met with on the débris-covered ice-field of Alaska. The way was -exceedingly rough, on account of the ridges and valleys on the ice, -and on account of the angular condition of the débris resting upon it. -Many of the ridges could not conveniently be climbed, owing to the -uncertain footing afforded by the angular {106} stones resting on the -slippery slope beneath. Fortunately, the crevasses were mostly filled -with stones fallen from the sides, so that the danger from open -fissures, which has usually to be guarded against in glacial -excursions, was obviated; yet, as is usually the case when crevasses -become filled with débris, the melting of the adjacent surfaces had -caused them to stand in relief and form ridges of loose stones, which -were exceedingly troublesome to the traveler. - -[Illustration: PLATE 12. ENTRANCE TO AN ICE TUNNEL; FORMERLY THE -OUTLET OF A GLACIAL LAKE.] - -Near the western side of the Lucia glacier, between Terrace point and -Floral pass, there is a huge rounded dome of sandstone rising boldly -out of the ice. This corresponds to the "nunataks" of the Greenland -ice-fields, and was covered by ice when the glaciation was more -intense than at present. On the northern side of the island the ice is -forced high up on its flanks, and is deeply covered with moraines; but -on the southwestern side its base is low and skirted by a sand plain -deposited in a valley formerly occupied by a lake. The melting of the -glacier has, in fact, progressed so far that the dome of rock is free -from ice on its southern side, and is connected with the border of the -valley toward the west by the sand plain. This plain is composed of -gravel and sand deposited by streams which at times became dammed -lower down and expanded into a lake. Sunken areas and holes over -portions of the lake bottom show that it rests, in part at least, upon -a bed of ice. - -[Illustration: PLATE 13. DELTAS IN AN ABANDONED LAKE BED.] - -The most novel and interesting feature in the Lucia glacier is a -glacial river which bursts from beneath a high archway of ice just at -the eastern base of the nunatak mentioned above, and flows for about a -mile and a half through a channel excavated in the ice, to then enter -the mouth of another tunnel and become lost to view. An illustration -of this strange river and of the mouth of the tunnel in the -débris-covered ice into which it rolls, reproduced from a photograph -by a mechanical process, is given on plate 14, and another view of the -mouth of the same tunnel is presented in the succeeding plate. This is -the finest example of a glacial river that it has ever been my good -fortune to examine. - -[Illustration: PLATE 14. A RIVER ON THE LUCIA GLACIER.] - -The stream is swift, and its waters are brown and heavy with sediment. -Its breadth is about 150 feet. For the greater part of its way, where -open to sunlight, it flows between banks of ice and over an icy floor. -Fragments of its banks, and portions of {107} the sides and roof of -the tunnel from which it emerges, are swept along by the swift -current, or stranded here and there in midstream. The sand plain -already mentioned borders the river for a portion of its course, and -is flooded when the lower tunnel is obstructed. - -[Illustration: PLATE 15. ENTRANCE TO A GLACIAL TUNNEL.] - -The archway under which the stream disappears is about fifty feet -high, and the tunnel retains its dimensions as far as one can see by -looking in at its mouth. Where the stream emerges is unknown; but the -emergence could no doubt be discovered by examining the border of the -glacier some miles southward. No explorer has yet been bold enough to -enter the tunnel and drift through with the stream, although this -could possibly be done without great danger. The greatest risk in such -an undertaking would be from falling blocks of ice. While I stood near -the mouth of the tunnel there came a roar from the dark cavern within, -reverberating like the explosion of a heavy blast in the chambers of a -mine, that undoubtedly marked the fall of an ice mass from the arched -roof. The course of the stream below the mouth of the tunnel may be -traced for some distance by scarps in the ice above, formed by the -settling of the roof. Some of these may be traced in the -illustrations. When the roof of the tunnel collapses so completely as -to obstruct the passage, a lake is formed above the tunnel, and when -the obstruction is removed the streams draining the glacier are -flooded. - -At the mouth of the tunnel there are always confused noises and -rhythmic vibrations to be heard in the dark recesses within. The air -is filled with pulsations like deep organ notes. It takes but little -imagination to transform these strange sounds into the voices and -songs of the mythical inhabitants of the nether regions. - -Toward the right of the tunnel, as shown on plate 14, there appears a -portion of the former river bed, now abandoned, owing to the cutting -across of a bend in the stream. The floor of this old channel is -mostly of clear, white ice, and has a peculiar, hummocky appearance, -which indicates the direction of the current that once flowed over it. -A portion of the bed is covered with sand and gravel, and along its -border are gravel terraces resting on ice. These occurrences -illustrate the fact that rivers flowing through channels of ice are -governed by the same general laws as the more familiar surface -streams. - -After examining this glacial river, during our first excursion on the -Lucia glacier, we reached its western banks by crossing {108} above -the upper archway. Traversing the sand plain to the westward, we came -to another stream of nearly equal interest, flowing along the western -margin of the glacier, past the end of the deep gorge called Floral -pass. A small creek, flowing down the pass, joins the stream and -skirts the glacier just below the mouth of a wild gorge on the side of -the main valley. This stream once flowed along the border of the Lucia -glacier when it was much higher than now, and began the excavation of -a channel in the rock, which was retained after the surface of the -glacier was lowered by melting. It still flows in a rock-cut channel -for about a mile before descending to the border of the glacier as it -exists at present. The geologist will see at once that this is a -peculiar example of superimposed drainage. The gorge cut by the stream -is a deep narrow trench with rough angular cliffs on either side, and -is a good example of a water-cut cañon. When the Lucia glacier melts -away and leaves the broad-bottomed valley clear of ice, the deep -narrow gorge on its western side, running parallel with its longer -axes, but a thousand feet or more above its bottom, will remain as one -of the evidences of a former ice invasion. - -During our reconnoissance we turned back at the margin of the second -river, but a day or two later reached the same point with the camp -hands and camping outfit, and, placing a rope from bank to bank, -effected a crossing. Our next camp was in Floral pass. From there we -occupied a topographical station on the summit of the Floral hills, -and made another reconnoissance ahead, across the _Hayden -glacier_,[28] to the next mountain spur. - -[Footnote 28: Named in honor of the late Dr. Ferdinand V. Hayden, -founder of the United States Geological Survey of the Territories.] - -Floral pass, like so many of the topographical features examined -during the recent expedition, has a peculiar history. It is a -comparatively low-grade gorge leading directly across the end of an -angular mountain range forming one of the spurs of Mount Cook. The -position of the pass was determined by an east-and-west fault and by -the erosion of soft shales turned up on edge along the line of -displacement. At its head it is shut in by the Hayden glacier, which -flows past it and forms a wall of ice about two hundred feet high. The -water flowing out from beneath the side of the glacier forms a muddy -creek, which finds its way over a bowlder-covered bed in the bottom of -the gorge to the border of Lucia glacier. Along the sides of the gorge -there are {109} many terraces, which record a complicated history. -Evenly stratified clays near its lower end, adjacent to the Lucia -glacier, show that it was at one time occupied in part by a lake. -Above the lacustral beds there are water-worn deposits, indicating -that at a later date the gorge was filled from side to side by -moraines and coarse stream deposits several hundred feet thick. These -were excavated, and portions were left clinging to the hill-sides, -forming the terraces of to-day. Diverse slopes in the terraces suggest -that the drainage may at times have been reversed, according as the -Lucia or the Hayden glacier was the higher. - -The routes between our various camps, scattered along between Yakutat -bay and Blossom island, were traversed several times by every member -of the party. To traverse the same trail several times with heavy -loads, and perhaps in rain and mist, is disheartening work which I -will spare the reader the effort of following even in fancy. - -From our camp in Floral pass another reconnoissance ahead was made by -Mr. Kerr and myself, as already mentioned. These advances, each one of -which told us something new, were the most interesting portions of our -journey. The little adventures and experiences of each advance were -reported and talked over when we rejoined our companions around the -camp-fire at night, and were received with gratifying interest by the -men. - -A view of the Hayden glacier from the Floral hills showed us that it -differed from any of the glaciers previously traversed. Its surface, -where we planned to cross it, was free of débris except along the -margins and also near the center, where we could distinguish a light -medial moraine. Farther southward, near the terminus of the glacier, -its surface from side to side was buried beneath a sheet of stones and -dirt. As in many other instances, the débris on the lower portion of -the glacier has been concentrated at the surface, owing to the melting -of the ice, so as to form a continuous sheet. - -Early one morning, while traveling over the torrent-swept bowlders in -the stream-bed on our way up Floral pass, we were a little startled at -seeing the head of a bear just visible through the flowers fringing -the bank. Before a shot could be fired, he vanished, and remained -perfectly quiet among the bushes for several minutes. But a trembling -of the branches at length betrayed his presence, and a few minutes -later he came out in full view, his yellow-brown coat giving him the -appearance of a huge {110} dog. Standing on a rounded mound he looked -inquiringly down the valley, with his shaggy side in full view. I -fired--but missed my aim. The unsuccessful hunter always has an excuse -for his failure; I had never before used the rifle I carried, and the -hair-trigger with which it was provided deceived me. Fortunately for -the bear, and probably still more fortunately for me, the bullet went -far above the mark. The huge beast vanished again, although the -vegetation was not dense, and left us wondering how such a large -animal could disappear so quickly and so completely in such an open -region. On searching for his tracks, we found that he had traversed -for a few rods the plant-covered terrace on which he was first -discovered, and then escaped up a lateral gorge to a broader terrace -above. - -Reaching the head of the Floral pass and climbing the hill of débris -bordering the Hayden glacier, we came out upon the clear, white ice of -the central portion of the ice-stream. The ice was greatly crevassed, -but nearly all the gaps in its surface could be crossed by jumping or -else by ice-bridges. The most interesting feature presented by the -glacier was the way in which it yields itself to the inequality of the -rocks over which it flows. Starting on the eastern side, below the -entrance to Floral pass, and extending northwestward diagonally across -the stream, there is a line of steep descent in the rocks beneath, -which causes the ice to be greatly broken. This is not properly an -ice-fall, except near the confining walls of the cañon; but it might -be called an ice-rapid. The ice bends down over the subglacial scarp -with many long breaks, but does not form pinnacles, as in many similar -instances where the descent is greater, and true ice cascades occur. -The most practicable way for crossing the glacier was to ascend the -stream above the line of rapids for some distance, and then follow -diagonally down its center, finally veering westward to the opposite -bank. By following this course, and making a double curve like the -letter S, we could cross the steep descent in the center, where it was -least crevassed. - -The marginal moraines on the Hayden glacier are formed of fragments of -brown and gray sandstone and black shale of all sizes and shapes. It -is clear that this débris was gathered by the cliffs bordering the -glacier on either side. The medial moraine which first appears at the -surface just above the rapids is of a different character, and tells -that the higher peaks of Mount Cook are composed, in part at least, of -a different material from {111} the spurs projecting from it. The -medial moraine looks black from a distance, but, on traversing it, it -was found to be composed mainly of dark-green gabbro and serpentine. -The débris is scattered over the surface in a belt several rods wide; -but it is not deep, as the ice can almost everywhere be seen between -the stones. Where the fragments of rock are most widely separated, -there are fine illustrations of the manner in which small, dark stones -absorb the heat of the sun and melt the ice beneath more rapidly than -the surrounding surface, sinking into the ice so as to form little -wells, several inches deep, filled with clear water. Larger stones, -which are not warmed through during a day's sunshine, protect the ice -beneath while the adjacent surface is melted, and consequently become -elevated on pillars or pedestals of ice. The stones thus elevated are -frequently large, and form tables which are nearly always inclined -southward. In other instances the ice over large areas, especially -along the center of the medial moraine, was covered with cones of -fine, angular fragments from a few inches to three or four feet in -height. These were not really piles of gravel, as they seemed, but -consisted of cones of ice, sheeted over with thin layers of small -stones. The secret of their formation, long since discovered on the -glaciers of Switzerland, is that the gravel is first concentrated in a -hole in the ice and, as the general surface melts away, acts like a -large stone and protects the ice beneath. It is raised on a pedestal, -but the gravel at the borders continually rolls down the sides and a -conical form is the result. - -Where we crossed the Hayden glacier it is only about a mile broad in a -direct line; but to traverse it by the circuitous route rendered -necessary by the character of its surface required about three hours -of hard tramping, even when unincumbered with packs. From the center -of the glacier a magnificent view may be obtained of the snow-covered -domes of Mount Cook, from which rugged mountain ridges stretch -southward like great arms and enclose the white snow-field from which -the glacier flows. At an elevation of 2,500 feet the icy portion -disappears beneath the névé on which not a trace of débris is visible. -All the higher portions of the mountains are white as snow can make -them, except where the pinnacles and precipices are too steep to -retain a covering. - -On reaching the western side of the glacier we found a bare space on -the bordering cliffs, about a hundred feet high, which {112} has been -abandoned by the ice so recently that it is not yet grassed over. -Above this came the luxuriant and beautiful vegetation covering all -the lower mountain slopes. - -The mountain spur just west of the glacier, like several of the ridges -stretching southward from the higher mountains, ends in a group of -hills somewhat separate from the main ridge. The hills are covered -with a rank vegetation, and in places support a dense growth of spruce -trees. Reaching the grassy summit, we had a fine, far-reaching view of -the unexplored region toward the west, and of the vast plateau of ice -stretching southward beyond the reach of the vision. West of our -station, another great ice-stream, named the _Marvine glacier_, in -honor of the late A. R. Marvine, flows southward with a breadth -exceeding that of any of the icy streams yet crossed. Beyond the -Marvine glacier, and forming its western border, there is an -exceedingly rugged mountain range trending northeast and southwest. -Although this is, topographically, a portion of the mountain mass -forming Mount Cook, its prominence and its peculiar geological -structure render it important that it should have an independent name. -In acknowledgment of the services to science rendered by the first -state geologist of Massachusetts, it is designated the _Hitchcock -range_ on our maps. Rising above the angular crest line of this -mountain mass towers the pyramidal summit of Mount St. Elias, -seemingly as distant as when we first beheld it from near Yakutat bay. - -About a mile west of the hill on which we stood, and beyond the bed of -a lake now drained of its waters by a tunnel leading southward through -the ice, rose a steep, rocky island out of the glaciers, its summit -overgrown with vegetation and dark with spruce trees. This oasis in a -sea of ice, subsequently named Blossom island, we chose as the most -favorable site for our next advance-camp. - -We then returned to our camp in Floral pass, and a day or two later -Kerr and Christie started on a side trip up the Hayden glacier, to be -absent five days. During this trip the weather was stormy, and only -allowed half an hour for topographical work when a somewhat favorable -station was reached. This was of great service, however, in mapping -the country, as it gave a station of considerable elevation on the -side of Mount Cook. The trip was nearly all above the snow-line, and -was relieved by many novel experiences. - -{113} While Kerr and Christie were away, I assisted the camp hands in -advancing to Blossom island. Our first day's work consisted in packing -loads across the Hayden glacier to the wooded hills on its western -border, reached during the reconnoissance described above. The weather -was stormy, and a dense fog rolled in from the ocean, obscuring the -mountains, and compelling us to find our way across the glacier as -best we could without landmarks. Patiently threading our way among -crevasses, we at length came in sight of the forests on the extremity -of the mountain spur toward the west, and concluded to camp there -until the weather was more favorable. We climbed the bare slope -bordering the glacier, and forced our way through the dripping -vegetation to an open space beside a little stream and near some aged -spruce trees that would furnish good fuel for a camp-fire. We were -glad of a refuge, but did not fully appreciate the fact that our tents -were in a paradise of flowers until the next morning, when the sun -shone clear and bright for a few hours. We hailed with delight the -world of summer beauty with which we were surrounded. Our camp was in -a little valley amid irregular hills of débris left by the former ice -invasion, each of which was a rounded dome of flowers. The desolate -ice-fields were completely shut out from view by the rank vegetation. -On the slope above us, dark spruce trees loaded with streamers of -moss, and seemingly many centuries old, formed a background for the -floral decoration with which the ground was everywhere covered. -Flowering plants and ferns were massed in such dense luxuriance that -the streams were lost in gorgeous banks of bloom. - -Reluctantly we returned to Floral pass for another load of camp -supplies, and late in the afternoon pressed on to Blossom island, -where we again pitched our tents in rain and mist, and again, when the -storm cleared away, found ourselves in an untrodden paradise. Kerr and -Christie rejoined us at Blossom island on July 31, and we were once -more ready for an advance. - - -BLOSSOM ISLAND. - -Our camp on Blossom island was near a small pond of water and close -beside a thick grove of spruce trees on the western side of the -land-mass. The tents were so placed as to secure an unobstructed view -to the westward; and they were visible, in turn, to parties descending -from the mountains toward the northwest, whither our work soon led us. - -{114} The sides of Blossom island are rough and precipitous. The -glaciers flowing past it cut away the rocks and, as the surface of the -ice-fields was lowered, left them in many places in rugged cliffs bare -of vegetation. The top of the island was also formerly glaciated and -in part covered with débris; but the ice retreated so long ago that -the once desolate surface has become clothed in verdure. Everywhere -there are dense growths of flowers, ferns and berry bushes. On the -rocky spurs, thrifty spruce trees, festooned with drooping streamers, -shelter luxuriant banks of mosses, lichens and ferns. There was no -evidence that human hand had ever plucked a flower in that luxuriant -garden; not a trace could be found of man's previous invasion. The -only trails were those left by the bears in forcing their way through -the dense vegetation in quest of succulent roots. Later in the season, -when the berries ripened, there was a feast spread invitingly for all -who chose to partake. On the warm summer days the air was filled with -the perfume of the flowers, birds flitted in and out of the shady -grove, and insects hummed in the glad sunlight; the freshness and -beauty on every hand made this island seem a little Eden, preserved -with all its freshness and fragrance from the destroying hand of man. - -This oasis in a desert of ice is so beautiful and displays so many -instructive and attractive features that I wish the reader to come -with me up the flowery slopes and study the interesting pictures to be -seen from its summit. - -The narrow ravine back of our camp is festooned and overhung with tall -ferns, shooting out from the thickets on either hand like bending -plumes. You will notice at a glance, if perchance your youthful -excursions happened to be in the northeastern states, as were mine, -that many of the plants about us are old friends, or at least former -acquaintances. The tall fern nodding so gracefully as we pass is an -_Asplenium_, but of ranker growth than in most southern regions. These -tall white flowers with aspiring, flat-topped umbels, looking like -rank caraway plants, but larger and more showy, belong to the genus -_Archangelica_, and are at home in the Cascade range and the Rocky -Mountains as well as here. The lily-like plant growing so profusely, -especially in the moist dells, with tall, slim spikes of greenish -flowers and long parallel veined leaves, is _Veratrum viride_. These -brilliant yellow monkey-flowers, bending so gracefully over the banks -of the pond, are closely related to the little {115} _Mimulus_ which -nods to its own golden reflection in many of the brooks of New -England. That purple _Epilobrum_, with now and then a pure white -variety, so common everywhere on these hills, is the same wanderer -that we have seen over many square miles beneath the burnt woods of -Maine. These bushes with obscure white flowers, looking like little -waxen bells, we recognize at once as huckleberries; in a short time -they will be loaded with luscious fruit. Inviting couches of moss -beneath the spruce trees are festooned and decorated with fairy shapes -of brown and green, that recall many a long ramble among the -Adirondack hills and in the Canadian woods. The licapods, equiseta and -ferns are many of them identical with the tracery on mossy mounds -covering fallen hemlocks in the Otsego woods in New York, but display -greater luxuriance and fresher and more brilliant colors. That -graceful little beach-fern, here and there faded to a rich brown, -foretelling of future changes, is identical with the little fairy form -we used to gather long ago along the borders of the Great Lakes. -Asters and gentians, delicate orchids and purple lupines, besides many -less familiar plants, crowd the hillsides and deck the unkept meadows -with a brilliant mass of varied light. In the full sunshine, the -hill-slopes appear as if the fields of petals clothing them had the -prism's power, and were spreading a web of rainbow tints over the lush -leaves and grasses below. - - * * * * * - -On our return to Blossom island, late in September, we found many of -the flowers faded, but in their places there was a profusion of -berries nearly as brilliant in color as the petals that heralded their -coming. Many of the thickets, inconspicuous before, had then a deep, -rich yellow tint, due to an abundance of luscious salmon berries, -larger than our largest blackberries. The huckleberries were also -ripe, and in wonderful profusion. These additions to our table were -especially appreciated after living for more than a month in the snow. -The ash trees were holding aloft great bunches of scarlet berries, -even deeper and richer in color than the ripe leaves on the same -brilliant branches. The deep woods were brilliant with the broad -yellow leaves of the Devil's club, above which rose spikes of crimson -berries. The dense thickets of currant bushes, so luxuriant that it -was difficult to force one's way through them, had received a dusky, -smoke-like tint, due to abundant blue-black strings of fruit suspended -all along the under sides of the branches. - - * * * * * - -{116} Let us not look too far ahead, however. Wandering on over the -sunny slopes, where the gardener has forgotten to separate the colors -or to divide the flower banks, we gain the top of the island; but so -dense are the plants about us, and so eager is each painted cup to -expand freely in the sunlight at the expense of its neighbors, that we -have to beat them down with our alpenstocks--much as we dislike to mar -the beauty of the place--before we can recline on the thick turf -beneath and study the strange landscape before us. - -The foreground of every view is a bank of flowers nodding and swaying -in the wind, but all beyond is a frozen desert. The ice-fields before -us, with their dark bands of débris, are a picture of desolation. The -creative breath has touched only the garden which we, the first of -wanderers, have invaded. The land before us is entirely without human -associations. No battles have there been fought, no kings have ruled, -no poets have sung of its ruggedness, and no philosopher has explained -its secrets. Yet it has its history, its poetry, and its philosophy! - -The mountains toward the north are too near at hand to reveal their -grandeur; only the borders of the vast snow-fields covering all of -these upper slopes are in view. In the deep cañon with perpendicular -walls, just north of our station, but curving westward so that its -upper course is concealed from view, there flows a secondary glacier -which forces its terminal moraine high up on the northern slope of -Blossom island, but does not now join the ice-field on the south. -Streams of turbid water flow from this glacier on each side of the -oasis on which we stand and unite at the mouth of a dark tunnel in the -ice toward the south. - -The barren gravel plain just east of our station, and at the foot of -the glacier from the north, is the bed of a glacial lake which has -been drained through the tunnel in the ice. On our way to Blossom -island we crossed this area and found that it had but recently lost -its waters. Miniature terraces on the gravel banks forming the sides -of the basin marked the height to which the waters last rose, and all -the slopes formerly submerged were covered with a thin layer of -sediment. On the sides of the basin where this fresh lining rests on -steep slopes there are beautiful frettings made by rills in the soft -sediment. The stream from the glacier now meanders across this sand -plain, dividing as it goes into many branches, which unite on {117} -approaching the dark archway below. The lake is extremely irregular in -its behavior, and may be filled and emptied several times in a season. -The waters are either restrained or flow freely, according as the -tunnel through which they discharge is obstructed or open. The lake is -typical of a class. Similar basins may be found about many of the -spurs projecting into the Malaspina glacier. - -A little west of the glacier to which I have directed your attention -there is a narrow mountain gorge occupied by another glacier, of small -size but having all the principal characteristics of even the largest -Alpine glaciers of the region. It is less than half a mile in length, -has a high grade, and is fed by several lateral branches. Its surface -is divided into an ice region below and a névé region above. It has -lateral and medial moraines, ice pinnacles, crevasses, and many other -details peculiar to glaciers. From its extremity, which is dark with -dirt and stones, there flows a stream of turbid water. It is, in fact, -a miniature similitude of the ice-streams on the neighboring mountain, -some of which are forty or fifty miles in length and many times wider -in their narrowest part than the little glacier before us is long. The -more thoroughly we become acquainted with the mountains of southern -Alaska the more interesting and more numerous do the Alpine glaciers -of the third order become. Already, thousands could be enumerated. - -I will not detain my imaginary companion longer with local details, -but turn at once to the objects which will ever be the center of -attraction to visitors who may chance to reach this remote island in -the ice. Looking far up the Marvine glacier, beyond the tapering -pinnacles and rugged peaks about its head, you will see spires and -cathedral-like forms of the purest white projected against the -northern sky. They recall at once the ecclesiastic architecture of the -Old World; but instead of being dim and faded by time they seem built -of immaculate marble. They have a grandeur and repose seen only in -mountains of the first magnitude. The cathedral to the right, with the -long roof-like crest and a tapering spire at its eastern terminus, is -Mount Augusta; its elevation is over 13,000 feet. A little to the -west, and equally beautiful but slightly less in elevation, is Mount -Malaspina--a worthy monument to the unfortunate navigator whose name -it bears. These peaks are on the main St. Elias range, but from our -present point of view they form only the {118} background of a -magnificent picture. Later in the season our tents were pitched at -their very bases, and they then revealed their full grandeur and -fulfilled every promise given by distant views. - -The rugged Hitchcock range bordering the distant margin of the Marvine -glacier, like the mountains near at hand and the rocky island on which -we stand, is composed of sandstone and shale, but presents one -interesting feature, to which I shall direct your attention. The trend -of the range is northeast and southwest, but the strata of which it is -composed run east and west and are inclined northward. As the range is -some eight miles long, these conditions would seem to indicate a -thickness of many thousands of feet for the rocks of which it is -composed; yet the beds were deposited in horizontal sheets of sand and -mud of very late date, as will be shown farther on. But the great -apparent thickness of the strata is deceptive: a nearer examination -would reveal the fact that the rocks have been so greatly crushed that -even a hand specimen can scarcely be broken off with fresh surfaces. -More than this, the black shale, exhibiting the greatest amount of -crushing, is usually in wedge-shaped masses, which, in some cases at -least, are bordered by what are known as thrust planes, nearly -coinciding with the bedding planes of the strata. The rocks have been -fractured and crushed together in such a way as to pile fragments of -the same layer on top of each other, and thus to increase greatly -their apparent thickness. In the elevations before us the thrust -planes are tipped northeastwardly, and it would seem that the force -that produced them acted from that direction. The apparent thickness -of the beds has thus been increased many times. What their original -thickness was, it is not now possible to say. Similar indications of a -lateral crushing in the rocks may be found in several of the mountain -spurs between the Hitchcock range and Yakutat bay; but space will not -permit me to follow this subject further. - -Turning from the mountains, we direct our eyes seaward; but it is a -sea of ice that meets our view and not the blue Pacific. Far as the -eye can reach toward the west, toward the south, and toward the -southeast there is nothing in view but a vast plateau of ice or barren -débris fields resting on ice and concealing it from view. This is the -Malaspina glacier. - -On the border of the ice, just below the cliffs on which we {119} -stand, there is a belt of débris perhaps five miles in breadth, which -almost completely conceals the ice beneath. Portions of this moraine -are covered by vegetation, and in places it is brilliant with flowers. -The vegetation is most abundant on the nearer border and fades away -toward the center of the glacier. Its distant border, adjacent to the -white ice-field beyond, is {120} absolutely bare and desolate. An -attempt has been made to reproduce this scene in the picture forming -plate 16. The drawing is from a photograph and shows the barren débris -field stretching away towards the southwest. The extreme southern end -of the Hitchcock range appears at the right. In the distance is the -white ice of the central part of the Malaspina glacier. Far beyond, -faintly outlined against the sky, are the snow-covered hills west of -Icy bay. The flowers in the foreground are growing on the crest of the -steep bluff bordering Blossom island on the south. - -[Illustration: PLATE 16: MALASPINA GLACIER, FROM BLOSSOM ISLAND.] - -On the moraine-covered portion, especially where plants have taken -root, there are hundreds, perhaps thousands, of lakelets occupying -kettle-shaped depressions. A view of one of these interesting -reservoirs in the ice is given in figure 2. If we should go down to -the glacier and examine such a lakelet near at hand, we should find -that the cliffs of ice surrounding them are usually unsymmetrical, -being especially steep and rugged on one side and low or perhaps -wanting entirely on the other. But there is no regularity in this -respect; the steep slopes may face in any direction. On bright days -the encircling walls are always dripping with water produced by the -melting of the ice; little rills are constantly flowing down their -sides and plunging in miniature cataracts into the lake below; the -stones at the top of the ice-cliffs, belonging to the general sheet of -débris covering the glacier, are continually being undermined and -precipitated into the water. A curious fact in reference to the walls -of the lakelets is that the melting of the ice below the surface is -more rapid than above, where it is exposed to the direct rays of the -sun. As a result the depressions have the form of an hour-glass, as -indicated in the accompanying section. - -[Illustration: FIGURE 2--_View of a glacial Lakelet_ (_drawn from a -Photograph_).] - -[Illustration: FIGURE 3--_Section of a glacial lakelet_.] - -Beyond the bordering moraines at our feet, we can look far out over -the ice-plateau and view hundreds of square miles of its {121} frozen -surface. At the same time we obtain glimpses of other vast ice-fields -toward the west, beyond Icy bay; but their limits in that direction -are unknown. - - * * * * * - -Later in the season I made an excursion far out on the Malaspina -glacier from the extreme southern end of the Hitchcock range, and -became acquainted with many of its peculiarities. Its surface, instead -of being a smooth snow-field, as it appears from a distance, is -roughened by thousands of crevasses, many of which are filled with -clear, blue water. Over hundreds of square miles the surface appears -as if a giant plow had passed over it, leaving the ice furrowed with -crevasses. The crevasses are not broad; usually one can cross them at -a bound. They appear to be the scars left by rents in the tributary -ice-streams. - -The stillness far out on the great ice-field is immediately noticed by -one who has recently traversed the sloping surfaces of the tributary -glaciers. It is always silent on that vast frozen plateau. There are -no surface streams and no lakes; not a rill murmurs along its channel -of ice; no cascades are formed by streams plunging into moulins and -crevasses. The water produced by the melting of the ice finds its way -down into the glacier and perhaps to its bottom, and must there form -rivers of large size; but no indications of their existence can be -obtained at the surface. The icy surface is undulating, and resembles -in some respects the great rolling prairies of the west; it is a -prairie of ice. In the central portion not a shoot of vegetation casts -its shadow, and scarcely a fragment of rock can be found. The -boundaries of the vast plateau have never been surveyed, but its area -cannot be less than five hundred square miles. The clear ice of the -center greatly exceeds the extent of the moraine-covered borders. It -has a general elevation of fifteen or sixteen hundred feet, being -highest near the end of the Hitchcock range, where the Seward glacier -comes in, and decreasing from there in all directions. From the summit -of Blossom island and other commanding stations it is evident that the -dark moraine belts about its borders are compound and record a varied -history. Far away toward the southeast the individual elements may be -distinguished. The dark bands of débris sweep around in great curves -and concentric, swirl-like figures, which indicate that there are -complicated currents in the seemingly motionless plateau. - -The Malaspina glacier belongs to a class of ice bodies not {122} -previously recognized, which are formed at the bases of mountains by -the union of several glaciers from above. Their position suggests the -name of _Piedmont glaciers_ for the type. They differ from continental -glaciers in the fact that they are formed by the union of ice-streams -and are not the sources from which ice-streams flow. The supply from -the tributary glacier is counterbalanced by melting and evaporation. - - * * * * * - -If the reader has become interested in the vast ice-fields about -Blossom island, he may wish to continue our acquaintance and go with -me into the great snow-fields on the higher mountains, where the -ice-rivers feeding the Malaspina glacier have their sources. - - -LIFE ABOVE THE SNOW-LINE. - -Early on the morning of August 2, all necessary preparations having -been made the day previous, we started in the direction of the great -snow peak to be seen at the head of the Marvine glacier, where we -hoped to find a pass leading through the mountains which would enable -us to reach the foot of Mount St. Elias or to discover a practicable -way across the main range into the unknown country toward the north. - -All of the camp hands were with us at the start, except Stamy and -White, who had been despatched to Port Mulgrave to purchase shoes. All -but Crumback and Lindsley were to return to Blossom island, however, -after leaving their loads at a rendezvous as far from Blossom island -as could be reached in a day and allow sufficient time to return to -the base-camp. Kerr and myself, with the two camp hands mentioned, -were to press on to the snow-fields above. We took with us a tent, -blankets, rations, an oil-stove, and a supply of coal oil, and felt -equal to any emergency that might arise. - -The morning of our departure was thick and foggy, with occasional -showers, and the weather grew worse instead of better as we advanced. -All the mountains were soon shut out from view by the vast vapor banks -that settled down from above, and we had little except the general -character of the glacier to guide us. - -Our way at first led up the eastern border of the Marvine glacier, -over seemingly interminable fields of angular débris. Traveling on the -rugged moraine, some idea of which may be obtained from plate 17, was -not only tiresome in the extreme, but ruinous to boots and shoes. On -passing the mouth of the {123} first lateral gorge (about a mile from -Blossom island), from which flows a secondary glacier, we could look -up the bed of the steep ravine to the white precipices beyond, which -seemed to descend out of the clouds, and were scarred by avalanches; -but all of the higher peaks were shrouded from view. At noon we passed -the mouth of a second and larger gorge, which discharges an important -tributary. We then left the border of the glacier and traveled up its -center, the crevasses at the embouchures of the tributary stream being -too numerous and too wide to be crossed without great difficulty. - -[Illustration: PLATE 17. MORAINES ON THE MARVINE GLACIER.] - -In the center of the Marvine glacier there is a dark medial moraine, -composed mainly of débris of gabbro and serpentine, of the same -character as the medial moraine on the Hayden glacier, already briefly -mentioned. Here, too, we found broad areas covered with sand cones and -glacial tables. There are also rushing streams, flowing in channels of -ice, which finally plunge into crevasses or in well-like moulins and -send back a deep roar from the caverns beneath. The murmurs of running -waters, heard on every hand, seem to indicate that the whole glacier -is doomed to melt away in a single season. - -Early in the afternoon we reached the junction of the two main -branches of the Marvine glacier, and chose the most westerly. We were -still traveling over hard blue ice in which the blue and white -vein-structure characteristic of glaciers could be plainly -distinguished. The borders of the ice-streams were dark with lateral -moraines; but after passing the last great tributary coming in from -the northeast we reached the upper limit of the glacier proper and -came to the lower border of the névé fields, above which there is -little surface débris. The glacier there flows over a rugged descent, -and is greatly broken by its fall. At first we endeavored to find a -passage up the center of the crevassed and pinnacled ice, but soon -came to an impassable gulf. Turning toward the right, we traversed a -ridge of ice between profound gorges and reached the base of the -mountain slope bordering the glacier on the east. Our party was now -divided; Christie and his companion were left searching for a -convenient place to leave the cans of rations they carried, while we, -who were to explore the regions above, were endeavoring to find a way -up the ice-fall. A shout from our companions below called our -attention to the fact that they were unable to reach the border of the -glacier, where they had been directed to leave their packs, and that -they {124} had left them on the open ice. They waved us "good-bye" and -started back toward Blossom island, leaving our little band of four to -make the advance. - -Descending into a deep black gorge at the border of the ice, formed by -its melting back from the bordering cliffs, we clambered upward -beneath overhanging ice-walls, from which stones and fragments of ice -were occasionally dropping, and finally reached a great snow-bank on -the border of the glacier. As the storm still continued, and was even -increasing in force, we concluded to find a camping ground soon as -possible and make ourselves comfortable as the circumstances would -permit. - - -FIRST CAMP IN THE SNOW. - -We had now reached the lower limit of perpetual snow. There were no -more moraines on the surface of the glacier, and no bare rock surfaces -large enough to hold a tent. The entire region was snow-mantled as far -as the eye could see, except where pinnacles and cliffs too steep and -rugged for the snow to accumulate rose above the general surface. A -little to one side of the mouth of a steep lateral gorge we found a -spot in which a mass of partly disintegrated shale had fallen down -from the cliff. We scraped the fragments aside, smoothed the snow -beneath, and built a wall of rock along the lower margin. The space -above was filled in with fragments of shale, so as to form a shelf on -which to pitch our tent. Soon our blankets were spread, with our -water-proof coats for a substratum, and supper was prepared over the -oil-stove. - -Darkness settled down over the mountains, and the storm increased as -the night came on. What is unusual in Alaska, the rain fell in -torrents, as in the tropics. Our little tent of light cotton cloth -afforded great protection, but the rain-drops beat on it with such -force that the spray was driven through and made a fine rain within. -Weary with many hours of hard traveling over moraines and across -crevassed ice, and in an atmosphere saturated with moisture, we rolled -ourselves in our blankets, determined to rest in spite of the storm -that raged about. - -As the rain became heavier, the avalanches, already alarmingly -numerous, became more and more frequent: A crash like thunder, -followed by the clatter of falling stones, told that many tons of ice -and rocks on the mountains to the westward had slid {125} down upon -the borders of the glacier; another roar near at hand, caused by an -avalanche on our own side of the glacier, was followed by another, -another, and still another out in the darkness, no one could tell -where. The wilder the storm, the louder and more frequent became the -thunder of the avalanches. It seemed as if pandemonium reigned on the -mountains. One might fancy that the evil spirits of the hills had -prepared for us a reception of their own liking--but decidedly not to -the taste of their visitors. Soon there was a clatter and whiz of -stones at our door. Looking out I saw rocks as large as one's head -bounding past within a few feet of our tent. The stones on the -mountain side above had been loosened by the rain, and it was evident -that our perch was no longer tenable. Before we could remove our frail -shelter to a place of greater safety, a falling rock struck the -alpenstock to which the ridge-rope of our tent was fastened and -carried it away. Our tent "went by the board," as a sailor would say, -and we were left exposed to the pouring rain. Before we could gather -up our blankets they were not only soaked, but a bushel or more of mud -and stones from the bank above, previously held back by the tent, -flowed in upon them. Rolling up our blankets and "caching" the -rations, instruments, etc., under a rubber cloth held down by rocks, -we hastily dragged our tent-cloth down to the border of the glacier, -at the extremity of a tapering ridge, along which it seemed impossible -for stones from above to travel. We there pitched our tent on the hard -snow, without the luxury of even a few handfuls of shale beneath our -blankets. Wet and cold, we sought to wear the night away as best we -could, sleep being impossible. Crumback, who had been especially -energetic in removing the tent, regardless of his own exposure, was -wet and became cold and silent. The oil-stove and a few rations were -brought from the cache at the abandoned camp, and soon a dish of -coffee was steaming and filling the tent with its delicious odor. Our -shelter became comfortably warm and the hot coffee, acting as a -stimulant, restored our sluggish circulation. We passed an -uncomfortable night and watched anxiously for the dawn. Toward morning -a cold wind swept down the glacier and the rain ceased. With the dawn -there came indications that the storm had passed, although we were -still enveloped in dense clouds and could not decide whether or not a -favorable change in the weather had occurred. We were still cold and -wet and the desire to return to Blossom {126} island, where all was -sunshine and summer, was great. Uncertain as to what would be the -wisest course, we packed our blankets and started slowly down the -mountain, looking anxiously for signs that the storm had really -passed. - -An hour after sunrise a rift in the mist above us revealed the -wonderful blue of the heavens, and allowed a flood of sunlight to pour -down upon the white fields beneath. Never was the August sun more -welcome. The mists vanished before its magic touch, leaving here and -there fleecy vapor-wreaths festooned along the mountain side; as the -clouds disappeared, peak after peak came into view, and snow-domes and -glaciers, never seen before, one by one revealed themselves to our -astonished eyes. When the curtain was lifted we found ourselves in a -new world, more wild and rugged than any we had yet beheld. There was -not a tree in sight, and nothing to suggest green fields or flowery -hill-sides, except on a few of the lower mountain spurs, where -brilliant Alpine blossoms added a touch of color to the pale -landscape. All else was stern, silent, motionless winter. - -The glacier, clear and white, without a rock on its broken surface, -looked from a little distance like a vast snow-covered meadow. We were -about a mile above the lower limit of the snow-fields, where the blue -ice of the glacier comes out from beneath the névé. The blue ice was -deeply buried, and could only be seen in the deepest crevasses. Across -the glacier rose the angular cliffs and tapering spires of the -Hitchcock range. Every ravine and gulch in its rugged sides was -occupied by glaciers, many of which were so broken and crevassed that -they looked like frozen cataracts. - -Cheered by the bright skies and sun-warmed air, we pushed on up the -glacier, taking the center of the stream in order to avoid the -crevasses, which were most numerous along its borders. Two or three -miles above our first camp we found a place where a thin layer of -broken shale covered the snow, at a sufficient distance from the steep -slopes above to be out of the reach of avalanches. We there -established our second camp after leaving Blossom island, dried our -blankets, and spent the remainder of the day basking in the sunlight -and gathering energy for coming emergencies. - -We found the névé of the Marvine glacier differing greatly from the -lower or icy portion previously traversed. Instead of ice with blue -and white bands, as is common lower down, the {127} entire surface, -and as far down in the crevasses as the eye could distinguish, was -composed of compact snow, or snow changed to icy particles resembling -hail and having in reality but few of the properties of ordinary snow: -it might properly be called névé ice. Usually the thickness of the -layers varied from ten to fifteen feet. Separating them were dark -lines formed by dust blown over the surface of the glacier and buried -by subsequent snow-storms, or by thin blue lines formed by the edges -of sheets of ice and showing that the snow surface had been melted -during bright sunny days and frozen again at night. The horizontal -stratification so plainly marked in all the crevasses in the névé was -almost entirely wanting, or at least was not conspicuous, in the lower -portion of the glacier, where, instead, we found those narrow blue and -white bands already mentioned, the origin of which has been so well -described and explained by Tyndall. - -The center of the Marvine glacier, as in most similar ice-streams, is -higher and less broken by crevasses than its borders. The crevasses at -the side trend up stream, as is the case with marginal crevasses -generally. In the present instance the courses of these rents could be -plainly distinguished on each border of the glacier, when looking down -upon it from neighboring slopes. The crevasses occur at quite regular -intervals of approximately fifty feet, and diverge from the bank at -angles of about 40°. In the banks of snow bordering the glacier -similar crevasses diverge from the margin of the flowing glacier and -trend down along its banks. The marginal crevasses and the crevasses -in the bordering snow-fields, to which no special name has been given, -fall nearly in line; but between the two there is a series of -irregular cracks and broken snow, sharply defining the border of the -moving névé. - -The origin of the marginal crevasses trending up stream was explained -during the study of the glaciers of Switzerland. The following diagram -and explanation illustrating their development are copied from -Tyndall: - -"Let _A C_ be one side of the glacier and _B D_ the other; and let the -direction of motion be that indicated by the arrow. Let _S T_ be a -transverse slice of the glacier, taken straight across it, say to-day. -A few days or weeks hence the slice will have been carried down, and -because the center moves more quickly than the sides it will not -remain straight, but will bend into the form _S' T'_. Supposing _T i_ -to be a small square of the original slice near the side of the -glacier; in the new position the square will be distorted to the -lozenge-shaped figure _T' i'_. Fix your attention upon the {128} -diagonal _T i_ of the square; in the lower position this diagonal, _if -the ice could stretch_, would be lengthened to _T' i'_. But the ice -does not stretch; it breaks, and we have a crevasse formed at right -angles to _T' i'_. The mere inspection of the diagram will assure you -that the crevasse will point obliquely _upward_."[29] - -[Illustration: FIGURE 4--_Diagram illustrating the Formation of -marginal Crevasses_.] - -[Footnote 29: The Forms of Water: International Scientific Series, New -York, 1875, pp. 107-108.] - -The explanation given above applies especially to the lower or icy -portion of a glacier; above the snow-line other facts appear. When a -glacier flows through fields of snow on a level with its surface, -crevasses are formed in the adjacent banks. These trend down stream -for the same reason that the crevasses in the glacier proper trend up -stream--that is, the friction of the moving stream against its banks -tends to carry them along, while the portions at a distance are -stationary. Fissures are thus opened which trend in the direction in -which the glacier moves. The angle made by these crevasses with the -axis of the glacier is about the same as those of the marginal -crevasses, but in an opposite direction. They are widest near the -margin of the glacier and taper to a sharp end towards the stationary -snow-banks above. The crevasses in the two series thus fall nearly in -line, but are separated by a narrow band of irregularly broken snow, -marking the actual border of the glacier.[30] - -[Footnote 30: Crevasses in snow-fields through which ice-streams flow -will be mentioned again in describing the Seward glacier.] - -After leaving Blossom island the party was divided, and we began a new -series of numbers for our camp above the snow-line, although in this -narrative and on the accompanying map a single series of numbers for -all the camps will be used. While in the field the camps in the snow -were usually termed, facetiously, "sardine camps," in allusion to the -uncomfortable manner in which we were packed in our tent at night. - - -{129} ACROSS PINNACLE PASS. - -The morning after reaching Camp 12 dawned gloriously bright. The night -had been cold, and a heavy frost had silenced every rill from the -snow-slopes above. The clear, bracing air gave us renewed energy and a -firmer desire to press on. Mr. Kerr and myself made an excursion -ahead, while Lindsley and Crumback brought up a load of supplies from -the cache left on the glacier below Camp 11. - -On gaining the center of the Marvine glacier we had a magnificent view -down the broad ice-stream, bordered on either hand by towering, -snow-laden precipices, and changing, as the eye followed the downward -slope, from pure white to brown and black in the distance. Far below -we could barely discern the wooded summit of Blossom island, beyond -which stretched the seemingly limitless ice-fields of the Malaspina -glacier. All about us the white slope reflected the sunlight with -painful brilliancy, while the black moraines and forests below and the -mists over the distant ocean, made it seem as if one was looking down -into a lower and darker world. - -As we advanced toward the head of the glacier we found, as on several -subsequent occasions, that the nearer we approached the sources of an -ice-stream the easier our progress became. Following up the center of -the glacier, we learned that it curved toward the east; and after an -hour or two of weary tramping we reached the great amphitheatre in -which it has its source. All about us were rugged mountain slopes, -heavily loaded with snow, and forming clear white cliffs from which -avalanches had descended. To the westward the wall of the amphitheatre -was broken, and it was apparent that we could cross its rim in that -direction. Pressing onward up the gently ascending slope, we came at -length to a gap in the mountains bordered on the north by a towering -cliff fully a thousand feet high, and were rejoiced to find that the -snow surface on the opposite side of the divide inclined westward with -a grade as gentle as the one we had ascended. Looking far down the -western snow-slope, we could see where it joined a large glacier -flowing southward past the end of the great cliffs which extended -westward from the divide. The glacier we saw in the valley below is -designated on our map as the _Seward glacier_, in honor of William H. -Seward, the former Secretary of State, who negotiated the purchase of -Alaska for the United States. - -{130} The pass we named _Pinnacle pass_, on account of the many -towering pinnacles overshadowing it. Its elevation is about four -thousand feet, and at the summit it has a breadth of only two or three -hundred feet. The snow on the divide is greatly crevassed, but a -convenient snow-bridge enabled us to cross without difficulty. The -crevasses increased in breadth with the advance of the season, and on -returning from our mountain trip in September we had to climb up on -the bordering cliff in order to pass the main crevasse at the summit. -Some idea of the crevasses of this region may be obtained from the -following figure, drawn from a photograph taken on the western side of -Pinnacle pass, not far from the summit. - -[Illustration: Figure 5--_Crevasses on Pinnacle Pass; from a -Photograph_.] - -The cliff on the north of Pinnacle pass is really a huge fault-scarp -of recent date, intersecting stratified shale, limestone, and -conglomerate, with a few thin coal-seams. The strata dip toward the -north at a high angle, and present their broken edges in the great -cliff rising above the pass. The cliffs extend westward from the pass, -and retain a nearly horizontal crest line, but increase in height and -grandeur, owing to the downward grade of the glacier along their base. -A mile to the westward their elevation is fully two thousand feet. The -cliffs throughout are {131} almost everywhere bare of snow and too -steep and rugged to be scaled. They form a strongly drawn boundary -line in the geology of the region, and furnish the key to the -structure and geological character of an extended area. All the rocks -to the southward are sandstone and shale belonging to a well-defined -series, and differ materially from the rocks in the fault-scarp. I -have called the rocks toward the south, the _Yakutat system_, and -those exposed in the faces of the fault-scarp the _Pinnacle system_. -Directly north of Pinnacle pass, and at the base of Mount Owen, the -rocks of the Yakutat system are exposed, and from their position and -association it is evident that they are younger than the Pinnacle -system and belong above it. If these conclusions are sustained by -future investigation, they will carry with them certain deductions -which are among the most remarkable in geological history. On the -crest of the Pinnacle pass cliffs I afterwards found strata containing -fossil shells and leaves belonging to species still living. These -records of animal and plant life show that not only were the rocks of -the Pinnacle system deposited since living species of mollusks and -plants came into existence, but that the Yakutat system is still more -recent. More than this, the upheaval of the mountains, the formation -of numerous fault-scarps, and the origin of the glaciers, have all -occurred since Pliocene times. - -The discovery of Pinnacle pass left no question as to the route to be -traversed in order to reach the mountains to the westward. We returned -to Camp 12, and the following day, with Crumback and Lindsley to -assist us, advanced our camp across Pinnacle pass and far down the -western snow-slope. - -The day we crossed the pass was bright and clear in the morning, but -clouds gathered around all the higher peaks about midday, vanishing -again at nightfall. As it was desirable to occupy, for topographic and -other purposes, a station on the top of the cliffs overlooking -Pinnacle pass, we made an effort to reach the crest of the ridge by -climbing up the steep scarp just at the divide, where the cliffs are -lowest. While Crumback returned to Camp 12 for an additional load and -Lindsley went ahead to discover a new camping place, Kerr and myself, -taking the necessary instruments, began the ascent; but we found it -exceedingly difficult. The outcrops of shale in the lower portion of -the cliff furnished but poor foothold, and crumbled and broke away at -every step. Once my companion, losing his support, slid slowly {132} -down the slope in spite of vigorous efforts to hold on, and a rapid -descent in the yawning chasm below seemed inevitable, when, coming to -a slightly rougher surface, he was able to control his movements and -to regain what had been lost. Climbing on, we came to the base of a -vertical wall of shale several hundred feet high, and made a detour to -the left where a cascade plunged down a narrow channel. We ascended -the bed of the stream, which was sometimes so steep that the spray -dashed over us, and reached the base of an overhanging cliff of -conglomerate composed of well-worn pebbles. Above this rose a cliff of -snow fifty feet or more in height, which threatened to crash down in -avalanches at any moment. One small avalanche did occur during the -ascent, and scattered its spray in our faces. Had a heavy avalanche -formed, our position would have been exceedingly dangerous; but by -taking advantage of every overhanging ledge, and watching for the -least sign of movement in the snow above, we reached without accident -a sheltered perch underneath an overhanging cliff near the base of the -snow. We then discovered that clouds were forming on all the high -mountains, and shreds of vapor blown over the crest of the cliff above -told us that further efforts would be useless. Seeking a perch -protected from avalanches by an overhanging cliff, we had a splendid -view far out over the sloping snow-plain toward the west and of the -mountains bordering Pinnacle pass on the south. My notes written in -this commanding station read as follows: - -"Looking down from my perch I can plainly distinguish the undulations -and crevasses in the broad snow-fields stretching westward from -Pinnacle pass. Each inequality in the rock beneath the glacier is -reproduced in flowing and subdued outlines in the white surface above. -The positions of bosses and cliffs in the rock beneath are indicated -by rounded domes and steep descents in the snow surface. About the -lower sides of these inequalities there are in some cases concentric -blue lines and in others radiating fissures, marking where the snow -has broken in making the descent. The side light shining from the -eastward down the long westerly slope reveals by its delicate shading -the presence of broad, terrace-like, transverse steps into which the -stream is divided. Were the snow removed and the rock beneath exposed, -we should find broad terraces separated by scarps sweeping across the -bed of the glacier from side to side. Similar terraces occur in -glaciated cañons in the Rocky Mountains and {133} the Sierra Nevada, -but their origin has never been explained. The glacier is here at work -sculpturing similar forms; but still it is impossible to understand -how the process is initiated. - -"Right in front of us, and only a mile or two away, rise the cliffs, -spires, and pinnacles of the Hitchcock range. Every ravine and -amphitheatre in the great mountain mass is deeply filled with snow, -and the sharp angular crests look as if they had been thrust up -through the general covering of white. The northern end of the range -is clearly defined by the east-and-west fault to which Pinnacle pass -owes its origin. The trend of the mighty cliffs on the southern face, -on which we have found a perch, is at right angles to the longer axis -of the Hitchcock range, and marks its northern terminus both -topographically and geologically. - -"There is not even a suggestion of vegetation in sight. The eye fails -to detect a single dash of green or the glow of a single Alpine flower -anywhere on the rugged slopes. A small avalanche from the snow-cliffs -above, cascading over the cliff which shelters me and only a few yards -away, tells why the precipices are so bare and desolate: they have -been swept clean by avalanches. - -"Far down the western snow-slope I can distinguish crevasses and dirt -bands in the Seward glacier, which flows southward past the range on -which we sit. The marginal crevasses along the border of the glacier -can clearly be distinguished. As usual, they trend up-stream and, -meeting medial crevasses, break the surface of the glacier into -thousands of pinnacles and tables. Along the center of the stream -there are V-shaped dirt bands, separated by crevasses, which point -down-stream and give the appearance of a rapid flow to the central -portion of the glacier. From this distance its center has the -appearance of 'watered' ribbon. - -"A little toward the south of where the medial crevasses are most -numerous, and at a locality where two opposite mountain spurs force -the ice-stream through the comparatively narrow gorge, there is -evidently an ice-fall, as the whole glacier from side to side -disappears from view. The appearance of Niagara when seen from the -banks of the river above the Horseshoe falls is suggested. Beyond this -silent cataract, the eye ranges far out over the broad, level surface -of the Malaspina glacier, and traces the dark morainal ribbons -streaming away for miles from the mountain spurs among which they -originate. From the extreme {134} southern cape of the Samovar hills -there is a highly compound moraine-belt stretching away toward the -south, and then dividing and curving both east and west. The central -band of débris must be a mile broad. Along its eastern margin I can -count five lesser bands separated by narrow intervals of ice, and on -the farther side similar secondary bands are suggested, but the height -of the central range almost completely conceals them from view. In the -distant tattered ends, however, their various divisions can be clearly -traced. Great swirls in the ice are there indicated by concentric -curves of débris on its surface. - -"Still farther westward there are hills rising to the height of -impressive mountains, in which northward dipping rocks, apparently of -sandstone and shale, similar to those forming the Hitchcock range, are -plainly distinguishable. All the northern slopes of these hills are -deeply buried beneath a universal covering of snow evidently hundreds -of feet thick, which is molded upon them so as to reveal every -swelling dome and ravine in their rugged sides. Farther westward -still, beyond a dark headland apparently washed by the sea, there are -other broad ice-fields of the same general character as the Malaspina -glacier, which stretch away for miles and miles and blend in the dim -distance with the haze of the horizon. - -"Just west of the Seward glacier, and in part forming its western -shore, there are dark, rocky crests projecting through the universal -ice mantle, suggesting the lost mountains of Utah and Nevada which -have become deeply buried by the dusts of the desert. The character of -the sharp crests beyond the Seward glacier indicate that they are the -upturned edges of fault-blocks similar to the one on which we are -seated. Interesting geological records are there waiting an -interpreter. The vastness of the mountains and the snow-fields to be -seen at a single glance from this point of view can scarcely be -realized. There are no familiar objects in sight with which to make -eye-measurements; the picture is on so grand a scale that it defies -imagination's grasp." - -Searching the snow-sheet below with a field-glass, I discover a minute -spot on the white surface. Its movement, slow but unmistakable, -assures me that it is Lindsley returning from the site chosen for our -camp to-night. Although apparently near at hand, he forms but an -inconspicuous speck on the vast snow-field. - -{135} Having learned all that I could of the geology of the cliff, and -the gathering clouds rendering it unnecessary to climb the summits -above, we descended with even more difficulty than we had encountered -on our way up, and met Lindsley as he reached the pass. Resuming our -packs, we started on, knowing that Crumback would follow our trail; -and after two hours' hard tramping over a snow surface rendered -somewhat soft by the heat of the day, but fortunately little -crevassed, we reached the place chosen for our camp. Crumback soon -joined us, and we pitched our tent for the night. The place chosen was -on a little island of débris, the farthest out we could discover from -the base of the great cliff on the north. We judged that we should -there be safe from avalanches, although the screech and hiss of stones -falling from the cliff were heard many times during the night. - -Lindsley and Crumback, on revisiting the site of our camp two days -later, found that a tremendous avalanche of snow and rocks had in the -mean time fallen from the cliffs and ploughed its way out upon the -glacier to within fifteen or twenty feet of where we had passed the -night. They remarked that if the avalanche had occurred while we were -in camp, our tent would not have been reached, but that we should -probably have been scared to death by the roar. - - -FIRST FULL VIEW OF ST. ELIAS. - -Leaving Crumback and Lindsley to make our camp as comfortable as -possible, Kerr and I pressed on with the object of seeing all we could -of the country ahead before the afternoon sunlight faded into -twilight. Mount St. Elias had been shut out from view, either by -clouds or by intervening mountains, for several days; but it was -evident that on approaching the end of the Pinnacle pass fault-scarp -we should behold it again, and comparatively near at hand. - -Continuing down the even snow-slope, in which there were but few -crevasses, the view became broader and broader as we advanced, and at -length the great pyramid forming the culminating summit of all the -region burst into full view. What a glorious sight! The great mountain -seemed higher and grander and more regularly proportioned than any -peak I had ever beheld before. The white plain formed by the Seward -glacier gave an even foreground, broken by crevasses which, lessening -in perspective, gave distance to the foot-hills forming the western -{136} margin of the glacier. Far above the angular crest of the -Samovar hills in the middle distance towered St. Elias, sharp and -clear against the evening sky. Midway up the final slope a thin, -horizontal bar of gray clouds was delicately penciled. Through the -meshes of the fairy scarf shone the yellow sunset sky. The strong -outlines of the rugged mountain, which had withstood centuries of -storms and earthquakes, were softened and glorified by the breath of -the summer winds, chilled as they kissed its crystal slopes. - -Could I give to the reader a tithe of the impressions that such a view -suggests, they would declare that painters had never shown them -mountains, but only hills. So majestic was St. Elias, with the halo of -the sunset about his brow, that other magnificent peaks now seen for -the first time or more fully revealed than ever before, although -worthy the respect and homage of the most experienced -mountain-climber, scarcely received a second glance. - -Returning to camp, we passed the night, and the following day, August -6, advanced our camp to the eastern border of the Seward glacier at -the extreme western end of the upturned crest forming the northern -wall of Pinnacle pass. - -The western end of the Pinnacle pass cliff is turned abruptly -northward, and the rocks dip eastward at a high angle, showing, -together with other conditions, that the end of the ridge is -determined by a cross-fault running northeast and southwest. West of -the Seward glacier there is a continuation of the Pinnacle-pass cliff, -but it is greatly out of line. The position of the Seward glacier, in -this portion of its course, was determined by the fault which broke -the alignment of the main displacement. - -Many facts of similar nature show that the glaciers of the St. Elias -region have had their courses determined, to a large extent, by the -faults which have given the region its characteristic structure: the -ice drainage is consequent to the structure of the underlying rocks; -the glaciers not only did not originate the channels in which they -flow, but have failed to greatly modify them. - -Camp 14 was on a sharp crest of limestone, conglomerate, and shale -belonging to the Pinnacle system, which was not over ten feet broad -where our tent was pitched. East of our tent there was a broad, upward -sloping snow-plain banked against the precipitous base of a hill about -a thousand feet high. At the edge of the snow, within three feet of -our tent, there was a pond {137} of clear water, seemingly placed -there for our special use. The western edge of our tent was at the -margin of a cliff about a hundred feet high, overlooking the Seward -glacier. We held this camp for several days and reöccupied it on our -return from St. Elias. - - -SUMMIT OF PINNACLE PASS CLIFFS. - -From Camp 14 Crumback returned to Blossom island, and Stamy took his -place. Word from Christie assured me that supplies would be advanced -to Blossom island, and that our cache on the Marvine glacier would be -renewed. Stamy's arrival was especially welcome for the reason that he -brought letters from dear ones far away, which had been forwarded from -Sitka by a trading schooner that chanced to visit Yakutat bay. - -While the camp hands were busy in bringing up fresh supplies, Kerr and -I occupied two stations on the summit of the Pinnacle pass cliffs. One -of these was on a butte at the western end of the ridge and just above -our camp; the other was on the crest of the main line of cliffs almost -directly above Pinnacle pass, at an elevation of 5,000 feet. Each of -the stations embraced magnificent views, extending from the outer -margin of the Malaspina glacier to the crest of the St. Elias range. -The station on the butte near camp was occupied several times, and -proved to be a most convenient and commanding point for study of the -geography, geology, and distribution of glacier over a wide area. On -account of the splendid view obtained from the top we named it _Point -Glorious_. Its elevation is 3,500 feet. - -One of the days on which we occupied Point Glorious was especially -remarkable on account of the clearness and freshness of the air and -the sharpness with which each peak and snow-crest stood out against -the deep-blue heavens. We left our camp early in the morning, and -spent several hours on the summit. On our way up we found several -large patches of Alpine flowers and, under a tussock of moss, a soft, -warm nest just abandoned by a mother ptarmigan with her brood of -little ones. One hundred feet higher we came to the borders of the -snow-field which covered all of the upper slopes except a narrow crest -of sandstone at the top. - -The Seward glacier, sweeping down from the northeast, curves about the -base of Point Glorious and flows on southward. Its surface has the -appearance of a wide frozen river. Toward the {138} east of our -station there was a broad, level-floored amphitheatre, bounded on the -south by the cliffs of Pinnacle pass and on the east by long -snow-slopes which stretch up the gorges in the side of Mount Cook. The -amphitheatre opens toward the northwest, and discharges its -accumulated snows into the Seward glacier. Beyond this, on the north, -stood the great curtain-wall named the Corwin cliffs, west of which -rose Mount Eaton, Mount Augusta, Mount Malaspina, and other giant -summits of the main St. Elias range. Toward the west the view -culminated in St. Elias itself, ruggedly outlined against the sky. As -the reader will become more and more familiar with the magnificent -scenery of the St. Elias region as we advance, it need not be -described in detail at this time. - -All day the skies were clear and bright, giving abundant opportunity -for making a detailed survey of the principal features in view, and -for reading the history written in cliffs and glaciers. When the long -summer day drew to a close, we returned to our tent and watched the -great peaks become dim and generalized in outline as the twilight -deepened. The fading light caused the mountains to recede farther and -farther, until at last they seemed ghostly giants, too far away to be -definitely recognized. With the twilight came soft, gray, uncertain -clouds drawn slowly and silently about the rugged precipices by the -summer winds from the sea. St. Elias became enveloped in luminous -clouds, with the exception of a few hundred feet of the shining -summit; and a glory in the sky, to the left of the veiled Saint, -marked the place where the sun went down. The shadows crept across the -snow-fields and changed them from dazzling white to a soft gray-blue. -Night came on silently, and with but little change. There was no -folding of wings; no twittering of birds in leafy branches; no sighing -of winds among rustling leaves. All was stern and wild and still; -there was not a touch of life to relieve the desolation. A midwinter -night in inhabited lands was never more solemn. Man had never rested -there before. - -The air grew chill when the shadows crossed our tent, and delicate ice -crystals began to shoot on the still surface of our little pond. We -bade good night to the stern peaks, about which there were signs of a -coming storm, and sought the shelter of our tent. Small and -comfortless as was that shelter, it shut out the wintry scene and -afforded a welcome retreat. Sound, refreshing sleep, with dreams of -loved ones far away, renewed our strength for another advance. - -{139} The next day, August 8, a topographic station was occupied on -the summit of the Pinnacle pass cliffs. We were astir before sunrise, -and had breakfast over before four o'clock. The morning was cold, and -a cutting wind swept down the Seward glacier from the northeast. All -of the mountains were lost to view in dense clouds. A few rays of -sunshine breaking through the vapor banks above Point Glorious gave -promise of better weather during the day. Lindsley and Stamy had not -yet returned from the lower camp, where they were to obtain additional -rations; and Kerr and I concluded to try to reach the crest of the -Pinnacle pass cliffs and take the chances of the weather being -favorable for our work. - -Leaving camp in the early morning light, we chose to climb over the -summit of Point Glorious rather than thread the crevasses at its -northern base. Reaching the top of the point, we were still beneath -the low canopy of clouds, and could see far up the great amphitheatre -to the base of _Mount Owen_.[31] Descending the eastern slope, we soon -reached the floor of the amphitheatre, and found the snow smooth and -hard and not greatly crevassed. Cheered by faint promise of blue -skies, we pressed on rapidly, the snow creaking beneath our tread as -on a winter morning. Two or three hours of rapid walking brought us to -the southern wall of the amphitheatre, nearly beneath the point we -wished to occupy. As we ascended the slope the way became more -difficult, owing not only to its steepness but also to the fact that -the snow was softening, and also because great crevasses crossed our -path. Looking back over the snow we had crossed, two -well-characterized features on its surface could be distinguished: -these were large areas with a gray tint, caused by a covering of dust. -This dust comes from the southern faces of the Pinnacle pass cliffs, -and is blown over the crest of the ridge and scattered far and wide -over the snow-fields toward the north. Should the dust-covered areas -become buried beneath fresh snow, it is evident that the strata of -snow would be separated by thin layers of darker color. This is what -has happened many times, as we could see by looking down into the -crevasses. In one deep gulf I counted five distinct strata of clear -white snow, separated by narrow dust-bands. In other instances there -are twenty or more such strata visible. Each layer is evidently the -record of a snow-storm, while the dust-bands indicate intervals of -fine weather. {140} The strata of snow exposed to view in the -crevasses, after being greatly compressed, are usually from ten to -fifteen feet thick, but in one instance exceeded fifty feet. If we -assume that each layer represents a winter's snow, and that -compression has reduced each stratum to a third of its original -thickness (and probably the compression has been greater than this), -it is evident that the fresh snows must sometimes reach the depth of -from 50 to 150 feet. - -[Footnote 31: Named for David Dale Owen, United States geologist.] - -Toiling on up the snow-slope, we had to wind in and out among deep -crevasses, sometimes crossing them by narrow snow-bridges, and again -jumping them and plunging our alpenstocks deep in the snow when we -reached the farther side. After many windings we reached the summit of -the Pinnacle-pass cliffs. The crest-line is formed of an outcrop of -conglomerate composed of sand and pebbles, in one layer of which I -found large quantities of mussel shells standing in the position in -which the creatures lived. The present elevation of this ancient -sea-bottom is 5,000 feet. The strata incline northward at angles of -30° to 40°. All of the northern slope of the ridge is deeply covered -with snow, and the rock only appears along the immediate crest. There -are, in fact, two crests, as is common with many mountain ridges in -this region, one of rock and the second of snow; the snow crest, which -is usually the higher, is parallel to the rock crest and a few rods -north of it. In the valley between the two ridges we found secure -footing, and ascended with ease to the highest point on the cliffs. -Looking over the southern or rocky crest, we found a sheer descent of -about 1,500 feet to the snow-fields below. - -The clouds diminished in density and gradually broke away, so that the -entire extent of the St. Elias range was in view, with the exception -of the crowning peak of all, which was still veiled from base to -summit. A spur of St. Elias, extending southward from the main peak, -and named _The Chariot_, gleamed brightly in the sunlight. It was the -first point on which we made observations. Stretching eastward from -St. Elias is the sharp crest of the main range, on which stand Mounts -Newton, Jeannette, Malaspina, Augusta, Logan, and several other -splendid peaks not yet named. Just to the right of Mount Augusta, on -the immediate border of the Seward glacier, rise the Corwin cliffs, -marking an immense fault-scarp of the same general character as the -one on which we stood. - -{141} Mr. Kerr endeavored at first to occupy a station on the crest of -the rocky ridge, but as the steepness of the slope and the shattered -condition of the rock rendered the station hazardous, the snow-ridge, -which was covered with dust and sand and nearly as firm as rock, was -occupied instead. The clouds parting toward the northeast revealed -several giant peaks not before seen, some of which seem to rival in -height St. Elias itself. One stranger, rising in three white domes far -above the clouds, was especially magnificent. As this was probably the -first time its summit was ever seen, we took the liberty of giving it -a name. It will appear on our maps as _Mount Logan_, in honor of Sir -William E. Logan, founder and long director of the Geological Survey -of Canada. - -The clouds grew denser in the east, and shut off all hope of extending -the map-work in that direction. While Kerr was making topographic -sketches I tried to decipher some of the geological history of the -region around me and make myself more familiar with its glaciers and -snow-fields. - -Even more remarkable than the mighty peaks toward the north, beheld -that day for the first time, was the vast plateau of ice stretching -seaward from the foot of the mountains. From my station what seemed to -be the ocean's shore near Icy bay could just be distinguished. Beyond -the bay there is a group of hills which come boldly down to the sea, -and apparently form a sea-cliff at the water's edge. Beyond this -headland there is another vast glacier extending westward to the -limits of vision. The view from this point is essentially the same as -that obtained from the cliffs at Pinnacle pass a few days earlier, -except that it is far more extended. It need not be described in -detail. - -The clouds becoming thicker and settling in dark masses about the -mountains, we gave up all hope of further work and started for our -camp. On the way down the ridge between the crest of snow and the -crest of rock we found a stratum of sandstone filled with fossil -leaves, and near at hand another layer charged with very recent -sea-shells. Collecting all of these that we could carry, we trudged -on, finding the snow soft and some of the bridges which we had easily -crossed in the morning now weak, trembling, and insecure. We crossed -them safely, however, and, reaching the level floor of the -amphitheatre, marched wearily on toward Point Glorious. This time we -passed along the northern base of the butte at an elevation of two or -three hundred feet {142} above the glacier, and, taking a convenient -slide down the snow-slope, reached our tent. - -Soon a delicious cup of coffee was prepared, bacon was fried, and -these were put in a warm place while some griddle cakes were being -baked. A warm supper, followed by a restful pipe, ended the day. Kerr -and I were our own cooks and our own housekeepers during much of the -time we lived above the snow-line. We cleared away the remains of the -supper, and prepared our blankets for the night. One of the huge ice -pinnacles on the glacier fell with a great crash just as we were -turning in. Rain began to fall, and the night was cold and -disagreeable; how it passed I do not know, as I slept soundly. -Scarcely anything less serious than the blowing away of our tent could -have awakened me. - - -ACROSS SEWARD GLACIER TO DOME PASS. - -Stormy weather and the necessity of bringing additional supplies from -Blossom island detained us at Camp 14 until August 13. We rose at -three o'clock on the morning of that day, and, after a hasty -breakfast, prepared to cross the Seward glacier. The morning was cold -but clear, and the air was bracing. Each peak and mountain crest in -the rugged landscape stood out boldly in the early light, although the -sun had not risen. Soon the summit of St. Elias became tipped with -gold, and then peak after peak, in order of their rank, caught the -radiance, and in a short time the vast snow-fields were of dazzling -splendor. - -The frost of the night before had hardened the snow, which made -walking a pleasure. We crossed a rocky spur projecting northward from -Point Glorious into the Seward glacier, and had to lower our packs -down the side of the precipice with the aid of ropes. Our course led -at first up the border of the great glacier to a point above the head -of the rapids already referred to, then curved to the westward, and -for a mile or two coincided with the general trend of the crevasses. -We made good progress, but at length we came to where the Augusta -glacier pours its flood of ice into the main stream and, owing to its -high grade, is greatly broken. Skirting this difficult area, we passed -a number of small blue lakelets and reached the western border of the -Seward glacier. We found a gently rising snow-slope leading westward -through a gap that could be seen in hills a few miles in advance. But -little difficulty was now experienced, except that the snow {143} had -become soft under the summer's sun, and walking over it with heavy -loads was wearisome in the extreme. We could see, however, that the -way ahead was clear, and that encouraged us to push on. Toward night -we found a camping place on a steep ridge of shale and sandstone -projecting eastward from a spur of Mount Malaspina. This ridge rises -about five hundred feet above the surrounding glacier, and has steep -roof-like slopes. The summer sun had melted nearly all the snow from -its southern face, but the northern slope was still heavily loaded. -The snow on the northern side stood some thirty or forty feet higher -than the rocky crest of the ridge itself, and between the rock crest -and the snow crest there was a little valley which afforded ample -shelter for our tent and was quite safe from avalanches. The melting -of the snow-bank during the warm days supplied us with water. - -The formation of crests of snow standing high above the rocky ridges -on which they rest is a peculiar and interesting feature of the -mountains of the St. Elias region. A north-and-south section through -the ridge on which Camp 15 was situated, exhibiting the double crests, -one of rock and the other of snow, is shown at _a_ in figure 6. _b_ is -a section through a similar ridge with a still higher snow crest. The -remaining figures in the illustration are sketches of mountain peaks, -as seen from the south, which have been increased in height by a heavy -accumulation of snow on their northern slopes. These sketches are of -peaks among the foothills of Mount Malaspina, and show snow pinnacles -from fifty to more than a hundred feet high. In some instances, domes -and crests of snow were seen along the western sides of the ridges and -peaks, but as a rule these snow-tips on the mountains are confined to -their northern slopes. The edges and summits of the snow-ridges are -sharply defined and clearly cut. The southern slope exposed above the -crest of rock is often concave, while the northern slopes are usually -convex. - -[Illustration: FIGURE 6--_Snow Crests on Ridges and Peaks; from Field -Sketches_.] - -In climbing steep ridges the double crests are frequently of great -assistance. Safe footing may frequently be found in the channels -between the crests of rock and snow, by the aid of which {144} very -precipitous peaks may be climbed with ease. In case the ascent between -the two crests is not practicable, the even snow-slope itself affords -a sure footing for one used to mountain climbing. - -After establishing Camp 15, Lindsley and Stamy returned to one of the -lower camps for additional supplies, while Kerr and I explored a way -for farther advance. - -[Illustration: PLATE 18. HITCHCOCK RANGE, FROM NEAR DOME PASS.] - -Our camp occupied a commanding situation. From the end of the ridge on -which it was located there was a splendid view of glaciers and -mountains to the eastward. The illustration forming plate 18 is from a -photograph taken from that station. Toward the north, and only a few -miles away, rose the bare, rugged slope of Mount Malaspina. In a wild, -high-grade gorge on its western side, a glacier, all pinnacles and -crevasses, tumbles down into the broad white plain below. On account -of its splendid ice-fall this was named the _Cascade glacier_. Beyond -the white plain, stretching eastward for fifteen or twenty miles, -there rise the foothills of Mount Cook. Farther south, the rugged, -angular summits of the Hitchcock range are in full view, and toward -the north stands _Mount Irving_,[32] which rivals even Mount Cook in -the symmetrical proportions of its snow-covered slopes. - -[Footnote 32: Named in honor of Professor Roland Duer Irving, U. S. -geologist.] - -The surface of the vast snow-plain near at hand is gashed by many -gaping fissures, but the distance is so great that these minor details -disappear in a general view. Looking down over the snow, one may see -the crevasses as in a diagram. They look as if the white surface had -been gashed with a sharp knife, and then stretched in such a way as to -open the cuts. That the snow of the névés may be stretched, at least -to a limited extent, is shown by the character of these fissures. The -crevasses are widest in the center and come to a point at their -curving extremities. Two crevasses frequently overlap at their ends -and leave a sliver of ice stretching across diagonally between them. -It is by means of these diagonal bridges that one is enabled to thread -his way through the crevasses. - -On returning to camp in the evening, weary with a hard day's climb, a -never-failing source of delight was found in the matchless winter -landscape to the eastward. The evenings following days of -uninterrupted sunshine were especially delightful. The blue shadows of -the western peaks creeping across the shining surface were nearly as -sharp in outline as the peaks that cast {145} them. When the chill of -evening made itself felt, and the dropping water and the indefinite -murmurs from the glacier below were stilled, the silence became -oppressive. The stillness was so profound that it seemed as though the -footsteps of the advancing shadows should be audible. - -On warm sunny days, however, there are noises enough amid the -mountains. The snow, partially melted and softened by the heat, falls -from the cliffs in avalanches that make the mountains tremble and, -with a roar like thunder, awaken the echoes far and near. During our -stay at Camp 15 the avalanches were sometimes so frequent on the steep -mountain faces toward the north that the roar of one falling mass of -snow and rocks was scarcely hushed before it was succeeded by another. - -On the southward-facing cliffs of Mount Augusta, composed of schist -which disintegrates rapidly, there are frequent rock avalanches. A -rock or a mass of comminuted schist sometimes breaks away even in -midday, although these avalanches occur most frequently when the -moisture in the rocks freezes. The midday avalanches, I fancy, may be -started by the expansion of the rocks owing to the sun's heat. A few -stones dislodged high up on the cliffs fall, and, loosening others in -their descent, soon set in motion a train of dirt and stones, which -flows down the steep ravines with a long rumbling roar, at the same -time sending clouds of dust into the air. If the wind is blowing up -the cliffs, as frequently happens on warm days, the dust is carried -far above the mountains, and hangs in the air like clouds of smoke. - -It has been frequently stated that St. Elias is a volcano, and sea -captains sailing on the Pacific have seen what they supposed to be -smoke issuing from its summit. As its southern face is composed of the -same kind of rocks and is of the same precipitous nature as the -southern slope of Mount Augusta, it appears probable that what was -supposed to be volcanic smoke was in reality avalanche dust blown -upward by ascending air currents. - -The disintegration of the mountain summits all through the St. Elias -region is so great that one constantly wonders that anything is left; -yet, except late in the fall, the snow surfaces at the bases of even -the steepest cliffs are mostly bare of débris. The absence of earth -and stones on the surfaces of the névé fields is mainly due, of -course, to the fact that these are regions of accumulation where the -winter's snow exceeds the summer's melting. {146} Thus each year the -surface is renewed and made fresh and clean, and any débris that may -have previously accumulated is concealed. - -There is another reason, however, why but little débris is found at -the bases of the steep precipices. The snows of winter are banked high -against these walls, but when the rocks are warmed by the return of -the summer's sun the snow near their dark surfaces is melted, and -leaves a deep gulf between the upward-sloping banks of snow and the -sides of the cliffs. These black chasms are frequently 150 or 200 feet -deep, and receive all the débris that falls from above. In this way -very large quantities of earth and stones are injected, as it were, -into the glacier, and only come to light again far down toward the -ends of the ice-streams, where the summer's melting exceeds the -winter's supply. - -[Illustration: PLATE 19. MT. ST. ELIAS, FROM DOME PASS.] - -On August 14, Kerr and I made an excursion ahead to the border of the -Agassiz glacier. The snow-slope south of our camp led westward up a -gentle grade to a gap in the hills between two bold, snow-covered -domes. The gap through which the snow extended, uniting with a broad -snow-field sloping westward, was only a few hundred feet wide, and -formed a typical mountain pass, designated on our map as _Dome pass_. -Its elevation is 4,300 feet. When near the summit of the pass a few -steps carried us past the divide of snow, and revealed to our eager -eyes the wonderland beyond. St. Elias rose majestically before us, -unobstructed by intervening hills, and bare of clouds from base to -summit. We were greatly encouraged by the prospect ahead, as there -were evidently no obstacles between us and the actual base of the -mountain. A photograph of the magnificent peak was taken, from which -the illustration forming plate 19 has been drawn. To the right of the -main mountain mass, as shown in the illustration, rises _Mount -Newton_,[33] one of the many separate mountain peaks crowning the -crest of the St. Elias range. Our way led down the snow-slope in the -foreground to the border of the Agassiz glacier, which comes in view -between the foot-hills in the middle distance and the sculptured base -on which the crowning pyramid of St. Elias stands. After reaching the -Agassiz glacier we turned to the right, and made our way to the {147} -amphitheatre lying between Mount St. Elias and Mount Newton. On the -day we discovered Dome pass, we pressed on down the western snow-slope -and reached the side of the Agassiz glacier, which we found greatly -crevassed; selecting a camping place on a rocky spur, we returned to -Camp 15, and two days later established camp at the place chosen. - -[Footnote 33: Named for Henry Newton, formerly of the School of Mines -of Columbia college and author of a report on the geology of the Black -hills of Dakota.] - -Camp 16 was similar in many ways to Camp 14. It had about the same -altitude; it was at the western end of a rugged mountain spur, and on -the immediate border of a large southward-flowing glacier. On the -lower portions of the cliffs, near at hand, there were velvety patches -of brilliant Alpine flowers mingled with thick bunches of wiry grass -and clumps of delicate ferns. Most conspicuous of all the showy -plants, so bright and lovely in the vast wilderness of snow, were the -purple lupines. Already the flowers on the lower portions of their -spikes had matured, and pods covered with a thick coating of wooly -hairs were beginning to be conspicuous. There are no bees and -butterflies in these isolated gardens, but brown flies with -long-pointed wings were abundant. A gray bird, a little larger than a -sparrow, was seen flitting in and out of crevasses near the border of -the ice, apparently in quest of insects. Once, while stretched at full -length on the flowery carpet enjoying the warm sunlight, a humming -bird flashed past me. Occasionally the hoarse cries of ravens were -heard among the cliffs, but they seldom ventured near enough to be -seen. These few suggestions were all there was to remind us of the -summer fields and shady forests in far-away lands. - - -UP THE AGASSIZ GLACIER. - -From Camp 16 Kerr and I made an excursion across the Agassiz glacier, -while Stamy and Lindsley returned to a lower camp for additional -supplies. We found the glacier greatly crevassed and the way across -more difficult than on any of the ice-fields we had previously -traversed; but by dint of perseverance, and after many changes in our -course, we succeeded at last in reaching the western bank, and saw -that by climbing a precipice bordering an ice-cascade we could gain a -plateau above, which we knew from previous observations to be -comparatively little broken. We returned to camp, and on August 18 -began the ascent of the glacier in earnest. We were favored in the -task by brilliant weather. - -{148} After reaching the western bank of the glacier, we made our way -to the base of the precipice up which we had previously wished to -climb. In order to reach it, however, we had to throw our packs across -a crevasse over which there was no bridge, and followed them by -jumping. The side of the crevasse from which we sprang was higher than -its opposite lip, and left us very uncertain as to how we were to -return; but that was a matter for the future; our aim at the time was -to ascend the glacier, and the return was of no immediate concern. - -Reaching the base of the cliff at the side of the glacier, we ascended -it without great difficulty, and came out upon the broad plateau of -snow above. Thinking that the way onward would be easier along the -steep snow-slope bordering the glacier, we made an effort to ascend in -that direction, and spent two or three precious hours in trying to -find a practicable route. Although the crevasses were fewer than on -the glacier proper, yet they were of larger size and had but few -bridges. At last we came to a wide gulf on the opposite side of which -there was a perpendicular wall of snow a hundred feet high, and all -further advance in that direction was stopped. Although obliged to -turn back, our elevated position commanded a good view of the glacier -below and enabled us to choose a way through the maze of crevasses -crossing it. Descending, we plodded wearily on in an irregular zigzag -course; but the crevasses became broader and deeper as we advanced, -and at length we found ourselves traversing flat table-like blocks of -snow, bounded on all sides by crevasses so deep that their bottoms -were lost to view. We made our way from one snow-table to another by -jumping the crevasses where they were narrowest, or by frail -snow-bridges spanning the profound gulfs. Night came on while we were -yet in this wild, broken region, and no choice was left us but to -pitch our tent in the snow and wait until morning. The night was clear -and cold, and a firm crust formed on the snow before morning. Although -the temperature was uncomfortable, we were cheered by the prospects of -a firm snow surface on the morrow. - -We continued our march at sunrise and found the walking easy; but the -sun soon came out with unusual brilliancy and softened the snow so -much that even the slowest movements were fatiguing. We endeavored to -force our way up the center of the glacier through the crevasses and -pinnacles of a second ice-fall; but after several hours of exhausting -experience we were {149} obliged to change our plan, and endeavored to -reach a mountain spur projecting from the western border of the -glacier. The sunlight reflected from the snow was extremely brilliant, -and the glare from every surface about us was painful to our eyes, -already weakened by many days' travel over the white snow. Each member -of the party was provided with colored glasses, but in traversing -snow-bridges and jumping crevasses these had to be dispensed with. The -result was that all of us were suffering more or less from -snow-blindness. - -About noon we reached the base of the mountain spur toward which our -course was bent. It projects into the western border of Agassiz -glacier. It is the extension of this cliff underneath the glacier that -caused the ice-fall which blocked our way. To go round the end of the -cliff with our packs was impracticable, but there seemed a way up the -face of the cliff itself, which one could scale by taking advantage of -the joints in the rocks. I ascended the snow-slope to the base of the -precipice, but found the way upward more difficult than anticipated; -and, as the light was very painful to my eyes when not protected by -colored glasses, I decided to postpone making the climb until I was in -better condition, and in the meantime to see if some other route could -not be found. We decided to camp on a small patch of débris near the -base of the cliff, and there left our loads. Kerr and Lindsley, taking -a rope and alpenstocks, went around the end of the rocky spur and -worked their way upward with great difficulty to the top of the cliff -immediately above where I had essayed to climb it. A rope was made -fast at the top, and our way onward was secured. This place was -afterward called _Rope cliff_. The remainder of the afternoon I rested -in the tent, with my eyes bound up with tea-leaves, and when evening -came found the pain in my head much relieved. - -Our tent that night was so near the brink of a crevasse that in order -to stay the tent one end of the ridge-rope was made fast to a large -stone, which was lowered into the gulf to serve as a stake. Above us -rose a precipice nearly a thousand feet high, from which stones were -constantly falling; but a deep black gulf intervened between the -position we had chosen and the base of the cliffs, and into this the -stones were precipitated. Not one of the falling fragments reached the -edge of the snow slope on which we were camped, but many times during -the night we heard the whiz and hum of the rocks as they shot down -from the cliffs. {150} The noise made by each fragment in its passage -through the air increased rapidly in pitch, thus indicating that they -were approaching us; but they always fell short of our camp. The -bombardment from above was most active just after the shadows fell on -the cliffs, showing that the stones were loosened by the freezing of -the water in the interstices of the rock. - -The next day, August 20, Stamy and Lindsley went back to Camp 16 for -more rations, while Kerr and I remained at Camp 18 nursing our eyes -and resting. The day passed without anything worthy of note, except -the almost constant thunder of avalanches on the mountains. About -sunset a dense fog spread over the wintry landscape and threatened to -delay the return of the men. When the sun went down, however, the -temperature fell several degrees, the mist vanished, and a few stars -came out clear and bright. Just as we were about to despair of seeing -the men that night we heard a distant shout announcing their return. -We had a cup of hot coffee for them when they reached the tent, which -they drank with eagerness; but they were too tired to partake of food. -Rolling themselves in their blankets, they were asleep in a few -minutes. - - -CAMP ON THE NEWTON GLACIER. - -On August 21 we climbed the cliff above Camp 18 by means of the rope -already placed there, and found the snow above greatly crevassed. We -traveled upward along the steep slope bordering the glacier, but soon -came to a deep crevasse which forbade further progress in that -direction. Returning to a lower level, we undertook to smooth off an -extremely narrow snow-bridge so as to make it wide enough to cross, -but found the undertaking so hazardous that we abandoned it. By this -time it was midday, and we prepared a cup of hot coffee before -renewing our attack on the cliffs. After luncheon and a short rest, -feeling very much refreshed, we began to cut a series of steps in a -bluff of snow about fifty feet high, and made rapid progress in the -undertaking. After an hour's hard work one of us reached the top and, -planting an alpenstock deep in the snow, lowered a rope to those -below. The packs were drawn up one at a time and we were soon ready to -advance again. - -We found ourselves in a vast amphitheatre bounded on all sides -excepting that from which we had come with rugged, {151} snow-covered -precipices. The plain was crossed by huge crevasses, some of which -were fully a mile in length; but by traveling around their ends or -crossing snow-bridges we slowly worked our way onward toward St. -Elias. Threading our way through the labyrinth of yawning gulfs, we at -last, after the sun had gone down behind the great pyramid toward the -west, found a convenient place on the snow, near a blue pond of water, -on which to pass the night. Everything was snow-covered in the vast -landscape except the most precipitous cliffs, and these were dangerous -to approach, owing to the avalanches that frequently fell from them. -The weather continued fine. The night was clear and the stars were -unusually brilliant. Everything seemed favorable for pushing on. The -way ahead presented such even snow-slopes and seemed so free from -crevasses that we decided to leave our tent and blankets in the -morning and, taking with us as little as possible of impedimenta, -endeavor to reach the summit of St. Elias. - - -HIGHEST POINT REACHED. - -Rising at three o'clock on the morning of August 22, we started for -the summit of St. Elias, taking with us only our water-proof coats, -some food, and the necessary instruments. The higher mountain summits -were no longer clearly defined, but in the early light it was -impossible to tell whether or not the day was to be fair. From the -highest and sharpest peaks, cloud banners were streaming off towards -the southeast, showing that the higher air currents were in rapid -movement. Vapor banks in the east were flushed with long streamers of -light as the sun rose, but soon faded to a dull ashen gray, while the -cloud banners between us and the sun became brilliant like the halo -seen around the moon when the sky is covered with fleecy clouds. This -was the first time in my experience that I had seen colored banners -waving from the mountain tops. - -We found the snow-surface hard, and made rapid headway up the glacier. -Our only difficulty was the uncertainty of the early light, which -rendered it impossible to tell the slope of the uneven snow-surfaces. -The light was so evenly diffused that there were no shadows. The rare -beauty of that silent, wintry landscape, so delicate in its pearly -half tones and so softly lighted, was unreal and fairy-like. The winds -were still; but {152} strange forebodings of coming changes filled the -air. Long, waving threads of vapor were woven in lace-work across the -sky; the white-robed mountains were partially concealed by -cloud-masses drifting like spirits along their mighty battlements; and -far, far above, from the topmost pinnacles, irised banners were -signaling the coming of a storm. - -We made rapid progress, but early in the day came to the base of a -heavy cloud bank which enshrouded all the upper part of St. Elias. -Then snow began to fall, and it was evident that to proceed farther -would be rash and without promise of success. After twenty days of -fatigue and hardship since leaving Blossom island, with our goal -almost reached, we were obliged to turn back. Hoping to be able to -renew the attempt after the storm had passed, Mr. Kerr left his -instruments on the snow between two huge crevasses and we returned to -our tent, where we passed the remainder of the day and the night -following. The snow continued to fall throughout the day, and the -storm increased in force as night came on. When we awoke in the -morning the tempest was still raging. We were in the midst of the -storm-cloud; the dense vapor and the fine drifting snow-crystals swept -along by the wind obscured everything from view; the white snow -surface could not be distinguished from the vapor-filled air; there -was no earth and no sky; we seemed to be suspended in a white, -translucent medium which surrounded us like a shroud. The snow was -already more than three feet deep about our tent, and to remain longer -with the short supply of provisions on hand was exceedingly hazardous, -as there seemed no limit to the duration of the storm. A can of -rations had been left at Rope cliff, and we decided to return to that -place if possible. Resuming our packs, we roped ourselves together and -began to descend through the blinding mist and snow which rendered the -atmosphere so dense that a man could not be distinguished at a -distance of a hundred feet. With only an occasional glimpse of the -white cliff around to guide us, we worked our way downward over -snow-bridges and between the crevasses. Our ascent through this -dangerous region had been slow and difficult, but our descent was -still more tedious. All day long we continued to creep slowly along -through the blinding storm, and as night approached believed ourselves -near the steps cut in a snow-cliff during the ascent, but darkness -came before we reached them. Shoveling the snow away as best we could -with our hands and {153} basins, we cleared a place down to the old -snow large enough for our tent and went into camp. - -In the morning, August 24, the storm had spent its force and left the -mountains with an immaculate covering, but still partially veiled by -shreds of storm-clouds. We found ourselves on one of the many tables -of snow, bounded on all sides by crevasses of great depth, but not far -from the snow-cliff where we had cut steps. The steps were obliterated -by the new snow, but by means of a rope and alpenstocks we made the -descent without much difficulty. The last man to go down, not having -the help of the rope, used two alpenstocks, and descended by first -planting one firmly in the snow and lowering himself as far as he -could, still retaining a firm hold, and then planting the other in the -snow at a lower level and removing the higher one. By slowly and -carefully repeating this operation he descended the cliff safely and -rejoined his companions. Passing on beneath the cliffs, dangerous on -account of avalanches, we reached in safety the precipice where we had -left our rope. A heavy avalanche had swept down from the heights above -during our absence and sent its spray over the precipice we had to -descend. The cliff of ice towering above the place where our rope was -fastened had become greatly melted and honey-combed, and threatened -every moment to crash down and destroy any one who chanced to be -beneath. To stand above the precipice in the shadow of the treacherous -snow-cliffs while the men were descending the rope was exceedingly -trying to one's nerves; but the avalanches did not come, and the -previous camping place below Rope cliff was reached with safety. - -The following day, August 25, after some consultation, it was decided -to once more attempt to reach the top of Mount St. Elias. Lindsley and -Stamy, who had shared without complaint our privations in the snow, -volunteered to descend to a lower camp for additional rations, while -Kerr and myself returned to the higher camp in the hope that we might -be able to ascend the peak before the men returned, and, if not, to -have sufficient rations when they did rejoin us to continue the -attack. The men departed on their difficult errand, while Kerr and I, -with blankets, tents, oil-stoves, and what rations remained, once more -scaled the cliff where we had placed a rope, and returned on the trail -made the day previously. About noon we reached the excavation in the -snow where we had bivouacked in the storm, {154} and there prepared a -lunch. It was then discovered that we had been mistaken as to the -quantity of oil in our cans; we found scarcely enough to cook a single -meal. To attempt to remain several days in the snow with this small -supply of fuel seemed hazardous, and Mr. Kerr volunteered to descend -and overtake the men at the lower camp, procure some oil, and return -the following day. We then separated, Mr. Kerr starting down the -mountain, leaving me with a double load, weighing between sixty and -seventy pounds, to carry through the deep snow to the high camp -previously occupied. - - -ALONE IN THE HIGHEST CAMP. - -Trudging wearily on, I reached the high camp at sunset, and pitched my -tent in the excavation previously occupied. An alpenstock was used for -one tent-pole, and snow saturated with water, piled up in a column, -for the other; the snow froze in a few minutes, and held the tent -securely. The ends of the ridge-rope were then stamped into the snow, -and water was poured over them; the edges of the tent were treated in -a similar manner, and my shelter was ready for occupation. After -cooking some supper over the oil-stove, I rolled myself in a blanket -and slept the sleep of the weary. I was awakened in the morning by -snow drifting into my tent, and on looking out discovered that I was -again caught in a blinding storm or mist of snow. The storm raged all -day and all night, and continued without interruption until the -evening of the second day. The coal oil becoming exhausted, a can was -filled with bacon grease, in which a cotton rag was placed for a wick; -and over this "witch lamp" I did my cooking during the remainder of my -stay. The snow, falling steadily, soon buried my tent, already -surrounded on three sides by an icy wall higher than my head, and it -was only by almost constant exertion that it was kept from being -crushed in. With a pint basin for a shovel I cleared the tent as best -I could, and several times during the day re-excavated the hole -leading down to the pond, which had long since disappeared beneath the -level plain of white. The excavation of a tunnel in the snow was also -begun in the expectation that the tent would become uninhabitable. The -following night it became impossible to keep the tent clear in spite -of energetic efforts, and early in the morning it was crushed in by a -great weight of snow, {155} leaving me no alternative but to finish my -snow-house and move in. A tunnel some four or five feet in length was -excavated in the snow, and a chamber about six feet long by four feet -wide and three feet high was made at right angles to the tunnel. In -this chamber I placed my blankets and other belongings, and, hanging a -rubber coat on an alpenstock at the entrance, found myself well -sheltered from the tempest. There I passed the day and the night -following. At night the darkness and silence in my narrow tomb-like -cell was oppressive; not a sound broke the stillness except the -distant, muffled roar of an occasional avalanche. I slept soundly, -however, and in the morning was awakened by the croaking of a raven on -the snow immediately above my head. The grotto was filled with a soft -blue light, but a pink radiance at the entrance told that the day had -dawned bright and clear. - -What a glorious sight awaited me! The heavens were without a cloud, -and the sun shone with dazzling splendor on the white peaks around. -The broad unbroken snow-plain seemed to burn with light reflected from -millions of shining crystals. The great mountain peaks were draped -from base to summit in the purest white, as yet unscarred by -avalanches. On the steep cliffs the snow hung in folds like drapery, -tier above tier, while the angular peaks above stood out like crystals -against the sky. St. Elias was one vast pyramid of alabaster. The -winds were still; not a sound broke the solitude; not an object moved. -Even the raven had gone, leaving me alone with the mountains. - -As the sun rose higher and higher and made its warmth felt, the snow -was loosened on the steep slopes and here and there broke away. -Gathering force as it fell, it rushed down in avalanches that made the -mountains tremble and awakened thunderous echoes. From a small -beginning high up on the steep slopes, the new snow would slip -downward, silently at first, and cascade over precipices hundreds of -feet high, looking like a fall of foaming water; then came the roar, -increasing in volume as the flowing snow involved new fields in its -path of destruction, until the great mass became irresistible and -ploughed its way downward through clouds of snow-spray, which hung in -the air long after the snow had ceased to move and the roar of the -avalanche had ceased. All day long, until the shadow of evening fell -on the steep slopes, this mountain thunder continued. The echoes of -one avalanche scarcely died away before they were {156} awakened by -another roar. To witness such a scene under the most favorable -conditions was worth all the privations and anxiety it cost. - -Besides the streams of new snow, there were occasional avalanches of a -different character, caused by the breaking away of portions of the -cliffs of old snow, accumulated, perhaps, during several winters. -These start from the summits of precipices, and are caused by the slow -downward creep of the snow-fields above. The snow-cliffs are always -crevassed and broken in much the same manner as are the ends of -glaciers which enter the sea, and occasionally large masses, -containing thousands of cubic yards, break away and are precipitated -down the slopes with a suddenness that is always startling. Usually -the first announcement of these avalanches is a report like that of a -cannon, followed by a rumbling roar as the descending mass ploughs its -way along. The avalanches formed by old snow are quite different from -those caused by the descent of the new surface snow, but are -frequently accompanied by surface streams in case there has been a -recent storm. The paths ploughed out by the avalanches are frequently -sheathed with glassy ice, formed by the freezing of water produced by -the melting of snow on account of the heat produced by the friction of -the moving mass. A third variety of avalanches, due to falling stones, -has already been noticed. - -The floor of my snow-chamber was the surface of the old snow on which -we had pitched our tents at the time we first reached that camping -place. On this hard surface, and forming the walls of the cell, there -were thirty inches of clear white snow, the upper limit of which was -marked by a blue layer of ice about a quarter of an inch thick. This -indicated the thickness of snow that fell during the first storm. Its -surface had been melted and softened during the days of sunshine that -followed its fall, and had frozen into clear ice. Above the blue band -which encircled the upper portion of my chamber was the soft, pure -white snow of the second storm. The stratification of snow which I had -seen fall rendered it evident that my interpretation of the -stratification observed in the sides of crevasses was correct. The -snow when it fell was soft and white, and composed of very fine -crystals; but under the influence of the air and sunshine it changed -its texture and became icy and granular, and then resembled the névé -snow so common in high mountains. - -{157} The day following the storm was bright and beautiful; the -sunlight was warm and pleasant, but the temperature in the shadows was -always below freezing. The surface of the snow did not melt -sufficiently during the day to freeze and form a crust during the -night. It thus became more and more apparent that the season was too -far advanced to allow the snow to harden sufficiently for us to be -able to climb the mountain. The snow settled somewhat and changed its -character, but even at midday the crystals on the surface glittered as -brilliantly in the sunlight as they did in the early morning. Although -the snow did not melt, its surface was lowered slightly by -evaporation. The tracks of the raven, at first sunken a quarter of an -inch in the soft surface, after the first day of sunshine stood -slightly in relief, but were still clearly defined. - - * * * * * - -On the sixth day after separating from my companions, judging that -they must have returned at least to the camping place where we had -separated, I packed my blankets and what food remained, abandoned the -tent and oil-stove, and started to descend the mountain. The snow had -settled somewhat, but was still soft and yielding and over six feet -deep. Tramping wearily on through the chaff-like substance, I slowly -worked my way downward, and again threaded the maze of crevasses, now -partially concealed by the layer of new snow, with which we had -struggled several times before. Midway to the next camping place I met -my companions coming up to search for me. Instead of meeting three -men, as I expected, I saw five tramping along in single file through -the deep snow. The sight of human beings in that vast solitude was so -strange that I watched them for some time before shouting. Glad as I -was to meet my companions once more, I could not help noticing their -rough and picturesque appearance. Each man wore colored glasses and -carried a long alpenstock, and two or three had packs strapped on -their backs. Several weeks of hard tramping over moraines and -snow-fields had made many rents in their clothes, which had been -mended with cloth of any color that chanced to be available. Not a few -rags were visible fluttering in the wind. To a stranger they would -have appeared like a dangerous band of brigands. - -The reason for the presence of five men instead of three was this: -Lindsley and Stamy, when they left us at Rope cliff to {158} return -for additional rations, were obliged to go back to Camp 12 in order to -get a tent and an oil-stove. On reaching that place the temptation to -return to Blossom island was so great that Lindsley could not resist -it and went back to the base-camp, where he reported that Kerr and I -were storm-bound in the mountains and in need of assistance. Three -men, Partridge, Doney, and White, started at once, and found Stamy, -who had waited for their arrival at Camp 12. A day was thus lost, -which increased Mr. Kerr's hardship and might have proved disastrous. -The party then returned to Rope cliff and joined Kerr on the evening -of August 29. On this occasion, as on several others, I found myself -indebted to Stamy for willing assistance when others hesitated. - -During my imprisonment at the highest camp, Mr. Kerr was detained -under similar circumstances at the camp below Rope cliff. On -endeavoring to rejoin me with the supply of coal oil, so very valuable -under the circumstances, he was caught in the storm and was unable to -reach the rendezvous appointed. He reached Rope cliff late in the -afternoon of the first day of the storm, climbed the precipice, and -found his way through the gathering darkness, along the nearly -obliterated trail beneath the avalanche cliffs, and up the steps cut -in the snow-cliff, to the site of our bivouac camp. Finding nothing -there, and being unable to proceed farther through the blinding storm, -he abandoned the attempt and returned to the camp below Rope cliff. In -descending the rope, he found that its lower end had become fast in -the snow. The taut line, sheathed with ice, was an uncertain help in -the darkness. Midway in the descent his hands slipped and he slid to -the bottom; but the cushion of new snow broke the fall and prevented -serious injury. Alone, without fire, without blankets, having only a -canvas cover and a rubber cloth for shelter, and with but little food, -he passed three anxious days and nights before the arrival of the camp -hands. - - -THE RETURN. - -Deciding that the ascent of Mount St. Elias could not be accomplished -through the new snow, which refused to harden, it was decided to -abandon the attempt and return to Blossom island. Our retreat was none -too soon. Storm succeeded storm throughout September. Each time the -clouds lifted, the mantle {159} of new snow was seen to have descended -lower and lower. Our last view showed the wintry covering nearly down -to timber-line. - -On the night of August 31 we slept at the camp beneath Rope cliff, but -had a most uncomfortable night. Six men sleeping in a tent measuring -seven by seven feet, with but little protection from the ice beneath, -certainly does not seem inviting to one surrounded by the comforts of -civilization. A large part of the night was occupied by Doney in -preparing breakfast over our oil-stove. An early start was welcome to -all; we were disappointed at not being able to reach the top of St. -Elias, and were anxious to return to more comfortable quarters. Kerr -concluded to return at once to Blossom island to recuperate, while I -made an excursion up the Seward glacier, with the hope of gaining the -upper ice-fall and seeing the amphitheatre beyond. - -We left Rope cliff about six in the morning, and found the snow hard -and traveling easy for several hours. After descending the lower -ice-fall, however, the snow became soft, and a change in the -atmosphere indicated the approach of another storm. Kerr and Doney -pressed on and were soon lost to sight, while the rest of the party -were delayed, owing to Partridge having become snow-blind and almost -helpless. As the crevasses were exceedingly numerous and the -snow-bridges soft and uncertain, the task of conducting a blind man to -a place of safety was by no means light. Partridge bore up bravely -under his affliction, however, and did not hesitate in crawling across -the treacherous snow-bridges with a rope fastened about his body and a -man before and behind to assist his movements. Late in the day we -reached our camping place at the eastern border of the Agassiz -glacier, while Kerr and Doney crossed Dome pass and spent the night in -a tent that had been left standing at the first camping east of the -pass. We pitched a tent on our old camping place at Camp 16, and had -the luxury of a rocky bed to sleep on that night. As Partridge's -blindness still continued, White was sent ahead to tell Kerr and Doney -to wait for us in the morning, so that Partridge could accompany them -to Blossom island. Rain continued all that night and all the next day. -As Partridge's eyes were still unserviceable in the morning, I -concluded to wait a day before allowing him to start for Blossom -island. - -Toward evening on September 2 we moved our camp across {160} Dome -pass, and pitched our tent on the high ridge beside the one occupied -by Kerr and Doney. In the morning, although the storm still continued, -our party divided, Kerr, Doney, and Partridge starting early for -Blossom island, while Stamy, White, and myself, after following their -tracks for a few miles, turned to the left and worked our way -northeastward among the crevasses of the Seward glacier. Toward -evening we reached the northwestern spur of Mount Owen, but found the -cliffs rising abruptly from the glacier and too favorable for -avalanches to admit of our camping near them. Again we were forced to -go into camp on the open glacier, and were less comfortable than -previously on similar occasions, owing to the fact that we had been -exposed to the rains for three successive days and our blankets and -clothes were wet. Rain continued all night and all the next day, and -on the following night changed to snow. - -On the morning of September 4 we awoke to find the skies clear, but -the mountains all about us were white with snow. Before the sun rose, -White and I started for the top of the high ridge above us, determined -to have at least a distant view of the amphitheatre which we wished to -explore. The snow about our camp was only six or eight inches deep, -but as we ascended the mountain it grew more and more troublesome, and -at a height of a thousand feet above camp was thirty inches deep. On -gaining the summit of the ridge a magnificent view was obtained of the -upper portion of the Seward glacier and of Mount Irving and Mount -Logan, and many bold, tapering mountains farther northeastward. The -whole landscape was snow-covered, and as the sun rose clear in the -east became of the most dazzling brilliancy. An icy wind swept down -from the northeast and rendered it exceedingly difficult to take -photographs or to make measurements. On endeavoring to use my -prismatic compass, I found that, having been soaked with moisture -during the previous days of storm, it froze solid and refused to move, -on being exposed to the air. Making what observations I could, we -started back to camp with the intention of abandoning all further -attempts to work in the high mountains. - -On the steep slope now exposed to the full sunshine several avalanches -had gone down, and there was great danger of others. Selecting a point -where an avalanche had already swept away the new snow, we worked our -way downward in a zigzag course and reached the bottom safely, -although an avalanche starting {161} near at hand swept by within a -few yards. When nearly at the bottom my attention was attracted by a -noise above, and on looking up I saw two rocks bounding down the slope -and coming straight for me. To dodge them on the steep slippery slope -was difficult and dangerous. Allowing one to pass over my right -shoulder, I instantly moved in that direction and allowed the other to -pass over my left shoulder. They shot by me like fragments of shells, -but did no injury. Reaching camp, we found that Stamy had dried our -blankets and clothes. - -Resuming our packs, we slowly threaded our way downward to Camp 14, at -the western end of the Pinnacle pass cliffs. We there found cans of -rations left several days before and, pitching our tent, passed the -night. We knew by the signs found there that Kerr and his companions, -after taking lunch, had renewed their journey toward Blossom island. -Our camp was just at the lower limit of the new snow. To the northward -all was of the purest white, but southward, down the glacier, the -snow-fields were yellow and much discolored. Many changes had taken -place in the Seward glacier since we first saw it; the pinnacles, -snow-tables, and crevasses in the rapids were less striking than -formerly, and had evidently suffered greatly from the summer's heat. -About the bases of the cliffs there were dark, irregular patches of -débris, where a month previously all was white. As nearly as could be -judged, the surface of the glacier had been lowered by melting and -settling during our absence about fifty feet. - -The following morning, September 5, we started for Blossom island, the -weather still continuing thick and stormy. On crossing Pinnacle pass -we found over a foot of new snow which had fallen since our companions -passed that way. Toward nightfall the lower limit of snow on the -Marvine glacier was reached, and at night we camped on the first -moraines which appeared below the névé. The day following, September -6, we reached Blossom island about noon, and found that Kerr and his -party had arrived there safely, and that Partridge had recovered from -his snow-blindness. - - * * * * * - -Our stay above the snow-line had lasted thirty-five days, and we were -extremely glad to see the light of a camp-fire and have the trees and -flowers about us once more. The vegetation indicated that the season -was already far advanced. Most of the flowers had faded, and autumn -tints gave brilliancy to the {162} lower mountain slopes; salmon -berries and huckleberries were in profusion, and furnished an -exceedingly agreeable change in our diet. After a bath in one of the -small lakelets on the island and a good night's rest on a luxuriant -bed of spruce boughs, we felt fully restored and ready for another -campaign. - -As Kerr was anxious to get back to Port Mulgrave, it was arranged that -Lindsley and Partridge should go with him, and that the rest of the -men should remain. Kerr took his departure on the morning of September -7, and on the following day Christie, Doney, and myself crossed the -Marvine glacier to the southern end of the Hitchcock range, and the -following day made an excursion out upon the Malaspina glacier. The -day of our excursion was bright and beautiful, and the mountains to -the northward revealed their full magnificence. The level plateau of -ice formed a horizontal plain, from which the mountain rose -precipitously and appeared grander and more majestic than from any -other point of view. St. Elias rose clear and sharp, without a cloud -to obscure its dizzy height, and appeared to be one sheer precipice. -It is doubtful if a more impressive mountain face exists anywhere else -in the world. After learning all we could concerning the Malaspina -glacier we returned to our camp at the end of the Hitchcock range, and -the following day tramped across the extremely rough moraine-covered -surface back to Blossom island. - -The following morning, September 12, we started on our return trip to -Yakutat bay. Two small tents and many articles for which we had no -further use were abandoned, so as to make our packs light as possible. -We crossed the Hayden glacier, and at night camped at the foot of -Floral pass. After making two intermediate camps, traveling each day -in the rain, we reached the shore of Yakutat bay on September 15. - -Doney and I halted at Dalton's cabin for the purpose of seeing what we -could of the openings there made for coal, while the rest of the party -pressed on to our old camping place on the shore. There they found -Kerr and his party still encamped, but ready to leave for Port -Mulgrave early the next morning. - -September 18 was occupied by us in catching salmon and trout. We were -abundantly successful, as every man returned to camp with all that he -could carry. These were spread out on a rack over our camp-fire and -smoked for further use, as we did not know how long our stay would be -extended. On the next day Stamy and Lindsley returned from Port -Mulgrave, where they {163} had left Kerr, quite recovered from his -exposure on the mountain. Stormy weather continued, and a gale from -the northeast piled the ice high on the beach and threatened to sweep -away our tents, as has already been briefly described in earlier -pages. - -On September 20, our tents having been beaten in by a violent storm -and our camping place overflowed by the waters from a lake above us, -we removed our goods to a place of safety and went to Dalton's cabin, -where we awaited better weather. The morning of September 23 dawned -clear and bright, and after drying our clothes around a blazing -camp-fire, we started back to our camping place on the shore. Before -reaching there, however, we were rejoiced to see the _Corwin_ coming -up the bay. It took us but a short time to get on board, where Captain -C. L. Hooper, her commander, did everything in his power to make us -welcome and comfortable. To him we are indebted for a delightful -voyage back to civilization. - -After steaming up Disenchantment bay nearly to the ice-cliffs of the -Hubbard glacier, and obtaining a fine view of the glaciers about -Disenchantment bay, the _Corwin_ returned to Port Mulgrave and, on -September 25, put to sea. After a splendid ocean passage, we arrived -at Port Townsend on October 2. - - * * * * * - -During our stay in Alaska not a man was seriously sick and not an -accident happened. The work planned at the start was carried out -almost to the letter, with the exception that snow-storms and the -lateness of the season did not permit us to reach the summit of Mount -St. Elias. - - -SUGGESTIONS. - -Should another attempt be made to climb Mount St. Elias, the shortest -and most practicable route from the coast would be to land at Icy bay -and ascend the Agassiz glacier. The course taken by us in 1890 could -be intersected just north of where the tributary glacier from Dome -pass joins the main ice-stream; and from there the route followed last -summer would be the most practicable. A camp should be established on -the divide between Mount St. Elias and Mount Newton, from which -excursions to either of these peaks could be made in a single day. - -In the preceding narrative many details have been omitted. One of -these is that tents, together with blankets, rations, etc., were left -at two convenient points between Blossom island and {164} the Agassiz -glacier, and were used by the men in bringing up supplies. In -attempting to ascend Mount St. Elias from Icy bay by the route -suggested, at least three such relay stations should be established -between the Chaix hills, where wood for camp-fires can be obtained (as -is known from the reports of the New York _Times_ and Topham -expeditions), and the high camp on the divide. The relay camps -suggested should be one day's march apart, and would serve not only -for stopping places while carrying rations during the advance, but -would furnish a line of retreat. A party making this journey should be -provided with snow-shoes, which unfortunately we did not take with us. - -All rations intended for use above the snow-line should be packed in -tin cans, each of sufficient size to hold between fifty and sixty -pounds, and each should be securely soldered. All articles packed in -this way should be thoroughly dry and should be packed in a dry, warm -room. When secured in this manner they are about as easy to carry as -if packed in bags, and can be "cached" anywhere out of the reach of -floods and avalanches, with the certainty of being serviceable when -wanted. The more perishable articles to be used where camp-fires are -possible should also be secured in tin cans. Sacks of flour, -corn-meal, etc., should be protected by an outer covering of strong -canvas. The experience of last summer showed that the cans of rations -intended for use above the snow-line should each contain about the -following ration, which may be varied to suit individual taste: - - Bacon, smoked . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 lbs. - Corned beef, in can . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 " - Flour and corn-meal, with necessary quantity of baking - powder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 " - Coffee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 " - Rolled oats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 " - Sugar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 " - Chocolate, sweet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 " - Salt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ¼ " - Extract of beef . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ¼ " - Tobacco . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ½ " - Condensed milk (small cans) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - Matches (wax) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 box. - -Our experience with oil-stoves showed that they are serviceable. While -on the march they can be carried as hand packs in {165} gunny-sacks. -Rectangular cans holding about a gallon each, with small screw-tops, -were found convenient for carrying coal oil. The experience of Arctic -explorers indicates that alcohol would perhaps be better than coal oil -to use in snow-camps. - -Among the most important articles to be provided are strong shoes or -boots; of these each man should have at least two pairs. Strong -hip-boots, with lacings over the instep, are exceedingly serviceable. -When sleeping on the ice the boot-legs may be spread beneath one's -blankets and the feet used as a pillow. The long legs are serviceable -alike in the thick brush on the shore and in the deep snow on the high -mountains. With their protection, many streams can be waded without -getting wet. Leather, waxed ends, awls, etc., for repairing boots, and -tallow mixed with bees-wax for greasing them, should be taken and -distributed in part through the cans of rations. Heavy woolen socks -are indispensable, and an effort should be made to have a dry pair -always at hand. This may be arranged, even under the most unfavorable -conditions, by drying a pair as thoroughly as is convenient and -carrying them in the bosom of one's shirt. - -Long alpenstocks are always necessary. My own choice is a stiff one of -hickory, about six feet long and an inch and a quarter in diameter, -provided with a spike and hook at one end and a chisel about two -inches broad at the other. Ice axes are desirable while climbing in -the high mountains, but even more serviceable are light axes of the -usual pattern, but with handles about fourteen inches long; these -supplement the alpenstock, and when not actually in use are carried in -the packs. - -Each man should be provided with a water-tight match-box, and should -have, besides, a bundle of wax matches wrapped in oil-cloth and sewed -in the collar of his shirt, to be held as a last reserve. Each man -should also have a small water-tight bag in which to carry salt enough -to last a week or ten days, in case he has to live by hunting or -fishing. A heavy hunting knife is very convenient, and can be used not -only in cutting trails through thick brush, but in cases of necessity -is serviceable in making steps in ice. Heavy woolen clothing is -preferable to furs. Sleeping bags were not used during our expedition, -but are highly recommended by others. For protection at night, a thick -woolen blanket with a light canvas cover and a sheet of light rubber -cloth to protect it are all that is necessary. Our tents were of -cotton drilling, seven feet square and about six feet high, and {166} -provided with ridge-ropes. Alpenstocks were used for tent poles. -"Sou'westers" and strong water-proof coats are indispensable in a -climate like that of Alaska, and at night may be used as a substratum -on which to sleep. While traveling over the snow-line we used colored -glasses to protect the eyes, and also found that a strip of dark -mosquito netting tied across the face below the eyes afforded great -protection. Some of the party found relief from the glare of the snow -by blacking their faces with grease and burnt cork, but one experiment -with that method is usually enough. While camping below timber-line -during the months of June to September fine mosquito netting is -indispensable. In carrying packs, hemp "cod-line" of the largest size -was found to answer every requirement, and is preferred by expert -packers to pack-straps. - -It has been suggested that experienced Swiss guides are necessary to -ensure success in climbing Mount St. Elias. Having never followed a -guide in the mountains, I am not able to judge of their efficiency, -but it must be remembered that no one can _guide_ in a region that has -never been traversed. The "guide" as understood in Europe is unknown -in America. In the exploration of this country by engineers, -geologists, etc., the camp hands have followed their leaders and have -not shown them the way. In every frontier town there are hunters, -trappers, miners, prospectors, cow-boys, voyageurs, etc.--men who have -passed their lives on the plains or among "the hills" and are enured -to hardship and danger. This is the best material in the world from -which to recruit an exploring party. A foreigner engaging the services -of such men must take into account the independent spirit that -animates them and is the secret of their usefulness. They are not -servants, but retainers; that too in regions far beyond the reach of -civil law. They will follow their leader anywhere, support him in all -dangers, and do their work faithfully so long as their rights as men -are respected. - -By taking proper precautions while traveling across crevassed snow and -ice, and guarding against avalanches and snow-blindness, an excursion -can be made above the snow-line with as little danger as in better -known and more frequented regions. - - -{167} - - -PART III. - -SKETCH OF THE GEOLOGY OF THE ST. ELIAS REGION. - - -GENERAL FEATURES. - -In the preceding narrative, many references have been made to the -character of the rocks and to the geological structure of the region -explored. It was not practicable during the journey to carry on -detailed geological studies, but such facts as were noted are of -interest, for this reason, if for no other: they relate to a country -previously unknown. - -My reconnoissance enabled me to determine that there are three -well-defined formations in the St. Elias region. These are-- - -1. The sandstones and shales about Yakutat bay and westward along the -foot of the mountain to Icy bay, named the _Yakutat system_. - -2. A system of probably later date, composed of shale, conglomerate, -limestone, sandstone, etc., best exposed in the cliffs of Pinnacle -pass and along the northern and western borders of the Samovar hills, -and named the _Pinnacle system_. - -3. The metamorphic rocks of the main St. Elias range, called the _St. -Elias schist_. - - -YAKUTAT SYSTEM. - -The rocks of this system are of gray and brown sandstones and nearly -black shales. They are uniform in lithological character over a large -area, and are usually greatly crushed and seamed. So great has been -the crushing to which they have been subjected that it is difficult to -work out a hand specimen with fresh surfaces. Fragments broken out -with a hammer are almost invariably bounded by plains of previous -crushing, and are usually somewhat weathered. - -These rocks form the bold shores of Yakutat and Disenchantment bays, -and were the only rocks seen along our route from Yakutat bay to -Pinnacle pass. The whole of the Hitchcock range is composed of rocks -of this series, as are also the Chaix {168} hills and the hills west -of Icy bay and the southern portion of the Samovar hills. North of -Pinnacle pass there are rocks undistinguishable lithogically from -those about Yakutat bay. These are exposed in Mount Owen and on each -side of Dome pass; they also form the bold spurs about the immediate -bases of Mount Augusta, Mount Malaspina, and Mount St. Elias. In the -three instances last named these rocks dip beneath the schist forming -the crest of the St. Elias range, and it is probable that a great -overthrust there took place before the formation of the faults to -which the present relief of the mountains is due. - -All the mountain spurs of Mount Cook, so far as is known, are composed -of sandstones and shales of the Yakutat series, with the exception of -the Pinnacle pass cliffs. Nearly all the débris on the glaciers from -Disenchantment bay to the Seward glacier, and probably beyond, is -derived from the rocks of this system. The distribution of the rocks -from which the débris was derived may be ascertained in a general way -by tracing out the sources of the glaciers. Medial moraines on the -Hayden and Marvine glaciers, however, have their sources on the -northern slope of Mount Cook, and are composed of gabbro and -serpentine. These rocks were not seen in place, and their relation to -the Yakutat series can only be conjectured. - -Although the rocks of this system are stratified, it is impossible to -determine their thickness, for the reason that they have been greatly -crushed and overthrust. This is well illustrated in the Hitchcock -range, which, as already explained, trends about northeast and -southwest, and is composed of strata of shale and sandstone, having a -nearly east-and-west strike and a uniform dip toward the northeast. -Were the rocks in normal position their thickness would be incredible. -In addition to this negative evidence, there is the crushed condition -of the strata to show that movement has taken place all through their -mass; and in a few instances thrust faults were distinguished, dipping -northeastward at about the same angle as the lines of bedding. In the -crushing to which the rocks have been subjected the shales have -suffered more than the sandstones, and have been drawn out into -wedge-shaped masses, the sharp edges of which usually point toward the -northeast, which is presumably the direction from which the crushing -force acted. - -The hypothesis that the rocks in the St. Elias region have been -crushed and overthrust explains many otherwise {169} inharmonious -facts, and accounts for the superposition of the St. Elias schist upon -rocks of the Yakutat system. - -Coal has been discovered in the rocks of the Yakutat system about two -miles west of the southern end of Disenchantment bay, and is reported -to be of workable thickness. I saw thin lignite seams at the surface -at this locality, but as the shafts were filled with water I was -unable to examine the coal in the openings, and cannot vouch for its -thickness. Samples obtained from the mine show it to be a black -lignite which would apparently be of value for fuel. Fossil leaves are -reported to occur in connection with the lignite, but these have never -been seen by any one who could identify them. - -The rocks of the Yakutat system, wherever seen, dip northeastward, -except when greatly disturbed near fault-lines. East of Disenchantment -bay the inclination of the beds is from 15° to 20°; farther westward -the dip increases gradually all the way to the Hitchcock range, where -the prevailing inclination is from 30° to 40°, and frequently still -greater. Beneath Mount Malaspina and Mount St. Elias the Yakutat -sandstones dip northeastward at an angle of about 15°, and in the -hills west of Icy bay the dip is about the same. Exceptions to the -prevailing dips occur along the immediate shore of Yakutat bay, -northwest of Knight island, and at the southern extremity of each of -the mountain spurs between Yakutat bay and Blossom island. At these -localities the rocks are frequently vertical or nearly so, owing their -high dip to the proximity of lines of displacement. The faults -indicated by these unusual dips also mark the boundary between the -mountains and the seaward-stretching plateau of alluvium and ice. - -The crushing, overthrusting and faulting that has affected the rocks -of this system render it doubtful whether the coal seams which occur -in it, even if of requisite thickness, can be worked to advantage. -Some of the samples of coal obtained at the openings made near Yakutat -bay were slickensided, showing that movements in the coal seam had -there taken place. - -As already stated, the rocks of the Yakutat series are remarkably -uniform in character throughout the extent now known, and offer but -little variety. The sandstones are intersected in every direction by -thin quartz seams, which stand in relief on the weathered surfaces, -giving the rocks a peculiar and {170} characteristic appearance. The -first important change in the geology along the route traversed by us -was met on reaching Pinnacle pass. - - -PINNACLE SYSTEM. - -The rocks of this system, as already stated, are best exposed in the -great fault-scarp forming the northern wall of Pinnacle pass. They are -more varied in composition and have preserved a better record of the -conditions under which they were deposited than the sandstones and -shales of the Yakutat system. - -Only an approximate section of the rocks exposed in the Pinnacle-pass -cliff was obtained. - - Sandstone and conglomerate weathering into spires . . . 500 feet. - Evenly bedded, sandy shale in thin layers . . . . . . . 600 " - Coarse conglomerate; bowlders of crystalline rock . . . 50 " - Thinly bedded, dark-colored sandstone and shale . . . . 500 " - Reddish conglomerate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 " - Light-gray sandstone, with thin, irregular coal seams . 40 " - ----- - Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,800 " - -There is also a compact, crystalline, gray limestone near the upper -portion of the series, which escaped notice in the cliffs. At the end -of the Pinnacle-pass cliffs, however, where the rocks are turned -northward by the great fault which decides the course of the Seward -glacier, and dip eastward at a high angle, the limestone is well -exposed, and has a thickness of about 50 feet. In many places the -surfaces of the layers are covered with fragments of large _Pecten_ -shells. Associated with the limestone there are reddish shales, much -crushed and broken, and a peculiar conglomerate. The pebbles in the -conglomerate are of many varieties, and were observed at places along -the Pinnacle pass cliffs. Their most marked peculiarity lies in the -fact that they have been sheared by a movement in the rocks and -sometimes broken into several fragments which have been reunited, -probably by pressure. These faulted pebbles are characteristic of the -strata from which they were derived. Similar pebbles were afterward -obtained in the Marvine glacier near its junction with the Malaspina -glacier, thus indicating that there are other outcrops of the -conglomerate about Mount Cook, near where the Marvine glacier {171} -has its source. Two quartz pebbles from the conglomerate of Pinnacle -pass are shown in the accompanying illustrations. The larger pebble -(shown in figure 7) is of bluish-gray quartz, and the smaller one -(depicted in figure 8) is of white quartz. The fragments into which -they have been broken are now firmly united. The engravings are -photo-mechanical (Moss process) reproductions from the objects. - -[Illustration: FIGURE 7--_Faulted Pebble from Pinnacle Pass_.] - -[Illustration: FIGURE 8--_Faulted Pebble from Pinnacle Pass_.] - -In the northern and western part of the Samovar hills the rocks of the -Pinnacle system again appear, forming a bold angular ridge, curving -southward and reaching the border of the Agassiz glacier. The southern -face of this range is precipitous and, like the Pinnacle pass cliffs, -exhibits the edges of northward-dipping strata. Its northern and -western slopes are heavily snow-bound. It is in reality a continuation -of the Pinnacle pass fault, but thrown out of line by the cross-fault -which marked out the course of the Seward glacier. - -The Yakutat and Pinnacle systems are so easily recognized that their -distribution can be distinguished at a glance, when the outcrops are -not concealed beneath the nearly universal covering of snow. The rocks -of the Yakutat series are heavily bedded sandstones and shales, and -have in general a light-brown tint; while the rocks of the Pinnacle -series are thinly bedded and dark in color, appearing black at a -distance. - -The presence of a _Pecten_ (_P. caurinus_ (?) Gld.) in the limestone -of the Pinnacle series has already been mentioned. Other fossils were -obtained from sandstones and shales at the crest of the cliffs above -Pinnacle pass at an elevation of 5,000 feet. These {172} were -submitted to Dr. W. H. Dall, who kindly identified them as follows: - - _Mya arenaria_, L.; - _Mytilus edulis_, L.; - _Leda fossa_, Baird, or _L. minuta_, Fabr.; - _Macoma inconspicua_, B. and S.; - _Cardium islandicum_, L.; - _Litorina atkana_, Dall. - -All of these species are stated by Dall to be still living in the -oceanic waters of Alaska. The very recent age of the rocks in which -they occur is thus established. - -In strata closely connected with the layers in which these shells were -found there occur many fine leaf impressions, a few of which were -brought away. These have been examined by Professor L. F. Ward, who -has identified them with four species of _Salix_, closely resembling -living species. The report on these interesting fossils forms Appendix -D. - -The age indicated by both invertebrates and plants is late Tertiary -(Pliocene) or early Pleistocene. This determination is of great -significance when taken in connection with the structure of the -region, and shows that the mountains in the St. Elias region are -young. - -Not only was a part, at least, of the Pinnacle system deposited during -the life of living species of mollusks, but also the whole of the -Yakutat series, the stratigraphic position of which is, if my -determination is correct, above the Pinnacle system. After the -sediments composing the rocks of these two series were {173} deposited -in the sea as strata of sand, mud, etc., they were consolidated, -overthrust, faulted, and upheaved into one of the grandest mountain -ridges on the continent. Then, after the mountains had reached a -considerable height, if not their full growth, the snows of winter -fell upon them, and glaciers were born; the glaciers increased to a -maximum, and their surfaces reached from a thousand to two thousand -feet higher than now on the more southern mountain spurs, and -afterward slowly wasted away to their present dimensions. All of this -interesting and varied history has been enacted during the life of -existing species of plants and animals. - -The relative age of the Yakutat and Pinnacle series is the weakest -point in the history sketched above. The facts on which it rests are -as follows: At Pinnacle pass the sandstones and shales forming the -southern wall belong to the Yakutat system and are much disturbed, -while the northern wall, or the heaved side of the fault, is composed -of the rocks of the Pinnacle system, inclined northward at an angle of -30° or 40°. North of this fault-scarp, in the foothills of Mount Owen, -sandstones and shales, seemingly identical with those of the Yakutat -system, again occur, although their direct connection with the rocks -south of Pinnacle pass was not observed, owing to the snow that -obscured the outcrops. Again at Dome pass a similar relation seems -evident, but cannot be directly established. The immediate foothills -of Mounts Augusta, Malaspina, and St. Elias are also of sandstone, -lithologically the same as the Yakutat series. The conclusion that the -Yakutat system is younger than the Pinnacle-pass rocks was reached in -the field after many other hypotheses had been tried and found -wanting, and to my mind it explains all the observations made. Even -should the supposed relations of the two series under discussion be -reversed, it would still be true that a very large part of the rocks -of the St. Elias region were deposited since the appearance of living -species of mollusks and plants, and that the prevailing structure of -the region was imposed at a still later date. This will appear more -clearly after examining the structure of the region. - - -ST. ELIAS SCHIST. - -The rock forming several thousand feet of the upper portion of the St. -Elias range is a schist in which the planes of bedding {174} are -preserved. The dip of the strata is northeastward, and has exerted a -decided influence on the weathering of the mountain crests. As the -opportunities for examining this formation were unsatisfactory, a -detailed account of it will not now be attempted. - - -GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE. - -The abnormal thickness of the Yakutat series, due to crushing and -overthrust, has been referred to, as has also the superposition of the -St. Elias schist upon rock supposed to belong to the Yakutat system. - -The plane of contact between the sandstone and the overlying schist of -the St. Elias range dips northeastward at an angle of about 15°, -corresponding, as nearly as can be determined, with the dip of the -strata in the sandstone itself. All of the observations made in this -connection indicate that the schist has been overthrust upon the -sandstones. After this took place the great faults to which the range -owes its present relief were formed. - -About Mount Cook, however, and in the elevated plateau east of Yakutat -bay, the conditions are different from those observed along the base -of the St. Elias range. The only displacements known in the Yakutat -system south and east of Pinnacle pass is the great fault which -presumably exists where the rocks of the foothills disappear beneath -the gravel and glaciers of the Piedmont region, the faults referred to -belonging to the same series as those which determine the southern and -southwestern borders of the St. Elias range and many of the foothills -south of the main escarpment. Besides the great faults which trend -from St. Elias toward the northeast and northwest, there are several -cross-faults, one of which determines the position of the Seward -glacier through a portion of its course, while another marks out the -path of the Agassiz glacier; and two others may be recognized just -east of the summit of St. Elias, which have dropped portions of the -eastern end of the orographic block forming the crowning peak of the -range. - -The southern face of Mount St. Elias is a fault-scarp. The mountain -itself is formed by the upturned edge of a faulted block in which the -stratification is inclined northeastward. As has just been mentioned, -the mountain stands at the intersection of two lines of displacement, -one trending in a northeasterly and the other in a northwesterly -direction. The one trending {175} northwestward extends beyond the end -of the northeast fault. The point of union is at the pass between -Mount St. Elias and Mount Newton. The upturned block, bounded on the -southwest by a great fault, projects beyond the junction with the -northeasterly fault. It is this projecting end of a roof-like block -that forms Mount St. Elias. That this is the case may be clearly seen -when viewing the mountain from the glacier near the base of Mount -Owen. Such a view is shown on plate 20. The crest-line of St. Elias -extends with a decreasing grade northwestward from the culminating -peak, and the northern slope of the ridge is the surface of the tilted -block. - -[Illustration: PLATE 20. MT. ST. ELIAS, FROM THE SEWARD GLACIER.] - -From what has been stated already, it will be seen that the St. Elias -range is young. Its upheaval, as indicated by our present knowledge, -was since the close of the Tertiary. The breaking of the rocks and -their upheaval is an event of such recent date that erosion has -scarcely modified the forms which the mountains had at their birth. -The formation of glaciers followed the elevation of the region so -quickly, that there was no opportunity for streams to act. The ice -drainage is consequent upon the geological structure, and has made but -slight changes in the topography due to that structure. - -About Mount Cook, and in the elevated plateau east of Yakutat bay, -there has been deeper erosion than about Mount St. Elias. The glaciers -in this region occupy deep valleys radiating from the higher peaks; -but whether these are really valleys of erosion is not definitely -known. In some instances, changes of dip on opposite sides of the -valleys indicate that they may in part be due to faulting; but, owing -principally to the fact that every basin has its glacier, it has not -been practicable, up to the present time, to determine how they were -formed. - -The crests of the mountains are always sharp and angular, by reason of -the rapid weathering of their exposed summits, but while -disintegration is rapid, no evidences of pronounced decay are -noticeable. The peaks on the summits of the St. Elias range are either -pyramids or roof-like crests with triangular gables. These forms have -resulted from the weathering of schist in which the planes of bedding -are crossed by lines of jointing. - - -{176} - - -PART IV. - -GLACIERS OF THE ST. ELIAS REGION. - - -NATURAL DIVISIONS OF GLACIERS. - -The glaciers of the St. Elias region form two groups. The ice-streams -from the mountain are of the type found in Switzerland, and hence -termed _Alpine glaciers_. The great plateau of ice along the ocean -formed by the union and expansion of Alpine glaciers from the -mountains belongs to a class not previously described, but which in -this paper have been called _Piedmont glaciers_. The representative of -the latter type between Yakutat bay and Icy bay is the Malaspina -glacier. Both types are to be distinguished from _Continental -glaciers_. - - -ALPINE GLACIERS. - -The glaciers in the mountains are all of one type, but present great -diversity in their secondary features, and might be separated into -three or four subordinate divisions. The great trunk glaciers have -many tributaries, and drain the snows from the mountains through broad -channels, which are of low grade throughout all the lower portions of -their courses. Besides the trunk glaciers and the secondary glaciers -which flow into them, there are many smaller glaciers which do not -join the main streams, but terminate in the gorges or on the exposed -mountain sides in which they originate. These have nearly all the -features of the larger streams, but are not of sufficient volume to -become rivers of ice. - -A minor division of Alpine glaciers for which it is convenient to have -a special name includes those that end in the sea and, breaking off, -form icebergs. These may be designated as "tide-water glaciers." -Typical examples of this class are furnished by the Dalton and Hubbard -glaciers, but other ice-streams having the same characteristics occur -in Glacier bay, in Taku inlet, and at the heads of several of the deep -fjords along the coast of southeastern Alaska. - -{177} A noticeable feature of the Alpine glaciers of Alaska is that -they expand on passing beyond the valleys through which they flow and -form delta-like accumulations of ice on the plains below. This -expansion takes place irrespective of the direction in which the -glaciers flow, and, so far as may be judged from the many examples -examined, is independent of the débris that covers them. It should be -remembered, however, that none of the Alaskan glaciers thus far -studied show marked inequalities in the distribution of the moraines -upon their surfaces. Should one side of a glacier, on leaving a cañon, -be heavily loaded with marginal moraines, while the opposite border -was unprotected, it is to be presumed that a deflection of the ice -would take place similar to the change in direction recorded by the -moraines about Mono lake, California.[34] The normal tendency of ice, -when not confined, to expand in all directions and form a plateau is -illustrated on a grand scale by the Malaspina glacier. - -[Footnote 34: Eighth Ann. Rept. U. S. Geol. Surv., 1889, part I, pp. -360-366.] - -The most important ice-streams about Mount St. Elias and Mount Cook -are indicated on the map forming plate 8. The Tindall, Guyot, and -Libbey glaciers and the lower part of the Agassiz glacier there -represented are taken from a map published by H. W. Topham.[35] All of -the other glaciers indicated on the map were hastily surveyed during -the present expedition and are described to some extent in the -accompanying narrative. By far the most important of these is the one -named the Seward Glacier. - -[Footnote 35: Alpine Journal, London, vol. XIV, 1887, pl. op. p. 359.] - - * * * * * - -The Seward Glacier is of the Alpine type, and is the largest tributary -of the Malaspina glacier. Its length is approximately 40 miles, and -its width in the narrowest part, opposite Camp fourteen, is about 3 -miles. The main amphitheatre from which its drainage is derived is -north of Mount Owen and between Mount Irving and Mount Logan. The -general surface of the broad level floor of this névé field has an -elevation of approximately 5,000 feet. The snow from the northern and -western sides of Mount Irving, from the northern slope of Mount Owen, -and from numerous valleys and cañons in the vast semicircle of -towering peaks joining these two mountains, unite to form the great -glacier. There is another amphitheatre between Mount Owen and the -Pinnacle pass cliffs supplied principally by snows {178} from the -northwestern slope of Mount Cook, which sends a vast flood of ice and -snow into the main drainage channel. Other tributary glaciers descend -the steep slopes of Mount Augusta and Mount Malaspina, and a lesser -tributary flows eastward from Dome pass. All of these ice-drainage -lines converge toward the narrow outlet of Camp 14 (plate 8) and -discharge southward down a moderately steep descent several miles in -length. Below Camp 14 there are other névé fields bordering the -glacier, which contribute no insignificant amount of ice and snow to -its mass. Between the extremity of the Hitchcock range and the Samovar -hills the path of the glacier is again contracted and greatly broken -as it descends to the plateau below. - -The Seward glacier, like all ice rivers of its class, has its névé -region above, and its ice region below. The limit between the two is -the lower margin of the summer snow, and occurs just above the -ice-fall between the southern extremity of the Hitchcock range and the -Samovar hills. All the névé region is pure white and without moraines, -except at the immediate bases of the most precipitous cliffs. At the -bases of the Corwin cliffs, which rise fully 2,000 feet above its -border, no débris can be distinguished even in midsummer. An absence -of moraines along the base of Pinnacle pass cliffs was also noticed -during our first visit, but when we returned over the same route in -September the melting of the snow had revealed many large patches of -dirt and disintegrated rock. In several places near the bases of steep -cliffs, strata of dirty ice, containing many stones, were observed in -deep crevasses. It was evident that vast quantities of débris were -sealed up in the ice along the borders of the glacier, only to appear -at the surface far down the stream where summer melting exceeds the -winter accumulation. - -The surface of the glacier below the lower fall is composed of solid -ice with blue and white bands, and has broad moraines along its -borders. The course of the glacier, after entering the great plateau -of ice to which it is tributary, may be traced for many miles by the -bands of débris along its sides. These moraines belong to the -Malaspina glacier, and have already been referred to. - -At the outlet of the upper amphitheatre, about 6 miles above Mount -Owen, there is an ice-fall which extends completely across the -glacier. Below the pinnacles and crevasses formed by this fall the ice -is recemented and flows on with a broad, gently {179} descending -surface, gashed, however, by thousands of crevasses, as shown in plate -20, to the end of the Pinnacle pass cliffs. It there finds a more -rapid descent, and becomes crevassed in an interesting way. The slope -is not sufficient to be termed a fall, but causes a rapid in the -ice-stream. - -The change of grade in the bed of the glacier is first felt about a -mile above Camp 14. A series of crevasses there begins, which extends -four or five miles down-stream. At first the cracks are narrow, and -trend upstream in the manner usual with marginal crevasses. Soon the -cracks from the opposite sides meet in the center and form a single -crevasse, bending upstream in the middle. A little lower down, the -crevasse becomes straight, showing that the ice in the center of the -current flows more rapidly than at the sides. The more rapid movement -of the center is indicated by the form of the crevasses all the way -down the rapid. After becoming straight they bow in the center and -form semi-lunar gashes, widest in the center and curving up-stream at -each extremity. Still farther down they become more and more bent in -the center and at the same time greatly increased in breadth. Still -lower the curve becomes an angle and the crevasses are V-shaped, the -arrow-like point directed down-stream. These parallel V-shaped gashes -set in order, one in front of the other, are what gives the glacier -the appearance of "watered" ribbon when seen from a distance. - -With the change in direction and curvature of the crevasses, there is -an accompanying change in color. The cracks in the upper part of the -rapid are in a white surface and run down into ice that looks dark and -blue by contrast. Lower down, as the cracks increase in width, broad -white tables are left between them. Cross-fractures are formed, and -the sides of the table begin to crumble in and fill up the gaps -between. As the surface melts the tables lose their pure whiteness and -become dust-covered and yellow; but the blocks falling into the -crevasses expose fresh surfaces, and fill the gulfs with pure white -ice. In this way the color of the sides of the crevasses changes from -deep blue to white, while the general surface loses its purity and -becomes dust-covered. Far down the rapid where the V-shaped crevasses -are most pointed, the tables have crumbled away and filled up the -gulfs between, so that the watered-ribbon pattern is distinguished by -color alone. The scars of the crevasses formed above are shown by -white bands on a dark dust-covered {180} surface. Before the lower -fall is reached nearly all traces of the thousands of fissures formed -in the rapids above have disappeared. - -On looking down on the rapids from any commanding point, the definite -arrangement of the crevasses along the center of the ice-stream at -once attracts attention, and their order suggests a rapid central -current in the stream. - -Below Camp 14, for at least two or three miles, as well as at many -places above that point, the Seward glacier flows between banks of -snow. Along its border there are marginal crevasses trending -up-stream, and in the adjacent banks there are similar breaks trending -down-stream. Where the two systems meet there is a line of irregular -crevasses, exceedingly difficult to cross, which mark the actual -border of the flowing ice. A similar arrangement of marginal crevasses -and of shore crevasses has been referred to in connection with the -Marvine glacier, and was observed in many other instances. - -While occupying Camp 14 we could hear the murmur of waters far down in -the glacier below our tent, but there were no surface streams visible. -Crashing and rumbling noises made by the slowly moving ice frequently -attracted our attention, and sometimes at night we would be awakened -by a dull thud, accompanied by a trembling of the rocks beneath us, as -if a slight earthquake had occurred. Occasionally a pinnacle of ice -would fall and be engulfed in the crevasses at its base. These -evidences of change indicated that movements in the Seward glacier -were constantly in progress. A short base-line was measured and sights -taken to well-marked points in the Seward glacier for the purpose of -measuring its motion. The angles between the base-line and lines of -sight to the chosen points were read on several successive days, but -when these observations were compared they gave discrepant results. -The measurements which seemed most reliable indicate that the central -part of the ice-stream has a movement of about twenty feet a day. This -is to be taken only as an approximation, which needs to be verified -before much weight can be attached to it. - - -CHARACTERISTICS OF ALPINE GLACIERS ABOVE THE SNOW-LINE. - -The surface of the névé is white, except near its lower limit in late -summer, where it frequently becomes covered with dust {181} blown from -neighboring cliffs. It is almost entirely free from moraines, but at -the bases of steep slopes small areas of débris sometimes appear at -the surface when the yearly melting has reached its maximum. The -absence of moraines is accompanied by an absence of glacial tables, -sand-cones and other details of glacial surfaces due to differential -melting. Streams seldom appear at the surface, for the reason that -usually the water produced by surface melting is quickly absorbed by -the porous strata beneath; yet the crevasses are frequently filled -with water, and sometimes shallow lakes of deep blue occur at the -bottoms of the amphitheatres and form a marked contrast to the even -white of the general surface. Crevasses are present or absent -according to the slope of the surface on which the névé rests. In the -crevasses the edges of horizontal layers of granular ice are -exhibited, showing that the névé down to a depth of at least one or -two hundred feet is horizontally stratified. In the St. Elias region -the strata are most frequently from ten to fifteen feet thick, but in -a few instances layers without partings over fifty feet thick were -seen. The surface is always of white, granular ice, but in the -crevasses the layers near the bottom appear more compact and bluer in -color than those near the surface. - -Some of the most striking features of the névé are due to the -crevasses that break their surfaces. The orderly arrangement of -marginal crevasses and of the interior crevasses at the rapids in the -Seward glacier have already been referred to; but there are still -other crevasses, especially in the broad, gently sloping portions of -the snow-fields where the motion is slight, which, although less -regular in their arrangement, are fully as interesting. The crevasses -on such slopes generally run at right angles to the direction in which -the snow is moving. On looking down on such a surface, the breaks look -like long clear-cut gashes which have stretched open in the center, -but taper to a sharp point at each end. The ability of the névé ice to -stretch to a limited extent is thus clearly shown. The initiation of -the crevasses seems to be due to the movement of the névé ice over a -surface in which there are inequalities of such magnitude that the ice -cannot stretch sufficiently to allow it to accommodate itself to them, -so that strains are produced which result in fractures at right angles -to the line of general movement. Crevasses found where the grade is -gentle vary from a fraction of an inch to 10 or 15 feet in width, and -are sometimes two or three {182} thousand feet long. Broader gulfs are -seldom formed unless the slope has an inclination of 15° or 20°. - -The grandest crevasses are in the higher portions of the névé, and -occur especially on the borders of the great amphitheatres. In such -situations the crevasses are usually fewer in number but are of -greater size than in equal areas lower down. A length of three or four -thousand feet and a breadth of fifty feet or more is not uncommon. The -finest and most characteristic glacial scenery is found among these -great cañon-like breaks. Standing on the border of one of the gulfs, -as near the brink as one cares to venture, their full depth cannot -usually be seen. In some instances they are partially filled with -water of the deepest blue, in which the ice-walls are reflected with -such wonderful distinctness that it is impossible to tell where the -ice ends and its counterfeit begins. The walls of the crevasses are -most frequently sheer cliffs of stratified ice, with occasional -ornamentations, formed of ice-crystals or a pendent icicle. After a -storm they are frequently decorated in the most beautiful manner with -fretwork and cornice of snow. The bridges spanning the crevasses are -usually diagonal slivers of ice left where the clefts overlap; but at -times, especially in the case of the larger crevasses, there are true -arches resembling the Natural Bridge of Virginia, but on a larger -scale, spanning the blue cañons and adding greatly to their strange, -fairy-like beauty. The most striking feature of these cracks is their -wonderful color. All tints, from the pure white of their crystal lips -down to the deepest blue of their innermost recesses, are revealed in -each gash and rent in the hardened snow. - -Above the snow-line all of the mountain tops that are not precipitous -are heavily loaded with snow. Where the snow breaks off at the verge -of a precipice and descends in avalanches a depth of more than a -hundred feet is frequently revealed, but in the valleys and -amphitheatres the snow has far greater thickness. Pinnacles and crests -of rock, rising through the icy covering, indicate that the thickness -of the névé must be many hundreds of feet. - -There are no evidences of former glaciation on the mountain crests -which project above the névé fields. There are no polished and -striated rock surfaces or glaciated domes to indicate that the -mountains were ever covered by a general capping of ice, as has been -postulated for similar mountains elsewhere. When the {183} glaciers -had their greatest expansion the higher mountains were in about their -present condition. The increase in the volume of the glaciers was felt -almost entirely in their lower courses. - - -CHARACTERISTICS OF ALPINE GLACIERS BELOW THE SNOW-LINE. - -The first feature that attracts attention on descending from the névé -region to the more icy portion of the glaciers is the rapid melting -everywhere taking place. Every day during the summer the murmur and -roar of rills, brooks and rivers are to be heard in all of the -ice-fields. The surface streams are usually short, on account of the -crevasses which intercept them. They plunge into the gulfs, which are -many times widened out by the flowing waters so as to form wells, or -_moulins_, and join the general drainage beneath. The streams then -flow either through caverns in the glaciers or in tunnels at the -bottoms. While traversing the glacier one may frequently hear the -subdued roar of rivers coursing along in the dark chambers beneath -when no other indication of their existence appears at the surface. -When these subglacial streams emerge, usually near the margin of the -ice, they issue from archways forming the ends of tunnels, and perhaps -flow for a mile or two in the sunlight before plunging into another -tunnel to continue their way as before. - -The best example of a glacial river seen during our exploration was -near the western border of the Lucia glacier. It is shown in the -illustration forming plate 12, which is reproduced mechanically from a -photograph. This Styx of the ice-world has been described on an -earlier page. The lakes formed at the southern end of nearly every -mountain spur projecting into the Malaspina glacier discharge through -tunnels in the ice, which are similar in every way to those formed by -the stream already mentioned. - -In the beds of the glacial streams there are deposits of sand and -gravel, and when the streams expand into lakes these deposits are -spread over their bottoms in more or less regular sheets. When streams -from the mountains empty into the lakes, deltas are formed. While -these deltas have the same characteristics as those built in more -stable water bodies, many changes in detail occur, owing to the -fluctuation of the water level. - -{184} One of the tunnels leading to a dry lake-bed at the end of the -Hitchcock range was explored for several rods and found to be a high, -arching cavern following a tortuous course, and large enough to allow -one to drive a coach and four through it without danger of collision. -Its floor was formed of gravel and bowlders, and its arching roof was -clear ice. Here and there the courses of crevasses could be traced by -the stones and finer débris that had fallen in from above, giving the -appearance of veins in a mine. The deposit on the floor of the tunnel -rested upon ice, and would certainly be greatly disturbed and broken -up before reaching a final resting place in case the glacier should -melt. In the lake basins, also, the sand and gravel forming their -bottoms frequently rested upon substrata of ice, and are greatly -disturbed when the ice melts. - -At the ends of the glaciers the subglacial and intraglacial drainage -issues from tunnels and forms muddy streams. These usually flow out -from the foot of a precipice of ice, down which rills are continually -trickling. The streams flowing away from the glaciers are usually -rapid, owing to the high grade of their built-up channels, and sweep -away large quantities of débris which is deposited along their -courses. The streams widen and bifurcate as they flow seaward, and -spread vast quantities of bowlders, sand, and gravel over the country -to the right and left, not infrequently invading the forests and -burying the still upright trees. The deposits formed by the streams -are of the nature of alluvial fans, over which the waters meander in a -thousand channels. Where this action has taken place long enough the -alluvial fans end in deltas; but should there be a current in the sea, -the débris is carried away and formed into beaches and bars along -adjacent shores. Should these glaciers disappear, it is evident that -these great bowlder washes would form peculiar topographic features, -unsupported at the apexes, and it might be perplexing to determine -from whence came the waters that deposited them. I am not aware that -similar washes have been recognized along the southern border of the -Laurentide glaciers, but they should certainly be expected to occur -there. - -Another very striking difference in the appearance of the glaciers -above and below the snow-line is due to the prevalence of débris on -the lower portion. The melting that takes place {185} below the -snow-line removes the ice and leaves the rocks. In this manner the -stones previously concealed in the névé are concentrated at the -surface, and finally form sheets of débris many miles in extent. So -far as my observations go, there is nothing to indicate that stones -are brought to the surface by any other means than the one here -suggested. Upward currents in the ice that would bring stones to the -surface have been postulated by certain writers, but nothing -sustaining such an hypothesis has been found in Alaska. - -The moraines on the lower extremities of the Alpine glaciers may -frequently be separated into individual ridges, which in many -instances would furnish instructive studies; but in no case has the -history of these accumulations been worked out in detail. - -With the appearance of moraines at the surface come a great variety of -phenomena due to unequal melting. Ridges of ice sheathed with débris, -glacial tables, sand cones, etc., everywhere attract the attention; -but these features are very similar on all glaciers where the summer's -waste exceeds the winter's increase, and have been many times -described. - -The general distribution of the moraines of the lower portion of the -Alpine glaciers of the St. Elias region merits attention. The moraines -themselves exhibit features not yet observed in other regions. From -Disenchantment bay westward to the Seward glacier the lower portions -of the ice-streams are covered and concealed by sheets of débris. -About their margins the débris fields support luxuriant vegetation, -and not infrequently are so densely clothed with flowers that a tint -is given to their rugged surfaces. On the extreme outer margins of the -moraines there are sometimes thickets and forests so dense as to be -almost impenetrable. The best example of forest-covered moraines -resting on living glaciers, however, is found along the borders of the -Malaspina ice-field. - - -PIEDMONT GLACIERS. - -This type is represented in the region explored by the Malaspina -glacier. This is a plateau of ice having an area of between 500 and -600 square miles, and a surface elevation in the central part of -between 1,500 and 1,600 feet. It is fed by the Agassiz, Seward, -Marvine, and Hayden glaciers, and is of such volume that {186} it has -apparently displaced the sea and holds it back by a wall of débris -deposited about its margin. All of its central portion is of clear -white ice, and around all its margins, excepting where the Agassiz and -Seward glaciers come in, it is bounded by a fringe of débris and by -moraines resting on the ice. Along the seaward border the belt of -fringing moraines is about five miles broad. The inner margin of the -moraine belt is composed of rocks and dirt, without vegetation, and -separated more or less completely into belts by strips of clear ice. -On going from the clear ice toward the margin of the glacier one finds -shrubs and flowers scattered here and there over the surface. Farther -seaward the vegetation becomes more dense and the flowers cover the -whole surface, giving it the appearance of a luxuriant meadow. Still -farther toward the margin dense clumps of alder, with scattered spruce -trees, become conspicuous, while on the outer margin spruce trees of -larger size form a veritable forest. That this vegetation actually -grows on the moraines above a living glacier is proved beyond all -question by holes and crevasses which reveal the ice beneath. The -curious lakes scattered abundantly over the moraine-covered areas, and -occupying hour-glass-shaped depressions in the ice, have already been -described. - -From the southern end of the Samovar hills, where the Seward and -Agassiz glaciers unite, there is a compound moraine stretching -southward, which divides at its distal extremity and forms great -curves and swirl-like figures indicating currents in the glacier. - -All the central part of the plateau is, as already stated, of clear -white ice, free from moraines; at a distance it has the appearance of -a broad snow surface. This is due to the fact that the ice is melted -and honey-combed during the warm summer and the surface becomes -vesicular and loses its banded structure. A rough, coral-like crust, -due to the freezing of the portions melted during the day, frequently -covers large areas and resembles a thick hoar-frost. Crevasses are -numerous, but seldom more than a few feet deep. They appear to be the -lower portions of deep crevasses in the tributary streams which have -partially closed, or else not completely removed by the melting and -evaporation of the surface. - -Many of the crevasses are filled with water, but there are no surface -streams and no lakes. Melting is rapid during the warm {187} summer -days, but the water finds its way down into the glacier and joins the -general subglacial drainage. It is evident that the streams beneath -the surface must be of large size, as they furnish the only means of -escape for the waters flowing beneath the Agassiz, Seward and Marvine -glaciers, as well as for the waters formed by the melting of the great -Malaspina glacier. - -The outer borders of the Malaspina glacier are practically stationary, -but there are currents in its central part. Like the expanded ends of -some of the Alpine glaciers, as the Galiano and Lucia glaciers, for -example, this glacier is of the nature of a delta of ice, analogous in -many of its features to river deltas. As a stream in meandering over -its delta builds up one portion after another, so the currents in an -expanded ice-foot may now follow one direction and deposit loads of -débris, and then slowly change so as to occupy other positions. This -action tends to destroy the individuality of morainal belts and to -form general sheets of débris. The presence of such currents as here -suggested has not been proved by measurements, but the great swirls in -the Malaspina glacier and the tongues of clear ice in the upper -portions of the débris fields on the smaller glaciers strongly suggest -their existence. - -The Malaspina glacier is evidently not eroding its bed; any records -that it is making must be by deposition. Should the glacier melt away -completely, it is evident that a surface formed of glacial débris, and -very similar to that now existing in the forested plateau east of -Yakutat bay, would be revealed. - -The former extent of the Malaspina glacier cannot be determined, but -it is probable that during its greatest expansion it extended seaward -until deep water was reached, and broke off in bergs in the same -manner as do the Greenland glaciers at the present day. Soundings in -the adjacent waters might possibly determine approximately the former -position of the ice-front, and it is possible that submarine moraines -might be discovered in this way. The Pimpluna reefs, reported by -Russian navigators and indicated on many maps, may possibly be a -remnant of the moraine left by the Piedmont glacier from the adjacent -coast. - -The glaciers west of Icy bay were seen from the top of Pinnacle pass -cliffs, and are evidently of the same character as the Malaspina -glacier and fully as extensive. A study of these {188} Piedmont -glaciers will certainly throw much light on the interpretations of the -glacial records over northeastern North America. Their value in this -connection is enhanced by the fact that they are now retreating and -making deposits rather than removing previous geological records. - - * * * * * - -The expedition of last summer was a hasty reconnoissance, during which -but little detail work could be undertaken. The actual study of the -ice-fields of the St. Elias region remains for those who come later. - - -{189} - - -PART V. - -HEIGHT AND POSITION OF MOUNT ST. ELIAS. - - -The height and position of Mount St. Elias have been measured several -times during the past century with varying results. The measurements -made prior to the expedition of 1890 have been summarized and -discussed by W. H. Dall, of the United States Coast and Geodetic -Survey, and little more can be done at present than give an abstract -of his report. - -The various determinations are shown in the table below. The data from -which these results were obtained have not been published, with the -exception of the surveys made by the United States Coast Survey in -1874, printed in report of the superintendent for 1875. - - _Height and Position of Mount St. Elias_. - - -----+--------------------+-------------+-------------+------------- - Date.| Authority. | Height. | Latitude. | Longitude W. - -----+--------------------+-------------+-------------+------------- - 1786 | La Pérouse | 12,672 feet | 60° 15' 00" | 140° 10' 00" - 1791 | Malaspina | 17,851 " | 60 17 35 | 140 52 17 - 1794 | Vancouver | ----------- | 60 22 30 | 140 39 00 - 1847 | Russian Hydrogra- | | | - | phic Chart 1378 | 17,854 " | 60 21 00 | 141 00 00 - 1847 | Tebenkof (Notes) | 16,938 " | 60 22 36 | 140 54 00 - 1849 | Tebenkof | | | - | (Chart VII) | 16,938 " | 60 21 30 | 140 54 00 - | Buch. Can. Inseln | 16,758 " | 60 17 30 | 140 51 00 - 1872 | English Admiralty | - | Chart 2172 | 14,970 " | 60 21 00 | 141 00 00 - 1874 | U. S. Coast Survey | 19,500 ±400 | 60 20 45 | 141 00 12 - -----+--------------------+-------------+-------------+------------- - -All of the figures given in the table have been copied from Dall's -report, with the exception of the position determined by Malaspina; -this is from a report of astronomical observations made during -Malaspina's voyage, which places the mountain in latitude 60° 17' 35" -and longitude 134° 33' 10" west of Cadiz.[36] Taking the longitude of -Cadiz as 6° 19' 07" west of Greenwich, the figures tabulated above are -obtained. - -[Footnote 36: Ante, p. 65.] - -{190} It was intended that Mr. Kerr's report, forming Appendix B, -should contain a detailed record of the triangulation executed last -summer, but a careful revision of his work by a committee of the -National Geographic Society led to the conclusion that the results -were not of sufficient accuracy to set at rest the questions raised by -the discrepancies in earlier measurements of the height of Mount St. -Elias; and as the work will probably be revised and extended during -the summer of 1891, only the map forming plate 8 will be published at -this time. Some preliminary publications of elevations have been made, -but these must be taken as approximations merely.[37] - -[Footnote 37: The shore-line of the map, plate 8, and the positions of -the initial points or base-line of the triangulation are from the work -of the United States Coast Survey. The extreme western portion is from -maps published by the New York _Times_ and Topham expeditions. All the -topographic data are by Mr. Kerr, and all credit for the work and all -responsibility for its accuracy rest with him. The nomenclature is -principally my own, and has been approved by a committee of the -National Geographic Society.] - -By consulting the map forming plate 8 it will be seen that Mounts -Cook, Vancouver, Irving, Owen, etc., are not in the St. Elias range. -Neither do they form a distinct range either topographically or -geologically. Each of these mountains is an independent uplift, -although they may have some structural connection, and are of about -the same geological age. Mount Cook and the peaks most intimately -associated with it are composed mainly of sandstone and shale -belonging to the Yakutat system. Mounts Vancouver and Irving are -probably of the same character, but definite proof that this is the -case has not been obtained. - -The St. Elias uplift is distinct and well marked, both geologically -and topographically, and deserves to be considered as a mountain -range. The limits of the range have not been determined, but, so far -as known, its maximum elevation is at Mount St. Elias. The range -stretches away from this culminating point both northeastward and -northwestward, and has a well-marked V-shape. The angle formed by the -two branches of the range where they unite at Mount St. Elias is, by -estimate, about 140°. Each arm of the V is determined by a fault, or -perhaps more accurately by a series of faults having the same general -course, along which the orographic blocks forming the range have been -upheaved. The structure of the range is monoclinal, and {191} -resembles the type of mountain structure characteristic of the great -basin. The dip of the tilted blocks is northward. - -The crest of the St. Elias range, as already stated, is composed of -schists which rest on sandstone, supposed to belong to the Yakutat -system. The geological age of the uplift is, therefore, very recent. -The secondary topographic forms on the crest of the range have -resulted from the weathering of the upturned edges of orographic -blocks in which the bedding planes are crossed by joints. The -resulting forms are mainly pyramids and roof-like ridges with -triangular gables. Extreme ruggedness and angularity characterize the -range throughout. There are no rounded domes or smoothed and polished -surfaces to suggest that the higher summits have ever been subjected -to general glacial action; neither is there any evidence of marked -rock decay. Disintegration of all the higher peaks and crests is -rapid, owing principally to great changes of temperature and the -freezing of water in the interstices of the rock; but the débris -resulting from this action is rapidly carried away by avalanches and -glaciers, so that the crests as well as the subordinate features in -the sculpture of the cliffs and pyramids are all angular. The subdued -and rounded contour, due to the accumulation of the products of -disintegration and decay, the indications of the advancing age of -mountains, are nowhere to be seen. The St. Elias range is young; -probably the very youngest of the important mountain ranges on this -continent. No evidences of erosion previous to the formation of the -ice-sheets that now clothe it have been observed. Glaciers apparently -took immediate possession of the lines of depression as the mountain -range grew in height, and furnish a living example from which to -determine the part that ice streams play in mountain sculpture. - - -{192} - - -APPENDIX A. - -OFFICIAL INSTRUCTIONS GOVERNING THE EXPEDITION. - - -In order to make the records of the St. Elias expedition complete, -copies of the instructions under which the work was carried out are -appended: - - - DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR, - UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY, GEOLOGIC BRANCH, - _Washington, D. C., May 28, 1890_. - -Mr. I. C. RUSSELL, _Geologist_. - -SIR: You are hereby detailed to visit the St. Elias range of Alaska -for work of exploration, under the joint auspices of the National -Geographic Society and the United States Geological Survey. The -Geological Survey furnishes instruments and contributes the sum of -$1,000 towards the expenses of the expedition. The money devoted to -this purpose is taken from the appropriation for the fiscal year -ending June 30, 1890, and the manner of its expenditure must conform -to that fact. - -The Survey expects that you will give special attention to glaciers, -to their distribution, to the associated topographic types, to -indications of the former extent of glaciation, and to types of -subaërial sculpture under special conditions of erosion, and that you -will also bring back information with reference to the age of the -formations seen and the type of structure of the range. - -With the aid of Mr. Kerr, it is expected that you will secure definite -geographic information as to the belt of country traversed by you. - - Very respectfully, - G. K. GILBERT, - _Chief Geologist_. - - _Approved_, - J. W. POWELL, _Director_. - - * * * * * - - DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR, - UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY, GEOLOGIC BRANCH, - _Washington, D. C., May 28, 1890_. - -Mr. I. C. RUSSELL, _Geologist_. - -SIR: You will proceed at the earliest practicable date to Tacoma, -Washington Territory, and thence by water to Sitka, Alaska, at which -point you will make special arrangements to visit the St. Elias range -of mountains and make geological examinations as per instructions -otherwise communicated. Mr. Mark B. Kerr, Disbursing Agent, will -report to you at Victoria, B. C., and accompany you on the expedition, -assisting you in the capacities of Disbursing Agent and Topographer. -On the completion of {193} your work you will return to Washington, -the route being left to your discretion, to be determined by -considerations which cannot now be foreseen. - - Very respectfully, - G. K. GILBERT, - _Chief Geologist_. - - _Approved_, - J. W. POWELL, _Director_. - - * * * * * - - DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR, - UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY, GEOLOGIC BRANCH, - _Washington, D. C., May 28, 1890_. - -Mr. MARK B. KERR, _Disbursing Agent_. - -SIR: You are hereby detailed to assist Mr. I. C. Russell, Geologist, -who starts at once on an expedition to Alaska, under the joint -auspices of the National Geographic Society and the United States -Geological Survey. It is expected that you will immediately aid him in -disbursement, and that you will act during the exploratory part of the -expedition as topographer. Your duties will, however, not be limited -to these special functions, but you will be expected to perform any -other duties he may assign to you, and to labor in every way for the -success of the expedition. - -It is expected that you will be reappointed to the grade of -topographer on the United States Geological Survey on the 1st of July, -1890, and you will please take the required oath of office before your -departure. - -The money remaining in your possession as Disbursing Agent includes -that needed to meet Mr. Russell's salary and your own, and also the -sum of $1,000, allotted from the funds of the Geographic Branch for -expenses of the expedition prior to June 30. This amount you will -expend as directed by Mr. Russell, and his authority and certificate -will need to accompany your vouchers in rendering account of the same. - - Very respectfully, - G. K. GILBERT, - _Chief Geologist_. - - _Approved_, - J. W. POWELL, _Director_. - - * * * * * - - DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR, - UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY, GEOLOGIC BRANCH, - _Washington, D. C., May 28, 1890_. - -Mr. MARK B. KERR, _Disbursing Agent_. - -SIR: You will proceed at once to San Francisco, California, and thence -by steamer or by rail and steamer to Sitka, Alaska. It is expected -that you will join Mr. I. C. Russell, Geologist, at Victoria, B. C., -or at Sitka; and you will report to him for further orders. - - Very respectfully, - G. K. GILBERT, - _Chief Geologist_. - - _Approved_, - J. W. POWELL, _Director_. - - * * * * * -{194} - - _Washington, D. C., May 29, 1890_. - -Mr. MARK B. KERR, _Topographer_. - -SIR: You are hereby assigned to field-work in the vicinity of Mount -St. Elias, Alaska, in the party under charge of Mr. I. C. Russell. -Upon the receipt of these instructions you will please proceed without -delay to the field, and map upon a scale of four miles to an inch such -territory in the vicinity of Mount St. Elias, including that mountain, -as the field season will permit. The work should, if practicable, be -controlled by triangulation. Special attention in the course of your -work should be given to measuring the altitude of Mount St. Elias, and -it should be determined by triangulation and also, if practicable, by -barometer in such manner as to be conclusive. - -The topographic work should be controlled by triangulation. As many -positions on this coast are approximately known, including a number of -the prominent peaks, astronomical determinations of position will not -be necessary unless needed to supplement the triangulation. - -The details of your outfitting and the management of the work will be -left to your own judgment. - - Very respectfully, - HENRY GANNETT, - _Chief Topographer_. - - * * * * * - -_NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY_. - -_Memorandum of Instructions to the Party sent out under the Direction -of Mr. I. C. Russell, assisted by Mr. Mark B. Kerr, to explore the -Mount St. Elias Region, Alaska, 1890_. - - -The general object of the expedition is to make a geographic -reconnoissance of as large an area as practicable in the St. Elias -range, Alaska, including a study of its glacial phenomena, the -preparation of a map of the region explored, and the measurement of -the height of Mount St. Elias and other neighboring mountains. -Observations should also be made and information collected on other -subjects of general scientific interest as far as practicable. - -The purpose of these instructions is mainly to suggest the lines of -investigation that give promise of valuable results, but it is not -intended that they shall limit the director of the expedition in the -exercise of his own discretion. - - GARDINER G. HUBBARD, _Chairman_, - MARCUS BAKER, - WILLARD D. JOHNSON, - _Committee_. - - _Washington, D. C., May 29, 1890_. - - -{195} - - -APPENDIX B. - -REPORT ON TOPOGRAPHIC WORK. - -BY MARK B. KERR. - - -In addition to the ascent of Mount St. Elias, it was part of the -original plan of the expedition to make an accurate topographic map of -the region explored. It was not, however, for this purpose proposed to -divide the party or to deviate much from the most direct route to -Mount St. Elias from Yakutat bay. Triangulation of fair precision was -provided for. Details were to be filled in by approximate methods. - -Field-work began June 20 by the careful measurement of a base-line, -3,850 feet in length, near the point of landing, on the northern shore -of Yakutat bay. Expansion was readily carried to the foot-hills, and -several horizontal angles were taken to an astronomical station of the -United States Coast and Geodetic Survey at Port Mulgrave. In the -region of these initial triangles, work was done from a central camp; -and topographic details were fixed with considerable precision by -intersection and vertical angles. - -After the departure of the expedition from the Base Line camp, an -accident to the transit made resort to an inferior instrument -necessary, and, furthermore, as the region traversed proved to be -ill-adapted to, and the line of travel too direct for, the proper -development of a narrow belt of triangles, the anticipation of a -degree of precision in the triangulation which would give high value -to the determinations of position and altitude of the several peaks -was not realized; but topographic map work, showing the general -features, altitudes and location of the mountain ranges, valleys and -glaciers, was extended over about 600 square miles. - -Within the approximate geometric control, stations were interpolated -by the three-point method, and minor locations were multiplied by -intersection and connected by sketch. The best meander possible under -the circumstances was carried forward on the line of travel by compass -directions and estimates of distance from time intervals. The work -ceased August 22 with the abandonment of the instruments in a -snow-storm of four days' duration on the eastern slope of Mount St. -Elias. - -The accompanying map (a reduction of which forms plate 8, page 75) -shows the ice-streams and peculiar mountain topography of a region -heretofore unvisited, and constitutes a considerable addition to the -geography of Alaska. - - -{196} - - -APPENDIX C. - -REPORT ON AURIFEROUS SANDS FROM YAKUTAT BAY. - -BY J. STANLEY-BROWN. - - -Among the specimens obtained by Mr. I. C. Russell during the course of -his explorations on and about Mount St. Elias is a bottle of sand -procured from the beach on the extreme southern end of Khantaak -island, Yakutat bay, and characteristic of the shore material over a -large area. This sand was turned over to me for examination, and -additional interest was given to its study by the fact that it is from -a comparatively uninvestigated region and possesses, perhaps, economic -value; for the sample is gold-bearing, and it is said that a "color" -can readily be obtained by "panning" at many points on the bay shore. - -Macroscopically, the sand has the appearance of ordinary finely -comminuted beach material; but it differs in the uniformity of the -size of its particles from beach sand from Fort Monroe and Sullivan -island, South Carolina, with which it was compared. Its mineralogic -constituents greatly surpass in variety those of the sands referred -to, but are markedly similar to those of gold-bearing sand from New -Zealand. At least twelve minerals are present, with an unusual -predominance of one, as will be noted later. Through the mixture of -white, green, and black grains, a dull greenish-black color is given -to the mass. The roundness of fragments is such as usually results -from water action, but it is less than that which results from -transportation by wind. - -When put into a heavy liquid (Thoulet solution of a density of 3.1) in -order to determine the specific gravity of the constituents, it was -found that the sand is made up largely of the heavier materials, for -the amount that floated was trifling compared with that which quickly -sank. Even the abundant quartz was largely carried down by the -weightier ingredients bound up within it, and only a few water-clear -fragments were left behind. This would seem to suggest that the -lighter minerals are lacking in the neighboring rocks, or else have -been carried to greater distances by the sorting power of the water. - -Among the minerals recognized, gold is the most important, though -relatively not abundant. It occurs in flakes or flattened grains from -a quarter to a half of a millimeter in size. The particles are -sufficiently numerous to be readily selected from their associates by -the aid of "panning" and a hand lens of good magnifying power, and if -distributed throughout the beach as plentifully as in the sample -would, under favorable conditions, pay for working. The flakes in -their rounded character show the effect of the agency which separated -them from their matrix; a separation so complete that no rock is found -adhering to the grains. - -{197} Magnetite is present in great abundance and in a finely divided -state, the largest grains not exceeding a millimeter in length. It -forms by weight alone 15 or 20 per cent. of the entire mass, and when -the latter is sifted through a sieve of a hundred meshes to the inch -it constitutes 44 per cent. of this fine material. Crystallographic -faces are rare, and though often marred, still octahedrons (111, 1) of -considerable perfection are found. - -Garnet occurs in such profusion that a pink tint is given to a mass of -selected grains of uniform size, and its predominance may be -considered the chief physical characteristic of the sand. - -Two species were noted: one is a brilliant wine-red variety, which, -though not nearly so numerous as its duller relative, occurs more -frequently in crystals--the trapezohedral faces (211, 2-2) -predominating. The other garnet is readily distinguished by its -lighter amethystine tint and its greater abundance. Crystallographic -faces are somewhat rare and invariably dodecahedral (110, i). In the -absence of chemical analyses, any statements as to the exact species -to which these garnets should be referred would be largely -conjectural. Attention is quickly drawn to the perfection of these -minute garnets in their crystallographic faces and outlines, and to -their association with rounded fragments of their own kind as well as -of other minerals. Have these crystals survived by reason of their -hardness or by favoring conditions, or does their preservation suggest -the impotency of wave-action in the destruction of minute bodies? - -Among the black, heavy grains occur individuals which, except in shape -and non-magnetic character, resemble magnetite. On crushing between -glass slides, thin slivers are obtained which in transmitted light are -green, and which, from their cleavage, pleochroism, high index of -refraction, small extinction angle, and insolubility in acid, are -readily recognized as hornblende. - -Two groups of grains were noted which are distinguishable by slight -variation in color. Both are clear-yellowish green, but one is -somewhat darker than the other. The optical properties of both -indicate pyroxene and possibly olivine. Fortunately a fragment was -obtained in the orthodiagonal zone nearly normal to an optic axis -which gave an axial figure of sufficient definiteness to indicate its -optically positive character. A number of grains were selected from -minerals of both colors and subjected to prolonged heating in -hydrochloric acid without decomposition, indicating that both minerals -are pyroxene. - -A few zircons, a fraction of a millimeter in size but perfect in form, -were found associated with others rounded on their solid angles and -edges. The crystals are of the common short form and bear the usual -faces in a greater or less degree of development. Pyramids of the -first and second order alternate in magnitude; pinacoid encroaches -upon prism, and _vice versa_. - -Quartz constitutes by far the largest proportion of the minerals, both -in bulk and in weight. It is always fragmental; sometimes water-clear, -but chiefly occurs in opaque grains of different colors. It is seldom -free from material of a higher specific gravity, and is often so -tinted as to be almost indistinguishable from magnetite, but readily -bleaches in acid. - -{198} Feldspar is sparingly present, and includes both monoclinic and -triclinic forms, whose crystallographic boundaries are invariably -lacking. - -Treatment of the sand with dilute acid produces effervescence, which -is not due to incrustations of sodium carbonate. By persistent search -among particles separated in a heavy solution, a few grains were -discovered which, from their complete solubility with effervescence in -very dilute acid, as well as their optical properties, left no doubt -as to their being calcite. - -The mica group has only one representative, biotite, and this occurs -most sparingly. Though much of the sand was examined, but few -fragments were found. Its foliated character renders it easily -transported by water and explains its absence from among the heavy -minerals. - -Shaly, slaty and schistose material forms the major part of the -coarser grains. Thin sections from the largest pieces plainly -indicated hornblende schist. - -A region of glaciers would seem to be favorable not only to the -collection of meteoric material, but also to the destruction of the -country rocks, the setting free of their mineralogic constituents in a -comparatively fresh state, and their transportation to the sea. It was -hoped that this sand would yield some of the rarer varieties of -minerals, but tests for native iron, platinum, chromite, gneiss, and -the titaniferous minerals proved ineffectual. Titanium is present, but -in such small quantities that it could only be detected by means of -hydrogen peroxide. The use of acid supersulphate and the borotungstate -of calcium test of Lasaulx failed to reveal the presence of native -iron. - -It will be seen from the foregoing enumeration that the sand is made -up of grains of gold, magnetite, garnet, hornblende, pyroxene, zircon, -quartz, feldspar, calcite and mica, associated with fragments of a -shaly, slaty and schistose character. While the information at hand is -hardly sufficient to warrant much speculation concerning the rock -masses of the interior, still there is no doubt that the sand is -derived from the destruction of metamorphic rocks. - - -{199} - - -APPENDIX D. - -REPORT ON FOSSIL PLANTS. - -BY LESTER F. WARD. - - - DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR, - UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY, - _Washington, D. C., March 12, 1891_. - -Mr. I. C. RUSSELL, _United States Geological Survey_. - -MY DEAR SIR: The following report upon the small collection of fossil -plants made by you at Pinnacle pass, near Mount St. Elias, Alaska, and -sent to this division for identification has been prepared by -Professor F. H. Knowlton, who gave the collection a careful study -during my absence in Florida. Previous to going away I had somewhat -hastily examined the specimens and seen that they consisted chiefly of -the genus _Salix_, some of them reminding me strongly of living -species. I have no doubt that Professor Knowlton's more thorough -comparisons can be relied upon with as much confidence as the nature -of the collection will permit, and I also agree with his conclusions. - -"The collection consists of seven small hand specimens, upon which are -impressed no less than seventeen more or less completely preserved -dicotyledonous leaves. - -"These specimens at first sight seem to represent six or eight -species, but after a careful study I think I am safe in reducing the -number to four, as several of the impressions have been nearly -obliterated by prolonged exposure and cannot be studied with much -satisfaction. - -"The four determinable species belong, without much doubt, to the -genus _Salix_. Number 1, of which there is but a single specimen, I -have identified with _Salix californica_, Lesquereux, from the -auriferous gravel deposits of the Sierra Nevada in California.[38] The -finer nervation of the specimens from the auriferous gravels is not -clearly shown in Lesquereux's figures, nor is it well preserved in the -Mount St. Elias specimens; but the size, outline, and primary -nervation are identical. - -"Number 2, of which there are six or eight specimens, may be compared -with _Salix raeana_, Heer,[39] a species that was first described from -Greenland and was later detected by Lesquereux in a collection from -Cooks inlet, Alaska.[40] The Mount St. Elias specimens are not very -much like the original figures of Heer, but are very similar, in -outline at least, to this species as figured by Lesquereux.[41] They -are also very similar to {200} some forms of the living _S. rostrata_, -Richardson, with entire leaves. It is clearly a willow, but closer -identification must remain for more complete material. - -"Number 3, represented by four or five specimens, is broadly -elliptical in outline, and is also clearly a _Salix_. It is unlike any -fossil form with which I am familiar, but is very similar to the -living _S. nigricans_, For., var. _rotundifolia_, and to certain forms -of _S. silesiaca_, Willd. The nervation is very distinctly preserved, -and has all the characters of a willow leaf. - -"Number 4, represented by three or four very fine specimens, is a very -large leaf, measuring 13 cm. in length and 3½ cm. in width at the -broadest point. It may be compared with _Salix macrophylla_, Heer,[42] -but it cannot be this species. It is also like some of the living -forms of _S. nigra_, Marsh., from which it differs in having perfectly -entire margins. - -"While it is manifestly impossible, on the basis of the above -identifications, to speak with confidence as to the age or formation -containing these leaves, it can hardly be older than the Miocene, and -from its strong resemblance to the present existing flora of Alaska it -is likely to be much younger." [F. H. Knowlton.] - - Very sincerely yours, - LESTER F. WARD. - -[Footnote 38: Mem. Mus. Comp. Zool., vol. VI, no. 2, 1878, p. 10, pl. -i, figs. 18-21.] - -[Footnote 39: Flor. foss. Arct., vol. I, 1868, p. 102, pl. iv, figs. -11-13; pl. xlvii, fig. 11.] - -[Footnote 40: Proc. Nat. Mus., vol. V, 1882, p. 447.] - -[Footnote 41: loc. cit., pl. viii, fig. 6.] - -[Footnote 42: Tert. Fl. Helv., vol. II, 1856, p. 29, pl. lxvii, fig. -4.] - - -{201} - - -INDEX. - - -Admiralty bay, 56 - -Agassiz glacier, Ascent of, 147 --- -- named, 73 - -Age of St. Elias range, 175 - -Alpenstocks, Necessity for, 165 - -Alpine glaciers, 176, 180 - -Alton, Edmund, Contributions to exploration fund by, 75 - -_Archangelica_, Mention of, 89, 114 - -_Atrevida_ (The), Mention of, 63 - -Arevida glacier, 92, 105 - -Auriferous sands, 196, 197, 198 - -Avalanches, 145, 155 - - -Baie de Monti, 56 --- named by La Pérouse, 60 - -Baker, Marcus, Explorations by, 70, 72 --- reference to bibliography by, 58 - -Base Line, Measurement of, 86 - -Bear, Meeting with, 94, 109 - -Belcher, Sir Edward, Explorations by, 68, 69 - -Bell, A. Graham, Contribution to exploration fund by, 75 - -Bell, Charles J., Contribution to exploration fund by, 75 - -Bering bay, Mention of, 56 - -Bering, Vitus, Explorations by, 58 - -Bien, Morris, Contribution to exploration fund by, 75 - -Birnie, Jr., Rogers, Contribution to exploration fund by, 75 - -Black glacier, Brief account of, 101, 104 - -Blossom island, Description of, 113, 122 - -Boursin, Henry, Mention of, 79 - -Broka, George, Explorations by, 73, 74 - - -Camp hands, 166 - -Carpenter, Z. T., Contribution to exploration fund by, 75 - -Carroll, Captain James, 78 - -Cascade glacier named, 144 - -Chaix hills named, 73 - -Chariot, The, Mention of, 140 - -Chatham, Mention of, 66 - -Cherikof, Alexei, Explorations of, 58 - -Christie, J. H., Member of expedition, 76 --- Work of, 82, 83, 84, 96, 103, 112, 113, 123, 162 - -Clover, Richardson, Contribution to exploration fund by, 75 - -Cook, Captain James, Explorations of, 58 - -_Corwin_ (The) in Disenchantment bay, 100 --- Return of, 163 - -Crevasses, 181, 182 --- at Pinnacle pass, 130 - -Cross sound, visited by Vancouver's expedition, 67 - -Crumback, J. H., Member of expedition, 76 --- Work of, 96, 103, 122, 125, 129, 131, 135, 137 - - -Dagelet, M., Mention of, 60 - -Dall, W. H., Explorations by, 70, 72 --- reference to bibliography by, 58 - -Dalton, John, glacier named for, 98 --- mention of, 73 - -Definition of formations in St. Elias region, 167 - -Desengaño bay, named by Malaspina, 63 - -Digges' sound, named by Vancouver, 68 - -Diller, J. S., Contribution to exploration fund by, 75 - -Dip at Pinnacle pass, 140 - -_Discovery_ (The), Mention of, 66 - -Disenchantment bay, Canoe trip in, 96, 103 --- -- last view of, 163 --- -- mention of, 56 --- -- visited by Malaspina, 63, 64 - -Dixon, Captain George, Explorations of, 60, 62 - -De Monti bay, Arrival at, 79 - -_Descubierta_ (The), Mention of, 63 - -Devil's club (_Panax horridum_), Mention of, 95, 115 - -Dobbins, J. W., Contribution to exploration fund by, 75 - -Dome pass, named, 146 - -Doney, L. S., Member of expedition, 76 --- Work of, 85, 158, 159, 160, 162 - -Douglass, Captain, Explorations of, 62 - -Dry bay, Mention of, 55 - - -Farenholt, Lieutenant Commander O. F., Commander of U. S. S. _Pinta_, - 79 - -Faulted pebble from Pinnacle pass, 171 - -Faults, 83, 136 --- Thrust, in Hitchcock range, 118 - -Floral hills, brief account of, 105, 108 --- pass, brief account of, 105, 108, 110 - -Formations of the St. Elias region, 167 - -Fossils at Pinnacle pass, 140 --- description of Yakutat system, 172 - -Fossil plants, Report on, by Lester F. Ward, 199, 200 - - -Gabbro on the Marvine glacier, 123 - -Galiano, Don Dionisio Alcala, Mention of, 63 - -Galiano glacier, Visit to, 89, 90 - -Gannett, Henry, Contribution to exploration fund by, 75 --- Instructions from, 194 - -Geology of the St. Elias region, 167, 190, 191, 174 - -Geological Survey, Instructions from, 192, 193, 194 - -Gilbert, G. K., Instructions from, 192, 193 - -Glacial currents, 187 --- river, best example of, 183 --- streams, 183, 184 - -Glacier bay, mention of, 67 - -Glaciers in Disenchantment bay in 1792, 64, 65, 97 --- -- -- -- observed by Malaspina, 64, 65 --- -- -- -- -- -- Puget, 67, 68 --- of the St. Elias region, 176 --- west of Icy bay, 187 - -Greely, A. W., Contribution to exploration fund by, 75 - -Guides, use of in ascending St. Elias, 166 - -Guyot glacier named, 73 - - -Haenke, D. Tadeo, Haenke island named for, 65 --- island, Condition of, when seen by Malaspina, 63, 64, 65, 97 --- -- visit to, 96, 103 - -Hayden, Dr. F. V., glacier named for, 108 - -Hayden, Everett, Contributions to exploration fund by, 75 - -Hayden glacier, Brief account of, 108, 110, 111 - -Hays, J. W., Contribution to exploration fund by, 75 - -Height and position of St. Elias, 189, 190 - -Hendriksen, Reverend Carl J., mention of, 80, 83 - -Hitchcock, Professor Edward, range named for, 112 --- range, brief account of, 112 --- -- from Pinnacle pass, 133 --- -- structure of, 118 - -Hooper, Captain C. L., Navigation of Disenchantment bay, 56, 100 - -Hosmer, E. S., Contribution to exploration fund by, 75 --- return of, 83 ---, volunteer assistant, 76 - -Hubbard, Gardiner G., Contribution to exploration fund by, 75 ---, glacier named for, 99 - -Hubbard glacier, brief description of, 99 - - -Icebergs, Formation of, 98, 99, 101, 102 --- in Yakutat bay, description of, 87 - -Ice tunnels, 184 - -Instructions from Geological Survey, 192, 193, 194 --- -- National Geographic Society, 194 - -Irving, Professor R. D., Mountain named for, 144 - - -Johnson, Willard D., Contribution to exploration fund by, 75 --- exploration planned by, 75 - -Judd, J. G., Contribution to exploration fund by, 75 - -Jungen, Ensign C. W., Mention of, 81 - - -Kerr, Mark B., assigned as an assistant, 75 --- report on topographic work, 193 - -Khantaak island, village on, 79, 80 - -King, Harry, Contribution to exploration fund by, 75 - -Knapp, Hon. Lyman E., Mention of, 79 - -Knight island, scenery near, 83 - -- -- named by Puget, 68 - -Knowlton, F. H., Report on fossil plants, 199, 200 - - -_L'Astrolabe_, Mention of, 58 - -_La Boussole_, Mention of, 58 - -Lake Castani, Named, 73 - -Lakelets on the glaciers, 119, 120 - -Lakes, Abandoned beds of, near Blossom island, 116 - -La Pérouse, J. F. S., Explorations of, 58, 60 - -Leach, Boynton, Contribution to exploration fund by, 75 - -Libbey, Professor William, explorations by, 72, 73 - -Lindsley, W. L., Member of expedition, 76 --- Work of, 122, 131, 134, 135, 139, 144, 149, 150, 153, 157, 158, 164 - -Lituya bay, mention of, 55 - -Logan, Sir W. E., Mountain named for, 141 - -Lucia glacier, brief account of, 192 --- -- crossing of, 105, 106, 108, 109 - -Lynn canal, mention of, 78 - - -Malaspina, Alejandro, Explorations of, 62, 66 - -Malaspina glacier, character of, 187 --- --, described and named, 71, 72 --- --, excursion on, 120, 121, 162 --- --, from Blossom island, 118, 119 --- --, mention of, 56 - -Maldonado, reference to, 62, 63 - -Marvine, A. R., Glacier named for, 112 - -Marvine glacier, Account of, 112, 122, 124 - -McCarteney, C. M., Contribution to exploration fund by, 75 - -Mirage in Yakutat bay, 87 - -Moraines, 195 --- medial, on the Marvine glacier, 123 --- on the Malaspina glacier, 134 --- near Yakutat bay, 191 - -Mount Augusta, avalanches on the sides of, 145 --- elevation of, 117 - -Mount Bering, Height and condition of, 65 - -Mount Cook, Appearance of, 92 --- named, 72 --- rocks composing, 92 - -Mount Fairweather, height of, 69 - -Mount Logan, named, 141 - -Mount Malaspina, Elevation of, 117 --- named, 72 - -Mount Newton, named, 146 - -Mount St. Elias (see St. Elias, Mount) - -Mount Vancouver, named, 72 - -Muir glacier, Visit to, 78, 79 - -Mulgrave, Lord, Port Mulgrave named for, 60 - - -National Geographic Society, Instructions from, 194 - -Névé fields, 180, 181, 182 - -Newton glacier, Ascent of, 150 - -Newton, Henry, Mountain named for, 146 - -New York _Times_, Expedition of, 72, 73 - -Nordhoff, Charles, Contribution to exploration fund by, 75 - -Norris glacier, Mention of, 78 - -Nunatak in the Lucia glacier, 106 - - -Oil stoves, Use of, 164 - -_Orel_, Mention of the, 70 - -_Otkrytie_, Mention of the, 69 - -Outfit necessary for Alaskan expeditions, 165 - - -_Panax horridum_, 95, 115 - -Partridge, William, Member of expedition, 76 --- Work of, 158, 159, 162 - -Piedmont glaciers, characteristics of, 122, 176, 185, 186 --- -- example of, 120, 121 --- type of glaciers, mention of, 57 - -Pimpluna rocks, mention of, 70, 187 - -Pinnacle pass cliffs, account of, 132, 137 --- -- --, height of, 137 --- -- --, view from, 132 --- --, description of, 130, 132 --- -- named, 130 --- system, description of rocks of, 167, 170 --- -- named, 131 - -_Pinta_, mention of the, 79, 81 - -Phipps, C. J., Port Mulgrave named for, 60 - -Plants on Blossom island, 114 - -Point Esperanza, Camp at, 82, 84, 85 --- Glorious, named, 137 --- Riou, Mention of, 69 - -Port Mulgrave, 56 --- -- named by Dixon, 60 - -Powell, J. W., Contribution to exploration fund by, 75 - -Powell, William B., Contribution to exploration fund by, 75 - -Puerto del Desengaño, Mention of, 56 - -Puget, Peter, Explorations of, 66, 68 - -Pyramid harbor, Mention of, 78 - - -_Queen Charlotte_, Mention of the, 60 ---, voyage on the, 78, 79 - - -Rations, 164 - -Report on sands from Yakutat bay by J. Stanley-Brown, 196, 197, 198 - -Rivers, Glacial, 183 - -Rope cliff, named, 149 - -Route (new), suggested, 163, 164 - -Russell, Israel C., Contribution to exploration fund by, 75 - - -Salmon (and trout) fishing, 162 - -Sands, Auriferous from Yakutat bay, 196, 197, 198 - -Schwatka, Lieutenant Frederick, explorations by, 72, 73 - -Serpentine on the Marvine glacier, 123 - -Seton-Karr, H. W., explorations of, 72, 73 - -Seward glacier, crevasses on, 133, 179, 180 --- -- crossing of, 142 --- -- description of, 177, 178, 179 - -Seward, Hon. W. H., Glacier named for, 129 - -Sitka, arrival at, 79 - -Snow crests, figures of, 143 --- line, description of Alpine glaciers above, 180 --- -- -- -- -- -- below, 183 - -Snow line, elevation of, 92, 111 --- on mountain crests, 182 - -Soundings in Disenchantment bay, 56 - -Stamy, Thomas, Member of expedition, 76 --- Work of, 137, 139, 144, 150, 153, 157, 158, 160 - -Stanley-Brown, J., Report on sands from Yakutat bay, 196, 197, 198 - -St. Elias described by La Pérouse, 59, 60 ---, discovery of, by Bering, 58 ---, first full view of, 135 ---, view of, 91, 92 ---, height and position of, 189, 190 --- -- -- -- --, by Tebenkof, 69 --- -- -- of, determined by La Pérouse, 60 --- -- -- -- -- Malaspina, 64, 65, 66 --- range, age of, 175 --- --, character of peaks of, 175 --- region, glaciers of, 176 --- schist, description of rocks of, 167, 173 ---, suggested new route to, 163, 164 --- uplift, 190 - -Stein, Robert, translations by, 59, 64, 65, 66 - -Strait of Annan, 56 - -Structure, 174 - -Swiss guides in Alaskan exploration, 166 - -_Sulphur_, Mention of the, 69 - - -Taku glacier, Mention of, 78 --- inlet, Visit to, 78 - -Tebenkof, Captain, Notes on Alaska by, 69, 70 - -Terrace on northern shore of Yakutat bay, 82, 85 --- point, Brief account of, 106 - -Thompson, Gilbert, Contribution to exploration fund by, 75 - -Tide-water glaciers defined, 101 - -Topographic work, Report on, 195 - -Topham, Edwin, Explorations by, 73, 74 - -Topham, W. H., explorations by, 73, 74 --- reference to map by, 177 - -Triangulation, Commencement of, 86 - -Tunnels in the ice, 184 - -Tyndall glacier, Named, 73 - -Tyndall, J., cited on marginal crevasses, 127 - - -United States Coast and Geodetic Survey, explorations of, 70, 72 - - -Vancouver, Captain George, Explorations by, 66, 68 - -_Veratrum viride_, Mention of, 114 - - -Ward, Lester F., Report on fossil plants, 199, 200 - -White, Thomas, Member of expedition, 76 ---, Work of, 158, 160 - -Willis, Baily, contribution to exploration fund by, 75 - -Williams, C. A., contribution to exploration fund by, 75 - -Williams, William, explorations by, 73, 74 - - -Yakutat bay, Arrival at, 79 --- --, Base camp on Western shore of, 86, 89 --- --, Shores of described, 57 --- --, Synonomy of, 56 --- Indians, described by Dixon, 61 --- system, Description of rocks of, 167 --- -- named, 131 - - - - -VOL. III, PP. 205-261, I-XXXV, PL. 21, FEBRUARY 19, 1892 - -THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE - - - - -[Illustration: National Geographic Society seal] - - - - -WASHINGTON - -PUBLISHED BY THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY. - -Price, 75 cents. - - - - -CONTENTS. - - Page. -The Cartography and Observations of Bering's First Voyage; by - A. W. GREELY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 - -Height and Position of Mount St. Elias; by ISRAEL C. RUSSELL . . 231 - -The Heart of Africa; by E. C. HORE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238 - -Report of Committee on Exploration in Alaska . . . . . . . . . . 248 - -Notes--La Carte de France, dite de l'Etat Major, par M. J. COLLET 250 - - Polar Regions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252 - - The Crossing of Tibet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253 - - Statistics of Railways in United States . . . . . . . . . 255 - -Index to volume III . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257 - - Title-page and Imprimatur of Board of Managers . . . . . . . i - - Contents and Illustrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii - - Publications of the National Geographic Society . . . . . . . v - - Proceedings of the National Geographic Society . . . . . . . vii - - Officers of the Society for 1892 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiv - - Members of the Society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xv - - -{205} - - -VOL. III, PP. 205-230, PL. 21, JANUARY 28, 1892 - -THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE - - - - -THE CARTOGRAPHY AND OBSERVATIONS OF BERING'S FIRST VOYAGE. - -BY GENERAL A. W. GREELY. - -(_Presented before the Society March 20, 1891._) - - -It was with no ordinary pleasure that the members of the National -Geographic Society listened to the critical review and admirable essay -on Bering's first expedition, 1725-1730, read before this Society, -together with a translation of Bering's report on the expedition in -question, by one of our learned and distinguished members, Professor -William H. Dall. The subject then under consideration is one of great -interest, and this Society owes a debt of gratitude to Professor Dall -for his assiduous labor in collating and translating the available -data on this voyage, and must indorse the general conclusions reached -in a critical essay which is the result of careful, conscientious -research conjoined to much erudition. It is especially fortunate, in -view of the vagueness of Bering's report, that it should have been -translated and reviewed by a traveler and investigator so thoroughly -familiar with the topography of Bering strait and the adjacent region. - -{206} It may appear somewhat presumptuous for the present writer to -further dwell on some points of subordinate importance, even with the -view of supplementing the investigations of Professor Dall; but he is -encouraged to the effort by the admirable spirit in which that -gentleman works, which is so clearly indicated in his own words: "I am -well aware this paper cannot be regarded as a finality, but as a -contribution to the geographical history of North America it will not -be without its value." This spirit encourages every one to contribute -his mite to elucidate the history of this interesting and ill-known -period. - -The supplementary remarks now presented mainly relate to two points: -first, the cartographic reproduction of Bering's discoveries; second, -the alleged observations of lunar eclipses in Kamshatka by Bering and -his lieutenants in 1728-'29. - -In attempting to add to Professor Dall's essay or to elucidate some -points, it is but natural to felicitate one's self that chance has put -in one's way rare data in the shape of text and map. Nevertheless, -much difficulty has been experienced in efforts to consult -publications and charts bearing on this subject, as supplementary to -the data in the writer's own library. Fortunately, among his personal -books and maps are the following, which have escaped the critical, if -not casual, observation of Professor Dall: - -1. The original Hague[1] edition of Père du Halde, which Dall was -unable to consult; it is entitled "Description Géographique, -Historique, Chronologique, Politique, et Physique de l'Empire et de la -Tartarie Chinoise," etc. 4 vols., 4°: à la Haye, 1736. - -[Footnote 1: The first edition, in French, was published at Paris, 4 -vols., folio, 1735.] - -2. De l'Isle's scattered essays, entitled "Mémoires pour servir à -l'histoire et au progres de l'Astronomie, de la Géographie, et de la -Physique, etc., etc.: à St. Petersbourg, de l'imprimeris de l'Académie -des Sciences. MDCCXXXVIII [1738]." - -3. "Atlas Russien: contenant une Carte Générale et dix-neuf Cartes -particulieres de tout l'Empire de Russie et des Pays limitrophes -construites conformément aux règles de la Geographie et aux dernières -Observations. Par l'Académie Impériale des Sciences de St. -Petersbourg. St. Petersbourg, 1745." - -This was the first atlas published in Russia in the map department -established by order of Peter the Great in the Academy of Sciences of -St. Petersburg. It includes a general map of the Russian Empire and -nineteen maps of provinces. - -{207} 4. "Carte de la Sibérie et des Pays voisins. Pour servir a -Histoire générale des Voyages par le S. Bellin, Ing. de la Marine," -two parts, undated, but to which E. Dufosse, of Paris, assigns the -date of 1749. The atlas for this work was originally published by Abbe -Prevost at Paris, 1747, et seq., the charts being engraved by Bellin. - -This chart appears on casual inspection to be more accurate than -either that of d'Anville or of de l'Isle, or of the Russian atlas. - -5. The very interesting and valuable map of J. N. de l'Isle, Paris, -1752 (without, however, the accompanying memoir). - -I do not think the original map has ever fallen under the notice of -Professor Dall, although a garbled reproduction of it is mentioned in -his review as follows: - -"A chart which deserves notice, though almost wholly fictitious, being -chiefly devoted to the spurious discoveries of the alleged Admiral de -Fonte, was issued by J. N. de l'Isle with the concurrence of M. P. -Bauche or at his suggestion. It appeared at Paris in 1752, and was -copied for Jeffery's second edition of voyages from Asia to America in -1764. I do not know if this copy appeared in the first edition, but -presume it did." - -As the original of de l'Isle's chart (1752) is here exhibited -to-night, it is evident that Jeffery was careless, and that the map, -which I infer Dall has never seen, is really more valuable than is set -forth in his address; otherwise so critical an observer as Dall would -not have said: "I suspect this (referring to d'Anville's map of 1753, -with Bering island thereon) is the first publication of a cartographic -kind on which Bering island is laid down, as the map of the Imperial -Academy of Sciences, embodying the geographical results of Bering's -voyage to the coast of America, was not engraved until a year later, -while de l'Isle's of 1752 does not contain them." You will see that -this is an error, for the "I(sle) de Beering" is plainly inscribed on -the map. (This map has been reproduced by photolithography and forms -the accompanying plate 21.) - -[Illustration: PLATE 21. CARTE GÉNÉRALE DES DÉCOUVERTES de l'Amiral de -Fonte.] - -Dall further describes the copy of this map in the following terms: - -"Connected with America and north of the Chukchi peninsula is land -with an island off it corresponding not badly to Wrangell and Herald -islands and marked 'Discovered in 1722.' It is possible that this land -is a hypothetical compound of the land reported by the Chukchis east -of the strait with that which they knew to be visible in clear weather -from Cape Yakan, more or less confused accounts of which had long been -current among persons interested in these regions." - -{208} The legend on the original chart indicates that Dall's surmise -is correct, for the copy is not only abbreviated, but is in error as -to date. On the original it runs: "Grande Terre découverte en 1723 au -s'enfeuit les Tzutzy l'orsqu'ils sont poursuivis par les Russes que ne -les ont pas encore soumis." - -There is another important legend on a very large imaginary island -about five degrees of longitude to the east of Bering island. On the -northern side of this land the text runs thus: "Terres dont le -Capitaine Beering's à en des indices dans son premier voyages en -1728." On the southern edge is the legend: "Cotes vues par Mrs. -Tchirikow et de l'Isle en Septembre 1741." Immediately south of the -land are two route tracks, with these legends: "Route du Kamtschatka a -l'Amerique par le Capitaine Tchirikow et Mr. de l'Isle de la Croyere -en Juin et Juillet, 1741," "Retour de l'Amerique au Kamtschatka en -Aout et Septembre 1741." The latter route track touches an indentation -in the southwestern coast, as though the vessel had entered the bay, -which has five mountains in the background. - -The legend--"Terres vues par les Russes en 1741 ou le Capitaine -Tchirikow perdit sa Chaloupe armée de 10 hommes"--is likewise of -interest, as controverting the statement that "De l'Isle's (chart) of -1752 does not contain ... the geographical results of Bering's voyage -to the coast of America." It embodies a large part, but not all, of -the discoveries. - -6. Buache's memoir and maps entitled: "Considerations geographiques et -physiques sur les Nouvelles Decouvertes au Nord de la Grande Mer, -appellee vulgairement la Mer du Sud; avec des Cartes qui y sont -relatives. Par Philippe Buache, Premier Geographe," etc. A Paris -M.DCC.LIII [1753], 4°, 158 pp. With my copy there is a separate -pamphlet, consisting of 13 maps, folio, with a preface and index, -quarto. The preface (4°, two leaves unpaged) is entitled: "Exposé des -Découvertes au Nord de la Grande Mer, etc., etc. Presenté au Roy le 2. -Septembre 1753, par Philippe Buache, etc." The index (4°, 4 pp.) runs: -"Liste des Cartes concernant les Nouvelles Découvertes au Nord de la -Grande Mer, &c. Par Philippe Buache, &c. Janvier, 1755." - -These thirteen maps are very interesting. The first and second charts -bear particularly on the subject of this paper. The first is entitled: -"Carte des Nouvelles Découvertes entre la partie Orient'le de l'Asie -et l'Occid'le de l'Amerique avec des Vues sur la Gr'de Terre reconnue -par les Russes en 1741 &c., &c. Dressée {209} par Philippe Buache. -Presentée a l'Acad. des Sciences le 9. Aout 1752 et approuvée dans son -Assemblée du 6. Septembre suivant." - -This map, somewhat fuller in details than that of de l'Isle, shows: -"Découvertes des Russes depuis 20 ans." There are route tracks of the -first expedition marked: "Route des Russes au N.E. et au N. en 1728 et -1731," and "Retour en 1731." Two route tracks of the later voyage have -the legends: "Route de Kamtchatka a l'Amerique en 1741. Retour des -Russes au Kamtchatka." Other legends are as follows: "Isle Beering;" -"Detroit du Nord" (Bering strait); "Terre déc. en 1723 par les Russes, -ou Isle dont le P. Avril a parle" (large land near Wrangell island); -"Terres reconnues par les Russes" (American coast in latitude 56 N.); -"Côtes vues par les Russes en 1741; Port ou les Russes ont aborde" -(fictitious and extensive land east of Bering island, on which are -also the following: "Puchochotskes selon Strahlenberg," and "Terre -habitée, ou Presqu' Isle, que je suppose joindre les découvertes des -Russes avec celles de l'Am'l de Fonte"). - -The second map, "Carte des Découv'tes de l'Am'al de Fonte avec les -Terres vuës et reconnues par les Russes, par Philippe Buache," has -other pertinent and interesting legends. In Bering strait appears: -"Beering a trouvé au N. et a l'E. de ce parage que la Mer y etoit -libre," and immediately eastward on the American coast below the -parallel of the arctic circle: "Terre découv. en 1731, et ou les -Russes ont rencontré un home qui s'est dit habitant d'un gr'd -Continent." On the American coast from 55° to 57° north latitude: -"Terres déc. en Juill., 1741, et où les Russes ont laisse 10 homes qu' -ils n' ont pu rejoindre." Over "Terre habitée," a large land just east -of Bering island: "Le Capitaine Beering a trouvé dans ce parage de 50 -à 60 deg. les Indices d'une Côte et une gr. Riv. ou il a envoye -quelqu's homes qui ne sont revenus." - -It is evident that these maps must have been actually published as -early as September 2, 1753, the date on which was presented the -"Exposé des Découvertes, etc., au Roy," but the charts give no further -indication than the legend: "Publiée sous le privilege de l'Acad. -R'le. des Sc. du 6 Sept'bre, 1752: à Paris." The actual date of issue -may or may not have been earlier than the map of de l'Isle of -September 9, 1752. - -7. (Possibly most important of all) a letter of an officer of the -Russian Navy. This appeared first in Russian, presumably {210} printed -at St. Petersburg in 1752 or 1753; the original Russian I have not -seen. It was translated, however, into French and printed at Berlin -(not dated) in 1753, under the following title: "Lettre d'un officier -de la Marine Russienne. A un Seigneur de la Cour concernant la carte -des nouvelles découvertes au nord de la mer du Sud et le mémoire qui y -sert d'explication. Publiée par M. de l'Isle, à Paris en 1752. Traduit -de l'Original Russe, à Berlin, chez Haude et Sperer, Libraires de la -Cour et de l'Academie Royale (1753)." - -This edition forms part of my library, and is the only copy which I -know of in the United States. It is not to be found in the Library of -Congress, the Astor Library, the Boston Athenæum, or the Boston Public -Library. It is not even in the Royal Library at St. Petersburg, but, -as might be anticipated, is in the British Museum. I find it nowhere -catalogued in any bibliography of arctic or subarctic works. The -French edition was inserted, with some changes, it is believed, in the -eighteenth volume of the Nouvelle Bibliotheque Germanique. - -8. "A letter from a Russian Sea-Officer to a Person of Distinction at -the Court of St. Petersburg, containing Remarks on Mr. de l'Isle's -Chart and Memoir relative to the New Discoveries North and East from -Kamtschatka, together with some Observations on that Letter by Arthur -Dobbs, Governor of East Carolina, to which is added Mr. de l'Isle's -Explanatory Memoir on his Chart." 8vo, 85 pp., London, 1754. - -The "Arthur Dobbs" who published this edition, and who possibly was -the translator thereof, is well known as the energetic promoter of the -discovery of the "northwest passage," and was personally interested in -discovery voyages to Hudson bay. The explanatory memoir of de l'Isle's -chart is a translation of the memoir previously mentioned as belonging -to the map of 1752, which memoir I have not been able to consult in -the original French. It may be added that Dobbs' reproduction of the -"Letter from a Russian naval officer" is not accurate, the translation -in places being so carelessly or indifferently made that the text -cannot be relied on for critical purposes. - -This English translation is to be found neither in the Library of -Congress, the Boston Public Library, the Boston Athenæum, nor in the -Library of the American Geographic Society. It is, however, in the -Astor Library, and a second copy at one time belonged to the library -of Mr. J. C. Brevoort. - -{211} 9. "Mappe Monde. Carte Universelle de la Terre. Par J. B. Nolin, -Geographe." 1755, 20¼ x 27 inches. On this appear the legends: "I. de -Beering; Detroit de Nord; Terres découvertes par les Ruses [sic] en -1741; Terres veues en 1741." - -It is quite possible that this is the first map of the world on which -Bering island was charted. - -10. John Christopher Adelung's very interesting history of sea voyages -for the discovery of a "northeast passage," which was published in -quarto form under the following title: "Geschichte der Schiffahrten -und Versuche welche zur Entdeckung des Nordöstlichen Weges nach Japan -und China von verschiedenen Nationen unternommen worden. Zum Behufe -der Erdbeschreibung und Naturgeschichte dieser Gegenden entworfen von -Johann Christoph Adelung, Herzoglich Sachsichen Rath Halle bey Johann -Justinus Gebauer, 1768." - -11. Notice des Ouvrages de M. d'Anville. 8°, Paris, An. X [1802], 120 -pp. By Barbic du Bocage. - -In addition to these and other works from my own collection, I have -consulted at the library of the United States Naval Observatory, in -this city, "Histoire de l'Academie Royale des Sciences, Année 1750," -Paris, 1754, and the same, "Année 1754," Paris, 1757, which contain -articles on de l'Isle's manuscript maps of 1731 and 1752, the latter -being substantially identical with the published map of 1752. - - * * * * * - -From Dall's review we learn that Lauridsen is responsible for the -statement that the discoveries of Bering in his first voyage were -shown on a chart made at Moscow in 1731, but no authority is given as -to the cartographer. Later I shall adduce evidence to confirm Dall's -opinion that the Moscow map was merely a copy, such as were -distributed to personages of importance or to those connected with the -expedition. It is further susceptible of, as I think, tolerably -satisfactory proof that the outlines of Kamshatka, with fairly correct -meridians of longitude, were made public in a chart by de l'Isle not -in 1731, but the year following, 1732, and it is likely that the lost -map of that year was substantially reproduced in the chart of 1752, -which I have the pleasure of now presenting for your examination. - -De l'Isle presented this map to the Academy of Sciences of Paris on -April 8, 1750. The circumstances connected with the {212} presentation -have been drawn from the official records of the Royal Academy of -Sciences, and are as follows:[2] - -Cette année (1750) M. de l'Isle lut à l'assemblee publique de -l'Acadèmie, un Mémoire sur les Nouvelles Découvertes au nord de la mer -du Sud; et presenta en meme temps une Carte que M. Buache avoit -dressée sur ses Mémoires, et qui representoit ces Découvertes avec -toute la partie du Globe terrestre, à laquelle elles appartiennent. -Ces Ouvrages, alors manuscrit, furent depuis publiés en 1752, M. -Buache presenta dans cette meme année la première partie de ses -Considérations géographiques sur le meme sujet, avec les Cartes qui y -étoient relatives.[3] - -"Muni de ces premières connoissances [referring to the discoveries of -1729-1739] M. de l'Isle traça une carte qui representoit l'extremite -orientale de l'Asie, avec la partie opposée de l'Amerique -septentrionale qui y répond, afin de faire voir aisément ce qui -restoit à découvrir, et il dressa un Mémoire dans lequel il exposoit -la manière qu'il jugeoit la plus avantageuse pour faire ces -découvertes."[4] - -"Mais les vaisseaux Russes qui avoient été envoyés pour les -découvertes dont nous venous de parler (1731-1741), n'étant pas encore -revenus lorsqu'elle lui fut envoyé il extremit l'examen après son -retour en France, qui étoit assez prochain. A son arrivée, il -communiqua ses vues et cette relation a M. Buache; celui-ci, qui par -la," etc., etc.[5] - -"Cette Mémoire [de l'Isle, 1750] étoit accompagnée d'une carte qui -étoit comme l'esquisse du système géographique de M. de l'Isle sur -cette partie."[6] - -[Footnote 2: Extracts from Histoire de l'Acadèmie Royale des Sciences, -Année MDCCL (1750), 4°, Paris, 1754; and the same, Année 1753, 4°, -Paris, 1757.] - -[Footnote 3:_ Loc. cit._, "Année MDCCL," p. 142.] - -[Footnote 4: _Ibid._, p. 151.] - -[Footnote 5: _Ibid._, p. 145.] - -[Footnote 6: _Loc. cit._, "Année 1753," p. 263.] - -It has been pointed out by several authorities that some of M. de -l'Isle's statements in his memoir of 1752 are to be received with -caution, especially his elaborate endeavors to impress the Paris -Academy with the belief that the discoveries of Bering subsequent to -the first voyage were the result of his (de l'Isle's) own carefully -considered instructions. In this connection Adelung says: - -"De l'Isle, in his Explication de la carte des nouvelles découvertes -au Nord [1752], traces out his proposed route quite differently -[referring to de l'Isle's previous statements in his report to the St. -Petersburg Academy in 1732], somewhat as if it had been outlined in -view of accomplished facts." - -{213} It behooves us, then, to inquire carefully into the authenticity -of the alleged map of de l'Isle of 1731, since if he antedated his -opinions as to the route he might also have antedated his map. -Fortunately we do not have to depend only on de l'Isle's own -statement, either in 1750 before the Academy of Sciences at Paris, or -as published in 1738 at St. Petersburg and printed at the printing -office of the Royal Academy; for we also have extraneous and -convincing evidence, even from sources critically hostile to the -French astronomer. - -M. de l'Isle, in his Mémoires sur les Nouvelles découvertes au Nord de -la mer du Sud, Paris, 1752, says: - -"After I had, near twenty years ago, got these first informations of -the longitude of Kamschatka by means of Captain Bering's map and -journal, I made use of them in constructing the map, representing the -eastern extremity of Asia, with the opposite coast of North America, -in order to show at once what still remains for discovery between two -large parts of the world. - -"This map I had the honor of presenting to the Empress Anne and the -Senate, in order to animate the Russians to undertake these -discoveries, and it took effect, this princess ordering a second -voyage to be made according to the plan which I had drawn up for it." - -"Two maps," he adds, were presented to the Academy in Paris, "one -being a copy of the map which I had drawn at St. Petersburg, 1731, on -Captain Bering's first voyage, and had the honor of presenting to the -Empress Anne and the Senate, with a manuscript memoir explaining its -use and construction." The other map (from which the lithograph before -you was lately reproduced) was, according to de l'Isle, only changed -by adding the later discoveries of Bering and his lieutenants. - -De l'Isle further says of this chart: - -"The second manuscript map which I laid before the Academy at Paris -was in all respects like the former, only with the advantages of the -new discoveries made since 1731." - -Ph. Buache, the French geographer, made for de l'Isle a reduced copy -of the second chart, and it is supposed that the map before you is a -substantial reproduction of that copy. - -In the preface to de l'Isle's scattered essays, 1738, St. Petersburg, -page 2, we find: - -"Aiant comparé la situation du Kamschatka et des pais voisins, avec -celle de la Chine, du roiaume de Corée, du Japon, et de la terre -d'Yeco, qui m'étoit connue d'ailleurs, je me suis fait un sistème, & -j'ai dressé l'an {214} 1731, une carte de cette extremité orientale de -l'Asie. J'ai marque aussi sur cette carte les dernières terres connues -de l'Amerique, les plus voisines de cette partie septentrionale de -l'Asie, afin de faire voir ce qui restoit encore d'inconnu entre-deux. -On trouvera dans ce recueil une reduction de cette carte, avec le -Mémoire que j'ai dressé dans ce temsla, & lu a l'Academie, dans lequel -je rends raison de la construction de cette carte." - -Only one volume of de l'Isle's essays appeared, so that the map and -memoir promised in the introduction were never, so far as can be -learned, published in their original form. The statements made by de -l'Isle, however, unless definitely refuted, should be given full -credit, seeing that the work was published by the Academy of Sciences -at St. Petersburg, to which the map and memoir were presented, as is -claimed, only seven years earlier. A doubt does, however, exist as to -the date of the map made by de l'Isle. On this point Adelung, in his -"History of Northeastern Voyages," Halle, 1768, page 569, evidently -quoting from Müller, says: - -"On the 17th of April, 1732, the order was, therefore, sent from the -privy Cabinet to the Senate, which thereupon inquired of the Academy -of Sciences of St. Petersburg what and how much had as yet been found -out about Kamschatka, the surrounding countries and waters. The -Academy confided the making of the report to Mr. Delisle, who prepared -a chart upon which Kamschatka, Jeso, according to the description of -the crew upon the Castricom, the Staten island, Company island, and -the coast of Gama were designated. This chart was supplemented by a -memoir in which he described the discoveries already made and -suggested various routes for making new ones. He expressed himself in -regard to those routes in the following manner: 'If one have attained -the northern boundary of Asia, and at the same time the eastern -limits, as far as Captain Bering went on his first voyage, one cannot -fail to arrive in America, and might even choose the route, either -northeast or southeast, whichever he prefers, as he would have, at -most, only 600 miles to pass over. 2. Or, without venturing so far, it -would perhaps be better and more comfortable to sail from the east -coast of Kamschatka, go directly east, to look for the neighboring -country which Bering found traces of in his first voyage. 3. Finally, -he thought that if they should sail southeast from Kamschatka they -would perhaps more speedily and more certainly discover the country -seen by Juan de Gama.'" - -Can the inconsistency between the dates, as given by Müller and -Adelung on the one hand, and by de l'Isle on the other, be reconciled, -or is it apparent rather than real? As Bering, according to the -Russian marine officer (Waxel?) returned to St. Petersburg on March 1, -1730, it is reasonable to suppose that de l'Isle, {215} whose duties -were those of a cartographer, had finished within the next year and a -half his reproduction of Bering's working chart. The fact that the -order of inquiry about the results of the voyage did not leave the -privy council until April 17, 1732, does not necessarily indicate that -the map at least, if not the memoir, was not already prepared, even if -not in possession of the Academy of Sciences. It appears probable that -the map may have been drawn by de l'Isle in 1731, but it is quite -certain that it was not made public until 1732. - -Lauridsen speaks of a map in Moscow in 1731, and, as it is evident -from "Lettre d'un" that there was no difficulty in persons of -influence procuring copies from the Senate, it is likely that the -Moscow chart was a copy of the map of de l'Isle, and that the date of -1731 is correct; but this theory must rest on Lauridsen producing -evidence that such a map existed in Moscow in 1731. - -The Russian officer speaks with authority as to the map of 1732. -Commenting on de l'Isle's account of the circumstances under which he -compiled the map of 1732, he continues as follows: - -"The Empress Anne having directed her Senate to give instructions to -M. Bering for the second voyage, that body believed that it could not -act with success unless it obtained from the Academy the fullest -information relative to the situation of the lands and seas to be -traversed. Therefore the Academy was so ordered by the Senate, which -enjoined on M. de l'Isle the construction of the map of which I speak, -and, for a clearer understanding, an explanatory memoir; which being -done, both map and memoir were presented to the Academy by the Senate. -Consequently, there is no reason to doubt that, far from exciting the -Russians to new discoveries, far from being the cause of Bering's -second voyage, M. de l'Isle only worked under specific orders. It is -quite another question whether or not the memoir contributed to the -success of the expedition, which I will discuss later. However that -may be, the Senate gave a copy of it, as well as of the map, to M. -Bering. I took a second copy of the memoir, which enabled me to -compare it with what M. de l'Isle has now said to us of it in his -later memoir of Paris." - -These and other statements confirm those of de l'Isle as to the date -of the map, in which year d'Anville engraved it (1732, or 1731 at the -earliest), and likewise indicate that copies of both map and memoir -were obtainable without great difficulty. - -An interesting note as to the authenticity and origin of the {216} -chart of d'Anville, 1737, appears in the narrative of Adelung, who -speaks with a certain air of authority. He says: - -"These Beering maps were, after the captain's return, sent from Russia -to the King of Poland, who presented them to Mr. du Halde or, rather, -to Mr. d'Anville, who made the charts for his work. Du Halde is -therefore very correctly informed when he, in the Mémoires de Trevoux -(737 pages, 2,389 f.) considers these charts questionable and imagines -that they were merely made by d'Anville from Beering's journal." - -But further evidence from an unquestionable source is available as to -date. The charts in du Halde's "China" were engraved between the years -1729 and 1734, and all but the general maps were completed prior to -1733. The date 1732 is assigned by d'Anville's colleague to the map of -Bering's journey. Of these maps it is further said: - -"They form what is commonly known as d'Anville's Atlas of China. -Nevertheless this geographer did not participate equally in the -production of all. The detailed maps (of which the Bering map is one) -were furnished by the Jesuits and he only supervised the engraving, -but the general charts were entirely the work of d'Anville, who -reconstructed and amplified them from all possible sources. They were -reproduced at Hague under the title 'New Atlas of China,' etc., by M. -d'Anville." - -These statements of d'Anville's colleague, M. Barbic du Bocage, are -thus verified by du Halde, page lxix: - -"Pour les Cartes Générales, nous y avons peu touché & celle du Voyage -du Capitaine Beerings paroit sans le moindre changement." - -In the Russian atlas, 1745, the explanatory text regarding map 19, -whereon appears the extreme northeastern coast of Siberia and the -greater part of Kamshatka, runs as follows: - -"We have determined the location of these provinces in part by -astronomical observations which have been made there, and in part upon -certain geographical and hydrographic maps which have been transmitted -to us." - -So far as Kamshatka and the Bering strait regions go, it is reasonable -to believe that this chart, since it was published by the Royal -Academy of Sciences, is substantially a reproduction of the map -transmitted to the Academy by de l'Isle in 1732, especially as this -geographer was employed for about thirteen years in amassing data for -the atlas in question. - -{217} The writer has very carefully compared the chart of Kamshatka -and adjoining regions as published in d'Anville's atlas of 1736, in -the Russian atlas of 1745, and in the de l'Isle chart of 1752. From -comparisons he is led to believe that these maps have substantially -the same basis--that is, the chart prepared by de l'Isle in 1732 for -the Academy of Sciences, St. Petersburg. In this connection the -criticism of the Russian officer is significant. He says: "I will now -finish with a general observation about the part of Siberia that we -see on M. de l'Isle's chart (1752). It is simply a copy of the Russian -atlas (1745), without even corrections of the errors of drawing and -writing which have crept into that work." Elsewhere he adds: "We can -correct the error of M. de l'Isle, who places Bering island at 54 -degrees, only a short distance from Avatscha, whereas it is on the -56th parallel, 60 miles off Avatscha and 40 Dutch miles from the mouth -of the Kamschatka river." - -It is worthy of note that on Bellin's map of 1749(?) Bering island is -crossed by the 56th parallel of latitude, and that along the southern -edge of the Arctic ocean is a route track, marked "Voyage fait par Mer -en 1648 par 3 vaisseaux Russiens dont un est parvenu a la -Kamtschatka." On de l'Isle's chart of 1752 also appears the route of -1648, but Bering island is in latitude 54°. As to the position of -Bering isle, the truth, as the Wise Man tells us is oft the case, -abides between the two, as the 55th parallel intersects the land in -question. At Cape Shelagskoi, d'Anville, 1737, the Russian atlas of -1745 and the de l'Isle of 1752 agree in charting four islands -northeast of the cape instead of two islands to the west. This -indicates a common origin to the charts, and where else can it be -ascribed than to the de l'Isle map of 1732? The Russian officer, -however, gives a clue as to the date when work on the map was -commenced. He says: - -"At that time I visited M. de l'Isle. I was a witness of his -geographical labors as far as they had new discoveries for their -object. I acted as interpreter to M. Bering in the conversations which -he had with him; and I can assert positively that when M. de l'Isle -began that chart the second expedition was already ordered, and -Captain Bering, knowing what was still wanting to his discoveries, -offered to continue them and his lieutenants with him, and they -received promotion in consequence." - -Lauridsen says: - -"On January 5, 1732, the Senate gave him leave of absence to go to St. -Petersburg.... Almost simultaneously he was promoted, in regular {218} -succession, to the position of captain-commander in the Russian fleet, -the next position below that of rear-admiral." - -This indicates that the expedition was decided on at least as early as -January 5, 1732; possibly earlier. Fortunately we are not left to -inference, for elsewhere the Russian officer says: - -"Mr. de l'Isle 'throws discredit on our discoveries by leaving on his -chart the fictitious land of Gama, which, in order to avoid -conflicting with our accounts, he places (in 1752) a little more to -the west and south than he did on his chart of 1732.'" - -This definitely fixes the year in which de l'Isle presented the map to -the Senate. - -We learn, however, from Lauridsen that "as early as April 17 (1732) -the Empress ordered that Bering's proposition should be executed, and -charged the Senate to take the necessary steps for that purpose.... On -May 2 it [_i.e._, the Senate] promulgated two ukases, in which it -declared the objects of the expedition and sought to indicate the -necessary means." It is very improbable that, in the case of so -dilatory a man as de l'Isle, this chart could have been elaborated and -drawn, the memoir written, a report made by the Academy to the Senate, -and action be taken in the fifteen days which elapsed between the -order for the chart and Bering's instructions. It is possible that the -chart was drawn at the end of 1731, and that de l'Isle, for obvious -reasons, gave it the earliest possible date. - -In giving an account of Bering's provisions, as Dall says, every -historian has followed a mutilated, if not garbled, paragraph from -Bering's original report. The excerpts from Brooke's translation of du -Halde, which was followed in Campbell's edition of Harris' Voyages, -are as follows: - -"The provisions consisted of carrots for want of corn [= grain or -wheat], the fat of fish, uncured, served instead of butter, and salt -fish supplied the place of all other meats." - -"Fish oil was his butter and dried fish his beef and pork. Salt he was -obliged to get from the sea; ... he distilled spirits from 'sweet -straw.'" - -It appears from Bering's own journal, as well as from du Halde's -account, that in 1727 Bering ordered one of his officers to endeavor -to "deliver to the command at Kamschatka some part of the provisions, -iron, and tar." Bering himself said that he was obliged to use tar -made from the native spruce, "since {219} the tar which we should have -brought with us had not arrived." This is confirmed by the additional -note in du Halde, which says that the provisions, iron, pitch, and tar -did not arrive till 1728, conveying the inference that it came too -late to be of service. Bering appears to have had, on July 3, 1727, -2,300 poods of flour, equal to about 8,300 pounds, which would be less -than a year's supply for his entire party. I cannot agree with Dall -that Bering had plenty of flour or meal and meat. - -I have said "From Bering's own report," because it seems incredible -that du Halde did not have a transcript of Bering's report, since his -narrative (du Halde's) follows almost word for word Dall's -translation. It is not surprising that different transcripts should -differ slightly on unimportant matters. - -However this may be, it is evident that Brooke's translation of du -Halde is careless. For instance, in Brooke's translation (edition -London, 1736) of du Halde, on page 430, the number of Bering's party -should be 33 instead of 30, and on page 440, where the voyage from -Ochotsk to Takutski is given as from July 23 to October 2, the -first-named date should be July 29. - -Dall doubts that "carrots" were of Bering's provisions. Brooke omits -the italicized words of du Halde's narrative (p. 567, la Haye, 1736): -"Les provisions consistoient en carottes _et en racines_." As -indicated by context, the roots were radishes and turnips. The word -"carottes" is explained by a passage in Grieve's Kamshatka as follows: -"The morkovai poushki, or _carrot_ bunches, are so called because they -are like carrots in their leaf as well as in taste. They likewise eat -this green in the spring, but they oftener sour it like sour crout or -make a liquor with it." Doubtless Bering took these "carrot bunches" -with him. - -Another question which has engaged my attention is that concerning the -lunar eclipses which Bering or his party is said to have observed in -the winter 1728-'9. Dall says: "In none of the published reports of -the expedition is any mention made by Bering or his officers of the -occurrence or observation of an eclipse.... However, Middendorf states -(Sib. Reise, iv. I, p. 56) that Bering and his lieutenants in the -years 1728 and 1729 observed in Kamtschatka two eclipses of the moon, -by which they corrected the longitude. He gives," says Dall, "no -authority for this statement, and it is probable that an eclipse -observed at Ilimsk, in middle Siberia, by Chirikoff is thus -erroneously referred {220} to." Mr. Marcus Baker, in a paper appended -to Dall's account, makes it evident that such eclipses, if any, were -those of February 25 (local calendar), 1728, or February 24, 1729. - -My own investigations confirm the statements of Middendorf, and in -support of this I refer to de l'Isle and to the author of the -"Letter." In this connection, however, we have the clear and definite -statements of de l'Isle, both in his essays of 1738 at St. Petersburg -and his memoir of 1752 at Paris. These statements are fully confirmed -by the evidence of the Russian marine officer, who certainly served -with Bering in his later expeditions if not in the first, and whose -familiarity with all the records and papers should have enabled him -definitely to contradict de l'Isle on the main question instead of -correcting him in details. In his St. Petersburg memoirs of 1738 (page -10) de l'Isle writes: - -"On verra a cette occasion la situation du Kamtchatka de terminée par -deux eclipses de Lune, que M. le Capitaine Bering & ses gens y sont -observées dans leur premier voyage [the expedition 1725-'30], & dont -j'ai rendu compte a l'Academie aussi-tot que ces observations m'ont -ete communiquées." - -In the paper of Paris, 1752 ("Nouvelles découvertes au Nord de la Mer -du Sud") de l'Isle says on this point: - -"Captain Beering and his lieutenant likewise took observations at -Kamschatka of two eclipses of the moon in the years 1728 and 1729, -which helped me to chart the longitude of that eastern extremity of -Asia with all the precision which the nature of these observations, -made by seamen and with their own instruments, would admit of; but -these first determinations have been since confirmed by observations -on Jupiter's satellites, taken in that place with the utmost accuracy -by my brother and some Russians conversant in this kind of -observations and who were provided with the best of instruments." - -It appeared to me possible that the report on the eclipses of the moon -made by de l'Isle to the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences might be -traced up among the archives of that society. In searching for -information on this point it was learned from Mr. O. Fassig, librarian -of the Signal Office, that among the unpublished manuscripts in the -Pulkova library, St. Petersburg, were a number by de l'Isle. A list of -the manuscripts of M. de l'Isle was compiled and published in 1844 by -the distinguished astronometer O. Struve, and among the number is one -entitled: "Observations pour la longitude du Kamchat, d'ou se conclut -aussi de Tobolsk. 1729, MSS." - -{221} It was reasonable, in view of de l'Isle's statements in 1738, to -suppose that this is the report made to the Academy by him as soon as -the observations were furnished him. I had hoped to present with this -sketch definite information on this point, since a kinsman of the -collator of the manuscripts (I refer to the very distinguished -representative of Russia to the United States, M. de Struve) most -courteously offered his valuable mediation in the matter. -Unfortunately, I have as yet no further information, but I expect a -communication as to the contents of the MSS. at an early day. - -Criticising the memoir of de l'Isle of 1752, the Russian officer -ridicules the author for speaking of Kamshatka as a town, but he -adds:[7] - -"It is certain likewise that M. Bering and his lieutenant, M. -Tschirikow [quoting from de l'Isle's Memoir of 1752], had, in the -years 1728 and 1729, observed at Kamschatka two eclipses of the moon; -but that by these observations M. de l'Isle was enabled to determine -the longitude of this most eastern part of Asia, with such precision -that the same had been confirmed in the second expedition, by precise -observations of the satellites of Jupiter is what I cannot well -conceive. Mr. de l'Isle himself intimates that Messieurs Bering and -Tschirikow were not provided with astronomical instruments. They -observed both these eclipses by the help, not of pendulums, but of -their watches, without being able to know whether they went right or -wrong; which makes it almost incredible that a determination based on -these two eclipses should exactly agree with that deduced from the -observations of Jupiter's satellites." - -[Footnote 7: "Une Lettre," Berlin, p. 19.] - -The officer, from his own account, served with Bering. In the -introduction to "Une Lettre" he says: - -"The orders of your Excellency [to whom the letter was addressed as -written by his orders] will be complied with by me with more than one -inspiring motive, and I shall not dwell on my unfitness, although I -could find excellent pretexts for such an excuse, inasmuch as many of -greater experience and equal application participated with me in the -discoveries which resulted from the two voyages, called by us the -Kamtschatkan expeditions. The only grounds on which preference could -be shown me over them arise from my being charged, after my return -from America, with the comparison of the journals of the various -vessels together and with whatever was elsewhere to be found relative -to lands situated in the South Sea, in order to therefrom construct a -map which should accurately represent them all." - -{222} This officer, then, should be the very best authority on this -question, especially as he gives details, is always exact in his -dates, and sets no value on the observations. Whether or not such -observations of lunar eclipses took place, these extracts tend to -confirm Dall's opinion that they served no purpose in determining the -longitude of Kamshatka. - -The letter and its author are worth some attention at our hands. As -has been said, it was published anonymously, and I do not know that -its authorship has ever been traced. It appears from the letter that -the writer was an officer of the Russian navy; that he was a Russian; -that he was on familiar terms with both Bering and de l'Isle; that he -acted as interpreter between them in 1730-1731; that he was with -Bering in his last voyage to America, and was one of the ship-wrecked -mariners on Bering island, and that on his return to St. Petersburg he -was charged with the compilations from the various ship journals. As -the naval officer states he was with Bering on Bering island, it is -evident that it must have been either Swen Waxel, Sophron Chitrow, or -Steller, the well-known scientific professor serving with Bering's -expedition. It could not have been Steller, since the professor was a -German, and moreover he died in November, 1746, prior to the date of -the letter. It is improbable that it was Chitrow, who was originally -in a subordinate position as a master-of-fleet, but while serving in -Kamshatka and prior to Bering's second voyage was made a lieutenant. -It is not likely that a subordinate of Chitrow's position should have -been so situated in St. Petersburg as to have served as an interpreter -between Bering and de l'Isle. It is therefore more than probable that -Lieutenant Swen Waxel was the author of the letter. In further -confirmation, this officer says that he is charged with the -preparation of a chart out of the material furnished by the maps and -journals of the separate vessels. As we know from other sources, Waxel -later made a chart of the Kamschatka region. - -Waxel displayed great energy and excellent judgment in conducting -affairs on Bering island, both before and after Bering's death, and it -is gratifying to note his intellectual discrimination in dealing with -de l'Isle's fictitious account of a journey in America said to have -been made by one Admiral de Fonte. Waxel skilfully dissects this -geographical invention, clearly proving its inconsistencies, while -geographical writers in England were engaged years later in -endeavoring to prove its truthfulness. - -{223} It is significant that although Waxel omits any reference to it, -the following paragraph, which is evidently intended to be exculpatory -of Bering's turning back at the most northerly point of his first -voyage, forms part of Bering's report as translated by Dall: "Neither -from the Chukchi coast nor to the eastward could any extension of the -land be observed." This very important sentence does not appear in -du Halde's account, and evidently was not in the copy which was -furnished him. Possibly the person who furnished the copy to du Halde -omitted it. Elsewhere Waxel adds: - -"I say nothing here which I have not repeatedly heard M. Bering say. I -also saw his instructions." - -This gives value to his statements in reference to Bering's efforts to -find land east of Avatscha bay, whereof Waxel quotes de l'Isle as -saying: - -"On his return to Kamtschatka (in 1729) M. Bering learned that there -was a land to the east, which could be seen in clear, fine weather. He -attempted to go thither, after having repaired the damage his vessel -had suffered in a storm. The second attempt was fruitless, for after -sailing about forty leagues to the east without seeing land, he was -assailed by a violent tempest and a contrary wind, which quickly drove -him back to the port whence he had emerged." - -In criticism Waxel adds: - -"Would not this narrative lead one to believe that the second attempt -of M. Bering had been made immediately after the first voyage [in -1729]? However, it was entirely otherwise: Before making this journey -M. Bering wintered at Kamtschatka, set sail only on June 5, 1729, and, -_without intending to return to the port which he was quitting_, -doubled the southern point of Kamtschatka and went straight to the -mouth of the river Bolschaia-Reka and thence to Ochozk." - -He further says: - -"Perhaps it may appear strange that M. Bering during this voyage did -not fall in with the island (Bering island) whereon he was shipwrecked -during his second expedition; but the isle might have been hidden by -fogs, which are very common in that sea." - -Waxel's account of the second voyage is worth translating, being the -plain tale of a participant, who is as modest as he is truthful, for -Waxel nowhere mentions his own name nor the {224} efficient service he -rendered first to his chief and later to his shipwrecked comrades. He -writes in "Une Lettre" as follows: - -"Let us now come to the details of the second expedition, which M. de -l'Isle pretends owes its origin to a map of _his_ and was undertaken -according to a memoir made by himself. 'I had the honor,' he says, 'in -1731 to present this chart to the Empress Anne and to the Senate, in -order to stimulate the Russians to explorations of what still remained -to be discovered, and it had its effect.' Was it time or age which -caused M. de l'Isle to commit this error? Could he have forgotten the -orders which led him to make the chart in question? Had he remembered -it, perhaps he would not have said that he presented the chart to the -Empress, and still less that he made it in order to excite the -Russians to new discoveries. At that time I visited M. de l'Isle; I -was a witness of his geographical labors, as far as they had new -discoveries for their object; I acted as interpreter to M. Bering in -the conversations which he had with him; and I can assert positively -that when M. de l'Isle began that chart the second expedition was -already ordered, and Captain Bering, knowing what was still wanting to -his discoveries, offered to continue them and his lieutenants with -him; and they each received promotion in consequence. - -"It is therefore true that M. de l'Isle's work must be attributed to -the orders of his superiors; and I remember that the Empress Anne -having commissioned her secretary to give the necessary instructions -to M. Bering for his new voyage, the latter did not think he could -carry it on successfully without getting from the Academy all the -information possible concerning the countries and waters where he was -to navigate. The Academy was therefore called upon by the Senate, and -it ordered M. de l'Isle to compile the chart of which I speak, and in -order that it might be better understood, to explain it in a memoir; -which having been done, the chart and the memoir were presented to the -Senate by the Academy; so that there can be no possible doubt that, so -far from having stimulated the Russians to new discoveries, so far -from having occasioned the new voyage of M. Bering, M. de l'Isle only -worked according to the orders he had received. There arises another -question, as to whether the memoir caused the success of the -expedition, which I will treat later on. However that may be, the -Senate gave a copy of it to M. Bering as well as of the chart. I took -a second copy, which enables me to compare it with what M. de l'Isle -tells us about it in his last memoir from Paris. - -"He pretends to have proposed three different routes to be followed in -order to discover what was still unknown. The first, to sail straight -to Japan, pass Yeco, or rather the straits which separate it from the -island of the States and the land of the Company, to discover what is -to the north of Yeco and search for the passage between that country -and the coast of eastern Tartary. This is what is called giving advice -after the event. In the original memoir there is not a word said about -any such researches. M. de l'Isle contents himself with proposing -three different routes for finding the countries lying near to -Kamshatka on the east. {225} The first two, we must admit, agree well -enough with the second and third routes mentioned in the Paris memoir. -They are expressed in these terms: - -"1. 'If one advances to the most northern extremity of Asia, and at -the same time the most eastern point reached by Captain Bering (wrong -supposition, as I have already remarked), one cannot fail to reach -America, no matter what route one takes between the northeast and -southeast, at a distance of not more than 600 leagues (great error in -estimating the distance of the opposite lands of Asia and America, -since they are only separated in the north by a narrow strait which -widens as it goes south).' - -"2. 'Without going so far, it would perhaps be easier to start from -the eastern coast of Kamshatka, sail directly east and reconnoitre the -neighboring land, of which M. Bering discovered indications on his -first voyage.' - -"In regard to the third route, M. de l'Isle conjectures as follows: - -"3. 'Perhaps the countries seen by Don Juan de Gama might be found -more speedily and with more certitude by seeking them to the southeast -of Kamshatka;' the outcome of which project showed him his mistake, -which is apparently the reason that induced him to change it to that -of the route by Japan and Yeco. - -"Nothing is so imperfect in detail, and withal so dry, as the recital -of M. Bering's voyage with which M. de l'Isle regales us. He makes him -start in 1741 to look to the east of Kamshatka for the land which he -had seen indications of in his first voyage. 'He did not go very far,' -he says, 'for, being assailed by a violent storm during thick weather, -he could not remain at sea, and brought up on a desert island in -latitude 54°, only a short distance from the Port of Avatcha from -whence he had sailed.' - -"M. Bering, then, did nothing but fail, and he did so soon after -leaving port. I must therefore supplement the meagreness of M. de -l'Isle's relation by giving an account of the voyage of M. Bering and -the other officers, chiefs of these expeditions, which will be so much -the more easy as I took part in them and as I can, besides, refer to -the charts and journals of each vessel as proofs of my correctness. - -"The Captain Commanding Bering and Captains Spangenberg and -Tschirikow, with several other naval officers, left St. Petersburg in -the spring of 1733. They waited at Yakouzk and Ochozk until the -vessels being built at this latter place for their expedition were -completed, and when all was ready for the departure of M. de -Spangenberg he was dispatched first, according to the orders of the -Senate. He started, then, from Ochozk in the month of June, 1738, -having three vessels under his command, to which he added a large -covered row-boat of 24 oars, which he caused to be constructed at -Bolscherezkoi Ostrog in Kamshatka, where he wintered. This boat was to -be used to go into the narrow straits between the islands that they -might find and where the ships could not go. In the summer of 1739 he -went to Japan, the long chain of islands situated between Japan and -Kamshatka serving to guide him. He landed at two different places in -Japan and was received with great civility by the people of the -country; but he never went to Matsmai, the principal place {226} on -the island of Yeco, as M. de l'Isle erroneously states. He thought he -had sufficiently complied with his instructions without doing so, and -returning to Ochozk, passed the winter at Yakouzk. As soon as a -detailed account of this voyage was seen in St. Petersburg they -concluded by the route which M. Spangenberg had followed that he must -have passed near the coast of Corea, and he was therefore ordered to -make a second voyage in order to confirm the first. He started in 1741 -and 1742, but his ship, built hastily and of unseasoned wood, leaked -and obliged him to return. - -"MM. Bering and Tschirikow left Ochozk the 4th of September, 1740. -They both had the same destination; the second was to follow the track -of the first. They only took different vessels so as to be able to -assist each other more efficaciously in case of any accident. Without -entering the Bolschaia-Reka river, as is customary in coming from -Ochozk, they immediately rounded the southern point of Kamshatka and -anchored at Avatscha, or port of St. Peter and St. Paul, as they -called it. While wintering in these places, they made all their -preparations for commencing in spring their principal voyage, which -was to have America as its object. Owing, however, to the uncertainty -as to the route which they were to follow, M. Bering assembled a naval -council on the 4th of May, 1741, and it was resolved to endeavor first -to discover the land of Don Juan de Gama, a fatal resolution which was -the cause of all of our disasters. The 4th June we put to sea. -M. Bering had on his vessel, sent by the Academy, an adjutant, -M. Steller, physician by profession, but above all well versed in all -that pertained to natural history. M. de la Croyere was with -M. Tschirikow. Although M. Bering and M. Tschirikow were not to -separate, according to their instructions, they could not avoid it, -for eight days after sailing they were separated by storms and fogs. -The search for the pretended land of Gama caused them to direct their -course southeast; they continued to sail in that direction as far as -the 46th degree without, however, finding the slightest vestige of it. -They then changed their course to the northeast and both reached the -coast of America, but in different places and without knowing of the -whereabouts of the other. M. Bering and we who accompanied him saw -land for the first time after being six weeks at sea. We then -calculated that we were about five hundred Dutch leagues from -Avatscha. We provided ourselves with fresh water. We saw indications -of inhabitants, but could perceive no one. After being at anchor three -days, M. Bering consulted with his officers, and it was resolved to -return. The 21st July we weighed anchor before sunrise. There was -nothing to do but to follow the coast, which stretched westward; but -navigation was seriously embarrassed by frequent islands, and when we -tried to put to sea we were met by storms and contrary winds, which -caused us new delays every day. In order to procure fresh water, we -returned towards the coast, from which we had kept as far as possible. -Soon it was in sight, seeming about ten miles distant. We anchored -between the islands, and the one where we landed was -Schoumagin-Ostrow. The water was good, but although taken from a lake, -there was, nevertheless, some sea water in it brought by the tide, -which sometimes inundated the island. Afterwards {227} we felt -disastrous effects from its use, in sickness and the loss of several -of our men, who died. We tried in vain during three or four days to -discover some natives of the country, whose fires we could see at -night on the coast. The 4th of September these savages finally came, -of themselves, in little canoes, and, having announced their arrival -to us by a loud cry, they presented us with their calumets, in sign of -peace. These calumets were sticks with the wings of falcons attached -to the end. We understood from their gestures that they were inviting -us to come on land in order to furnish us with provisions and fresh -water. We wished to profit by the opportunity, and some of us ventured -to follow them; but soon, however, misunderstandings arose and all -communication was broken off. - -"The 6th of September, after having at first had a tolerably good wind -for the voyage, we began to find that as we advanced the obstacles -were increasing, nothing but coasts and islands on every side. -M. Bering wished to get away from them by sailing more southwards, -and, in truth, for several days the sea appeared much more free. Our -joy, however, was of short duration. The 24th of September, in -latitude 54 degrees, we came upon coasts bordered with a number of -islands, and at the same time a violent tempest arose, which lasted -seventeen days and sent us back a distance of eighty miles. An old -pilot acknowledged that during the fifty years that he had followed -the sea he had never seen such a storm. We should then stop calling -this ocean 'Pacific.' This name may, perhaps, be suitable to it in the -tropics, but certainly is wrongly given to it here. The weather became -calm again, but our provisions were by this time considerably -diminished and there was only about a third of our crew who remained -well and serviceable after all the hardships to which they had been -exposed. There was still more than half of our way to make, counting -from the extreme point of our voyage in the East to Avatscha. In view -of these facts, many of us were of opinion that it would be better to -winter somewhere in America, rather than run the risk of encountering -new dangers worse, perhaps, than those we had just escaped; and these -counsels came near prevailing over those who were of opinion that we -should make a supreme effort to reach Avatscha, and that it would be -time to think of seeking another refuge when we had lost all hope of -succeeding in so doing. The month of October, however, was passed as -fruitlessly as the preceding ones. The 30th of that month we came upon -two islands, which seemed to us to bear some resemblance to the first -two of those islands which stretch from the southern extremity of -Kamshatka to Japan. Thereupon we directed our course northwards, and -the 4th November, having observed the latitude, we found that we were -under the 56th parallel. The 5th, however, finished our voyage. -Wishing to sail to the west, we struck upon a desert island, where we -had a good prospect of finishing our lives. Our vessel went to pieces -upon one of those banks with which the island is surrounded, and we -were not long in seeking land, which we fortunately reached with -everything which we thought we should need. By a special dispensation -of Providence, the winds and waves threw the remains of our vessel on -shore; we gathered them {228} together to try, with the aid of God, to -put ourselves in a position to leave this sorry dwelling. The island -where we now found ourselves was destitute of trees. We were, -therefore, obliged to depend upon the wood that the sea brought us to -build our cabins and warm ourselves. We gave to this desert place the -name of Bering island, in honor of the chief of our expedition, and it -was there that he died, on the 8th of December, of grief and sorrow at -having to give up all hope of returning to Kamshatka. He refused to -eat or drink, and disdained the shelter of our cabins; his advanced -age could not rally under such a disaster. We young men kept our -courage up, resisted with firmness all discouragement, made it a duty -to still enjoy life and to make as much as we could out of our prison -home. Before our arrival, Bering island was the refuge only of the -inhabitants of the sea, who came there to breathe the air and deposit -their young. We were, therefore, able at first to observe these -creatures very closely without their taking fright. It was only after -having seen several of their number fall before our guns that they -fled at our approach. We killed a great number of them, as much to -furnish us with food as for their skins. It was by these valuable -spoils, splendid castor skins, that we were repaid in some measure for -our sufferings. - -"At the approach of spring the following year we built of the remains -of our vessel, as we had intended, a large covered boat, furnished -with anchors and sails and able to live at sea if not exposed to -storms. In this boat we confided ourselves to the sea, trusting in -Providence, the 17th of August, 1742, and after nine days at sea, with -beautiful calm weather, we arrived safely at Avatscha on the 26th, -giving thanks to the Almighty, who had delivered us from such great -dangers, and imbued us with gratitude such as time can never efface. - -"From this account we can correct the error of M. de l'Isle, who -places Bering island at the 54th degree, only a short distance from -Avatscha, whereas it is on the 56th parallel, sixty miles from -Avatscha and forty Dutch miles from the mouth of the Kamshatka river. - -"The voyage of M. Tschirikow, although attended with less fatigue and -danger, was not less painful to him. His tender heart, which his -profession of mariner had not rendered indifferent to the sufferings -of others, was indeed sorely tried. After parting from M. Bering, -sailing northwest, he came on the 15th of July to a country the shores -of which were lined with rugged rocks, at the foot of which rolled a -deep sea. He prudently refrained from approaching too near the shore, -but at the end of three days sent the pilot, Abraham Dementiew, with a -crew of ten men, to reconnoiter the country. Neither Dementiew nor any -of those who accompanied him ever returned; and most sincerely was he -mourned, and deservedly so, for he was young, good-looking, of an -honorable family, steady and clever in his profession, and zealous in -the service of his country. After waiting six days, M. Tschirikow sent -the boatman, Sidor Sawelef, with three men, but they did not return -any more than the others. While waiting for their return we constantly -saw smoke on the shores, and the day after the departure of the -boatman two men, in different boats, came from the spot where -Dementiew and Sawelew had {229} landed. When they had approached near -enough to be heard they began to call out, 'Agai, agai,' and then went -back. M. Tschirikow did not know what to think of their conduct, and -now, despairing of the return of his men and having no more boats to -send on shore, he determined, on the 27th of July, to leave the place, -follow the coast as much as possible, and then return to Kamshatka. -M. de l'Isle, then, makes an addition of his own when he says that -'M. Tschirikow made many excursions into the country, during the month -of August, while waiting for the return of his men.' To return to the -truth, M. Tschirikow, in a distance of one hundred miles, never lost -sight of land; he battled often with contrary winds, had much anxiety -on account of the heavy fogs, and lost an anchor which he had put out, -not far from the coast, in a moment of great danger. He was visited by -twenty-one canoes, of tanned skins, each one containing a man; but -this was all--for he was unable to converse with them. The scarcity of -water and the scurvy carried off many of his men. Among the officers -he lost two lieutenants--Lichatschew and Plautin, fine men and -excellent mariners--who might have rendered good service had they -lived. M. Tschirikow himself began to have the symptoms of disease, -but good food and the air on land restored him to health. M. de la -Croyere was not so fortunate; he appeared to have held his own until -he was just at the point of death. His companions marveled at the good -effects of the large quantities of brandy which he drank every day; -but they soon saw that the only good it did him was to make him forget -his sufferings. He died on the 10th of October, as they were entering -the port of Avatscha, having dressed himself to go on shore and having -celebrated his arrival by new excesses. We cannot ignore the important -service rendered by M. de la Croyere to the expedition, when he -recognized the Americans who came to M. Tschirikow as bearing great -resemblance to the inhabitants of Canada, whom he had met while -serving in that country seventeen years before coming to Russia, with -the King of France's troops." - - * * * * * - -NOTE.--A pamphlet which has just come into my possession, entitled -"Lettre de Monsieur d'Anville au R. P. Castel, Jesuit. Au sujet des -Pays de Kamtchatka," etc. (24mo, Paris, 1737), throws some light on -the map of du Halde (1732), and definitely fixes the date and locality -of the observation of the eclipse of the moon referred to by de l'Isle -and the Russian officer, as well as later geographers. - -D'Anville says: - -"The map of Bering's voyage is attributed to me.... The only part I -had therein was to reduce it from the much larger original map, of -which I had made a tracing by means of oiled paper.... I first learned -of Bering's voyage by letters from de l'Isle, then in Russia; and -finally an account of this voyage having been sent to R. P. du Halde -by His Majesty Stanislas, King of Poland, it was placed in my hands. - -{230} "Likewise, both by a sheet of _astronomical observations made by -Bering which came to me_ later, and by the same letters of M. de -l'Isle, I knew that the mouth of the river of Kamtchatka was found by -astronomical determination to be in latitude 56° and some minutes. - -"Bering in his navigation doubled the southern point of this continent -[Kamshatka] in latitude 51° 10", as is expressly noted in the sheet of -_observations_ which is now before me. - -"But though the solution of the difficulty in the case of the Land of -Jeco may be very simple and natural, yet it was not obvious to me, it -may be said, for Bering's voyage and observations caused me to recur -to this subject, and I can no longer doubt that the eastern coast of -Tartary should be moved to the east as far as the maps of the Jesuits -first indicated; for although M. de Strahlenberg in his excellent map -of Siberia shows only 65° of longitude between Tobolsk and Okhotsk, -and there are even less in de l'Isle's map of Tartary, yet Bering's -map indicates that there are 74°. - -"It was found that it (Ohkotz) is 25° off of the meridian of Peking, -which the observations of P. Gaubil placed in 113° fifty-odd minutes -from Paris, so that it closely approximates the 139° which we have -found it to be from Bering's observations. This determination does not -differ much from the result of some astronomical observations, which, -as I learn from China, M. de l'Isle, now in Russia, contemplated using -in order to ascertain approximately the longitude of Kamtchat. The -observation upon which I place the most dependence, and which likewise -gives the greatest difference, is of an eclipse of the moon of -February 25, 1728, of which the end was observed on the west coast of -Kamtshat in latitude 52° 46' N., Sirius having an altitude of 19° 18' -to the west, wherefrom M. de l'Isle calculated that the true time -answered to 6h. 52m. p.m. - -"This eclipse, the end especially, fell throughout Europe in the -daytime, but having been observed at Carthagena, West Indies, by -D. Jean Herrera, where it ended at 3h. 34m. a.m., a difference of -8h. 42m. is deduced between the meridians of Carthagena and the coast -of Kamtshat." - -It is thus evident that Bering observed an eclipse of the moon in -Kamshatka, and that the observations came into the hands of -M. d'Anville. - -A. W. G. - -JANUARY 21, 1892. - - -{231} - - -HEIGHT AND POSITION OF MOUNT ST. ELIAS. - -BY - -ISRAEL C. RUSSELL. - -(_Laid before the Board of Managers December 11, 1891_.) - - -The height and position of Mount St. Elias have been measured several -times during the past century with varying results. The measurements -made prior to 1891 have been summarized and discussed by W. H. Dall, -of the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey.[1] The various results -obtained are shown in the following table. With the exception of the -position determined by Malaspina and the measurements of 1891, they -are copied from Dall's report. - -[Footnote 1: Rep. of the Superintendent of the U. S. Coast Survey for -1875, pp. 157-188.] - - _Height and Position of Mount St. Elias_. - - -----+--------------------+-------------+-------------+------------- - Date.| Authority. | Height. | Latitude. | Longitude. - -----+--------------------+-------------+-------------+------------- - 1786 | La Pérouse | 12,672 feet | 60° 15' 00" | 140° 10' 00" - 1791 | Malaspina | 17,851 " | 60 17 35 | 140 52 17 - 1794 | Vancouver | ----------- | 60 22 30 | 140 39 00 - 1847 | Russian Hydrogra- | | | - | phic Chart, 1378 | 17,850 " | 60 21 00 | 141 00 00 - 1847 | Tebenkof (Notes) | 16,938 " | 60 22 36 | 140 54 00 - 1849 | Tebenkof | | | - | (Chart VII) | 16,938 " | 60 21 30 | 140 54 00 - | Bach. Can. Inseln | 16,758 " | 60 17 30 | 140 51 00 - 1872 | English Admiralty | - | Chart 2172 | 14,970 " | 60 21 00 | 141 00 00 - 1874 | U. S. Coast Survey | 19,500±400 "| 60 20 45 | 141 00 12 - 1891 | Nat. Geog. Soc. Ex.| 18,100±100 "| 60 17 51 | 140 55 30 - -----+--------------------+-------------+-------------+------------- - -The position given by Malaspina is from a report on astronomical -observations made during his voyage,[2] which places the mountain in -longitude 134° 33' 10" west of Cadiz. Taking {232} the longitude of -Cadiz as 6° 19' 07" west of Greenwich, the figures given in the table -are obtained. - -[Footnote 2: Memorias sobre las obversaciones astronomicas hechas por -les navegantes Españoles en distintos lugares del globe; Por Don Josef -Espinosa y Tello. Madrid, en la Imprente real, Ano de 1809: 2 vols., -large 8°; vol. 1, pp. 57-60. My attention was directed to this work by -Dr. Dall, who owns the only copy I have seen.] - -The data from which the various determinations made previous to 1874 -were obtained have not been published. The observations made by -Messrs. Dall and Baker, of the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, are -published in full in the annual report of that Survey for 1875, -already referred to. The observations made by myself last summer as a -part of the work of an expedition sent to Mount St. Elias by the -National Geographic Society and the U. S. Geological Survey, from -which the height and position of the mountain have been computed, are -as follows: - -A base line 16,876 feet long was measured on the beach at Icy bay. The -line, with the exception of section _C_ to _D_, as shown below, was -measured three times in sections of about 3,000 feet each. The -distances given below in columns 1 and 2 were obtained with a 100-foot -steel tape, and those given in column 3 with a 300-foot iron wire. -These are rough measurements, made without the use of a plumb-bob and -without taking account of temperature. The ground was quite smooth, -with a rise of about five feet in the center; but section _C_ to _D_ -was crossed by a stream channel about 300 feet broad and twenty feet -deep. Throughout much of the distance the ground was covered with -grass, which was only partially cleared away. The stations at the ends -of the line were ten feet above high tide. The bearing of the line -from the western base was S. 89° E., magnetic. - - _Measurements of Base Line_. - - ---------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+---------- - | 1. | 2. | 3. | Mean. - ---------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+---------- - | _Ft. in._ | _Ft. in._ | _Ft. in._ | _Ft. in._ - Western base to | | | | - station _A_ | 3,179 10 | 3,178 7 | 3,178 9 | 3,179 1 - Station _A_ to | | | | - station _B_ | 2,355 2 | 2,354 1 | 2,354 2 | 2,354 6 - Station _B_ to | | | | - station _C_ | 3,589 0 | 3,587 9 | 3,586 0 | 3,587 7 - Station _C_ to | | | | - station _D_ | Rejected. | 2,609 2 | 2,609 5 | 2,609 3 - Station _D_ to | | | Not | - eastern base | 5,145 5 | 5,144 10 | measured. | 5,145 1 - | | | | --------- - Length of base line | | | | 16,875 6 - ---------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+---------- - -The measurements of angles were made with a gradienter reading by -vernier to minutes. The error of the vertical arc was -3', and -remained constant during the observations. - -{233} _Measurements of Angles at Western Base_. - - ------------+----------+----------+---------+----------------------- - | Right | Left | Vertical| - | vernier. | vernier. | angle. | Date. - ------------+----------+----------+---------+----------------------- - St. Elias | 218° 35' | 38° 35' | +5° 40' | 1891, Aug. 14, 10 a.m. - 1. Eastern | 317 6 | 137 7 | ------- | " " " - base | | | | - ------------+----------+----------+---------+----------------------- - St. Elias | 218 34 | 38 37 | +5 40 | " " " - 2. Eastern | 317 6 | 137 7 | ------- | " " " - base | | | | - ------------+----------+----------+---------+----------------------- - St. Elias | 218 37 | 38 39 | +5 40 | " " " - 3. Eastern | 317 6 | 137 8 | ------- | " " " - base | | | | - ------------+----------+----------+---------+----------------------- - St. Elias | 261 41 | 81 43 | +5 40 | " " " - 4. Eastern | 0 10 | 180 11 | ------- | " " " - base | | | | - ------------+----------+----------+---------+----------------------- - St. Elias | 261 41 | 81 43 | +5 40 | " " " - 5. Eastern | 0 10 | 180 10 | ------- | " " " - base | | | | - ------------+----------+----------+---------+----------------------- - St. Elias | 50 15 | 230 15 | +5 40 | " " 6 p.m. - 6. Eastern | 148 45 | 328 45 | ------- | " " " - base | | | | - ------------+----------+----------+---------+----------------------- - St. Elias | 50 15 | -------- | ------- | " " " - 7. Eastern | 148 45 | -------- | ------- | " " " - base | | | | - ------------+----------+----------+---------+----------------------- - St. Elias | 181 5 | 1 5 | +5 40 | " " " - 8. Eastern | 279 30 | 99 32 | ------- | " " " - base | | | | - ------------+----------+----------+---------+----------------------- - - - _Measurements of Angles at Eastern Base_. - - ------------+----------+----------+---------+----------------------- - | Right | Left | Vertical| - | vernier. | vernier. | angle. | Date. - ------------+----------+----------+---------+----------------------- - St. Elias | 252° 26' | 72° 27' | +5° 34' | 1891, Aug. 17, 11.30 - 1. Western | 176 19 | 356 19 | ------- | " " a.m. - base | | | | - ------------+----------+----------+---------+----------------------- - St. Elias | 252 26 | 72 26 | +5 34 | " " " - 2. Western | 176 19 | 356 19 | ------- | " " " - base | | | | - ------------+----------+----------+---------+----------------------- - St. Elias | 252 25 | 72 26 | +5 34 | " " " - 3. Western | 176 19 | 356 19 | ------- | " " " - base | | | | - ------------+----------+----------+---------+----------------------- - St. Elias | 252 26 | 72 27 | +5 34 | " " " - 4. Western | 176 19 | 356 19 | ------- | " " " - base | | | | - ------------+----------+----------+---------+----------------------- - St. Elias | 252 26 | 72 26 | +5 34 | " " " - 5. Western | 176 19 | -------- | ------- | " " " - base | | | | - ------------+----------+----------+---------+----------------------- - St. Elias | 252 27 | 72 28 | +5 34 | " " 2 p.m. - 6. Western | 176 20 | 356 20 | ------- | " " " - base | | | | - ------------+----------+----------+---------+----------------------- - St. Elias | 252 28 | -------- | ------- | " " 4.30 - 7. Western | 176 21 | -------- | ------- | " " p.m. - base | | | | - ------------+----------+----------+---------+----------------------- - -{234} From these observations the following angles between the base -line and the line of sight to the summit of Mount St. Elias are -obtained. The correction for error of vertical circle has been applied -to the angles of elevation. - - _Resulting Angles_. - --------------------------------------+ - | WESTERN BASE. | - --+-----------+-----------+-----------+ - | | | Corrected | - | Right | Left | Vertical | - | vernier. | vernier. | angle. | - --+-----------+-----------+-----------+ - 1 | 98° 31' | 98° 32' | +5° 43' | - 2 | 98 32 | 98 30 | +5 43 | - 3 | 98 29 | 98 29 | +5 43 | - 4 | 98 29 | 98 28 | +5 43 | - 5 | 98 29 | 98 27 | +5 43 | - 6 | 98 30 | 98 30 | +5 43 | - 7 | 98 30 | --------- | +5 43 | - 8 | 98 25 | 98 27 | +5 43 | - --+-----------+-----------+-----------+ - | 98 29 22 | 98 29 00 | | - --+-----------+-----------+-----------+ - Mean 98° 29' 12" +5° 43' | - --------------------------------------+ - | EASTERN BASE. | - --+-----------+-----------+-----------+ - | | | Corrected | - | Right | Left | Vertical | - | vernier. | vernier. | angle. | - --+-----------+-----------+-----------+ - 1 | 76° 7' | 76° 8' | +5° 37' | - 2 | 76 7 | 76 7 | +5 37 | - 3 | 76 6 | 76 7 | +5 37 | - 4 | 76 7 | 76 8 | +5 37 | - 5 | 76 7 | --------- | +5 37 | - 6 | 76 7 | 76 8 | +5 37 | - 7 | 76 7 | | | - --+-----------+-----------+-----------+ - | 76 6 51 | 76 7 36 | | - --+-----------+-----------+-----------+ - Mean 76° 7' 10" +5° 37' | - --------------------------------------+ - -The known elements of the triangle from which the distance of St. -Elias from the ends of the base line may be determined are: - -[Illustration: Distance triangle.] - -These data were sent from the field to the Secretary of the National -Geographic Society, and, in connection with other measurements made at -the same time, have been computed by {235} Mr. S. S. Gannett, of the -United States Geological Survey. The results of the computation, so -far as they relate to Mount St. Elias, are given below: - - _Computation of the Height of Mount St. Elias_. - ------------------------------------------------------------------- - _Station_. _Angle_. 16,876 _ft. log._ - Dist. E. base--W. base = 4.227270 - St. Elias 5° 23' 38" A. C. log. sine = 1.026862 - Western base 98 29 12 log. sine = 9.995218 - Eastern base 76 07 10 log. sine = 9.987129 - ---------- -------- - St. Elias--W. base = 5.241261 - St. Elias--E. base = 5.249350 - ------------------------------------------------------------------- - _log. feet_. _log. miles_. _miles_. - Log. distance: St. Elias--W. base = 5.241261 1.518627 33.01 - Log. tan angle of elevation 5° 43' = 9.000465 - -------- - 17447 ft. 4.241726 - Curvature and refraction = +623 - Western base above sea = +10 Correction for curvature and - ----- refraction in feet = 4/7 sq. - St. Elias above sea = 18080 ft. of dist. in miles. - - log. distance miles = 1.51863 - 1.51863 - log. 4 = 0.60206 - A. C. log. 7 = 9.15490 - ------- - log. 623 ft. = 2.79422 - ------------------------------------------------------------------- - _log. feet_. _log. miles_. _miles_. - Log. distance: St. Elias--E. base = 5.249350 1.526716 33.63 - Log. tan 5° 37' 8.992750 1.526716 - -------- 0.602060 - 17462 = 4.242100 9.154902 - Curvature and refraction = +646 -------- - E. base above sea = +10 log. 646 ft. = 2.810394 - ----- - St. Elias above sea = 18118 ft. - ------------------------------------------------------------------- - Mean elevation above sea level = 18099 ft.; - or in round numbers 18,100 ft. - -Mr. A. Lindenkohl, of the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, and Mr. -S. S. Gannett have each computed the geographic position of Mount St. -Elias, using the azimuth and angle of elevation of the mountain -obtained by the U. S. Coast Survey at Port Mulgrave in 1874,[3] and -the elevation given above. From {236} these data the approximate -position of Mount St. Elias was found to be: - - Lat., 60° 17' 51" N. - Long., 140° 55' 30" W. - -[Footnote 3: Report of the Superintendent of the U. S. Coast Survey -for 1875, Appendix 10, pp. 157-188.] - -The computation by which these results were obtained is given below: - - _Computation of Geographic Position of Mount St. Elias_. - ------------------------------------------------------------------- - Azimuth: Port Mulgrave to Mount St. Elias = 142° 17' 17" - Diff. azimuth -59 55 - + 180° +180° - ------------- - Azimuth: Mount St. Elias to Port Mulgrave = 321° 17' 22" - - ----------------------------------------------------------------- - - _Latitude_. _Longitude_. - 59° 33' 42" = Port Mulgrave 139° 46' 16" - +44 09 = Diff. lat. +1 09 14 = Diff. long. - ---------- ----------- - 60° 17' 51" = Mount St. Elias 140° 55' 30" - - -------------------------------------------------------------------- - - 1st Term. 2d Term. - _Log. meters_. - Log. K = (Dist., Mulgrave-St. Elias) = 5.0183184 K^2 = 0.0366 - Log. cosine azimuth, Z, 142° 17' 17" = 9.8982292 Sine^2 Z = 9.5731 - Log. B = 8.5093902 Log. C = 1.6335 - --------- ------ - Log. 2666".5 = 3.4259378 Log. 17".6 = 1.2432 - 1st term = + 2666".5 - 2nd term = - 17 .6 - ------- - Difference lat. = 2648".9 - - -------------------------------------------------------------------- - - Log. K = 5.0183184 - Log. sine azimuth = 9.7865328 - Log. A[4] = 8.5086148 - Arithmetical complement 60° 17' 51" = 0.3049593 - --------- - Log. diff. in longitude 4153".6 = 3.6184253 - - -------------------------------------------------------------------- - - Log. diff. long. = 3.61843 - Log. sine mean latitude 59° 55' 46" = 9.93722 - ------- - Log. diff. azimuth--3595" = 3.55565 - --------------------------------------------------------------------- - -[Footnote 4: _A_, _B_ and _C_ are terms depending on the size and -figure of the earth and the latitude of the place.] - -{237} The geographic position of Mount St. Elias is of popular -interest in connection with the boundaries of Alaska. - -In the convention between Great Britain and Russia,[5] wherein the -boundaries of Alaska are supposed to be defined, it is stated that the -boundary, beginning at the south, after leaving Portland channel, -shall follow the summit of the mountains situated parallel to the -coast as far as the 141st meridian, and from there northward the said -meridian shall be the boundary to the Arctic ocean. Whenever the -summit of the mountains between Portland channel and the 141st -meridian "shall prove to be at the distance of more than ten marine -leagues from the ocean, the limit between the British possessions and -the line of coast which is to belong to Russia, above mentioned, shall -be formed by a line parallel to the windings of the coast and which -shall never exceed the distance of ten marine leagues therefrom." - -[Footnote 5: Message from the President of the United States, -transmitting Report on the boundary line between Alaska and British -Columbia. 50th Congress, 2d session, Ex. Doc. No. 146, Senate, 1889.] - -As Mount St. Elias is approximately in longitude 140° 55' 30" west -from Greenwich, as already shown, it is therefore only 4' and 30" of -longitude or 2½ statute miles east of the boundary of the main portion -of Alaska. Its distance from the nearest point on the coast is 33 -statute miles. There is no coast range in southeastern Alaska parallel -with the coast within the limits specified by the treaty, and the -boundary must therefore be considered as a line parallel with the -coast and ten marine leagues, or 34½ statute miles, inland. The -mountain is thus one and one-half miles south of the boundary and -within the territory of the United States. Its position is so near the -junction of the boundary separating southeastern Alaska from the -Northwest Territory with the 141st meridian that it is practically a -corner monument of our national domain. - - -{238} - - -THE HEART OF AFRICA. - -BY E. C. HORE. - -(_Abstracts of two Lectures presented before the Society March 6 and -March 13, 1891_.) - - -I. - -The subject of Africa and its people has recently become a most -interesting and popular one. We are but now beginning to realize the -size and importance of Africa, as we are reminded that it contains -nearly one-fourth part of the land area of the world; that it has -mountains at least 1,000 feet higher than the most lofty American -peaks; that the known extent of the Nile and the Congo now make them -the rivals of the Yang-tse-Kiang and the Mississippi as the longest -rivers in the world; that its central regions, instead of the great -desert blank so long shown on our maps, is a rich and beautiful -elevated region, having upon its heights a splendid collection of -fresh-water lakes or inland seas, fertilizing by their outflowing -streams the whole continent; and that it is known to contain over -250,000,000 people, or about one-seventh part of the world's -population. It is called the "dark continent:" rather should it be -called the "new world," in which our interest and -responsibility--political, commercial and social--is rapidly growing. - -For purposes of general description, there are three great divisions -of the African continent and its peoples and affairs: - -_The northern division_, stamped and characterized--men, manners and -things--by the orientalism of its conquering settlers, so intimately -blended by blood, religion and character with the natives as to have -become essentially African, its original peoples so thoroughly -influenced by the incoming foreigners as to be now essentially -oriental; - -_The southern division_, overrun in more modern times by foreigners of -other races, and having its own peculiar civilization and -characteristics due to that influx; and - -{239} _Central Africa_, including all that portion of the continent -lying between, say, the Albert Nyanza and the river Zambesi, and -Zanzibar and the Congo mouth, and which, although no part now remains -of it that is not nominally the territory either of the Congo Free -state or some European power, is still almost entirely in the -possession and occupation of its lawful owners, the native uncivilized -tribes. - -As well as this transverse political division of Africa, we may make -what may be called a concentric analysis. Commencing with the outer -_skin_, the 16,000 miles of African coast, we find upon it certain -excrescences, which, if our examination went but skin-deep, might well -lead us to regard Africa not as a "new," but as an "old, old" world. -On the north and east the remains of ancient civilizations, Morocco, -Tangier, Egypt, remind us of Africa's bygone grandeur--remind us how -very much of forms of beauty and secrets of science and art came to us -in the birth of civilized Europe from or through Africa. On the south -and west again, memorials of Phoenician, of Portuguese, of Dutch, -English and American conquering visitors and adventurers remind us of -the constant preying of the nations on the dark continent--remind us, -through certain prison castles still to be seen on the western coast, -of the great world's crime, the slave trade. But on the outer surface -of Africa other signs are to be read: North, south, east and west -there are ports and roadsteads forested with the masts of the world's -shipping conveying to Africa's every shore those products of the -civilized world which, according to their nature for good or harm, are -to influence and civilize the Africans; carrying away from her shore -the land's products--a constant stream, increasing perhaps just now, -but which has always been flowing--of wool, cotton, oil, rich spices, -dyes and medicinal and ornamental woods, india-rubber, gum-copal, -ivory, precious stones, gold. Are these the products of a desert land -inhabited only by a lazy and savage people? - -Following our concentric analysis, the first layer behind the outer -skin of Africa may be said to consist of a verdant slope, broad and -luxuriant in the tropics, where nature herself has been lavish, -narrower, but still ever widening, in the drier north and south, as -the oriental and the European respectively advance their groves of -fruit and fields of corn, maintained in luxuriance alike by the vapors -of the sea and the down drainage from the higher lands, and from the -same causes also malarious and {240} unhealthy. In another sense, too, -this outer belt is both rich and unhappy. Into it come those men and -things representing "civilization" from afar. To it, from the -interior, gravitate those of the natives who are influenced by contact -with those men and things, deprived to a great extent of the old -uncivilized condition and its innocencies and partially imbued with -what of civilization has come to them. Mankind, too, in this outer -belt is often only too rank and unhealthy in his character. It is -truly "darkest Africa;" for, first, the slave trade and then the rum -bottle have in many parts been the preponderating representatives to -them of outer civilization. - -The next layer is a step or terrace of flat sandy semi-arid country, -narrow in the tropics, widening toward each extreme, until it bulges -out in the north into the Sahara desert, in the south into the -Kalahari, some parts always bare and sandy or covered with a sparkling -saline or alkaline deposit, some parts forming broad savannas or -prairies, bearing rich grasses in the rains, burnt bare in the dry -season; others covered with thickets of thorns or stunted and crippled -trees under the same variations of seasons. This is the land of the -ostrich and the pelican, the scene of vast prairie fires or whirling -dust spouts; it is the land also of the nomad man. Across the Sahara -the wandering Arab leads his camels from oasis to oasis; amid the -wastes of the Kalahari the homeless Bushman finds a congenial hunting -territory; in the narrow, tropical parts such semi-nomads as the -Somali, the Wamasai, and the Wagogo lead their cattle from place to -place, as the grass and water serve them with the seasons. - -This terrace or flat sandy belt being crossed, we come to the true -central region of Africa, a long irregular oval-shaped elevation of -mountain masses, spreading out in many places as vast plateaus and -forming altogether that mysterious elevated region reported from time -to time by old investigators as well as compilers of native reports as -the Mountains of the Moon. In the crevices of this central mass, in -rocky basins, in fathomless chasms, in vast depressions of the -plateaus, lie those great natural rainwater tanks known as the central -African lakes. On and around it are the richest and most beautiful and -healthful countries. Spreading over it and around its beautiful waters -are the most intelligent and industrious of the native African tribes, -their native industry and enterprise yet almost undisturbed by the -{241} busy excitement of civilization. Hence there may fairly be drawn -something like a sample of the real African native character and -condition. They live in families; among them the family tie and the -rights of property are regarded; conscience pronounces criminal and -offensive the same irregularities as are so regarded among civilized -peoples; in stature and physical condition they come up to the best -standards. I argue that the life and condition which presents this -state of things after isolation for thousands of years from all we -call civilized can scarcely be called evil or degraded. - -Among these people, both pastoral and agricultural, are to be found in -progress the germs at least of all the useful arts--the procuring and -working of both iron and copper, pottery-making, the spinning and -weaving of cotton cloth, the very beautiful development of plaiting of -all kinds of vegetal fibers into string, rope, mats, baskets and -cloth; and where valuable materials and products are naturally -confined to particular localities, as is the case sometimes with oil, -salt, etc., it is manufactured and distributed. Too often are people -described as lacking in industry who are not the same as ourselves; -but it seems to me ridiculous that a man should be called lazy because -he has ample leisure between his busy times, who has made with his own -hands, from nature's absolutely raw material, his house, his axe and -hoe and spear, his clothing and ornaments, his furniture, his corn -mill, all things that he has, and who, though liable often in a -lifetime to have to repeat that whole process over again, has the -energy and enterprise to commence afresh. Too often have the same -people been called savage and bloodthirsty who, through all experience -and by all their traditions getting naturally to regard unintroduced -armed strangers as enemies, have the same desperate energy to defend -themselves and their own which, as displayed by our own ancestral -relatives, we love to term patriotism and courage. - -In a fairly central position on this great central elevation is the -elongated basin surrounded by a mountain rim in the bottom of which, -in a long chasm, lies Lake Tanganyika, in a position alike so central -and so unique that I have termed it the Heart of Africa. Inside the -mountain basin rim, the rainfall all converges into Tanganyika; -outside, it all flows to the outer shores of the continent by the -Nile, the Congo or the Zambesi. Fifteen years ago the waters of Lake -Tanganyika, having very slowly {242} gained upon the evaporation (the -then only means of carrying off its surplus) attained to the height of -the lowest gap in its rim and commenced to flow out, and thence its -surplus water ever since has found an exit and now forms part of the -Congo system. Tanganyika is 400 miles long and from 15 to 50 miles in -width, and is 2,700 feet above the sea. - -To leave, however, this very rough general description of Africa at -this point would convey a wrong idea. We have described the verdant -slope from the coast, the terrace of flatter country, the central -elevation and its heart; now we may imagine a series of great ridges -and furrows and other radial features diverging from the heart of -Africa to its very shores, besides certain isolated ridges and peaks, -some of them snow-clad, and certain isolated depressions forming lakes -or swamps; first the three great furrows of the Nile, Zambesi and -Congo and the three great ridges formed by their dividing water-sheds, -and so on through fan-like expansions of rim or ridges and furrows -until the previously described concentric formation, although still -there, is considerably cut up. - -The great central mountain mass, buttressed by its far-stretching -ridges, forms _the backbone_, from which, outward and downward, in -intricate articulations, extends the complicated _bony skeleton_ of -Africa. - -Set like sparkling jewels in its crevices and depressions, the great -lakes send forth the streams which, flowing through gaps in their -surrounding mountain barriers, rushing through narrow channels, oozing -slowly through elevated flats or bounding in beautiful cascades over -steep steps, and carrying the vitalizing fluid in every direction -through the length and breadth of Africa, form _its system of -circulation_. - -Bordering the great lakes and clustering on the slopes, forests of -gigantic trees form the _flesh and muscle_ of this great creation; -preserved in perpetual verdure wherever water constantly remains and -in long extending lines and network fringing the ever-winding banks of -the streams, and finally joining with the verdant belt of the -sea-coast to form the brilliant _epidermis_ of the whole, and forming -background and filling to the network of these prominent features, in -broad concentric curves and in belts and patches, the more stunted -thorny growth, long grass, broad savanna and sandy plain, ever -changing in color and aspect. - -The great new and beautiful world of Africa lies open before {243} us; -250,000,000 intelligent and courageous people have become exposed to -the influence, for good or evil, of the civilized races. What shall we -do with it and them? Quite possible is it fairly and honestly so to -explore and deal with both country and people as to develop its -resources and benefit them, while adding to the world's treasury of -comfort-bringing products and human brotherhood the riches and the -friendship of a new continent; but it must be by peaceful and just -measures and by honest trade with wholesome wares. - - -II. - -As a practical way of leading you in imagination to the heart of -Africa, and as indicating the circumstances and experience upon which -my observations on Africa are based, I shall describe one of my many -journeys. - -In the year 1882 I had the honor to be leader of the largest European -expedition that has yet entered Africa, having in it, for instance, -200 more men than the Emin Pasha relief expedition. There were ten -Europeans, all told, who represented survey and navigation, medicine, -carpentry, blacksmithing, and other specially selected talent for the -purpose of exploration and civilization, as well as those specially -devoted to the teaching of Christianity, which was the ultimate aim of -all. We entered Africa from the village of Saadani, on the eastern -coast, opposite Zanzibar, our destination being the shores of Lake -Tanganyika at Ujiji. - -To make not only our progress sure, but work and residence at our -destination safe and possible in such a land, we had stores of -groceries, medicines, tools and clothing, and a large quantity of -calico and other cloth, which forms the currency of the country, for -the purchase of supplies and payment of wages to porters, servants and -workmen. - -The special locality to be worked being the countries surrounding Lake -Tanganyika, to which that extensive and beautiful inland sea gives -access, we carried with us also, for its navigation, a sailing boat -built of steel, of the form of a sea-going life-boat, and constructed -in small sections and pieces for transport. This boat I designed -myself. Six of the sections were to travel on {244} specially -constructed light carts, drawn by African natives, and the rest, in -small pieces, were to be carried by the porters in the ordinary way. - -The mode of travel was walking, except when now and then an invalid -was carried in a hammock. The method of transport was by means of -native porters, hundreds of whom devote themselves to this work. They -are paid $5 per month as wages, payable at Zanzibar on their return to -the coast, less such advance in kind as they may draw from their -leader along the road. In addition, they get a regular allowance of -two yards of white calico per seven days, each man, as barter with -which to obtain food. - -The organization and start of such a party took some time, and parties -of from 100 to 300 were dispatched along the road as things were -ready, until, when I started with the final rear guard, we had on the -road over 900 of these porters, with their headmen and petty officers, -all under complete organization. - -The first start of the boat-section carts was the scene of apparent -disaster. The men, wild with excitement and uniting their shouts with -those of onlookers, were beyond all restraint for the moment, and as -they rounded a sharp turn to get out of the village of Saadani, over -went the carts, one after the other, on their sides; and it was some -time before I could train the men to steer more carefully or to move -gently down a declivity. In time, however, the whole thing worked -well. The fore compartment of the boat, going stem first, often forced -its own way through masses of brush and creeper, helping to clear the -way for the narrower sections, whose carts insinuated themselves -through surprisingly small gaps. The men themselves were most zealous -in the service, and as we emerged from lengthy stretches of jungle, -ascended steep river banks, or jolted whole days over rugged stony -places unharmed, we made up our minds that, these carts would "go -anywhere." In twenty days we reached Upwapwa, 200 miles from the -coast, and joined an advance party awaiting us; and after a few days -rest and reorganization, we started once more westward. - -The first village beyond, in the country of Ugogo, was thirty miles -off. The first day was a comparatively easy march to a watering place, -but the next two days gave us tough work. The thick, tangled, thorny -scrub became quite dense, and for those two days we had to cut our way -through it foot by foot. Hour {245} after hour the twang of the -sword-bayonets and the thud of the axes were almost the only sounds to -be heard till the train of carts moved slowly on as the way was -opened. Toward evening of the second day we followed a narrow pass -along the side of a rocky river bed, stout, inflexible trunks and -branches here projecting into our path. On some of these ebony bars -the axes resounded as on an anvil, and they yielded only to the more -patient saw. As the sun descended we began to flag, but help was at -hand; for a party coming back to us from the camp ahead with food and -water, we picked up strength and spirit and reached camp late in the -evening. - -The level plains of Ugogo, which here represent the flat, open step or -terrace to which I have referred in the general description of Africa, -enabled us to make a week or so of splendid and comfortable marches. -Ugogo passed, there lay before us the much-dreaded wilderness, -so-called, of the Magunda-Mkali, separated from Ugogo by a steep, -rocky ascent, which we could only tackle one cart at a time, and we -soon came to a point so rugged with broken rocks that we could proceed -no further; but the sections were unlashed, the carts taken to pieces, -and all handed or dragged across the difficult place and put together -again beyond. Over the scrubby, rugged hill and dale of Magunda-Mkali, -without inhabitants, 20 to 25 miles a day was often made; every man -knew the necessity of pushing on for food and water, and the danger, -from wild beasts or wandering highwaymen, of lagging in the rear. - -On, on, went the novel train, through weary miles of forest, across -the scorched plain, rattling over the hard sun-baked footprints of the -elephant and rhinoceros; on through grassy glades where the nimble -antelope bounded, scared out of our path, and the zebra and giraffe -were startled by the rattling of these strange disturbers of their -solitude; on still, through miles of swamp, with its croaking legions; -on through scenes of surpassing beauty, bright flowers and gleaming -birds and butterflies; on past the bleaching bones of other travelers -waylaid or exhausted, till the sun creeps up high overhead and eager -glances are cast at green spots where water once had been; on, till -the pace grows slow with weariness and thirst, and still on, till it -revives again as the welcome messenger from the front appears in sight -with water or the camp-fires tell of food and rest. - -Completing this difficult section of the journey and mounting {246} to -the beautiful forests and numerous villages of Unyamwesi, we had -arrived upon the central heights of the continent, which everything -around us bespoke its best part; the clearer, more healthy air, the -rich land, the open forests, the numerous and industrious people, all -spoke eloquently of a better and brighter state of things in the -interior of Africa than on its outside. - -At Urambo we elicited the pleased surprise of our friend, the famous -chief Mirambo. Said Mirambo, laying his hand emphatically on one of -the boat sections, "This boat and these carts are mine, and all -Unyamwesi is yours." It was his way of expressing sympathy and -admiration of what he considered to be a very wonderful enterprise, -and we left him pondering more deeply than ever on the doings of the -"white men." - -The rains were now at hand and the country rich and verdant; we -hastened on with all speed possible to enable us to cross the -Malagarasi river before it should be too swollen. Emerging from -elevated forest land to a view of the valley of the river, it appears -like a vast level expanse of harmless grass, but the swift river is -flowing in the bottom. The toll required by the natives being paid, we -descended to the river through the thick grass. We crossed the river -in tiny dug-out or bark canoes managed by the natives. One old man, a -leader among these ferrymen, we had especial cause to notice; we -called him "the old admiral." He wore a curious skull cap apparently -made of bladder, and presented a most odd appearance. To him we paid a -special fee of propitiation for the boatmen. As we proceeded down -toward the river the first sign of it among the long grass was quiet -shallow water on the path; this grew deeper and deeper as we walked on -until we were immersed to the armpits, the grass rising avenue-like -overhead. We emerged upon a small island or rising ground, and the -river proper was before us. On this little eminence stood "the old -admiral" superintending all. The porters and their ordinary loads all -crossed in the usual way, two or three at a time in the little canoes. -The two large carts, with the bow and stern compartments of the boats, -were floated along the watery avenue by the buoyancy of their -tank-like loads; the others came, sections and carts, separately. The -fare for each load was one yard of calico, but when the carts appeared -there was general astonishment among the ferrymen, who showed signs of -clearing off altogether; "the old admiral" alone was unmoved; his -stolid countenance showed no sign, but a deep bass growl, {247} "Eight -yards, eight yards for these!" expressed at once his nonchalance and -his determination; and eight yards we had to pay. All was safely got -over in a day. Two of the bark canoes were lashed together with poles -across, and one section or one cart at a time laid on top, and thus -all was carried across. - -Obstacles which further back would have been regarded as great -hindrances were now made little of; success seemed assured to all, and -the men even began to rehearse their triumphal entry into Ujiji. One -more difficult river, the Lusugi, we had to cross. We reached its -banks, down a rocky descent, late one night in a heavy fall of rain. -We waited an hour or two next morning till the river had somewhat -subsided, and then commenced work. Two or three volunteers swam across -with a stout rope, which was then hauled tight across the stream. The -porters, holding this rope in one hand, slowly but surely made their -way across. Then the carts and sections were attached to a block -running on the rope, and so, carefully attended by two or three men, -were floated over in safety. - -Ujiji was now only a few marches ahead. The view of the lake was -caught at last, a narrow strip of its waters gleaming in the sun in -the distance, and next morning we slowly marched into Ujiji in a -compact body. The boat was duly launched and has now been for years at -work on Lake Tanganyika in the cause of civilization and Christianity. - -The _completion_ of this journey, however, was but the _commencement_ -of a still larger enterprise in the region reached. Stations were -established among the tribes on the lake shores; a larger vessel, with -steam power, was built and launched on the lake, and a substantial -mission was established and is still at work at a point which is only -400 miles from that point on the Congo river accessible to the -steamers of the missions there. - - * * * * * - -All the work I have described was done at the expense of the London -Missionary Society. - - -{248} - - -REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON EXPLORATION IN ALASKA. - -(_Accepted April 3, 1891_.) - - -_Washington, D. C., April 3, 1891_. - -TO THE BOARD OF MANAGERS OF THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY, - _Washington, D. C._ - -_Gentlemen_: Your Committee, instructed "to consider the advisability -of further Alaskan exploration by the Society this year and if deemed -advisable, to consider and report upon ways and means for -accomplishing it," respectfully submit the following report: - -The general question of desirability has been decided affirmatively by -the Board of Managers; it therefore is inferred that the question of -advisability may be taken as involved in that of ways and means. - -In outlining a plan of work, concerning which such inquiry is to be -made, it has been found necessary, in the lack of formulated opinion -by the Society, to make assumptions as to what should be its purpose -and policy in undertaking exploration. It is assumed tentatively that -in order best to further the object for which the Society is -organized, namely, "the increase and diffusion of geographic -knowledge," the aim in exploration should be not so much to promote -the growth of science as to diffuse a general interest in geographic -work in its several departments, and, adhering to the principle of -attractiveness, to increase the sum of knowledge by discovery and by -the addition of general and elementary facts rather than by detailed -investigation, for appreciation of which scientific training must be -presupposed. It is furthermore believed that the policy of the Society -should be to invite coöperation, offering opportunity at the same time -for special study in related sciences; to effect the organization and -devise the plan, and itself to take part directly in field work only -so far as may be necessary to initiate and promote it. - -Your Committee find that apparently it will be practicable, {249} with -coöperation, for the Society to extend this year the exploration work -of last year in the vicinity of Mount St. Elias. Specifically it is -recommended that the plan be to determine directly, from a long base -line near the coast, the height of the mountain, to ascend it, to -observe systematically the unique phenomena of physical geography of -the Malaspina glacier from Icy bay to the initial point of last year's -exploration, and to explore the Seward glacier to its head if deemed -advisable after the ascent of the peak. - -In view of the fact that it is the purpose of the Coast and Geodetic -Survey to carry the international boundary survey into this region -within one or two years, it is considered inexpedient for the Society -to undertake extended topographic work. It is, however, submitted, as -a principle which this Society should emphasize in projecting -exploration, that facts of physical geography have minimum value and -may lead to false conclusions unless correlated through their space -relations; and it is recommended that the expedition aim always to -employ such means as may be practicable for making record of its -course and of its observations in approximate geometric relation to -surroundings. - -Conditional offers of coöperation have been made by the Revenue Marine -Service, the Geological Survey, the Coast and Geodetic Survey, and the -Century Company of New York. Transportation from Seattle to Alaska and -return, it is thought, may be secured on the steamer Corwin, and that -vessel's commander, Captain Hooper, has expressed a desire to extend -his coast-line exploration of last year by making a survey of -Disenchantment bay. The Geological Survey offers to detail Mr. Russell -to conduct the expedition, and to bear the expense of a number of -field hands and of their equipment. The Coast and Geodetic Survey has -expressed a desire to aid, if practicable, by beginning boundary work -in the same field this year, and incidentally to do other surveying -with special relation to the work of the expedition. The Century -Company offers to send an artist experienced in Alpine work and to pay -the greater portion of his expenses. The opportunity for study of the -fauna and flora of the region it is thought should not be neglected. - -The cost to the Society, wholly in items of field expense otherwise -unprovided for, which may be considered as the cost of enabling the -combination to work as one organization, is estimated at $500. - -{250} The expedition should leave Seattle in the latter part of May, -aiming to reach Icy bay by the first of June, and field work should -close by the end of September. - -Your committee consider further exploration in Alaska by the Society -this year as practicable, and recommend that the proposed expedition -be authorized, and that Mr. Russell be at once invited to organize and -conduct it, under the auspices of the Society. - -Very respectfully, - - G. K. GILBERT, - EVERETT HAYDEN, - WILLARD D. JOHNSON, - _Committee on Exploration_. - - - - -NOTES. - - -_La Carte de France, dite de l'Etat Major, par M. J. Collet. Paris, -1887. 8vo, pp. 92, with 4 plates._--This pamphlet describes the great -"Staff Map" of France, recently completed, giving its history, the -methods employed in the field and office work, the contents of the -map, and the means of representing the various features therein -described. The scale of the map is 1:80,000. Relief is represented by -hachures, for drawing which approximate contour lines have been -located, but these are not otherwise used. A great variety of cultural -features are shown, many of which are ephemeral, and which contribute -to the overloading of the map with details. Moreover, as the time -which has ordinarily elapsed between the survey and the issuance of -the work in printed form is ten or twelve years, most of this culture -has become not only of no value but misleading by the time it is -published. - -The account of the organization and methods by which the map has been -produced is of special interest. The primary triangulation upon which -it is based is one of the most elaborate and accurate ever executed in -any country. No expense has been spared in this direction. Within this -triangulation is a secondary triangulation, also very elaborate, from -the stations of which numerous additional points are cut in, or -located by unclosed triangles. All this work is of the highest order -of excellence, being infinitely more accurate than the map requires. -{251} With this, however, the accuracy appears to end. The detail -consists of the map, or the map proper, little more than a compilation -of commune cadastral plans. These were fitted to the triangulation -points and to one another, a process which appears to have been by no -means easy of satisfactory accomplishment. This adjustment having been -completed, the culture was brought up to date of survey and a survey -was made of the relief features by the use of such inferior -instruments as the clinometer compass and chain. - -The principal and obvious criticism upon such work is that it is -top-heavy. The triangulation is far more elaborate than is required, -while the provision for making the map itself is by no means -comparable with it: it is as far below the requirements of the scale -as the triangulation is above it. - -This leads up to a broader proposition, which may be stated thus: That -the general tendency of surveying organizations is in the direction -illustrated by that of the "French Staff." Organized originally for -map-making, they progress little by little in the direction of -devoting their energies to geodetic work, while at the same time the -topographic work proper, for which they were created, is belittled and -neglected. As a consequence the latter depreciates in quality and -diminishes in quantity; the main purpose of the organization is lost, -and a mere means becomes the ultimate end of the work. This tendency -should be recognized in map-making organizations. The weakness of our -modern maps is seldom in the primary control. It is easy to do -triangulation of sufficient accuracy for the control of maps upon such -scales as that above considered, little knowledge or experience being -required beyond that gained at our engineering schools; while the more -accurate triangulation, generally known as geodetic work, requires -merely better instruments, more time, and more experienced observers. - -The weak features of maps are generally the details, the part of the -work that, strange to say, is usually relegated to the lowest grade of -professional men. This weakness consists in an insufficiency of minor -locations for the control of the sketch and in unfaithful sketching. -It is the sketching that requires the most careful attention and the -best and most experienced men. The instrumental portion of the work is -the least difficult; the artistic portion, or sketching, is the most -difficult. It would seem more logical and would doubtless produce -better results to reverse the {252} usual order of promotion and place -the topographer above the triangulator. Moreover, the triangulation -should be regarded as merely a means for the correction of the -sketching, and it should be required only that it be of sufficiently -high grade to meet this condition. The minor locations should be -sufficiently numerous and well distributed to fully control and -correct the sketching; and finally the sketching should be as faithful -a representation of the topography as is consistent with the necessary -generalization of the surface features. - -H. G. - - * * * * * - -_Polar Regions_.--The _Societe de Geographie_ of Paris in its -Proceedings publishes the following communication from M. Ch. Rabot on -the new Danish expedition engaged in the exploration of the eastern -coast of Greenland, under the command of Lieutenant Ryder, of the -royal Danish navy. The expedition has in view the examination of the -unknown coast between Franz-Josef fiord, in latitude 73°, and the most -northerly point reached by Commander Holm and Lieutenant Garde, about -latitude 66°. Lieutenant Ryder left Copenhagen June 7, 1891, in the -Norwegian whaler _Hekla_, which had been chartered by the Danish -government. The first ice was met on the 20th, in latitude 68° 12', -longitude 13° 05' west. Unable to pass through the pack to the -Greenland shore after several attempts, the ship proceeded northward, -and in the vicinity of Jan Mayen made soundings and successful -dredgings. Several attempts to reach the coast of Greenland were made -from the 75th parallel southward, but without success up to July 2, -when the _Hekla_ was in latitude 71° 31', longitude 6° 30' west. Since -that date there has been no direct news, but on July 26, in latitude -72° 40', longitude 14° 25' west, the English whaler _Active_ saw the -_Hekla_ a few miles to the northeast, heading to the south-southwest. -On August 2 the _Active_, in latitude 71° 40', approached within 12 -miles of the coast, and on August 20, in 70° 30', was within 7 miles -of the mainland. In both instances the intervening sea was free of -ice. The English captain believes that the _Hekla_ made the eastern -coast in about 71° 30'. The _Hekla_ is provisioned for the winter, and -there is a prospect of marked success by the Danish officers in their -undertaking. - - * * * * * - -{253} _The Crossing of Tibet_.--The explorations of Mr. Rockhill in -Tibet and his renewed attempt to reach Lassa, the "holy city" of that -country, creates an unusual interest for Americans in the account of -the crossing of Tibet by M. G. Bonvalot, Prince Henri d'Orleans, and -P. Dedeken, published in the last Bulletin of the Paris Geographical -Society. - -Six days' journey from Moscow brought the party through Russia and -Turkestan to Kouldja (45° N., 41° W.), in extreme western Mongolia. -Having obtained authority from the Chinese governor of the province to -proceed, the party, aggregating 15 in number, left that place -September 12, 1889, with Batang, China, as an objective point. On -October 5, after a journey of about 450 miles, during which they -crossed the Thian-chan ("heavenly") mountains by Narat pass, they -camped at Korla, near Bagratch-koul. Here they were warned that they -could proceed no farther, and the governor of Ili sent an order to -arrest them. The mandarin and other local authorities did not, -however, actively oppose their departure, which took place during the -night of October 10, the party then consisting of 20 horsemen and 40 -pack-animals. On October 28 they reached Kara-douran, the western end -of Lob-nor. A side trip by d'Orleans and Dedeken to Lob-nor proved it -to be no longer a lake but a series of swamps and sandy islands, with -the water nowhere more than four feet deep. Meantime Bonavolot -accumulated supplies and replaced from the hardy Mongols the more -timid among their camp-followers, the party being reduced to seven, -with a few extra men for a short distance. - -Quitting Tcharkalik on November 17, they followed the route taken by -Carey; but on the advice of the natives they resolved after crossing -the Altyn-tagh to go directly southward instead of turning eastward, -and thus to attempt a new route, on which they were beset by the usual -physical discomforts attendant on travel at great elevations. On these -mountain ranges they saw only wild sheep, blue hares, wild horses, -crows and partridges. On December 5, just south of a large salt lake -(Ouzoun-tchour), they, saw a caravan of Kalmouk pilgrims returning -from Lassa by an unknown route, which they refused to make known, and -decided to temporarily abandon their idea of reaching Batang and -instead to go direct to Lassa by retracing the caravan trail. From -this point (about 38° 30' N. and 87° 30' W.) they proceeded directly -southward. The region penetrated was unknown, the winds {254} violent -the entire day, the desert treeless and without water, the route lined -with the carcasses of camels and their drivers, the only fuel the dung -of wandering yaks or caravan camels, and the trail so indistinct that -at times they marched by compass. The elevation gradually and steadily -increased to 15,000 and even 16,500 feet; the mountain fever became -worse, the storms more violent and continuous, and the temperature -ranged from 7° (-14° C.), with wind, at midday to 30° below zero -(-33° C.) at night. One by one their horses and camels died, and also -an old Kirgese who followed them. Extensive glaciers were passed, from -which flow on the one side the Salouen and Mekong into Indian ocean, -and on the other the Yang-tse to China sea. On January 8, 1890, they -skirted a large unfrozen lake named Montcalm, 50 miles long by 12 -miles wide, and on January 14 traversed Duplex pass, 20,000 feet -elevation. On the 31st they finally ran across a man, a wild Tibetan, -small, thin, with enormous lips, long knotted hair, clothed in -sheepskin and armed with a saber and flint-lock gun, whom they called -"appa" (father); he knew neither Chinese nor Mogul, but spoke Tibetan -of which the travelers knew scarcely a dozen words. Other Tibetans, -with flocks of sheep, soon appeared and sold them mutton, a little -salt, and rancid butter, and then followed on horseback for fifteen -days without losing sight of the explorers. Often they were counseled -in Mogul by those in authority to turn back. - -In the middle of February they reached lake Nam-tso ("heaven"), or -Tengri-nor, a large frozen body of water. Out of 40 camels only 15 -remained, and, of 20 horses but one survived; three of the party of -seven were in desperate state of health, while all were worn out and -almost without provisions. They were finally obliged to stop in a -mountain pass of the Nindjin-tangla, which led directly to Lassa, then -not more than sixty miles distant. On February 17 the Tibetan -authorities sent a large party to meet them and ask their intentions. -Mistaken for Russians, it took 13 days to convince the authorities -that they were French. They received presents from the authorities and -obtained costumes from Lassa, but found it impossible to visit the -"holy city." After 49 days of negotiation, on April 5, provided with -arms, provisions and horses, and also a safe permit from the Talia -lama to cross Tibet to Batang by an unknown route, they started -eastward, on a course nearly {255} parallel to and north of Salouen -river, reaching Sô and once again seeing houses on April 15. They -arrived at Batang early in June, their route some distance west of it -having joined the Imperial highway from Pekin to Lassa over which -l'Abbe Huc travelled. From Tatsien-lou, where the French Tibetan -mission is located, their route turned southward to Red river, which -was reached, at Manhoau, on September 21, when their journey -practically ended, as Hanoai was reached two days later. - -An excellent map of the itinerary, by Prince Henri, accompanies the -article. - -A. W. G. - - * * * * * - -_Third Annual Report on the Statistics of Railways in the United -States to the Interstate Commerce Commission, for the year ending -June 30, 1890_: Washington, Government Printing Office, 1891 (advance -copy, pp. 1-100).--This pamphlet, by Professor Henry C. Adams, is -issued in advance of the full report, which is promised to comprise -about 875 pages. It contains a summary, digest and discussion of the -full report. - -It appears that the total railroad mileage on June 30, 1890, was -163,597, an increase of 5,838 miles during the year. The increase came -mainly from southeastern and western states. This mileage was owned by -1,797 distinct corporate bodies, but entirely controlled in one way or -another by only 747 companies. To illustrate the extent to which -consolidation of railroad property has gone, it may be stated that -47.5 per cent of all railroad mileage is controlled by but forty -companies, and that 65.4 per cent is controlled by seventy-five -companies. The greatest mileage controlled by one company is 6,053, -operated by the Southern Pacific company. - -The total capital and bonded debt of railroad companies was -$9,871,378,389, or $60,340 per mile. Stock and bonds were about equal -in amount. Mr. Adams estimates the value of railroad property by -capitalizing at 5 per cent the dividends and interest on bonds paid -during the year, reaching as a result $6,627,461,140, or about 2/3 of -the nominal capital and bonded debt. The justice of this method may -fairly be questioned. A comparison of the ruling prices of -dividend-paying stocks with the rate per cent of the dividend shows -that 5 per cent stocks are above par and that 4 per cent stocks -average nearly par. {256} Moreover, it is well known that many -railroads are built and operated, not for their own immediate earnings -but to give value to other property of the companies, notably to -lands, from the sale or lease of which the companies derive profits. -Again, many railroads are built, not for present but for future -profits, after they shall have induced settlement of their territory; -and, furthermore, numerous branch roads have been built as defensive -measures to prevent rivals from occupying territory; and in many cases -earnings are used in betterment of property instead of distributing it -as dividends. In all these cases the roads have value, although they -are not paying dividends. - -Taking all these matters into account, it does not appear that the -railroad stocks of the country have, collectively, been watered to any -great extent, if by "watering" is meant expanding nominal values above -actual values. - -Concerning dividends paid on stock, Mr. Adams presents a table showing -that 63.76 per cent of all stock paid no dividends; that but 6.47 per -cent paid less than 4 per cent; that 25.26 per cent paid from 4 to 8 -per cent, the remainder paying above 8 per cent. It appears that in -the northeastern states much the highest dividends were paid, while in -the west, so far as dividends are concerned, the stockholders have to -wait for future developments. - -The total passenger mileage for the year was 11,847,785,617, a slight -increase over the previous year. The total freight mileage was -76,207,047,298, an increase of nearly 10 per cent over that of the -previous year. The gross earnings of the year were $1,051,877,632, and -the operating expenses $692,093,971, leaving as the income from -operations $359,783,661. The income from other sources was -$126,767,064, and the total deductions from income were $384,792,138, -leaving as the net income $101,758,587, out of which there was paid as -dividends on stock $89,688,204. - -The magnitude of the railway interests of the country is set forth in -the above enormous figures. It is still further emphasized by the fact -that nearly three-quarters of a million men are in the employ of this -industry. Assuming that each such employé supports two others besides -himself, it is seen that the railroad interest supports two and a -quarter millions, or more than one thirtieth of the inhabitants of the -country. - -H. G. - - -{257} - - -INDEX. - - -ABBE, CLEVELAND, cited on isostaths, 43 ---, Record of communication by, viii --- -- -- discussion by, viii - -ABORIGINES of South America, 7 - -ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, Russian, Quotation from records of, 212 - -ADAMS, HENRY C., Review of report on railway operations by, 255 - -ADELUNG, J. C., Geographic work by, 211 ---, Quotation from, on de l'Isle's map, 212, 213, 214 - -ADMIRALTY BAY, 56 - -AFRICA, Area of, 32 ---, Conquest and division of, 31 ---, Natural divisions of, 238 ---, Population of, 238 --- (The Heart of); E. C. Hore, 238 - -AGASSIZ GLACIER, Ascent of, 147 --- -- named, 73 - -AGE of St. Elias range, 175 - -ALASKA (An expedition to Mount St. Elias,); I. C. Russell, 53 ---, Boundaries of, 237 ---, Early works concerning, 206 ---, Report of committee on exploration in, 248 - -ALLEN, JAMES, cited on isostaths, 44 - -ALPENSTOCKS, Necessity for, 165 - -ALPINE glaciers, 176, 180 - -ALTON, EDMUND, Contribution to exploration fund by, 75 - -ALVORD, H. E., Remarks by, at field meeting, x - -AMAZON, Discovery of the, 11 ---, Sketch of the, 4 - -AMENDMENT to by-laws proposed, xii - -ANDES, General description of the, 1 - -ANEMOMETER formula devised by C. F. Marvin, 49 - -ANGOT, A., Reference to work of, 46 - -ANTIQUITIES of Peru, 8 - -ARCHANGELICA, Mention of, 89, 114 - -ARGENTINE REPUBLIC, Sketch of, 19 - -ASIA, Exploration in, 253 - -ATREVIDA, Mention of the, 63, 92, 105 - -AURIFEROUS sands from Yakutat bay, 196 - -AVALANCHES, 145, 155 - - -BAIE DE MONTI, 56 --- named by La Pérouse, 60 - -BAKER, MARCUS, cited on early eclipses, 220 --- -- -- Mount St. Elias, 232 ---, Explorations by, 70, 72 ---, Reference to bibliography by, 58 ---, Record of discussion by, viii, ix - -BASE LINE, Measurement of, 86 - -BATES, H. W., Quotation from, on South America, 29 - -BEAR, Meeting with the, 94, 109 - -BELCHER, SIR EDWARD, Explorations by, 68, 69 - -BELL, A. GRAHAM, Contribution to exploration fund by, 75 - -BELL, CHARLES J., Contribution to exploration fund by, 75 - -BELLIN, S., Geographic work by, 207 - -BERING BAY, Mention of, 56 - -BERING'S first voyage (The cartography and observations of); A. W. - Greely, 205 --- provisions, 219 - -BERING, VITUS, Explorations by, 58 - -BERG, M., cited on thunderstorms, 44 - -BIEN, MORRIS, Contribution to exploration fund by, 75 - -BIGELOW, F. H., Record of communication by, viii - -BIRNIE, JR., ROGERS, Contribution to exploration fund by, 75 - -BLACK GLACIER, Brief account of, 101, 104 - -BLODGETT, J. H., Record of discussion by, vii, ix - -BLOSSOM ISLAND, Description of, 113, 122 - -BOARD ON GEOGRAPHIC NAMES, Institution of the, 39 - -BONVALOT, G., Crossing of Tibet by, 253 - -BOURSIN, HENRY, Mention of, 79 - -BRAZIL, Revolution in, 36 ---, Sketch of, 17 - -BROKA, GEORGE, Explorations by, 73, 74 - -BUACHE, PHILLIPE, Geographic work by, 208 - -BUCHAN, ALEX., Reference to work of, 44 - -BUCKLE, SIR HENRY, Quotation from, on tropical America, 29 - -BY-LAWS, Proposed amendment to the, xii - - -CAMP hands, 166 - -CARPENTER, Z. T., Contribution to exploration fund by, 75 - -CARTOGRAPHY, Discussion of, 251 --- (The) and Observations of Bering's First Voyage; A. W. Greely, 205 - -CASCADE GLACIER named, 144 - -CENTURY COMPANY, Offer of coöperation by, 249 - -CHAIX HILLS named, 73 - -CHARIOT, THE, Mention of, 140 - -CHATHAM, Mention of, 66 - -CHERIKOF, ALEXEI, Explorations of, 58 - -CHINA, Exploration in, 253 - -CHRISTIE, J. H., Member of expedition, 76 ---, Work of, 82, 83, 84, 96, 103, 112, 113, 123, 162 - -CLIMATE of South America, 6 - -CLOVER, RICHARDSON, Contribution to exploration fund by, 75 - -COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY, Explorations by, 70, 72 ---, Offer of coöperation by, 249 - -COLD WAVES, Prediction of, 51 - -COLLETT, M. J., Review of map described by, 250 - -COMMERCE of South America, 17, 19, 23 - -COOK, CAPTAIN JAMES, Explorations of, 58 - -CORDILLERAS of South America, 1 - -CORWIN CLIFFS, Mention of, 138 - -CORWIN (The) in Disenchantment bay, 100 --- Return of the, 163 - -CREVASSES, 181, 182 --- at Pinnacle pass, 130 - -CROSS SOUND, visited by Vancouver's expedition, 67 - -CRUMBACK, J. H., Member of expedition, 76 ---, Work of, 96, 103, 122, 125, 129, 131, 135, 137 - -CURTIS, W. E., Record of communication by, xi - -CYCLONES, Theory of, 42 - - -DAGELET, M., Mention of, 60 - -DAHLGREN, ULRICA, Presentation of flag by, viii - -{258} - -DALL, W. H., cited on Bering's first voyage, 205 --- -- -- -- supplies, 219 --- -- -- de l'Isle's map, 218 --- -- -- early eclipses, 219 --- -- -- Mount St. Elias, 231 ---, Explorations by, 70, 72 ---, Quotation from, on map by de l'Isle, 207 ---, Record of discussion by, vii ---, Reference to bibliography by, 58 - -DALTON, JOHN, Glacier named for, 98 ---, Mention of, 73 - -D'ANVILLE, M., cited on early eclipses, 229 - -DAVIS, W. M., Reference to meteorologic review by, 47 - -DEDEKEN, P., Crossing of Tibet by, 253 - -DEFINITION of formations in St. Elias region, 167 - -DEKALB, COURTENAY, Record of communication by, ix - -DE L'ISLE, J. N., Authenticity of map by, 211, 213 ---, Geographic work by, 206 ---, Map by, 207 ---, Quotation from, on eclipses, 220 - -DE MONTI BAY, Arrival at, 79 - -DESCUBIERTA (The), Mention of, 63 - -DESENGAÑO BAY, named by Malaspina, 63 - -DEVIL'S CLUB (_Panax horridum_), Mention of, 95, 115 - -DIGGES' SOUND, named by Vancouver, 68 - -DILLER, J. S., Contribution to exploration fund by, 75 - -DIP at Pinnacle pass, 140 - -DISCOVERY (The), Mention of, 66 - -DISENCHANTMENT BAY, Canoe trip in, 96, 103 ---, Last view of, 163 ---, Mention of, 56 ---, visited by Malaspina, 63, 64 - -DIXON, CAPTAIN GEORGE, Explorations of, 60, 62 - -DOBBINS, J. W., Contribution to exploration fund by, 75 - -DOBBS, ARTHUR, Geographic work by, 210 - -DOME PASS named, 146 - -DONEY, L. S., Member of expedition, 76 ---, Work of, 85, 158, 159, 160, 162 - -D'ORLEANS, PRINCE HENRI, Crossing of Tibet by, 253 - -DOUGLASS, E. M., Record of discussion by, xi - -DOUGLASS, CAPTAIN, Explorations of, 62 - -DRY BAY, Mention of, 55 - -DU BOCAGE, BARBIC, Geographic work by, 211 ---, Quotation from, on de l'Isle's map, 216 - -DU FOSSE, E., cited on early publications, 207 - -DU HALDE, PÈRE, Geographic work by, 206 ---, Quotation from, on de l'Isle's map, 218 - - -EARTHQUAKES, South American, 2 - -ECLIPSES, Early, observed in Kamshatka, 219, 229 - -EIFFEL TOWER, Use of, in meteorology, 46 - -EKHOLM, NILS, cited on isostaths, 43 - -ELDORADO, Early accounts of, 14 - -ELECTION of officers, xii - -ESPERANZA, POINT, Mention of, 14, 85 - -EXPEDITION (An) to Mount St. Elias, Alaska; I. C. Russell, 53 - -EXPLORATION in Alaska, 248 - - -FARENHOLT, LIEUTENANT COMMANDER O. F., of U. S. S. _Pinta_, 79 - -FAULTED pebble from Pinnacle pass, 171 - -FAULTS 83, 136 ---, Thrust, in Hitchcock range, 118 - -FERREL, WILLIAM, cited on cyclones, 42 ---, Reference to treatise by, 47 - -FINLEY, J. P., Reference to work of, 50 - -FLORAL HILLS, Brief account of, 105, 108 - -FLORAL PASS, Brief account of, 105, 108, 110 - -FORMATIONS of the St. Elias region, 167 - -FOSSILS at Pinnacle pass, 140 ---, Description of, of Yakutat system, 172 - -FOSSIL PLANTS, Report on, by Lester F. Ward, 199, 200 - -FRANCE, Review of Staff Map of, 250 - - -GABBRO on the Marvine glacier, 123 - -GALIANO, DON DIONISIO ALCALA, Mention of, 63 - -GALIANO GLACIER, Visit to, 89, 90 - -GANNETT, HENRY, Contribution to exploration fund by, 75 ---, Instructions from, 194 ---, Review of railway operations by, 255 --- -- -- Staff Map of France, by, 250 - -GANNETT, S. S., Computation of height of Mount St. Elias, by, 235 - -GEOGRAPHIC names, Board of, 39 - -GEOGRAPHY of the Air; A. W. Greely, 41 --- -- -- Land; H. G. Ogden, 31 - -GEOLOGICAL SURVEY, Acknowledgments to, 40 ---, Instructions from, 192, 193, 194 ---, Offer of coöperation by, 249 - -GEOLOGY of the St. Elias region, 167, 174, 190, 191 - -GILBERT, G. K., Instructions from, 192, 193 ---, Record of discussion by, vii, ix, x ---, Remarks by, at field meeting, x ---, Report on exploration by, 250 - -GLACIAL currents, 187 --- river, Example of, 183 --- streams, 183, 184 - -GLACIER BAY, Mention of, 67 - -GLACIERS in Disenchantment bay in 1792, 64, 65, 97 --- -- -- -- observed by Malaspina, 64, 65 --- -- -- -- -- -- Puget, 67, 68 --- of the St. Elias region, 176 --- west of Icy bay, 187 - -GRACE, M. P., Financial operations by, 23 - -GREELY, A. W., Contribution to exploration fund by, 75 --- cited on Mississippi floods, 38 ---; Geography of the Air, 41 ---, Note by, on polar regions, 252 --- -- -- -- the crossing of Tibet, 253 ---, Record of communication by, vii, viii, xi ---; The Cartography and Observations of Bering's First Voyage, 205 - -GUIANA, Sketch of, 13 - -GUIDES, Use of, in ascending St. Elias, 166 - -GUYOT GLACIER named, 73 - - -HAENKE, D. TADEO, Haenke island named for, 65 - -HAENKE ISLAND, Condition of, when seen by Malaspina, 63, 64, 65, 97 ---, Visit to, 96, 103 - -HANN, JULIUS, cited on cyclones, 42 - -HAYDEN, DR. F. V., Glacier named for, 108 - -HAYDEN, EVERETT, Contributions to exploration fund by, 75 ---, Record of discussion by, vii, viii, ix, xi ---, Report on exploration by, 250 - -HAYDEN GLACIER, Brief account of, 108, 110, 111 - -HAYS, J. W., Contribution to exploration fund by, 75 - -HAZEN, H. A., Reference to work of, 50 - -HEIGHT and position of St. Elias, 189, 190 - -HENDRIKSEN, REVEREND CARL J., Mention of, 80, 83 - -HILL, S. A., Reference to work of, 47 - -HILL, R. T., Record of communication by, xiii - -HITCHCOCK, PROFESSOR EDWARD, Range named for, 112 - -HITCHCOCK RANGE, Brief account of, 112 --- from Pinnacle pass, 133 ---, Structure of, 118 - -{259} - -HOOGEWERFF, J. A., Record of communication by, viii - -HOOPER, CAPTAIN C. L., Navigation of Disenchantment bay, 56, 100 ---, Offer of coöperation by, 249 - -HORE, E. C., Record of address by, vii ---; The Heart of Africa, 238 - -HOSMER, E. S., Contribution to exploration fund by, 75 ---, Return of, 83 ---, Volunteer assistant, 76 - -HOTCHKISS, JED., Record of communication by, ix, x ---, Testimonial to, x - -HOVEY, H. C., Record of communication by, x ---, Remarks by, at field meeting, x - -HOWELL, E. E., Record of communication by, xi - -HUBBARD, GARDINER G., Contribution to exploration fund by, 75 ---, Glacier named for, 99 ---, Presentation of flag by, viii ---, Record of presidential address by, xiii ---; South America: Annual address by the President, 1 - -HUBBARD GLACIER, Brief description of, 99 - -HUC, L'ABBÉ, Route of, 255 - -HUGHES, T. MCKENNEY, Record of communication by, x - - -ICEBERGS, Formation of, 98, 99, 101, 102 --- in Yakutat bay, Description of, 87 - -ICE tunnels, 184 - -INCAS of Peru, 8 - -INDIANS of South America, 7 - -INSTRUCTIONS from Geological Survey, 192, 193, 194 --- -- National Geographic Society, 194 - -IRVING, PROFESSOR R. D., Mountain named for, 144 - - -JACKSON, SHELDON, Record of discussion by, ix - -JOHNSON, J. B., Record of discussion by, xi - -JOHNSON, WILLARD D., Contribution to exploration fund by, 75 ---, Exploration planned by, 75 ---, Record of discussion by, vii ---, Report on exploration by, 250 - -JUDD, J. G., Contribution to exploration fund by, 75 - -JUNGEN, ENSIGN C. W., Mention of, 81 - - -KAMSHATKA, Cartography of, 217 ---, Early eclipses in, 219, 229 - -KERR, MARK B., assigned as an assistant, 75 --- cited on Mount St. Elias, 39 ---, Report on topographic work by, 195 - -KHANTAAK ISLAND, Village on, 79, 80 - -KING, HARRY, Contribution to exploration fund by, 75 - -KNAPP, HON. LYMAN E., Mention of, 79 - -KNIGHT ISLAND, Scenery near, 83 --- named by Puget, 68 - -KNOWLTON, F. H., Report on fossil plants, 199 - - -LA BOUSSOLE, Mention of, 58 - -LAKE CASTANI named, 73 - -LAKELETS on the glaciers, 119, 120 - -LAKES, Abandoned beds of, near Blossom island, 116 - -LA PÉROUSE, J. F. S., Explorations of, 58, 60 - -LA PLATA river, Sketch of, 5 - -LASSA, recent attempt to reach, 253 - -L'ASTROLABE, Mention of, 58 - -LAURIDSEN, P., cited on early maps, 215 ---, Quotation from, on de l'Isle's map, 217 - -LEACH, BOYNTON, Contribution to exploration fund by, 75 - -LEVÉE systems of the Mississippi, 37 - -LIBBEY, PROFESSOR WILLIAM, Explorations by, 72, 73 - -LINDENKOHL, A., Computation of position of Mount St. Elias by, 235 - -LINDSLEY, W. L., Member of expedition, 76 ---, Work of, 122, 131, 134, 135, 139, 144, 149, 150, 153, 157, 158, - 164 - -LITTLEHALES, G. W., Record of discussion by, vii - -LITUYA BAY, Mention of, 55 - -LOB-NOR, Character of, 253 - -LOGAN, SIR W. E., Mountain named for, 141 - -LONDON MISSIONARY SOCIETY, Acknowledgments to, 247 - -LUCIA GLACIER, Brief account of, 92 --- --, Crossing of, 105, 106, 108, 109 - -LYNN CANAL, Mention of, 78 - - -MALASPINA, ALEJANDRO, cited on Mount St. Elias, 231 ---, Explorations of, 62, 66 - -MALASPINA GLACIER, Character of, 187 --- described and named, 71, 72 ---, Excursion on, 120, 121, 162 --- from Blossom island, 118, 119 ---, Mention of, 56 - -MALDONADO, Reference to, 62, 63 - -MAPS of Alaska, Rare, 206 --- (Staff) of France, Review of the, 250 - -MARVIN, C. F., Reference to work of, 48 - -MARVINE, A. R., Glacier named for, 112 - -MARVINE GLACIER, Account of, 112, 122, 124 - -MCCARTENEY, C. M., Contribution to exploration fund by, 75 - -MCGEE, W J, Record of communication by, xiii ---, Record of discussion by, x, xi - -MELVILLE, G. W., Record of communication by, viii - -MENDENHALL, T. C., Record of discussion by, xi - -METEOROLOGY, Condition of, 41 - -MEYER, HUGO, Reference to work of, 47 - -MIRAGE in Yakutat bay, 87 - -MISSISSIPPI RIVER, Flood of, 37 - -MONSOONS, Characteristics of, 47 - -MONGOLIA, Exploration in, 255 - -MOON, Mountains of the, 240 - -MORAINES, 195 ---, Medial, on the Marvine glacier, 123 --- on the Malaspina glacier, 134 --- near Yakutat bay, 191 - -MOUNTAINS of South America, 1 - -MOUNT AUGUSTA, Avalanches on the sides of, 145 --- Elevation of, 117 - -MOUNT BERING, Height and condition of, 65 - -MOUNT COOK, Appearance of, 92 --- named, 72 ---, Rocks composing, 92 - -MOUNT FAIRWEATHER, Height of, 69 - -MOUNT LOGAN named, 141 - -MOUNT MALASPINA, Elevation of, 117 --- named, 72 - -MOUNT NEWTON named, 146 - -MOUNT ST. ELIAS, Expedition to, 53 --- (see St. Elias, Mount). - -MOUNT VANCOUVER named, 72 - -MUIR GLACIER, Visit to, 78, 79 - -MULGRAVE, LORD, Port Mulgrave named for, 60 - - -NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY, Instructions from, 194 - -NÉVÉ fields, 180, 181, 182 - -NEWELL, F. H., Record of communication by, xi - -{260} - -NEWTON GLACIER, Ascent of, 150 - -NEWTON, HENRY, Mountain named for, 146 - -NEW YORK TIMES, Expedition of the, 72, 73 - -NICARAGUA CANAL, Progress of the, 37 - -NOLIN, J. B., Geographic work by, 211 - -NOMENCLATURE, Geographic, 39 - -NORDHOFF, CHARLES, Contribution to exploration fund by, 75 - -NORRIS GLACIER, Mention of, 78 - -NUNATAK in Lucia glacier, 106 - - -OFFICERS, Election of, xii - -OGDEN, H. G.; Geography of the Land, 31 ---, Record of communication by, xi ---, Record of discussion by, viii, xi - -OIL stoves, Use of, 164 - -OREL, Mention of the, 70 - -ORINOCO RIVER, Sketch of, 3 - -ORTHOGRAPHY of geographic names, 39 - -ORTON, JAMES, Quotation from, on South America, 28 - -OTKRYTIE, Mention of the, 69 - -OUTFIT necessary for Alaskan expeditions, 165 - - -PANAX HORRIDUM, 95, 115 - -PAMPAS, Characteristics of, 19 - -PANAMA CANAL project, Revival of the, 37 - -PAN-AMERICAN congress, Work of the, 36 --- railway route, 27 - -PARTRIDGE, WILLAIM, Member of expedition, 76 ---, Work of, 158, 159, 162 - -PARTSCH, DR., Reference to work of, 46 - -PEARY, R. E., Record of communication by, viii - -PERU, Incas of, 8 ---, Sketch of, 22 - -PHIPPS, C. J., Port Mulgrave named for, 60 - -PIEDMONT glaciers, Characteristics of, 122, 176, 185, 186 --- --, Example of, 120, 121 --- type of glaciers, Mention of, 57 - -PIMPLUNA rocks, Mention of, 70, 187 - -PINNACLE PASS cliffs, Account of, 132, 137 --- --, Height of, 137 --- --, View from, 132 ---, Description of, 130, 132 --- named, 130 - -PINNACLE SYSTEM, Description of rocks of, 167 --- named, 131 - -PINTA, Mention of the, 79, 81 - -PIZARRO, GONZALO, Discovery of the Amazon by, 11 - -PLANTS on Blossom island, 114 - -POINT ESPERANZA, Camp at, 82, 84, 85 - -POINT GLORIOUS named, 137 - -POINT RIOU, Mention of, 69 - -POLAR regions, Recent work in, 252 - -POMORTSEW, DR., Reference to work of, 46 - -POPULATION of Africa, 238 --- of South America, 6, 15 - -PORT MULGRAVE, 56 --- named by Dixon, 60 - -POWELL, J. W., Contribution to exploration fund by, 75 ---, Record of communication by, viii --- -- -- discussion by, x --- -- -- introductory remarks by, xiii - -POWELL, WILLIAM B., Contribution to exploration fund by, 75 - -PUERTO DEL DESENGAÑO, Mention of, 56 - -PUGET, PETER, Explorations of, 66, 68 - -PYRAMID HARBOR, Mention of, 78 - - -QUEEN CHARLOTTE, Mention of the, 60 ---, Voyage on the, 78, 79 - - -RABOT, CH., cited on polar exploration, 252 - -RAILROADS, South American, 25 ---, Statistics of, 255 - -RALEIGH, SIR WALTER, Expeditions by, 14 - -RATIONS, 164 - -REPORT on sands from Yakutat bay by J. Stanley-Brown, 196 - -RESOLUTION relating to publication, xii - -REVENUE MARINE SERVICE, Offer of coöperation by, 249 - -REYNOLDS, J. J., Remarks by, at field meeting, x - -RIO DE LA PLATA, Sketch of, 5 - -RIVERS, Glacial, 183 --- of South America, 3 - -ROCKHILL, W. W., Reference to explorations by, 253 - -ROPE CLIFF named, 149 - -ROUTE (New), Suggested, 163, 164 - -RUSSELL, I. C.; An Expedition to Mount St. Elias, 53 --- cited on Mount St. Elias, 39 ---, Contribution to exploration fund by, 75 ---, Height and Position of Mount St. Elias, 231 ---, Proposed exploration by, 249 ---, Record of communication by, vii, xi --- -- -- discussion by, vii, ix - -RUSSELL, THOMAS, Acknowledgments to, 62 --- cited on cyclones, 43 ---, Reference to work of, 51 - -RUSSIAN Academy of Sciences, Quotation from records of, 212 - -"RUSSIAN OFFICER," Geographic work by the, 209 ---, Identity of the, 222 ---, Quotation from the, on de l'Isle's map, 215, 217 --- -- -- -- -- -- writings, 221 - - -SALMON fishing, 162 - -SANDS, Auriferous, from Yakutat bay, 196 - -SAN FRANCISCO RIVER, Sketch of, 5 - -SANGAI, Active vulcanism of, 2 - -SCHWATKA, LIEUTENANT FREDERICK, Explorations by, 72, 73 - -SERPENTINE on the Marvine glacier, 123 - -SETON-KARR, H. W., Explorations of, 72, 73 - -SEWARD GLACIER, Crevasses on, 133, 179, 180 ---, Crossing of, 142 ---, Description of, 177, 178, 179 - -SEWARD, HON. W. H., Glacier named for, 129 - -SHARP, BENJAMIN, Record of communication by, xiii - -SHENDUN, Field meeting at, ix, x - -SIEMENS, WERNER VON, cited on air currents, 45 - -SITKA, Arrival at, 79 - -SNOW crests, Figures of, 143 --- line, Description of Alpine glaciers above, 180 --- -- -- -- -- -- below, 183 --- --, Elevation of, 92, 111 --- on mountain crests, 182 - -SOUNDINGS in Disenchantment bay, 56 - -SOUTH AMERICA: Annual address by the President; Gardiner G. Hubbard, 1 - -SPRUNG, A., cited on air currents, 45 - -STAMY, THOMAS, Member of expedition, 76 ---, Work of, 137, 139, 144, 150, 153, 157, 158, 160 - -STANLEY-BROWN, J., Record of communication by, vii ---, Report on sands from Yakutat bay by, 196 - -{261} - -ST. ELIAS, Described by La Pérouse, 59, 60 ---, Discovery of, by Bering, 58 --- expedition, Review of, 39 ---, First full view of, 135 --- (Height and position of Mount); I. C. Russell, 231 --- -- -- -- -- 40, 189, 190 --- -- -- -- -- determined by La Pérouse, 60 --- -- -- -- -- -- -- Tebenkof, 69 --- -- -- -- -- -- -- Malaspina, 64, 65, 66 --- range, Age of, 175 --- --, Character of peaks of, 175 --- region, Glaciers of the, 176 --- schist, Description of rocks of, 167, 173 ---, Suggested new route to, 163, 164 --- uplift, 190 - -STEIN, ROBERT, Translations by, 59, 64, 65, 66 - -STEPNIAK, SERGIUS, Record of address by, viii - -STRAIT OF ANNAN, 56 - -STRUCTURE, 174 - -STRUVE, CH., Acknowledgments to, 221 - -STRUVE, O., cited on manuscript records, 220 - -SWISS guides in Alaskan exploration, 166 - -SULPHUR, Mention of the, 69 - - -TAKU GLACIER, Mention of, 78 - -TAKU INLET, Visit to, 78 - -TANGANYIKA, LAKE, Characteristics of, 241 - -TEBENKOF, CAPTAIN, Notes on Alaska by, 69, 70 - -TERRACE on northern shore of Yakutat bay, 82, 85 --- point, Brief account of, 106 - -THUNDERSTORMS, Relation of, to air-pressure, 44 - -THOMPSON, GILBERT, Contribution to exploration fund by, 75 - -TIBET, Note on the crossing of, 253 - -TIDE-WATER glaciers defined, 101 - -TOPOGRAPHIC work, Report on, 195 - -TOPHAM, EDWIN, Explorations by, 73, 74 - -TOPHAM, W. H., Explorations by, 73, 74 ---, Reference to map by, 177 - -TORNADOES, Results of, 50 - -TRADE, South American, 23 - -TRIANGULATION, Commencement of, 86 - -TUCKER, J. RANDOLPH, Remarks by, at field meeting, x - -TUNNELS, Ice, 184 - -TYNDALL GLACIER named, 73 - -TYNDALL, J., cited on marginal crevasses, 127 - - -VAN BEBBER, A., Reference to work of, 47 - -VANCOUVER, CAPTAIN GEORGE, Explorations by, 66, 68 - -VERATRUM VIRIDE, Mention of, 114 - -VOLCANOES of the Andes, 2 - - -WARD, LESTER F., Report on fossil plants, 199, 200 - -WAXEL, SWEN, Quotations from, on de l'Isle's map, 223 ---, Translations from letter by, 224 ---, Work of, 222 - -WHITE, THOMAS, Member of expedition, 76 ---, Work of, 158, 160 - -WILLIAMS, C. A., Contribution to exploration fund by, 75 - -WILLIAMS, WILLIAM, Explorations by, 73, 74 - -WILLIS, BAILY, Contribution to exploration fund by, 75 - -WILSON, H. M., Record of communication by, ix - - -YAKUTAT BAY, Arrival at, 79 ---, Base camp on western shore of, 86, 89 ---, Shores of described, 57 ---, Synonomy of, 56 - -YAKUTAT INDIANS described by Dixon, 61 --- system, Description of rocks of, 167 --- -- named, 131 - - -*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE, -VOL. III. (COMPLETE), 1891 *** - -***** This file should be named 64180-0.txt or 64180-0.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - https://www.gutenberg.org/6/4/1/8/64180/ - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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Thus, we do not -necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper -edition. - -Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search -facility: www.gutenberg.org - -This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, -including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to -subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. diff --git a/old/64180-0.zip b/old/64180-0.zip Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index d0ddfae..0000000 --- a/old/64180-0.zip +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/64180-h.zip b/old/64180-h.zip Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 094e555..0000000 --- a/old/64180-h.zip +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/64180-h/64180-h.htm b/old/64180-h/64180-h.htm deleted file mode 100644 index 3e76600..0000000 --- a/old/64180-h/64180-h.htm +++ /dev/null @@ -1,16299 +0,0 @@ - -<!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01 Transitional//EN"> - -<html> -<head> - <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=UTF-8"> - <title>The Project Gutenberg e-Book of The National Geographic Magazine, Vol. III, by Various</title> - <style type="text/css"> - <!-- - body {margin:12%; text-align:justify} - h1 {text-align:center} - h2 {text-align:center} - h3 {text-align:center} - h4 {text-align:center} - h5 {text-align:center} - .pagenum {position:absolute; left:92%; text-align:right;} --> - </style> -</head> - -<body> - -<div style='text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; font-weight:bold'>The Project Gutenberg eBook of The National Geographic Magazine, Vol. III. (Complete), 1891, by Various</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online -at <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you -are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the -country where you are located before using this eBook. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Title: The National Geographic Magazine, Vol. III. (Complete), 1891</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Author: Various</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Release Date: December 30, 2020 [eBook #64180]</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Language: English</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Character set encoding: UTF-8</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Produced by: Ron Swanson</div> - -<div style='margin-top:2em; margin-bottom:4em'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE, VOL. III. (COMPLETE), 1891 ***</div> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="pagei"><small><small>[p. i]</small></small></a></span> -<br> -<br> -<h4>THE</h4> -<h3>NATIONAL</h3> -<h2>GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE</h2> -<br> -<h4>VOLUME III, 1891</h4> -<br> -<br> -<br> -<br> -<center><img src="images/seal.jpg" alt="seal"></center> -<br> -<br> -<br> -<br> -<h4>WASHINGTON</h4> -<h5>PUBLISHED BY THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY</h5> -<h5>1892</h5> -<br> -<br> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="pageii"><small><small>[p. ii]</small></small></a></span> -<br> -<br> -<h3>OFFICERS OF THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY</h3> - -<h5>1891</h5> - -<hr align="center" width="25%"> -<br> -<br> -<table align="center" border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="4" summary="1891 officers"> - <tr> - <td>GARDINER G. HUBBARD,</td> - <td><i>President</i></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>HERBERT G. OGDEN<br>EVERETT HAYDEN<br>A. W. GREELY<br>C. HART - MERRIAM<br>HENRY GANNETT</td> - <td><i>Vice-Presidents</i></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>CHARLES J. BELL,</td> - <td><i>Treasurer</i></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>MARCUS BAKER<br>C. A. KENASTON</td> - <td><i>Secretaries</i></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>ROGERS BIRNIE, J<small>R</small>.<br>G. K. GILBERT<br>G. BROWN GOODE<br>WILLARD D. - JOHNSON<br>W J MCGEE<br>T. C. MENDENHALL<br>W. B. POWELL<br>B. H. WARDER</td> - <td><i>Managers</i></td> - </tr> -</table> -<br> -<br> -<hr align="center" width="25%"> -<br> -<br> -<center><small>P<small>RINTERS</small></small><br> -JUDD & DETWEILER<br> -<small>W<small>ASHINGTON</small></small></center> -<br> -<center><small>E<small>NGRAVERS</small></small><br> -MOSS ENGRAVING CO.<br> -<small>N<small>EW</small> Y<small>ORK</small></small></center> -<br> -<br> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="pageiii"><small><small>[p. iii]</small></small></a></span> -<br> -<br> -<h3><i>CONTENTS</i>.</h3> -<hr align="center" width="25%"> -<br> -<p><a href="#page1">South America</a>: Annual Address by the President, G<small>ARDINER</small> G. -H<small>UBBARD</small></p> - -<p><a href="#page31">Geography of the Land</a>: Annual Report by Vice-President H<small>ERBERT</small> G. - O<small>GDEN</small></p> - -<p><a href="#page41">Geography of the Air</a>: Annual Report by Vice-President A. W. - G<small>REELY</small></p> - -<p><a href="#page53">An Expedition to Mount St. Elias, Alaska</a>; by I<small>SRAEL</small> C. -R<small>USSELL</small><br> - Introduction—<a href="#page55">The Southern Coast -of Alaska</a><br> - Part I—<a href="#page58">Previous -Explorations in the St. Elias Region</a><br> - Part II—<a href="#page75">Narrative of -the St. Elias Expedition of 1890</a><br> - Part III—<a href="#page167">Sketch of the -Geology of the St. Elias Region</a><br> - Part IV—<a href="#page176">Glaciers of the -St. Elias Region</a><br> - Part V—<a href="#page189">Height and -Position of Mount St. Elias</a><br> - Appendix A—<a href="#page192">Official -Instructions governing the Expedition</a><br> - Appendix B—<a href="#page195">Report on -topographic Work</a>; by M<small>ARK</small> B. K<small>ERR</small><br> - Appendix C—<a href="#page196">Report on -auriferous Sands from Yakutat Bay</a>; by J. S<small>TANLEY</small>-B<small>ROWN</small><br> - Appendix D—<a href="#page199">Report on -fossil Plants</a>; by L<small>ESTER</small> F. W<small>ARD</small><br> - <a href="#page201">Index</a></p> - -<p><a href="#page205">The Cartography and Observations of Bering's First Voyage</a>; by -A. W. G<small>REELY</small></p> - -<p><a href="#page231">Height and Position of Mount St. Elias</a>; by I<small>SRAEL</small> C. R<small>USSELL</small></p> - -<p><a href="#page238">The Heart of Africa</a>; by E. C. H<small>ORE</small></p> - -<p><a href="#page248">Report of Committee on Exploration in Alaska</a></p> - -<p>Notes—<a href="#page250">La Carte de France, dite de l'Etat Major</a>, par M. J. C<small>OLLET</small></p> - -<blockquote><a href="#page252">Polar Regions</a></blockquote> - -<blockquote><a href="#page253">The Crossing of Tibet</a></blockquote> - -<blockquote><a href="#page255">Statistics of Railways in United States</a></blockquote> - -<p><a href="#page257">Index to volume III</a></p> - -<blockquote><a href="#pagei">Title-page and Imprimatur of Board of Managers</a></blockquote> - -<blockquote><a href="#pageiii">Contents and Illustrations</a></blockquote> - -<blockquote><a href="#pagev">Publications of the National Geographic Society</a></blockquote> - -<blockquote><a href="#pagevii">Proceedings of the National Geographic Society</a></blockquote> - -<blockquote><a href="#pagexiv">Officers of the Society for 1892</a></blockquote> - -<blockquote><a href="#pagexv">Members of the Society</a></blockquote> -<br> -<br> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="pageiv"><small><small>[p. iv]</small></small></a></span> -<br> -<br> -<h3><i>ILLUSTRATIONS</i>.</h3> -<hr align="center" width="25%"> -<br> -<p>Plate 1—<a href="#page1">South America (map)</a><br> - 2—<a href="#page57">Sketch Map of Alaska</a><br> - 3—<a href="#page59">Map of the St. Elias Region, after La Pérouse</a><br> - 4—<a href="#page61">Map of the eastern Shore of Yakutat Bay, after Dixon</a><br> - 5—<a href="#page64">Map of the St. Elias Region, after Malaspina</a><br> - 6—<a href="#page64">Map of Bay de Monti, after Malaspina</a><br> - 7—<a href="#page67">Map of Disenchantment Bay, after Malaspina</a><br> - 8—<a href="#page74">Sketch Map of St. Elias Region</a>, by M<small>ARK</small> B. K<small>ERR</small><br> - 9—<a href="#page99">The Hubbard Glacier</a><br> - 10—<a href="#page105">Wall of Ice on eastern Side of Atrevida Glacier</a><br> - 11—<a href="#page105">View on Atrevida Glacier</a><br> - 12—<a href="#page106">Entrance of an Ice Tunnel</a><br> - 13—<a href="#page106">Deltas in an abandoned Lake Bed</a><br> - 14—<a href="#page106">A River on the Lucia Glacier</a><br> - 15—<a href="#page107">Entrance to a glacial Tunnel</a><br> - 16—<a href="#page120">View of Malaspina Glacier from Blossom Island</a><br> - 17—<a href="#page123">Moraines on Marvine Glacier</a><br> - 18—<a href="#page144">View of the Hitchcock Range from near Dome Pass</a><br> - 19—<a href="#page146">View of Mount St. Elias from Dome Pass</a><br> - 20—<a href="#page175">View of Mount St. Elias from Seward Glacier</a><br> - 21—<a href="#page207">Carte Générale des Découvertes de l'Amiral de Fonte (1752)</a></p> - -<p>R<small>USSELL</small>: Figure 1—<a href="#page101">Diagram illustrating the Formation of Icebergs</a><br> - -2—<a href="#page120">View of a glacial Lakelet</a><br> - -3—<a href="#page120">Section of a glacial Lakelet</a><br> - -4—<a href="#page128">Diagram illustrating the Formation of marginal Crevasses</a><br> - -5—<a href="#page130">Crevasses near Pinnacle Pass</a><br> - -6—<a href="#page143">Snow Crests on Ridges and Peaks</a><br> - -7—<a href="#page171">Faulted Pebble from Pinnacle Pass</a><br> - -8—<a href="#page171">Faulted Pebble from Pinnacle Pass</a></p> -<br> -<br> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="pagev"><small><small>[p. v]</small></small></a></span> -<br> -<br> -<h3>PUBLICATIONS OF THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY.</h3> - -<h4>REGULAR PUBLICATIONS.</h4> -<br> -<p>In addition to announcements of meetings and various circulars sent to -members from time to time, the Society issues a single serial -publication entitled T<small>HE</small> N<small>ATIONAL</small> G<small>EOGRAPHIC</small> M<small>AGAZINE</small>. During the -first two years of the existence of the Society this serial was issued -in quarterly numbers. With the beginning of the third year of the -Society and the third volume of the <i>Magazine</i> the form of publication -was changed, and the serial now appears at irregular intervals in -parts or brochures (designated by pages and designed either for -separate preservation or for gathering into volumes) which consist -either of single memoirs or of magazine brochures made up of articles, -notes, abstracts, and other geographic matter, together with the -Proceedings and other administrative records of the Society.</p> - -<p>The <i>Magazine</i> is mailed free to members of the Society and to -exchanges. The first two volumes, as well as the separate brochures of -the third and the complete volume, are sold at the prices given below -by the Secretary, Mr. F. H. Newell, U. S. Geological Survey, -Washington, D. C.</p> - -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="4" summary="publications"> - <tr> - <td colspan="2"> </td> - <td align="center"><small>To<br>Members</small>.</td> - <td align="center"><small>To the<br>Public</small>.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="2">Volume I, 1889: 4 numbers, 334 pages, 16 plates and 26 figures</td> - <td align="right">$1 40</td> - <td align="right">$2 00</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="2">Volume II, 1890: 5 numbers, 344 pages, 10 plates and 11 figures</td> - <td align="right">1 40</td> - <td align="right">2 00</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="2">Volume III, 1891: Comprising:</td> - <td> </td> - <td> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td> </td> - <td>South America; Annual Address by the President, - Gardiner G. Hubbard: pp. 1–30, pl. 1, March 28, 1891</td> - <td align="right">$0 15</td> - <td align="right">$0 25</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td> </td> - <td>Geography of the Land; Annual Report by - Vice-President Herbert G. Ogden: pp. 31–40, April 30, 1891</td> - <td align="right">0 10</td> - <td align="right">0 25</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td> </td> - <td>Geography of the Air; Annual Report by - Vice-President A. W. Greely: pp. 41–52, May 1, 1891</td> - <td align="right">0 10</td> - <td align="right">0 25</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td> </td> - <td>An Expedition to Mount St. Elias, by - I. C. Russell: pp. 53–204 (with 8 figures), pls. 2–20, May 29, 1891</td> - <td align="right">0 85</td> - <td align="right">1 50</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td> </td> - <td> Magazine brochure, pp. 205–261, i–xxxv, pl. 21, February 19, 1892</td> - <td align="right"><u>0 40</u></td> - <td align="right"><u>0 75</u></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="2"> </td> - <td align="right">1 60</td> - <td align="right">3 00</td> - </tr> -</table><br> -<br> -<br> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="pagevi"><small><small>[p. vi]</small></small></a></span> -<h4>IRREGULAR PUBLICATIONS.</h4> -<br> -<p>In the interests of exact bibliography, the Society takes cognizance -of all publications issued either wholly or partly under its auspices. -Each author of a memoir published in T<small>HE</small> N<small>ATIONAL</small> G<small>EOGRAPHIC</small> M<small>AGAZINE</small> -receives 25 copies, and is authorized to order any number of -additional copies at a slight advance on the cost of press-work and -paper; and these separate brochures are identical with those of the -regular edition issued by the Society. Contributors to the magazine -brochures are authorized to order any number of copies of their -contributions at a slight advance on cost of press-work and paper, -provided these separates bear the original pagination and a printed -reference to the serial and volume from which they are extracted; but -such separates are bibliographically distinct from the brochures -issued by the Society. The <i>Magazine</i> is not copyrighted, and articles -may be reprinted freely; and a record of reprints, so far as known, is kept.</p> - -<p>The following separates and reprints from volume III have been issued:</p> - -<center><i>Editions uniform with the Brochures of the Magazine</i>.</center> -<br> -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="4" summary="irregular publications"> - <tr> - <td>Pages 1–30, plate 1:</td> - <td align="right">150 copies,</td> - <td>March 28, 1891.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Pages 31–40,</td> - <td align="right">25 copies,</td> - <td>May 2, 1891.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Pages 41–52,</td> - <td align="right">25 copies,</td> - <td>May 2, 1891.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Pages 53–204, plates 2–20:</td> - <td align="right">250 copies,</td> - <td>May 29, 1891.</td> - </tr> -</table> -<br> -<br> -<center><i>Special Editions</i>.</center> -<br> -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="4" summary="special editions"> - <tr> - <td>Pages 205–230, plate 21:</td> - <td align="right">50 copies,</td> - <td>February 18, 1892.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Pages 231–237,</td> - <td align="right">100 copies,</td> - <td>February 16, 1892.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Page v,</td> - <td align="right">1000 copies,</td> - <td>February 19, 1892.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Pages xv–xxxv,</td> - <td align="right">50 copies,</td> - <td>February 13, 1892.</td> - </tr> -</table> -<br> -<br> -<center><i>Reprints</i>.</center> -<br> -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="4" summary="reprints"> - <tr> - <td>Pages 196–198,</td> - <td align="right">100 copies,</td> - <td>January 3, 1892.</td> - </tr> -</table> -<br> -<br> -<br> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="pagevii"><small><small>[p. vii]</small></small></a></span> -<br> -<br> -<h4>PROCEEDINGS</h4> -<h5>OF THE</h5> -<h3>NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY.</h3> - -<center>(<i>Abstract of Minutes</i>.)</center> -<br> -<hr align="center" width="25%"> -<br> -<center><i>March 6, 1891. 49th meeting</i>.</center> - -<p>Meeting held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club. Vice-President -Hayden in the chair. Attendance, 50.</p> - -<p>Captain E. C. Hore, master mariner, delivered an address on "A -narrative of ten years' work and travel in the African lake region." -<i>Abstract entitled "The Heart of Africa" printed in this volume, pp. -238–243</i>.</p> -<br> -<center><i>March 13, 1891. Special meeting</i>.</center> - -<p>Meeting held in the Lecture Room of the National Museum. -Vice-President Ogden in the chair. Attendance, 850.</p> - -<p>Captain E. C. Hore repeated his former lecture with additions. -<i>Abstract printed in this volume, pp. 243–247</i>.</p> -<br> -<center><i>March 20, 1891. 50th meeting</i>.</center> - -<p>Meeting held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club. Mr. G. K. -Gilbert in the chair. Attendance, 35.</p> - -<p>Vice-President Greely read a paper on "The cartography and -observations of Bering's first voyage." The paper was discussed by -Messrs Dall, Blodgett, Littlehales, and Vice-President Hayden. -<i>Printed in this volume, pp. 205–230, pl. 21</i>.</p> - -<p>Mr. J. Stanley-Brown presented a paper on "Auriferous sands from -Yakutat bay." <i>Printed in this volume, pp. 196–198</i>.</p> - -<p>Mr. I. C. Russell read a paper on "The geology of the Mount St. Elias -region, Alaska." The paper was discussed by Messrs Gilbert (who had -resigned the chair to Vice-President Hayden), Dall, Johnson, and -Russell. <i>Incorporated in the memoir forming pp. 53–204, pls. 2–20, of -this volume</i>.</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="pageviii"><small><small>[p. viii]</small></small></a></span> -<br> -<center><i>March 31, 1891. Special meeting</i>.</center> - -<p>Meeting held in the Law Lecture Room of Columbian University. -Vice-President Ogden in the chair. Attendance, 300.</p> - -<p>Mr. Sergius Stepniak delivered an address on "The Russian peasantry."</p> -<br> -<center><i>April 3, 1891. 51st meeting</i>.</center> - -<p>Meeting held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club, Vice-President -Hayden in the chair. Attendance, 35.</p> - -<p>A paper on "The Mackenzie river and Colinson," by Vice-President -Greely, was read by title in the absence of the author.</p> - -<p>Ensign J. A. Hoogewerff, U. S. N., presented an account of the -"Magnetic work of the United States Naval Observatory." The paper was -discussed by Messrs Baker, Abbe, Ogden, Hayden, and Hoogewerff.</p> - -<p>Mr. F. H. Bigelow presented a paper on "Auroral streamers."</p> - -<p>Mr. Cleveland Abbe made some remarks on "Theories of magnetic phenomena."</p> -<br> -<center><i>April 11, 1891. Special meeting</i>.</center> - -<p>Meeting held in the Lecture Hall of the National Museum. President -Hubbard in the chair. Attendance, 750.</p> - -<p>Major J. W. Powell delivered an address on "The Grand cañon of -Colorado river."</p> -<br> -<center><i>April 17, 1891. 52d meeting</i>.</center> - -<p>Meeting held in Lincoln Hall. President Hubbard in the chair. -Attendance, 1,000.</p> - -<p>Mr. Geo. W. Melville, Engineer-in-Chief, U. S. N., briefly explained -the purposes of arctic exploration.</p> - -<p>Civil Engineer R. E. Peary, U. S. N., addressed the Society on the -subject of his proposed northern Greenland expedition of 1891–92. The -lecturer exhibited and explained a number of lantern-slide views -illustrating arctic scenery and modes of traveling.</p> - -<p>On the conclusion of the address a United States flag, provided for -the purpose by Miss Ulrica Dahlgren, was presented by the President on -behalf of the Society to Lieut. Peary, who responded feelingly.</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="pageix"><small><small>[p. ix]</small></small></a></span> -<br> -<center><i>April 24, 1891. Special meeting</i>.</center> - -<p>Meeting held in the Lecture Room of the National Museum. Attendance, 400.</p> - -<p>Mr. H. M. Wilson, of the United States Geological Survey, delivered an -address on the subject "India: Its geography and people." At the close -of the lecture Mr. Wilson exhibited and explained a number of -lantern-slides made from views taken by him while traveling in India.</p> -<br> -<center><i>May 1, 1891. 53d meeting</i>.</center> - -<p>Meeting held in the Lecture Hall of the National Museum. -Vice-President Hayden in the chair. Attendance, 600.</p> - -<p>Mr. Courtenay De Kalb delivered an address on "The great Amazon: -Personal investigations on the Great River and in its upper valley." -At the close of the lecture Mr. De Kalb exhibited a number of -lantern-slide views, which he described.</p> -<br> -<center><i>May 15, 1891. 54th meeting</i>.</center> - -<p>Meeting held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club. Vice-President -Hayden in the chair. Attendance, 25.</p> - -<p>At the request of the Board of Managers, Mr. Marcus Baker made a -statement relative to plans by the Board for further Alaskan -exploration in the vicinity of Mount St. Elias under the conduct of -Mr. I. C. Russell, to be prosecuted the coming season.</p> - -<p>Mr. Gilbert, complying with the request of the Chairman, addressed the -Society upon some of the questions involved in Alaskan geology.</p> - -<p>Dr. Sheldon Jackson, at the invitation of the Society, spoke on the -general aspects of the Alaskan coast and the inhabitants of the country.</p> - -<p>Remarks were made, following Dr. Jackson's address, by the Chairman, -Mr. J. H. Blodgett, and others.</p> - -<p>In connection with the announcement of the proposed Field Day, June 3 -and 4 next, to the grottoes near Shendun, in the Shenandoah valley, -Virginia, Major Jed. Hotchkiss gave an interesting account of the -topography of the valley.</p> - -<p>An exhibition of lantern-slide views of Alaskan coast scenery -followed, the pictures being explained by Mr. I. C. Russell.</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="pagex"><small><small>[p. x]</small></small></a></span> -<br> -<center><i>May 29, 1891. 55th meeting</i>.</center> - -<p>Meeting held in the Lecture Room of the National Museum. Attendance, 800.</p> - -<p>Reverend Dr. H. C. Hovey delivered an address on "Subterranean scenery -as found in the grottoes of the Shenandoah and other caverns of -Virginia," with illustrations from lantern-slide views exhibited for -the first time. Following the address, Major Hotchkiss illustrated -with free-hand sketches on the blackboard the topography of the valley -of Virginia, interspersing his remarks with war reminiscences.</p> -<br> -<center><i>June 3 and 4. Field meeting</i>.</center> - -<p>About 80 members left Washington on special train June 3, arriving at -3 p.m. at Shendun, Virginia, where they were entertained by the -Grottoes company. Weir cave was visited that afternoon, and in the -evening a meeting was held in the hotel parlor, at which remarks were -made by Mr. G. K. Gilbert, Reverend Dr. H. C. Hovey, Major H. E. -Alvord, Captain Morton, General J. J. Reynolds, and Hon. J. Randolph -Tucker. The next morning Major Hotchkiss entertained the company with -a description of the resources of the Valley of Virginia, his remarks -being illustrated by free-hand sketches. The Cave of the Fountain was -then visited, and, after presenting a testimonial to Major Hotchkiss -for the hospitality of the Grottoes company, the party left for -Washington.</p> -<br> -<center><i>October 15, 1891. Special meeting</i>.</center> - -<p>Meeting held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club. President -Hubbard in the chair. Attendance, 50.</p> - -<p>Professor T. McKenney Hughes, professor of geology at Cambridge -University, England, gave a sketch of geological problems and the -larger questions of geology in England.</p> - -<p>Messrs Powell, McGee, and Gilbert made remarks on the geologic -subjects touched upon by Professor Hughes.</p> -<br> -<center><i>November 13, 1891. 56th meeting</i>.</center> - -<p>Meeting held in the Lecture Hall of Columbian University. President -Hubbard in the chair. Attendance, 400.</p> - -<p>The exercises consisted of an exhibition of Arctic photographs -<span class="pagenum"><a name="pagexi"><small><small>[p. xi]</small></small></a></span> -by General A. W. Greely, U. S. A., comprising lantern-slide views from -photographs taken during the expedition to Lady Franklin bay in 1881, -and never before exhibited in the city.</p> -<br> -<center><i>November 27, 1891. 57th meeting</i>.</center> - -<p>Meeting held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club. Vice-President -Hayden in the chair. Attendance, 65.</p> - -<p>Mr. Herbert G. Ogden made an oral communication on "The geographic -position of Mount St. Elias," illustrated by a chart exhibiting the -position of St. Elias, Icy bay, Yakutat bay, and the adjacent coast as -determined (1) from various surveys compiled by the United States -Coast and Geodetic Survey, (2) by Mark B. Kerr during the first -expedition of the Society, and (3) by I. C. Russell during the second -expedition.</p> - -<p>The communication was discussed by Messrs Mendenhall, Douglas, and -Vice-President Hayden.</p> - -<p>Mr. E. E. Howell then exhibited and briefly described a relief model -of the United States, constructed on the natural curvature, the -vertical scale being three times that of the horizontal.</p> - -<p>Remarks were made by Messrs Ogden, McGee, Johnson, Mendenhall, Howell, -Hayden, and others.</p> -<br> -<center><i>December 4, 1891. Special meeting</i>.</center> - -<p>Meeting held in the Lecture Hall of Columbian University.</p> - -<p>Mr. William Eleroy Curtis delivered an address on "Portraits of -Columbus." The lecturer exhibited copies of all Columbus' portraits -extant, these having been prepared for the World's Columbian exposition.</p> -<br> -<center><i>December 11, 1891. 58th meeting</i>.</center> - -<p>Meeting held in the Lecture Hall of Columbian University. -Vice-President Greely in the chair. Attendance, 400.</p> - -<p>Mr. I. C. Russell gave an account of the Mount St. Elias exploration -of last summer, illustrated by a map and lantern slides.</p> -<br> -<center><i>December 18, 1891. Special meeting</i>.</center> - -<p>Meeting held in the Lecture Hall of Columbian University. -Vice-President Hayden in the chair. Attendance, 100.</p> - -<p>Mr. F. H. Newell delivered an address on "Petroleum and natural gas." -The lecture was illustrated by lantern slides made from photographs -taken in the oil regions of the United States.</p> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="pagexii"><small><small>[p. xii]</small></small></a></span> -<br> -<center><i>December 23, 1891. 59th</i> (<i>4th annual</i>) <i>meeting</i>.</center> - -<p>Meeting held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club. Vice-President -Greely in the chair.</p> - -<p>The annual report of the Secretaries was presented, amended, and -adopted.</p> - -<p>The annual report of the Treasurer was presented and referred to an -auditing committee consisting of Messrs P. H. Christie, Middleton -Smith, and E. E. Haskell.</p> - -<p>The annual election of officers for the year 1892 was then held, with -the following result:</p> - -<blockquote><i>President</i>—Gardiner G. Hubbard.</blockquote> - -<blockquote><i>Vice-Presidents</i>—H. G. Ogden (land).<br> - - -Everett Hayden (sea).<br> - - -A. W. Greely (air).<br> - - -C. Hart Merriam (life).<br> - - -Henry Gannett (art).</blockquote> - -<blockquote><i>Treasurer</i>—C. J. Bell.</blockquote> - -<blockquote><i>Recording Secretary</i>—F. H. Newell.</blockquote> - -<blockquote><i>Corresponding Secretary</i>—E. R. Scidmore.</blockquote> - -<blockquote><i>Managers</i>—Marcus Baker.<br> - - -H. F. Blount.<br> - - -G. K. Gilbert.<br> - - -John Hyde.<br> - - -W J McGee.<br> - - -T. C. Mendenhall.<br> - - -W. B. Powell.<br> - - -Edwin Willits.</blockquote> - -<p>The following resolution was adopted:</p> - -<blockquote><i>Resolved</i>, That the Board of Managers be requested to consider -whether, instead of the present policy of publishing only a few -selected articles, these might not advantageously be replaced by a -greater variety of less lengthy and expensive works, and whether a few -pages of geographic notes might not be inserted.</blockquote> - -<p>Mr. Hayden gave notice of the following proposed amendment to the -By-laws:</p> - -<blockquote>In article IV, instead of five vice-presidents, read six -vice-presidents, and insert at the end of list of departments of -geographic science, after geographic art, the words "commercial -geography."</blockquote> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="pagexiii"><small><small>[p. xiii]</small></small></a></span> -<br> -<center><i>December 30, 1891. Special meeting</i>.</center> - -<p>Meeting held in the Lecture Hall of the National Museum. President -Hubbard in the chair. Attendance, 200.</p> - -<p>Professor Benjamin Sharp of the Academy of Natural Sciences of -Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, made an address upon Peary and the western -Greenland expedition. The lecture was illustrated by lantern slides -from photographs taken on the expedition while along the shores of -Greenland and at Peary's camp.</p> -<br> -<center><i>January 8, 1892. 60th meeting</i>.</center> - -<p>Meeting held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club. Vice-President -Merriam in the chair. Attendance, 150.</p> - -<p>Mr. W J McGee delivered an address on "The Eastern Sierra Madre of -Mexico," his lecture being illustrated by lantern slides made from -photographs taken in the vicinity of Monterey, Saltillo, Matehuala, -Miquihuana, Doctor Arroyo, and the hacienda El Carmen. Professor R. T. -Hill described the similarity of topographic features of that region -to those of the Great Basin of the United States.</p> -<br> -<center><i>January 15, 1892. Special meeting</i>.</center> - -<p>Meeting held in the Lecture Hall of Columbian University. -Vice-President Hayden in the chair. Attendance, 100.</p> - -<p>The President, Mr. Gardiner G. Hubbard, delivered his annual address -on the subject of "The Evolution of Transportation." Major J. W. -Powell prefaced the President's address by brief introductory remarks.</p> -<br> -<br> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="pagexiv"><small><small>[p. xiv]</small></small></a></span> -<br> -<br> -<h3>OFFICERS OF THE SOCIETY.</h3> - -<h4>1892.</h4> -<br> -<hr align="center" width="25%"> -<br> -<br> -<center><i>President</i>.</center> -<br> -<center>GARDINER G. HUBBARD.</center> -<br> -<br> -<center><i>Vice-Presidents</i>.</center> -<br> -<center>HERBERT G. OGDEN.<br> -EVERETT HAYDEN.<br> -A. W. GREELY.<br> -C. HART MERRIAM.<br> -HENRY GANNETT.</center> -<br> -<br> -<center><i>Treasurer</i>.</center> -<br> -<center>CHARLES J. BELL.</center> -<br> -<br> -<center><i>Secretaries</i>.</center> -<br> -<center>F. H. NEWELL.<br> -E. R. SCIDMORE.</center> -<br> -<br> -<center><i>Managers</i>.</center> -<br> -<center>MARCUS BAKER.<br> -HENRY F. BLOUNT.<br> -G. K. GILBERT.<br> -JOHN HYDE.<br> -W J M<small>C</small>GEE.<br> -T. C. MENDENHALL.<br> -W. B. POWELL.<br> -EDWIN WILLITS.</center> -<br> -<br> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="pagexv"><small><small>[p. xv]</small></small></a></span> -<br> -<br> -<h3>MEMBERS OF THE SOCIETY.</h3> - -<h4>1892.</h4> -<br> -<hr align="center" width="25%"> -<br> -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="4" summary="member codes"> - <tr> - <td><small><i>a</i>, original members.</small></td> - <td><small><i>c</i>, corresponding members.</small></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><small><i>l</i>, life members.</small></td> - <td><small>* Deceased.</small></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="2"><small>In cases where no city is given in the address, Washington, D. C., is -to be understood.</small></td> - </tr> -</table> -<br> -<hr align="center" width="25%"> -<br> -<br> -A<small>BBE</small>, P<small>ROF</small>. C<small>LEVELAND</small>, <i>a</i>, <i>l</i>,<br> - Weather Bureau.<br> -<br> -A<small>BERT</small>, S. T.,<br> - 722 Seventeenth Street.<br> -<br> -A<small>CKERMAN</small>, E<small>NS</small>. A. A., U. S. N., <i>c</i>,<br> - Navy Department.<br> -<br> -A<small>CKLEY</small>, L<small>IEUT</small>. C<small>OMDR</small>. S. M., U. S. N.,<br> - Coast and Geodetic Survey.<br> -<br> -A<small>DDISON</small>, A. D.,<br> - 808 Seventeenth Street.<br> -<br> -A<small>HERN</small>, L<small>IEUT</small>. G<small>EORGE</small> P., U. S. A., <i>c</i>,<br> - College of Montana, Deer Lodge, Mont.<br> -<br> -A<small>HERN</small>, J<small>EREMIAH</small>,<br> - U. S. Geological Survey, Los Angeles, Cal.<br> -<br> -A<small>LLEN</small>, D<small>R</small>. J. A.,<br> - American Museum Natural History, New York, N. Y.<br> -<br> -A<small>LTON</small>, E<small>DMUND</small>,<br> - Wormley's Hotel.<br> -<br> -A<small>LVORD</small>, M<small>AJ</small>. H<small>ENRY</small> E., <i>c</i>,<br> - Md. Agricultural College, College Park, Maryland.<br> -<br> -A<small>NDREWS</small>, E<small>NS</small>. P<small>HILIP</small>, U. S. N.,<br> - Navy Department.<br> -<br> -A<small>PLIN</small>, S. A., J<small>R</small>.,<br> - Geological Survey.<br> -<br> -A<small>SPINWALL</small>, R<small>EV</small>. J. A.,<br> - 17 Dupont Circle.<br> -<br> -A<small>YRES</small>, M<small>ISS</small> S<small>USAN</small> C., <i>a</i>,<br> - 1813 Thirteenth Street.<br> -<br> -B<small>ABB</small>, C<small>YRUS</small> C.,<br> - Geological Survey.<br> -<br> -B<small>ABER</small>, H<small>ON</small>. G<small>EORGE</small>,<br> - 1416 K Street.<br> -<br> -B<small>AKER</small>, D<small>R</small>. F<small>RANK</small>, <i>a</i>,<br> - Smithsonian Institution.<br> -<br> -B<small>AKER</small>, L<small>UCIUS</small>, <i>c</i>,<br> - P. O. Drawer T, Fresno, Cal.<br> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="pagexvi"><small><small>[p. xvi]</small></small></a></span> -<br> -B<small>AKER</small>, M<small>ARCUS</small>, <i>a</i>,<br> - Geological Survey.<br> -<br> -B<small>ALDWIN</small>, H. L., J<small>R</small>., <i>a</i>,<br> - Geological Survey.<br> -<br> -B<small>ALL</small>, C<small>HAS</small>. B.,<br> - 942 T Street.<br> -<br> -B<small>ANCROFT</small>, R<small>EV</small>. D<small>R</small>. C<small>ECIL</small> F. P., <i>c</i>,<br> - Phillips Academy, Andover, Mass.<br> -<br> -B<small>ARKER</small>, C<small>OMDR</small>. A<small>LBERT</small> S., U. S. N.,<br> - Navy Department.<br> -<br> -B<small>ARNARD</small>, E. C., <i>a</i>,<br> - Geological Survey.<br> -<br> -B<small>ARNES</small>, C<small>HARLES</small> A., <i>c</i>,<br> - P. O. Box 1198, Seattle, Wash.<br> -<br> -B<small>ARROLL</small>, L<small>IEUT</small>. H<small>ENRY</small> H., U. S. N., <i>c</i>,<br> - Navy Department.<br> -<br> -B<small>ARTLE</small>, R. F.,<br> - 947 Virginia Avenue SW.<br> -<br> -B<small>ARTLETT</small>, C<small>OMDR</small>. J. R., U. S. N., <i>a</i>,<br> - Navy Department.<br> -<br> -B<small>ARTLETT</small>, P. V. S.,<br> - U. S. Geological Survey, Berkeley, Cal.<br> -<br> -B<small>ASSETT</small>, C. C., <i>a</i>,<br> - Geological Survey.<br> -<br> -B<small>ATCHELDER</small>, C. F., <i>c</i>,<br> - 7 Kirkland Street, Cambridge, Mass.<br> -<br> -B<small>AUER</small>, L<small>OUIS</small> A.,<br> - Coast and Geodetic Survey.<br> -<br> -B<small>AYLEY</small>, D<small>R</small>. W. S., <i>c</i>,<br> - Colby University, Waterville, Me.<br> -<br> -B<small>EAMAN</small>, W. M.,<br> - Geological Survey.<br> -<br> -B<small>ELL</small>, A. G<small>RAHAM</small>, <i>a</i>,<br> - Volta Bureau, 3414 Q Street.<br> -<br> -B<small>ELL</small>, P<small>ROF</small>. A. M<small>ELVILLE</small>,<br> - 1525 Thirty-fifth Street.<br> -<br> -B<small>ELL</small>, C. J., <i>a</i>,<br> - 1406 G Street.<br> -<br> -B<small>ERGMANN</small>, H. H.,<br> - 511 Seventh Street.<br> -<br> -B<small>ERNADOU</small>, E<small>NS</small>. J<small>OHN</small> B., U. S. N., <i>c</i>,<br> - Navy Department.<br> -<br> -B<small>IEN</small>, J<small>ULIUS</small>, <i>a</i>,<br> - P. O. Box 3557, New York, N. Y.<br> -<br> -B<small>IEN</small>, M<small>ORRIS</small>, <i>a</i>,<br> - Geological Survey.<br> -<br> -B<small>IGELOW</small>, P<small>ROF</small>. F<small>RANK</small> H.,<br> - 1416 K Street.<br> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="pagexvii"><small><small>[p. xvii]</small></small></a></span> -<br> -B<small>IRCH</small>, C<small>HARLES</small> E.,<br> - Hydrographic Office.<br> -<br> -B<small>IRNEY</small>, G<small>EN</small>. W<small>ILLIAM</small>,<br> - 458 Louisiana Avenue.<br> -<br> -B<small>LAIR</small>, H. B., <i>a</i>,<br> - Geological Survey.<br> -<br> -B<small>LODGETT</small>, J<small>AMES</small> H., <i>a</i>,<br> - 1237 Massachusetts Avenue.<br> -<br> -B<small>LOUNT</small>, H<small>ENRY</small> F.,<br> - 1405 G Street.<br> -<br> -B<small>ODFISH</small>, S<small>UMNER</small> H., <i>a</i>,<br> - 58 B Street NE.<br> -<br> -B<small>OURSIN</small>, H<small>ENRY</small>,<br> - Douglas, Alaska.<br> -<br> -B<small>OWERS</small>, D<small>R</small>. S<small>TEPHEN</small>, <i>c</i>,<br> - Ventura, Cal.<br> -<br> -B<small>RECKINRIDGE</small>, G<small>EN</small>. J. C., U. S. A.,<br> - War Department.<br> -<br> -B<small>RIGHT</small>, R<small>ICHARD</small> R.,<br> - Navy Department.<br> -<br> -B<small>RITTON</small>, A. T.,<br> - 1405 G Street.<br> -<br> -B<small>ROWNELL</small>, E<small>RNEST</small> H., <i>c</i>,<br> - Bristol, R. I.<br> -<br> -B<small>UCKLEY</small>, M<small>ISS</small> M. L.,<br> - Bureau of Pensions.<br> -<br> -B<small>URNETT</small>, C<small>HARLES</small> A., <i>c</i>,<br> - 620 Burke Building, Seattle, Wash.<br> -<br> -B<small>URTON</small>, P<small>ROF</small>. A. E., <i>a</i>,<br> - Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Boston, Mass.<br> -<br> -C<small>AMPBELL</small>, M. R.,<br> - Geological Survey.<br> -<br> -C<small>ANNON</small>, H. B.,<br> - Department of Agriculture.<br> -<br> -C<small>ANTWELL</small>, L<small>IEUT</small>. J. C., U. S. R. M., <i>c</i>,<br> - 1818 Sacramento Street, San Francisco, Cal.<br> -<br> -C<small>ARMAN</small>, M<small>ISS</small> A<small>DA</small>,<br> - 1351 Q Street.<br> -<br> -C<small>ARROLL</small>, C<small>APT</small>. J<small>AMES</small>, <i>c</i>,<br> - Juneau, Alaska.<br> -<br> -C<small>HAMBERLIN</small>, P<small>ROF</small>. T. C., <i>c</i>,<br> - 772 Langdon Street, Madison, Wis.<br> -<br> -C<small>HAPIN</small>, F<small>REDERICK</small> E.,<br> - 3043 P Street.<br> -<br> -C<small>HAPIN</small>, D<small>R</small>. J. H.,<br> - Meriden, Conn.<br> -<br> -C<small>HAPMAN</small>, R. H., <i>a</i>,<br> - U. S. Geological Survey, Berkeley, Cal.<br> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="pagexviii"><small><small>[p. xviii]</small></small></a></span> -<br> -C<small>HATARD</small>, D<small>R</small>. T<small>HOMAS</small> M., <i>a</i>,<br> - Geological Survey.<br> -<br> -C<small>HENERY</small>, L<small>IEUT</small>. C<small>OMDR</small>. L<small>EONARD</small>, U. S. N., <i>c</i>,<br> - University Club, New York, N. Y.<br> -<br> -C<small>HESTER</small>, C<small>OMDR</small>. C. M., U. S. N., <i>c</i>,<br> - U. S. Naval Academy, Annapolis, Md.<br> -<br> -C<small>HRISTIE</small>, J<small>AMES</small> II., <i>c</i>,<br> - Olga, Wash.<br> -<br> -C<small>HRISTIE</small>, P. H.,<br> - Geological Survey.<br> -<br> -C<small>LARK</small>, E. B., <i>a</i>,<br> - Geological Survey.<br> -<br> -C<small>LARK</small>, D<small>R</small>. W<small>M</small>. B., <i>c</i>,<br> - Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md.<br> -<br> -C<small>LOVER</small>, L<small>IEUT</small>. C<small>OMDR</small>. R<small>ICHARDSON</small>, U. S. N.,<br> - Hydrographic Office.<br> -<br> -C<small>OLE</small>, T. L.,<br> - 12 Corcoran Building.<br> -<br> -C<small>OLONNA</small>, B. A.,<br> - 138 B Street NE.<br> -<br> -C<small>OLTON</small>, F<small>RANCIS</small>,<br> - The Shoreham.<br> -<br> -C<small>OMSTOCK</small>, M<small>RS</small>. S<small>ARAH</small> C.,<br> - 1464 Rhode Island Avenue.<br> -<br> -C<small>OOK</small>, F<small>RED</small>. W., <i>c</i>,<br> - P. O. Box 140, Sault de Ste. Marie, Mich.<br> -<br> -C<small>OURT</small>, E. E.,<br> - Hydrographic Office.<br> -<br> -C<small>RAIGHEAD</small>, R<small>EV</small>. D<small>R</small>. J. G.,<br> - 1223 Eleventh Street.<br> -<br> -C<small>ROFFUT</small>, W. A.,<br> - Geological Survey.<br> -<br> -C<small>UMMIN</small>, R<small>OBT</small>. D., <i>a</i>,<br> - Geological Survey.<br> -<br> -C<small>UMMINGS</small>, P<small>ROF</small>. G<small>EO</small>. J.,<br> - Howard University.<br> -<br> -C<small>UNNINGHAM</small>, J<small>OHN</small> M., <i>c</i>,<br> - Cosmos Club, San Francisco, Cal.<br> -<br> -C<small>URTIS</small>, W<small>ILLIAM</small> E., <i>a</i>,<br> - 2 Lafayette Square.<br> -<br> -D<small>ALL</small>, M<small>RS</small>. C<small>AROLINE</small> H.,<br> - 1526 Eighteenth Street.<br> -<br> -D<small>ALL</small>, W<small>M</small>. H.,<br> - National Museum.<br> -<br> -D<small>ALY</small>, H<small>ON</small>. C<small>HAS</small>. P.,<br> - 84 Clinton Place, New York, N. Y.<br> -<br> -D<small>ARTON</small>, N. H.,<br> - Geological Survey.<br> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="pagexix"><small><small>[p. xix]</small></small></a></span> -<br> -D<small>AVIDGE</small>, W<small>ALTER</small> D<small>ORSEY</small>, J<small>R</small>.,<br> - 1 Corcoran Building.<br> -<br> -D<small>AVIDSON</small>, P<small>ROF</small>. G<small>EORGE</small>, <i>a</i>, <i>c</i>,<br> - U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, San Francisco, Cal.<br> -<br> -D<small>AVIS</small>, A<small>RTHUR</small> P., <i>a</i>,<br> - U. S. Geological Survey, Los Angeles, Cal.<br> -<br> -D<small>AVIS</small>, P<small>ROF</small>. W. M., <i>a</i>,<br> - 2 Bond Street, Cambridge, Mass.<br> -<br> -D<small>AWSON</small>, M<small>ISS</small> A. B.,<br> - Geological Survey.<br> -<br> -D<small>AY</small>, D<small>R</small>. D<small>AVID</small> T.,<br> - Geological Survey.<br> -<br> -D<small>AY</small>, E. W<small>ARREN</small>,<br> - War Department.<br> -<br> -D<small>ENNEY</small>, M<small>ISS</small> L. A.,<br> - 707 Thirteenth Street.<br> -<br> -D<small>ENNY</small>, A. A., <i>c</i>,<br> - 1328 Front Street, Seattle, Wash.<br> -<br> -D<small>IEBITSCH</small>, E<small>MIL</small>,<br> - U. S. Naval Station, Port Royal, S. C.<br> -<br> -D<small>ILLER</small>, J. S., <i>a</i>,<br> - Geological Survey.<br> -<br> -D<small>OBBINS</small>, J. W.,<br> - U. S. Geological Survey, Berkeley, Cal.<br> -<br> -D<small>OUGLAS</small>, E. M., <i>a</i>,<br> - Geological Survey.<br> -<br> -D<small>OW</small>, C<small>APT</small>. J<small>OHN</small> M.,<br> - 83 W. Seventy-first Street, New York, N. Y.<br> -<br> -D<small>UNCKLEE</small>, J<small>OHN</small> B.,<br> - 912 French Street.<br> -<br> -D<small>UNNINGTON</small>, A. F., <i>a</i>,<br> - Geological Survey.<br> -<br> -D<small>URAND</small>, J<small>OHN</small>,<br> - 164 Bd. Montparnasse, Paris, France.<br> -<br> -D<small>UTTON</small>, M<small>AJ</small>. C. E., U. S. A., <i>a</i>,<br> - San Antonio, Tex.<br> -<br> -D<small>YER</small>, L<small>IEUT</small>. G. L., U. S. N.,<br> - Navy Pay Office, San Francisco, Cal.<br> -<br> -E<small>DMANDS</small>, P<small>ROF</small>. J. R<small>AYNER</small>,<br> - Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass.<br> -<br> -E<small>DSON</small>, J<small>OHN</small> J<small>OY</small>,<br> - 1003 F Street.<br> -<br> -E<small>DSON</small>, J<small>OSEPH</small> R., <i>a</i>,<br> - 1003 F Street.<br> -<br> -E<small>IMBECK</small>, W<small>ILLIAM</small>,<br> - Coast and Geodetic Survey.<br> -<br> -E<small>LDRIDGE</small>, G. H.,<br> - Geological Survey.<br> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="pagexx"><small><small>[p. xx]</small></small></a></span> -<br> -E<small>LIOT</small>, C<small>HARLES</small>,<br> - Room 50, 50 State Street, Boston, Mass.<br> -<br> -E<small>LLICOTT</small>, E<small>NS</small>. J<small>OHN</small> M., U. S. N.,<br> - 2023 I Street.<br> -<br> -E<small>LMORE</small>, H<small>ERBERT</small> W.,<br> - Geological Survey.<br> -<br> -E<small>RBACH</small>, J<small>OHN</small>,<br> - Geological Survey.<br> -<br> -E<small>VANS</small>, H. C.,<br> - 804 Eleventh Street.<br> -<br> -F<small>AIRCHILD</small>, P<small>ROF</small>. H. L., <i>c</i>,<br> - University of Rochester, Rochester, N. Y.<br> -<br> -F<small>AIRFIELD</small>, G<small>EORGE</small> A., <i>a</i>,<br> - Coast and Geodetic Survey.<br> -<br> -F<small>AIRFIELD</small>, W. B<small>ROWNE</small>, <i>a</i>,<br> - Coast and Geodetic Survey.<br> -<br> -F<small>ARMER</small>, R. A.,<br> - Geological Survey.<br> -<br> -F<small>ERNOW</small>, B. E., <i>a</i>,<br> - Department of Agriculture.<br> -<br> -F<small>EUSIER</small>, H. E. C<small>LERMONT</small>,<br> - 819 Grove Street, San Francisco, Cal.<br> -<br> -F<small>ISCHER</small>, E. G., <i>a</i>,<br> - Coast and Geodetic Survey.<br> -<br> -F<small>ISCHER</small>, L. A.,<br> - Coast and Geodetic Survey.<br> -<br> -F<small>ITCH</small>, C. H., <i>a</i>,<br> - 3025 N Street.<br> -<br> -F<small>LEMER</small>, J. A.,<br> - 412 A Street SE.<br> -<br> -F<small>LETCHER</small>, L. C., <i>a</i>,<br> - Geological Survey.<br> -<br> -F<small>LETCHER</small>, D<small>R</small>. R<small>OBERT</small>, <i>a</i>,<br> - Army Medical Museum.<br> -<br> -F<small>LINT</small>, C<small>HARLES</small>,<br> - 1519 O Street.<br> -<br> -F<small>LINT</small>, C<small>OL</small>. W<small>ESTON</small>,<br> - 1101 K Street.<br> -<br> -F<small>LOYD</small>, F<small>RED</small>. W.,<br> - 539 W. Twentieth Street, New York, N. Y.<br> -<br> -F<small>OGG</small>, L<small>INDLEY</small>,<br> - Sixth Auditor's Office.<br> -<br> -F<small>OSTER</small>, P<small>ROF</small>. R<small>ICHARD</small>,<br> - Howard University.<br> -<br> -F<small>RASER</small>, D<small>ANIEL</small>,<br> - 458 Pennsylvania Avenue.<br> -<br> -F<small>REER</small>, D<small>R</small>. J<small>AMES</small> A.,<br> - 1523 I Street.<br> -<br> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="pagexxi"><small><small>[p. xxi]</small></small></a></span> -F<small>ULLER</small>, M<small>ISS</small> A<small>DELAIDE</small> H.,<br> - 1321 Rhode Island Avenue.<br> -<br> -G<small>AGE</small>, N. P., <i>a</i>,<br> - Seaton School.<br> -<br> -G<small>ANE</small>, H. S., <i>c</i>,<br> - Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md.<br> -<br> -G<small>ANNETT</small>, H<small>ENRY</small>, <i>a</i>,<br> - Geological Survey.<br> -<br> -G<small>ANNETT</small>, S. S., <i>a</i>,<br> - Geological Survey.<br> -<br> -G<small>ARDNER</small>, C. L.,<br> - 1710 Sixteenth Street.<br> -<br> -G<small>ARRISON</small>, M<small>ISS</small> C<small>ARL</small> L.,<br> - Phelps School.<br> -<br> -G<small>ILBERT</small>, G. K., <i>a</i>,<br> - Geological Survey.<br> -<br> -G<small>ILL</small>, W<small>ILSON</small> L., <i>c</i>,<br> - Room 57, 115 Broadway, New York, N. Y.<br> -<br> -G<small>ILMAN</small>, D<small>R</small>. D<small>ANIEL</small> C., <i>a</i>,<br> - Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md.<br> -<br> -G<small>OLDIE</small>, R. H., <i>c</i>,<br> - P. O. Box 1110, Seattle, Wash.<br> -<br> -G<small>OODALL</small>, F. H.,<br> - Second Auditor's Office.<br> -<br> -G<small>OODALL</small>, O<small>TIS</small> B.,<br> - 932 P Street.<br> -<br> -G<small>OODE</small>, D<small>R</small>. G. B<small>ROWN</small>, <i>a</i>,<br> - Smithsonian Institution.<br> -<br> -G<small>OODE</small>, R. U., <i>a</i>,<br> - Geological Survey.<br> -<br> -G<small>OODFELLOW</small>, E<small>DWARD</small>, <i>a</i>,<br> - Coast and Geodetic Survey.<br> -<br> -G<small>OODISON</small>, P<small>ROF</small>. J<small>OHN</small>,<br> - State Normal School, Ypsilanti, Mich.<br> -<br> -G<small>ORHAM</small>, G<small>EO</small>. C.,<br> - 1763 Q Street.<br> -<br> -G<small>RAHAM</small>, M<small>ISS</small> A. M.,<br> - 1234 Massachusetts Avenue.<br> -<br> -G<small>RAHAM</small>, A<small>NDREW</small> B.,<br> - 1230 Pennsylvania Avenue.<br> -<br> -G<small>RANGER</small>, F. D.,<br> - Coast and Geodetic Survey.<br> -<br> -G<small>RAVES</small>, W<small>ALTER</small> H.,<br> - Geological Survey.<br> -<br> -G<small>REELY</small>, G<small>EN</small>. A. W., U. S. A., <i>a</i>,<br> - 1914 G Street.<br> -<br> -G<small>RIFFITH</small>, G. B<small>ERKELEY</small>,<br> - 1630 Rhode Island Avenue.<br> -<br> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="pagexxii"><small><small>[p. xxii]</small></small></a></span> -G<small>RISWOLD</small>, W. T., <i>a</i>,<br> - U. S. Geological Survey, Boise, Idaho.<br> -<br> -G<small>ROEGER</small>, G. G., <i>c</i>,<br> - 310 Chamber of Commerce Building, Chicago, Ill.<br> -<br> -G<small>ULLIVER</small>, F. P., <i>c</i>,<br> - Norwich, Conn.<br> -<br> -G<small>UNION</small>, M<small>RS</small>. R<small>EBECCA</small> E.,<br> - 927 O Street.<br> -<br> -G<small>URLEY</small>, C<small>HARLES</small> L.,<br> - 1401 Sixteenth Street.<br> -<br> -H<small>ACKETT</small>, M., <i>a</i>,<br> - Geological Survey.<br> -<br> -H<small>AGADORN</small>, L<small>IEUT</small>. C<small>HAS</small>. B., U. S. A., <i>c</i>,<br> - Fort Leavenworth, Kans.<br> -<br> -H<small>ALE</small>, L. P., <i>c</i>,<br> - Canton, N. Y.<br> -<br> -H<small>ARRINGTON</small>, P<small>ROF</small>. M<small>ARK</small> W.,<br> - Weather Bureau.<br> -<br> -H<small>ARRIS</small>, D<small>R</small>. T. W.,<br> - Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass.<br> -<br> -H<small>ARRISON</small>, D. C., <i>a</i>,<br> - Geological Survey.<br> -<br> -H<small>ARRISON</small>, P<small>ROF</small>. T<small>HOS</small>. F., <i>c</i>,<br> - 221 W. Forty-fifth Street, New York, N. Y.<br> -<br> -H<small>ARROD</small>, M<small>AJ</small>. B. M.,<br> - City Engineer's Office, New Orleans, La.<br> -<br> -H<small>ART</small>, P<small>ROF</small>. A<small>LBERT</small> B<small>USHNELL</small>,<br> - 15 Appian Way, Cambridge, Mass.<br> -<br> -H<small>ART</small>, J<small>UAN</small>, <i>c</i>,<br> - El Paso, Tex.<br> -<br> -H<small>ASBROUCK</small>, E. M.,<br> - 1610 Fifteenth Street.<br> -<br> -H<small>ASKELL</small>, E. E., <i>a</i>,<br> - Coast and Geodetic Survey.<br> -<br> -H<small>AWKINS</small>, G<small>EO</small>. T.,<br> - Geological Survey.<br> -<br> -H<small>AY</small>, P<small>ROF</small>. R<small>OBERT</small>,<br> - P. O. Box 562, Junction City, Kans.<br> -<br> -H<small>AYDEN</small>, E<small>VERETT</small>, <i>a</i>,<br> - Hydrographic Office.<br> -<br> -H<small>AYDEN</small>, J. J.,<br> - 929 K Street.<br> -<br> -H<small>AYES</small>, D<small>R</small>. C. W<small>ILLARD</small>,<br> - Geological Survey.<br> -<br> -H<small>AYES</small>, P<small>ROF</small>. E<small>LLEN</small>, <i>c</i>,<br> - Wellesley College, Wellesley, Mass.<br> -<br> -H<small>AYS</small>, J. W.,<br> - Oxford, N. C.<br> -<br> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="pagexxiii"><small><small>[p. xxiii]</small></small></a></span> -H<small>AZARD</small>, D<small>ANIEL</small> L.,<br> - Coast and Geodetic Survey.<br> -<br> -H<small>EATON</small>, A. G.,<br> - 1618 Seventeenth Street.<br> -<br> -H<small>EILPRIN</small>, G<small>ILES</small> F.,<br> - 1227 Pennsylvania Avenue.<br> -<br> -H<small>ENRY</small>, A. J., <i>a</i>,<br> - 948 S Street.<br> -<br> -H<small>ENSHAW</small>, H. W., <i>a</i>,<br> - Bureau of Ethnology.<br> -<br> -H<small>ERRLE</small>, G., <i>a</i>,<br> - Hydrographic Office.<br> -<br> -H<small>ERRON</small>, W<small>M</small>. H., <i>a</i>,<br> - Geological Survey.<br> -<br> -H<small>ILL</small>, P<small>ROF</small>. R. T.,<br> - 910 Fifteenth Street.<br> -<br> -H<small>INDS</small>, D<small>R</small>. C<small>LARA</small> B<small>LISS</small>,<br> - 1331 Fourteenth Street.<br> -<br> -H<small>INMAN</small>, R<small>USSELL</small>,<br> - 806 Broadway, New York, N. Y.<br> -<br> -H<small>ITCHCOCK</small>, P<small>ROF</small>. C. H., <i>c</i>,<br> - Dartmouth College, Hanover, N. H.<br> -<br> -H<small>OBBS</small>, D<small>R</small>. W<small>M</small>. H., <i>c</i>,<br> - University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis.<br> -<br> -H<small>ODGKINS</small>, P<small>ROF</small>. H. L., <i>a</i>,<br> - Columbian University.<br> -<br> -H<small>ODGKINS</small>, W. C.,<br> - Coast and Geodetic Survey.<br> -<br> -H<small>OLDEN</small>, P<small>ROF</small>. E. S., <i>c</i>,<br> - Lick Observatory, Mount Hamilton, Cal.<br> -<br> -H<small>OLDEN</small>, M<small>RS</small>. L. E.,<br> - P. O. Box 1027, Salt Lake, Utah.<br> -<br> -H<small>OLDEN</small>, L<small>UTHER</small> L.,<br> - 7 Warren Square, Jamaica Plain, Mass.<br> -<br> -H<small>OLLERITH</small>, H<small>ERMAN</small>,<br> - 501 F Street.<br> -<br> -H<small>OLMES</small>, P<small>ROF</small>. J. A., <i>c</i>,<br> - Chapel Hill, N. C.<br> -<br> -H<small>OLT</small>, H. P. R.,<br> - Takoma Park, D. C.<br> -<br> -H<small>ORE</small>, C<small>APT</small>. E<small>DWARD</small> C., <i>c</i>,<br> - Royal Geographical Society, London, England.<br> -<br> -H<small>ORNADAY</small>, W. T., <i>a</i>,<br> - 44 Niagara Street, Buffalo, N. Y.<br> -<br> -H<small>ORNBLOWER</small>, J. C.,<br> - 1402 M Street.<br> -<br> -H<small>OSKINS</small>, P<small>ROF</small>. L. M., <i>c</i>,<br> - University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis.<br> -<br> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="pagexxiv"><small><small>[p. xxiv]</small></small></a></span> -H<small>OSMER</small>, E<small>DWARD</small> S<small>TURGES</small>, <i>l</i>,<br> - 1330 L Street.<br> -<br> -H<small>OTCHKISS</small>, M<small>AJ</small>. J<small>ED</small>.,<br> - Staunton, Va.<br> -<br> -H<small>OVEY</small>, R<small>EV</small>. D<small>R</small>. H. C.,<br> - 60 Crescent Street, Middletown, Conn.<br> -<br> -H<small>OWARD</small>, E<small>NS</small>. W. L., U. S. N., <i>c</i>,<br> - Navy Pay Office, San Francisco, Cal.<br> -<br> -H<small>OWELL</small>, D. J., <i>a</i>,<br> - 918 F Street.<br> -<br> -H<small>OWELL</small>, E<small>DWIN</small> E., <i>a</i>,<br> - 612 Seventeenth Street.<br> -<br> -H<small>UBBARD</small>, G<small>ARDINER</small> G., <i>a</i>,<br> - 1328 Connecticut Avenue.<br> -<br> -H<small>UTCHINSON</small>, J<small>OHN</small>,<br> - 933 H Street.<br> -<br> -H<small>UTCHINSON</small>, W. J.,<br> - 1707 Massachusetts Avenue.<br> -<br> -H<small>YDE</small>, G. E.,<br> - Geological Survey.<br> -<br> -H<small>YDE</small>, J<small>OHN</small>,<br> - 2820 P Street.<br> -<br> -I<small>ARDELLA</small>, C. T., <i>a</i>,<br> - Coast and Geodetic Survey.<br> -<br> -I<small>NGRAHAM</small>, P<small>ROF</small>. E. S., <i>c</i>,<br> - Seattle, Wash.<br> -<br> -J<small>ACKSON</small>, R<small>EV</small>. D<small>R</small>. S<small>HELDON</small>,<br> - 1830 Ninth Street.<br> -<br> -J<small>ENNEY</small>, D<small>R</small>. W. P.,<br> - Geological Survey.<br> -<br> -J<small>ENNINGS</small>, J. H., <i>a</i>,<br> - Geological Survey.<br> -<br> -J<small>EWETT</small>, W. P., <i>c</i>,<br> - 180 E. Third Street, St. Paul, Minn.<br> -<br> -J<small>OHNSON</small>, M<small>ISS</small> A<small>LICE</small> B<small>URGES</small>,<br> - 501 Maple Avenue.<br> -<br> -J<small>OHNSON</small>, A. B., <i>a</i>,<br> - Light House Board.<br> -<br> -J<small>OHNSON</small>, E. K<small>URTZ</small>,<br> - 1600 Massachusetts Avenue.<br> -<br> -J<small>OHNSON</small>, D<small>R</small>. H. L. E.,<br> - 1400 L Street.<br> -<br> -J<small>OHNSON</small>, J. B.,<br> - Howard University.<br> -<br> -J<small>OHNSON</small>, R<small>EV</small>. J. G.,<br> - 381 Dearborn Avenue, Chicago, Ill.<br> -<br> -J<small>OHNSON</small>, J<small>EROME</small> F.,<br> - 1326 F Street.<br> -<br> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="pagexxv"><small><small>[p. xxv]</small></small></a></span> -J<small>OHNSON</small>, M<small>RS</small>. M<small>ARY</small> D<small>AVIS</small>, <i>c</i>,<br> - Sitka, Alaska.<br> -<br> -J<small>OHNSON</small>, S<small>TUART</small> P.,<br> - U. S. Geological Survey, Berkeley, Cal.<br> -<br> -J<small>OHNSON</small>, W<small>ILLARD</small> D., <i>a</i>,<br> - U. S. Geological Survey, Berkeley, Cal.<br> -<br> -J<small>UDD</small>, J<small>OHN</small> G.,<br> - 420 Eleventh Street.<br> -<br> -J<small>UDSON</small>, E<small>GBERT</small>, <i>c</i>,<br> - 402 Front Street, San Francisco, Cal.<br> -<br> -J<small>UNKEN</small>, C<small>HARLES</small>,<br> - Coast and Geodetic Survey.<br> -<br> -J<small>UNKEN</small>, C<small>HAS</small>. A.,<br> - Ordnance Office, War Department.<br> -<br> -J<small>ÜSSEN</small>, E<small>DMUND</small>,<br> - In care W. Tudor, Temple, Ga.<br> -<br> -K<small>ARL</small>, A<small>NTON</small>, <i>a</i>,<br> - 1230 Eleventh Street.<br> -<br> -K<small>AUFFMANN</small>, S. H., <i>a</i>,<br> - 1421 Massachusetts Avenue.<br> -<br> -K<small>AVANAUGH</small>, M<small>ISS</small> K.,<br> - Sixth Auditor's Office.<br> -<br> -K<small>ENASTON</small>, P<small>ROF</small>. C. A., <i>a</i>,<br> - Room 4, 26 Court Street, Brooklyn, N. Y.<br> -<br> -K<small>ENDALL</small>, M<small>ISS</small> E<small>LIZABETH</small>, <i>c</i>,<br> - Wellesley College, Wellesley, Mass.<br> -<br> -K<small>ENNAN</small>, G<small>EORGE</small>, <i>a</i>,<br> - In care J. B. Pond, Everett House, New York, N. Y.<br> -<br> -K<small>ENNEDY</small>, D<small>R</small>. G<small>EO</small>. G., <i>l</i>,<br> - 284 Warren Street, Roxbury, Mass.<br> -<br> -K<small>ENNON</small>, L<small>IEUT</small>. L. W. V., U. S. A.,<br> - War Department.<br> -<br> -K<small>ERR</small>, H. S., <i>c</i>,<br> - Salt Lake, Utah.<br> -<br> -K<small>ERR</small>, M<small>ARK</small> B., <i>a</i>,<br> - 402 Front Street, San Francisco, Cal.<br> -<br> -K<small>IMBALL</small>, E. F.,<br> - Post Office Department.<br> -<br> -K<small>IMBALL</small>, D<small>R</small>. E. S.,<br> - 737 Thirteenth Street.<br> -<br> -K<small>IMBALL</small>, S. I., <i>a</i>,<br> - Life Saving Service.<br> -<br> -K<small>ING</small>, P<small>ROF</small>. F. H.,<br> - 1500 University Avenue, Madison, Wis.<br> -<br> -K<small>ING</small>, P<small>ROF</small>. H<small>ARRY</small>, <i>a</i>,<br> - Geological Survey.<br> -<br> -K<small>ING</small>, W<small>M</small>. B.,<br> - 1328 Twelfth Street.<br> -<br> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="pagexxvi"><small><small>[p. xxvi]</small></small></a></span> -K<small>LAKRING</small>, A<small>LFRED</small>,<br> - Hydrographic Office.<br> -<br> -K<small>LOTZ</small>, O<small>TTO</small> J., <i>c</i>,<br> - Interior Department, Preston, Ontario, Canada.<br> -<br> -K<small>NAPP</small>, H<small>ON</small>. L<small>YMAN</small> E.,<br> - Sitka, Alaska.<br> -<br> -K<small>OCH</small>, P<small>ETER</small>, <i>a</i>,<br> - Bozeman, Mont.<br> -<br> -K<small>RAMER</small>, W<small>ILLIAM</small>,<br> -<br> -K<small>ÜBEL</small>, S. J.,<br> - Geological Survey.<br> -<br> -L<small>ACKLAND</small>, W. E., <i>a</i>,<br> - Geological Survey.<br> -<br> -L<small>ADD</small>, G<small>EORGE</small> E.,<br> - Melrose Highlands, Mass.<br> -<br> -L<small>AMBERT</small>, M. B.,<br> - Geological Survey.<br> -<br> -L<small>AMBORN</small>, D<small>R</small>. R<small>OBERT</small> H.,<br> - 32 Nassau Street, New York, N. Y.<br> -<br> -L<small>AWSON</small>, P<small>ROF</small>. A. C.,<br> - University of California, Berkeley, Cal.<br> -<br> -L<small>AWSON</small>, M<small>ISS</small> J<small>EANNE</small> W.,<br> - 1231 New Hampshire Avenue.<br> -<br> -L<small>EACH</small>, B<small>OYNTON</small>,<br> - Hydrographic Office.<br> -<br> -L<small>EVERETT</small>, F<small>RANK</small>, <i>c</i>,<br> - U. S. Geological Survey, Madison, Wis.<br> -<br> -L<small>IBBEY</small>, P<small>ROF</small>. W<small>ILLIAM</small>, J<small>R</small>., <i>c</i>,<br> - 20 Bayard Avenue, Princeton, N. J.<br> -<br> -L<small>INCOLN</small>, J<small>OHN</small> J.,<br> - Geological Survey.<br> -<br> -L<small>INDENKOHL</small>, A., <i>a</i>,<br> - Coast and Geodetic Survey.<br> -<br> -L<small>INDENKOHL</small>, H., <i>a</i>,<br> - Coast and Geodetic Survey.<br> -<br> -L<small>INDSLEY</small>, W<small>M</small>. L., <i>c</i>,<br> - Corner Banner and Republican Streets, Seattle, Wash.<br> -<br> -L<small>ITTLEHALES</small>, G. W.,<br> - 928 Twenty-third Street.<br> -<br> -L<small>OOKER</small>, H<small>ENRY</small> B.,<br> - 918 F Street.<br> -<br> -L<small>OOKER</small>, T<small>HOS</small>. H., U. S. N.,<br> - 1312 Thirtieth Street.<br> -<br> -L<small>OOMIS</small>, H<small>ENRY</small> B., <i>c</i>,<br> - Seattle, Wash.<br> -<br> -L<small>OVELL</small>, W. H.,<br> - Geological Survey.<br> -<br> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="pagexxvii"><small><small>[p. xxvii]</small></small></a></span> -L<small>YONS</small>, J<small>OSEPH</small>,<br> - 1003 F Street.<br> -<br> -M<small>C</small>C<small>ARTENEY</small>, L<small>IEUT</small>. C<small>HAS</small>. M., U. S. N.,<br> - Hydrographic Office.<br> -<br> -M<small>C</small>C<small>RACKEN</small>, R. H., <i>c</i>,<br> - P. O. Box 495, San Antonio, Tex.<br> -<br> -M<small>C</small>G<small>EE</small>, M<small>RS</small>. A<small>NITA</small> N<small>EWCOMB</small>,<br> - 2410 Fourteenth Street.<br> -<br> -M<small>C</small>G<small>EE</small>, W J, <i>a</i>,<br> - Geological Surrey.<br> -<br> -M<small>C</small>G<small>ILL</small>, M<small>ISS</small> M<small>ARY</small> C.,<br> - 336 C Street.<br> -<br> -M<small>C</small>G<small>RATH</small>, J<small>OHN</small> E.,<br> - Coast and Geodetic Survey.<br> -<br> -M<small>C</small>K<small>EE</small>, R<small>EDICK</small> H., <i>a</i>,<br> - U. S. Geological Survey, Berkeley, Cal.<br> -<br> -M<small>C</small>K<small>INNEY</small>, R. C., <i>a</i>,<br> - Geological Survey.<br> -<br> -M<small>C</small>L<small>AUGHLIN</small>, D<small>R</small>. T. N.,<br> - 1226 N Street.<br> -<br> -M<small>AC</small>K<small>AYE</small>, J. M., <i>c</i>.<br> - Shirley, Mass.<br> -<br> -M<small>AHER</small>, J<small>AMES</small> A., <i>a</i>,<br> - P. O. Box 35, Johnson City, Tenn.<br> -<br> -M<small>ANNING</small>, V<small>AN</small>. H., JR., <i>a</i>,<br> - Geological Survey.<br> -<br> -M<small>ARINDIN</small>, H<small>ENRY</small> L.,<br> - Coast and Geodetic Survey.<br> -<br> -M<small>ARKS</small>, D<small>R</small>. A. J., <i>c</i>,<br> - 419 Madison Street, Toledo, O.<br> -<br> -M<small>ARSHALL</small>, R. B.,<br> - U. S. Geological Survey, Berkeley, Cal.<br> -<br> -M<small>ASON</small>, P<small>ROF</small>. O. T.,<br> - 1777 Massachusetts Avenue.<br> -<br> -M<small>ATTHEWS</small>, D<small>R</small>. W., U. S. A., <i>a</i>,<br> - Fort Wingate, N. M.<br> -<br> -M<small>ELVILLE</small>, E<small>NG</small>. <small>IN</small> C<small>HIEF</small> G<small>EO</small>. W., U. S. N., <i>a</i>, <i>l</i>,<br> - Navy Department.<br> -<br> -M<small>ENDENHALL</small>, D<small>R</small>. T. C.,<br> - Coast and Geodetic Survey.<br> -<br> -M<small>ENOCAL</small>, C<small>IV</small>. E<small>NG</small>. A. G., U. S. N., <i>a</i>,<br> - 44 Wall Street, New York, N. Y.<br> -<br> -M<small>ERRIAM</small>, D<small>R</small>. C. H<small>ART</small>, <i>a</i>,<br> - Department of Agriculture.<br> -<br> -M<small>ERRILL</small>, P<small>ROF</small>. J. A., <i>c</i>,<br> - State Normal School, Warrensburg, Mo.<br> -<br> -M<small>ESTON</small>, R. D.,<br> - 1227 L Street.<br> -<br> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="pagexxviii"><small><small>[p. xxviii]</small></small></a></span> -M<small>ETZGER</small>, F. P.,<br> - Geological Survey.<br> -<br> -M<small>ILEY</small>, A. E.,<br> - Sixth Auditor's Office.<br> -<br> -M<small>INDELEFF</small>, M<small>ME</small>. J<small>ULIE</small>,<br> - 1401 Stoughton Street.<br> -<br> -M<small>INDELEFF</small>, V<small>ICTOR</small>,<br> - Ohio National Bank Building.<br> -<br> -M<small>ITCHELL</small>, P<small>ROF</small>. H<small>ENRY</small>, <i>a</i>,<br> - 18 Hawthorne Street, Roxbury, Mass.<br> -<br> -M<small>OSMAN</small>, A. T., <i>a</i>,<br> - Coast and Geodetic Survey.<br> -<br> -M<small>UIR</small>, P<small>ROF</small>. J<small>OHN</small>,<br> - Martinez, Cal.<br> -<br> -M<small>UIR</small>, E<small>NS</small>. W. C. P., U. S. N.,<br> - In care Hon. J. L. Beckham, Shelbyville, Ky.<br> -<br> -M<small>UNROE</small>, H<small>ERSEY</small>,<br> - Geological Survey.<br> -<br> -M<small>URLIN</small>, A. E.,<br> - Geological Survey.<br> -<br> -M<small>URRAY</small>, B. P.,<br> - 10 Third Street NE.<br> -<br> -N<small>ELL</small>, L<small>OUIS</small>, <i>a</i>,<br> - Geological Survey.<br> -<br> -N<small>EWELL</small>, F. H.,<br> - Geological Survey.<br> -<br> -N<small>ILES</small>, P<small>ROF</small>. W<small>M</small>. H.,<br> - Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Boston, Mass.<br> -<br> -N<small>ORDHOFF</small>, C<small>HARLES</small>, <i>a</i>,<br> - Coronado, Cal.<br> -<br> -N<small>ORMAN</small>-N<small>ERUDA</small>, L., <i>c</i>,<br> - Devonshire Club, St. James Street, London, England.<br> -<br> -N<small>ORTHUP</small>, C. G.,<br> - U. S. Senate.<br> -<br> -N<small>OYES</small>, C<small>ROSBY</small> S.,<br> - 1101 Pennsylvania Avenue.<br> -<br> -O<small>GDEN</small>, H<small>ERBERT</small> G., <i>a</i>,<br> - Coast and Geodetic Survey.<br> -<br> -O'H<small>ALLORAN</small>, T. M.,<br> - Hydrographic Office.<br> -<br> -O'H<small>ARE</small>, D<small>ANIEL</small> P.,<br> - Geological Survey.<br> -<br> -O<small>LDRINI</small>, P<small>ROF</small>. A<small>LEXANDER</small>,<br> - 1437 L Street.<br> -<br> -O<small>LNEY</small>, C<small>HAS</small>. F.,<br> - 137 Jennings Avenue, Cleveland, O.<br> -<br> -O<small>SBORN</small>, L<small>IEUT</small>. A. P., U. S. N., <i>c</i>,<br> - Navy Pay Office, San Francisco, Cal.<br> -<br> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="pagexxix"><small><small>[p. xxix]</small></small></a></span> -O<small>SBORNE</small>, D<small>R</small>. G<small>EO</small>. L., <i>c</i>,<br> - State Normal School, Warrensburg, Mo.<br> -<br> -O<small>TIS</small>, H<small>AMILTON</small>, <i>c</i>,<br> - Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Boston, Mass.<br> -<br> -O<small>TIS</small>, W<small>ILLIAM</small> H.,<br> - U. S. Geological Survey, Berkeley, Cal.<br> -<br> -P<small>ALMER</small>, T. S.,<br> - Department of Agriculture.<br> -<br> -P<small>ARKER</small>, E. W.,<br> - Geological Survey.<br> -<br> -P<small>ARSONS</small>, F<small>RANCIS</small> H., <i>a</i>,<br> - 210 First Street SE.<br> -<br> -P<small>EALE</small>, D<small>R</small>. A. C., <i>a</i>,<br> - Geological Survey.<br> -<br> -P<small>EARY</small>, C<small>IV</small>. E<small>NG</small>. R. E., U. S. N.,<br> - Navy Department.<br> -<br> -P<small>ELLEW</small>, H<small>ENRY</small> E.,<br> - 1637 Massachusetts Avenue.<br> -<br> -P<small>ENROSE</small>, R. A. F., J<small>R</small>.,<br> - 1331 Spruce Street, Philadelphia, Pa.<br> -<br> -P<small>ERKINS</small>, E. T., J<small>R</small>., <i>a</i>,<br> - Geological Survey.<br> -<br> -P<small>ETERS</small>, E<small>UGENE</small>,<br> - 458 Pennsylvania Avenue.<br> -<br> -P<small>ETERS</small>, L<small>IEUT</small>. G. H., U. S. N., <i>a</i>,<br> - Navy Department.<br> -<br> -P<small>ETERS</small>, W<small>ILLIAM</small> J., <i>a</i>,<br> - Geological Survey.<br> -<br> -P<small>ETROFF</small>, I<small>VAN</small>, <i>c</i>,<br> - 2148 Pennsylvania Avenue.<br> -<br> -P<small>HILLIPS</small>, A<small>SA</small> E.,<br> - District Engineer Department.<br> -<br> -P<small>HILLIPS</small>, R. H<small>ENRY</small>,<br> - Room 110, 1419 New York Avenue.<br> -<br> -P<small>ICKERING</small>, P<small>ROF</small>. E<small>DWARD</small> C.,<br> - Harvard Observatory, Cambridge, Mass.<br> -<br> -P<small>ICKING</small>, C<small>APT</small>. H<small>ENRY</small> F., U. S. N.,<br> - Navy Department.<br> -<br> -P<small>IERCE</small>, J<small>OSIAH</small>, J<small>R</small>.,<br> - 11 South Street, Baltimore, Md.<br> -<br> -P<small>OLLOK</small>, A<small>NTHONY</small>,<br> - 620 F Street.<br> -<br> -*P<small>OND</small>, E<small>DWIN</small> J.,<br> -<br> -P<small>OWELL</small>, M<small>AJ</small>. J. W., <i>a</i>,<br> - Geological Survey.<br> -<br> -P<small>OWELL</small>, P<small>ROF</small>. W. B., <i>a</i>,<br> - Franklin School.<br> -<br> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="pagexxx"><small><small>[p. xxx]</small></small></a></span> -P<small>RENTISS</small>, D<small>R</small>. D. W<small>EBSTER</small>, <i>a</i>,<br> - 1101 Fourteenth Street.<br> -<br> -P<small>RINCE</small>, H<small>ON</small>. L. B<small>RADFORD</small>, <i>c</i>,<br> - Santa Fe, N. M.<br> -<br> -P<small>ROWELL</small>, G<small>EO</small>. R., <i>c</i>,<br> - Hanover, Pa.<br> -<br> -P<small>UMPELLY</small>, P<small>ROF</small>. R<small>APHAEL</small>,<br> - U. S. Geological Survey, Newport, R. I.<br> -<br> -R<small>AMSEY</small>, F. M., <i>c</i>,<br> - Lampasas, Tex.<br> -<br> -R<small>ANKIN</small>, R<small>EV</small>. D<small>R</small>. J. E.,<br> - Howard University.<br> -<br> -R<small>EID</small>, P<small>ROF</small>. H<small>ARRY</small> F<small>IELDING</small>, <i>c</i>,<br> - Case School of Applied Science, Cleveland, O.<br> -<br> -R<small>ENSHAWE</small>, J<small>NO</small>. H., <i>a</i>,<br> - Geological Survey.<br> -<br> -R<small>ICE</small>, P<small>ROF</small>. W<small>M</small>. N<small>ORTH</small>, <i>c</i>,<br> - Wesleyan University, Middletown, Conn.<br> -<br> -R<small>ICHARDSON</small>, D<small>R</small>. C. W.,<br> - 1102 L Street.<br> -<br> -R<small>ICHARDSON</small>, T. J., <i>c</i>,<br> - 734 E. Fifteenth Street, Minneapolis, Minn.<br> -<br> -R<small>ICHMOND</small>, C<small>HAS</small>. W.,<br> - In care U. S. Consul, Greytown, Nicaragua.<br> -<br> -R<small>ICHTER</small>, M<small>ISS</small> C. M.,<br> - 330 A Street SE.<br> -<br> -R<small>ICKSECKER</small>, E<small>UGENE</small>, <i>a</i>, <i>c</i>,<br> - P. O. Box 289, Seattle, Wash.<br> -<br> -R<small>ITTER</small>, H. P., <i>a</i>,<br> - Coast and Geodetic Survey.<br> -<br> -R<small>IZER</small>, C<small>OL</small>. H. C.,<br> - Geological Survey.<br> -<br> -R<small>OBBINS</small>, A. G., <i>c</i>,<br> - Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Boston, Mass.<br> -<br> -R<small>OBERTS</small>, A. C., <i>a</i>,<br> - Hydrographic Office.<br> -<br> -R<small>OCHESTER</small>, G<small>EN</small>. W<small>M</small>. B., U. S. A.,<br> - 1320 Eighteenth Street.<br> -<br> -R<small>OCK</small>, M<small>ILES</small>,<br> - 1430 Chapin Street.<br> -<br> -R<small>OGERS</small>, J<small>NO</small>. B., <i>c</i>,<br> - Columbia Athletic Club.<br> -<br> -R<small>OTCH</small>, A. L<small>AWRENCE</small>,<br> - 3 Commonwealth Avenue, Boston, Mass.<br> -<br> -R<small>USSEL</small>, L<small>IEUT</small>. E<small>DGAR</small>, U. S. A., <i>c</i>,<br> - Fort Sam Houston, San Antonio, Tex.<br> -<br> -R<small>USSELL</small>, I<small>SRAEL</small> C., <i>a</i>,<br> - Geological Survey.<br> -<br> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="pagexxxi"><small><small>[p. xxxi]</small></small></a></span> -S<small>ANDERS</small>, H<small>ENRY</small> P.,<br> - 1504 Twenty-first Street.<br> -<br> -S<small>ARGENT</small>, P<small>ROF</small>. C. S., <i>a</i>,<br> - Brookline, Mass.<br> -<br> -S<small>CHAAP</small>, C. H., <i>c</i>,<br> - P. O. Box 32, Sitka, Alaska.<br> -<br> -S<small>CHLEY</small>, C<small>APT</small>. W. S., U. S. N., <i>a</i>,<br> - Navy Department.<br> -<br> -S<small>CHMIDT</small>, F<small>RED</small>. A.,<br> - 504 Ninth Street.<br> -<br> -S<small>CHMITT</small>, E<small>WALD</small>,<br> - 2235 Thirteenth Street.<br> -<br> -S<small>CHWATKA</small>, F<small>REDERICK</small>, <i>c</i>,<br> - 1108 First Avenue, Rock Island, Ill.<br> -<br> -S<small>CIDMORE</small>, M<small>ISS</small> E<small>LIZA</small> R<small>UHAMAH</small>,<br> - 1502 Twenty-first Street.<br> -<br> -S<small>COTT</small>, W. O. N.,<br> - 603 Fifteenth Street.<br> -<br> -S<small>CUDDER</small>, P<small>ROF</small>. S. H., <i>a</i>,<br> - Cambridge, Mass.<br> -<br> -S<small>HALER</small>, P<small>ROF</small>. N. S., <i>a</i>,<br> - 25 Quincy Street, Cambridge, Mass.<br> -<br> -S<small>HEPARD</small>, P<small>ROF</small>. E<small>DWARD</small> M.,<br> - Drury College, Springfield, Mo.<br> -<br> -S<small>HEPARD</small>, J. L. N., <i>c</i>,<br> - 402 Front Street, San Francisco, Cal.<br> -<br> -S<small>HEPARD</small>, C<small>APT</small>. L. G., U. S. R. M.,<br> - Treasury Department.<br> -<br> -S<small>INCLAIR</small>, C. H.,<br> - Coast and Geodetic Survey.<br> -<br> -S<small>INCLAIR</small>, J. C.,<br> - 718 Arch Street, Philadelphia, Pa.<br> -<br> -S<small>LOAN</small>, R<small>OBERT</small> S., <i>c</i>,<br> - Oswego. N. Y.<br> -<br> -S<small>MITH</small>, E<small>DWIN</small>, <i>a</i>,<br> - Coast and Geodetic Survey.<br> -<br> -S<small>MITH</small>, R<small>EV</small>. E<small>RNEST</small> C., <i>c</i>,<br> - Framingham, Mass.<br> -<br> -S<small>MITH</small>, P<small>ROF</small>. E<small>UGENE</small> A., <i>c</i>,<br> - University, Ala.<br> -<br> -S<small>MITH</small>, M<small>IDDLETON</small>, <i>a</i>,<br> - P. O. Box 572.<br> -<br> -S<small>MOCK</small>, D<small>R</small>. J. C., <i>c</i>,<br> - State Geological Survey, Trenton, N. J.<br> -<br> -S<small>NELL</small>, M<small>ERWIN</small>-M<small>ARIE</small>,<br> - Catholic University of America.<br> -<br> -S<small>OMMER</small>, E. J., <i>a</i>,<br> - Coast and Geodetic Survey.<br> -<br> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="pagexxxii"><small><small>[p. xxxii]</small></small></a></span> -S<small>PENCER</small>, J<small>AS</small>. W.,<br> - Geological Survey.<br> -<br> -S<small>TANLEY</small>-B<small>ROWN</small>, J<small>OSEPH</small>,<br> - Geological Survey.<br> -<br> -S<small>TANWOOD</small>, J<small>AMES</small> H<small>UGH</small>, <i>c</i>,<br> - Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Boston, Mass.<br> -<br> -S<small>TEDMAN</small>, J. M., <i>c</i>,<br> - Trinity University, Durham, N. C.<br> -<br> -S<small>TEIN</small>, R<small>OBERT</small>,<br> - Geological Survey.<br> -<br> -S<small>TOCKTON</small>, L<small>T</small>. C<small>OMDR</small>. C<small>HARLES</small> H., U. S. N., <i>a</i>, <i>c</i>,<br> - Naval War College, Newport, R. I.<br> -<br> -S<small>TONE</small>, J<small>AMES</small> S., <i>c</i>,<br> - 131 Vernon Street, Newton, Mass.<br> -<br> -S<small>UTTON</small>, F<small>RANK</small>,<br> - Geological Survey.<br> -<br> -S<small>WAN</small>, H<small>ON</small>. J<small>AMES</small> G., <i>c</i>,<br> - Port Townsend, Wash.<br> -<br> -T<small>ALBOT</small>, M<small>RS</small>. L<small>AURA</small> O<small>SBORNE</small>,<br> - 927 P Street.<br> -<br> -T<small>ARR</small>, R. S., <i>c</i>,<br> - Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y.<br> -<br> -T<small>AYLOR</small>, D<small>ANIEL</small> F.,<br> - 918 F Street.<br> -<br> -T<small>AYLOR</small>, J<small>AS</small>. L.,<br> - 1515 Twentieth Street.<br> -<br> -T<small>HOMAS</small>, M<small>ISS</small> M<small>ARY VON</small> E., <i>a</i>,<br> - 235 New Jersey Avenue SE.<br> -<br> -T<small>HOMPSON</small>, P<small>ROF</small>. A. H., <i>a</i>,<br> - Geological Survey.<br> -<br> -T<small>HOMPSON</small>, G<small>ILBERT</small>, <i>a</i>,<br> - Geological Survey.<br> -<br> -T<small>HOMPSON</small>, L<small>AURENCE</small>, <i>a</i>,<br> - 1628 S Street.<br> -<br> -T<small>HOMPSON</small>, C<small>APT</small>. R. E., U. S. A., <i>a</i>,<br> - War Department.<br> -<br> -T<small>HOMPSON</small>, J. W.,<br> - 1419 I Street.<br> -<br> -T<small>ISDELL</small>, W<small>ILLARD</small> P.,<br> - 1323 Thirteenth Street.<br> -<br> -T<small>ITTMANN</small>, O. H., <i>a</i>,<br> - Coast and Geodetic Survey.<br> -<br> -T<small>OWNSEND</small>, M<small>RS</small>. J<small>ULIA</small> C.,<br> - 1316 R Street.<br> -<br> -T<small>OWSON</small>, R. M., <i>a</i>,<br> - Geological Survey.<br> -<br> -T<small>URNER</small>, J. H<small>ENRY</small>,<br> - Coast and Geodetic Survey.<br> -<br> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="pagexxxiii"><small><small>[p. xxxiii]</small></small></a></span> -T<small>WEEDY</small>, F<small>RANK</small>, <i>a</i>,<br> - Geological Survey.<br> -<br> -U<small>RQUHART</small>, C<small>HAS</small>. F., <i>a</i>,<br> - Geological Survey.<br> -<br> -V<small>AN</small> H<small>ISE</small>, P<small>ROF</small>. C. R., <i>l</i>,<br> - U. S. Geological Survey, Madison, Wis.<br> -<br> -V<small>ASEY</small>, D<small>R</small>. G<small>EORGE</small>, <i>a</i>,<br> - Department of Agriculture.<br> -<br> -V<small>ERGES</small>, L. F., <i>c</i>,<br> - Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Boston, Mass.<br> -<br> -V<small>INAL</small>, W. I<small>RVING</small>, <i>a</i>,<br> - 1106 A Street NE.<br> -<br> -V<small>IVIAN</small>, T<small>HOMAS</small> J.,<br> - 212 New Jersey Avenue.<br> -<br> -W<small>ADDEY</small>, J<small>OHN</small> A.,<br> - Hydrographic Office.<br> -<br> -W<small>ADHAMS</small>, L<small>IEUT</small>. A. V., U. S. N., <i>c</i>,<br> - Andover, Mass.<br> -<br> -W<small>ALCOTT</small>, C<small>HAS</small>. D., <i>a</i>,<br> - National Museum.<br> -<br> -W<small>ALKER</small>, E<small>LTON</small> D., <i>c</i>,<br> - Fort Sheridan, Ill.<br> -<br> -W<small>ALLACE</small>, H<small>AMILTON</small> S., <i>a</i>,<br> - Geological Survey.<br> -<br> -W<small>ANAMAKER</small>, H<small>ON</small>. J<small>OHN</small>,<br> - 1731 I Street.<br> -<br> -W<small>ARD</small>, P<small>ROF</small>. H<small>ENRY</small> A., <i>c</i>,<br> - 10 College Avenue, Rochester, N. Y.<br> -<br> -W<small>ARD</small>, L<small>ESTER</small> F., <i>a</i>,<br> - 1464 Rhode Island Avenue.<br> -<br> -W<small>ARD</small>, R<small>OBERT</small> D<small>E</small>C.,<br> - Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass.<br> -<br> -W<small>ARDER</small>, B. H.,<br> - 1515 K Street.<br> -<br> -W<small>ARTEGG</small>, E<small>RNST VON</small> H<small>ESSE</small>, <i>c</i>,<br> - Bern, Switzerland.<br> -<br> -W<small>EED</small>, W<small>ALTER</small> H<small>ARVEY</small>, <i>a</i>,<br> - Geological Survey.<br> -<br> -W<small>EIR</small>, J<small>OHN</small> B., <i>a</i>,<br> - The Fredonia.<br> -<br> -W<small>ELD</small> G<small>EO</small>. F.,<br> - Metropolitan Club.<br> -<br> -W<small>ELLING</small>, D<small>R</small>. J<small>AMES</small> C., <i>a</i>,<br> - 1302 Connecticut Avenue.<br> -<br> -W<small>ELLS</small>, E. H<small>AZARD</small>,<br> - The "Post," Cincinnati, O.<br> -<br> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="pagexxxiv"><small><small>[p. xxxiv]</small></small></a></span> -W<small>EST</small>, P<small>RESTON</small> C. F., <i>c</i>,<br> - Calumet, Mich.<br> -<br> -W<small>HITE</small>, D<small>R</small>. C. H., U. S. N.,<br> - In care A. B. Gilman, Haverhill, Mass.<br> -<br> -W<small>HITE</small>, D<small>AVID</small>,<br> - Geological Survey.<br> -<br> -W<small>HITING</small>, H<small>ENRY</small> L.,<br> - U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, West Tisbury, Mass.<br> -<br> -W<small>ILDER</small>, G<small>EN</small>. J. T., <i>a</i>, <i>l</i>,<br> - Johnson City, Tenn.<br> -<br> -W<small>ILDER</small>, M<small>ISS</small> M<small>ARY</small>,<br> - Johnson City, Tenn.<br> -<br> -W<small>ILLENBÜCHER</small>, E<small>UGENE</small>,<br> - Coast and Geodetic Survey.<br> -<br> -W<small>ILLENBÜCHER</small>, W. C.,<br> - Coast and Geodetic Survey.<br> -<br> -W<small>ILLIAMS</small>, C<small>HARLES</small> A<small>UGUSTUS</small>,<br> - 1301 Eighteenth Street.<br> -<br> -W<small>ILLIAMS</small>, D<small>R</small>. G<small>EO</small>. H.,<br> - 803 Cathedral Street, Baltimore, Md.<br> -<br> -W<small>ILLIAMS</small>, P<small>ROF</small>. H. S., <i>c</i>,<br> - Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y.<br> -<br> -W<small>ILLIAMS</small>, W<small>ILLIAM</small>, <i>c</i>,<br> - University Club, New York, N. Y.<br> -<br> -W<small>ILLIS</small>, B<small>AILEY</small>, <i>a</i>,<br> - Geological Survey.<br> -<br> -W<small>ILLIS</small>, M<small>RS</small>. B<small>AILEY</small>,<br> - 1006 Twenty-second Street.<br> -<br> -W<small>ILLITS</small>, H<small>ON</small>. E<small>DWIN</small>,<br> - Department of Agriculture.<br> -<br> -W<small>ILSON</small>, H. M., <i>a</i>,<br> - Geological Survey.<br> -<br> -W<small>ILSON</small>, T<small>HOMAS</small>,<br> - 1218 Connecticut Avenue.<br> -<br> -W<small>INCHELL</small>, P<small>ROF</small>. N. H., <i>c</i>,<br> - 120 State Street, Minneapolis, Minn.<br> -<br> -W<small>INES</small>, M. W.,<br> - Coast and Geodetic Survey.<br> -<br> -W<small>INSLOW</small>, P<small>ROF</small>. A<small>RTHUR</small>,<br> - State Geological Survey, Jefferson City, Mo.<br> -<br> -W<small>INSTON</small>, I<small>SAAC</small>,<br> - Coast and Geodetic Survey.<br> -<br> -W<small>INTER</small>, D<small>R</small>. J<small>OHN</small> T.,<br> - 1528 Ninth Street.<br> -<br> -*W<small>OODWARD</small>, A. E.,<br> -<br> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="pagexxxv"><small><small>[p. xxxv]</small></small></a></span> -W<small>OODWARD</small>, R. S., <i>a</i>,<br> - Coast and Geodetic Survey.<br> -<br> -W<small>RIGHT</small>, E<small>NS</small>. B<small>ENJAMIN</small>, U. S. N.,<br> - Coast and Geodetic Survey.<br> -<br> -Y<small>EATES</small>, C<small>HAS</small>. M., <i>a</i>, <i>c</i>,<br> - 404½ Liberty Street, Winston, N. C.<br> -<br> -Y<small>OUNG</small>, F. A.,<br> - Coast and Geodetic Survey.<br> -<br> -<hr align="center" width="25%"> -<br> -<center><i>Summary</i>.</center> -<br> -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="4" summary="membership"> - <tr> - <td>Active members</td> - <td align="right">373</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Corresponding members </td> - <td align="right">95</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Life members</td> - <td align="right"><u> 6</u></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td> Total</td> - <td align="right">474</td> - </tr> -</table><br> -<br> -<br> -<center><img src="images/cover1.jpg" alt="cover to issue 1"></center> -<br> -<br> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page1"><small><small>[p. 1]</small></small></a></span> -<center><small>V<small>OL</small>. III, PP 1–30, PL 1 - - - -M<small>ARCH</small> 28, 1891.</small></center> -<h4>THE</h4> -<h2>NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE.</h2> -<hr> -<br> -<br> -<br> -<br> -<h3>SOUTH AMERICA.</h3> - -<h5>A<small>NNUAL</small> A<small>DDRESS BY THE</small> P<small>RESIDENT</small>,</h5> - -<h4>GARDINER G. HUBBARD.</h4> - -<center>(<i>Presented to the Society December 19, 1890.</i>)</center> -<br> -<hr align="center" width="25%"> -<br> -<p>Two years ago I selected for my annual address <i>Africa, or the Dark -Continent;</i> last year <i>Asia, the Land of Mountains and Deserts;</i> this -year I have chosen <i>South America, the Land of Rivers and Pampas</i>.</p> - -<a name="PL1"></a> -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="Plate 1"> - <tr> - <td width="723" align="center"> - <small>NAT GEOG. MAG. - - - - - - - VOL. III, 1891, PL. 1.</small> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="723"> - <img src="images/01.jpg" alt="South America"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="723" align="center"> - <small>From the International Cylopedia, by permission of - Dodd, Mead & Company.</small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<br><br> - -<p>The recent meeting of the Pan-American Congress has called attention -to South America, a part of our continent under republican forms of -government and rich in products which we lack, while it relies mainly -on other foreign countries for goods which we manufacture. North -America and South America should be more closely united, for the one -is the complement of the other.</p> - -<p>The prominent features of South America are its long ranges of -mountains—next to the Himalayas the highest in the world,—its great -valley, and its immense plateau extending from the Straits of Magellan -to the Caribbean sea.</p> -<br> - -<center>T<small>HE</small> M<small>OUNTAINS</small>.</center> - -<p>The Andes rise in the extreme south at Cape Horn, run in a -northerly course through Patagonia and southern Chili; thence -continuing in three nearly parallel ranges, the western chain called -the Andes, the others known as the Cordilleras, through Peru, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page2"><small><small>[p. 2]</small></small></a></span> -Bolivia and Ecuador to Colombia. The Cordilleras and the Andes are -connected in several places by knots or cross-chains of mountains. In -Colombia the Andes turn to the northwest, reaching their lowest -elevation at the Panama canal, and continue thence, through Central -America and North America as the Rocky Mountains, to the Arctic ocean. -Near the source of the Magdalena and Cauca rivers in Colombia, the -eastern range is deflected to the east along the northern coast of -South America. The central range disappears between the Magdalena and -Cauca rivers.</p> - -<p>The Andes form the water-shed of the continent. The waters on the -western slope flow into the Pacific ocean. The rivers that rise on the -eastern slope, in northern Peru and Ecuador, force their way through -the Cordilleras and at their foot drain the montaña of Bolivia, Peru -and Brazil. In the southern part of Peru and upper Chili there is a -broad sierra or plateau, at an elevation of from twelve to fourteen -thousand feet. The streams that rise in this sierra either empty into -salt or alkaline lakes or sink into the ground.</p> - -<p>Unlike all other long ranges of mountains, the continental or eastern -side of the Cordilleras is nearly as precipitous as that extending to -the Pacific. Craters of extinct volcanoes and volcanoes now in -eruption are found in all parts of the chain. In Ecuador there are -fifty-two volcanoes, and twenty of these, covered with perpetual snow -and presided over by Chimborazo and Cotopaxi, rise out of a group of -mountains encircling the valley of Quito, and are all visible from a -single point. Three are active and five others have been in eruption -at one or more times since the conquest. One of these, Sangai, is the -most active volcano on the globe: it sends forth a constant stream of -fire, water, mud and ashes, and some assert that it has done so -without intermission for 300 years; 267 explosions have been counted -in one hour. This is also the land of earthquakes: in 1868, 50,000 -lives, we are told, were lost in one day; the tremor was felt over -four countries and from the Andes to the Sandwich Islands. The tidal -wave washed a gunboat of the United States on shore at Arica in lower -Peru, 1000 miles to the south, and sixteen hours later the wave was -felt across the Pacific at New Zealand.</p> - -<p>A range of mountains separates Eastern Venezuela and Guiana from the -valley of the Amazon. Other ranges south of the Amazon run -southwestwardly, following the Atlantic coast line from Cape St. Roque -to the Rio de la Plata.</p> -<br> - -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page3"><small><small>[p. 3]</small></small></a></span> -<center>R<small>IVER</small> S<small>YSTEMS</small>.</center> - -<p>A great oceanic current flows along the western coast of Africa to the -equator, where it is deflected across the Atlantic ocean and becomes -the equatorial current. On reaching the coast of South America near -Cape St. Roque, it is again deflected north and south. Trade winds -blowing over the equatorial current reach the coast at Brazil -surcharged with vapor; as they follow up the valley of the Amazon the -vapors are partially condensed and frequent showers refresh the land; -but when the clouds at the foot-hills of the Andes meet the colder -winds from the south and strike the snow summits of the Cordilleras, -all the moisture is condensed, and the rain falls in tropical showers -for half the year and waters the largest and richest valley in the -world.</p> - -<p>In this valley, among the Cordilleras, three great rivers—the -Orinoco, the Amazon and La Plata—rise. The mountain ranges north and -south of the Amazon divide this great valley into three lesser -valleys, down which the Orinoco, the Amazon and La Plata flow, -watering three-fourths of South America.</p> -<br> - -<center><i>The Orinoco</i>.</center> - -<p>The headwaters of the Orinoco rise in two ranges of mountains; the -Cordilleras in the west, and the mountains of Venezuela many hundred -miles to the east. Four hundred tributaries, abounding in beautiful -falls and cataracts, unite to form this great river.</p> - -<p>The whole valley for 1600 miles is filled with dense and tangled -forests. Noble trees of unrivalled beauty blossom in endless -prodigality. Birds of gorgeous plumage nestle in their lofty recesses. -Tall ferns, vines, creeping plants and parasites form a dense tangle -of undergrowth, swarming with life. Myriads of insects in great -variety, reptiles of strange and singular form, lizards and venemous -serpents find their homes and sustenance in the wild, dense mass of -vegetation.</p> -<br> - -<center><i>The Amazon</i>.</center> - -<p>The valley of the Amazon collects its waters from a region 1800 miles -wide from north to south and 2500 miles long from the Andes to the -Atlantic ocean. Even at the foot of the Andes the Amazon is a mighty -river. The valley rapidly narrows to a width of 600 or 700 miles, and -then more gradually to the ocean, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page4"><small><small>[p. 4]</small></small></a></span> -where it is only 150 miles wide. -Its total fall from the foot-hills of the Andes to the Atlantic is -very slight, not over three or four hundred feet, and probably -considerably less.</p> - -<p>The rims of the valley are formed of diorite and sandstone, and are -raised only a little above the flood-plain, which is formed of mud and -silt, the detritus brought down by the Amazon and its tributaries. The -flood-plain is from fifty to one hundred miles wide, gradually -narrowing as it approaches the ocean. Through this valley the Amazon -cuts its way, separating often into channels which sometimes run -parallel to each other for several hundred miles, frequently forming -large islands, or expanding into lakes. Similar flood-plains are found -on all its larger tributaries.</p> - -<p>Up from the ocean into this valley an immense tidal wave rolls, with a -bore, twice a day, forcing back the current of the Amazon 500 miles -and inundating a portion of the flood-plain.</p> - -<p>In the early autumn the equatorial rise commences in the headwaters of -its tributaries, far south of the equator. The rains and melting snow -raise the streams, and these the waters of the Amazon. As the sun -crosses the equator and moves to the north the rain follows its -course, and the branches that have their source in the east and -northeast add their flood to the waters of the southerly branches. The -flood in the Amazon is thus continued for nearly six months, raising -its waters from 30 to 50 feet. The channels are filled, and the -flood-plains are overflowed. The whole valley becomes a net-work of -navigable waters, with islands and channels and lakes innumerable, -forming a great inland sea, which the Brazilians call the -Mediterranean of America. The upland, though only a little above the -flood-plain, is rarely overflowed.</p> - -<p>The plants and animals of the flood-plain were formerly considered as -distinct from those of the upland as are the plants and animals of -Europe from those of America; but later investigations show that there -is but little difference between the species.</p> - -<p>The sea breeze blows up the valley about a thousand miles. Then for -1500 miles the atmosphere is stagnant and sultry; the climate is that -of a permanent vapor bath. The dense foliage forms dark, lofty vaults -which the sunlight never penetrates, and over all hangs a perpetual -mist. The abundance and beauty of vegetation increases, and the trees -which at the mouth of the river blossom only once a year, here bloom -and bear fruit all the year round.</p> - -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page5"><small><small>[p. 5]</small></small></a></span> -<p>Many great rivers run into the Amazon from the north and the -south, most of them navigable, for many hundred miles. The Madeira, -its greatest tributary, after running 2000 miles, empties into the -king of rivers, without making any perceptible difference in its width -or depth.</p> - -<p>This mighty current, rushing into the ocean, meets the equatorial -current and for over one hundred miles keeps on nearly a straight -course, when the stronger and mightier oceanic current deflects it to -the north. At from 200 to 300 miles from land, the sea is strongly -tinged, and in April and May has nearly the clay-yellow hue of the -Amazon. And even further north, about 400 miles from its mouth, the -naturalist on the Amazon tells us, "we passed numerous patches of -floating grass mingled with tree trunks and withered foliage; among -these I espied many fruits of the Amazonian palm. And this was the -last I saw of the Amazon."</p> -<br> - -<center><i>The Rio de la Plata</i>.</center> - -<p>The La Plata, the outlet of the waters of central South America, is -formed by the union of the Uruguay and Parana, about 150 miles from -the ocean; a little lower down, at Montevideo, it is 62 miles wide and -widens rapidly to the Atlantic, where it discharges more water than -all the rivers of Europe. The tributaries of the Parana are -fan-shaped. Its most eastern branches rise in the mountains of Brazil, -within seventy miles of the Atlantic ocean; and 1500 miles away, on -the other side of the continent, its most western tributaries rise -only 125 miles from the Pacific.</p> - -<p>Steamers ascend the Parana, Paraguay and Cuyaba, 2100 miles to Cuyaba, -and the river with its branches is navigable for 5000 miles.</p> -<br> - -<center><i>The San Francisco</i>.</center> - -<p>The San Francisco, about 1800 miles long, rises near Rio de Janeiro -and flows north about 1200 miles between parallel ranges of mountains, -then turns east and forces its way through the coast range to the -Atlantic ocean. It runs through the gold and diamond regions of -Brazil, and has a considerable population along its banks. It has many -falls and rapids, and considerable slack-water navigation.</p> -<br> - -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page6"><small><small>[p. 6]</small></small></a></span> -<center>G<small>ENERAL</small> D<small>ESCRIPTION</small>.</center> - -<p>In Asia, the different countries have natural boundaries; the people, -soil and climate of one country are unlike those of others. In Europe -there are few natural boundaries, though different races inhabit the -several states.</p> - -<p>In South America only one dominant race is found, and though natural -boundaries exist, yet they do not serve as boundaries to the different -states, other than Venezuela and Guiana. Venezuela and Guiana are -watered by the Orinoco and by several rivers that flow from the -Amazonian mountains to the ocean. The whole coast is low and fertile, -but hot and unhealthy. The principal product is sugar, raised by -negroes and coolies. The interior is sultry and thickly wooded; it is -inhabited by Indian tribes, the principal of which are the cannibal -Caribs, and by negroes as uncivilized as any of the tribes in Africa. -Guiana is controlled by the English, French, and Dutch. Cayenne, the -prison for French convicts, is the capital of French Guiana.</p> - -<p>Colombia and Ecuador occupy the northwestern part of South America. -They are situated on both sides of the Andes, and have every variety -of climate. The country is well watered; fertile but unhealthy on the -coast, fertile and healthy on the elevated plains, cold and barren on -the mountains.</p> - -<p>In Brazil, besides the Amazon, La Plata and San Francisco, there are -several large rivers with fertile valleys; but occasional droughts, -sometimes lasting for two years, will prevent portions of Brazil from -becoming densely inhabited.</p> - -<p>On the Pacific coast south of Ecuador, the rainfall becomes less and -less. For three thousand miles along the coast of Peru and Chili there -is no natural harbor; a plain from ten to fifty miles in width extends -from the Pacific to the foot-hills of the Andes. The Antarctic current -runs along this coast; the southeasterly winds blow over it on to the -land and cool the air; but as the winds are of low temperature their -scanty vapor is dissipated by the heat radiated from the land, and not -a drop of rain refreshes the thirsty soil. Many mountain torrents run -from the snow-clad summits of the Andes, and the beauty of their -narrow valleys forms a grateful contrast to the dry and barren sands -of the plain.</p> - -<p>In the southern part of Chili and in that part formerly called -Patagonia, rain is abundant and the country is fertile.</p> - -<p>The longest stretch of low and comparatively level land to be -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page7"><small><small>[p. 7]</small></small></a></span> -found in the world extends through the center of South America. A boat -starting from the Caribbean sea could sail up the Orinoco over a -thousand miles, then down the Casquiare, which runs from the Orinoco -into the Rio Negro, down that river to the Amazon, up the Amazon to -the Madeira, then up that river and one of its branches through Brazil -and Bolivia, and with a short portage of six and a half miles to one -of the branches of the Paraguay, down the Paraguay and La Plata to the -ocean.</p> - -<p>The level land crosses the La Plata and continues southward through -the Argentine Republic and Patagonia to the Straits of Magellan. -Within this plain lie all the interior of Venezuela and Brazil, a part -of Bolivia, all Paraguay, Uruguay, and the Argentine Republic. The -pampas resemble our prairies, but run from north to south, while the -prairies run from east to west.</p> - -<p>The streams in the plain south of the valley of the La Plata rise in -the Andes and flow southeastward to the Atlantic.</p> -<br> - -<center>T<small>HE</small> A<small>BORIGINES</small>.</center> - -<p>The aborigines of America, except the Esquimaux, are unlike the -natives of other countries; the most marked difference is in their -language. They are divided into a number of tribes differing from each -other in some respects, yet with manners, customs and religious -beliefs generally similar.</p> - -<p>In South America there are more than one hundred distinct languages, -and two thousand dialects. About five or six million Indians have as -many dialects as are found among the 800,000,000 inhabitants of Europe -and Asia. Their languages are polysynthetic, being of a higher type -than the agglutinative languages. In the polysynthetic tongue the -substantive, adjective and verb are joined or combined, and oftentimes -a whole sentence will be comprised in a single word.</p> - -<p>The natives in the valleys of the Orinoco and Amazon are forced to -cultivate a little ground on the flood-plains, as the forests are -thick and impenetrable. They live principally on the fruit of the palm -(of which there are five hundred varieties), cocoa and bananas, fish -and turtles. There are no roads or paths through the forests except -the numerous channels of the rivers, called igarapes or furos. The -tribes on the pampas live principally on game and wild cattle.</p> - -<p>Humboldt tells us that the navigator on the Orinoco sees with surprise -at night the palm trees illuminated by large fires. From -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page8"><small><small>[p. 8]</small></small></a></span> the -trunks of these trees are suspended the habitations of a tribe of -Indians, who make their fires on mats hung in the air and filled with -moist clay. The same palm tree furnishes also food and wine and -clothing, and thus supplies every want and even the luxuries of life.</p> - -<p>The Indian race as a whole is believed to be superior to both the -negro and the Malay, as neither of those races has ever attained to -the civilization of the Incas of Peru or of the Indians of Mexico and -the Aztecs of Central America. Many of their myths and folk tales are -common, not only to the Indians of one part of the country, but also -to other tribes in distant parts of the continent, and even to the -negroes of Africa, and the Arabs of upper Egypt. All the tribes on the -continent have substantially the same habits of life, the same methods -of warfare, the same general characteristics, and a language built -substantially on the same plan.</p> - -<p>From these observations it might seem that the Indian tribes of South -America were allied to those of Africa or to the Malays, but on -further consideration the similarity seems due rather to a like stage -of civilization than to identity of race.</p> -<br> - -<center>T<small>HE</small> I<small>NCAS OF</small> P<small>ERU</small>.</center> - -<p>In crossing from Arequipa in Peru to La Paz in Bolivia, the road -ascends the Andes, makes a slight descent into the barren, desolate -valley between the Andes and Cordilleras, crosses Lake Titicaca, and -then descends to La Paz. Lake Titicaca, the largest lake of South -America, is on a plateau between twelve and thirteen thousand feet in -height, the most elevated table land on the globe, excepting Thibet. -This lake is surrounded by lofty, snow-clad mountains, the highest of -which is Illampa, 22,300 feet in height.</p> - -<p>On this lake are the remains of the most ancient civilization of South -America. Cyclopean ruins of temples and fortresses stand as perpetual -monuments of a vanished culture; when and by whom they were erected, -we know not; their builders left no other record of their existence. -The wandering Indians told the first Spaniards that they existed -before the sun shone in the heavens. From one of the rocky islands of -Lake Titicaca, about the year 1000 or 1100, the Sun, parent of mankind -and giver of every good gift, taking compassion on the degraded -condition of <span class="pagenum"><a name="page9"><small><small>[p. 9]</small></small></a></span> -the Indians, sent two of his children, Manco Capac -and Mama Oello Huaco, to gather the wandering tribes into communities, -to teach them the arts of civilized life and to inculcate the worship -of the Sun. From Lake Titicaca, this brother and sister, husband and -wife, went down the valley to Cuzco, where they were bidden to found -an empire. Manco Capac was thus the first Inca. There were ten or -twelve Incas before the conquest of Peru. Their conquests extended -through the entire valley of the Cordilleras, until over four hundred -tribes, with a population of many millions, became subject to their -dominion.</p> - -<p>The territory of the Incas extended from the southern part of Chili -northward into Colombia, beyond Quito, a distance of two thousand -miles, and west to the Pacific Ocean. On the eastern slope of the -Cordilleras, toward the great plain of the Amazon, the Incas met a -stronger and more savage people, with whom they were in constant -warfare. In the several passes of the Cordilleras they constructed -fortifications to protect their borders and prevent invasion.</p> - -<p>The capital of the territory, Cuzco, was situated in a beautiful -valley ten thousand feet above the sea. Amidst the Alps, such a valley -would be buried in eternal snow, but within the tropics it enjoys a -perpetual spring. Here the Incas loved to dwell, and remains of -immense fortresses, palaces and temples, testify to their power and -culture, and to the number of their subjects. Tens of thousands of -laborers must have been required to construct such edifices. When we -reflect that these people had no beasts of burden except the llama, -which could only carry light loads, and no mechanical means for -transporting the vast blocks of stone used in constructing these -buildings, we are astonished at what they accomplished. The pyramids -of Egypt are not more wonderful.</p> - -<p>Great highways were built, running north, south and west, connecting -different parts of the Empire. One followed the valley between the -Cordilleras and Andes to Quito, another crossed the Andes and followed -the sea-coast north and south to the extreme limits of their country. -All traveling was on foot. Large and comfortable tambos, or inns, were -erected every few miles, and larger ones at the end of a day's -journey. Couriers were stationed at regular intervals, each of whom -had his allotted station, between which and the next it was his duty -to run at a certain pace bearing his message, and on his approach to -the <span class="pagenum"><a name="page10"><small><small>[p. 10]</small></small></a></span> -next station he signalled to the next chasquir, as the -couriers were called, to be ready to carry forward the message. In -this way, it is said, about 150 miles a day were made.</p> - -<p>These couriers traveled more quickly than the mail-carriers of Europe, -and the means of communication were then, Squier tells us, far better -than they are to-day. Many of these old tambos are still maintained. -One in which Squier spent the night was 180 feet in length, with rooms -forming three sides of a court.</p> - -<p>The country of the Incas had every variety of climate, and the -products were those of every part of the new world. On the coast, -perpetual summer reigns, with all the variety and beauty of tropical -vegetation. At a higher elevation, the trees are always green, and -while one kind sheds its blossoms and ripens its fruit another is -budding and unfolding its bloom. Meantime, on the top of the mountains -is eternal winter. In some places, as at Potosi, the changes of -temperature are frequent and extremes of heat and cold are experienced -in a single day. The weather in the early morning is frosty; in the -forenoon, mild and balmy; in the afternoon, scorching, and in the -evening, cool and delicious.</p> - -<p>On the Pacific slope of the Andes, reservoirs were constructed, from -which irrigating canals watered the whole plain now lying desolate and barren.</p> - -<p>The conquered tribes were incorporated into the nation and became the -people of the Incas. If the conquered tribe was strong and warlike, -some of its members were removed to distant parts of the country and -were replaced by the inhabitants of those regions, to whom privileges -and immunities were given as compensation for the change of home. The -conquered tribes quickly realized the benefits of the rule of the -Incas and became faithful and loyal subjects.</p> - -<p>The government of the Incas was a paternal despotism controlling the -most minute affairs of daily life. Knowledge, the Incas taught, "was -not intended for the people, but for those of generous ability, for it -would render persons of low degree vain and arrogant."</p> - -<p>The Incas established a communal system similar to that of Russia. -One-third of the land belonged to the Inca, one-third to the priests -of the Sun, and the remainder to the people, who were required to -cultivate the land of the Inca and of the priests, as well as their -own. The land was divided among the families yearly, according to -their number. Every newly -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page11"><small><small>[p. 11]</small></small></a></span> -married couple received a stated -portion which was increased as the family increased.</p> - -<p>Their only means of writing was by a cord, called quippus, about two -feet long, composed of threads of different colors twisted together, -from which a quantity of smaller threads hung like a knotted fringe. -The colors denoted sensible objects or sometimes abstract ideas, -though the principal use of the quippus was for arithmetical purposes.</p> - -<p>The civilization of the Incas appears to have been of a higher order -than that of the Mexicans. It is not probable that hieroglyphics were -in use among any of the South American Indians, though it is said that -traces of a pictorial alphabet have been found. The people were -contented and happy, although they were deprived of personal liberty, -although their daily life was supervised by their rulers, and although -they held only communal rights of property. They had neither ambition -nor strong love of country.</p> - -<p>When Pizarro landed in Peru there were two Incas, one at Cuzco and the -other at Quito, and the bitter conflict which was raging between them -made the conquest of both easy. Pizarro had only 180 followers, but -they were Spanish cavaliers, carrying fire-arms; and with this small -force he overturned the Incas and enslaved the people. The descendants -of the Quichuas, or the people of the Incas, still inhabit the land—a -mild, apathetic, servile and dejected race. It is said that after the -conquest the women put on a black mantle, which they have worn ever -since, as perpetual mourning for the last of the Incas.</p> - -<p>There are a few descendants of Spaniards in Peru, but the population -consists chiefly of the descendants of the Quichuas and mixed -Spaniards and Quichuas. The Peruvians of to-day are less civilized -than those who lived 400 years ago; they have less liberty and are poorer.</p> -<br> - -<center>D<small>ISCOVERY OF THE</small> A<small>MAZON</small>.</center> - -<p>Great rivers have usually been discovered and explored by ascending -them from the ocean to their sources; the Congo and the Amazon were -explored downward from their sources to the ocean.</p> - -<p>Three hundred and fifty years ago, Gonzalo Pizarro, then governor of -Upper Peru, heard of a land of silver and gold, spices and precious -stones; a land where spring reigned and all tropical fruits abounded. -He determined to follow the little -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page12"><small><small>[p. 12]</small></small></a></span> -stream which, rising in the -Andes, near Quito, flowed eastward; to explore the country, and find -the happy land. He set out with 350 Cavaliers, mounted on Spanish -horses and attended by 4000 Indian slaves.</p> - -<p>The first part of the route was easy; the little stream soon became a -river, then broadened into the Napo; but the farther they went, the -slower and more difficult was their progress as they passed from the -open forest and the cool and invigorating breezes of the Andes into -the sultry valley of the Napo. Their way now led through forests more -dense, darker and more impenetrable than those described by Stanley, -for the valley of the Amazon is richer than the valley of the Congo. -Natives armed with poisoned arrows opposed their progress; food became -scarce, treachery was on every side, and their number gradually -diminished by death and by desertion of the slaves.</p> - -<p>The natives told them of a greater river than the Napo which they -would find a few days' voyage farther down. This river, they said, -flowed through a more populous and richer country, where food was -abundant and gold was found in every stream. Pizarro determined to -build a bark and to send Orellano as commander to find and return with -food and succor. For this vessel, the forests furnished the timber; -the shoes of the horses were converted into nails, distilled gum was -used for pitch, and the garments of the soldiers were a substitute for -oakum. In two months, a brigantine was launched, the first European -vessel that ever floated on the waters of the Amazon. The Napo grew -broader and deeper as the little company rapidly floated down, until -it became a mile wide. Three days after they left Pizarro, they saw -before them a river, many times larger than the Napo, which the -Indians called Parana-tinega, King of Waters; but we call it the -Amazon. There was no cultivation, little food could be obtained, and -the Indians were hostile instead of friendly. What was to be done? -Behind them was the wilderness, before them the promised land. The -journey back would be difficult and dangerous; the temptation to -explore the wonderful river was too great to resist. One man alone was -faithful to Pizarro, and he was left on the bank while Orellano sailed -down the river. The wonder of the explorers daily increased as other -rivers larger than the Napo flowed into the Amazon, now on the north, -more frequently on the south. Month after month passed, the river grew -so broad that they could not see from one side to the other. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page13"><small><small>[p. 13]</small></small></a></span> -Great islands were passed, channels running parallel with the main -stream larger than any river they had ever seen. Still on they went, -till after several months they reached the Atlantic Ocean. Then they -sailed north in their little boat, skirting the coast to Trinidad, -where they found a vessel which bore them to Spain. They recounted the -story of the great river; the wonderful country through which they -passed; and the rich mines of which they had heard. They told fabulous -tales of the Amazonians they had encountered, strong and masculine -women, armed with bows and arrows, living by themselves, admitting men -into their country only one month in the year, killing or sending away -the male children and training the girls to become amazons and warriors.</p> - -<p>Orellano was received by the Queen; his treachery was forgotten and a -new expedition was sent out under his command; but he died before -reaching the river.</p> - -<p>Meantime, Pizarro and his followers slowly and with difficulty made -their way down the Napo, taking as many months to reach the Amazon as -Orellano had taken days. They looked in vain for their companions, but -found only the solitary man who had been left behind, scarcely alive, -and from him learned of Orellano's desertion. Further explorations -being impossible, they turned back, reached Quito two years after -their departure, their horses gone, their arms broken or rusted, the -skins of wild animals their only clothing. "The charnel house seemed -to have given up its dead, as they glided onward like a troop of -spectres." Half of the Indians had perished, and of the three hundred -and fifty cavaliers only eighty were left.</p> - -<p>Such was the end of an expedition which for dangers and hardships, -length of duration, and constancy displayed is probably unmatched in -the annals of American discovery.</p> -<br> - -<center>G<small>UIANA</small>.</center> - -<p>Guiana is the only country of South America not inhabited by the Latin -race. It was acquired for Great Britain by one who acted contrary to -his instructions in attacking a power, Spain, with which his own -country was at peace.</p> - -<p>Gonzalo Pizarro, on his journey down the Napo in 1539, heard wonderful -stories of a golden city far away on the banks of the Orinoco, -surrounded by mountains of gold. Rumors of this golden city were -carried by English navigators to Great Britain, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page14"><small><small>[p. 14]</small></small></a></span> -with legends of a -prince of Guiana, whose body, first smeared with turpentine, was then -powdered with gold dust, so that he strode among his people a majestic -golden statue. Adventurers started in search of this El Dorado, some -from Peru, others from Quito and from Trinidad; but the golden city -was never found. They, however, brought back reports of chiefs whose -bodies sparkled with gold dust as they danced, who had golden eagles -dangling from their breasts and great pearls from their ears; they -told of mines of diamonds and gold, and of the natives who longed to -exchange their jewels for jews-harps.</p> - -<p>Sir Walter Raleigh determined to find this country and bring to his -queen its fabulous riches, for he believed that the silver and gold -mines of Mexico and Peru had made Spain the first state in -Christendom—"that purchaseth intelligence and creepeth into counsels -and endangereth and disturbeth all the nations of Europe."</p> - -<p>In 1595, Sir Walter sailed from England and arrived at the Isle of -Trinidad, where he overthrew the Spaniards, then sailed up the -Orinoco, or one of its branches, four hundred miles, until hunger and -sickness compelled him to return. Although he did not reach the golden -city, he could see the mountains far in the distance which he believed -surrounded it, and he found the shining sand on the banks of the -Orinoco. In Guiana he raised the flag of England and compelled the -Indians to swear fealty to his queen.</p> - -<p>Twenty years later, a prisoner in the Tower, he was released in order -to make a second voyage in search of this El Dorado for King James. He -sailed in 1617, accompanied by his eldest son; but disaster and -sickness met him at every step. He reached the Orinoco again, too -feeble to land. So his son and Captain Keymis went instead. Keymis -returned after a month of exploration, bringing Raleigh the news of -the death of his son in an attack on a Spanish town. He brought -reports of the golden city, of the mines of gold, diamonds and -emeralds, but neither gold, diamonds nor emeralds to confirm the truth -of these reports. Raleigh said, "I am undone;" Keymis replied, "I know -then, Sir, what course to take." He went to his cabin and killed himself.</p> - -<p>Raleigh returned to England, a broken down old man. The Spaniards -demanded his life of James as they had demanded it of Elizabeth after -his first expedition, on the ground that in time of -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page15"><small><small>[p. 15]</small></small></a></span> peace Raleigh -had attacked the Spanish forces and invaded their country. Elizabeth -had refused, but James yielded. Raleigh was executed, but Guiana -became an English colony.</p> - -<p>The gold and silver mines of Peru have failed; little gold has been -found in Guiana, but its rich and fertile soil, watered by tropical -rains, has been a source of greater wealth than the gold mines of Peru.</p> -<br> - -<center>P<small>OPULATION OF</small> S<small>OUTH</small> A<small>MERICA</small>.</center> - -<p>As the countries of South America were all settled at about the same -time and by the same race and have passed through a like history, they -can be considered as a whole.</p> - -<p>The United States and Canada, with a rough, uncongenial climate and -sterile soil, were settled by the Anglo-Saxons, the remainder of the -western continent by the Latin race and, excepting Brazil and Guiana, -by Spaniards. In North America the Anglo-Saxon race has dominated, -carrying civilization from the Atlantic to the Pacific, expelling and -exterminating the aborigines. There has been no mingling of the -Anglo-Saxon and Indian races, no backward step, but ever civil, -religious and intellectual progress. The Latin race conquered Central -America and South America, a perfect Eden of natural loveliness, one -hundred years prior to the settlement of the Anglo-Saxon; yet to-day -they constitute but a thin layer over a scarcely populated country. -Their leaders were men of unbounded ambition, rapacious, of great -endurance, but cruel and unscrupulous. They sought adventure, -expecting it would bring them gold and silver. For that end they -plundered, despoiled and enslaved the Indians. Gold and silver flowed -into their hands; luxury, effeminacy, and weakness followed.</p> - -<p>The Spaniards in America have scarcely retained the civilization they -brought from the old world. They have intermarried with the Indians, -and this mixed race is said to inherit the vices of each of their -ancestors without the virtues of either.</p> - -<p>A sparse population, mostly Spanish and foreigners, inhabit a zone ten -to twenty miles in depth along the coast of South America, from the -Bay of Panama to the Caribbean sea. All the cities and settlements, -excepting a few in the Argentine Republic, are near the coast.</p> - -<p>Back of this zone, on the Pacific, is a mixed Spanish-Indian -population, much larger than the Spanish and foreign population; -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page16"><small><small>[p. 16]</small></small></a></span> -and on the Atlantic a population which is Spanish-Indian, -Spanish-Negro, and Negro-Indian, occupies a zone from twenty to one -hundred miles wide. Beyond the first zone a few Spanish families and -foreigners are found at the gold and silver mines, on the pampas, at -the cattle ranches, and on a few haciendas in Peru and Chili. In -Brazil the Portuguese and some Englishmen and Germans raise coffee and -sugar, and oversee the diamond and gold fields. On the Amazon there -are a few small settlements to collect the India rubber and cacao of -that valley.</p> - -<p>Save these sparse settlements, the interior of South America is -inhabited by wild tribes of Indians, uncivilized save for the presence -of a few Catholic priests, who have given the Indians the cross and -the image of the Virgin Mary, which they worship, mingling the -Catholic religion with their old idolatries and barbarous rites. The -natives are believed to be more idle and less civilized than when the -Spaniards discovered America.</p> - -<p>The Spaniards are the grandees of the country; too proud to work, they -leave all business to the foreigners and all labor to the Indians, -retaining in connection with the half-breeds all political power. When -the regents appointed by Spain were expelled in the early part of the -present century, republics were established, but they were republics -only in name; the people were neither educated nor fitted for -self-government. Their presidents generally exercised the powers of -dictators and often assumed that title. They have rarely enjoyed a -long rule, for their power and position were sought by others. -Revolution in these countries has passed from the acute to the chronic stage.</p> - -<p>A recent traveller in Peru, who wished to inspect its railroad system, -was informed that only 26 miles were in running order, the remainder -being under the control of the revolutionists who were then less than -80 miles from the capital. He asked why the rebels did not take Lima, -the capital, and was told, "because there is no unanimity among them; -they are suspicious of each other, and cannot depend upon any one -man." Instead of being anxious to serve their country they are only -interested in robbing her.</p> - -<p>Another traveller in Bolivia, who witnessed some of these revolutions, -says they sometimes occurred three times in as many weeks, and that it -would have been ludicrous had not their results been often violent and -tragic. There has been no settled government, no continued peace, no -permanent policy, in any Spanish -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page17"><small><small>[p. 17]</small></small></a></span> -country. The hope for the future -is that the English, German, and French population will increase and -become permanently identified with the country; they will then take an -active interest in politics and direct the policy and administration -of the government.</p> - -<p>Commercial and banking business is in the hands of the French, -Germans, and English. The Italians carry on a small trade at corner -groceries and fruit stores; the French keep the hotels and -restaurants; the English and Germans are the shippers, merchants and bankers.</p> - -<p>Regular lines of English, French, and German steamers run from Europe -to Panama and thence along the western coast of South America, -stopping at ports en route; some return by Panama, others sail around -Cape Horn to Europe by Buenos Ayres and Rio Janeiro. Other lines run -direct from Europe to Brazil, and twenty-four lines connect Europe and -the Argentine Republic; while there are only four lines of American -steamers trading to South America.</p> -<br> - -<center>B<small>RAZIL</small>.</center> - -<p>We have given a general description of South America, but three -countries—Brazil, the Argentine Republic and Peru—require further -notice: Brazil, because it is the largest country, occupying -three-sevenths of South America, and the only considerable state that -was not settled by the Spaniards; the Argentine Republic, because it -is the largest and most populous of the Spanish states and, with Peru, -illustrates the political and financial phases through which the -Spanish republics have passed.</p> - -<p>The valley of the Amazon makes Brazil the most fertile region of the -world. The tropical woods are so thick and the creepers and -undergrowth so luxuriant that animal life is almost entirely confined -to the trees above and the waters below.</p> - -<p>The valley is not unhealthy, and, though under the equator, the -climate is tempered by the trade winds and the evaporation from the -vast Amazonian waters. Beyond the valley is the montaña district, -where the land is higher and the climate semi-tropical, where there -are few creepers, little underbrush, and open forests, and where both -animal and vegetable life is less abundant. Southward, beyond the -montaña district, are the evergreen pampas, where no trees grow and -where the animal and vegetable life are unlike either that of the -valley of the Amazon or that of the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page18"><small><small>[p. 18]</small></small></a></span> -montaña. As in Africa, so -here, men who live in the dark forest, die in the open. Mr. Stanley -selected thirty dwarfs from the tropical forests of Africa to take to -England, but as soon as they came into the grass-lands, the clear air -and bright sun, they languished and died before the coast was reached.</p> - -<p>Northeast of the pampas, on the Atlantic coast, south of the Amazon, -is a province bounded on the south by a range of high mountains, where -rain is abundant; at Maranhao, its seaport, there are 280 inches of -rainfall in the year. South of Maranhao there is much less rain; and -instead of two seasons, the wet and the dry, which prevail in the -valley of the Amazon, there are the four seasons of the year, but -without extremes of heat and cold.</p> - -<p>Over the greater part of Brazil grows the coffee tree, the -sheet-anchor of Brazilian prosperity, since it furnishes 60 per cent. -of all the coffee grown in the world. The plant is not indigenous to -Brazil, but was brought there about one hundred years ago from the old world.</p> - -<p>Brazil, inhabited by the Portuguese, with an imperial government, has -been saved from the anarchy and insolvency of the Spanish republics. -Her railroads have been built with economy and have been generally -successful. It had a population in 1885 of 11,000,000; two-thirds of -whom were Indians and negroes, and many of the negroes were slaves. -Slavery existed longer in Brazil than in any other civilized country; -the lash was commonly used on the plantation, and work continued from -early in the morning until late at night until 1888, when a law was -passed finally emancipating 1,300,000 slaves. It was opposed by the -planters, who said freedmen would not work, but would let the coffee -and sugar plantations fall to ruin. It was probably this act which -caused the overthrow of the empire, for in revenge the planters joined -the insurgents in establishing the Republic.</p> - -<p>The Portuguese and Brazilians are more peaceable and orderly than the -Spaniards or Spanish-Americans; we may therefore reasonably hope that -Brazil will not repeat the history of the Spanish republics, which has -been one of disintegration, for these republics have separated into -two or more States. The greatest difficulty in maintaining its immense -domain will arise from the enormous distances and the time required to -travel between different parts of the country. From Rio de Janeiro to -Matto Grosso is 140 days' journey by land, and by water the distance -is 3000 miles. Communication is maintained by steamer -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page19"><small><small>[p. 19]</small></small></a></span> through the -Argentine Republic up the Rio de la Plata and its branches. Although -the country has many long and navigable rivers, yet the means of -intercommunication are very poor; for the rivers are little used, and -the forests, creepers, and undergrowth are so dense that the country -back of the river-banks is impenetrable, and even if roads should be -opened the soil is so luxuriant that they would be quickly overgrown -and soon become impassable.</p> - -<p>Lines of steamers have been subsidized by the Brazilian government and -run up the Amazon 2000 miles to Tabatinga, at the boundary line of -Peru; there connecting with lines subsidized by the Peruvian -government, which run 1500 miles farther up the river. These vessels -carry supplies to the settlers and bring back India rubber, -Brazil-nuts, cacao, quinine, and the beautiful woods of the forest.</p> - -<p>Yet steamers are rarely seen on the Amazon; they have few passengers, -and have not opened the country; we are told that the Mississippi -carries more vessels in a month, and the Yang-tse-kiang in a day, than -the Amazon in a year.</p> -<br> - -<center>T<small>HE</small> A<small>RGENTINE</small> R<small>EPUBLIC</small>.</center> - -<p>The history of South American republics is illustrated in the -Argentine republic.</p> - -<p>It is a vast pampas or prairie, extending from Brazil to the Andes, -and from Bolivia with a southeasterly trend 2000 miles to southeastern -Terra del Fuego.</p> - -<p>The climate of the northern portion is tropical; of the central part, -semi-tropical; of the extreme south, temperate or cold. The country is -generally well watered excepting in the northwestern part, where the -land is dry and alkaline, like the arid regions of North America. The -soil is a rich, deep loam, from four to six feet in depth, excepting -in Patagonia and the western pampas, where there is a coarse gravel -and detritus from the Andes. Instead of the dense tropical forest of -the Amazon valley, the pampas are covered by a coarse grass, three or -four feet high, growing in large tussocks and all the year round of a -dark green. The strong grass crowds out all trees and almost all -plants, so that scarcely a flower relieves the uniform, everlasting verdure.</p> - -<p>Instead of the arboreal animals of the Amazon there is the rhea or -American ostrich, "ship of the wilderness," adapted to the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page20"><small><small>[p. 20]</small></small></a></span> -pampas, but unable to live in the forests. The gauchos have hunted it -for the last three centuries, but it is now passing away and will soon -be lost to the pampas, as the buffalo has been to the North American prairie.</p> - -<p>The pampas are far better adapted to the raising of cattle than our -prairies, for the grass is always green and the winters are milder. -Cattle, horses, and sheep imported by the Spaniards and turned on to -the pampas rapidly increased, and now immense herds feed on the -plains.</p> - -<p>The Indians who inhabit the pampas, instead of being confined to one -locality and journeying only by canoe, like the Indians on the Amazon, -wander over the length and breadth of the pampas, hunting the ostrich -and cattle. The cattle are tended by gauchos, as the cow-boys are -called, half-breeds as wild as the herds they tend. Constant warfare -exists between the Indians and the gauchos, unless they unite to -attack the settlers. After one of the Indian raids the government dug -an immense ditch from a river to the Andes and drove the Indians to -the farther side, and since then there have been fewer raids—and -fewer Indians.</p> - -<p>The land was held in large blocks of many thousand acres, worked by -overseers and gauchos. The animals were killed by hundreds of -thousands for their skins. This state of things is, however, gradually -passing away, for during the last twenty years emigrants from the old -world have settled in the country as farmers and planters.</p> - -<p>The fourteen provinces which form the Argentine Republic have never -been welded into one nation, and have seldom had a moment's peace. The -gauchos have been a continual scourge, and the gaucho generals its -rulers and harriers combined. Unfortunately, here, as in other Spanish -states, one dictator has succeeded another. Thirty presidents, or -dictators, have reigned within fifty years. At one time five provinces -had each a separate dictator. The neighboring republic of Uruguay, -formerly a part of the Argentine Confederation, had 26 revolutions in -the twenty-three years from 1864 to 1887.</p> - -<p>For some time Buenos Ayres and its dictator ruled the republic; then -the country provinces rebelled, and civil war ensued; one province was -arrayed against another, and all against Buenos Ayres. The provinces -prevailed and the gaucho general, Rosas, occupied Buenos Ayres. -Scarcely was this civil war ended when a war arose with the republics -of Uruguay and Paraguay.</p> - -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page21"><small><small>[p. 21]</small></small></a></span> -<p>Money was required to pay the army and the cost of civil and -foreign wars. Every dictator had his friends for whom provision must -be made. Large debts were created; banks were chartered; $200,000,000 -of paper money were issued. There were several different circulating -mediums; each province strove to outdo the others in the issue of a -currency which quickly depreciated. Companies for different purposes -were organized, and many were subsidized, directly or indirectly. We -are told that in one case $1,500,000 was paid for a concession, and -that "Turkish officials, who have hitherto been the champion artists -in backsheesh, leave off where Argentine blackmailers begin; the price -of a drainage scheme at Buenos Ayres would buy a whole cabinet of -pashas at Galata."</p> - -<p>Railroads were built running from Buenos Ayres in different -directions, as each province demanded a railroad, with little regard -to its population or business.</p> - -<p>A road was commenced to cross the Andes and open communication between -the Atlantic and Pacific over mountains which had never been crossed -by a carriage of any kind.</p> - -<p>The country was not settled so rapidly as the rulers desired. -Inducements were therefore offered to immigrants. The passage money -from Europe and the expenses of the immigrant to his new home have -been paid and land for settlement sold at low rates. It is estimated -that over 1,000,000 foreigners have settled in the country during the -last twelve years, and the proportionate increase of population in the -same period has been twice as great as that of the United States. -Grazing lands have been sold at nominal prices to immigrants, or -leased for terms of years in lots of 6,000 acres at a rental of $100 a -year. Bonds were issued not only by the government but by the -provinces, by the municipalities and by the railroads, and all were -readily taken in England and Germany. To enable the emigrants to pay -for and to cultivate their land, the owner of real estate on -depositing his title deeds with the hypothecary banks and having a -valuation of his real estate, received cedulas, or bonds of the bank, -for one-half its appraised value; these cedulas for large amounts were -issued and sold in Europe; and thus, as ever, more money was required, -more bonds were issued. In 1889, a year of peace, the public debt was -increased 120 per cent., and it is now said to be over one thousand -four hundred millions of dollars, and the principal and interest of -two-thirds of this amount is payable in gold at a premium of 200 per cent.</p> - -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page22"><small><small>[p. 22]</small></small></a></span> -<p>In 1890 there was no money to meet the interest and general -prostration ensued.</p> - -<p>It is difficult to ascertain the debt of the republic; but if the -accounts given in the English publications are correct the debt is -greater in proportion to its population and wealth than that of any -other country in the world. The only hope of the Argentine Republic is -to wipe out the debt by insolvency and bankruptcy.</p> -<br> - -<center>P<small>ERU</small>.</center> - -<p>A strip of land with 1200 miles of sea coast, without a natural -harbor, and 200 to 300 miles wide, consisting of a plain, mountains, a -plateau, and still another range of mountains—this is Peru.</p> - -<p>In the west, where the rain never falls, are numerous small rivers, -to-day mountain torrents, to-morrow dry, rocky beds.</p> - -<p>Between the lofty ranges of snow mountains is the highest plateau in -the world, after Thibet. The southern part of this plateau is dry and -desolate, the northern portion is well watered, with beautiful streams -running now through deep cañons and then through rich, fertile valleys -steadily descending toward the northeast; the valleys growing ever -broader, warmer and more delightful, until the montaña is reached, -only a few hundred feet above the Atlantic, where the streams have -become rivers, navigable to the ocean.</p> - -<p>The western slope of the mountains is dry and barren, so that -breadstuffs and provisions are imported from Ecuador on the north, or -from lower Chili, far to the south. Yet no other country has -contributed so much to the world's fertility; for here are the great -deposits of guano and nitrates, more valuable than mines of gold and -silver. These deposits yielded for over thirty years a net annual -revenue of $20,000,000.</p> - -<p>The eastern slope, rich and fertile, producing every tree and flower, -all fruits and vegetables grown in any part of the world; in the -mountains, mines of gold and silver, platinum and cinnabar, copper and -tin, lead and iron, coal and petroleum, nitrates and asphalt: a -bankrupt nation in the midst of untold wealth—such is Peru.</p> - -<p>To bring the minerals down to the ocean, tens of millions of dollars -were expended on thirteen roads; but though none of them were ever -finished, they reached a few of the poorer mines. Seven of these roads -were built by the government, the others by private parties.</p> - -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page23"><small><small>[p. 23]</small></small></a></span> -<p>The sales of guano and the production of gold and silver made -Peru a proud and wealthy nation. Everything prospered until the war -with Chili, from 1879 to 1883, ending in the defeat of Peru and the -loss of a portion of her territory, including a large part of her -guano deposit. She was unable to keep her railroads in operation, much -less to extend them, or to pay the interest on her bonds; and thus -bankruptcy followed defeat. At last, after fourteen years of default -and six years of negotiation, a contract was concluded with Peru by -Mr. M. P. Grace, of New York, in January, 1890, on behalf of the -bondholders. The bondholders became concessionaires, and in -consideration of the release of the bonded debt due to them by Peru, -receive valuable concessions, of money, of mines, of railroads, of -lands and of guano. These concessions include among other things a -government subsidy of $400,000 a year, secured from the customs of -Callao; the mines of Cerro de Pasco, which have yielded a yearly -average of $2,000,000 for over one hundred years; the entire railway -system (769 miles in length) of the state; a grant of 5,000,000 acres -for the extension of the Lake Titicaca railroad; a grant of 4,500,000 -acres for the extension of the Central or Oroya railroad to the -navigable waters of the Ucayala, one of the main tributaries of the -Amazon; the exclusive control of the guano deposit until 2,000,000 -tons have been sold, from which they expect to sell at least 80,000 -tons a year, which will net $1,000,000. The concessionaires on their -part agree to liquidate the Peruvian debt, to repair the railroads, -and construct 974 miles in extension of the existing system at an -estimated cost of $16,000,000, and to assume certain other obligations -to a limited amount.</p> - -<p>This, perhaps the most remarkable settlement ever made between a -bankrupt nation and its creditor, is due largely to Mr. Grace, and -cannot fail to develop the resources of Peru and restore her days of prosperity.</p> -<br> - -<center>T<small>RADE</small> R<small>ELATIONS WITH THE</small> -U<small>NITED</small> S<small>TATES</small>.</center> - -<p>It appears from the foregoing statement that all the carrying trade to -and from South America, by water, is by foreign steamers; that only -four of these are American lines; that the railroads are generally -owned and operated by Englishmen; that the bankers and merchants are -Englishmen or Germans; that -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page24"><small><small>[p. 24]</small></small></a></span> -many of the mines, cattle ranches, -coffee plantations and other estates are owned by non-resident -foreigners; and that the largest consumer of South American products -is the United States, although this country sells few of its -manufactures and products to South America.</p> - -<p>The English steamers, in the usual course of trade, load with English -dry-goods consigned to English houses in South America, where they are -sold and the proceeds invested in coffee and other products, which are -sent in the same vessels to the United States; there sold, and the -money invested in our produce for carriage to England. The English -therefore obtain the profits on manufacture, on the freight to South -America, on the sale of the goods in South America, on the freight -from South America to the United States, on the sale of those goods, -and finally on the freight of the American breadstuffs carried to -Europe. For the successful prosecution of any trade between two -countries, it is essential that each shall produce what the other -wants: Thus, we raise breadstuffs which are not grown on the Caribbean -sea nor in the valley of the Amazon, nor in Peru or upper Chili, and -we also manufacture goods required in all parts of South America, -where they have few factories; there, coffee, wool, India rubber, -cacao and other articles are produced, which we require. Here, -therefore, are the factors necessary for a prosperous trade. Such a -trade we formerly enjoyed with South America: In 1852, six hundred -United States vessels entered the harbor of Buenos Ayres, or more than -twice as many as those of all other nations combined; now only two per -cent. of the shipping entering that harbor belongs to us. Our war -came, iron steamers took the place of wooden sailing ships, we levied -a duty on coffee and rubber, South America levied a duty on our -manufactures, other countries subsidized lines of steamers, while we -refused all subsidies; and our trade with South America rapidly fell -off, as freights were carried cheaper in foreign than in American -ships, and the trade of South America passed from the United States to -England, Germany and France.</p> - -<p>It is said that we cannot regain this trade, because we cannot, -without protection maintain our own manufactures, much less compete -with the Europeans in an open market; and therefore that it will be a -waste of money to subsidize our vessels. But the larger the market the -cheaper we can manufacture, and we can -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page25"><small><small>[p. 25]</small></small></a></span> -surely find a large and -new market for our breadstuffs. It is worth while to make the -experiment at least, to give our vessels the same subsidy and -protection that has been given to the European lines, and to our -merchants and bankers, an opportunity to regain the trade with South -America. At first the odds will be greatly against us; but if we show -the same energy and ability in cultivating trade with South America -that our fathers exhibited, and that we have shown in other -directions, we must ultimately succeed.</p> - -<p>It is now proposed to tax the products of South America, unless the -South American states reciprocate and admit our breadstuffs and -manufactures free. If this scheme can be carried out, a large and -prosperous commerce will be established between North America and -South America, and American houses will be started in the large cities -to dispose of our manufactures and ship the products to South America. -By this interchange, our manufacturers and farmers will find a market -for their goods and products, our mercantile navy freight for its -vessels, and our bankers and merchants a profitable business in the -large cities of South America.</p> -<br> - -<center>R<small>AILROADS</small>.</center> - -<p>We have already referred to the several railroads which start from the -little ports on the Pacific coast and run up the valleys toward the -Andes. Three of these, among the most remarkable roads in the world, -ascend to a greater elevation than any others, and to a height which -in Europe or the United States, would be above the snow level. They -were intended to reach the gold and silver mines between the Andes and -Cordilleras.</p> - -<p>The first, called the Oroya or Central railroad, 111 miles in length, -starts from Callao on the Pacific, and crosses the Andes, at an -elevation of nearly 15,000 feet, to the plateau between the Andes and -the Cordilleras. It is expected that this road will be extended to the -navigable waters of the Amazon.</p> - -<p>Three hundred miles southward, the second road runs from Mollendo, -Peru, by Arequipa to Puno on Lake Titicaca, and thence northward on -the plateau 407 miles to San Rosas, on the route to Cuzco. The road -from Mollendo to Arequipa runs through a country so destitute of water -that the only supply for -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page26"><small><small>[p. 26]</small></small></a></span> -the engines and stations is by an iron -pipe 8 inches in diameter, and 50 miles long, running from an -elevation of 7,000 feet to the sea-coast.</p> - -<p>Seven or eight hundred miles south of Mollendo, a line runs from -Valparaiso in Chili to Buenos Ayres, 870 miles. It crosses the Andes -through a tunnel two miles long, at an elevation of 10,568 feet above -the sea; after leaving the mountains it runs over the pampas two -hundred miles, without a curve or a grade over three feet above or -below the plain, and will soon be completed from ocean to ocean.</p> - -<p>From Rio de Janeiro several roads have been constructed over the -mountains west of that city to different parts of Brazil. One of these -runs westwardly toward Bolivia.</p> - -<p>Bolivia has recently granted concessions for the construction of a -road from La Paz to connect on the west with the Peruvian roads at -Lake Titicaca, and on the east with the Brazilian lines on the -Pacific; and thus ultimately a road will run from Mollendo on the -Atlantic ocean by Lake Titicaca and La Paz to Rio de Janeiro.</p> - -<p>There are now from 6000 to 7000 miles of road in operation in the -Argentine Republic, 5000 to 6000 in Brazil, and 3000 to 4000 miles in -the other states, making a total of about 15,000 miles of railroad in operation.</p> - -<p>A proposition is now before the public for the construction of the -Pan-American railroad, from the Caribbean sea southward to the -Argentine Republic to connect with the Peruvian, with the Brazilian, -and ultimately with the Argentine roads.</p> - -<p>The route that seems to be most feasible starts at Cartagena, where -there is a splendid bay and harbor, within three days sail from -Galveston and six days from New York. It follows the valley of the -Magdalena river 800 miles to Dividal, 1700 feet above the sea. Here, -near the head waters of the Magdalena, the route crosses the eastern -Cordilleras at an elevation of about 6,500 feet to the head waters of -the Caqueta, or Yapura, a branch of the Amazon, and thence runs down -that river 375 miles to the mouth of the Engarros, only 550 feet above -tide-water. From the Caqueta river, the route passes through Ecuador -to Iquitos, Peru, crossing fourteen tributaries of the Amazon. From -Iquitos the route ascends the Amazon and the Ucayle, one of its -southern tributaries, 500 miles to Napal, then continues across the -montaña <span class="pagenum"><a name="page27"><small><small>[p. 27]</small></small></a></span> -and the numerous valleys of the Amazon about 600 miles, -to Santa Cruz in Bolivia, or 2400 miles from Cartagena; while a branch -will run up the Apurimac to Cuzco.</p> - -<p>This road would run for 2000 miles along the foot hills of the -Cordilleras, and in these mountains is probably the richest mining -region in the world; here gold, silver, copper, lead and coal mines -are found. The gold and silver mines do not seem to have been -thoroughly explored, although untold millions of the precious metals -have been extracted from them. These mines are generally in cold and -treeless regions, where coal, labor and food are difficult to obtain; -where freights are high and machinery of all kinds most expensive. -This road would greatly facilitate the opening and working of these -mines, and not only make them profitable but develop a large and -lucrative traffic.</p> - -<p>Much of Bolivia is above the navigable waters of the Amazon, and many -of its provinces are now land-locked and almost isolated from -communication with the outer world. The proposed road would cross many -branches of the Amazon, and thus connect with fifty thousand miles of -navigable waters, at least 9000 of which are above Iquitos; and it is -claimed that the business from 20,000 miles of navigable waters would -find by this route a nearer outlet to Europe and America than by Para.</p> - -<p>There is every variety of climate on the route. The valley of the -Magdalena is sultry; every afternoon the water grows tepid, and the -stones burning hot, in the sun's rays. In crossing the Cordilleras the -cool breezes of the mountains are met. The road then descends into the -valley of the Amazon, through a rich and not unhealthy region, though -it has the damp, hot, climate of a tropical country, and thence passes -through the montaña district, which is generally high, healthy and fertile.</p> - -<p>This country, under a wise government, is capable of sustaining an -immense population and giving abundant support to such a railroad; but -it is now unexplored, excepting the valleys of the navigable rivers, -and is uninhabited save by wild and savage Indians, though these are -not numerous.</p> - -<p>The route up the Magdalena may be expensive by reason of the climate, -but not otherwise. The road in the mountain district will necessarily -be costly, and also in the sierras, because it must -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page28"><small><small>[p. 28]</small></small></a></span> cross the -numerous branches of the Amazon, and the precipitous mountains between -the valleys, and from the difficulty of obtaining labor and material -for construction. Mr. Orton, who crossed from one branch of the Napo -to another, says:</p> - -<blockquote><small>"We crossed the stream and the intervening ridges, and their name is -legion; sometimes we were climbing up an almost vertical ascent, then -descending into a deep dark ravine to find a furious river, while on -the lowlands the path seemed lost in the dense bamboos, until the -Indians opened a passage with their machetes and we crept under the -low arcade of foliage."</small></blockquote> - -<p>Even if the railroad were built, almost all the produce of the Amazon -and montaña country could be carried more cheaply by water to Para -than by rail to Cartagena; while goods from England and America would -be carried cheaper by steamer to the Isthmus of Panama, and thence to -all ports on the Pacific ocean, than by steamer to Cartagena and up -the Magdalena across the Andes to the valley of the Amazon, and then a -second time across the Andes to the Pacific ocean. The greater part of -the business to and from the mines would be by the railroad.</p> - -<p>At present, as there could not be sufficient business to pay the -operating expenses of such a road, it must rely on government -subsidies to build and operate it.</p> - -<p>Those who have given the most consideration to the subject say that -the road need not be an expensive one to operate, and in the important -element of time it would have a great advantage over the route via -Para. As a means of promoting the settlement of the country and -developing commerce, which cannot exist without population, the -railroad would seem to be a necessity, for navigation has neither -opened the country nor brought in emigrants and we may fairly assume -that it will not suffice in the future.</p> -<br> - -<center>C<small>ONCLUSION</small>.</center> - -<p>In conclusion I will quote from two writers on tropical America. -Buckle says:</p> - -<blockquote><small>"Amidst the pomp and splendor of nature, no place is left for man; he -is reduced to insignificance by the majesty with which he is -surrounded. The forces that oppose are so formidable that he has never -been able to make head against them.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>"The energies of nature have hampered his spirit; nowhere else is the -contrast so painful between the grandeur of the external world and -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page29"><small><small>[p. 29]</small></small></a></span> -the littleness of the internal, and the mind, cowed by this -unequal struggle, has been unable to advance.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>"Here, where physical resources are the most powerful, where -vegetation and animals are most abundant, where the soil is watered by -the noblest rivers and the coast studded by the finest harbors, the -profusion of nature has hindered social progress and opposed that -accumulation of wealth without which progress is impossible."</small></blockquote> - -<p>Mr. Bates, the naturalist, after a residence of many years on the -Amazon, closes his book as follows:</p> - -<blockquote><small>"The superiority of the bleak north to tropical regions is only in its -social aspects, for I hold to the opinion that although humanity can -reach an advanced state of culture only by battling with the -inclemency of nature in high latitudes, it is under the equator alone -that the perfect race of the future will attain to complete fruition -of man's beautiful heritage, the earth."</small></blockquote> - -<p><small> <i>Washington, January, 1891</i>.</small></p> -<br> -<br> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page30"><small><small>[p. 30]</small></small></a></span> -<br> -<br> -<center><img src="images/cover2.jpg" alt="cover to issue 2"></center> -<br> -<br> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page31"><small><small>[p. 31]</small></small></a></span> -<center><small>V<small>OL</small>. III, <small>PP</small>. 31–40 - - - -A<small>PRIL</small> 30, 1891</small></center> -<h4>THE</h4> -<h2>NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE.</h2> -<hr> -<br> -<br> -<br> -<br> -<h3>GEOGRAPHY OF THE LAND.</h3> - -<h5>A<small>NNUAL</small> R<small>EPORT BY</small> V<small>ICE</small>-P<small>RESIDENT</small></h5> - -<h4>HERBERT G. OGDEN.</h4> - -<center>(<i>Presented to the Society January 23, 1891</i>.)</center> -<br> -<hr align="center" width="25%"> -<br> -<p>Very few of the geographic events of the past year have been of such -an essential nature as to require a reference in this report, and yet -some of them are of surpassing interest. Fraught, as many of them are, -with policies that must have a marked influence in the future in -developing the still uncivilized regions and increasing the prosperity -of the established communities, they present a field for research that -has already attracted the political economist, enlisted the labor of -the philanthropist, and excited the cupidity of commerce.</p> -<br> - -<p>The division of Africa, as commonly referred to, has naturally aroused -the most profound attention of all civilized peoples. But few have -attempted to penetrate the darkness of the future with predictions of -the ultimate results of the partition of this great continent. That -civilization will eventually follow, we may feel reasonably assured; -and if we could but see the end in the establishment of powerful -nations without the repetition of history in the quarrels, strife, and -war that have preceded the settled order of political progression on -other continents, we might well hope the human had improved his -humanity and believe we had entered the border land of the millennium -that enthusiasts have so long held up to us as the final stage in the -progress of man.</p> - -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page32"><small><small>[p. 32]</small></small></a></span> -<p>The professions of the African powers are peaceful, but in the -division of these unknown millions of square miles it requires but -little penetration to discern the elements for protracted strife in -future generations. The agreement between Germany and England, by far -the most important of the compacts to extend the protection of -European nations to particular zones not embraced in the Kongo Free -State, exemplifies in a marked degree the disputes that may arise, and -with what avidity the civilized nations have sought mutual recognition -of their right to dominate in specified spheres. As might have been -expected, however, in an attempt to divide great areas that have not -even been mapped, and with an economic value still to be determined, -the boundaries of the spheres are oftentimes indefinite, and instead -of settling disputed questions, but defer them to the generations yet -to come. There are colonies, protectorates, and spheres of influence, -with boundaries sometimes so ill defined that we may conceive they -have been purposely left indeterminate, that at the proper time the -most powerful may push their frontiers to include regions that the -adventurous may proclaim desirable acquisitions.</p> - -<p>The area of Africa is computed at nearly 12,000,000 square miles; and -about 9,500,000 square miles are claimed by the powers as under their -control, protectorate, or influence within the tentative boundaries -that seem to have been very generally agreed upon. Fully 83 per cent. -of this area has been acquired during the past fifteen years. We have -seen during this period the possessions of Spain increase from 3,500 -to 200,000 square miles; England, from 280,000 to 2,000,000; France, -from 280,000 to 2,300,000, while Italy and Germany, that were without -a square rod a few years ago, now claim extensive areas—Italy about -360,000 and Germany over 1,000,000 square miles. Portugal, though not -less grasping, seems to have been less successful, as she has acquired -less than 100,000 square miles. Perhaps having encountered a more -powerful nation in her path may account for this, but the total area -within her "sphere" is nevertheless not insignificant, reaching as it -does over three-quarters of a million of square miles. In the Kongo -Free State we find another million square miles, which many believe -will ultimately become a Belgian colony; but in any event, occupying -as it does the larger part of the basin of the Kongo, it is destined -to be the scene of an activity in the development of the continent -fruitful of the most important results.</p> - -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page33"><small><small>[p. 33]</small></small></a></span> -<p>We must remember, too, that England now occupies Egypt, and that -with her protectorate over Zanzibar and her sphere of influence to the -northward of that state, that has not yet been limited, it is not -improbable that she will eventually reach the Mediterranean, -establishing a more extended influence in northern Africa than even -that which she has exerted over the southern end of the continent. -Should England's influence in the north result in the occupation of -all the territory that is apparently within her "sphere," we may -conceive some of the complications likely to arise, and see the -realization of the proviso in the recent Anglo-German agreement -granting her the right of way to build a railroad through the German -sphere east of Lake Tanganyika. Englishmen have expressed grave doubts -as to the wisdom of conceding to Germany this large territory east of -Lake Tanganyika, claiming it was rightfully theirs through discovery, -and as they are estopped from intercommunication to the westward of -the lake by the boundaries of the Kongo Free State, view with alarm -the possible intricacies of the situation when they may attempt to -exercise their rights in the German sphere. But doubtless there are -compensating advantages derived from the agreement, as many earnest -and able men commend the concessions made by their government in view -of the greater influence that has been acquired in other regions where -it has not heretofore been generally conceded.</p> - -<p>South of the Zambesi there are still other elements that promise fruit -for strife ere the region is recognized as settled to the satisfaction -of the contending powers. Boundaries now but illy defined must be -adjusted before the venturous pioneers shall know to which nation -their lands belong, and we may well foresee in the sections where -exploration develops riches and abundance that the peaceful measures -of arbitration will fail to satisfy the claims to dominance. We have, -too, an element in the south African republic that must ere long find -vent in a more pronounced movement to secure a seaport than that made -a few years ago. The fact that Delagoa bay, the finest harbor on this -section of the African coast, is the natural outlet for these people -and for the extensive regions adjacent that may eventually come under -their control, points to this bay becoming a bone of contention if the -powers interested do not conclude the present arbitration on a just -and satisfactory basis. On the lower Niger there are also points of -friction, and even the sands of the great -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page34"><small><small>[p. 34]</small></small></a></span> -Sahara are becoming the -subject of dispute in the anxiety to establish power that may wield an -influence in distributing the wealth that may be found.</p> - -<p>From what regions of the continent the future wealth is to be derived -we cannot predict. The uncertainty is, perhaps, the consideration in -the problem of development that leaves vast areas with undefined -boundaries, though nominally within the sphere of influence of a -specified power. There are fully 2,000,000 square miles yet to be -explored before we may know the general geographic features of the -continent, and a much larger area that must be examined and studied by -experts before any reasonable estimate of its value and adaptability -to the schemes of civilized man can be approached. The great strides -that have been made in recent years in seizing upon the unclaimed -territories doubtless received the larger impetus from the revelations -in Mr. Stanley's explorations. The Kongo is recognized to be a natural -highway leading to a region believed to be susceptible of remunerative -development. Preparations have been made to construct a railroad -around the falls in the lower river to overcome the greatest practical -obstacle to its fullest utilization. We may reasonably expect -commercial enterprises on extensive scales to speedily follow the -completion of this road and hasten the acquisition of a more perfect -knowledge of the Kongo basin, not within the boundaries of the Kongo -Free State alone, but also the region drained by the great tributaries -from the north and the sections naturally dependent upon this great -river system.</p> - -<p>The Kongo is but one line on which the general advance is being made -upon the interior of the continent. The French seem determined upon -extending their influence on the northern and western coasts, and the -Portuguese, English, Germans, and Italians are pronounced in their -efforts on the eastern coast, while the English are careful, too, of -their interests from the south, and seem to have almost unlimited -scope north of Victoria Nyanza. The progress of the advancing -colonization will necessarily be accelerated or retarded by the -geographic conditions encountered in the different regions. In some, -it may be the difficulty of maintaining communication with older -settlements; in others, that the land is unproductive or the probable -gains not sufficiently attractive; and lastly, the great density of -the native population in certain districts is likely to prove a -hindrance that it may require many years to overcome. On the lower -Niger, in <span class="pagenum"><a name="page35"><small><small>[p. 35]</small></small></a></span> -the British west African colony, in Egypt, in Natal, on -the shores of Lake Victoria Nyanza, and in parts of the Kongo basin, -it is estimated that the native population is nearly as dense as in -India; but the climatic conditions are so unfavorable that it is not -probable that any attempt will be made to advance in these regions for -a more serious purpose than to maintain a foothold for the future. The -more attractive districts for the white man are thought to be much -less populous, and are not scourged with such an unhealthy climate.</p> - -<p>Even now the nations of Europe are planning to enter these great -unknown fields. There is an expedition on the western coast, under the -explorer Cameron, investigating the conditions for trade; and the -rumors of the organization of wealthy companies to work in the several -"spheres of influence" but impress upon us the fact that the Old World -is moving to lay bare the resources of the great continent, and we may -hope with an energy that will overcome all obstacles, open new fields -to mankind, and relieve the nations of the horrors of human traffic in -which they have been too long encouraged. But it would be vain to hope -there will be no bloodshed, for where man has great rival interests -history teaches us they are settled by the sword; and we can hardly -believe the peaceful methods of arbitration will have gained such sway -as to rob history in her predictions as to the regeneration of -"darkest Africa."</p> -<br> - -<p>On the western hemisphere also there have been events of most -interesting import, in that they foreshadow a closer union of the -people of the two continents. Unlike Africa, in that this hemisphere -has been under the control of the more intelligent races of men for -several generations, so that discovery and the cruelties attending the -establishment of supremacy are virtually questions of the past, the -interests involved are on a different plane, though not on a higher -moral sphere, as we can conceive no greater Christian duty than the -regeneration of the uncivilized, but a sphere affecting the relations -of established communities that for generations have been wielding an -influence in the world's history on principles recognized to be the -product of civilization. The metes and bounds of the states are well -defined, with few exceptions, and the ambition for territorial -accretion has been so greatly subdued by the misfortunes of their -earlier histories, that the time seems to be propitious for -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page36"><small><small>[p. 36]</small></small></a></span> -advancing those greater questions of public policy that naturally -arise from their community of interests. The proposition to convene a -Pan-American congress was for several years viewed with suspicion, and -was even designated by some as chimerical, but the suggestion took -root. Many thoughtful men believed such a conference would lead to a -better understanding between the people of the states represented, and -that, while the fruits might not be made immediately apparent, the -foundation would be laid for lasting benefits. The interest manifested -by the different nations and the high character of the representatives -they sent to the conference clearly indicated that deliberations were -to be undertaken in good faith. We need not follow the deliberations -of this body, nor even revert to the many questions discussed. Since -the adjournment we are beginning to appreciate some of the results. -The recent establishment of the "Bureau of the American Republics" is -one of the first practical evidences of work accomplished. This bureau -is maintained by proportionate contributions from the nations -represented in the congress, and is intended to be the medium for -collecting and disseminating information on commercial, industrial, -and cognate subjects. If we consider the different characteristics of -the people of the two continents—their manners, customs and methods -of business—we can readily conceive the bureau has before it a labor -of no little magnitude, but one that, fairly accomplished, cannot fail -to be beneficial and of lasting value.</p> - -<p>Further evidence of the work of the congress is apparent in the -organization of a commission of experts to project the -long-contemplated inter-continental railway—a scheme that, dependent -upon individual effort, would doubtless require many years for -accomplishment, but undertaken under international auspices we may -hope will be pressed to a speedy conclusion.</p> - -<p>The assembly of delegates to consider a monetary unit for the -republics of the two continents is also the result of the congress. -The progress of this conference will doubtless be watched with -peculiar interest, coming as it does when our own people are in the -midst of a reactionary effort to habilitate silver as a standard coin.</p> - -<p>The revolution a year ago that gave birth to the United States of -Brazil, it was feared by many would lead to a state of anarchy that -would end disastrously to the new nation and perhaps involve -neighboring states. Fortunately these forebodings have -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page37"><small><small>[p. 37]</small></small></a></span> not been -realized, and the recent general election in Brazil, which seems to -have been conducted without violence, has caused a feeling of -confidence that we may well believe will continue and permit this -great state to enter heartily into the new era of material development -that seems opening to our sister republics.</p> -<br> - -<p>Work on the construction of the Nicaragua canal has steadily -progressed during the year. A harbor for light-draft vessels has been -constructed at San Juan del Norte, and satisfactory progress has been -made in constructing the railway designed to facilitate the work of -excavation. It has been hoped by the friends of this project that the -canal would be constructed with funds raised by private subscription. -The admirable management of the preliminary work of surveying and -organization were good grounds for their belief; but the bill recently -introduced in Congress asking a guarantee for one hundred millions of -bonds to be issued, indicates that expectations of friends were too -sanguine, and that the financial backing that had been believed to be -assured has for some reason not been developed. This may be only a -temporary alarm, due to the general financial stringency that has -prevailed during the past few months, and on the recurrence of an -easier money market the necessity for the relief asked from Congress -will disappear.</p> -<br> - -<p>The Panama canal project, supposed to have been abandoned in hopeless -financial ruin, has recently been revived, with new concessions -extending the period for construction, and, it is currently reported, -a scheme for a colossal lottery company for raising the means for -prosecuting the work. It seems incredible that this canal shall become -a fact in this generation; but if it is the feasible route its -projectors claim, it is not improbable that the demands of a future -generation may necessitate its construction.</p> -<br> - -<p>A year ago I commented upon the improvement of the Mississippi river. -Since then one of the greatest floods on record has visited the lower -river country, devastating a large area. It brought to the settlers in -the valley, however, a new experience, and has inspired them with a -confidence in the levée system that finds expression in the demand for -levées of approved construction from Cairo to the Gulf. The flood of a -year ago covered many square miles. A large proportion of the area, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page38"><small><small>[p. 38]</small></small></a></span> -however, was not protected by levées, and another large -proportion was only partially protected; and while, therefore, the -disaster impressed the general public with a belief that the levées -were a failure, the facts really point to the contrary. In former -notable floods it has not been unusual for one hundred or more miles -of levée to be washed away before the flood subsided, but on the -recent occasion there was a total length of less than five miles -destroyed in some 1,100 miles of levée that had been believed to be -safe. This is a remarkable showing, and has naturally inspired the -advocates of the system with greater confidence. It points to the -possibility of constructing levées at a reasonable expense that will -stand the pressure of water for the height that it has been computed -necessary to build them. There is a grave doubt, however, in the minds -of some as to whether the computed heights, the levées holding intact, -will afford sufficient cross-section to carry off the volume of water -draining from the catchment basins. Some interesting computations on -this subject have recently been made by General Greely, the chief -signal officer,<small><small><sup>1</sup></small></small> from observations made during an extended period.</p> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>1</sup></small> North American Review, May, 1890.</small></blockquote> - -<p>The question raised is not a new one, but, considered in the light of -the statistics presented, seems to involve the problem of the -improvement of the river with increasing difficulties. General -Greely's figures indicate that the cross-section of the lower river -will only permit carrying to the sea a volume of about sixty cubic -miles of water during an ordinary flood season, and that in the -extraordinary flood years, such as 1882 and 1890, the volume to be -carried down is about eighty cubic miles, showing an excess of about -twenty cubic miles over the capacity of the river in a specified time. -These figures should be taken in the nature of a warning; and while it -must be admitted that the intricacy of the problem precludes -precision, their probable reliability should be carefully studied -before an extended levée system is built intended to guarantee -protection against exceptional floods.</p> -<br> - -<p>During recent years the complex and perplexing subject of geographic -nomenclature has received the careful consideration of a number of the -European nations, with a view to reaching a uniformity in treatment -and the transliteration of names of unwritten languages into Roman -characters. England, France, and -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page39"><small><small>[p. 39]</small></small></a></span> -Germany have adopted -substantially the same system of rules. Recent publications from these -countries evidence the intention to apply them as rapidly as -circumstances will permit. Although we may rebel at first on seeing -such familiar names as Cairo spelled with a K, Mecca with double k, -and Muscat converted into Maskat, it is believed the general -principles adopted will eventually receive acquiescence—perhaps -half-hearted at first—and as the utility of the system becomes more -apparent through its universal adoption and we realize that maps from -whatever nation will give us the names of the same places in -substantially the same form, our prejudices must give way.</p> - -<p>Under the provisions of an executive order issued on the fourth of -September last, our own Government has virtually adopted the European -system in the treatment of foreign names, thus bringing us in accord -with the principal nations upon a most important subject to students -and geographers the world over. The executive order constitutes a -board composed of ten representatives from different departments and -bureaus of the Government service, to which all questions relating to -the work of the board that may arise in the departments are to be -referred, and requires all persons in the Government service to -respect the decisions that may be rendered. The board in its first -bulletin, recently issued, has announced its adoption of the English -system for the treatment of foreign names and transliteration into -Roman characters, and has presented principles to guide in reaching -decisions affecting home names. These principles will doubtless be -added to as new questions arise, so that at no very distant day we may -see formulated a set of rules that will be instructive as well as -useful in their application. The first bulletin seems to have been -received favorably, and we may hope, as the work of the board advances -and the importance of the subject is more generally realized, that it -will gain the hearty endorsement of the public and a support that must -largely increase the usefulness of its labors.</p> -<br> - -<p>In conclusion, permit me to congratulate the society upon its first -attempt at scientific exploration in the field. The Mount St. Elias -expedition, under the leadership of Mr. I. C. Russell, with Mr. Mark B. -Kerr as topographer, left Seattle, Washington, in June last, and after -spending more than two months on the mountain sides, one-half their -time above the snow line, have -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page40"><small><small>[p. 40]</small></small></a></span> -returned with notes, specimens, -and data of the greatest interest. The topography was sketched over an -area of about one thousand square miles, and includes the -determination of the geographical position and elevation of Mount St. -Elias and many neighboring peaks. Mount St. Elias is indicated to be -not so high by some 4,000 feet as the heretofore accepted elevation, -19,500 feet. The difficulties attending the determination of the -height of this mountain are so great that the range between the -extreme elevations that have been given by different explorers is -nearly 6,000 feet. This is believed to be the first height for it that -has been derived from a carefully measured base, and it therefore -should receive great weight. But I regret to say that in the chain of -triangles connecting with the top of the mountain, the difficulty of -placing well-conditioned triangles seems to have been so great that -the observers were forced to accept very small included angles, which -necessarily casts a doubt upon the resulting distances. We must -therefore accept the new elevation with caution until it is verified -by further observations.</p> - -<p>The party was unfortunately prevented from reaching the top of Mount -St. Elias by severe storms, but the ascent was so nearly accomplished -that Mr. Russell is confident he found a practicable route; and it -seems probable that had he been started ten days or two weeks earlier -the first ascent of Mount St. Elias would have been recorded as a part -of the work of the expedition.</p> - -<p>The full report of this expedition is now nearing completion, and will -be published by the Society at an early date. To this I must refer you -for the interesting details, and experiences encountered by the -explorers.</p> - -<p>The expedition was organized by the Society, but in congratulating -ourselves we should not forget that our thanks are due to the United -States Geological Survey for the assignment of officers to conduct the -work in the field and for assistance rendered in the organization; and -we may hope the substantial results that have been secured will prove -as pleasing to that great national work as they are to your board of -managers.</p> - -<p> <i>Washington, January 23, 1891</i>.</p> -<br> -<br> -<center><img src="images/cover3.jpg" alt="cover to issue 3"></center> -<br> -<br> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page41"><small><small>[p. 41]</small></small></a></span> -<center><small>V<small>OL</small>. III, <small>PP</small>. 41–52 - - - -M<small>AY</small> 1, 1891</small></center> -<h4>THE</h4> -<h2>NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE.</h2> -<hr> -<br> -<br> -<br> -<br> -<h3>GEOGRAPHY OF THE AIR.</h3> - -<h5>A<small>NNUAL</small> R<small>EPORT BY</small> V<small>ICE</small>-P<small>RESIDENT</small></h5> - -<h4>A. W. GREELY.</h4> - -<center>(<i>Presented to the Society January 23, 1891.</i>)</center> -<br> -<hr align="center" width="25%"> -<br> - -<p>In fulfilling the duties growing out of his official position in -connection with this Society, your Vice-President of the Geography of -the Air has been so closely occupied with executive and other official -duties devolving upon him as to preclude his giving that amount of -time and labor to this annual report that the subject merits. Indeed, -no report would be submitted this year had it not seemed better to -insure a continuity of these annual addresses, even if one of them -might not be up to the high standard which should be maintained for -them.</p> - -<p>It must have impressed every general reader of scientific journals -that the past year has been marked by the publication of an unusual -number of controversial articles relating entirely or in part to -meteorology. Some of the discussions of this subject appear to be in -the nature of speculation, which, by good authority, is defined to be -"chiefly the work of the imagination, and has little to do with -realities." The status of the meteorological discussion which has been -going on for some time seems to be this: A number of men, applying -themselves to investigation in separate branches or stages of the same -science, are attempting to reconcile their views, which, based as they -are upon entirely different processes of investigation, are not -entirely accordant. Some, at least, of these writers are still -apparently groping in the preliminary, the "natural history" stage of -the <span class="pagenum"><a name="page42"><small><small>[p. 42]</small></small></a></span> -science of meteorology, while one alone stands as the -exponent of the "natural philosophy" of meteorology.</p> - -<p>To me it seems that it could not have failed to impress any interested -reader who has followed the late publications on the convectional -theory that, in order to clear the ground for definite meteorological -discussion, it is necessary to determine the exact meaning of the -various technical terms employed by the various writers. Whether from -looseness of verbiage originally or from the not infrequent habit of -disputants when worsted to change their ground by claiming to be -misunderstood, we find that some writers are unwilling either to stand -by their first criticisms or to openly abandon them; they prefer to -explain away their defective statements and gradually shift around to -positions almost diametrically opposed to those originally assumed.</p> - -<p>The generally accepted theory as to cyclones attributes their -initiatory formation to an unequal distribution of temperature with -resulting mean diminution of pressure, and the movement of the air -from places of high to places of low pressure, the lower air ascending -with a gyratory motion, while air particles moving from opposite -directions form couples which produce rotation. When energetic motions -raise the ascending air to such a height that the temperature, cooled -dynamically in ascending, goes below the dew-point, then the great -store of latent heat thereby set free becomes, it is assumed, the main -source of energy in maintaining the upward convectional movement. The -subsidiary causes are attributed to the diminution of pressure on the -collapse of the vapor, and also to the direct absorption of the sun's -heat at the upper cloud surface.</p> - -<p>In anticyclones a slow gyratory descending motion of the air is -assumed. Ferrel considers the cyclone and anticyclone one system, and -believes that air flowing into the cyclone from a "high" at the ground -passes out into the higher atmospheric strata.</p> - -<p>Dr. Hann has put forth the hypothesis that the genesis of cyclones and -anticyclones may be sought in the general atmospheric circulation -through a difference of temperature of the air from the equator to the -poles. He speaks of a congestion in the upper or anti-trade winds, -where the air heaps up to a great height, this being the cause of the -anticyclones; and he maintains that the low temperature of the "high" -is due to ground radiation, and that no part of the high pressure is -the result of low temperature.</p> - -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page43"><small><small>[p. 43]</small></small></a></span> -<p>To this hypothesis of Dr. Hann, ascribing the genesis of storms -to the general circulation of the atmosphere, no application of the -laws of dynamics has yet been made with a view of developing it into -an acceptable "theory." If it should be established it does not follow -that it will in any way affect the truth of the commonly accepted -"convectional system," which, founded as it is on the well-known laws -of thermo-dynamics, is not likely to be successfully assailed. There -may be an improved nomenclature for the laws of statics and dynamics -that will express to the mind more clearly the relation of cause and -effect; but until the advance of scientific research modifies the -present formulation of these laws the convectional theory will be -generally accepted as giving the true interpretation of all the -phenomena to which it could be applied.</p> - -<p>Professor Russell, in commenting on this subject, expresses the -opinion that the low temperature is due to the convective interchange -of air at a low temperature in the upper strata with air of a high -temperature in lower strata, such convective interchange tending to -make the whole body of air of a temperature coinciding throughout with -the adiabatic rate of upward diminution, with the consequent result of -rendering the air at the surface of the earth cooler than previously -and the upper air warmer. When the upward diminution of temperature is -less than the adiabatic rate, in the forced circulation of air -crossing a mountain ridge, there occurs the dynamic heating which is -observed in the case of the foehn winds. The low temperature near the -earth he does not believe could ever be entirely produced by nocturnal -radiation from the ground. The high pressure, in his opinion, is -largely the result of greater density due to low temperature, as is -very clearly indicated by the fact that the temperature is almost -inversely proportional to the pressure, and that the places of lower -temperature substantially coincide with the places of greatest -pressure.</p> - -<p>In advancing hypotheses and inviting discussion the real object is, or -at least should be, to discover the essential cause or causes which -determine the initial formation and subsequent maintenance and -progress of the cyclone. Some real progress in charting lines of equal -density seems to have been made by M. Nils Ekholm following Professor -Abbe's system of "isostaths," one using the term density, the other -buoyancy. Professor Abbe also introduces the factor of the orographic -gradient, but the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page44"><small><small>[p. 44]</small></small></a></span> -latter is simply the measure of a resistance. -The objection to this form of determination is this, that it is a -measure of mass only. The density of two masses of air is determined -to be the same; but as the density may result from two entirely -different causes, their physical relations cannot be fully expressed -in units of gravity. The methods of Professor Abbe and of M. Nils -Ekholm undoubtedly give good results, partly from the coincidence that -humidity usually varies directly as the temperature.</p> - -<p>The method proposed by Captain James Allen in 1888, which is briefly -described in appendix 24 to the annual report of the Chief Signal -Officer for 1890, appears to afford the means of more clearly -expressing the relations that exist between the mass of the atmosphere -and the forces available for the generation and movement of storms. -Its tentative application at the Signal Office has anticipated and -explained storm movements not indicated or accounted for by the usual -methods.</p> - -<p>As pertinent to this matter, there is instanced a study of the -progress of thunder-storms made by Berg, who observes that the line of -storm front in every case investigated made a decidedly conspicuous -bend into the densest part of the lines representing the absolute -humidity.</p> -<br> - -<p>Scientific conditions have so changed that in these later years it -becomes more and more difficult for investigators to publish any work -which may be characterized as <i>magnum opus</i>. Under this head, however, -must be classed Buchan's important memoir on the distribution of -atmospheric pressure, temperature, and wind direction over the whole -world; a large quarto volume, which contains much new material. It has -been incorporated with the results of observations during the -Challenger expedition, in which series this work appears. The isobars -and isotherms for each month in the year for the whole earth are -charted on Mercator's projection, and for the northern hemisphere on a -chart constructed on a polar projection. In connection with an -abstruse subject, to which Buchan has paid so much attention, the -diurnal variation of pressure, he opines from the Challenger -observations that the oscillations are due to the heat taken from the -solar rays directly in passing through the air and instantaneously -communicated through the whole mass from top to bottom by heating and -evaporation of water on innumerable dust particles. The afternoon -minimum, he thinks, is caused by upward currents removing a portion of -the lower air. Marked -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page45"><small><small>[p. 45]</small></small></a></span> -differences exist between the continental -and insular types, since on islands the morning minimum is unusually -large and the afternoon minimum so small as to disappear, while in -continental types the reverse conditions obtain.</p> -<br> - -<p>Werner Von Siemens, in answering Sprung's criticism on his general air -currents, after repelling certain statements of Sprung, describes his -own theories, which are worthy of restating:</p> - -<blockquote>1. All winds are caused by the disturbances of indifferent -equilibrium, and the motion of the air is to restore equilibrium.</blockquote> - -<blockquote>2. These disturbances are caused through overheating of the layers of -air near the surface of the earth by insolation, through unsymmetrical -cooling of the higher layers by radiation, and through the heaping up -of air masses caused by obstructions.</blockquote> - -<blockquote>3. The disturbances are adjusted by ascending currents, wherein the -particular species of acceleration occurs in which the increase of -velocity is proportioned to the diminution of pressure.</blockquote> - -<blockquote>4. The upward currents correspond to equally great descending currents -in which there is a decrease of velocity corresponding to the -acceleration in the upward velocity.</blockquote> - -<blockquote>5. If the region of overheating of the air is limited locally, a local -upward current reaching to the highest layers of air arises, and -whirlwinds appear with interior spirally ascending currents and -outside similar spiral descending currents. The result of this is -dispersion of the superfluous heat of the lower air by which the -adiabatic equilibrium is disturbed throughout the whole column of air -taking part in the whirling motion.</blockquote> - -<blockquote>6. In case the region of disturbance of the indifferent (or adiabatic) -equilibrium is very extensive, as, for example, the whole of the -tropical zone, the temperature adjustment can no longer be -accomplished by locally ascending whirls, and a whirling current must -then arise involving the whole atmosphere. The same conditions apply -to these as to the local whirls of accelerated upward motion and -retarded descent in such a manner that the velocity at different -altitudes arising from heat converted to work is approximately -proportional to the prevailing pressure at the place.</blockquote> - -<blockquote>7. In consequence of the meridional motion produced and maintained by -conversion of heat into work, the whole atmosphere in every latitude -must rotate with approximately the same absolute velocity. Thus the -meridional currents produced by overheating combine with the currents -embracing the whole -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page46"><small><small>[p. 46]</small></small></a></span> -wind system of the earth, with the result of -disseminating the excess of temperature and humidity of the torrid -zone over the temperate and arctic zones, thereby producing the -prevailing winds.</blockquote> - -<blockquote>8. This is accomplished by the production of alternating local -depressions and elevations of barometric pressure by the disturbance -of indifferent equilibrium in the upper layers of the air.</blockquote> - -<blockquote>9. "Highs" and "lows" are a consequence of the temperatures and -velocities of the upper currents.</blockquote> - -<p>Whence it follows that the most important problem of meteorology is -the investigation of the causes and consequences of the disturbance of -indifferent equilibrium of the atmosphere, and the weightiest problem -in weather prediction is the investigation of the geographical origin -or extraction of air currents pursuing their course above us toward -the pole.</p> -<br> - -<p>In Pomortsew's treatise on synoptic meteorology, published in Russia, -there are full chapters on prediction of weather, whether from -synoptic charts, from observations at a single place, or from -prognostics of great length based on researches on the succession of -warm and cold months. It also contains Pomortsew's investigations on -the types of pressure distribution in eastern Europe, as well as the -average path of cyclones.</p> -<br> - -<p>The favorable opportunities afforded by the Eiffel tower have been -utilized by French meteorologists. M. Angot states that during the -anti-cyclone of November, 1889, the temperature on the tower was -several degrees higher than below. The change of weather set in -earlier, with a strong and warm wind, on the tower, while the air at -the ground was cold and calm. Wind observations on the tower show a -ratio of 3.1 at that height (303 meters) to the velocity at a height -of 21 meters, as determined from 101 days' observations, which, -remarkable at such a small height, discloses the peculiarity of high -mountain stations.</p> -<br> - -<p>Partsch, writing on evidence of climatic changes within historical -times in the Mediterranean region, remarks that too much attention has -been given to changes in crops, the introduction of plants, and the -limits of domestic animals. He states that existing information as to -the harvest time of ancient days indicates an unchanged climate, while -the land-locked lakes in Tunis, which afford the best evidence on -rainfall variation, show absolutely no climatic change.</p> -<br> - -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page47"><small><small>[p. 47]</small></small></a></span> -<p>Van Bebber, in writing on weather types, claims that a line drawn -from the center of a cyclone perpendicularly in the direction of the -heaviest gradients will in general be perpendicular to the subsequent -path of the "low," and that these lows leave high temperature on the -right hand.</p> -<br> - -<p>Hill, in describing hail-stones and tornadoes in India, explains them -on the principle of the great diminution of temperature upwards in the -air, but a critic, in combating this theory, objects to the high and -low stations selected to show temperatures.</p> -<br> - -<p>The so-called "weather plant" of the tropics has passed through the -process of investigation with the usual result. It appears surprising -that in these days it should be believed that any plant or animal can -foretell weather 48 hours in advance, particularly after considering -the vast amount of proof as to the enormous rapidity with which -weather-changes progress from day to day.</p> -<br> - -<p>Hugo Meyer, in treating the precipitation of central Germany for the -ten years ending in 1885, pertinently remarks that the same -significance does not attach to the same rainfall for all places and -different times of the year, for this average value is not the amount -most likely to fall in any particular interval of time, since there is -a limit to the extent of the negative deviations on one side—that is, -0 or no rainfall, while on the positive side there is no limit. The -most probable depth of rainfall, therefore, is less than the mean -value, the preponderance of negative over positive deviations being -about 10 per cent. and sometimes as great as 20 per cent.</p> -<br> - -<p>Professor W. M. Davis wrote an interesting review of Professor -Ferrel's popular treatise on the winds, published a year ago. -Commenting on the review, the editor of <i>Meteorologische Zeltschrift</i>, -Vienna, remarks on a very important omission in the treatise, namely, -the absence of all reference to the diurnal variation of the wind and -the many interesting relations it bears to other phenomena, a notable -omission in a treatise specially devoted to winds. The treatment of -the monsoon wind and its relation to the general circulation is highly -commended by the editor, and indicated as being all new.</p> -<br> -<p>Your Vice-President has elsewhere expressed his opinion that monsoon -winds, applying the term by liberal construction to signify winds -which recur with returning seasons, cannot with -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page48"><small><small>[p. 48]</small></small></a></span> -any degree of -correctness be asserted to prevail in the United States. It is true -that the prevailing surface winds of the greater part of the United -States come from the western quadrants—that is, between southwest and -northwest—and so are in substantial harmony with the general -atmospheric circulation as shown by the upper-wind currents of Mount -Washington (from the northwest) and Pike's peak (from the southwest). -But, apart from the easterly and northeasterly trades on the Florida -coast, it appears from the records that in no case for any -considerable section of the country do 50 per cent. of the winds blow, -for any consecutive number of months, either from any single point or -from two neighboring points of the compass. Occasionally, however, the -local configuration of the country is such that winds are drawn up or -down valleys, and, being diverted from their free and proper -direction, the wind in such cases follows the trend of the valley or -depression.</p> -<br> - -<p>In general your Vice-President would feel inclined to refer only -casually to the work proceeding from the Bureau over which he has the -honor to preside, but this year has been marked by special researches -and investigations of general interest. As the work of investigation -has been entrusted to the professors of the Signal Service, due credit -should not be refused them from their own official chief.</p> - -<p>Special reference should be made to the work of Professor Charles F. -Marvin, whose successful experiments on wind pressures and velocities -have attracted the attention of experts both in Europe and in this -country. Unfortunately there was available only a small sum (about one -hundred dollars) for the expense of experiments, but with this petty -sum, supplemented by his ingenuity, Professor Marvin has very -satisfactorily determined the coëfficients of the various forms of the -Robinson anemometer, with which instrument the velocity of the wind is -very generally determined. Following these investigations, the Royal -Meteorological Society of England reopened the question, which, after -a costly set of experiments with results widely differing from those -of Professor Marvin, had been considered closed.</p> - -<p>The general results of these researches, which are believed to be -sufficiently definite for general questions, are not only prized by -the scientist, but they are of value to the engineer and the builder. -Indeed, to all interested in costly structures or extended works -liable to harm from wind pressures, the factor of safety is -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page49"><small><small>[p. 49]</small></small></a></span> a -matter of no small pecuniary importance. These experiments show that, -as was formerly believed to be the case, the wind pressure varies as -the square of the velocity of the wind, expressed in miles per hour; -but a most important fact has developed, namely, that the pressure in -pounds per square foot is equal to the miles of hourly velocity -multiplied by 0.004 instead of 0.005, as was formerly assumed.</p> - -<p>Professor Marvin was not content with one system of experiments, but -he further attacked the problem in a direct manner by a method which -checked and verified his experiments with the whirling machine. On the -summit of Mount Washington, at an elevation of 6,300 feet, he obtained -simultaneously and under the same conditions, by automatic and -electrical apparatus, continuous registration of the pressure of the -wind in pounds per square foot and of the velocity in miles per hour.</p> - -<p>The results thus verified can be considered as conclusive from a -general standpoint. The corrections for the Robinson anemometer thus -determined from these experiments are comparatively unimportant at low -velocities, say from 10 to 15 miles per hour, being only a fraction of -a mile per hour. The uncorrected velocities, however, are in all cases -too large, and by greater and greater amounts the higher the velocity. -At 60 miles per hour the observed velocities are about 12 miles per -hour too high, and for an indicated velocity of 90 miles the -experiments show that the actual velocity is but a fraction over 69 -miles per hour.</p> - -<p>The anemometer formula found to satisfy most closely the entire range -of experiments has the following form for velocities in miles per -hour:</p> - -<center>Log. <i>V</i> = 0.509 + 0.9012 log. <i>v</i>.</center> - -<p>This difference indicated by the formula may seem small and -insignificant, as it is in the case of light winds, but at very high -velocities the differences are very great. For instance, an actual -velocity of 60 miles per hour may occur at some time in almost any -locality of the United States for a few minutes, and even greater -velocities are occasionally reported, apart from severe tornadoes. -Under the old coëfficients for the Robinson anemometer an actual -velocity of 60 miles per hour would have been reported as 77 miles per -hour, which under the old factor of 0.005 would mean a pressure of -29.6 pounds per square foot; but when considered with reference to the -true velocity of 60 miles, under -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page50"><small><small>[p. 50]</small></small></a></span> -the new factor of 0.004, the -pressure would only be 14.4 pounds per square foot—a reduction of -over 50 per cent. from the pressure-values formerly accepted.</p> - -<p>Professor Marvin has undertaken to verify, and also to extend to even -lower temperatures, the observations of Regnault as to the pressure of -aqueous vapor at low temperatures, especial attention being given to -temperature conditions from 0° centigrade to –50° centigrade. These -observations disclose, below 0° centigrade, small but constant -differences from the values assigned by Regnault.</p> - -<p>In all this work Professor Marvin has shown such ingenuity of -resource, such skill in adapting means to the end, and such deftness -in improvising and manufacturing the requisite instruments as have -elicited commendation from all who have seen his work and followed his -methods. Your Vice-President alludes to this not only to give that -credit rightfully due to Professor Marvin, but to illustrate this as a -type of the highly important work which is being done in all branches -of science here in Washington by young men sometimes illy equipped as -to means, and still more illy paid. Men engaged in work of original -investigation should receive higher pay than clerks in charge of -routine duties; but unfortunately the majority of them do not.</p> -<br> -<p>The work of Professor Hazen in charting tornadoes and in determining -their relative frequency and severity is directly in the line of the -Geography of the Air.</p> - -<p>Great attention had previously been given to this subject by -Lieutenant John P. Finley, who, with indefatigable industry, had -accumulated an enormous mass of data relative to these violent -outbursts of nature's forces. The figures and deductions previously -put forth under the authority of the Signal Service having been -questioned, the Chief Signal Officer felt obliged, in view of the -growing practical importance of the question, as indicated by the -great sums annually paid out in the Ohio valley and in the -trans-Mississippi region for protection against tornadoes, to reöpen -the subject. Instructions of the most conservative character were -given to Professor Hazen to determine carefully the prevalence and -number of tornadoes in the United States, the areas devastated by -them, and the number of lives lost annually. This work was carefully -scrutinized during its progress to see that it should be devoid of -theory and rest on the solid basis of fact. The results are most -assuring to every -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page51"><small><small>[p. 51]</small></small></a></span> -one, and must serve to allay the unreasonable -fears of the inhabitants of the so-called "tornado districts." It -appears that there is no part of the United States in which annually -more than one square mile of devastation or severe destruction can be -expected for each 185,000 square miles, although cases of <i>limited -destruction</i> may occur annually for about every 5,000 square miles of -area. In no state may destructive tornadoes be expected, on an -average, more than once in two years; and the area over which total -destruction can be expected is, as shown by the foregoing figures, -exceedingly small, even in localities most liable to these violent -storms. The annual death casualties from tornadoes have averaged, in -the last 18 years, 102 annually; but it is believed that the death -rate from lightning is greater than that from tornadoes, since during -March to August, 1890, the names of 110 are on record who have lost -their lives by lightning, although the data are incomplete, especially -as regards the southern states. These statistics cannot be passed by -lightly, however, and it is doubtful if in the main they are much in -error. By them it appears from five years' record that the average -annual death rate by lightning in the United States is 3.8 per million -of inhabitants, or 0.2 above the average. In Sweden, for sixty years, -the average has been 3.0; in France, for forty-nine years, 3.1; in -Baden, for seventeen years, 3.8; and in Prussia, for fifteen years, -4.4 per million.</p> - -<p>Other figures, given by a life-insurance agent in St. Louis, which the -author claims to have compiled with great care, place the average -annual rate of death from lightning in the United States at 206, being -more than double the deaths from tornadoes. It must be understood that -these figures are not vouched for, and must be very cautiously -received, as originating with companies interested pecuniarily in the -statistics.</p> - -<p>On the whole, therefore, it may be safely assumed that tornadoes are -not so destructive to life as thunder-storms.</p> -<br> - -<p>Professor Thomas Russell has formulated a method for prediction of -cold waves. They always occur after "lows" and before "highs," and -different cold waves vary in extent from three "units" to sixty. A -"unit" of temperature-fall is taken as a fall of twenty degrees over -an area of 50,000 square miles.</p> - -<p>The temperature-fall curves in the United States are approximately -elliptical in shape. Perfect ellipses represent actual temperature -falls with an error not exceeding six degrees in -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page52"><small><small>[p. 52]</small></small></a></span> -most cases. -These fall lines are intersections of planes with a cone which -graphically represents the totality of temperature-fall, the contents -of the cone being equal to the area of its base multiplied by its -altitude, which is the greatest fall in temperature at the center of -the cold wave.</p> - -<p>A formula has been devised, based on 127 special cases, representing -the amount of fall in terms of the amount of barometric depression in -a "low," and the amount of excess if a "high," and the density of the -isothermal lines in the region.</p> - -<p>From proper consideration of the type of low area, shape of isobars, -and position of the long axis, definite conclusions can be drawn as to -the subsequent shape of the elliptical twenty-degree temperature-fall -area and its position.</p> - -<p>A method has been devised, also by Professor Russell, for determining -the maximum fall of temperature at the center of the cold wave. The -maximum fall and extent of fall being known, from suitably prepared -tables, the area of twenty-degree fall can be derived. Previously -prepared pieces of card-board are laid in the proper position on a map -of suitable scale, and lines drawn around them. Between the line -representing the twenty-degree fall and the center, the other falls of -thirty degrees, forty degrees, etc., are sketched in.</p> -<br> - -<p>The foregoing sketch of the geography of the air may appear too -superficial and limited for the purposes of this Society, but its -further elaboration was impracticable. Indeed, the subject of -meteorology could hardly have been touched upon this year had it not -been for the courtesy of Professor Russell in placing at my disposal -notes upon translations from foreign publications, especially from the -German; which publications I have been unable to examine save in a -casual way.</p> - -<p>The address, as it is, is submitted only in the hope that it may -serve, if no other purpose, at least to indicate the great interest -which now obtains in the geography of the air, and which manifests -itself in the production of meteorological pamphlets and publications -too numerous to permit any one charged with important executive duties -to examine them all, even in a non-critical way.</p> -<br> -<br> -<center><img src="images/cover4.jpg" alt="cover to issue 4"></center> -<br> -<br> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page53"><small><small>[p. 53]</small></small></a></span> -<center><small>V<small>OL</small>. III, PP. 53–204, PLS. 2–20 - - - -M<small>AY</small> 29, 1891</small></center> -<h4>THE</h4> -<h2>NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE.</h2> -<hr> -<br> -<br> -<br> -<br> -<h3>AN EXPEDITION TO MOUNT ST. ELIAS, ALASKA</h3> -<h4>BY ISRAEL C. RUSSELL.</h4> -<center>(<i>Accepted for publication March 18, 1891.</i>)</center> -<br> -<hr align="center" width="25%"> -<br> -<h3>CONTENTS.</h3> - -<p>Introduction—<a href="#page55">The Southern Coast of Alaska</a></p> - -<p>Part I—<a href="#page58">Previous Explorations in the St. Elias Region</a><br> - <a href="#page58">Bering, 1741</a><br> - <a href="#page58">Cook, 1778</a><br> - <a href="#page58">La Pérouse, 1786</a><br> - <a href="#page60">Dixon, 1787</a><br> - <a href="#page62">Douglas, 1788</a><br> - <a href="#page62">Malaspina, 1792</a><br> - <a href="#page66">Vancouver, 1794</a><br> - <a href="#page68">Belcher, 1837</a><br> - <a href="#page69">Tebenkof, 1852</a><br> - <a href="#page70">United States Coast and Geodetic Survey, 1874, 1880</a><br> - <a href="#page72">New York <i>Times</i> Expedition, 1886</a><br> - <a href="#page73">Topham Expedition, 1888</a></p> - -<p>Part II—<a href="#page75">Narrative of the St. Elias Expedition of 1890</a><br> - <a href="#page75">Organization</a><br> - <a href="#page78">From Seattle to Sitka</a><br> - <a href="#page79">From Sitka to Yakutat Bay</a><br> - <a href="#page81">Canoe Trip up Yakutat Bay</a><br> - <a href="#page86">Base Camp on the Shore of Yakutat Bay</a><br> - <a href="#page89">First Day's Tramp</a><br> - <a href="#page96">Canoe Trip in Disenchantment Bay</a><br> - <a href="#page103">From Yakutat Bay to Blossom Island</a><br> - <a href="#page113">Blossom Island</a><br> - <a href="#page122">Life above the Snow-Line</a><br> - <a href="#page124">First Camp in the Snow</a><br> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page54"><small><small>[p. 54]</small></small></a></span> - <a href="#page129">Across Pinnacle Pass</a><br> - <a href="#page135">First full View of St. Elias</a><br> - <a href="#page137">Summit of Pinnacle Pass Cliffs</a><br> - <a href="#page142">Across Seward Glacier to Dome Pass</a><br> - <a href="#page147">Up the Agassiz Glacier</a><br> - <a href="#page150">Camp on the Newton Glacier</a><br> - <a href="#page151">Highest Point reached</a><br> - <a href="#page154">Alone in the highest Camp</a><br> - <a href="#page158">The Return</a><br> - <a href="#page163">Suggestions</a><br> - -<p>Part III—<a href="#page167">Sketch of the Geology of the St. Elias Region</a><br> - <a href="#page167">General Features</a><br> - <a href="#page167">Yakutat System</a><br> - <a href="#page170">Pinnacle System</a><br> - <a href="#page173">St. Elias Schist</a><br> - <a href="#page174">Geological Structure</a></p> - -<p>Part IV—<a href="#page176">Glaciers of the St. Elias Region</a><br> - <a href="#page176">Natural Divisions of Glaciers</a><br> - <a href="#page176">Alpine Glaciers</a><br> - <a href="#page180">Characteristics of Alpine Glaciers above the Snow-Line</a><br> - <a href="#page183">Characteristics of Alpine Glaciers below the Show-Line</a><br> - <a href="#page185">Piedmont Glaciers</a></p> - -<p>Part V—<a href="#page189">Height and Position of Mount St. Elias</a></p> - -<p>Appendix A—<a href="#page192">Official Instructions governing the Expedition</a></p> - -<p>Appendix B—<a href="#page195">Report on topographic Work; by Mark B. Kerr</a></p> - -<p>Appendix C—<a href="#page196">Report on auriferous Sands from Yakutat Bay; by J. Stanley-Brown</a></p> - -<p>Appendix D—<a href="#page199">Report on fossil Plants; by Lester F. Ward</a></p> - -<p><a href="#page201">Index</a></p> -<br> -<br> -<br> -<br> -<h3>ILLUSTRATIONS.</h3> - -<p>Plate 2—<a href="#plate02">Sketch Map of Alaska</a><br> - 3—<a href="#plate03">Map of the St. Elias Region, after La Pérouse</a><br> - 4—<a href="#plate04">Map of the Eastern Shore of Yakutat Bay, after Dixon</a><br> - 5—<a href="#plate05">Map of the St. Elias Region, after Malaspina</a><br> - 6—<a href="#plate06">Map of Bay de Monti, after Malaspina</a><br> - 7—<a href="#plate07">Map of Disenchantment Bay, after Malaspina</a><br> - 8—<a href="#plate08">Sketch Map of St. Elias Region, by Mark B. Kerr</a><br> - 9—<a href="#plate09">The Hubbard Glacier; drawn from Photograph by A. L. Broadbent</a><br> - 10—<a href="#plate10">Wall of Ice on Eastern Side of the Atrevida Glacier; from a Photograph</a><br> - 11—<a href="#plate11">View on the Atrevida Glacier; from a Photograph</a><br> - 12—<a href="#plate12">Entrance of an Ice-Tunnel; from a Photograph</a><br> - 13—<a href="#plate13">Deltas in an Abandoned Lake-Bed; from a Photograph</a><br> - 14—<a href="#plate14">A River on the Lucia Glacier; from a Photograph (reproduced from <i>The Century</i>, April, 1891)</a><br> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page55"><small><small>[p. 55]</small></small></a></span> - 15—<a href="#plate15">Entrance to a Glacial Tunnel; from a Photograph</a><br> - 16—<a href="#plate16">View of the Malaspina Glacier from Blossom Island; from a Photograph</a><br> - 17—<a href="#plate17">Moraines on the Marvine Glacier; from a Photograph</a><br> - 18—<a href="#plate18">View of the Hitchcock Range from near Dome Pass</a><br> - 19—<a href="#plate19">View of Mount St. Elias from Dome Pass; drawn from a Photograph</a><br> - 20—<a href="#plate20">View of Mount St. Elias from Seward Glacier; drawn from a Photograph</a></p> - -<p>Figure 1—<a href="#fig1">Diagram illustrating the Formation of Icebergs</a><br> - 2—<a href="#fig2">View of a glacial Lakelet; from a Photograph</a><br> - 3—<a href="#fig3">Section of a glacial Lakelet</a><br> - 4—<a href="#fig4">Diagram illustrating the Formation of marginal Crevasses</a><br> - 5—<a href="#fig5">Crevasses near Pinnacle Pass; from a Photograph</a><br> - 6—<a href="#fig6">Snow Crests on Ridges and Peaks; from Field Sketches</a><br> - 7—<a href="#fig7">Faulted Pebble from Pinnacle Pass</a><br> - 8—<a href="#fig8">Faulted Pebble from Pinnacle Pass</a></p> -<br> -<br> -<hr align="center" width="25%"> -<br> -<br> - -<h4>INTRODUCTION.</h4> - -<h3>THE SOUTHERN COAST OF ALASKA.</h3> -<br> -<p>The southern coast of Alaska is remarkable for the regularity of its -general outline. If a circle a thousand miles in diameter be inscribed -on a map of the northern Pacific with a point in about latitude 54° -and longitude 145° as a center, a large part of its northern periphery -will be found to coincide with the southern shore of Alaska between -Dixon entrance on the east and the Alaska peninsula on the west. On -the northern part of this great coast-circle lies the region explored -in the summer of 1890 and described in the following pages.</p> - -<p>From Cross sound, at the northern end of the great system of islands -forming southeastern Alaska, westward along the base of the -Fairweather range, the mountains are exceedingly rugged, and present -some of the finest coast scenery in the world. There are but two -inlets east of Yakutat bay on this shore which afford shelter even for -small boats. These are Lituya bay and Dry bay. Ships may enter Lituya -bay, at certain stages of the tide, and find a safe harbor within; but -the approaches to Dry bay are not navigable. West of Yakutat bay the -coast is equally inhospitable all the way to Prince William sound.</p> - -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page56"><small><small>[p. 56]</small></small></a></span> -<p>As if to compensate for the lack of refuge on either end, there -is in the center of this great stretch of rock-bound coast, over 300 -miles in extent, a magnificent inlet known as Yakutat bay, in which a -thousand ships could find safe anchorage. On some old maps this bay is -designated as "Baie de Monti," "Admiralty bay" and "Bering bay," as -will be seen when its discovery and history are discussed on another page.</p> - -<p>The southern shore of Alaska, for a distance of 200 miles along the -bases of the Fairweather and St. Elias ranges, is formed of a low -table-land intervening between the mountains and the sea. Yakutat bay -is the only bight in this plateau sufficiently deep to reach the -mountain to the northward. This bay has a broad opening to the sea; -the distance between its ocean capes is twenty miles, and its -extension inland is about the same. Its eastern shore is fringed with -low, wooded islands, among which are sheltered harbors, safe from -every wind that blows. The most accessible of these is Port Mulgrave, -near its entrance on the eastern side.</p> - -<p>The shores of Yakutat bay, on both the east and the west, are low and -densely wooded for a distance of twenty-five miles from the ocean, -where the foot-hills of the mountains begin. At the head of the bay -the land rises in steep bluffs and forms picturesque mountains, -snow-capped the year round. These highlands, although truly -mountainous in their proportions, are but the foot-hills of still -nobler uplifts immediately northward. The bay extends through an -opening in the first range to the base of the white peaks beyond. This -opening was examined a century ago by explorers in search of the -delusive "Northwest passage," in the hope that it would lead to the -long-sought "Strait of Annan"—the dream of many voyagers. It was -surveyed by the expedition in command of Malaspina in 1792, and on -account of his frustrated hopes was named "Puerto del Desengaño," or -"Disenchantment bay," as it has been rendered by English writers.</p> - -<p>The waters of Yakutat and Disenchantment bays are deep, and broken -only by islands and reefs along their eastern shores. A few soundings -made in Disenchantment bay within half a mile of the land showed a -depth of from 40 to 120 fathoms. The swell of the ocean is felt up to -the very head of the inlet, indicating, as was remarked to me by -Captain C. L. Hooper, that there are no bars or reefs to break the -force of the incoming swells.</p> - -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page57"><small><small>[p. 57]</small></small></a></span> -<p>The lowlands bordering Yakutat bay on the southeast are composed -of assorted glacial débris. Much of the country is low and swampy, and -is reported to contain numerous lakelets. Northwest of the bay the -plateau is higher than toward the southeast, and has a general -elevation of about 500 feet at a distance of a mile from the shore; -but the height increases toward the interior, where a general -elevation of 1,500 feet is attained over large areas. All of this -plateau, excepting a narrow fringe along the shore, is formed by a -great glacier, belonging to what is termed in this paper the -<i>Piedmont</i> type. There are many reasons for believing that the plateau -southeast of Yakutat bay was at one time covered by a glacier similar -to the one now existing on the northwest.<small><small><sup>1</sup></small></small></p> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>1</sup></small> This matter will be discussed in <a href="#page176">part IV</a> of this paper, -where it is also shown that Yakutat bay itself was formerly occupied -by glacial ice.</small></blockquote> - -<p>The mountains on the northern border of the seaward-stretching -table-lands, both southeast and northwest of Yakutat bay, are abrupt -and present steep southward-facing bluffs. This escarpment is formed -of stratified sandstones and shales, and owes its origin to the -upheaval of the rocks along a line of fracture. In other words, it is -a gigantic fault scarp. The gravel and bowlders forming the plateau -extending oceanward have been accumulating on a depressed orographic -block (or mass of strata moved as a unit by mountain-making forces), -which has undergone some movement in very recent times, as is recorded -by a terrace on the fault scarp bordering it. West of Yakutat the -geological structure is more complex, and long mountain spurs project -into the platform of ice skirting the ocean. Filling the valleys -between the mountain spurs, there are many large seaward-flowing -glaciers, tributary to the great Piedmont ice-sheet.</p> -<br> - -<p>This brief sketch of the geography of Yakutat bay, together with the -accompanying outline map of Alaska (plate 2), will, it is hoped, aid -in making intelligible the following historical sketch and the -narrative of the present expedition.</p> -<a name="plate02"></a> -<center><img src="images/02.jpg" alt="Sketch map of Alaska"></center> -<br> -<br> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page58"><small><small>[p. 58]</small></small></a></span> -<br> -<br> -<h4>PART I.</h4> - -<h3>PREVIOUS EXPLORATIONS IN THE ST. ELIAS REGION.<small><small><sup>2</sup></small></small></h3> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>2</sup></small> For more complete bibliographic references than space -will allow in this paper, the reader is referred to Dall and Baker's -"Partial list of books, pamphlets, papers in serials, journals and -other publications on Alaska and adjacent regions;" in Pacific Coast -Pilot: Coasts and Inlets of Alaska; second series. U. S. Coast and -Geodetic Survey, Washington, 1879; 4°, pp. 225–375.</small></blockquote> -<br> - -<center>B<small>ERING</small>, 1741.</center> - -<p>The first discovery of the southern coast of Alaska was made by Vitus -Bering and Alexei Cherikof, in the vessels <i>St. Peter</i> and <i>St. Paul</i>, -in 1741. On July 20 of that year, Bering saw the mountains of the -mainland, but anchored his vessels at Kyak island, 180 miles west of -Yakutat bay, without touching the continental shore. A towering, -snow-clad summit northeast of Kyak island was named "Mount St. Elias," -after the patron saint of the day.</p> -<br> - -<center>C<small>OOK</small>, 1778.</center> - -<p>The next explorer to visit this portion of Alaska was Captain James -Cook, who sailed past the entrance of Yakutat bay on May 4, 1778. -Thinking that this was the bay in which Bering anchored, he named it -"Bering's bay." Mount St. Elias was seen in the northwest at a -distance of 40 leagues, but no attempt was made to measure its height.</p> -<br> - -<center>L<small>A</small> P<small>ÉROUSE</small>, 1786.<small><small><sup>3</sup></small></small></center> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>3</sup></small> Voyage de la Pérouse autour du monde. Four vols., 4°, and -atlas; Paris, 1797; vol. 2, pp. 130–150.</small></blockquote> - -<p>Yakutat bay, in which we are specially interested, was next seen by -the celebrated French navigator, J. F. G. de la Pérouse, in command of -the frigates <i>La Boussole</i> and <i>L'Astrolabe</i>, on June 23, 1786.</p> - -<p>The chart showing the route followed by La Pérouse during this portion -of his voyage is reproduced in plate 3. In the splendid atlas -accompanying the narrative of his travels, the explorer pictures the -quaint, high-pooped vessels in which he -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page59"><small><small>[p. 59]</small></small></a></span> -circumnavigated the -globe. These French frigates were the first to cruise off Yakutat bay. -The last vessel to navigate those waters was the United States revenue -steamer <i>Corwin</i>, which took our little exploring party on board in -September, 1890, and then steamed northward to the ice-cliffs at the -head of Disenchantment bay. So far as I am aware, the <i>Corwin</i> is the -only vessel that has floated on the waters of that inlet north of -Haenke island. One hundred years has made a revolution in naval -architecture, but has left this portion of the Alaska coast still -unexplored.</p> -<a name="plate03"></a> -<center><img src="images/03.jpg" alt="St. Elias region per La Perouse"></center> - -<p>La Pérouse sailed northward from the Sandwich islands, and first saw -land, which proved to be a portion of the St. Elias range, on June 23. -At first the shore was obscured by fog, which, as stated in the -narrative of the voyage, "suddenly disappearing, all at once disclosed -to us a long chain of mountains covered with snow, which, if the -weather had been clear, we would have been able to have seen thirty -leagues farther off. We discovered Bering's Mount Saint Elias, the -summit of which appeared above the clouds."</p> - -<p>The first view of the land is described as not awakening the feelings -of joy which usually accompany the first view of an unknown shore -after a long voyage. To quote the navigator's own words:</p> - -<blockquote><small>"Those immense heaps of snow, which covered a barren land without -trees, were far from agreeable to our view. The mountains appeared a -little remote from the sea, which broke against a bold and level land, -elevated about a hundred and fifty or two hundred fathoms. This black -rock, which appeared as if calcined by fire, destitute of all verdure, -formed a striking contrast to the whiteness of the snow, which was -perceptible through the clouds; it served as the base to a long ridge -of mountains, which appeared to stretch fifteen leagues from east to -west. At first we thought ourselves very near it, the summit of the -mountains appeared to be just over our heads, and the snow cast forth -a brightness calculated to deceive eyes not accustomed to it; but in -proportion as we advanced we perceived in front of the high ground -hillocks covered with trees, which we took for islands."</small></blockquote> - -<p>After some delay, on account of foggy weather, an officer was -despatched to the newly discovered land; but on returning he reported -that there was no suitable anchorage to be found. It is difficult at -this time to understand the reason for this adverse report, unless a -landing was attempted on the western side of Yakutat bay, where there -are no harbors.</p> - -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page60"><small><small>[p. 60]</small></small></a></span> -<p>The name "Baie de Monti" was given to the inlet in honor of De -Monti, the officer who first landed. The location of this bay, as -described in the narrative and indicated on the map accompanying the -report of the voyage, shows that it corresponds with the Yakutat bay -of modern maps.</p> - -<p>Observations made at this time by M. Dagelet, the astronomer of the -expedition, determined the elevation of Mount St. Elias to be 1,980 -toises. Considering the toise as equivalent to 6.39459 English feet, -this measurement places the elevation of the mountain at 12,660 feet. -What method was used in making this measurement is not recorded, and -we have therefore no means of deciding the degree of confidence to be -placed in it.</p> - -<p>After failing to find an anchorage at Yakutat bay. La Pérouse sailed -eastward, and on June 29 discovered another bay, which he supposed to -be the inlet named "Bering's bay" by Captain Cook. It will be -remembered that Cook's "Bering's bay" is Yakutat bay as now known. It -is evident that the French navigator made an error in his -identification, as the inlet designated as Bering's bay on his chart -corresponds with that now known as Dry bay. On the maps referred to, a -stream is represented as emptying into the head of this bay and rising -a long distance northward; this is evidently Alsek river, the -existence of which was for a long time doubted, but has recently been -established beyond all question.</p> - -<p>Finding it impossible to enter Dry bay, La Pérouse continued eastward -and discovered Lituya bay, as now known, but which he named "Port des -Francais." Here his ships anchored, after experiencing great -difficulty in entering the harbor, and remained for many days, during -which trade was carried on with the Indians, while surveys were made -of the adjacent shores.</p> -<br> - -<center>D<small>IXON</small>, 1787.<small><small><sup>4</sup></small></small></center> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>4</sup></small> The Voyage around the World; but more particularly to the -Northwest Coast of America. Performed in 1788–1789, in the <i>King -George</i> and <i>Queen Charlotte;</i> Captains Portlock and Dixon: 4°, -London, 1789.</small></blockquote> - -<p>Although the actual discovery of Yakutat bay is to be credited to the -French, the first exploration of its shores was made by an English -captain. On May 23, 1787, Captain George Dixon anchored his vessel, -the <i>Queen Charlotte</i>, within the shelter of its southeastern cape, -and, in honor of Constance John Phipps, Lord Mulgrave, named the haven -there discovered "Port -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page61"><small><small>[p. 61]</small></small></a></span> -Mulgrave." The harbor is described in the -narrative of Dixon's voyage as being "entirely surrounded by low, flat -islands, where scarcely any snow could be seen, and well sheltered -from any winds whatever."</p> - -<p>The voyage of the <i>Queen Charlotte</i> was not made for the purpose of -increasing geographic knowledge, but with a commercial object. Trade -was at once opened with the natives, but resulted less favorably than -was desired, as only sixteen sea-otter skins and a few less valuable -furs were secured.</p> - -<p>On the chart accompanying the narrative of Dixon's voyage the inlet -now known as Yakutat bay is named "Admiralty bay."</p> - -<p>A survey of the adjacent shores and inlets was made, and the -astronomical position of the anchorage was approximately determined. -The map resulting from these surveys, the first ever made of any -portion of Yakutat bay, is reproduced on a reduced scale as plate 4.</p> -<a name="plate04"></a> -<center><img src="images/04.jpg" alt="Eastern Yakutat Bay after Dixon"></center> - -<p>At the time of Dixon's voyage, the inhabitants numbered about seventy, -including men, women, and children, and were thus described:</p> - -<blockquote><small>"They are of about middle size, their limbs straight and well shaped, -but, like the rest of the inhabitants we have seen on the coast, are -particularly fond of painting their faces with a variety of colors, so -that it is not any easy matter to discover their real complexion."</small></blockquote> - -<p>An amusing instance is narrated of inducing a woman to wash her face, -when it was discovered that—</p> - -<blockquote><small>"Her countenance had all the cheerful glow of an English milk maid, -and the healthy red which flushed her cheeks was even <i>beautifully</i> -contrasted with the whiteness of her neck; her eyes were black and -sparkling; her eyebrows the same color, and most beautifully arched; -her forehead so remarkably clear that the transparent veins were seen -meandering even in their minutest branches—in short, she was what -would be reckoned as handsome even in England. The symmetry of her -features, however, was marred, at least in the eyes of her English -admirer, by the habit of wearing a labret in the slit of her lower -lip."</small></blockquote> - -<p>During our recent visit to Port Mulgrave we did not find the native -women answering to the glowing description of the voyager who -discovered the harbor; but this may be owing to the fact that we did -not prevail upon any of them to wash their faces.</p> - -<p>One other discrepancy must be noted between the records of Dixon's -voyage and my own observations, made one hundred -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page62"><small><small>[p. 62]</small></small></a></span> -years later. The -houses of the natives are described in the narrative just cited as—</p> - -<blockquote><small>"The most wretched hovels that can possibly be conceived: a few poles -stuck in the ground, without order or regularity, recrossed and -covered with loose boards, ... quite insufficient to keep out the snow -and rain."</small></blockquote> - -<p>While this description would apply to the temporary shelters now used -by the Yakutat Indians when on their summer hunting and fishing -expeditions, it by no means describes the houses in which they pass -the winter. These are large and substantially built of planks hewn -from spruce trees, and in some instances supported from the inside by -four huge posts, carved and painted to represent grotesque figures. In -the center of the roof there is a large opening through which the -smoke escapes from the fire kindled in an open space in the floor. But -few of the Indian villages of Alaska, excepting perhaps the homes of -the Thlinkets in the Alexandrian archipelago, are better built or more -comfortable than those at Port Mulgrave.</p> - -<p>On the map of Port Mulgrave already referred to, "Point Turner" and -"Point Carrew" appear. The former was named for the second mate of the -<i>Queen Charlotte</i>, who was the first of her officers to land; the -second name was probably designed to honor another officer of the -expedition, but of this I am not positive.</p> -<br> - -<center>D<small>OUGLAS</small>, 1788.<small><small><sup>5</sup></small></small></center> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>5</sup></small> Voyage of the <i>Iphigenia;</i> Captain Douglas: in Voyages -made in the years 1788–1789 from China to the Northwest Coast of -America. John Meares, 4°, London, 1790.</small></blockquote> - -<p>In 1788, another trading vessel, the ship <i>Iphigenia</i>, in command of -Captain Douglas, visited the southern shore of Alaska and anchored in -Yakutat bay; but no special account of the country or the inhabitants -is recorded in the narrative of the voyage.</p> - - -<center>M<small>ALASPINA</small>, 1792.<small><small><sup>6</sup></small></small></center> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>6</sup></small> Relacion del viage hecho por las goletas Sutil y Mexicana -en el año de 1792 para reconocer el estrecho de Fuca; con una -introduccion en que se da noticia de las expediciones executadas -anteriormente por los Españoles en busca del paso del noroeste de la -América [Por Don Dionisio Alcala Galiano]. Madrid, 1802 [accompanied -by an atlas]. Pp. CXII–CXXI.</small></blockquote> - -<p>About a hundred years ago the interest felt by the maritime nations of -Europe in a "Northwest passage," connecting the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page63"><small><small>[p. 63]</small></small></a></span> -northern Atlantic -with the northern Pacific, was revived by the renewal of the -discussion as to the authenticity of Maldonado's reported discovery of -the "Strait of Annan." The western entrance to this strait was -supposed to be about in the position of Yakutat bay. Spain, in -particular, after three hundred years of exploration and discovery in -all parts of the world, was still anxious to extend her conquests, -and, if possible, to discover the long-sought "Northwest passage." Two -of her ships, the <i>Descubierta</i> and <i>Atrevida</i>, were then at Acapulco, -in command of Don Alejandro Malaspina, who was engaged in a voyage of -discovery.</p> - -<p>Malaspina, like Columbus, was a native of Italy in the service of -Spain. Orders were sent to him to cruise northward and test the truth -of Maldonado's report. The narrative of this voyage is supposed to -have been written by Don Dionisio Alcala Galiano, but his name does -not appear on the title page. Still more curious is the fact that -Malaspina's name is omitted from the narrative of his own voyage. On -his return to Spain, he was thrown into prison, on account of court -intrigues, and his discoveries were suppressed for many years.</p> - -<p>Malaspina left Acapulco on the first of May, 1791, and reached the -vicinity of the present site of Sitka on June 25. Two days later, -Mount Fairweather, or "Monte Buen-tiempo," as it is designated on -Spanish maps, was sighted. Continuing northwestward, the entrance to -Yakutat bay was reached. The opening through the first range of -mountains at its head seemed to correspond to Maldonado's description -of the entrance to the mythical "Strait of Annan."</p> - -<p>The eastern shore of Yakutat bay, called "Almiralty bay" on the -Spanish chart, was explored, and an excursion was made in boats into -Disenchantment bay as far as Haenke island. "Disenchantment bay," as -the name appears on modern charts, was named "Desengaño bay" by -Malaspina, as previously stated, in allusion to the frustration of his -hopes on not finding a passage leading to the Atlantic. Explorations -in Disenchantment bay were checked by ice, which descended from the -north and filled all of the inlets north of Haenke island. This is -indicated on the map forming plate 7 (page 67), which is reproduced -from the atlas accompanying the narrative of Malaspina's voyage. -Special interest attaches to this map for the reason that by comparing -it with that forming plate 8 (page 75), made 100 years later, the -retreat <span class="pagenum"><a name="page64"><small><small>[p. 64]</small></small></a></span> -of the glaciers during that interval can be -determined.<small><small><sup>7</sup></small></small> At the time of Malaspina's expedition, the Hubbard and -Dalton glaciers were united, and were probably also joined by some of -the neighboring glaciers which do not now reach tide-water; the whole -forming a confluent ice stream which occupied all of Disenchantment -bay northeast of Haenke island.</p> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>7</sup></small> It must be remembered, however, that the map, plate 8, is -not from detailed surveys; the portion referred to was sketched from a -few stations only and is much generalized.</small></blockquote> - -<p>A portion of the general map of the coast of southern Alaska, showing -the route followed by the <i>Descubierta</i> and the <i>Atrevida</i>, and -depicting the topography of the adjacent shores, has been reproduced -in plate 5. It will be noticed that on this map Lituya bay is called -"Pt. des Francais," while Dry bay is designated as "Bering's bay." -These and other names were adopted from the maps of La Pérouse. A map -of "Bahia de Monti," from Malaspina's report, is reproduced in plate 6.</p> - -<a name="plate05"></a> -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="Plate 5"> - <tr> - <td width="959"> - <img src="images/05.jpg" alt="St. Elias region after Malaspina"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="959" align="center"> - <small>MAP OF THE ST. ELIAS REGION, AFTER MALASPINA</small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> - -<br> -<a name="plate06"></a> -<br> -<center><img src="images/06.jpg" alt="Bay De Monti after Malaspina"></center> - -<p>An extract from Galiano's account of Malaspina's discoveries in -Yakutat and Disenchantment bays,<small><small><sup>8</sup></small></small> translated by Robert Stein, of the -U. S. Geological Survey, is here inserted, in order that the reader -may be able to form an independent judgment of the value of the -evidence just referred to as bearing on the retreat of the glaciers:</p> - -<blockquote><small>"An observatory was established on shore, and some absolute altitudes -were taken in order to furnish a basis for the reckoning of the -watches; but the great concourse of Indians, their importunity and -thievishness, made it necessary to transfer all the instruments on -board. Still the latitude was determined, the watches were regulated, -the number of oscillations made by the simple pendulum was observed, -and the height of Mount St. Elias was measured, being 6,507.6 varas -[17,847 feet] above sea-level. The launches being ready, put to sea on -July 2 with the commander of the expedition, in order to reconnoitre -the channel promised by the opening, similar to that depicted by -Ferrer Maldonado in his voyage; but the small force of the tide -noticed at the entrance, and the indications of the natives, made it -plain not only that the desired passage did not exist there, but that -the extent of the channel was very short; which was also rendered -evident by the perpetual frost covering the inner west shore. The -launches anchored there, having penetrated into the channel with great -difficulty, the oars being clogged by the floating masses of snow; -they measured a base, made some marks, gathered various objects and -stones for the naturalists, and, having reached the line of perpetual -frost, <span class="pagenum"><a name="page65"><small>[p. 65]</small></a></span> -returned to the bay where they had anchored.<small><small><sup>9</sup></small></small> They there -observed the latitude to be 59° 59' 30", and six azimuths of the sun, -which gave the variation of the needle as 32° 49'. Before leaving that -anchorage the commander buried a bottle with record of the -reconnoissance and possession taken in the name of the king. They -called the harbor Desangaño, the opening Bahia de las Bancas, and the -island in the interior Haenke, in memory of D. Tadeo Haenke, botanist -and naturalist of the expedition. On the third day they set out on -their voyage to Mulgrave, where they arrived on the 6th, after -reconnoitering various channels and islands north of that port and -mapping them."</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>8</sup></small> Ibid., pp. XCIV–CXVI.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>9</sup></small> On the coast of the mainland east of Knight island.—I. -C. R.</small></blockquote> - -<p>Following the portion of the narrative above quoted, there is an -account of the natives, containing much information of interest to -ethnologists, but which it is not necessary to follow in a geographic -report. On July 5 the corvettes sailed westward, and made a -reconnoissance as far as Montegue island. Returning eastward, they -again sighted Mount St. Elias on July 22.</p> - -<blockquote><small>"On the 28th they were three leagues west of the capes which terminate -in Bering bay [Dry bay]; the mountain of that name being about five -leagues distant from the coast and rising 5,368.3 varas [14,722 feet] -above the sea-level, and in latitude 59° 0' 42" and longitude 2° 4' -from Port Mulgrave."</small></blockquote> - -<p>Mount Bering does not appear on any map that I have seen. Which of the -numerous high peaks in the vicinity of Dry bay should be designated by -that name remains to be determined.</p> - -<p>In a record of the astronomical work of Malaspina's expedition<small><small><sup>10</sup></small></small> -there are some interesting observations on the position and elevation -of Mount St. Elias, a translation of which, by Mr. Stein, is here -given:</p> - -<blockquote><small>"True longitude of Mulgrave west of Cadiz, 133° 24' 12". On the same -day, the 30th of June [1792], at the observatory of Mulgrave, at 6h. -30' in the morning, the true altitude of the sun was observed to be -16° 14' 20", and its inclination being 23° 11' 30" and the latitude -59° 34' 20", the true azimuth of the sun from north to east was -concluded to be 71° 43' 0". But having measured on the same occasion -with the theodolite 110° 33' from the sun's vertical to the vertical -of Mount St. Elias, the difference between these two quantities is the -astronomic azimuth. Hence, from -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page66"><small>[p. 66]</small></a></span> -the observatory of Mulgrave, said -mountain bears N. 38° 50' W., a distance of 55.1 miles, deduced by -means of good observations from the ends of a sufficient base. A -quadrant was used to measure the angle of apparent altitude of the -mountain, 2° 38' 6", and allowing for terrestrial refraction, which is -one-tenth of the distance of 55.1 miles, the true altitude was found -to be 2° 34' 39"; whence its elevation above sea-level was concluded -to be 2,793 toises [17,860 feet], and the length of the tangent to the -horizon, 152 miles, allowance being made for the increase due to -terrestrial refraction....</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>"Lastly, with the rhumb, or astronomic azimuth, and the distance from -the observatory of Mulgrave to Mount St. Elias, it was ascertained -that that mountain was 43' 15" to the north and 1° 9' to the west, -whence its latitude is found to be 60° 17' 35" and its longitude 134° -33' 10" west of Cadiz."</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>10</sup></small> Memorias sobre las observaciones astronomicas hechas por -les navegantes Españoles en distintos lugares del globe; Por Don Josef -Espinosa y Tello. Madrid, en la Imprente real, Año de 1809, 2 vols., -large 8°; vol. 1, pp. 57–60.</small></blockquote> - -<p>Taking the longitude of Cadiz as 6° 19' 07" W. (San Sebastian -light-house), the longitude of St. Elias from this determination would -be 140° 52' 17" W.</p> -<br> - -<center>V<small>ANCOUVER</small>, 1794.<small><small><sup>11</sup></small></small></center> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>11</sup></small> A Voyage of Discovery to the Northern Pacific Ocean and -around the World, 1790–'95; new edition, 6 vols., London, 1801. The -citations which follow are from vol. 5, pp. 348–407.</small></blockquote> - -<p>The next vessels to visit Yakutat bay after Malaspina's voyage, so far -as known, were the <i>Discovery</i> and <i>Chatham</i>, under command of Captain -George Vancouver. This voyage increased knowledge of the geography of -southern Alaska more than any that preceded it, and was also of -greater importance than any single expedition of later date to that -region. The best maps of southern Alaska published at the present day -are based largely on the surveys of Vancouver.</p> - -<p>The <i>Discovery</i>, under the immediate command of Vancouver, and the -<i>Chatham</i>, in charge of Peter Puget, cruised eastward along the -southern coast of Alaska in 1794. The <i>Discovery</i> passed the entrance -to Yakutat bay without stopping, but the <i>Chatham</i> anchored there, and -important surveys were carried on under Puget's directions.</p> - -<p>On June 28, the <i>Discovery</i> was in the vicinity of Icy bay, where the -shore of the ocean seemed to be composed of solid ice. Eastward from -Icy bay the coast is described as "bordered by lowlands rising with a -gradual and uniform ascent to the foot-hills of lofty mountains, whose -summits are but the base from which Mount St. Elias towers -magnificently into the regions of -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page67"><small><small>[p. 67]</small></small></a></span> -perpetual frost." A low -projecting point on the western side of the entrance to Yakutat bay -was named "Point Manby." The coast beyond this toward the northeast -became less wooded, and seemed to produce only a brownish vegetation, -which farther eastward entirely disappeared. The country was then bare -and composed of loose stones. The narrative contains an interesting -account of the grand coast scenery from St. Elias to the eastern end -of the Fairweather range; but this does not at present claim attention.</p> - -<p>While the <i>Chatham</i> continued her cruise eastward, Puget ascended -Yakutat bay nearly to its head, and also navigated some of the -channels between the islands along its eastern shore. A cape on the -eastern side, where the bay penetrates the first range of foot-hills, -was named "Point Latouche;" but the same landmark had previously been -designated "Pa. de la Esperanza" by Malaspina. The bay at the head of -the inlet, which Malaspina had named "Desangaño," was named "Digges -sound," after one of the officers of the <i>Chatham</i>. Boats were sent to -explore this inlet, but found it "closed from side to side by a firm, -compact body of ice, beyond which, to the back of the ice, a small -inlet appeared to extend N. 55° E. about a league."<small><small><sup>12</sup></small></small></p> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>12</sup></small> Vancouver's Voyage, vol. 5, p. 389.</small></blockquote> - -<p>These observations confirm those made by Malaspina and indicated on -the chart reproduced on plate 7, where the ice front is represented as -reaching as far south as Haenke island.</p> -<a name="plate07"></a> -<center><img src="images/07.jpg" alt="Disenchantment Bay after Malaspina"></center> - -<p>The evidence furnished by Malaspina and Vancouver as to the former -extent of the glaciers at the head of Yakutat bay is in harmony with -observations made by Vancouver's party in Icy strait and Cross -sound.<small><small><sup>13</sup></small></small> Early in July, 1794, these straits were found to be heavily -encumbered with floating ice. At the present time but little ice is -met with in that region. On Vancouver's charts there is no indication -that he was aware of the existence of Glacier bay, although one of his -officers, in navigating Icy strait, passed its immediate entrance. -These records, although somewhat indefinite and of negative character, -indicate that the fields of floating ice at the mouth of Glacier bay -were much more extensive a hundred years ago than at present; but they -do not show where the glaciers of that region formerly terminated.</p> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>13</sup></small> Ibid., pp. 417–421.</small></blockquote> - -<p>After the return of the <i>Chatham's</i> boats from the exploration of -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page68"><small><small>[p. 68]</small></small></a></span> -Disenchantment bay, an exploration of the eastern shore of Yakutat bay -was made. The following extract indicates the character of work done -there:</p> - -<blockquote><small>"Digges' sound [Disenchantment bay] was the only place in the bay that -presented the least prospect of any interior navigation, and this was -necessarily very limited by the close connected range of lofty snowy -mountains that stretched along the coast at no great distance from the -seaside. Mr. Puget's attention was next directed to the opening in the -low land, but as the wind was variable and adverse to the progress of -the vessel, a boat was again despatched to continue the investigation -of these shores, which are compact from Point Latouche and were then -free from ice. This opening was found to be formed by an island about -two miles long, in a direction S. 50° E. and N. 50° W., and about a -mile broad, lying at the distance of about half a mile from the -mainland. Opposite to the south part of this, named by Mr. Puget -K<small>NIGHT'S</small> I<small>SLAND</small>, is Eleanor's cove, which is the eastern extremity of -Beering's [Yakutat] bay, in latitude 59° 44', longitude 220° 51'. -Knight's island admits of a navigable passage all round it, but there -is an islet situated between it and the mainland on its northeast -side. From Eleanor's cove the coast takes a direction S. 30° W. about -six miles to the east point of a channel leading to the southwest -between the continent and some islands that lie off it. This was -considered to lead along the shores of the mainland to Point Mulgrave, -and in the event of its proving navigable, the examination of the bay -would have been complete, and the vessel brought to our appointed -place of meeting, which was now supposed to be no very great -distance."</small></blockquote> - -<p>In endeavoring to reach Port Mulgrave by a channel leading between the -islands on the eastern side of the bay and the mainland, the <i>Chatham</i> -grounded, and was gotten off with considerable difficulty. Many -observations concerning the geography and the natives are recorded in -the narrative of this exploration.</p> -<br> - -<center>B<small>ELCHER</small>, 1837.<small><small><sup>14</sup></small></small></center> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>14</sup></small> Narrative of a Voyage round the World, performed in the -ship <i>Sulphur</i> during the years 1836–1842; by Captain Sir Edward -Belcher: 2 vols., 8°, London, 1843.</small></blockquote> - -<p>The next account<small><small><sup>15</sup></small></small> of explorations around Yakutat bay that -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page69"><small><small>[p. 69]</small></small></a></span> has -come to hand is by Sir Edward Belcher, who visited that coast in Her -Majesty's ship <i>Sulphur</i> in 1837.</p> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>15</sup></small> A fort was built by the Russians, in 1795, on the strip -of land separating Bay de Monti from the ocean, and was colonized by -convicts from Russia. In 1803, all of the settlers were killed and the -fort was destroyed by the Yakutat Indians. So complete was this -massacre that no detailed account of it has ever appeared. (Alaska and -its Resources, by W. H. Dall, 1870, pp. 316, 317, 323.)</small></blockquote> - -<p>In the narrative of this voyage, a brief account is given of the ice -cliffs at Icy bay, which are stated to have a height of about thirty -feet and to present the appearance of veined marble. Where the ice was -exposed to the sea it was excavated into alcoves and archways, -recalling to the narrator's mind the Chalk cliffs of England. "Point -Riou," as named by Vancouver, was not recognized, and the inference -seems to be that it was formed of ice and was dissolved away between -the visits of Vancouver and Belcher.</p> - -<p>Accompanying the narrative of Belcher's voyage is an illustration -showing Mount St. Elias as it appears from the sea near Icy bay, which -represents the mountain more accurately than some similar pictures -published more recently.</p> - -<p>The <i>Sulphur</i> anchored in Port Mulgrave; but no account is given of -the character of the surrounding country.</p> -<br> - -<center>T<small>EBENKOF</small>, 1852.<small><small><sup>16</sup></small></small></center> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>16</sup></small> Atlas of the Northwest Coast of America from Bering -strait to Cape Corrientes and the Aleutian Islands [etc.]: 2°, St. -Petersburg, 1852. With index and hydrographic observations: 8°, St. -Petersburg, 1852.</small></blockquote> - -<p>Tebenkof's notes, which are often referred to by writers on Alaska, -consist principally of compilations from reports of Russian traders, -which were intended to accompany and explain an atlas of the shores of -northwestern America, published in 1852 in St. Petersburg and in Sitka.</p> - -<p>Map number 7 of the atlas represents the southern coast of Alaska from -Lituya bay westward to Icy bay. On the same sheet there is a more -detailed chart of the islands along the eastern border of Yakutat bay.</p> - -<p>The height of St. Elias is given as 17,000 feet; its position, -latitude 61° 2' 6" and longitude 140° 4', distant 30 miles from the -sea.<small><small><sup>17</sup></small></small> It is stated that in 1839 the mountain "began at times to -smoke through a crater on its southeastern slope." At the time of an -earthquake at Sitka (1847) it is said to have emitted flames and ashes.</p> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>17</sup></small> In a foot-note on page 33 it is stated that Captain -Vasilef, in the ship <i>Otkrytie</i> (<i>Discovery</i>), ascertained the height of -Mount Fairweather to be 13,946 feet.</small></blockquote> - -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page70"><small><small>[p. 70]</small></small></a></span> -<p>It will be seen from the account of the exploration carried on -last summer that Mount St. Elias is composed of stratified rocks, with -no indication of volcanic origin; and these reports of eruption must -consequently be considered erroneous.</p> - -<p>The low country between Mount St. Elias and the sea is described by -Tebenkof as a tundra covered with forests and grass; "through cracks -in the gravelly soil, ice could be seen beneath." More recent -knowledge shows that this statement also is erroneous. The adjacent -ocean is stated to be shallow, with shelving bottom; at a distance of -half a verst, five to twelve fathoms were obtained, and at two miles -from land, thirty to forty fathoms (of seven feet).</p> - -<p>The Pimpluna rocks are said to have been discovered in 1779 by the -Spanish captain Arteiga. They were also seen in 1794 by the helmsman -Talin, in the ship <i>Orel</i>, and named after his vessel. These -observations are interesting, and indicate that possibly there may be -submerged moraines in the region where these rocks are reported to exist.</p> - -<p>Many other observations are recorded concerning the mountains and the -bays in the vicinity of Yakutat. While of interest to navigation and -to geographers, these have no immediate connection with the region -explored during the recent expedition.</p> -<br> - -<center>U<small>NITED</small> S<small>TATES</small> C<small>OAST AND</small> -G<small>EODETIC</small> S<small>URVEY</small>, -1874,<small><small><sup>18</sup></small></small> 1880.<small><small><sup>19</sup></small></small></center> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>18</sup></small> Appendix No. 10, Report of the Superintendent of the U. -S. Coast Survey for the year 1875: Washington, 1878, pp. 157–188.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>19</sup></small> Pacific Coast Pilot, Alaska, part 1: Washington, 1883, -p. 212.</small></blockquote> - -<p>The surveys carried on in 1874 by the United States Coast Survey on -the shores of Alaska embraced the region about Yakutat bay. They were -conducted by W. H. Dall and Marcus Baker. Besides the survey of the -coast-line, determinations were made of the heights and positions of -several mountain peaks between Glacier bay and Cook inlet. Dall's -account of this survey contains a brief sketch of previous -explorations and a summary of the measurements of the higher peaks of -the region. This material has been used on another page in discussing -the height of Mount St. Elias.</p> - -<p>Besides the geographic data gathered by the United States Coast -Survey, many observations were made on geology and on the glaciers of -the region about Yakutat bay and Mount St. Elias. Exception must be -taken, in the light of more recent -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page71"><small><small>[p. 71]</small></small></a></span> -explorations, to some of the -conclusions reached in this connection, as will appear in the chapter -devoted to geology and glaciers.</p> - -<p>A description of the St. Elias region in the Pacific Coast Pilot -supplements the paper in the coast survey report for 1875. This is an -exhaustive compilation from all available sources of information -interesting to navigators. It contains, besides, a valuable summary of -what was known at the time of its publication concerning the history -and physical features of the country to which it relates. In this -publication the true character of the Malaspina glacier was first -recorded and its name proposed. The description is as follows:</p> - -<blockquote><small>"At Point Manby and eastward to the Kwik river the shore was bordered -by trees, apparently willows and alders, with a somewhat denser belt a -little farther back. Behind this rises a bluff or bank of high land, -as described by various navigators. About the vicinity of Tebienkoff's -Nearer Point the trees cease, but begin again near the river. The -bluff or table-land behind rises higher than the river valley and -completely hides it from the southward, and is in summer bare of -vegetation (except a few rare patches on its face) and apparently is -composed of glacial débris, much of which is of a reddish color. In -May, 1874, when observed by the U. S. Coast Survey party of that year, -the extensive flattened top of this table-land or plateau was covered -with a smooth and even sheet of pure white snow. In the latter part of -June, 1880, however, this snow had melted, and for the first time the -real and most extraordinary character of this plateau was revealed. -Within the beach and extending in a northwesterly direction to the -valley behind it, at the foot of the St. Elias Alps an undetermined -distance, this plateau, or a large part of it, is one great field of -buried ice. Almost everywhere nothing is visible but bowlders, dirt -and gravel; but at the time mentioned, back of the bight between Point -Manby and Nearer Point, for a space of several square miles the -coverlid of dirt had fallen in, owing to the melting of the ice -beneath, and revealed a surface of broken pinnacles of ice, each -crowned by a patch of dirt, standing close to one another like a -forest of prisms, these decreasing in height from the summit of the -plateau gradually in a sort of semicircular sweep toward the beach, -near which, however, the dirt and débris again predominate, forming a -sort of terminal moraine to this immense, buried, immovable glacier, -for it is nothing else. Trains of large bowlders were visible here and -there, and the general trend of the glacier seemed to be northwest and -southeast.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>"Between Disenchantment bay and the foot of Mount St. Elias, on the -flanks of the Alps, seventeen glaciers were counted, of which about -ten were behind this plateau, but none are of very large size, and the -sum total of them all seemed far too little to supply the waste of the -plateau if it were to possess motion. The lower ends of these small -glaciers come <span class="pagenum"><a name="page72"><small>[p. 72]</small></a></span> -down into the river valley before mentioned and at -right angles in general to the trend of the plateau. To the buried -glacier the U. S. Coast Survey has applied the name of Malaspina, in -honor of that distinguished and unfortunate explorer. No connection -could be seen between the small glaciers and the Malaspina plateau, as -the former dip below the level of the summit of the latter. The -Malaspina had no névé, nor was there any high land in the direction of -its axis as far as the eye could reach. Everywhere, except where the -pinnacles protruded and in a few spots on the face of the bluff, it -was covered with a thick stratum of soil, gravel and stones, here and -there showing small patches of bright green herbage. The bluff -westward from Point Manby may probably prove of the same character."</small></blockquote> - -<p>Mount Cook and Mount Vancouver are named in the Pacific Coast Pilot, -and their elevations and positions are definitely stated. Mount -Malaspina was also named, but its position is not given. During the -expedition of last summer it was found impracticable to decide -definitely to which peak the name of the great navigator was applied. -So existing nomenclature was followed as nearly as possible by -attaching Malaspina's name to a peak about eleven miles east of Mount -St. Elias. Its position is indicated on the accompanying map, plate 8 -(page 75).</p> - -<p>Several charts of the southern coast of Alaska accompany the reports -of the United States Coast Survey for 1875, referred to above. A part -of these have been independently published. These charts were used in -mapping the coast-line as it appears on plate 8, and were frequently -consulted while writing the following pages.</p> -<br> - -<center>N<small>EW</small> Y<small>ORK</small> T<small>IMES</small> E<small>XPEDITION</small>, 1886.</center> - -<p>An expedition sent out by the New York <i>Times</i>, in charge of -Lieutenant Frederick Schwatka, for the purpose of making geographic -explorations and climbing Mount St. Elias, left Sitka on the U. S. S. -<i>Pinta</i>, on July 10, 1886, and reached Yakutat bay two days later. As -it was found impracticable to obtain the necessary assistance from the -Indians to continue the voyage to Icy bay, whence the start inland was -planned to be made, Captain N. E. Nichols, the commander of the -<i>Pinta</i>, concluded to take the expedition to its destination in his -vessel. On July 17 a landing was made through the surf at Icy bay, and -exploration at once began.</p> - -<p>The party consisted of Lieutenant Schwatka, in charge; Professor -William Libbey, Jr.; and Lieutenant H. W. Seton-Karr. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page73"><small><small>[p. 73]</small></small></a></span> The camp -hands were John Dalton, Joseph Woods, and several Indian -packers.<small><small><sup>20</sup></small></small></p> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>20</sup></small> The accounts of this expedition are as follows: Report -from Lieutenant Schwatka in the New York <i>Times</i>, October 17, 1886; -Some of the Geographical Features of Southeastern Alaska, by William -Libbey, Jr., in Bull. Am. Geog. Soc., 1886, pp. 279–300; Shores and -Alps of Alaska, by H. W. Seton-Karr, London, 1887, 8°, pp. L–XCV, -142–148; The Alpine Regions of Alaska, by Lieutenant Seton-Karr, in -Proc. Roy. Geog. Soc., vol. IX, 1887, pp. 269–285; The Expedition of -"The New York Times" (1886), by Lieutenant Schwatka, in <i>The Century -Magazine</i>, April, 1891, pp. 865–872.</small></blockquote> - -<p>From Icy bay the expedition proceeded inland, for about sixteen miles, -in a line leading nearly due north, toward the summit of Mount St. -Elias. The highest point reached, 7,200 feet, was on the foot-hills of -the main range now called the Karr hills. The time occupied by the -expedition, after leaving Icy bay, was nine or ten days. So far as -known, no systematic surveys were carried on.</p> - -<p>An interesting account of this expedition appeared in Seton-Karr's -book, "The Shores and Alps of Alaska." Many observations on the -glaciers and moraines of the region explored are recorded in this -work. The map published with it has been used in compiling the western -portion of the map forming plate 8, where the route of the expedition -is indicated. Another account, especially valuable for its records of -scientific observations, by Professor Libbey, was published by the -American Geographic Society. The Guyot, Agassiz and Tyndall glaciers, -the Chaix hills, and Lake Castani received their names during this -expedition.</p> - -<p>Lieutenant Schwatka's graphic and entertaining account of this -expedition, published in <i>The Century Magazine</i> for April, 1891, gives -many details of the exploration and illustrates many of the -characteristic features of southern Alaska.</p> -<br> - -<center>T<small>OPHAM</small> E<small>XPEDITION</small>, 1888.</center> - -<p>An expedition conducted by Messrs. W. H. and Edwin Topham, of London, -George Broka, of Brussels, and William Williams, of New York, was made -in 1888. Like the <i>Times</i> expedition, it had for its main object the -ascent of Mount St. Elias.</p> - -<p>Icy bay was reached, by means of canoes from Yakutat bay, on July 13, -and an inland journey was made northward which -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page74"><small><small>[p. 74]</small></small></a></span> covered a large -part of the area traversed by the previous expedition. The highest -elevation reached, according to aneroid barometer and boiling-point -measurements, was 11,460 feet. This was on the southern side of St. Elias.</p> - -<p>The only accounts of this expedition which have come to my notice are -an interesting article by William Williams in <i>Scribner's -Magazine</i>,<small><small><sup>21</sup></small></small> and a more detailed report by H. W. Topham, accompanied -by a map<small><small><sup>22</sup></small></small> and by a fine illustration of Mount St. Elias, in the -Alpine Journal.<small><small><sup>23</sup></small></small></p> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>21</sup></small> New York, April, 1889, pp. 387–403.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>22</sup></small> Topham's map was used in compiling the western portion -of the map forming plate 8, and his route is there indicated.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>23</sup></small> London, August, 1889, pp. 245–371.</small></blockquote> - -<p>This brief review of explorations carried on in the St. Elias region -previous to the expedition sent out in 1890 by the National Geographic -Society is incomplete in many particulars,<small><small><sup>24</sup></small></small> but will indicate the -most promising sources of information concerning the country described -in the following pages.</p> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>24</sup></small> Yakutat bay has been visited by vessels of the United -States Navy and United States Revenue Marine and by numerous trading -vessels; but reports of observations made during these voyages have -not been found during a somewhat exhaustive search of literature -relating to Alaska.</small></blockquote> -<br> -<a name="plate08"></a> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page75"><small><small>[p. 75]</small></small></a></span> -<br> -<center><img src="images/08.jpg" alt="Sketch map of Mt. St. Elias region"></center> -<br> -<br> -<h4>PART II.</h4> - -<h3>NARRATIVE OF THE ST. ELIAS EXPEDITION OF 1890.</h3> -<br> -<center>O<small>RGANIZATION</small>.</center> - -<p>A long-cherished desire to study the geography, geology, and glaciers -of the region around Mount St. Elias was finally gratified when, in -the summer of 1890, the National Geographic Society made it possible -for me to undertake an expedition to that part of Alaska.</p> - -<p>The expedition was organized under the joint auspices of the National -Geographic Society and the United States Geological Survey, but was -greatly assisted by individuals who felt an interest in the extension -of geographic knowledge. For the inception of exploration and for -securing the necessary funds, credit is due Mr. Willard D. Johnson.</p> - -<p>The names of those who subscribed to the exploration fund of the -Society are as follows:</p> - -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="4" cellpadding="0" summary="Expedition subscriptions"> - <tr> - <td>Boynton Leach.</td> - <td>Henry Gannett.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Everett Hayden.</td> - <td>Charles J. Bell.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Richardson Clover.</td> - <td>J. S. Diller.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>C. M. McCarteney.</td> - <td>J. W. Powell.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>C. A. Williams.</td> - <td>J. G. Judd.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Willard D. Johnson. </td> - <td>A. Graham Bell.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Israel C. Russell.</td> - <td>Gardiner G. Hubbard.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Gilbert Thompson.</td> - <td>A. W. Greely.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Harry King.</td> - <td>J. W. Dobbins.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Morris Bien.</td> - <td>J. W. Hays.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Wm. B. Powell.</td> - <td>Edmund Alton.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Z. T. Carpenter.</td> - <td>Bailey Willis.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Charles Nordhoff.</td> - <td>E. S. Hosmer.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="2" align="center">Rogers Birnie, Jr.</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p>I was chosen by the Board of Managers of the National Geographic -Society and by the Director of the United States Geological Survey to -take charge of the expedition and to carry on geological and glacial -studies. Mr. Mark B. Kerr, topographer on the Geological Survey, was -assigned as an assistant, with the duty of making a topographical map -of the region explored. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page76"><small><small>[p. 76]</small></small></a></span> -Mr. E. S. Hosmer, of Washington, D. C., -volunteered his services as general assistant.<small><small><sup>25</sup></small></small></p> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>25</sup></small> Copies of all instructions governing the work of the -expedition are given in <a href="#page192">Appendix A</a>.</small></blockquote> - -<p>Mr. Kerr left Washington on May 24 for San Francisco, where he made -arrangements for his special work, and reported to me at Seattle on -June 15. I left Washington on May 25 and went directly to Seattle, -where the necessary preparations for exploring an unknown and isolated -region were made.</p> - -<p>From the large number of frontiersmen and sailors who applied for -positions on the expedition, seven men were selected as camp hands. -The foreman of this force was J. H. Christie, of Seattle, who had -spent the previous winter in charge of an expedition in the Olympian -mountains, and was well versed in all that pertains to frontier life. -The other camp hands were J. H. Crumback, L. S. Doney, W. L. Lindsley, -William Partridge, Thomas Stamy, and Thomas White.</p> - -<p>The individual members of the party will be mentioned frequently -during this narrative; but I wish to state at the beginning that very -much of the success of the enterprise was due to the hard and faithful -work of the camp hands, to each one of whom I feel personally indebted.</p> - -<p>Two dogs, "Bud" and "Tweed," belonging to Mr. Christie, also became -members of the expedition.</p> - -<p>All camp supplies, including tents, blankets, rations, etc., were -purchased at Seattle. Rations for ten men for one hundred days, on the -basis of the subsistence furnished by the United States Geological -Survey, were purchased and suitably packed for transportation in a -humid climate. Twenty-five tin cans were obtained, each measuring 6 x -12 x 14 inches, and in each a mixed ration sufficient for one man for -fifteen days was packed and hermetically sealed. These rations, thus -secured against moisture and in convenient shape for carrying on the -back (or "packing"), were for use above the timber line, where cooking -was possible only by means of oil stoves. The remainder of the -supplies, intended for use where fuel for camp-fires could be -obtained, were secured either in tin cans or in canvas sacks.</p> - -<p>For cooking above timber line, two double-wick oil stoves were -provided, the usual cast-iron bases being replaced by smaller -reservoirs of tin, in order to avoid unnecessary weight. Coal oil was -carried in five-gallon cans, but a few rectangular cans -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page77"><small><small>[p. 77]</small></small></a></span> holding -one gallon each were provided for use while on the march. Subsequent -experience proved that this arrangement was satisfactory.</p> - -<p>Four seven-by-seven tents, with ridge ropes, and two pyramidal -nine-by-nine center-pole tents, with flies, were provided, all made of -cotton drilling. The smaller tents were for use in the higher camps, -and the larger ones for the base camps. The tents were as light as -seemed practicable, and were found to answer well the purpose for -which they were intended.</p> - -<p>Each man was supplied with one double Hudson Bay blanket, a -water-proof coat, a water-proof hat (the most serviceable being the -"sou'westers" used by seamen), and an alpenstock.<small><small><sup>26</sup></small></small> Each man also -carried a sheet made of light duck, seven feet square, to protect his -blankets and to be used as a shelter-tent if required. Each member of -the party was also required to have heavy boots or shoes, and suitable -woolen clothing. Each man was furnished with two pieces of hemp -"cod-line," 50 feet in length, to be used in packing blankets and -rations. The lines were doubled many times, so as to distribute the -weight on the shoulders, and were connected with two leather straps -for buckling about the package to be carried. The cod-lines were used -instead of ordinary pack-straps, for the reason that they distribute -the weight on the shoulder over a broader area, and also because they -can be made immediately available for climbing, crossing streams, -etc., when required. Several extra lines of the same material were -also taken as a reserve, or to be used in roping the party together -when necessary. Several of the party carried rifles, for each of which -a hundred rounds of fixed ammunition were issued. Two ice-axes for the -party were also provided.</p> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>26</sup></small> Light rubber cloth was ordered from San Francisco for -the purpose of allowing each man a water-proof sheet to place under -his blankets, but was not received in time to be used.</small></blockquote> - -<p>A canvas boat was made by the men while en route for the field, but -there was no occasion to use it, except as a cover for a cache left at -one of the earlier camps. Subsequent experience showed that snow-shoes -and one or two sleds would have been serviceable; but these were not taken.</p> - -<p>Our instruments were furnished by the United States Geological Survey. -The list included one transit, one gradienter, one sextant, two -prismatic compasses, one compass clinometer, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page78"><small><small>[p. 78]</small></small></a></span> four pocket -thermometers, two psychrometers, one field-glass, two mercurial -barometers, three aneroids, steel tape-lines, and two photographic outfits.</p> -<br> - -<center>F<small>ROM</small> S<small>EATTLE TO</small> S<small>ITKA</small>.</center> - -<p>Preparations having been completed, the expedition sailed from Seattle -June 16, on the steamer <i>Queen</i>, belonging to the Pacific Coast -Steamship Company, in command of Captain James Carroll, and reached -Sitka on the morning of June 24. This portion of our voyage was -through the justly celebrated "inland passage" of British Columbia and -southeastern Alaska, and was in every way delightful. We touched at -Victoria and Wrangell, and, after threading the Wrangell narrows, -entered Frederick sound, where the first floating ice was seen. The -bergs were from a neighboring glacier, which enters the sea at the -head of a deep inlet, too far away to be seen from the course followed -by the <i>Queen</i>. The route northward led through Stephens passage, and -afforded glimpses of glaciers both on the mainland and on Admiralty -island. In Taku inlet several hours were spent in examining the -glaciers, two of which come down to the sea. One on the western side -of the fjord, an ice-stream known as the Norris glacier, descends -through a deep valley and expands into a broad ice-foot on approaching -the water, though it is not washed by the waves, owing to an -accumulation of mud about its extremity. Another ice-stream is the -Taku glacier, situated at the head of the inlet. It comes boldly down -to the water, and ends in a splendid sea-cliff of azure blue, some 250 -feet high. The adjacent waters are covered with icebergs shed by the -glacier. Some of the smaller fragments were hoisted on board the -<i>Queen</i> for table use. The bold, rocky shores of the inlet are nearly -bare of vegetation, and indicate by their polished and striated -surfaces that glaciers of far greater magnitude than those now -existing formerly flowed through this channel.</p> - -<p>After leaving Taku inlet, a day was spent at Juneau; and then the -<i>Queen</i> steamed up Lynn canal to Pyramid harbor, near its head. For -picturesque beauty, this is probably the finest of the fjords of -Alaska. Several glaciers on each side of the inlet come down nearly to -the sea, and all the higher mountains are buried beneath perpetual -snow. On returning from Lynn canal, the <i>Queen</i> visited Glacier bay, -and here passengers were allowed a few hours on shore at the Muir -glacier. The day of our visit -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page79"><small><small>[p. 79]</small></small></a></span> -was unusually fine, and a splendid -view of the great ice-stream with its many tributaries was obtained -from a hill-top about a thousand feet high, on its eastern border. The -glacier discharges into the head of the bay and forms a magnificent -line of ice-cliffs over two hundred feet high and three miles in extent.</p> - -<p>This portion of the coast of Alaska has been described by several -writers; yet its bleak shores are still in large part unexplored. To -the west of the bay rise the magnificent peaks of the Fairweather -range, from which flow many great ice-streams. The largest of the -glaciers descending from these mountains into Glacier bay is called -the Pacific glacier. Like the Muir glacier, it discharges vast numbers -of icebergs into the sea.</p> - -<p>The day after leaving Glacier bay we arrived at Sitka, and as soon as -practicable called on Lieutenant-Commander O. F. Farenholt, of the U. -S. S. <i>Pinta</i>, who had previously received instructions from the -Secretary of the Navy to take us to Yakutak bay. We also paid our -respects to the Governor and other Alaskan officials, and made a few -final preparations for the start westward.</p> -<br> - -<center>F<small>ROM</small> S<small>ITKA TO</small> Y<small>AKUTAT</small> B<small>AY</small>.</center> - -<p>All of our effects having been transferred to the <i>Pinta</i>, we put to -sea early on the morning of June 25.</p> - -<p>Honorable Lyman E. Knapp, Governor of Alaska, taking advantage of the -sailing of the <i>Pinta</i>, accompanied us on the voyage. Mr. Henry -Boursin, census enumerator, also joined us for the purpose of -obtaining information concerning the Indians at Yakutak.</p> - -<p>The morning we left Sitka was misty, with occasional showers; but even -these unfavorable conditions could not obscure the beauty of the wild, -densely wooded shore along which we steamed. The weather throughout -the voyage was thick and foggy and the sea rough. We anchored in De -Monti bay, the first indentation on the eastern shore of Yakutat bay, -late the following afternoon, without having obtained so much as a -glimpse of the magnificent scenery of the rugged Fairweather range.</p> - -<p>At Yakutat we found two small Indian villages, one on Khantaak island -and the other on the mainland to the eastward (both shown on plate 8). -The village on Khantaak island is the older of the two, and consists -of six houses built along the water's edge. The houses are made of -planks, each hewn from a single -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page80"><small><small>[p. 80]</small></small></a></span> -log, after the manner of the -Thlinkets generally. They are rectangular, and have openings in the -roofs, with wind guards, for the escape of smoke. The fires, around -which the families gather, are built in the centers of the spaces -below. The houses are entered by means of oval openings, elevated two -feet above the ground on platforms along their fronts. In the interior -of each there is a rectangular space about twenty feet square -surrounded by raised platforms, the outer portions of which are shut -off by partitions and divided into smaller chambers.</p> - -<p>The canoes used at Yakutat are each hewn from a single spruce log, and -are good examples of the boats in use throughout southern Alaska. They -are of all sizes, from a small craft scarcely large enough to hold a -single Indian to graceful boats forty or fifty feet in length and -capable of carrying a ton of merchandise with a dozen or more men. -They have high, overreaching stems and sterns, which give them a -picturesque, gondola-like appearance.</p> - -<p>The village on the mainland is less picturesque, if such a term may be -allowed, than the group of houses already described, but it is of the -same type. Near at hand, along the shore to the southward, there are -two log houses, one of which is used at present as a mission by -Reverend Carl J. Hendriksen and his assistant, the other being -occupied as a trading post by Sitka merchants.</p> - -<p>The Yakutat Indians are the most westerly branch of the great Thlinket -family which inhabits all of southeastern Alaska and a portion of -British Columbia. In intelligence they are above the average of -Indians generally, and are of a much higher type than the native -inhabitants of the older portion of the United States. They are quick -to learn the ways of the white man, and are especially shrewd in -bargaining. They are canoe Indians <i>par excellence</i>, and pass a large -part of their lives on the water in quest of salmon, seals, and -sea-otter. During the summer of our visit, about thirty sea-otter were -taken. They are usually shot in the primitive manner with -copper-pointed arrows, although repeating rifles of the most improved -patterns are owned by the natives, in spite of existing laws against -selling breech-loading arms to Indians. The fur of the sea-otter is -acknowledged to be the most beautiful, and is the most highly prized -of all pelts. Those taken at Yakutat during our visit were sold at an -average price of about seventy-five dollars. This, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page81"><small><small>[p. 81]</small></small></a></span> together with -the sale of less valuable skins and the money received for baskets, -etc., made by the women for the tourist trade in Sitka, brought a -considerable revenue to the village. Improvident, like nearly all -Indians, the Yakutat villagers soon spend at the trading post the -money earned in this way.</p> - -<p>The Yakutats belong without question to the Thlinket stock; but visits -from tribes farther westward, who travel in skin boats, are known to -have been made, and it seems probable that some mixture of Thlinket -and Innuit blood may occur in the natives at Yakutat. But if such -admixture has occurred, the Innuit element is so small that it escapes -the notice of one not skilled in ethnology.</p> - -<p>We found Mr. Hendriksen most kind and obliging, and are indebted to -him for many favors and great assistance. Arrangements were made with -him for reading a base-barometer three times a day during July and -August. He also assisted us by acting as an interpreter, and in hiring -Indians and canoes.</p> - -<p>The weather continued thick and stormy after reaching Yakutat bay, and -Captain Farenholt did not think it advisable to take his vessel up the -main inlet, where many dangers were reported to exist. A canoe having -been purchased from the trader and others hired from the Indians, a -start was made from the head of Yakutat bay early on the morning of -June 28, in company with two of the <i>Pinta's</i> boats loaded with -supplies, under the command of Ensign C. W. Jungen.</p> -<br> - -<center>C<small>ANOE</small> T<small>RIP UP</small> Y<small>AKUTAT</small> B<small>AY</small>.</center> - -<p>Bidding good-bye to our friends on the <i>Pinta</i>, to whom we were -indebted for many favors, we started for our trip up the bay in a -pouring rain-storm. Our way at first led through the narrow, placid -water-ways dividing the islands on the eastern side of the bay. The -islands and the shores of the mainland are densely wooded, and -appeared picturesque and inviting even through the veil of mist and -rain that shrouded them. The forests consist principally of spruce -trees, so dense and having such a tangle of underbrush that it is only -with the greatest difficulty that one can force a way through them; -while the ground beneath the forest, and even the trunks and branches -of the living trees, are covered and festooned with luxuriant growths -of mosses and lichens. Our trip along these wooded shores, but half -revealed <span class="pagenum"><a name="page82"><small><small>[p. 82]</small></small></a></span> -through the drifting mist, was novel and enjoyable in -spite of discomforts due to the rain. We rejoiced at the thought that -we were nearing the place where the actual labors of the expedition -would begin; we were approaching the unknown; visions of unexplored -regions filled with new wonders occupied our fancies, and made us -eager to press on.</p> - -<p>About noon on the first day we pitched our tents on a strip of shingle -skirting the shore of the mainland to the east of Knight island. The -<i>Pinta's</i> boats spread their white wings and sailed away to the -southward before a freshening wind, and our last connection with -civilization was broken. As one of the frontiersmen of our party -remarked, we were "at home once more." It may appear strange to some -that any one could apply such a term to a camp on the wild shore of an -unexplored country; but the Bohemian spirit is so strong in some -breasts, and the restraint of civilization so irksome, that the homing -instinct is reversed and leads irresistibly to the wilderness and to -the silent mountain tops.</p> - -<p>The morning after arriving at our first camp, Kerr, Christie, and -Hendriksen, with all the camp hands except two, went on with the -canoes, and in a few hours reached the entrance of Disenchantment bay. -They found a camping place about twelve miles ahead, on a narrow strip -of shingle beneath the precipices of Point Esperanza, and there -established our second camp.</p> - -<p>My necessary delay at Camp 1 was utilized, so far as possible, in -learning what I could concerning the adjacent country, and in making a -beginning in the study of its geology. Our camp was at the immediate -base of the mountains, and on the northeastern side of the wide -plateau bordering the continent. The plateau stretches southeastward -for twenty or thirty miles, and is low and heavily forested. The -eastern shore of the bay near our first camp is formed of bluffs about -150 feet high, which have been eaten back by the waves so as to expose -fine sections of the strata of sand, gravel and bowlders of which the -plateau is composed. All the lowlands bordering the mountains have, -apparently, a common history, and doubtless owe their origin -principally to the deposition of débris brought from the mountains by -former glaciers. When this material was deposited, or soon afterward, -the land was depressed about 150 feet lower than at present, as is -shown by a terrace cut along the base of the mountains at that -elevation. The steep mountain face -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page83"><small><small>[p. 83]</small></small></a></span> -extending northwestward from -Camp 1 to the mouth of Disenchantment bay bears evidence of being the -upheaved side of a fault of quite recent origin. The steep inclination -and shattered condition of the rocks along this line are evidently due -to the crushing which accompanied the displacement.</p> - -<p>In the wild gorge above our first camp, a small glacier was found -descending to within 500 feet of the sea-level, and giving rise to a -wild, roaring stream of milky water. Efforts to reach the glacier were -frustrated by the density of the dripping vegetation and by the clouds -that obscured the mountains.</p> - -<p>A canoe trip was made to a rocky islet between Knight island and the -mainland toward the north. The islet, like the rocks in the adjacent -mountain range, is composed of sandstone, greatly shattered and -seamed, and nearly vertical in attitude. Its surface was densely -carpeted with grass and brilliant flowers. Many sea birds had their -homes there. From its summit a fine view was obtained of the -cloud-capped mountains toward the northeast, of the dark forest -covering Knight island, and of the broad plateau toward the southeast. -Some of the most charming effects in the scenery of the forest-clad -and mist-covered shores of Alaska are due to the wreaths of vapor -ascending from the deep forests during the interval in which the warm -sunlight shines through the clouds; and on the day of our visit to the -islet, the forests, when not concealed by mist, sent up smoke-like -vapor wreaths of many fantastic shapes to mingle with the clouds in -which the higher mountains disappeared.</p> - -<p>At Camp 1 the personnel of the party was unexpectedly reduced. Mr. -Hosmer was ill, and remained with me at camp instead of pushing on -with Kerr and Christie; and the weather continuing stormy, he -concluded to abandon the expedition and return to the mission at Port -Mulgrave. Having secured the services of an Indian who chanced to pass -our camp in his canoe, Mr. Hosmer bade us good-bye, ensconced himself -in the frail craft, and started for sunnier lands. It was subsequently -learned that he reached Yakutak without mishap, and a few days later -sailed for Sitka in a small trading schooner. Our force during the -remainder of the season, not including Mr. Hendriksen and the Indians, -whose services were engaged for only a few days, numbered nine men all told.</p> - -<p>On the evening of June 30 we had a bright camp-fire blazing on the -beach to welcome the returning party. Near sunset a -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page84"><small><small>[p. 84]</small></small></a></span> canoe -appeared in the distance, and a shot was fired as it came round a bend -in the shore. We felt sure that our companions were returning, and -piled drift-wood on the roaring camp-fire to cheer them after their -hard day's work on the water. As the canoe approached, each dip of the -paddle sent a flash of light to us, and we could distinguish the men -at their work; but we soon discovered that it was occupied not by our -own party but by Indians returning from a seal hunt in Disenchantment -bay. They brought their canoe high on the beach, and made themselves -at home about our camp-fire. There were seven or eight well-built -young men in the party, all armed with guns. In former times such an -arrival would have been regarded with suspicion; but thanks to the -somewhat frequent visits of war vessels to Yakutat, and also to the -labors of missionaries, the wild spirits of the Indians have been -greatly subdued and reduced to semi-civilized condition during the -past quarter of a century.</p> - -<p>Just as the long twilight deepened into night, another craft came -around the distant headland, but less swiftly than the former one; and -soon our picturesque canoe, with Christie at the stern steering with a -paddle in true Indian fashion, grated on the shingle beach. Christie -has spent many years of his life with the Indians of the Northwest, -and has adopted some of their habits. On beginning frontier life once -more, he discarded the hat of the white man, and wore a blue cloth -tied tightly around his forehead and streaming off in loose ends -behind. The change was welcome, for it added to the picturesque -appearance of the party.</p> - -<p>The men, weary with their long row against currents and head-winds, -greatly enjoyed the camp-fire. Our Indian visitors, after lunching -lightly on the leaf-stalks of a plant resembling celery -(<i>Archangelica</i>), which grows abundantly everywhere on the lowlands of -southern Alaska, departed toward Yakutat. Supper was served in one of -the large tents, and we all rolled ourselves in our blankets for the night.</p> - -<p>The next day, July 1, we abandoned Camp 1, passed by Camp 2, and late -in the afternoon reached the northwestern side of Yakutat bay, -opposite Point Esperanza. Our trip along the wild shore, against which -a heavy surf was breaking, was full of novelty and interest. The -mountains rose sheer from the water to a height of two or three -thousand feet. About their bases, like -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page85"><small><small>[p. 85]</small></small></a></span> -dark drapery, following -all the folds of the mountain side, ran a band of vegetation; but the -spruce forests had mostly disappeared, and only a few trees were seen -here and there in the deeper cañons. The position of the terrace along -the base of the mountain, first noticed at Camp 1, could be plainly -traced, although densely covered with bushes. The mountain peaks above -were all sharp and angular, indicating at a glance that they had never -been subjected to glacial action. The sandstone and shales forming the -naked cliffs are fractured and crushed, and are evidently yielding -rapidly to the weather; but the characteristic red color due to rock -decay could not be seen. The prevailing tone of the mountains, when -not buried beneath vegetation or covered with snow, is a cold gray. -Bright, warm, summer skies are needed to reveal the variety and beauty -of that forbidding region.</p> - -<p>Our large canoe behaved well, although heavily loaded. Sometimes the -wind was favorable, when an extemporized sail lessened the fatigue of -the trip. The landing on the northwestern shore was effected, through -a light surf, on a sandy beach heavily encumbered with icebergs. As it -was hazardous to beach the large canoe with its load of boxes and -bags, the heavy freight was transferred, a few pieces at a time, to -smaller canoes, each manned by a single Indian, and all was safely -landed beyond the reach of the breakers. Camp 3 was established on the -sandy beach just above the reach of the tide and near the mouth of a -roaring brook. The drift-wood along the shore furnished abundant fuel -for a blazing camp-fire; our tents were pitched, and once more we felt -at home.</p> - -<p>Two canoes were dispatched, in care of Doney, to the camp on the -opposite shore (Camp 2), with instructions to bring over the -equipments left there. Kerr went over also for the purpose of making a -topographic station on the bluff forming Point Esperanza should the -morrow's weather permit.</p> - -<p>It was curious to note the care which our Indians took of their -canoes. Not only were they drawn high up on the beach, out of the -reach of all possible tides, but each canoe was swathed in wet cloths, -especially at the prow and stern, to prevent them from drying and -cracking. The canoes, being fashioned from a single spruce log, are -especially liable to split if allowed to dry thoroughly.</p> - -<p>The day after our arrival, all of our party and all of our camp -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page86"><small><small>[p. 86]</small></small></a></span> -outfit were assembled at Camp 3. Mr. Hendriksen and our Indian -friends took their departure, and the work for which we had come so -far was actually begun.</p> -<br> - -<center>B<small>ASE</small> C<small>AMP ON THE</small> S<small>HORE -OF</small> Y<small>AKUTAT</small> B<small>AY</small>.</center> - -<p>About the tents at Camp 3 the rank grass grew waist-high, sheltering -the strawberries and dwarf raspberries that bloomed beneath. A little -way back from the shore, clumps of alders, interspersed with spruce -trees, marked the beginning of the forest which covered the hills -toward the west and southwest. Toward the north rose rugged mountains, -their summits shrouded in mist; in the steep gorges on their sides the -ends of glaciers gleamed white, like foaming cataracts descending from cloudland.</p> - -<p>The day following our arrival dawned bright and beautiful. Every cloud -vanished from the mountains as by magic, revealing their magnificent -summits in clear relief. We found ourselves at the base of a rugged -mountain range extending far southeastward and northwestward, its -first rampart so breached as to allow the waters of the ocean to -extend into the very midst of the great peaks beyond. Through this -opening we had a splendid view of the snow-clad mountains filling the -northern sky and stretching away in lessening perspective toward the -east until they blended with the distant clouds.</p> - -<p>Topographic work was started, and the preparation of "packs" for the -journey inland was begun at once; and all hands were kept busy. A -base-line was measured by Mr. Kerr, and a beginning was made in the -development of a system of triangulation which was carried on -throughout the season.</p> - -<p>Our stay at the camp on the shore extended over a week, and enabled us -to become familiar with many of the changes in the rugged scenery -surrounding Yakutat bay. The bay itself was covered with icebergs for -most of the time. Owing to the prevailing winds and the action of -shore currents, the ice accumulated on the coast adjacent to our camp. -For many days the beach toward both the north and the south, as far as -the eye could reach, was piled high with huge masses of blue and white -ice. When the bay was rough, the surf roared angrily among the -stranded bergs and, dashing over them, formed splendid sheets of -foam; while on bright, sunny days the bay gleamed and flashed in the -sunlight as the summer winds gently rippled -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page87"><small><small>[p. 87]</small></small></a></span> -its surface, and the -thousands of icebergs crowding the azure plain seemed a numberless -fleet of fairy boats with crystal hulls and fantastic sails of blue -and white. When the long summer days drew to a close and gave place to -the soft northern twilight, which in summer lasts until the glow of -the returning sun is seen in the east, the sea and mountains assumed a -soft, mysterious beauty never realized by dwellers in more southern -climes. The hours of twilight were so enchanting, the varying shades -and changing tints on the mighty snow-fields robing the mountains were -so exquisite in their gradations that, even when weary with many hours -of toil, the explorer could not resist the charm, and paced the sandy -shore until the night was far spent. Sometimes in the twilight hours, -long after the sun disappeared, the summits of the majestic peaks -toward the east were transformed by the light of the after-glow into -mountains of flame. As the light faded, the cold shadow of the world -crept higher and higher up the crystal slopes until only the topmost -spires and pinnacles were gilded by the sunset glow. At such times, -when our eyes were weary with watching the gorgeous transformation of -the snow-covered mountains and were turned to the far-reaching seaward -view, we would be startled by the sight of a vast city, with -battlements, towers, minarets, and domes of fantastic architecture, -rising where we knew that only the berg-covered waters extended. The -appearance of these phantom cities was a common occurrence during the -twilight hours. Although we knew at once that the ghostly spires were -but a trick of the mirage, yet their ever-changing shapes and -remarkable mimicry of human habitations were so striking that they -never lost their novelty; and they were never the same on two -successive evenings. One of the most common deceptions of the mirage -is the transformation of icebergs into the semblance of fountains -gushing from the sea and expanding into graceful, sheaf-like shapes. -The strangest freaks due to the refraction of light on hot deserts, -which are usually supposed to be the home of the mirage, do not excite -the traveler's wonder so much as the phantom cities seen in the -uncertain twilight amid the ice-packs of the north.</p> - -<p>When the slowly deepening twilight transformed mountains and seas into -a dreamland picture, the harvest moon, strangely out of place in far -northern skies, spread a sheet of silver behind the dark headlands -toward the southeast, and then slowly appeared, not rising boldly -toward the zenith, but tracing a low -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page88"><small><small>[p. 88]</small></small></a></span> -arch in the southern -heavens, to soon disappear into the sea toward the southwest. Brief as -were her visits, they were always welcome and always brought the -feeling that distant homes were nearer when the same light was visible -to us and to loved ones far away. The soft moonlight dimmed the -twilight, the after-glow faded from the highest peaks, and the short -northern night came on.</p> - -<p>After returning from the mountains, late in September, we were again -encamped on the northwestern shore of Yakutat bay. A heavy northeast -storm swept down from the mountains and awakened all the pent-up fury -of the waves. The beach was crowded with bergs, among which the surf -broke in great sheets of feathery foam; clouds of spray were dashed -far above the icy ramparts, carrying with them fragments of ice torn -from the bergs over which they swept; while the stranded bergs rocked -violently to and fro as the waves burst over them. Sometimes the -raging waters, angered by opposition, lifted the bergs in their mighty -arms and, turning them over and over, dashed them high on the beach. -It seemed as if spirits of the deep, unable to leave the water-world, -were hurling their weapons at unseen enemies on the land. The fearful -grandeur of the raging waters and of the dark storm-swept skies was, -perhaps, enhanced by the fact that the landward-blowing gale, combined -with a rising tide, threatened to sweep away our frail home. Each -succeeding wave, as it rolled shoreward, sent a sheet of foam roaring -and rushing up the beach and creeping nearer and nearer to our shelter -until only a few inches intervened between the highwater line and the -crest of the sand bank that protected us. The limit was reached at -last, however, and the water slowly retreated, leaving a fringe of ice -within arm's length of our tents.</p> - -<p>The wild scene along the shore was especially grand at night. The -stranded bergs, seen through the gloom, formed strange moving shapes, -like vessels in distress. The white banners of spray seemed signals of -disaster. An Armada, more numerous than ever sailed from the ports of -Spain, was being crushed and ground to pieces by the hoarse wind and -raging surf. Sleep was impossible, even if one cared to rest when sea -and air and sky were joined in fierce conflict. Our tents, spared by -the waves, were dashed down by the fierce north winds, and a lake in -the forest toward the west overflowed its banks and discharged its -flooding waters through our encampment. At last, tired and -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page89"><small><small>[p. 89]</small></small></a></span> -discomforted, we abandoned our tents and retreated to the neighboring -forest and there took refuge in a cabin built near where a coal seam -outcrops, and remained until the storm had spent its force. But I have -anticipated, and must return to the thread of my narrative.</p> -<br> - -<center>F<small>IRST</small> D<small>AY'S</small> T<small>RAMP</small>.</center> - -<p>The impressions received during the first day spent on shore in a new -country are always long remembered. Of several "first days" in my own -calendar, there are none that exceed in interest my first excursions -through the forest and over the hills west of Yakutat bay.</p> - -<p>Every one about camp having plenty of work to occupy him through the -day, I started out early on the morning of July 2, with only "Bud" and -"Tweed" for companions. My objects were to reconnoiter the country to -the westward, to learn what I could concerning its geology and -glaciers, and to choose a line of march toward Mount St. Elias.</p> - -<p>To the north of our camp, and about a mile distant, rose a densely -wooded hill about 300 feet high, with a curving outline, convex -southward. This hill had excited my curiosity on first catching sight -of the shore, and I decided to make it my first study. Its position at -the mouth of a steep gorge in the hills beyond, down which a small -glacier flowed, suggested that it might be an ancient moraine, -deposited at a time when the ice-stream advanced farther than at -present. My surprise therefore was great when, after forcing my way -through the dense thickets, I reached the top of the hill, and found a -large kettle-shaped depression, the sides of which were solid walls of -ice fifty feet high. This showed at once that the supposed hill was -really the extremity of a glacier, long dead and deeply buried beneath -forest-covered débris. In the bottom of the kettle-like depression lay -a pond of muddy water, and, as the ice-cliffs about the lakelet melted -in the warm sunlight, miniature avalanches of ice and stones, mingled -with sticks and bushes that had been undermined, frequently rattled -down its sides and splashed into the waters below. Further examination -revealed the fact that scores of such kettles are scattered over the -surface of the buried glacier. This ice-stream is that designated the -<i>Galiano glacier</i> on the accompanying map.</p> - -<p>Continuing on my way toward the mouth of the gorge in the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page90"><small><small>[p. 90]</small></small></a></span> -mountains above, I forced my way for nearly a mile through dense -thickets, frequently making wide detours to avoid the kettle holes. At -length the vegetation became less dense, and gave place to broad open -fields of rocks and dirt, covering the glacier from side to side. This -débris was clearly of the nature of a moraine, as the ice could be -seen beneath it in numerous crevasses; but no division into marginal -or medial moraines could be distinguished. It is really a thin, -irregular sheet of comminuted rock, together with angular masses of -sandstone and shale, the largest of which are ten or fifteen feet in -diameter. When seen from a little distance the débris completely -conceals the ice and forms a barren, rugged surface, the picture of -desolation.</p> - -<p>After traversing this naked area the clear ice in the center of the -gorge was reached. All about were wild cliffs, stretching up toward -the snow-covered peaks above; several cataracts of ice, formed by -tributary glaciers descending through rugged, highly inclined -channels, were in sight; while the snow-fields far above gleamed -brilliantly in the sunlight, and now and then sent down small -avalanches to awaken the echoes of the cliffs and fill the still air -with a Babel of tongues.</p> - -<p>Pushing on toward the western border of the glacier, across the barren -field of stones, I came at length to the brink of a precipice of dirty -ice more than a hundred feet high, at the foot of which flowed a swift -stream of turbid water. A few hundred yards below, this stream -suddenly disappeared beneath an archway formed by the end of a glacial -tunnel, and its further course was lost to view. It was a strange -sight to see a swift, foaming river burst from beneath overhanging -ice-cliffs, roar along over a bowlder-covered bed, and then plunge -into the mouth of a cavern, leaving no trace of its lower course -except a dull, heavy rumbling far down below the icy surface. A still -grander example of these glacial streams, observed a few days later, -is described on another page.</p> - -<p>The bank of the gulf opposite the point at which I first reached it is -formed by a steep mountain-side supporting a dense growth of -vegetation. Here and there, however, streams of water plunge down the -slope, making a chain of foaming cascades, and opening the way through -the vegetation. It seemed practicable to traverse one of these stream -beds without great difficulty, and thus to reach the plateau which I -knew, from a more distant view, to exist above.</p> - -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page91"><small><small>[p. 91]</small></small></a></span> -<p>Crossing the glacial river above the upper archway, I reached the -mountain side and began to ascend. The task was far more difficult -than anticipated. The bushes, principally of alder and currant, grew -dense and extended their branches down the steep slope in such a -manner that at times it was utterly impossible to force a way through -them. Much of the way I crawled on hands and knees up the steep -watercourse beneath the dense tangle of vegetation overhanging from -either bank and interlacing in the center. On nearing the top I was so -fortunate as to strike a bear trail, along which the animal had forced -his way through the bushes, making an opening like a tunnel. Through -this I ascended to the top of the slope, coming out in a wild -amphitheatre in the side of the mountain. The bottom of the -amphitheatre was exceedingly rough, owing to confused moraine-heaps, -and held a number of small lakes. On account of its elevation, it was -not densely covered with bushes, and no trees were in sight except -along its southern margin. About its northern border ran a broad -terrace, marking the height of the great glacier which formerly -occupied the site of Yakutat bay. The terrace formed a convenient -pathway leading westward to a sharp ridge running out from the -mountains and connecting with an outstanding butte, which promised to -afford an unobstructed view to the westward.</p> - -<p>Pressing on, I found that the terrace on which I was traveling at -length became a free ridge, some three hundred feet high, with steep -slopes on either side, like a huge railroad embankment. This ridge -swept across the valley in a graceful curve, and shut off a portion of -the western part of the amphitheatre from the general drainage. In the -portion thus isolated there was a lake without an outlet, still -frozen. The snow banks bordering the frozen lake were traced in every -direction by the trails of bears. Continuing my tramp, I crossed broad -snow-fields, climbed the ridge to the westward, and obtained a -far-reaching, unobstructed view of the surrounding country. The -elevation reached was only about 1,500 feet above sea-level, but was -above the timber line. The mountain slopes toward the north were bare -of vegetation and generally covered with snow.</p> - -<p>The first object to claim attention was the huge pyramid forming the -summit of Mount St. Elias, which stood out clear and sharp against the -northwestern sky. Although thirty-six miles distant, it dominated all -other peaks in view and rose far above -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page92"><small><small>[p. 92]</small></small></a></span> -the rugged crests of -nearer ranges, many of which would have been counted magnificent -mountains in a less rugged land. This was the first view of the great -peak obtained by any of our party. Not a cloud obscured the defination -of the mountain; and the wonderful transparency of the atmosphere, -after so many days of mist and rain, was something seldom if ever -equalled in less humid lands.</p> - -<p>Much nearer than St. Elias, and a little west of north of my station, -rose Mount Cook, one of the most beautiful peaks in the region. Its -summit, unlike the isolated pyramid in which St. Elias terminates, is -formed of three white domes, with here and there subordinate pinnacles -of pure white, shooting up from the snow-fields like great crystals. -On the southern side of Mount Cook there are several rugged and -angular ridges, which sweep away for many miles and project like -headlands into the sea of ice, known as the Malaspina glacier, -bordering the ocean toward the southwest. Between the main ridges -there are huge trunk glaciers, each contributing its flood of ice to -the great glacier below; and each secondary valley and each -amphitheatre among the peaks, no matter how small, has its individual -glacier, and the majority of these are tributary to the larger -ice-streams. All the mountains in sight exceeding 2,000 feet in -elevation were white with snow, except the sharpest ridges and boldest -precipices. The attention of the geologist is attracted by the fact -that all the foot-hills of Mount Cook are composed of gray sandstone -and black shale; and he also observes that the angular mountain crest -so sharply drawn against the sky furnishes abundant evidence that the -mountains were never subjected to the abrasion of a continuous -ice-sheet.</p> - -<p>As I stood on the steep-sloped ridge, the Atrevida and Lucia glaciers, -their surfaces covered from side to side with angular masses of -sandstone and shale, lay at my feet; while farther up the valley the -débris on the surface of the ice disappeared, and all above was a -winter landscape. The brown, desolate débris-fields on the glacier at -my feet extended far southward, and covered the expanded ice-foot in -which the glacier terminates. Most curious of all was the fact that -the moraines on the lower border of the glacier were concealed from -view by a dense covering of vegetation, and in places were clothed -with forests of spruce trees.</p> - -<p>To the southward, beyond the end of the Lucia glacier, and separated -from it by a torrent-swept bowlder-bed, lay a vast -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page93"><small><small>[p. 93]</small></small></a></span> plateau of ice -which stretched toward the south and west farther than the eye could -reach. This is the Malaspina glacier, shown on plate 8. Its borders, -like the expanded extremity of the Lucia glacier, are covered with -débris, on the outer margins of which dense vegetation has taken root. -All the central portion of the ice-sheet is clear of moraines, and -shone in the sunlight like a vast snow-field. The heights formerly -reached by the nearer glaciers were plainly marked along the mountain -sides by well-defined terraces, sloping with the present drainage. -When the Lucia glacier was at its flood the ridge on which I stood was -only 200 or 300 feet above its surface; now it approaches 1,000 feet.</p> - -<p>Turning toward the southeast, I could look down upon the waters of -Yakutat bay, with its thousands of floating icebergs, and could -distinguish the white breakers as they rolled in on Ocean cape. Beyond -Yakutat stretches a forest-covered plateau between the mountains and -the sea, and the eye could range far over the mountains bordering this -plateau on the northeast. In the distance, fully a hundred miles away, -stood Mount Fairweather, its position rendered conspicuous by a bank -of shining clouds floating serenely above its cold summit.</p> - -<p>The mountains directly east of Yakutat bay rise to a general height of -about 8,000 feet, but are without especially prominent peaks. In a -general way they form a rugged plateau, which has been dissected in -various channels to depth of 2,000 or 3,000 feet. Nearly all of the -plateau, including mountains and valleys, is covered with snow-fields -and glaciers; but none of the ice-streams, so far as can be seen from -a distance, descend below an elevation of about 4,000 or 5,000 feet. -This region is as yet untraversed; and when the explorer enters it, it -is quite possible that deep drainage lines will be found through which -glaciers may descend nearly or quite to sea-level.</p> - -<p>After drinking in the effect of the magnificent landscape and -endeavoring to impress every detail in the rugged topography upon my -memory, and having finished writing my notes, it was time to return; -for the sun was already declining toward the west. Wishing to see more -of the wonderful land about me, I concluded to descend the western -slope of the ridge upon which I stood, and to return to camp by -following a stream which issues from the Atrevida glacier directly -below my station and empties into Yakutat bay a mile or two south of -our third camp.</p> - -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page94"><small><small>[p. 94]</small></small></a></span> -<p>The quickest and easiest way down was to slide on the snow. Using -my alpenstock as a brake, I descended swiftly several hundred feet -without difficulty, the dogs bounding along beside me, when on looking -up I was startled to see two huge brown bears on the same snow -surface, a little to the left and not more than a hundred and fifty -yards away. Had my slide been continued a few seconds more I should -have been in exceedingly unwelcome company. I was unarmed, and -entirely unprepared for a fight with two of the most savage animals -found in this country. The bears had long yellowish-brown hair, and -were of the size and character of the "grizzly," with which they are -thought by hunters, if not by naturalists, to be specifically -identical. They were not at all disturbed by my presence, and in spite -of my shouts, which I thought would make them travel off, one of them -came leisurely toward me. His strides over the snow revealed a -strength and activity commanding admiration despite the decidedly -uncomfortable feeling awakened by his proximity and evident curiosity. -Later in the season I measured the tracks of an animal of the same -species, made while walking over a soft, level surface, and found each -impression to measure 9 by 17 inches, and the stride to reach 64 -inches. So far as I have been able to learn, this is the largest bear -track that has been reported. Realizing my danger, I continued my snow -slide, but in a different direction and with accelerated speed. The -upper limit of the dense thicket clothing the slope of the mountain -was soon reached, and my unwelcome companions were lost to sight.</p> - -<p>Following the bed of a torrent fed by the snow-fields above, I soon -came to the creek chosen for my route back to camp; the waters, brown -and turbid with sediment, welled out of a cavern at the foot of an ice -precipice 200 feet high, and formed a roaring stream too deep and too -swift for fording. The roaring of the brown waters and the startling -noises made by stones rattling down the ice-cliff, together with the -dark shadows of the deep gorge, walled in by a steep mountain slope on -one side and a glacier on the other, made the route seem uncanny. On -the sands filling the spaces between the bowlders there were many -fresh bear tracks, which at least suggested that the belated traveler -should be careful in his movements.</p> - -<p>This locality was afterward occupied as a camping place, and is shown -in the picture forming plate 10. The dark-colored ice, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page95"><small><small>[p. 95]</small></small></a></span> mixed with -stones and earth, might easily be mistaken for stratified rock; but -the dirt discoloring the ice is almost entirely superficial. The crest -of the cliff is formed of débris, and is the edge of the sheet of -stones and earth covering the general surface of the glacier. Owing to -the constant melting, stones and bowlders are continually loosened to -rattle down the steep slope and plunge into the water beneath.</p> - -<p>I followed down the bank of the stream, by springing from bowlder to -bowlder, for about a mile, and then came to a steep bluff, the western -side of which was swept by the roaring flood. The banks above were -clothed with spruce trees and dense underbrush; but, there being no -alternative, I entered the forest and slowly worked my way in the -direction of camp. To traverse the unbroken forests of southern Alaska -is always difficult, even when one is fresh; and, weary as I was with -many hours of laborious climbing, my progress was slow indeed. One of -the principal obstacles encountered in threading these Arctic jungles -is the plant known as the "Devil's club" (<i>Panax horridum</i>), which -grows to a height of ten or fifteen feet, and has broad, palmate -leaves that are especially conspicuous in autumn, owing to their -bright yellow color. The stems of this plant run on the earth for -several feet and then curve upward. Every portion of its surface, even -to the ribs of the leaves, is thickly set with spines, which inflict -painful wounds, and, breaking off in the flesh, cause festering sores. -In forcing a way through the brush one frequently treads on the -prostrate portion of these thorny plants, and not infrequently is made -aware of the fact by a blow on the head or in the face from the -over-arching stems.</p> - -<p>I struggled on through the tangled vegetation until the sun went down -and the woods became dark and somber. Thick moss, into which the foot -sank as in a bed of sponge, covered the ground everywhere to the depth -of two or three feet; each fallen trunk was a rounded mound of green -and brown, decked with graceful equiseta and ferns, or brilliant with -flowers, but most treacherous and annoying to the belated traveler. In -the gloom of the dim-lit woods, the trees, bearded with moss, assumed -strange, fantastic shapes, which every unfamiliar sound seemed to -start into life; while the numerous trails made by the bears in -forcing their way through the thick tangle were positive evidence that -not all the inhabitants of the forest were creatures of the -imagination. My faithful companions, "Bud" and -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page96"><small><small>[p. 96]</small></small></a></span> -"Tweed" showed -signs of weariness, and offered no objection when I started a fire and -expressed my intention of spending the night beneath the -wide-spreading branches of a moss-covered evergreen. Having a few -pieces of bread in my pocket, I shared them with the dogs, and -stretching myself on a luxuriant bank of lichens tried to sleep, only -to find the mosquitoes so energetic that there was no hope of passing -the night in comfort.</p> - -<p>After resting I felt refreshed, and concluded to press on through the -gathering darkness, and after another hour of hard work I came out of -the forest and upon a field of torrent-swept bowlders, deposited by -the stream which I had left farther up. I was surprised to find that -the twilight was not so far spent as I had fancied. The way ahead -being free of vegetation, I hastened on, and after traveling about two -miles was rejoiced by the sight of a camp-fire blazing in the -distance. The warm fire and a hearty supper soon made me forget the -fatigues of the day.</p> - -<p>This, my first day's exploration, must stand as an example of many -similar days spent on the hills and in the forests northwest of -Yakutat bay, of which it is not necessary to give detailed -descriptions.</p> -<br> - -<center>C<small>ANOE</small> T<small>RIP IN</small> -D<small>ISENCHANTMENT</small> B<small>AY</small>.</center> - -<p>On July 3, I continued my examination of the region about the head of -Yakutat bay by making a canoe trip up Disenchantment bay to Haenke -island. With the assistance of Christie and Crumback, our canoe was -launched through the surf without difficulty, and we slowly worked our -way through the fields of floating ice which covered all the upper -portion of the inlet. The men plied the oars with which the canoe was -fortunately provided, while I directed its course with a paddle. A -heavy swell rolling in from the ocean rendered the task of choosing a -route through the grinding ice-pack somewhat difficult. After four or -five hours of hard work, during which time several vain attempts were -made to traverse leads in the ice which had only one opening, we -succeeded in reaching the southern end of the island.</p> - -<p>The shores of Haenke island are steep and rocky, and, so far as I am -aware, afford only one cove in which a boat can take refuge. This is -at the extreme southern point, and is not visible until its entrance -is reached. A break or fissure in the rocks there admits of the -accumulation of stone and sand, and this -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page97"><small><small>[p. 97]</small></small></a></span> -has been extended by the -action of the waves and tides until a beach a hundred feet in length -has been deposited. The dashing of the bowlders and sand against the -cliffs at the head of the cove by the incoming waves has increased its -extension in that direction so as to form a well-sheltered refuge. The -absence of beaches on other portions of the island is due to the fact -that its bordering precipices descend abruptly into deep water, and do -not admit of the accumulation of débris about their bases. Without -stones and sand with which the waves can work, the excavation of -terraces is an exceedingly slow operation. The precipitous nature of -the borders of the island is due, to some extent at least, to the -abrasion of the rocks by the glacial ice which once encircled it.</p> - -<p>Pulling our canoe far up on the beach, we began the ascent of the -cliffs. Hundreds of sea birds, startled from their nests by our -intrusion, circled fearlessly about our heads and filled the air with -their wild cries. The more exposed portions of the slopes were bare of -vegetation, but in the shelter of every depression dense thickets -obstructed the way. Many of the little basins between the rounded -knolls hold tarns of fresh water, and were occupied at the time of our -visit by flocks of gray geese. It is evident that the island was -intensely glaciated at no distant day. The surfaces of its rounded -domes are so smoothly polished that they glitter like mirrors in the -sunlight. On the polished surfaces there are deep grooves and fine, -hair-like lines, made by the stones set in the bottom of the glacier -which once flowed over the island and removed all of the rocks that -were not firm and hard. On many of the domes of sandstone there rest -bowlders of a different character, which have evidently been brought -from the mountains toward the northeast.</p> - -<p>The summit of the island is about 800 feet above the level of the sea, -and, like its sides, is polished and striated. The terraces on the -mountains of the mainland show that the glacier which formerly flowed -out from Disenchantment bay must have been fully 2,000 feet deep. The -bed it occupied toward the south is now flooded by the waters of -Yakutat bay.</p> - -<p>At the time of Malaspina's visit, 100 years ago, the glaciers from the -north reached Haenke island, and surrounded it on three -sides.<small><small><sup>27</sup></small></small> -At the rate of retreat indicated by comparing -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page98"><small><small>[p. 98]</small></small></a></span> -Malaspina's records -with the present condition, the glaciers must have reached Point -Esperanza, at the mouth of Disenchantment bay, about 200 years ago; -and an allowance of between 500 and 1,000 years would seem ample for -the retreat of the glaciers since they were at their flood.</p> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>27</sup></small> The map accompanying Malaspina's report and indicating -these conditions has already been mentioned, and is reproduced on -<a href="#plate07">plate 7</a>, page 67.</small></blockquote> - -<p>Reaching the topmost dome of Haenke island, a wonderful panorama of -snow-covered mountains, glaciers, and icebergs lay before us. The -island occupies the position of the stage in a vast amphitheatre; the -spectators are hoary mountain peaks, each a monarch robed in ermine -and bidding defiance to the ceaseless war of the elements. How -insignificant the wanderer who confronts such an audience, and how -weak his efforts to describe such a scene!</p> - -<p>From a wild cliff-enclosed valley toward the north, guarded by -towering pinnacles and massive cliffs, flows a great glacier, the -fountains of which are far back in the heart of the mountains beyond -the reach of vision. Having vainly sought an Indian name for this -ice-stream, I concluded to christen it the <i>Dalton glacier</i>, in honor -of John Dalton, a miner and frontiersman now living at Yakutat, who is -justly considered the pioneer explorer of the region. The glacier is -greatly shattered and pinnacled in descending its steep channel, and -on reaching the sea it expands into a broad ice-foot. The last steep -descent is made just before gaining the water, and is marked by -crevasses and pinnacles of magnificent proportion and beautiful color. -This is one of the few glaciers in the St. Elias region that has -well-defined medial and lateral moraines. At the bases of the cliffs -on the western side there is a broad, lateral moraine, and in the -center, looking like a winding road leading up the glacier, runs a -triple-banded ribbon of débris, forming a typical medial moraine. The -morainal material carried by the glacier is at last deposited at its -foot, or floated away by icebergs, and scattered far and wide over the -bottom of Yakutat bay.</p> - -<p>The glacier expands on entering the water, as is the habit of all -glaciers when unconfined, and ends in magnificent ice-cliffs some two -miles in length. The water dashing against the bases of the cliffs -dissolves them away, and the tides tend to raise and lower the -expanded ice-foot. The result is that huge masses, sometimes reaching -from summit to base of the cliffs, are undermined, and topple over -into the sea with a tremendous crash. Owing to the distance of the -glacier from Haenke island, we could -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page99"><small><small>[p. 99]</small></small></a></span> -see the fall long before the -roar reached our ears; the cliffs separated, and huge masses seemed to -sink without a sound; the spray thrown up as the blue pinnacles -disappeared ascended like gleaming rockets, sometimes as high as the -tops of the cliffs, and then fell back in silent cataracts of foam. -Then a noise as of a cannonade came rolling across the waters and -echoing from cliff to cliff. The roar of the glacier continues all day -when the air is warm and the sun bright, and is most active when the -summer days are finest. Sometimes, roar succeeded roar, like artillery -fire, and the salutes were answered, gun for gun, by the great Hubbard -glacier, which pours its flood of ice into the fjord a few miles -further northeastward. This ice-stream, most magnificent of the -tide-water glaciers of Alaska yet discovered, and a towering mountain -peak from which the glacier receives a large part of its drainage, -were named in honor of Gardiner G. Hubbard, president of the National -Geographic Society.</p> -<a name="plate09"></a> -<center><img src="images/09.jpg" alt="Hubbard Glacier"></center> - -<p>Looking across the waters of the bay, whitened by thousands of -floating bergs, we could see three miles of the ice-cliffs formed -where the Hubbard glacier enters the sea. A dark headland on the shore -of the mainland to the right shut off the full view of the glacier but -formed a strongly drawn foreground, which enhanced the picturesque -effect of the scenery. The Hubbard glacier flows majestically through -a deep valley leading back into the mountains, and has two main -branches, with a smaller and steeper tributary between. These -branches unite to form a single ice-foot extending into the bay. The -western branch has a dark medial moraine down its center, which makes -a bold, sweeping curve before joining the main stream. There is also a -broad lateral débris-belt along the bases of the cliffs forming its -right bank. The whole surface of the united glacier, and all of the -white tongues running back into the mountains beyond the reach of -vision, are broken and shattered, owing to the steepness and roughness -of the bed over which they flow. The surface, where not concealed by -morainal material, is snow-white; but in the multitude of crevasses -the blue ice is exposed, and gives a greenish-blue tint to the entire -stream. Where the subglacial slopes are steep, the ice is broken into -pinnacles and towers of the grandest description.</p> - -<p>On the steep mountain sides sloping toward the Hubbard glacier there -are more than a dozen secondary ice-streams which are tributary to it. -The amphitheatres in which the glacier has -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page100"><small><small>[p. 100]</small></small></a></span> -its beginnings have -never been seen; but our general knowledge of the fountains from which -glaciers flow assures us that not only scores but hundreds of other -secondary and tertiary glaciers far back into the mountains contribute -their floods to the same great stream.</p> - -<p>After being received on board the <i>Corwin</i>, late in September, we had -an opportunity to view the great sea-cliffs of the Hubbard glacier -near at hand. Captain Hooper, attracted by the magnificent scenery, -took his vessel up Disenchantment bay to a point beyond Haenke island, -whence a view could be had of the eastern extension of the inlet. So -far as is known, the <i>Corwin</i> was the first vessel to navigate those -waters. Soundings made between the island and the ice-foot gave forty -to sixty fathoms. At the elbow, where the southeastern shore of the -bay turns abruptly eastward, there is a low islet not represented on -any map previous to the one made by the recent expedition, which -commands even a wider prospect than can be obtained from Haenke -island. Future visitors to this remote coast should endeavor to reach -this islet, after having beheld the grand panorama obtainable from the -summit of Haenke island. The portion of Disenchantment bay stretching -eastward from the foot of Hubbard glacier is enclosed on all sides by -bold mountains, the lower slopes of which have the subdued and flowing -outlines characteristic of glaciated regions. Several glaciers occur -in the high-grade lateral valleys opening from the bay; but these have -recently retreated, and none of them have sufficient volume at present -to reach the water. The general recession, in which all the glaciers -of Alaska are participating, is manifested here by the broad débris -fields, which cover all the lower ice-streams not ending in the sea. -The absence of vegetation on the smooth rocks recently abandoned by -the ice also tells of recent climatic changes.</p> - -<p>A débris-covered glacier, so completely concealed by continuous sheets -of stones and earth that its true character can scarcely be -recognized, descends from the mountains just east of Hubbard glacier. -It is formed by the union of two principal tributaries, and, on -reaching comparatively level ground, expands into a broad ice-foot, -but does not have sufficient volume to reach the sea. Another glacier, -of smaller size but of the same general character, lies between the -Hubbard and Dalton glaciers.</p> - -<p>In a rugged defile in the mountains just west of Haenke island there -is another small dirt-covered glacier, which creeps down from the -precipices above and reaches within a mile of the water. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page101"><small><small>[p. 101]</small></small></a></span> At its -end there is a cliff of black, dirty ice, scarcely to be distinguished -from rock at a little distance, from the base of which flows a turbid -stream. This glacier is covered so completely with earth and stones -that not a vestige of the ice can be seen unless we actually traverse -its surface. Its appearance suggests the name of <i>Black glacier</i>, by -which it is designated on the accompanying map.</p> - -<p>The visitor to Haenke island has examples of at least two well-marked -types of glaciers in view: The small débris-covered ice-streams, too -small to reach the water, are typical of a large class of glaciers in -southern Alaska, which are slowly wasting away and have become buried -beneath débris concentrated at the surface by reason of their own -melting. The Galiano glacier is a good example of this class. The -Hubbard and Dalton glaciers are fine examples of another class of -ice-streams which flow into the sea and end in ice-cliffs, and which -for convenience we call <i>tide-water glaciers</i>. Nowhere can finer or -more beautiful examples of this type be found than those in view from -Haenke island.</p> - -<p>The formation of icebergs from the undermining and breaking down of -the ice-cliffs of the tide-water glaciers has already been mentioned. -But there is another method by which bergs are formed—a process even -more remarkable than the avalanches that occur when portions of the -ice-cliffs topple over into the sea. The ice-cliffs at the foot of the -tide-water glaciers are really sea-cliffs formed by the waves cutting -back a terrace in the ice. The submerged terrace is composed of ice, -and may extend out a thousand feet or more in front of the visible -part of the ice-cliffs. These conditions are represented in the -accompanying diagram (figure 1), which exhibits a longitudinal section -of the lower end of a tide-water glacier where it pushes out into the sea.</p> - -<a name="fig1"></a> -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="Figure 1"> - <tr> - <td width="647"> - <img src="images/f1.jpg" alt="formation of icebergs"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="647" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 1—<i>Diagram illustrating the Formation of - Icebergs</i></small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p>As the sea-cliff of ice recedes and the submerged terrace increases in -breadth there comes a time when the buoyancy of the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page102"><small><small>[p. 102]</small></small></a></span> ice at the -bottom exceeds its strength, and pieces break off and rise to the -surface. The water about the ends of the glaciers is so intensely -muddy that the submerged ice-foot is hidden from view, and its -presence would not be suspected were it not for the fragments -occasionally rising from it. The sudden appearance of these masses of -bottom ice at the surface is always startling. While watching the -ice-cliffs and admiring the play of colors in the deep crevasses which -penetrate them in every direction, or tracing in fancy the strange -history of the silent river and wondering in what age the snows fell -on the mountains, which are now returning to their parent, the sea, -one is frequently awakened by a commotion in the waters below, perhaps -several hundred feet in front of the ice-cliffs. At first it seems as -if some huge sea-monster had risen from the deep and was lashing the -waters into foam; but soon the waters part, and a blue island rises to -the surface, carrying hundreds of tons of water, which flows down its -sides in cataracts of foam. Some of the bergs turn completely over on -emerging, and thus add to the tumult and confusion that attends their -birth. The waves roll away in widening circles, to break in surf on -the adjacent shores, and an island of ice of the most lovely blue -floats serenely away to join the thousands of similar islands that -have preceded it. The fragments of the glacier rising from the bottom -in this manner are usually larger than those broken from the faces of -the ice-cliffs, sometimes measuring 200 or 300 feet in diameter. Their -size and the suddenness with which they rise would insure certain -destruction of a vessel venturing too near the treacherous ice-walls.</p> - -<p>At the time of our visit to Haenke island, the entire surface of -Disenchantment bay and all of Yakutat bay as far southward as we could -see formed one vast field of floating ice. Most of the bergs were -small, but here and there rose masses which measured 150 by 200 feet -on their sides and stood 40 or 50 feet out of the water. The bergs are -divided, in reference to color, into three classes—the white, the -blue, and the black. The white ones are those that have fallen from -the face of the ice-walls or those that have been sufficiently exposed -to the atmosphere to become melted at the surface and filled with air -cavities. The blue bergs are of many shades and tints, finding their -nearest match in color in Antwerp blue. These are the ones that have -recently risen from the submerged ice-foot, or have turned over owing -to a change of position in the center of gravity. Rapid as is the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page103"><small><small>[p. 103]</small></small></a></span> -melting of the ice when exposed to the air, it seems to liquefy -even more quickly when submerged. The changes thus produced finally -cause the bergs to reverse their positions in the water. This is done -without the slightest warning, and is one of the greatest dangers to -be guarded against while canoeing among them. The white color -presented by the majority of the bergs is changed to blue when they -become stranded, and the surf breaks over them and dissolves away -their porous surfaces. A few of the bergs are black in color, owing to -the dirt and stones that they carry on their surfaces or frozen in -their mass. Quantities of débris are thus floated away from the -tide-water glaciers and strewn over the bottoms of the adjacent inlets.</p> - -<p>This digression may be wearisome, but one cannot stand on Haenke -island without wishing to know all the secrets of the great -ice-streams that flow silently before him.</p> - -<p>Returning from our commanding station at the summit of the island to -where we left our canoe, we were surprised and not a little startled -to find that the tide had run out and left the strand between our -canoe and the water completely blocked with huge fragments of ice. -There was no way left for us to launch our canoe except by cutting -away and leveling off the ice with our axe, so as to form a trail over -which we could drag it to the water. This we did, and then, poising -the canoe on a low flat berg, half of which extended beneath the -water, I took my place in it with paddle in hand, while Christie and -Crumback, waiting for the moment when a large wave rolled in, launched -the canoe far out in the surf. By the vigorous use of my paddle I -succeeded in reaching smooth water and brought the canoe close under -the cliff forming the southern side of the cove, where the men were -able to drop in as a wave rolled under us.</p> - -<p>We slowly worked our way down the bay through blue lanes in the -ice-pack, against an incoming tide, and reached our tents near sunset. -Thus ended one of the most enjoyable and most instructive days at -Yakutat bay.</p> -<br> - -<center>F<small>ROM</small> Y<small>AKUTAT</small> B<small>AY -TO</small> B<small>LOSSOM</small> I<small>SLAND</small>.</center> - -<p>Our camp on the shore of Yakutat bay was held for several days after -returning from Haenke island, but in the meantime an advance-camp was -established on the side of the Lucia glacier, from which Mr. Kerr and -myself made explorations ahead.</p> - -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page104"><small><small>[p. 104]</small></small></a></span> -<p>Before leaving the base-camp I visited Black glacier for the -purpose of taking photographs and studying the appearance of an old -glacier far spent and fast passing away. This, like the Galiano -glacier, is a good example of a great number of ice-streams in the -same region which are covered from side to side with débris. The cañon -walls on either side rise precipitously, and their lower slopes, for -the height of 200 or 300 feet, are bare of vegetation. The surface of -the glacier has evidently sunken to this extent within a period too -short to allow of the accumulation of soil and the rooting of plants -on the slopes. The banks referred to are in part below the upper limit -of timber growth, and the adjacent surfaces are covered with bushes, -grasses, and flowers. Under the climatic conditions there prevailing, -it is evident that the formation of soil and the spreading of plants -over areas abandoned by ice is a matter of comparatively few years. It -is for this reason that a very recent retreat of Black glacier is -inferred. Many of the glaciers in southern Alaska give similar -evidence of recent contraction, and it is evident that a climatic -change is in progress which is either decreasing the winter's snow or -increasing the summer's heat. The most sensitive indicators of these -changes, responding even more quickly than does the vegetation, are -the glaciers.</p> - -<p>The fourth of July was spent by us in cutting a trail up the steep -mountain slope to the amphitheatre visited during my first tramp. No -one can appreciate the density and luxuriance of the vegetation on the -lower mountain in that region until he has cut a passage through it. -Seven men, working continuously for six or seven hours with axes and -knives, were able to open a comparatively good trail about a mile in -length. The remainder of the way was along stream courses and up -bowlder-washes, which were free from vegetation. In the afternoon, -having finished our task, a half-holiday was spent in an exciting -search for two huge brown bears discovered by one of the party, but -they vanished before the guns could be brought out.</p> - -<p>The next day an advance-camp was made in the amphitheatre above timber -line, and there Mr. Kerr and myself passed the night, molested only by -swarms of mosquitoes, and the day following occupied an outstanding -butte as a topographical station. In the afternoon of the same day the -advance-camp was moved to the border of the Atrevida glacier at a -point already described, where a muddy stream gushes out from under -the ice.</p> - -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page105"><small><small>[p. 105]</small></small></a></span> -<p>Our next advance-camp, established a few days later, was at -Terrace point, as we called the extreme end of the mountain spur -separating the Lucia and Atrevida glaciers. These ice-streams were -formerly much higher than now, and when at their flood formed terraces -along the mountain side, which remain distinctly visible to the -present day. The space between the two glaciers at the southern end of -the mountain spur became filled with bowlders and stones carried down -on the side of the ice-streams, and, as the glaciers contracted, added -a tapering point to the mountain. Between the present surface of the -ice and the highest terrace left at some former time there are many -ridges, sloping down stream, which record minor changes in the -fluctuation of the ice. A portion of one of these terraces is seen to -the left in plate 10.</p> -<a name="plate10"></a> -<center><img src="images/10.jpg" alt="Wall of ice"></center> - -<p>Terrace point, like all the lower portions of the mountain spurs -extending southward from the main range, is densely clothed with -vegetation, and during the short summers is a paradise of flowers. Our -tent was pitched on a low terrace just beyond the border of the ice. -The steep bluff rising to an elevation of some 200 feet on the east of -our camp was formed by glacial ice buried beneath an absolutely barren -covering of stones and dirt. On the west the ascent was still more -precipitous, but the slope from base to summit was one mass of -gorgeous flowers.</p> -<a name="plate11"></a> -<center><img src="images/11.jpg" alt="Atrevida Glacier"></center> - -<p>Kerr and myself made several excursions from the camp at Terrace -point, and explored the country ahead to the next mountain spur for -the purpose of selecting a site for another advance-camp. In the -meantime the men were busy in bringing up supplies.</p> - -<p>Our reconnoissance westward took us across the Lucia glacier to the -mouth of a deep, transverse gorge in the next mountain spur. The -congeries of low peaks and knobs south of this pass we named the -<i>Floral hills</i>, on account of the luxuriance of the vegetation -covering them; and the saddle separating them from the mountains to -the north was called <i>Floral pass</i>.</p> - -<p>In crossing the Lucia glacier we experienced the usual difficulties -met with on the débris-covered ice-field of Alaska. The way was -exceedingly rough, on account of the ridges and valleys on the ice, -and on account of the angular condition of the débris resting upon it. -Many of the ridges could not conveniently be climbed, owing to the -uncertain footing afforded by the angular -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page106"><small><small>[p. 106]</small></small></a></span> -stones resting on the -slippery slope beneath. Fortunately, the crevasses were mostly filled -with stones fallen from the sides, so that the danger from open -fissures, which has usually to be guarded against in glacial -excursions, was obviated; yet, as is usually the case when crevasses -become filled with débris, the melting of the adjacent surfaces had -caused them to stand in relief and form ridges of loose stones, which -were exceedingly troublesome to the traveler.</p> - -<a name="plate12"></a> -<br> -<center><img src="images/12.jpg" alt="Ice tunnel"></center> - -<p>Near the western side of the Lucia glacier, between Terrace point and -Floral pass, there is a huge rounded dome of sandstone rising boldly -out of the ice. This corresponds to the "nunataks" of the Greenland -ice-fields, and was covered by ice when the glaciation was more -intense than at present. On the northern side of the island the ice is -forced high up on its flanks, and is deeply covered with moraines; but -on the southwestern side its base is low and skirted by a sand plain -deposited in a valley formerly occupied by a lake. The melting of the -glacier has, in fact, progressed so far that the dome of rock is free -from ice on its southern side, and is connected with the border of the -valley toward the west by the sand plain. This plain is composed of -gravel and sand deposited by streams which at times became dammed -lower down and expanded into a lake. Sunken areas and holes over -portions of the lake bottom show that it rests, in part at least, upon -a bed of ice.</p> -<a name="plate13"></a> -<center><img src="images/13.jpg" alt="Lake bed delta"></center> - -<p>The most novel and interesting feature in the Lucia glacier is a -glacial river which bursts from beneath a high archway of ice just at -the eastern base of the nunatak mentioned above, and flows for about a -mile and a half through a channel excavated in the ice, to then enter -the mouth of another tunnel and become lost to view. An illustration -of this strange river and of the mouth of the tunnel in the -débris-covered ice into which it rolls, reproduced from a photograph -by a mechanical process, is given on plate 14, and another -view of the mouth of the same tunnel is presented in the succeeding -plate. This is the finest example of a glacial river that it has ever -been my good fortune to examine.</p> -<a name="plate14"></a> -<center><img src="images/14.jpg" alt="Lucia Glacier river"></center> - -<p>The stream is swift, and its waters are brown and heavy with sediment. -Its breadth is about 150 feet. For the greater part of its way, where -open to sunlight, it flows between banks of ice and over an icy floor. -Fragments of its banks, and portions of -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page107"><small><small>[p. 107]</small></small></a></span> -the sides and roof of -the tunnel from which it emerges, are swept along by the swift -current, or stranded here and there in midstream. The sand plain -already mentioned borders the river for a portion of its course, and -is flooded when the lower tunnel is obstructed.</p> -<a name="plate15"></a> -<center><img src="images/15.jpg" alt="Glacial tunnel"></center> - -<p>The archway under which the stream disappears is about fifty feet -high, and the tunnel retains its dimensions as far as one can see by -looking in at its mouth. Where the stream emerges is unknown; but the -emergence could no doubt be discovered by examining the border of the -glacier some miles southward. No explorer has yet been bold enough to -enter the tunnel and drift through with the stream, although this -could possibly be done without great danger. The greatest risk in such -an undertaking would be from falling blocks of ice. While I stood near -the mouth of the tunnel there came a roar from the dark cavern within, -reverberating like the explosion of a heavy blast in the chambers of a -mine, that undoubtedly marked the fall of an ice mass from the arched -roof. The course of the stream below the mouth of the tunnel may be -traced for some distance by scarps in the ice above, formed by the -settling of the roof. Some of these may be traced in the -illustrations. When the roof of the tunnel collapses so completely as -to obstruct the passage, a lake is formed above the tunnel, and when -the obstruction is removed the streams draining the glacier are flooded.</p> - -<p>At the mouth of the tunnel there are always confused noises and -rhythmic vibrations to be heard in the dark recesses within. The air -is filled with pulsations like deep organ notes. It takes but little -imagination to transform these strange sounds into the voices and -songs of the mythical inhabitants of the nether regions.</p> - -<p>Toward the right of the tunnel, as shown on plate 14, there appears a -portion of the former river bed, now abandoned, owing to the cutting -across of a bend in the stream. The floor of this old channel is -mostly of clear, white ice, and has a peculiar, hummocky appearance, -which indicates the direction of the current that once flowed over it. -A portion of the bed is covered with sand and gravel, and along its -border are gravel terraces resting on ice. These occurrences -illustrate the fact that rivers flowing through channels of ice are -governed by the same general laws as the more familiar surface -streams.</p> - -<p>After examining this glacial river, during our first excursion on the -Lucia glacier, we reached its western banks by crossing -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page108"><small><small>[p. 108]</small></small></a></span> above -the upper archway. Traversing the sand plain to the westward, we came -to another stream of nearly equal interest, flowing along the western -margin of the glacier, past the end of the deep gorge called Floral -pass. A small creek, flowing down the pass, joins the stream and -skirts the glacier just below the mouth of a wild gorge on the side of -the main valley. This stream once flowed along the border of the Lucia -glacier when it was much higher than now, and began the excavation of -a channel in the rock, which was retained after the surface of the -glacier was lowered by melting. It still flows in a rock-cut channel -for about a mile before descending to the border of the glacier as it -exists at present. The geologist will see at once that this is a -peculiar example of superimposed drainage. The gorge cut by the stream -is a deep narrow trench with rough angular cliffs on either side, and -is a good example of a water-cut cañon. When the Lucia glacier melts -away and leaves the broad-bottomed valley clear of ice, the deep -narrow gorge on its western side, running parallel with its longer -axes, but a thousand feet or more above its bottom, will remain as one -of the evidences of a former ice invasion.</p> - -<p>During our reconnoissance we turned back at the margin of the second -river, but a day or two later reached the same point with the camp -hands and camping outfit, and, placing a rope from bank to bank, -effected a crossing. Our next camp was in Floral pass. From there we -occupied a topographical station on the summit of the Floral hills, -and made another reconnoissance ahead, across the <i>Hayden -glacier</i>,<small><small><sup>28</sup></small></small> to the next mountain spur.</p> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>28</sup></small> Named in honor of the late Dr. Ferdinand V. Hayden, -founder of the United States Geological Survey of the Territories.</small></blockquote> - -<p>Floral pass, like so many of the topographical features examined -during the recent expedition, has a peculiar history. It is a -comparatively low-grade gorge leading directly across the end of an -angular mountain range forming one of the spurs of Mount Cook. The -position of the pass was determined by an east-and-west fault and by -the erosion of soft shales turned up on edge along the line of -displacement. At its head it is shut in by the Hayden glacier, which -flows past it and forms a wall of ice about two hundred feet high. The -water flowing out from beneath the side of the glacier forms a muddy -creek, which finds its way over a bowlder-covered bed in the bottom of -the gorge to the border of Lucia glacier. Along the sides of the gorge -there are -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page109"><small><small>[p. 109]</small></small></a></span> -many terraces, which record a complicated history. -Evenly stratified clays near its lower end, adjacent to the Lucia -glacier, show that it was at one time occupied in part by a lake. -Above the lacustral beds there are water-worn deposits, indicating -that at a later date the gorge was filled from side to side by -moraines and coarse stream deposits several hundred feet thick. These -were excavated, and portions were left clinging to the hill-sides, -forming the terraces of to-day. Diverse slopes in the terraces suggest -that the drainage may at times have been reversed, according as the -Lucia or the Hayden glacier was the higher.</p> - -<p>The routes between our various camps, scattered along between Yakutat -bay and Blossom island, were traversed several times by every member -of the party. To traverse the same trail several times with heavy -loads, and perhaps in rain and mist, is disheartening work which I -will spare the reader the effort of following even in fancy.</p> - -<p>From our camp in Floral pass another reconnoissance ahead was made by -Mr. Kerr and myself, as already mentioned. These advances, each one of -which told us something new, were the most interesting portions of our -journey. The little adventures and experiences of each advance were -reported and talked over when we rejoined our companions around the -camp-fire at night, and were received with gratifying interest by the men.</p> - -<p>A view of the Hayden glacier from the Floral hills showed us that it -differed from any of the glaciers previously traversed. Its surface, -where we planned to cross it, was free of débris except along the -margins and also near the center, where we could distinguish a light -medial moraine. Farther southward, near the terminus of the glacier, -its surface from side to side was buried beneath a sheet of stones and -dirt. As in many other instances, the débris on the lower portion of -the glacier has been concentrated at the surface, owing to the melting -of the ice, so as to form a continuous sheet.</p> - -<p>Early one morning, while traveling over the torrent-swept bowlders in -the stream-bed on our way up Floral pass, we were a little startled at -seeing the head of a bear just visible through the flowers fringing -the bank. Before a shot could be fired, he vanished, and remained -perfectly quiet among the bushes for several minutes. But a trembling -of the branches at length betrayed his presence, and a few minutes -later he came out in full view, his yellow-brown coat giving him the -appearance of a huge -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page110"><small><small>[p. 110]</small></small></a></span> -dog. Standing on a rounded mound he looked -inquiringly down the valley, with his shaggy side in full view. I -fired—but missed my aim. The unsuccessful hunter always has an excuse -for his failure; I had never before used the rifle I carried, and the -hair-trigger with which it was provided deceived me. Fortunately for -the bear, and probably still more fortunately for me, the bullet went -far above the mark. The huge beast vanished again, although the -vegetation was not dense, and left us wondering how such a large -animal could disappear so quickly and so completely in such an open -region. On searching for his tracks, we found that he had traversed -for a few rods the plant-covered terrace on which he was first -discovered, and then escaped up a lateral gorge to a broader terrace above.</p> - -<p>Reaching the head of the Floral pass and climbing the hill of débris -bordering the Hayden glacier, we came out upon the clear, white ice of -the central portion of the ice-stream. The ice was greatly crevassed, -but nearly all the gaps in its surface could be crossed by jumping or -else by ice-bridges. The most interesting feature presented by the -glacier was the way in which it yields itself to the inequality of the -rocks over which it flows. Starting on the eastern side, below the -entrance to Floral pass, and extending northwestward diagonally across -the stream, there is a line of steep descent in the rocks beneath, -which causes the ice to be greatly broken. This is not properly an -ice-fall, except near the confining walls of the cañon; but it might -be called an ice-rapid. The ice bends down over the subglacial scarp -with many long breaks, but does not form pinnacles, as in many similar -instances where the descent is greater, and true ice cascades occur. -The most practicable way for crossing the glacier was to ascend the -stream above the line of rapids for some distance, and then follow -diagonally down its center, finally veering westward to the opposite -bank. By following this course, and making a double curve like the -letter <big>S</big>, we could cross the steep descent in the center, where it was -least crevassed.</p> - -<p>The marginal moraines on the Hayden glacier are formed of fragments of -brown and gray sandstone and black shale of all sizes and shapes. It -is clear that this débris was gathered by the cliffs bordering the -glacier on either side. The medial moraine which first appears at the -surface just above the rapids is of a different character, and tells -that the higher peaks of Mount Cook are composed, in part at least, of -a different material from -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page111"><small><small>[p. 111]</small></small></a></span> -the spurs projecting from it. The -medial moraine looks black from a distance, but, on traversing it, it -was found to be composed mainly of dark-green gabbro and serpentine. -The débris is scattered over the surface in a belt several rods wide; -but it is not deep, as the ice can almost everywhere be seen between -the stones. Where the fragments of rock are most widely separated, -there are fine illustrations of the manner in which small, dark stones -absorb the heat of the sun and melt the ice beneath more rapidly than -the surrounding surface, sinking into the ice so as to form little -wells, several inches deep, filled with clear water. Larger stones, -which are not warmed through during a day's sunshine, protect the ice -beneath while the adjacent surface is melted, and consequently become -elevated on pillars or pedestals of ice. The stones thus elevated are -frequently large, and form tables which are nearly always inclined -southward. In other instances the ice over large areas, especially -along the center of the medial moraine, was covered with cones of -fine, angular fragments from a few inches to three or four feet in -height. These were not really piles of gravel, as they seemed, but -consisted of cones of ice, sheeted over with thin layers of small -stones. The secret of their formation, long since discovered on the -glaciers of Switzerland, is that the gravel is first concentrated in a -hole in the ice and, as the general surface melts away, acts like a -large stone and protects the ice beneath. It is raised on a pedestal, -but the gravel at the borders continually rolls down the sides and a -conical form is the result.</p> - -<p>Where we crossed the Hayden glacier it is only about a mile broad in a -direct line; but to traverse it by the circuitous route rendered -necessary by the character of its surface required about three hours -of hard tramping, even when unincumbered with packs. From the center -of the glacier a magnificent view may be obtained of the snow-covered -domes of Mount Cook, from which rugged mountain ridges stretch -southward like great arms and enclose the white snow-field from which -the glacier flows. At an elevation of 2,500 feet the icy portion -disappears beneath the névé on which not a trace of débris is visible. -All the higher portions of the mountains are white as snow can make -them, except where the pinnacles and precipices are too steep to -retain a covering.</p> - -<p>On reaching the western side of the glacier we found a bare space on -the bordering cliffs, about a hundred feet high, which -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page112"><small><small>[p. 112]</small></small></a></span> has been -abandoned by the ice so recently that it is not yet grassed over. -Above this came the luxuriant and beautiful vegetation covering all -the lower mountain slopes.</p> - -<p>The mountain spur just west of the glacier, like several of the ridges -stretching southward from the higher mountains, ends in a group of -hills somewhat separate from the main ridge. The hills are covered -with a rank vegetation, and in places support a dense growth of spruce -trees. Reaching the grassy summit, we had a fine, far-reaching view of -the unexplored region toward the west, and of the vast plateau of ice -stretching southward beyond the reach of the vision. West of our -station, another great ice-stream, named the <i>Marvine glacier</i>, in -honor of the late A. R. Marvine, flows southward with a breadth -exceeding that of any of the icy streams yet crossed. Beyond the -Marvine glacier, and forming its western border, there is an -exceedingly rugged mountain range trending northeast and southwest. -Although this is, topographically, a portion of the mountain mass -forming Mount Cook, its prominence and its peculiar geological -structure render it important that it should have an independent name. -In acknowledgment of the services to science rendered by the first -state geologist of Massachusetts, it is designated the <i>Hitchcock -range</i> on our maps. Rising above the angular crest line of this -mountain mass towers the pyramidal summit of Mount St. Elias, -seemingly as distant as when we first beheld it from near Yakutat bay.</p> - -<p>About a mile west of the hill on which we stood, and beyond the bed of -a lake now drained of its waters by a tunnel leading southward through -the ice, rose a steep, rocky island out of the glaciers, its summit -overgrown with vegetation and dark with spruce trees. This oasis in a -sea of ice, subsequently named Blossom island, we chose as the most -favorable site for our next advance-camp.</p> - -<p>We then returned to our camp in Floral pass, and a day or two later -Kerr and Christie started on a side trip up the Hayden glacier, to be -absent five days. During this trip the weather was stormy, and only -allowed half an hour for topographical work when a somewhat favorable -station was reached. This was of great service, however, in mapping -the country, as it gave a station of considerable elevation on the -side of Mount Cook. The trip was nearly all above the snow-line, and -was relieved by many novel experiences.</p> - -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page113"><small><small>[p. 113]</small></small></a></span> -<p>While Kerr and Christie were away, I assisted the camp hands in -advancing to Blossom island. Our first day's work consisted in packing -loads across the Hayden glacier to the wooded hills on its western -border, reached during the reconnoissance described above. The weather -was stormy, and a dense fog rolled in from the ocean, obscuring the -mountains, and compelling us to find our way across the glacier as -best we could without landmarks. Patiently threading our way among -crevasses, we at length came in sight of the forests on the extremity -of the mountain spur toward the west, and concluded to camp there -until the weather was more favorable. We climbed the bare slope -bordering the glacier, and forced our way through the dripping -vegetation to an open space beside a little stream and near some aged -spruce trees that would furnish good fuel for a camp-fire. We were -glad of a refuge, but did not fully appreciate the fact that our tents -were in a paradise of flowers until the next morning, when the sun -shone clear and bright for a few hours. We hailed with delight the -world of summer beauty with which we were surrounded. Our camp was in -a little valley amid irregular hills of débris left by the former ice -invasion, each of which was a rounded dome of flowers. The desolate -ice-fields were completely shut out from view by the rank vegetation. -On the slope above us, dark spruce trees loaded with streamers of -moss, and seemingly many centuries old, formed a background for the -floral decoration with which the ground was everywhere covered. -Flowering plants and ferns were massed in such dense luxuriance that -the streams were lost in gorgeous banks of bloom.</p> - -<p>Reluctantly we returned to Floral pass for another load of camp -supplies, and late in the afternoon pressed on to Blossom island, -where we again pitched our tents in rain and mist, and again, when the -storm cleared away, found ourselves in an untrodden paradise. Kerr and -Christie rejoined us at Blossom island on July 31, and we were once -more ready for an advance.</p> -<br> - -<center>B<small>LOSSOM</small> I<small>SLAND</small>.</center> - -<p>Our camp on Blossom island was near a small pond of water and close -beside a thick grove of spruce trees on the western side of the -land-mass. The tents were so placed as to secure an unobstructed view -to the westward; and they were visible, in turn, to parties descending -from the mountains toward the northwest, whither our work soon led us.</p> - -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page114"><small><small>[p. 114]</small></small></a></span> -<p>The sides of Blossom island are rough and precipitous. The -glaciers flowing past it cut away the rocks and, as the surface of the -ice-fields was lowered, left them in many places in rugged cliffs bare -of vegetation. The top of the island was also formerly glaciated and -in part covered with débris; but the ice retreated so long ago that -the once desolate surface has become clothed in verdure. Everywhere -there are dense growths of flowers, ferns and berry bushes. On the -rocky spurs, thrifty spruce trees, festooned with drooping streamers, -shelter luxuriant banks of mosses, lichens and ferns. There was no -evidence that human hand had ever plucked a flower in that luxuriant -garden; not a trace could be found of man's previous invasion. The -only trails were those left by the bears in forcing their way through -the dense vegetation in quest of succulent roots. Later in the season, -when the berries ripened, there was a feast spread invitingly for all -who chose to partake. On the warm summer days the air was filled with -the perfume of the flowers, birds flitted in and out of the shady -grove, and insects hummed in the glad sunlight; the freshness and -beauty on every hand made this island seem a little Eden, preserved -with all its freshness and fragrance from the destroying hand of man.</p> - -<p>This oasis in a desert of ice is so beautiful and displays so many -instructive and attractive features that I wish the reader to come -with me up the flowery slopes and study the interesting pictures to be -seen from its summit.</p> - -<p>The narrow ravine back of our camp is festooned and overhung with tall -ferns, shooting out from the thickets on either hand like bending -plumes. You will notice at a glance, if perchance your youthful -excursions happened to be in the northeastern states, as were mine, -that many of the plants about us are old friends, or at least former -acquaintances. The tall fern nodding so gracefully as we pass is an -<i>Asplenium</i>, but of ranker growth than in most southern regions. These -tall white flowers with aspiring, flat-topped umbels, looking like -rank caraway plants, but larger and more showy, belong to the genus -<i>Archangelica</i>, and are at home in the Cascade range and the Rocky -Mountains as well as here. The lily-like plant growing so profusely, -especially in the moist dells, with tall, slim spikes of greenish -flowers and long parallel veined leaves, is <i>Veratrum viride</i>. These -brilliant yellow monkey-flowers, bending so gracefully over the banks -of the pond, are closely related to the little -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page115"><small><small>[p. 115]</small></small></a></span> -<i>Mimulus</i> which -nods to its own golden reflection in many of the brooks of New -England. That purple <i>Epilobrum</i>, with now and then a pure white -variety, so common everywhere on these hills, is the same wanderer -that we have seen over many square miles beneath the burnt woods of -Maine. These bushes with obscure white flowers, looking like little -waxen bells, we recognize at once as huckleberries; in a short time -they will be loaded with luscious fruit. Inviting couches of moss -beneath the spruce trees are festooned and decorated with fairy shapes -of brown and green, that recall many a long ramble among the -Adirondack hills and in the Canadian woods. The licapods, equiseta and -ferns are many of them identical with the tracery on mossy mounds -covering fallen hemlocks in the Otsego woods in New York, but display -greater luxuriance and fresher and more brilliant colors. That -graceful little beach-fern, here and there faded to a rich brown, -foretelling of future changes, is identical with the little fairy form -we used to gather long ago along the borders of the Great Lakes. -Asters and gentians, delicate orchids and purple lupines, besides many -less familiar plants, crowd the hillsides and deck the unkept meadows -with a brilliant mass of varied light. In the full sunshine, the -hill-slopes appear as if the fields of petals clothing them had the -prism's power, and were spreading a web of rainbow tints over the lush -leaves and grasses below.</p><br> - -<p>On our return to Blossom island, late in September, we found many of -the flowers faded, but in their places there was a profusion of -berries nearly as brilliant in color as the petals that heralded their -coming. Many of the thickets, inconspicuous before, had then a deep, -rich yellow tint, due to an abundance of luscious salmon berries, -larger than our largest blackberries. The huckleberries were also -ripe, and in wonderful profusion. These additions to our table were -especially appreciated after living for more than a month in the snow. -The ash trees were holding aloft great bunches of scarlet berries, -even deeper and richer in color than the ripe leaves on the same -brilliant branches. The deep woods were brilliant with the broad -yellow leaves of the Devil's club, above which rose spikes of crimson -berries. The dense thickets of currant bushes, so luxuriant that it -was difficult to force one's way through them, had received a dusky, -smoke-like tint, due to abundant blue-black strings of fruit suspended -all along the under sides of the branches.</p> -<br> - -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page116"><small><small>[p. 116]</small></small></a></span> -<p>Let us not look too far ahead, however. Wandering on over the -sunny slopes, where the gardener has forgotten to separate the colors -or to divide the flower banks, we gain the top of the island; but so -dense are the plants about us, and so eager is each painted cup to -expand freely in the sunlight at the expense of its neighbors, that we -have to beat them down with our alpenstocks—much as we dislike to mar -the beauty of the place—before we can recline on the thick turf -beneath and study the strange landscape before us.</p> - -<p>The foreground of every view is a bank of flowers nodding and swaying -in the wind, but all beyond is a frozen desert. The ice-fields before -us, with their dark bands of débris, are a picture of desolation. The -creative breath has touched only the garden which we, the first of -wanderers, have invaded. The land before us is entirely without human -associations. No battles have there been fought, no kings have ruled, -no poets have sung of its ruggedness, and no philosopher has explained -its secrets. Yet it has its history, its poetry, and its philosophy!</p> - -<p>The mountains toward the north are too near at hand to reveal their -grandeur; only the borders of the vast snow-fields covering all of -these upper slopes are in view. In the deep cañon with perpendicular -walls, just north of our station, but curving westward so that its -upper course is concealed from view, there flows a secondary glacier -which forces its terminal moraine high up on the northern slope of -Blossom island, but does not now join the ice-field on the south. -Streams of turbid water flow from this glacier on each side of the -oasis on which we stand and unite at the mouth of a dark tunnel in the -ice toward the south.</p> - -<p>The barren gravel plain just east of our station, and at the foot of -the glacier from the north, is the bed of a glacial lake which has -been drained through the tunnel in the ice. On our way to Blossom -island we crossed this area and found that it had but recently lost -its waters. Miniature terraces on the gravel banks forming the sides -of the basin marked the height to which the waters last rose, and all -the slopes formerly submerged were covered with a thin layer of -sediment. On the sides of the basin where this fresh lining rests on -steep slopes there are beautiful frettings made by rills in the soft -sediment. The stream from the glacier now meanders across this sand -plain, dividing as it goes into many branches, which unite on -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page117"><small><small>[p. 117]</small></small></a></span> -approaching the dark archway below. The lake is extremely irregular in -its behavior, and may be filled and emptied several times in a season. -The waters are either restrained or flow freely, according as the -tunnel through which they discharge is obstructed or open. The lake is -typical of a class. Similar basins may be found about many of the -spurs projecting into the Malaspina glacier.</p> - -<p>A little west of the glacier to which I have directed your attention -there is a narrow mountain gorge occupied by another glacier, of small -size but having all the principal characteristics of even the largest -Alpine glaciers of the region. It is less than half a mile in length, -has a high grade, and is fed by several lateral branches. Its surface -is divided into an ice region below and a névé region above. It has -lateral and medial moraines, ice pinnacles, crevasses, and many other -details peculiar to glaciers. From its extremity, which is dark with -dirt and stones, there flows a stream of turbid water. It is, in fact, -a miniature similitude of the ice-streams on the neighboring mountain, -some of which are forty or fifty miles in length and many times wider -in their narrowest part than the little glacier before us is long. The -more thoroughly we become acquainted with the mountains of southern -Alaska the more interesting and more numerous do the Alpine glaciers -of the third order become. Already, thousands could be enumerated.</p> - -<p>I will not detain my imaginary companion longer with local details, -but turn at once to the objects which will ever be the center of -attraction to visitors who may chance to reach this remote island in -the ice. Looking far up the Marvine glacier, beyond the tapering -pinnacles and rugged peaks about its head, you will see spires and -cathedral-like forms of the purest white projected against the -northern sky. They recall at once the ecclesiastic architecture of the -Old World; but instead of being dim and faded by time they seem built -of immaculate marble. They have a grandeur and repose seen only in -mountains of the first magnitude. The cathedral to the right, with the -long roof-like crest and a tapering spire at its eastern terminus, is -Mount Augusta; its elevation is over 13,000 feet. A little to the -west, and equally beautiful but slightly less in elevation, is Mount -Malaspina—a worthy monument to the unfortunate navigator whose name -it bears. These peaks are on the main St. Elias range, but from our -present point of view they form only the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page118"><small><small>[p. 118]</small></small></a></span> -background of a -magnificent picture. Later in the season our tents were pitched at -their very bases, and they then revealed their full grandeur and -fulfilled every promise given by distant views.</p> - -<p>The rugged Hitchcock range bordering the distant margin of the Marvine -glacier, like the mountains near at hand and the rocky island on which -we stand, is composed of sandstone and shale, but presents one -interesting feature, to which I shall direct your attention. The trend -of the range is northeast and southwest, but the strata of which it is -composed run east and west and are inclined northward. As the range is -some eight miles long, these conditions would seem to indicate a -thickness of many thousands of feet for the rocks of which it is -composed; yet the beds were deposited in horizontal sheets of sand and -mud of very late date, as will be shown farther on. But the great -apparent thickness of the strata is deceptive: a nearer examination -would reveal the fact that the rocks have been so greatly crushed that -even a hand specimen can scarcely be broken off with fresh surfaces. -More than this, the black shale, exhibiting the greatest amount of -crushing, is usually in wedge-shaped masses, which, in some cases at -least, are bordered by what are known as thrust planes, nearly -coinciding with the bedding planes of the strata. The rocks have been -fractured and crushed together in such a way as to pile fragments of -the same layer on top of each other, and thus to increase greatly -their apparent thickness. In the elevations before us the thrust -planes are tipped northeastwardly, and it would seem that the force -that produced them acted from that direction. The apparent thickness -of the beds has thus been increased many times. What their original -thickness was, it is not now possible to say. Similar indications of a -lateral crushing in the rocks may be found in several of the mountain -spurs between the Hitchcock range and Yakutat bay; but space will not -permit me to follow this subject further.</p> - -<p>Turning from the mountains, we direct our eyes seaward; but it is a -sea of ice that meets our view and not the blue Pacific. Far as the -eye can reach toward the west, toward the south, and toward the -southeast there is nothing in view but a vast plateau of ice or barren -débris fields resting on ice and concealing it from view. This is the -Malaspina glacier.</p> - -<p>On the border of the ice, just below the cliffs on which we -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page119"><small><small>[p. 119]</small></small></a></span> -stand, there is a belt of débris perhaps five miles in breadth, which -almost completely conceals the ice beneath. Portions of this moraine -are covered by vegetation, and in places it is brilliant with flowers. -The vegetation is most abundant on the nearer border and fades away -toward the center of the glacier. Its distant border, adjacent to the -white ice-field beyond, is -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page120"><small><small>[p. 120]</small></small></a></span> -absolutely bare and desolate. An -attempt has been made to reproduce this scene in the picture forming -plate 16. The drawing is from a photograph and shows the barren débris -field stretching away towards the southwest. The extreme southern end -of the Hitchcock range appears at the right. In the distance is the -white ice of the central part of the Malaspina glacier. Far beyond, -faintly outlined against the sky, are the snow-covered hills west of -Icy bay. The flowers in the foreground are growing on the crest of the -steep bluff bordering Blossom island on the south.</p> -<a name="plate16"></a> -<center><img src="images/16.jpg" alt="Malaspina Glacier"></center> - -<p>On the moraine-covered portion, especially where plants have taken -root, there are hundreds, perhaps thousands, of lakelets occupying -kettle-shaped depressions. A view of one of these interesting -reservoirs in the ice is given in figure 2. If we should go down to -the glacier and examine such a lakelet near at hand, we should find -that the cliffs of ice surrounding them are usually unsymmetrical, -being especially steep and rugged on one side and low or perhaps -wanting entirely on the other. But there is no regularity in this -respect; the steep slopes may face in any direction. On bright days -the encircling walls are always dripping with water produced by the -melting of the ice; little rills are constantly flowing down their -sides and plunging in miniature cataracts into the lake below; the -stones at the top of the ice-cliffs, belonging to the general sheet of -débris covering the glacier, are continually being undermined and -precipitated into the water. A curious fact in reference to the walls -of the lakelets is that the melting of the ice below the surface is -more rapid than above, where it is exposed to the direct rays of the -sun. As a result the depressions have the form of an hour-glass, as -indicated in the accompanying section.</p> - -<a name="fig2"></a> -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="Figure 2"> - <tr> - <td width="659"> - <img src="images/f2.jpg" alt="glacial lakelet"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="659" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 2—<i>View of a glacial Lakelet</i> (<i>drawn from a - Photograph</i>).</small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<br> -<a name="fig3"></a> -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="Figure 3"> - <tr> - <td width="652"> - <img src="images/f3.jpg" alt="section of glacial lakelet"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="652" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 3—<i>Section of a glacial lakelet</i>.</small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p>Beyond the bordering moraines at our feet, we can look far out over -the ice-plateau and view hundreds of square miles of its -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page121"><small><small>[p. 121]</small></small></a></span> frozen -surface. At the same time we obtain glimpses of other vast ice-fields -toward the west, beyond Icy bay; but their limits in that direction -are unknown.</p> -<br> - -<p>Later in the season I made an excursion far out on the Malaspina -glacier from the extreme southern end of the Hitchcock range, and -became acquainted with many of its peculiarities. Its surface, instead -of being a smooth snow-field, as it appears from a distance, is -roughened by thousands of crevasses, many of which are filled with -clear, blue water. Over hundreds of square miles the surface appears -as if a giant plow had passed over it, leaving the ice furrowed with -crevasses. The crevasses are not broad; usually one can cross them at -a bound. They appear to be the scars left by rents in the tributary -ice-streams.</p> - -<p>The stillness far out on the great ice-field is immediately noticed by -one who has recently traversed the sloping surfaces of the tributary -glaciers. It is always silent on that vast frozen plateau. There are -no surface streams and no lakes; not a rill murmurs along its channel -of ice; no cascades are formed by streams plunging into moulins and -crevasses. The water produced by the melting of the ice finds its way -down into the glacier and perhaps to its bottom, and must there form -rivers of large size; but no indications of their existence can be -obtained at the surface. The icy surface is undulating, and resembles -in some respects the great rolling prairies of the west; it is a -prairie of ice. In the central portion not a shoot of vegetation casts -its shadow, and scarcely a fragment of rock can be found. The -boundaries of the vast plateau have never been surveyed, but its area -cannot be less than five hundred square miles. The clear ice of the -center greatly exceeds the extent of the moraine-covered borders. It -has a general elevation of fifteen or sixteen hundred feet, being -highest near the end of the Hitchcock range, where the Seward glacier -comes in, and decreasing from there in all directions. From the summit -of Blossom island and other commanding stations it is evident that the -dark moraine belts about its borders are compound and record a varied -history. Far away toward the southeast the individual elements may be -distinguished. The dark bands of débris sweep around in great curves -and concentric, swirl-like figures, which indicate that there are -complicated currents in the seemingly motionless plateau.</p> - -<p>The Malaspina glacier belongs to a class of ice bodies not -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page122"><small><small>[p. 122]</small></small></a></span> -previously recognized, which are formed at the bases of mountains by -the union of several glaciers from above. Their position suggests the -name of <i>Piedmont glaciers</i> for the type. They differ from continental -glaciers in the fact that they are formed by the union of ice-streams -and are not the sources from which ice-streams flow. The supply from -the tributary glacier is counterbalanced by melting and evaporation.</p> -<br> - -<p>If the reader has become interested in the vast ice-fields about -Blossom island, he may wish to continue our acquaintance and go with -me into the great snow-fields on the higher mountains, where the -ice-rivers feeding the Malaspina glacier have their sources.</p> -<br> - -<center>L<small>IFE</small> A<small>BOVE THE</small> -S<small>NOW</small>-L<small>INE</small>.</center> - -<p>Early on the morning of August 2, all necessary preparations having -been made the day previous, we started in the direction of the great -snow peak to be seen at the head of the Marvine glacier, where we -hoped to find a pass leading through the mountains which would enable -us to reach the foot of Mount St. Elias or to discover a practicable -way across the main range into the unknown country toward the north.</p> - -<p>All of the camp hands were with us at the start, except Stamy and -White, who had been despatched to Port Mulgrave to purchase shoes. All -but Crumback and Lindsley were to return to Blossom island, however, -after leaving their loads at a rendezvous as far from Blossom island -as could be reached in a day and allow sufficient time to return to -the base-camp. Kerr and myself, with the two camp hands mentioned, -were to press on to the snow-fields above. We took with us a tent, -blankets, rations, an oil-stove, and a supply of coal oil, and felt -equal to any emergency that might arise.</p> - -<p>The morning of our departure was thick and foggy, with occasional -showers, and the weather grew worse instead of better as we advanced. -All the mountains were soon shut out from view by the vast vapor banks -that settled down from above, and we had little except the general -character of the glacier to guide us.</p> - -<p>Our way at first led up the eastern border of the Marvine glacier, -over seemingly interminable fields of angular débris. Traveling on the -rugged moraine, some idea of which may be obtained from plate 17, was -not only tiresome in the extreme, but ruinous to boots and shoes. On -passing the mouth of the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page123"><small><small>[p. 123]</small></small></a></span> -first lateral gorge (about a mile from -Blossom island), from which flows a secondary glacier, we could look -up the bed of the steep ravine to the white precipices beyond, which -seemed to descend out of the clouds, and were scarred by avalanches; -but all of the higher peaks were shrouded from view. At noon we passed -the mouth of a second and larger gorge, which discharges an important -tributary. We then left the border of the glacier and traveled up its -center, the crevasses at the embouchures of the tributary stream being -too numerous and too wide to be crossed without great difficulty.</p> -<a name="plate17"></a> -<center><img src="images/17.jpg" alt="Marvine Glacier"></center> - -<p>In the center of the Marvine glacier there is a dark medial moraine, -composed mainly of débris of gabbro and serpentine, of the same -character as the medial moraine on the Hayden glacier, already briefly -mentioned. Here, too, we found broad areas covered with sand cones and -glacial tables. There are also rushing streams, flowing in channels of -ice, which finally plunge into crevasses or in well-like moulins and -send back a deep roar from the caverns beneath. The murmurs of running -waters, heard on every hand, seem to indicate that the whole glacier -is doomed to melt away in a single season.</p> - -<p>Early in the afternoon we reached the junction of the two main -branches of the Marvine glacier, and chose the most westerly. We were -still traveling over hard blue ice in which the blue and white -vein-structure characteristic of glaciers could be plainly -distinguished. The borders of the ice-streams were dark with lateral -moraines; but after passing the last great tributary coming in from -the northeast we reached the upper limit of the glacier proper and -came to the lower border of the névé fields, above which there is -little surface débris. The glacier there flows over a rugged descent, -and is greatly broken by its fall. At first we endeavored to find a -passage up the center of the crevassed and pinnacled ice, but soon -came to an impassable gulf. Turning toward the right, we traversed a -ridge of ice between profound gorges and reached the base of the -mountain slope bordering the glacier on the east. Our party was now -divided; Christie and his companion were left searching for a -convenient place to leave the cans of rations they carried, while we, -who were to explore the regions above, were endeavoring to find a way -up the ice-fall. A shout from our companions below called our -attention to the fact that they were unable to reach the border of the -glacier, where they had been directed to leave their packs, and that -they <span class="pagenum"><a name="page124"><small><small>[p. 124]</small></small></a></span> -had left them on the open ice. They waved us "good-bye" and -started back toward Blossom island, leaving our little band of four to -make the advance.</p> - -<p>Descending into a deep black gorge at the border of the ice, formed by -its melting back from the bordering cliffs, we clambered upward -beneath overhanging ice-walls, from which stones and fragments of ice -were occasionally dropping, and finally reached a great snow-bank on -the border of the glacier. As the storm still continued, and was even -increasing in force, we concluded to find a camping ground soon as -possible and make ourselves comfortable as the circumstances would -permit.</p> -<br> - -<center>F<small>IRST</small> C<small>AMP IN THE</small> S<small>NOW</small>.</center> - -<p>We had now reached the lower limit of perpetual snow. There were no -more moraines on the surface of the glacier, and no bare rock surfaces -large enough to hold a tent. The entire region was snow-mantled as far -as the eye could see, except where pinnacles and cliffs too steep and -rugged for the snow to accumulate rose above the general surface. A -little to one side of the mouth of a steep lateral gorge we found a -spot in which a mass of partly disintegrated shale had fallen down -from the cliff. We scraped the fragments aside, smoothed the snow -beneath, and built a wall of rock along the lower margin. The space -above was filled in with fragments of shale, so as to form a shelf on -which to pitch our tent. Soon our blankets were spread, with our -water-proof coats for a substratum, and supper was prepared over the oil-stove.</p> - -<p>Darkness settled down over the mountains, and the storm increased as -the night came on. What is unusual in Alaska, the rain fell in -torrents, as in the tropics. Our little tent of light cotton cloth -afforded great protection, but the rain-drops beat on it with such -force that the spray was driven through and made a fine rain within. -Weary with many hours of hard traveling over moraines and across -crevassed ice, and in an atmosphere saturated with moisture, we rolled -ourselves in our blankets, determined to rest in spite of the storm -that raged about.</p> - -<p>As the rain became heavier, the avalanches, already alarmingly -numerous, became more and more frequent: A crash like thunder, -followed by the clatter of falling stones, told that many tons of ice -and rocks on the mountains to the westward had slid -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page125"><small><small>[p. 125]</small></small></a></span> down upon -the borders of the glacier; another roar near at hand, caused by an -avalanche on our own side of the glacier, was followed by another, -another, and still another out in the darkness, no one could tell -where. The wilder the storm, the louder and more frequent became the -thunder of the avalanches. It seemed as if pandemonium reigned on the -mountains. One might fancy that the evil spirits of the hills had -prepared for us a reception of their own liking—but decidedly not to -the taste of their visitors. Soon there was a clatter and whiz of -stones at our door. Looking out I saw rocks as large as one's head -bounding past within a few feet of our tent. The stones on the -mountain side above had been loosened by the rain, and it was evident -that our perch was no longer tenable. Before we could remove our frail -shelter to a place of greater safety, a falling rock struck the -alpenstock to which the ridge-rope of our tent was fastened and -carried it away. Our tent "went by the board," as a sailor would say, -and we were left exposed to the pouring rain. Before we could gather -up our blankets they were not only soaked, but a bushel or more of mud -and stones from the bank above, previously held back by the tent, -flowed in upon them. Rolling up our blankets and "caching" the -rations, instruments, etc., under a rubber cloth held down by rocks, -we hastily dragged our tent-cloth down to the border of the glacier, -at the extremity of a tapering ridge, along which it seemed impossible -for stones from above to travel. We there pitched our tent on the hard -snow, without the luxury of even a few handfuls of shale beneath our -blankets. Wet and cold, we sought to wear the night away as best we -could, sleep being impossible. Crumback, who had been especially -energetic in removing the tent, regardless of his own exposure, was -wet and became cold and silent. The oil-stove and a few rations were -brought from the cache at the abandoned camp, and soon a dish of -coffee was steaming and filling the tent with its delicious odor. Our -shelter became comfortably warm and the hot coffee, acting as a -stimulant, restored our sluggish circulation. We passed an -uncomfortable night and watched anxiously for the dawn. Toward morning -a cold wind swept down the glacier and the rain ceased. With the dawn -there came indications that the storm had passed, although we were -still enveloped in dense clouds and could not decide whether or not a -favorable change in the weather had occurred. We were still cold and -wet and the desire to return to Blossom -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page126"><small><small>[p. 126]</small></small></a></span> -island, where all was -sunshine and summer, was great. Uncertain as to what would be the -wisest course, we packed our blankets and started slowly down the -mountain, looking anxiously for signs that the storm had really passed.</p> - -<p>An hour after sunrise a rift in the mist above us revealed the -wonderful blue of the heavens, and allowed a flood of sunlight to pour -down upon the white fields beneath. Never was the August sun more -welcome. The mists vanished before its magic touch, leaving here and -there fleecy vapor-wreaths festooned along the mountain side; as the -clouds disappeared, peak after peak came into view, and snow-domes and -glaciers, never seen before, one by one revealed themselves to our -astonished eyes. When the curtain was lifted we found ourselves in a -new world, more wild and rugged than any we had yet beheld. There was -not a tree in sight, and nothing to suggest green fields or flowery -hill-sides, except on a few of the lower mountain spurs, where -brilliant Alpine blossoms added a touch of color to the pale -landscape. All else was stern, silent, motionless winter.</p> - -<p>The glacier, clear and white, without a rock on its broken surface, -looked from a little distance like a vast snow-covered meadow. We were -about a mile above the lower limit of the snow-fields, where the blue -ice of the glacier comes out from beneath the névé. The blue ice was -deeply buried, and could only be seen in the deepest crevasses. Across -the glacier rose the angular cliffs and tapering spires of the -Hitchcock range. Every ravine and gulch in its rugged sides was -occupied by glaciers, many of which were so broken and crevassed that -they looked like frozen cataracts.</p> - -<p>Cheered by the bright skies and sun-warmed air, we pushed on up the -glacier, taking the center of the stream in order to avoid the -crevasses, which were most numerous along its borders. Two or three -miles above our first camp we found a place where a thin layer of -broken shale covered the snow, at a sufficient distance from the steep -slopes above to be out of the reach of avalanches. We there -established our second camp after leaving Blossom island, dried our -blankets, and spent the remainder of the day basking in the sunlight -and gathering energy for coming emergencies.</p> - -<p>We found the névé of the Marvine glacier differing greatly from the -lower or icy portion previously traversed. Instead of ice with blue -and white bands, as is common lower down, the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page127"><small><small>[p. 127]</small></small></a></span> entire surface, -and as far down in the crevasses as the eye could distinguish, was -composed of compact snow, or snow changed to icy particles resembling -hail and having in reality but few of the properties of ordinary snow: -it might properly be called névé ice. Usually the thickness of the -layers varied from ten to fifteen feet. Separating them were dark -lines formed by dust blown over the surface of the glacier and buried -by subsequent snow-storms, or by thin blue lines formed by the edges -of sheets of ice and showing that the snow surface had been melted -during bright sunny days and frozen again at night. The horizontal -stratification so plainly marked in all the crevasses in the névé was -almost entirely wanting, or at least was not conspicuous, in the lower -portion of the glacier, where, instead, we found those narrow blue and -white bands already mentioned, the origin of which has been so well -described and explained by Tyndall.</p> - -<p>The center of the Marvine glacier, as in most similar ice-streams, is -higher and less broken by crevasses than its borders. The crevasses at -the side trend up stream, as is the case with marginal crevasses -generally. In the present instance the courses of these rents could be -plainly distinguished on each border of the glacier, when looking down -upon it from neighboring slopes. The crevasses occur at quite regular -intervals of approximately fifty feet, and diverge from the bank at -angles of about 40°. In the banks of snow bordering the glacier -similar crevasses diverge from the margin of the flowing glacier and -trend down along its banks. The marginal crevasses and the crevasses -in the bordering snow-fields, to which no special name has been given, -fall nearly in line; but between the two there is a series of -irregular cracks and broken snow, sharply defining the border of the -moving névé.</p> - -<p>The origin of the marginal crevasses trending up stream was explained -during the study of the glaciers of Switzerland. The following diagram -and explanation illustrating their development are copied from -Tyndall:</p> - -<blockquote><small>"Let <i>A C</i> be one side of the glacier and <i>B D</i> the other; and let the -direction of motion be that indicated by the arrow. Let <i>S T</i> be a -transverse slice of the glacier, taken straight across it, say to-day. -A few days or weeks hence the slice will have been carried down, and -because the center moves more quickly than the sides it will not -remain straight, but will bend into the form <i>S' T'</i>. Supposing <i>T i</i> -to be a small square of the original slice near the side of the -glacier; in the new position the square will be distorted to the -lozenge-shaped figure <i>T' i'</i>. Fix your attention upon the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page128"><small><small>[p. 128]</small></small></a></span> -diagonal <i>T i</i> of the square; in the lower position this diagonal, <i>if -the ice could stretch</i>, would be lengthened to <i>T' i'</i>. But the ice -does not stretch; it breaks, and we have a crevasse formed at right -angles to <i>T' i'</i>. The mere inspection of the diagram will assure you -that the crevasse will point obliquely <i>upward</i>."<small><sup>29</sup></small></small></blockquote> - -<a name="fig4"></a> -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="Figure 4"> - <tr> - <td width="450"> - <img src="images/f4.jpg" alt="formation of marginal crevasses"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="450" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 4—<i>Diagram illustrating the Formation of - marginal Crevasses</i>.</small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>29</sup></small> The Forms of Water: International Scientific Series, New -York, 1875, pp. 107–108.</small></blockquote> - -<p>The explanation given above applies especially to the lower or icy -portion of a glacier; above the snow-line other facts appear. When a -glacier flows through fields of snow on a level with its surface, -crevasses are formed in the adjacent banks. These trend down stream -for the same reason that the crevasses in the glacier proper trend up -stream—that is, the friction of the moving stream against its banks -tends to carry them along, while the portions at a distance are -stationary. Fissures are thus opened which trend in the direction in -which the glacier moves. The angle made by these crevasses with the -axis of the glacier is about the same as those of the marginal -crevasses, but in an opposite direction. They are widest near the -margin of the glacier and taper to a sharp end towards the stationary -snow-banks above. The crevasses in the two series thus fall nearly in -line, but are separated by a narrow band of irregularly broken snow, -marking the actual border of the glacier.<small><small><sup>29</sup></small></small></p> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>30</sup></small> Crevasses in snow-fields through which ice-streams flow -will be mentioned again in describing the Seward glacier.</small></blockquote> - -<p>After leaving Blossom island the party was divided, and we began a new -series of numbers for our camp above the snow-line, although in this -narrative and on the accompanying map a single series of numbers for -all the camps will be used. While in the field the camps in the snow -were usually termed, facetiously, "sardine camps," in allusion to the -uncomfortable manner in which we were packed in our tent at night.</p> -<br> - -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page129"><small><small>[p. 129]</small></small></a></span> -<center>A<small>CROSS</small> P<small>INNACLE</small> P<small>ASS</small>.</center> - -<p>The morning after reaching Camp 12 dawned gloriously bright. The night -had been cold, and a heavy frost had silenced every rill from the -snow-slopes above. The clear, bracing air gave us renewed energy and a -firmer desire to press on. Mr. Kerr and myself made an excursion -ahead, while Lindsley and Crumback brought up a load of supplies from -the cache left on the glacier below Camp 11.</p> - -<p>On gaining the center of the Marvine glacier we had a magnificent view -down the broad ice-stream, bordered on either hand by towering, -snow-laden precipices, and changing, as the eye followed the downward -slope, from pure white to brown and black in the distance. Far below -we could barely discern the wooded summit of Blossom island, beyond -which stretched the seemingly limitless ice-fields of the Malaspina -glacier. All about us the white slope reflected the sunlight with -painful brilliancy, while the black moraines and forests below and the -mists over the distant ocean, made it seem as if one was looking down -into a lower and darker world.</p> - -<p>As we advanced toward the head of the glacier we found, as on several -subsequent occasions, that the nearer we approached the sources of an -ice-stream the easier our progress became. Following up the center of -the glacier, we learned that it curved toward the east; and after an -hour or two of weary tramping we reached the great amphitheatre in -which it has its source. All about us were rugged mountain slopes, -heavily loaded with snow, and forming clear white cliffs from which -avalanches had descended. To the westward the wall of the amphitheatre -was broken, and it was apparent that we could cross its rim in that -direction. Pressing onward up the gently ascending slope, we came at -length to a gap in the mountains bordered on the north by a towering -cliff fully a thousand feet high, and were rejoiced to find that the -snow surface on the opposite side of the divide inclined westward with -a grade as gentle as the one we had ascended. Looking far down the -western snow-slope, we could see where it joined a large glacier -flowing southward past the end of the great cliffs which extended -westward from the divide. The glacier we saw in the valley below is -designated on our map as the <i>Seward glacier</i>, in honor of William H. -Seward, the former Secretary of State, who negotiated the purchase of -Alaska for the United States.</p> - -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page130"><small><small>[p. 130]</small></small></a></span> -<p>The pass we named <i>Pinnacle pass</i>, on account of the many -towering pinnacles overshadowing it. Its elevation is about four -thousand feet, and at the summit it has a breadth of only two or three -hundred feet. The snow on the divide is greatly crevassed, but a -convenient snow-bridge enabled us to cross without difficulty. The -crevasses increased in breadth with the advance of the season, and on -returning from our mountain trip in September we had to climb up on -the bordering cliff in order to pass the main crevasse at the summit. -Some idea of the crevasses of this region may be obtained from the -following figure, drawn from a photograph taken on the western side of -Pinnacle pass, not far from the summit.</p> - -<a name="fig5"></a> -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="Figure 5"> - <tr> - <td width="645"> - <img src="images/f5.jpg" alt="Pinnacle Pass crevasses"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="645" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 5—<i>Crevasses on Pinnacle Pass; from a - Photograph</i>.</small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p>The cliff on the north of Pinnacle pass is really a huge fault-scarp -of recent date, intersecting stratified shale, limestone, and -conglomerate, with a few thin coal-seams. The strata dip toward the -north at a high angle, and present their broken edges in the great -cliff rising above the pass. The cliffs extend westward from the pass, -and retain a nearly horizontal crest line, but increase in height and -grandeur, owing to the downward grade of the glacier along their base. -A mile to the westward their elevation is fully two thousand feet. The -cliffs throughout are -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page131"><small><small>[p. 131]</small></small></a></span> -almost everywhere bare of snow and too -steep and rugged to be scaled. They form a strongly drawn boundary -line in the geology of the region, and furnish the key to the -structure and geological character of an extended area. All the rocks -to the southward are sandstone and shale belonging to a well-defined -series, and differ materially from the rocks in the fault-scarp. I -have called the rocks toward the south, the <i>Yakutat system</i>, and -those exposed in the faces of the fault-scarp the <i>Pinnacle system</i>. -Directly north of Pinnacle pass, and at the base of Mount Owen, the -rocks of the Yakutat system are exposed, and from their position and -association it is evident that they are younger than the Pinnacle -system and belong above it. If these conclusions are sustained by -future investigation, they will carry with them certain deductions -which are among the most remarkable in geological history. On the -crest of the Pinnacle pass cliffs I afterwards found strata containing -fossil shells and leaves belonging to species still living. These -records of animal and plant life show that not only were the rocks of -the Pinnacle system deposited since living species of mollusks and -plants came into existence, but that the Yakutat system is still more -recent. More than this, the upheaval of the mountains, the formation -of numerous fault-scarps, and the origin of the glaciers, have all -occurred since Pliocene times.</p> - -<p>The discovery of Pinnacle pass left no question as to the route to be -traversed in order to reach the mountains to the westward. We returned -to Camp 12, and the following day, with Crumback and Lindsley to -assist us, advanced our camp across Pinnacle pass and far down the -western snow-slope.</p> - -<p>The day we crossed the pass was bright and clear in the morning, but -clouds gathered around all the higher peaks about midday, vanishing -again at nightfall. As it was desirable to occupy, for topographic and -other purposes, a station on the top of the cliffs overlooking -Pinnacle pass, we made an effort to reach the crest of the ridge by -climbing up the steep scarp just at the divide, where the cliffs are -lowest. While Crumback returned to Camp 12 for an additional load and -Lindsley went ahead to discover a new camping place, Kerr and myself, -taking the necessary instruments, began the ascent; but we found it -exceedingly difficult. The outcrops of shale in the lower portion of -the cliff furnished but poor foothold, and crumbled and broke away at -every step. Once my companion, losing his support, slid slowly -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page132"><small><small>[p. 132]</small></small></a></span> -down the slope in spite of vigorous efforts to hold on, and a rapid -descent in the yawning chasm below seemed inevitable, when, coming to -a slightly rougher surface, he was able to control his movements and -to regain what had been lost. Climbing on, we came to the base of a -vertical wall of shale several hundred feet high, and made a detour to -the left where a cascade plunged down a narrow channel. We ascended -the bed of the stream, which was sometimes so steep that the spray -dashed over us, and reached the base of an overhanging cliff of -conglomerate composed of well-worn pebbles. Above this rose a cliff of -snow fifty feet or more in height, which threatened to crash down in -avalanches at any moment. One small avalanche did occur during the -ascent, and scattered its spray in our faces. Had a heavy avalanche -formed, our position would have been exceedingly dangerous; but by -taking advantage of every overhanging ledge, and watching for the -least sign of movement in the snow above, we reached without accident -a sheltered perch underneath an overhanging cliff near the base of the -snow. We then discovered that clouds were forming on all the high -mountains, and shreds of vapor blown over the crest of the cliff above -told us that further efforts would be useless. Seeking a perch -protected from avalanches by an overhanging cliff, we had a splendid -view far out over the sloping snow-plain toward the west and of the -mountains bordering Pinnacle pass on the south. My notes written in -this commanding station read as follows:</p> - -<blockquote>"Looking down from my perch I can plainly distinguish the undulations -and crevasses in the broad snow-fields stretching westward from -Pinnacle pass. Each inequality in the rock beneath the glacier is -reproduced in flowing and subdued outlines in the white surface above. -The positions of bosses and cliffs in the rock beneath are indicated -by rounded domes and steep descents in the snow surface. About the -lower sides of these inequalities there are in some cases concentric -blue lines and in others radiating fissures, marking where the snow -has broken in making the descent. The side light shining from the -eastward down the long westerly slope reveals by its delicate shading -the presence of broad, terrace-like, transverse steps into which the -stream is divided. Were the snow removed and the rock beneath exposed, -we should find broad terraces separated by scarps sweeping across the -bed of the glacier from side to side. Similar terraces occur in -glaciated cañons in the Rocky Mountains and -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page133"><small><small>[p. 133]</small></small></a></span> -the Sierra Nevada, -but their origin has never been explained. The glacier is here at work -sculpturing similar forms; but still it is impossible to understand -how the process is initiated.</blockquote> - -<blockquote>"Right in front of us, and only a mile or two away, rise the cliffs, -spires, and pinnacles of the Hitchcock range. Every ravine and -amphitheatre in the great mountain mass is deeply filled with snow, -and the sharp angular crests look as if they had been thrust up -through the general covering of white. The northern end of the range -is clearly defined by the east-and-west fault to which Pinnacle pass -owes its origin. The trend of the mighty cliffs on the southern face, -on which we have found a perch, is at right angles to the longer axis -of the Hitchcock range, and marks its northern terminus both -topographically and geologically.</blockquote> - -<blockquote>"There is not even a suggestion of vegetation in sight. The eye fails -to detect a single dash of green or the glow of a single Alpine flower -anywhere on the rugged slopes. A small avalanche from the snow-cliffs -above, cascading over the cliff which shelters me and only a few yards -away, tells why the precipices are so bare and desolate: they have -been swept clean by avalanches.</blockquote> - -<blockquote>"Far down the western snow-slope I can distinguish crevasses and dirt -bands in the Seward glacier, which flows southward past the range on -which we sit. The marginal crevasses along the border of the glacier -can clearly be distinguished. As usual, they trend up-stream and, -meeting medial crevasses, break the surface of the glacier into -thousands of pinnacles and tables. Along the center of the stream -there are V-shaped dirt bands, separated by crevasses, which point -down-stream and give the appearance of a rapid flow to the central -portion of the glacier. From this distance its center has the -appearance of 'watered' ribbon.</blockquote> - -<blockquote>"A little toward the south of where the medial crevasses are most -numerous, and at a locality where two opposite mountain spurs force -the ice-stream through the comparatively narrow gorge, there is -evidently an ice-fall, as the whole glacier from side to side -disappears from view. The appearance of Niagara when seen from the -banks of the river above the Horseshoe falls is suggested. Beyond this -silent cataract, the eye ranges far out over the broad, level surface -of the Malaspina glacier, and traces the dark morainal ribbons -streaming away for miles from the mountain spurs among which they -originate. From the extreme -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page134"><small><small>[p. 134]</small></small></a></span> -southern cape of the Samovar hills -there is a highly compound moraine-belt stretching away toward the -south, and then dividing and curving both east and west. The central -band of débris must be a mile broad. Along its eastern margin I can -count five lesser bands separated by narrow intervals of ice, and on -the farther side similar secondary bands are suggested, but the height -of the central range almost completely conceals them from view. In the -distant tattered ends, however, their various divisions can be clearly -traced. Great swirls in the ice are there indicated by concentric -curves of débris on its surface.</blockquote> - -<blockquote>"Still farther westward there are hills rising to the height of -impressive mountains, in which northward dipping rocks, apparently of -sandstone and shale, similar to those forming the Hitchcock range, are -plainly distinguishable. All the northern slopes of these hills are -deeply buried beneath a universal covering of snow evidently hundreds -of feet thick, which is molded upon them so as to reveal every -swelling dome and ravine in their rugged sides. Farther westward -still, beyond a dark headland apparently washed by the sea, there are -other broad ice-fields of the same general character as the Malaspina -glacier, which stretch away for miles and miles and blend in the dim -distance with the haze of the horizon.</blockquote> - -<blockquote>"Just west of the Seward glacier, and in part forming its western -shore, there are dark, rocky crests projecting through the universal -ice mantle, suggesting the lost mountains of Utah and Nevada which -have become deeply buried by the dusts of the desert. The character of -the sharp crests beyond the Seward glacier indicate that they are the -upturned edges of fault-blocks similar to the one on which we are -seated. Interesting geological records are there waiting an -interpreter. The vastness of the mountains and the snow-fields to be -seen at a single glance from this point of view can scarcely be -realized. There are no familiar objects in sight with which to make -eye-measurements; the picture is on so grand a scale that it defies -imagination's grasp."</blockquote> - -<p>Searching the snow-sheet below with a field-glass, I discover a minute -spot on the white surface. Its movement, slow but unmistakable, -assures me that it is Lindsley returning from the site chosen for our -camp to-night. Although apparently near at hand, he forms but an -inconspicuous speck on the vast snow-field.</p> - -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page135"><small><small>[p. 135]</small></small></a></span> -<p>Having learned all that I could of the geology of the cliff, and -the gathering clouds rendering it unnecessary to climb the summits -above, we descended with even more difficulty than we had encountered -on our way up, and met Lindsley as he reached the pass. Resuming our -packs, we started on, knowing that Crumback would follow our trail; -and after two hours' hard tramping over a snow surface rendered -somewhat soft by the heat of the day, but fortunately little -crevassed, we reached the place chosen for our camp. Crumback soon -joined us, and we pitched our tent for the night. The place chosen was -on a little island of débris, the farthest out we could discover from -the base of the great cliff on the north. We judged that we should -there be safe from avalanches, although the screech and hiss of stones -falling from the cliff were heard many times during the night.</p> - -<p>Lindsley and Crumback, on revisiting the site of our camp two days -later, found that a tremendous avalanche of snow and rocks had in the -mean time fallen from the cliffs and ploughed its way out upon the -glacier to within fifteen or twenty feet of where we had passed the -night. They remarked that if the avalanche had occurred while we were -in camp, our tent would not have been reached, but that we should -probably have been scared to death by the roar.</p> -<br> - -<center>F<small>IRST FULL</small> V<small>IEW OF</small> S<small>T</small>. E<small>LIAS</small>.</center> - -<p>Leaving Crumback and Lindsley to make our camp as comfortable as -possible, Kerr and I pressed on with the object of seeing all we could -of the country ahead before the afternoon sunlight faded into -twilight. Mount St. Elias had been shut out from view, either by -clouds or by intervening mountains, for several days; but it was -evident that on approaching the end of the Pinnacle pass fault-scarp -we should behold it again, and comparatively near at hand.</p> - -<p>Continuing down the even snow-slope, in which there were but few -crevasses, the view became broader and broader as we advanced, and at -length the great pyramid forming the culminating summit of all the -region burst into full view. What a glorious sight! The great mountain -seemed higher and grander and more regularly proportioned than any -peak I had ever beheld before. The white plain formed by the Seward -glacier gave an even foreground, broken by crevasses which, lessening -in perspective, gave distance to the foot-hills forming the western -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page136"><small><small>[p. 136]</small></small></a></span> -margin of the glacier. Far above the angular crest of the -Samovar hills in the middle distance towered St. Elias, sharp and -clear against the evening sky. Midway up the final slope a thin, -horizontal bar of gray clouds was delicately penciled. Through the -meshes of the fairy scarf shone the yellow sunset sky. The strong -outlines of the rugged mountain, which had withstood centuries of -storms and earthquakes, were softened and glorified by the breath of -the summer winds, chilled as they kissed its crystal slopes.</p> - -<p>Could I give to the reader a tithe of the impressions that such a view -suggests, they would declare that painters had never shown them -mountains, but only hills. So majestic was St. Elias, with the halo of -the sunset about his brow, that other magnificent peaks now seen for -the first time or more fully revealed than ever before, although -worthy the respect and homage of the most experienced -mountain-climber, scarcely received a second glance.</p> - -<p>Returning to camp, we passed the night, and the following day, August -6, advanced our camp to the eastern border of the Seward glacier at -the extreme western end of the upturned crest forming the northern -wall of Pinnacle pass.</p> - -<p>The western end of the Pinnacle pass cliff is turned abruptly -northward, and the rocks dip eastward at a high angle, showing, -together with other conditions, that the end of the ridge is -determined by a cross-fault running northeast and southwest. West of -the Seward glacier there is a continuation of the Pinnacle-pass cliff, -but it is greatly out of line. The position of the Seward glacier, in -this portion of its course, was determined by the fault which broke -the alignment of the main displacement.</p> - -<p>Many facts of similar nature show that the glaciers of the St. Elias -region have had their courses determined, to a large extent, by the -faults which have given the region its characteristic structure: the -ice drainage is consequent to the structure of the underlying rocks; -the glaciers not only did not originate the channels in which they -flow, but have failed to greatly modify them.</p> - -<p>Camp 14 was on a sharp crest of limestone, conglomerate, and shale -belonging to the Pinnacle system, which was not over ten feet broad -where our tent was pitched. East of our tent there was a broad, upward -sloping snow-plain banked against the precipitous base of a hill about -a thousand feet high. At the edge of the snow, within three feet of -our tent, there was a pond -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page137"><small><small>[p. 137]</small></small></a></span> -of clear water, seemingly placed -there for our special use. The western edge of our tent was at the -margin of a cliff about a hundred feet high, overlooking the Seward -glacier. We held this camp for several days and reöccupied it on our -return from St. Elias.</p> -<br> - -<center>S<small>UMMIT OF</small> P<small>INNACLE</small> -P<small>ASS</small> C<small>LIFFS</small>.</center> - -<p>From Camp 14 Crumback returned to Blossom island, and Stamy took his -place. Word from Christie assured me that supplies would be advanced -to Blossom island, and that our cache on the Marvine glacier would be -renewed. Stamy's arrival was especially welcome for the reason that he -brought letters from dear ones far away, which had been forwarded from -Sitka by a trading schooner that chanced to visit Yakutat bay.</p> - -<p>While the camp hands were busy in bringing up fresh supplies, Kerr and -I occupied two stations on the summit of the Pinnacle pass cliffs. One -of these was on a butte at the western end of the ridge and just above -our camp; the other was on the crest of the main line of cliffs almost -directly above Pinnacle pass, at an elevation of 5,000 feet. Each of -the stations embraced magnificent views, extending from the outer -margin of the Malaspina glacier to the crest of the St. Elias range. -The station on the butte near camp was occupied several times, and -proved to be a most convenient and commanding point for study of the -geography, geology, and distribution of glacier over a wide area. On -account of the splendid view obtained from the top we named it <i>Point -Glorious</i>. Its elevation is 3,500 feet.</p> - -<p>One of the days on which we occupied Point Glorious was especially -remarkable on account of the clearness and freshness of the air and -the sharpness with which each peak and snow-crest stood out against -the deep-blue heavens. We left our camp early in the morning, and -spent several hours on the summit. On our way up we found several -large patches of Alpine flowers and, under a tussock of moss, a soft, -warm nest just abandoned by a mother ptarmigan with her brood of -little ones. One hundred feet higher we came to the borders of the -snow-field which covered all of the upper slopes except a narrow crest -of sandstone at the top.</p> - -<p>The Seward glacier, sweeping down from the northeast, curves about the -base of Point Glorious and flows on southward. Its surface has the -appearance of a wide frozen river. Toward the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page138"><small><small>[p. 138]</small></small></a></span> east of our -station there was a broad, level-floored amphitheatre, bounded on the -south by the cliffs of Pinnacle pass and on the east by long -snow-slopes which stretch up the gorges in the side of Mount Cook. The -amphitheatre opens toward the northwest, and discharges its -accumulated snows into the Seward glacier. Beyond this, on the north, -stood the great curtain-wall named the Corwin cliffs, west of which -rose Mount Eaton, Mount Augusta, Mount Malaspina, and other giant -summits of the main St. Elias range. Toward the west the view -culminated in St. Elias itself, ruggedly outlined against the sky. As -the reader will become more and more familiar with the magnificent -scenery of the St. Elias region as we advance, it need not be -described in detail at this time.</p> - -<p>All day the skies were clear and bright, giving abundant opportunity -for making a detailed survey of the principal features in view, and -for reading the history written in cliffs and glaciers. When the long -summer day drew to a close, we returned to our tent and watched the -great peaks become dim and generalized in outline as the twilight -deepened. The fading light caused the mountains to recede farther and -farther, until at last they seemed ghostly giants, too far away to be -definitely recognized. With the twilight came soft, gray, uncertain -clouds drawn slowly and silently about the rugged precipices by the -summer winds from the sea. St. Elias became enveloped in luminous -clouds, with the exception of a few hundred feet of the shining -summit; and a glory in the sky, to the left of the veiled Saint, -marked the place where the sun went down. The shadows crept across the -snow-fields and changed them from dazzling white to a soft gray-blue. -Night came on silently, and with but little change. There was no -folding of wings; no twittering of birds in leafy branches; no sighing -of winds among rustling leaves. All was stern and wild and still; -there was not a touch of life to relieve the desolation. A midwinter -night in inhabited lands was never more solemn. Man had never rested -there before.</p> - -<p>The air grew chill when the shadows crossed our tent, and delicate ice -crystals began to shoot on the still surface of our little pond. We -bade good night to the stern peaks, about which there were signs of a -coming storm, and sought the shelter of our tent. Small and -comfortless as was that shelter, it shut out the wintry scene and -afforded a welcome retreat. Sound, refreshing sleep, with dreams of -loved ones far away, renewed our strength for another advance.</p> - -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page139"><small><small>[p. 139]</small></small></a></span> -<p>The next day, August 8, a topographic station was occupied on -the summit of the Pinnacle pass cliffs. We were astir before sunrise, -and had breakfast over before four o'clock. The morning was cold, and -a cutting wind swept down the Seward glacier from the northeast. All -of the mountains were lost to view in dense clouds. A few rays of -sunshine breaking through the vapor banks above Point Glorious gave -promise of better weather during the day. Lindsley and Stamy had not -yet returned from the lower camp, where they were to obtain additional -rations; and Kerr and I concluded to try to reach the crest of the -Pinnacle pass cliffs and take the chances of the weather being -favorable for our work.</p> - -<p>Leaving camp in the early morning light, we chose to climb over the -summit of Point Glorious rather than thread the crevasses at its -northern base. Reaching the top of the point, we were still beneath -the low canopy of clouds, and could see far up the great amphitheatre -to the base of <i>Mount Owen</i>.<small><small><sup>31</sup></small></small> Descending the eastern slope, we soon -reached the floor of the amphitheatre, and found the snow smooth and -hard and not greatly crevassed. Cheered by faint promise of blue -skies, we pressed on rapidly, the snow creaking beneath our tread as -on a winter morning. Two or three hours of rapid walking brought us to -the southern wall of the amphitheatre, nearly beneath the point we -wished to occupy. As we ascended the slope the way became more -difficult, owing not only to its steepness but also to the fact that -the snow was softening, and also because great crevasses crossed our -path. Looking back over the snow we had crossed, two -well-characterized features on its surface could be distinguished: -these were large areas with a gray tint, caused by a covering of dust. -This dust comes from the southern faces of the Pinnacle pass cliffs, -and is blown over the crest of the ridge and scattered far and wide -over the snow-fields toward the north. Should the dust-covered areas -become buried beneath fresh snow, it is evident that the strata of -snow would be separated by thin layers of darker color. This is what -has happened many times, as we could see by looking down into the -crevasses. In one deep gulf I counted five distinct strata of clear -white snow, separated by narrow dust-bands. In other instances there -are twenty or more such strata visible. Each layer is evidently the -record of a snow-storm, while the dust-bands indicate intervals of -fine weather. <span class="pagenum"><a name="page140"><small><small>[p. 140]</small></small></a></span> -The strata of snow exposed to view in the -crevasses, after being greatly compressed, are usually from ten to -fifteen feet thick, but in one instance exceeded fifty feet. If we -assume that each layer represents a winter's snow, and that -compression has reduced each stratum to a third of its original -thickness (and probably the compression has been greater than this), -it is evident that the fresh snows must sometimes reach the depth of -from 50 to 150 feet.</p> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>31</sup></small> Named for David Dale Owen, -United States geologist.</small></blockquote> - -<p>Toiling on up the snow-slope, we had to wind in and out among deep -crevasses, sometimes crossing them by narrow snow-bridges, and again -jumping them and plunging our alpenstocks deep in the snow when we -reached the farther side. After many windings we reached the summit of -the Pinnacle-pass cliffs. The crest-line is formed of an outcrop of -conglomerate composed of sand and pebbles, in one layer of which I -found large quantities of mussel shells standing in the position in -which the creatures lived. The present elevation of this ancient -sea-bottom is 5,000 feet. The strata incline northward at angles of -30° to 40°. All of the northern slope of the ridge is deeply covered -with snow, and the rock only appears along the immediate crest. There -are, in fact, two crests, as is common with many mountain ridges in -this region, one of rock and the second of snow; the snow crest, which -is usually the higher, is parallel to the rock crest and a few rods -north of it. In the valley between the two ridges we found secure -footing, and ascended with ease to the highest point on the cliffs. -Looking over the southern or rocky crest, we found a sheer descent of -about 1,500 feet to the snow-fields below.</p> - -<p>The clouds diminished in density and gradually broke away, so that the -entire extent of the St. Elias range was in view, with the exception -of the crowning peak of all, which was still veiled from base to -summit. A spur of St. Elias, extending southward from the main peak, -and named <i>The Chariot</i>, gleamed brightly in the sunlight. It was the -first point on which we made observations. Stretching eastward from -St. Elias is the sharp crest of the main range, on which stand Mounts -Newton, Jeannette, Malaspina, Augusta, Logan, and several other -splendid peaks not yet named. Just to the right of Mount Augusta, on -the immediate border of the Seward glacier, rise the Corwin cliffs, -marking an immense fault-scarp of the same general character as the -one on which we stood.</p> - -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page141"><small><small>[p. 141]</small></small></a></span> -<p>Mr. Kerr endeavored at first to occupy a station on the crest of -the rocky ridge, but as the steepness of the slope and the shattered -condition of the rock rendered the station hazardous, the snow-ridge, -which was covered with dust and sand and nearly as firm as rock, was -occupied instead. The clouds parting toward the northeast revealed -several giant peaks not before seen, some of which seem to rival in -height St. Elias itself. One stranger, rising in three white domes far -above the clouds, was especially magnificent. As this was probably the -first time its summit was ever seen, we took the liberty of giving it -a name. It will appear on our maps as <i>Mount Logan</i>, in honor of Sir -William E. Logan, founder and long director of the Geological Survey -of Canada.</p> - -<p>The clouds grew denser in the east, and shut off all hope of extending -the map-work in that direction. While Kerr was making topographic -sketches I tried to decipher some of the geological history of the -region around me and make myself more familiar with its glaciers and -snow-fields.</p> - -<p>Even more remarkable than the mighty peaks toward the north, beheld -that day for the first time, was the vast plateau of ice stretching -seaward from the foot of the mountains. From my station what seemed to -be the ocean's shore near Icy bay could just be distinguished. Beyond -the bay there is a group of hills which come boldly down to the sea, -and apparently form a sea-cliff at the water's edge. Beyond this -headland there is another vast glacier extending westward to the -limits of vision. The view from this point is essentially the same as -that obtained from the cliffs at Pinnacle pass a few days earlier, -except that it is far more extended. It need not be described in detail.</p> - -<p>The clouds becoming thicker and settling in dark masses about the -mountains, we gave up all hope of further work and started for our -camp. On the way down the ridge between the crest of snow and the -crest of rock we found a stratum of sandstone filled with fossil -leaves, and near at hand another layer charged with very recent -sea-shells. Collecting all of these that we could carry, we trudged -on, finding the snow soft and some of the bridges which we had easily -crossed in the morning now weak, trembling, and insecure. We crossed -them safely, however, and, reaching the level floor of the -amphitheatre, marched wearily on toward Point Glorious. This time we -passed along the northern base of the butte at an elevation of two or -three hundred feet -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page142"><small><small>[p. 142]</small></small></a></span> -above the glacier, and, taking a convenient slide down the snow-slope, reached our tent.</p> - -<p>Soon a delicious cup of coffee was prepared, bacon was fried, and -these were put in a warm place while some griddle cakes were being -baked. A warm supper, followed by a restful pipe, ended the day. Kerr -and I were our own cooks and our own housekeepers during much of the -time we lived above the snow-line. We cleared away the remains of the -supper, and prepared our blankets for the night. One of the huge ice -pinnacles on the glacier fell with a great crash just as we were -turning in. Rain began to fall, and the night was cold and -disagreeable; how it passed I do not know, as I slept soundly. -Scarcely anything less serious than the blowing away of our tent could -have awakened me.</p> -<br> - -<center>A<small>CROSS</small> S<small>EWARD</small> G<small>LACIER -TO</small> D<small>OME</small> P<small>ASS</small>.</center> - -<p>Stormy weather and the necessity of bringing additional supplies from -Blossom island detained us at Camp 14 until August 13. We rose at -three o'clock on the morning of that day, and, after a hasty -breakfast, prepared to cross the Seward glacier. The morning was cold -but clear, and the air was bracing. Each peak and mountain crest in -the rugged landscape stood out boldly in the early light, although the -sun had not risen. Soon the summit of St. Elias became tipped with -gold, and then peak after peak, in order of their rank, caught the -radiance, and in a short time the vast snow-fields were of dazzling splendor.</p> - -<p>The frost of the night before had hardened the snow, which made -walking a pleasure. We crossed a rocky spur projecting northward from -Point Glorious into the Seward glacier, and had to lower our packs -down the side of the precipice with the aid of ropes. Our course led -at first up the border of the great glacier to a point above the head -of the rapids already referred to, then curved to the westward, and -for a mile or two coincided with the general trend of the crevasses. -We made good progress, but at length we came to where the Augusta -glacier pours its flood of ice into the main stream and, owing to its -high grade, is greatly broken. Skirting this difficult area, we passed -a number of small blue lakelets and reached the western border of the -Seward glacier. We found a gently rising snow-slope leading westward -through a gap that could be seen in hills a few miles in advance. But -little difficulty was now experienced, except that the snow -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page143"><small><small>[p. 143]</small></small></a></span> had -become soft under the summer's sun, and walking over it with heavy -loads was wearisome in the extreme. We could see, however, that the -way ahead was clear, and that encouraged us to push on. Toward night -we found a camping place on a steep ridge of shale and sandstone -projecting eastward from a spur of Mount Malaspina. This ridge rises -about five hundred feet above the surrounding glacier, and has steep -roof-like slopes. The summer sun had melted nearly all the snow from -its southern face, but the northern slope was still heavily loaded. -The snow on the northern side stood some thirty or forty feet higher -than the rocky crest of the ridge itself, and between the rock crest -and the snow crest there was a little valley which afforded ample -shelter for our tent and was quite safe from avalanches. The melting -of the snow-bank during the warm days supplied us with water.</p> - -<p>The formation of crests of snow standing high above the rocky ridges -on which they rest is a peculiar and interesting feature of the -mountains of the St. Elias region. A north-and-south section through -the ridge on which Camp 15 was situated, exhibiting the double crests, -one of rock and the other of snow, is shown at <i>a</i> in figure 6. <i>b</i> is -a section through a similar ridge with a still higher snow crest. The -remaining figures in the illustration are sketches of mountain peaks, -as seen from the south, which have been increased in height by a heavy -accumulation of snow on their northern slopes. These sketches are of -peaks among the foothills of Mount Malaspina, and show snow pinnacles -from fifty to more than a hundred feet high. In some instances, domes -and crests of snow were seen along the western sides of the ridges and -peaks, but as a rule these snow-tips on the mountains are confined to -their northern slopes. The edges and summits of the snow-ridges are -sharply defined and clearly cut. The southern slope exposed above the -crest of rock is often concave, while the northern slopes are usually convex.</p> - -<a name="fig6"></a> -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="Figure 6"> - <tr> - <td width="662"> - <img src="images/f6.jpg" alt="Snow crests"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="662" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 6—<i>Snow Crests on Ridges and Peaks; from Field - Sketches</i>.</small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p>In climbing steep ridges the double crests are frequently of great -assistance. Safe footing may frequently be found in the channels -between the crests of rock and snow, by the aid of which -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page144"><small><small>[p. 144]</small></small></a></span> very -precipitous peaks may be climbed with ease. In case the ascent between -the two crests is not practicable, the even snow-slope itself affords -a sure footing for one used to mountain climbing.</p> - -<p>After establishing Camp 15, Lindsley and Stamy returned to one of the -lower camps for additional supplies, while Kerr and I explored a way -for farther advance.</p> -<a name="plate18"></a> -<center><img src="images/18.jpg" alt="Hitchcock Range"></center> - -<p>Our camp occupied a commanding situation. From the end of the ridge on -which it was located there was a splendid view of glaciers and -mountains to the eastward. The illustration forming plate 18 is from a -photograph taken from that station. Toward the north, and only a few -miles away, rose the bare, rugged slope of Mount Malaspina. In a wild, -high-grade gorge on its western side, a glacier, all pinnacles and -crevasses, tumbles down into the broad white plain below. On account -of its splendid ice-fall this was named the <i>Cascade glacier</i>. Beyond -the white plain, stretching eastward for fifteen or twenty miles, -there rise the foothills of Mount Cook. Farther south, the rugged, -angular summits of the Hitchcock range are in full view, and toward -the north stands <i>Mount Irving</i>,<small><small><sup>32</sup></small></small> which rivals even Mount Cook in -the symmetrical proportions of its snow-covered slopes.</p> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>32</sup></small> Named in honor of Professor Roland Duer Irving, U. S. -geologist.</small></blockquote> - -<p>The surface of the vast snow-plain near at hand is gashed by many -gaping fissures, but the distance is so great that these minor details -disappear in a general view. Looking down over the snow, one may see -the crevasses as in a diagram. They look as if the white surface had -been gashed with a sharp knife, and then stretched in such a way as to -open the cuts. That the snow of the névés may be stretched, at least -to a limited extent, is shown by the character of these fissures. The -crevasses are widest in the center and come to a point at their -curving extremities. Two crevasses frequently overlap at their ends -and leave a sliver of ice stretching across diagonally between them. -It is by means of these diagonal bridges that one is enabled to thread -his way through the crevasses.</p> - -<p>On returning to camp in the evening, weary with a hard day's climb, a -never-failing source of delight was found in the matchless winter -landscape to the eastward. The evenings following days of -uninterrupted sunshine were especially delightful. The blue shadows of -the western peaks creeping across the shining surface were nearly as -sharp in outline as the peaks that cast -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page145"><small><small>[p. 145]</small></small></a></span> -them. When the chill of -evening made itself felt, and the dropping water and the indefinite -murmurs from the glacier below were stilled, the silence became -oppressive. The stillness was so profound that it seemed as though the -footsteps of the advancing shadows should be audible.</p> - -<p>On warm sunny days, however, there are noises enough amid the -mountains. The snow, partially melted and softened by the heat, falls -from the cliffs in avalanches that make the mountains tremble and, -with a roar like thunder, awaken the echoes far and near. During our -stay at Camp 15 the avalanches were sometimes so frequent on the steep -mountain faces toward the north that the roar of one falling mass of -snow and rocks was scarcely hushed before it was succeeded by another.</p> - -<p>On the southward-facing cliffs of Mount Augusta, composed of schist -which disintegrates rapidly, there are frequent rock avalanches. A -rock or a mass of comminuted schist sometimes breaks away even in -midday, although these avalanches occur most frequently when the -moisture in the rocks freezes. The midday avalanches, I fancy, may be -started by the expansion of the rocks owing to the sun's heat. A few -stones dislodged high up on the cliffs fall, and, loosening others in -their descent, soon set in motion a train of dirt and stones, which -flows down the steep ravines with a long rumbling roar, at the same -time sending clouds of dust into the air. If the wind is blowing up -the cliffs, as frequently happens on warm days, the dust is carried -far above the mountains, and hangs in the air like clouds of smoke.</p> - -<p>It has been frequently stated that St. Elias is a volcano, and sea -captains sailing on the Pacific have seen what they supposed to be -smoke issuing from its summit. As its southern face is composed of the -same kind of rocks and is of the same precipitous nature as the -southern slope of Mount Augusta, it appears probable that what was -supposed to be volcanic smoke was in reality avalanche dust blown -upward by ascending air currents.</p> - -<p>The disintegration of the mountain summits all through the St. Elias -region is so great that one constantly wonders that anything is left; -yet, except late in the fall, the snow surfaces at the bases of even -the steepest cliffs are mostly bare of débris. The absence of earth -and stones on the surfaces of the névé fields is mainly due, of -course, to the fact that these are regions of accumulation where the -winter's snow exceeds the summer's melting. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page146"><small><small>[p. 146]</small></small></a></span> -Thus each year the -surface is renewed and made fresh and clean, and any débris that may -have previously accumulated is concealed.</p> - -<p>There is another reason, however, why but little débris is found at -the bases of the steep precipices. The snows of winter are banked high -against these walls, but when the rocks are warmed by the return of -the summer's sun the snow near their dark surfaces is melted, and -leaves a deep gulf between the upward-sloping banks of snow and the -sides of the cliffs. These black chasms are frequently 150 or 200 feet -deep, and receive all the débris that falls from above. In this way -very large quantities of earth and stones are injected, as it were, -into the glacier, and only come to light again far down toward the -ends of the ice-streams, where the summer's melting exceeds the -winter's supply.</p> -<a name="plate19"></a> -<center><img src="images/19.jpg" alt="Mt. St. Elias"></center> - -<p>On August 14, Kerr and I made an excursion ahead to the border of the -Agassiz glacier. The snow-slope south of our camp led westward up a -gentle grade to a gap in the hills between two bold, snow-covered -domes. The gap through which the snow extended, uniting with a broad -snow-field sloping westward, was only a few hundred feet wide, and -formed a typical mountain pass, designated on our map as <i>Dome pass</i>. -Its elevation is 4,300 feet. When near the summit of the pass a few -steps carried us past the divide of snow, and revealed to our eager -eyes the wonderland beyond. St. Elias rose majestically before us, -unobstructed by intervening hills, and bare of clouds from base to -summit. We were greatly encouraged by the prospect ahead, as there -were evidently no obstacles between us and the actual base of the -mountain. A photograph of the magnificent peak was taken, from which -the illustration forming plate 19 has been drawn. To the right of the -main mountain mass, as shown in the illustration, rises <i>Mount -Newton</i>,<small><small><sup>33</sup></small></small> one of the many separate mountain peaks crowning the -crest of the St. Elias range. Our way led down the snow-slope in the -foreground to the border of the Agassiz glacier, which comes in view -between the foot-hills in the middle distance and the sculptured base -on which the crowning pyramid of St. Elias stands. After reaching the -Agassiz glacier we turned to the right, and made our way to the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page147"><small><small>[p. 147]</small></small></a></span> -amphitheatre lying between Mount St. Elias and Mount Newton. On the -day we discovered Dome pass, we pressed on down the western snow-slope -and reached the side of the Agassiz glacier, which we found greatly -crevassed; selecting a camping place on a rocky spur, we returned to -Camp 15, and two days later established camp at the place chosen.</p> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>33</sup></small> Named for Henry Newton, formerly of the School of Mines -of Columbia college and author of a report on the geology of the Black -hills of Dakota.</small></blockquote> - -<p>Camp 16 was similar in many ways to Camp 14. It had about the same -altitude; it was at the western end of a rugged mountain spur, and on -the immediate border of a large southward-flowing glacier. On the -lower portions of the cliffs, near at hand, there were velvety patches -of brilliant Alpine flowers mingled with thick bunches of wiry grass -and clumps of delicate ferns. Most conspicuous of all the showy -plants, so bright and lovely in the vast wilderness of snow, were the -purple lupines. Already the flowers on the lower portions of their -spikes had matured, and pods covered with a thick coating of wooly -hairs were beginning to be conspicuous. There are no bees and -butterflies in these isolated gardens, but brown flies with -long-pointed wings were abundant. A gray bird, a little larger than a -sparrow, was seen flitting in and out of crevasses near the border of -the ice, apparently in quest of insects. Once, while stretched at full -length on the flowery carpet enjoying the warm sunlight, a humming -bird flashed past me. Occasionally the hoarse cries of ravens were -heard among the cliffs, but they seldom ventured near enough to be -seen. These few suggestions were all there was to remind us of the -summer fields and shady forests in far-away lands.</p> -<br> - -<center>U<small>P THE</small> A<small>GASSIZ</small> G<small>LACIER</small>.</center> - -<p>From Camp 16 Kerr and I made an excursion across the Agassiz glacier, -while Stamy and Lindsley returned to a lower camp for additional -supplies. We found the glacier greatly crevassed and the way across -more difficult than on any of the ice-fields we had previously -traversed; but by dint of perseverance, and after many changes in our -course, we succeeded at last in reaching the western bank, and saw -that by climbing a precipice bordering an ice-cascade we could gain a -plateau above, which we knew from previous observations to be -comparatively little broken. We returned to camp, and on August 18 -began the ascent of the glacier in earnest. We were favored in the -task by brilliant weather.</p> - -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page148"><small><small>[p. 148]</small></small></a></span> -<p>After reaching the western bank of the glacier, we made our way -to the base of the precipice up which we had previously wished to -climb. In order to reach it, however, we had to throw our packs across -a crevasse over which there was no bridge, and followed them by -jumping. The side of the crevasse from which we sprang was higher than -its opposite lip, and left us very uncertain as to how we were to -return; but that was a matter for the future; our aim at the time was -to ascend the glacier, and the return was of no immediate concern.</p> - -<p>Reaching the base of the cliff at the side of the glacier, we ascended -it without great difficulty, and came out upon the broad plateau of -snow above. Thinking that the way onward would be easier along the -steep snow-slope bordering the glacier, we made an effort to ascend in -that direction, and spent two or three precious hours in trying to -find a practicable route. Although the crevasses were fewer than on -the glacier proper, yet they were of larger size and had but few -bridges. At last we came to a wide gulf on the opposite side of which -there was a perpendicular wall of snow a hundred feet high, and all -further advance in that direction was stopped. Although obliged to -turn back, our elevated position commanded a good view of the glacier -below and enabled us to choose a way through the maze of crevasses -crossing it. Descending, we plodded wearily on in an irregular zigzag -course; but the crevasses became broader and deeper as we advanced, -and at length we found ourselves traversing flat table-like blocks of -snow, bounded on all sides by crevasses so deep that their bottoms -were lost to view. We made our way from one snow-table to another by -jumping the crevasses where they were narrowest, or by frail -snow-bridges spanning the profound gulfs. Night came on while we were -yet in this wild, broken region, and no choice was left us but to -pitch our tent in the snow and wait until morning. The night was clear -and cold, and a firm crust formed on the snow before morning. Although -the temperature was uncomfortable, we were cheered by the prospects of -a firm snow surface on the morrow.</p> - -<p>We continued our march at sunrise and found the walking easy; but the -sun soon came out with unusual brilliancy and softened the snow so -much that even the slowest movements were fatiguing. We endeavored to -force our way up the center of the glacier through the crevasses and -pinnacles of a second ice-fall; but after several hours of exhausting -experience we were -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page149"><small><small>[p. 149]</small></small></a></span> -obliged to change our plan, and endeavored to -reach a mountain spur projecting from the western border of the -glacier. The sunlight reflected from the snow was extremely brilliant, -and the glare from every surface about us was painful to our eyes, -already weakened by many days' travel over the white snow. Each member -of the party was provided with colored glasses, but in traversing -snow-bridges and jumping crevasses these had to be dispensed with. The -result was that all of us were suffering more or less from snow-blindness.</p> - -<p>About noon we reached the base of the mountain spur toward which our -course was bent. It projects into the western border of Agassiz -glacier. It is the extension of this cliff underneath the glacier that -caused the ice-fall which blocked our way. To go round the end of the -cliff with our packs was impracticable, but there seemed a way up the -face of the cliff itself, which one could scale by taking advantage of -the joints in the rocks. I ascended the snow-slope to the base of the -precipice, but found the way upward more difficult than anticipated; -and, as the light was very painful to my eyes when not protected by -colored glasses, I decided to postpone making the climb until I was in -better condition, and in the meantime to see if some other route could -not be found. We decided to camp on a small patch of débris near the -base of the cliff, and there left our loads. Kerr and Lindsley, taking -a rope and alpenstocks, went around the end of the rocky spur and -worked their way upward with great difficulty to the top of the cliff -immediately above where I had essayed to climb it. A rope was made -fast at the top, and our way onward was secured. This place was -afterward called <i>Rope cliff</i>. The remainder of the afternoon I rested -in the tent, with my eyes bound up with tea-leaves, and when evening -came found the pain in my head much relieved.</p> - -<p>Our tent that night was so near the brink of a crevasse that in order -to stay the tent one end of the ridge-rope was made fast to a large -stone, which was lowered into the gulf to serve as a stake. Above us -rose a precipice nearly a thousand feet high, from which stones were -constantly falling; but a deep black gulf intervened between the -position we had chosen and the base of the cliffs, and into this the -stones were precipitated. Not one of the falling fragments reached the -edge of the snow slope on which we were camped, but many times during -the night we heard the whiz and hum of the rocks as they shot down -from the cliffs. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page150"><small><small>[p. 150]</small></small></a></span> -The noise made by each fragment in its passage -through the air increased rapidly in pitch, thus indicating that they -were approaching us; but they always fell short of our camp. The -bombardment from above was most active just after the shadows fell on -the cliffs, showing that the stones were loosened by the freezing of -the water in the interstices of the rock.</p> - -<p>The next day, August 20, Stamy and Lindsley went back to Camp 16 for -more rations, while Kerr and I remained at Camp 18 nursing our eyes -and resting. The day passed without anything worthy of note, except -the almost constant thunder of avalanches on the mountains. About -sunset a dense fog spread over the wintry landscape and threatened to -delay the return of the men. When the sun went down, however, the -temperature fell several degrees, the mist vanished, and a few stars -came out clear and bright. Just as we were about to despair of seeing -the men that night we heard a distant shout announcing their return. -We had a cup of hot coffee for them when they reached the tent, which -they drank with eagerness; but they were too tired to partake of food. -Rolling themselves in their blankets, they were asleep in a few -minutes.</p> -<br> - -<center>C<small>AMP ON THE</small> N<small>EWTON</small> G<small>LACIER</small>.</center> - -<p>On August 21 we climbed the cliff above Camp 18 by means of the rope -already placed there, and found the snow above greatly crevassed. We -traveled upward along the steep slope bordering the glacier, but soon -came to a deep crevasse which forbade further progress in that -direction. Returning to a lower level, we undertook to smooth off an -extremely narrow snow-bridge so as to make it wide enough to cross, -but found the undertaking so hazardous that we abandoned it. By this -time it was midday, and we prepared a cup of hot coffee before -renewing our attack on the cliffs. After luncheon and a short rest, -feeling very much refreshed, we began to cut a series of steps in a -bluff of snow about fifty feet high, and made rapid progress in the -undertaking. After an hour's hard work one of us reached the top and, -planting an alpenstock deep in the snow, lowered a rope to those -below. The packs were drawn up one at a time and we were soon ready to -advance again.</p> - -<p>We found ourselves in a vast amphitheatre bounded on all sides -excepting that from which we had come with rugged, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page151"><small><small>[p. 151]</small></small></a></span> snow-covered -precipices. The plain was crossed by huge crevasses, some of which -were fully a mile in length; but by traveling around their ends or -crossing snow-bridges we slowly worked our way onward toward St. -Elias. Threading our way through the labyrinth of yawning gulfs, we at -last, after the sun had gone down behind the great pyramid toward the -west, found a convenient place on the snow, near a blue pond of water, -on which to pass the night. Everything was snow-covered in the vast -landscape except the most precipitous cliffs, and these were dangerous -to approach, owing to the avalanches that frequently fell from them. -The weather continued fine. The night was clear and the stars were -unusually brilliant. Everything seemed favorable for pushing on. The -way ahead presented such even snow-slopes and seemed so free from -crevasses that we decided to leave our tent and blankets in the -morning and, taking with us as little as possible of impedimenta, -endeavor to reach the summit of St. Elias.</p> -<br> - -<center>H<small>IGHEST</small> P<small>OINT REACHED</small>.</center> - -<p>Rising at three o'clock on the morning of August 22, we started for -the summit of St. Elias, taking with us only our water-proof coats, -some food, and the necessary instruments. The higher mountain summits -were no longer clearly defined, but in the early light it was -impossible to tell whether or not the day was to be fair. From the -highest and sharpest peaks, cloud banners were streaming off towards -the southeast, showing that the higher air currents were in rapid -movement. Vapor banks in the east were flushed with long streamers of -light as the sun rose, but soon faded to a dull ashen gray, while the -cloud banners between us and the sun became brilliant like the halo -seen around the moon when the sky is covered with fleecy clouds. This -was the first time in my experience that I had seen colored banners -waving from the mountain tops.</p> - -<p>We found the snow-surface hard, and made rapid headway up the glacier. -Our only difficulty was the uncertainty of the early light, which -rendered it impossible to tell the slope of the uneven snow-surfaces. -The light was so evenly diffused that there were no shadows. The rare -beauty of that silent, wintry landscape, so delicate in its pearly -half tones and so softly lighted, was unreal and fairy-like. The winds -were still; but -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page152"><small><small>[p. 152]</small></small></a></span> -strange forebodings of coming changes filled the -air. Long, waving threads of vapor were woven in lace-work across the -sky; the white-robed mountains were partially concealed by -cloud-masses drifting like spirits along their mighty battlements; and -far, far above, from the topmost pinnacles, irised banners were -signaling the coming of a storm.</p> - -<p>We made rapid progress, but early in the day came to the base of a -heavy cloud bank which enshrouded all the upper part of St. Elias. -Then snow began to fall, and it was evident that to proceed farther -would be rash and without promise of success. After twenty days of -fatigue and hardship since leaving Blossom island, with our goal -almost reached, we were obliged to turn back. Hoping to be able to -renew the attempt after the storm had passed, Mr. Kerr left his -instruments on the snow between two huge crevasses and we returned to -our tent, where we passed the remainder of the day and the night -following. The snow continued to fall throughout the day, and the -storm increased in force as night came on. When we awoke in the -morning the tempest was still raging. We were in the midst of the -storm-cloud; the dense vapor and the fine drifting snow-crystals swept -along by the wind obscured everything from view; the white snow -surface could not be distinguished from the vapor-filled air; there -was no earth and no sky; we seemed to be suspended in a white, -translucent medium which surrounded us like a shroud. The snow was -already more than three feet deep about our tent, and to remain longer -with the short supply of provisions on hand was exceedingly hazardous, -as there seemed no limit to the duration of the storm. A can of -rations had been left at Rope cliff, and we decided to return to that -place if possible. Resuming our packs, we roped ourselves together and -began to descend through the blinding mist and snow which rendered the -atmosphere so dense that a man could not be distinguished at a -distance of a hundred feet. With only an occasional glimpse of the -white cliff around to guide us, we worked our way downward over -snow-bridges and between the crevasses. Our ascent through this -dangerous region had been slow and difficult, but our descent was -still more tedious. All day long we continued to creep slowly along -through the blinding storm, and as night approached believed ourselves -near the steps cut in a snow-cliff during the ascent, but darkness -came before we reached them. Shoveling the snow away as best we could -with our hands and -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page153"><small><small>[p. 153]</small></small></a></span> -basins, we cleared a place down to the old -snow large enough for our tent and went into camp.</p> - -<p>In the morning, August 24, the storm had spent its force and left the -mountains with an immaculate covering, but still partially veiled by -shreds of storm-clouds. We found ourselves on one of the many tables -of snow, bounded on all sides by crevasses of great depth, but not far -from the snow-cliff where we had cut steps. The steps were obliterated -by the new snow, but by means of a rope and alpenstocks we made the -descent without much difficulty. The last man to go down, not having -the help of the rope, used two alpenstocks, and descended by first -planting one firmly in the snow and lowering himself as far as he -could, still retaining a firm hold, and then planting the other in the -snow at a lower level and removing the higher one. By slowly and -carefully repeating this operation he descended the cliff safely and -rejoined his companions. Passing on beneath the cliffs, dangerous on -account of avalanches, we reached in safety the precipice where we had -left our rope. A heavy avalanche had swept down from the heights above -during our absence and sent its spray over the precipice we had to -descend. The cliff of ice towering above the place where our rope was -fastened had become greatly melted and honey-combed, and threatened -every moment to crash down and destroy any one who chanced to be -beneath. To stand above the precipice in the shadow of the treacherous -snow-cliffs while the men were descending the rope was exceedingly -trying to one's nerves; but the avalanches did not come, and the -previous camping place below Rope cliff was reached with safety.</p> - -<p>The following day, August 25, after some consultation, it was decided -to once more attempt to reach the top of Mount St. Elias. Lindsley and -Stamy, who had shared without complaint our privations in the snow, -volunteered to descend to a lower camp for additional rations, while -Kerr and myself returned to the higher camp in the hope that we might -be able to ascend the peak before the men returned, and, if not, to -have sufficient rations when they did rejoin us to continue the -attack. The men departed on their difficult errand, while Kerr and I, -with blankets, tents, oil-stoves, and what rations remained, once more -scaled the cliff where we had placed a rope, and returned on the trail -made the day previously. About noon we reached the excavation in the -snow where we had bivouacked in the storm, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page154"><small><small>[p. 154]</small></small></a></span> -and there prepared a -lunch. It was then discovered that we had been mistaken as to the -quantity of oil in our cans; we found scarcely enough to cook a single -meal. To attempt to remain several days in the snow with this small -supply of fuel seemed hazardous, and Mr. Kerr volunteered to descend -and overtake the men at the lower camp, procure some oil, and return -the following day. We then separated, Mr. Kerr starting down the -mountain, leaving me with a double load, weighing between sixty and -seventy pounds, to carry through the deep snow to the high camp -previously occupied.</p> -<br> - -<center>A<small>LONE IN THE HIGHEST</small> C<small>AMP</small>.</center> - -<p>Trudging wearily on, I reached the high camp at sunset, and pitched my -tent in the excavation previously occupied. An alpenstock was used for -one tent-pole, and snow saturated with water, piled up in a column, -for the other; the snow froze in a few minutes, and held the tent -securely. The ends of the ridge-rope were then stamped into the snow, -and water was poured over them; the edges of the tent were treated in -a similar manner, and my shelter was ready for occupation. After -cooking some supper over the oil-stove, I rolled myself in a blanket -and slept the sleep of the weary. I was awakened in the morning by -snow drifting into my tent, and on looking out discovered that I was -again caught in a blinding storm or mist of snow. The storm raged all -day and all night, and continued without interruption until the -evening of the second day. The coal oil becoming exhausted, a can was -filled with bacon grease, in which a cotton rag was placed for a wick; -and over this "witch lamp" I did my cooking during the remainder of my -stay. The snow, falling steadily, soon buried my tent, already -surrounded on three sides by an icy wall higher than my head, and it -was only by almost constant exertion that it was kept from being -crushed in. With a pint basin for a shovel I cleared the tent as best -I could, and several times during the day re-excavated the hole -leading down to the pond, which had long since disappeared beneath the -level plain of white. The excavation of a tunnel in the snow was also -begun in the expectation that the tent would become uninhabitable. The -following night it became impossible to keep the tent clear in spite -of energetic efforts, and early in the morning it was crushed in by a -great weight of snow, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page155"><small><small>[p. 155]</small></small></a></span> -leaving me no alternative but to finish my -snow-house and move in. A tunnel some four or five feet in length was -excavated in the snow, and a chamber about six feet long by four feet -wide and three feet high was made at right angles to the tunnel. In -this chamber I placed my blankets and other belongings, and, hanging a -rubber coat on an alpenstock at the entrance, found myself well -sheltered from the tempest. There I passed the day and the night -following. At night the darkness and silence in my narrow tomb-like -cell was oppressive; not a sound broke the stillness except the -distant, muffled roar of an occasional avalanche. I slept soundly, -however, and in the morning was awakened by the croaking of a raven on -the snow immediately above my head. The grotto was filled with a soft -blue light, but a pink radiance at the entrance told that the day had -dawned bright and clear.</p> - -<p>What a glorious sight awaited me! The heavens were without a cloud, -and the sun shone with dazzling splendor on the white peaks around. -The broad unbroken snow-plain seemed to burn with light reflected from -millions of shining crystals. The great mountain peaks were draped -from base to summit in the purest white, as yet unscarred by -avalanches. On the steep cliffs the snow hung in folds like drapery, -tier above tier, while the angular peaks above stood out like crystals -against the sky. St. Elias was one vast pyramid of alabaster. The -winds were still; not a sound broke the solitude; not an object moved. -Even the raven had gone, leaving me alone with the mountains.</p> - -<p>As the sun rose higher and higher and made its warmth felt, the snow -was loosened on the steep slopes and here and there broke away. -Gathering force as it fell, it rushed down in avalanches that made the -mountains tremble and awakened thunderous echoes. From a small -beginning high up on the steep slopes, the new snow would slip -downward, silently at first, and cascade over precipices hundreds of -feet high, looking like a fall of foaming water; then came the roar, -increasing in volume as the flowing snow involved new fields in its -path of destruction, until the great mass became irresistible and -ploughed its way downward through clouds of snow-spray, which hung in -the air long after the snow had ceased to move and the roar of the -avalanche had ceased. All day long, until the shadow of evening fell -on the steep slopes, this mountain thunder continued. The echoes of -one avalanche scarcely died away before they were -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page156"><small><small>[p. 156]</small></small></a></span> awakened by -another roar. To witness such a scene under the most favorable -conditions was worth all the privations and anxiety it cost.</p> - -<p>Besides the streams of new snow, there were occasional avalanches of a -different character, caused by the breaking away of portions of the -cliffs of old snow, accumulated, perhaps, during several winters. -These start from the summits of precipices, and are caused by the slow -downward creep of the snow-fields above. The snow-cliffs are always -crevassed and broken in much the same manner as are the ends of -glaciers which enter the sea, and occasionally large masses, -containing thousands of cubic yards, break away and are precipitated -down the slopes with a suddenness that is always startling. Usually -the first announcement of these avalanches is a report like that of a -cannon, followed by a rumbling roar as the descending mass ploughs its -way along. The avalanches formed by old snow are quite different from -those caused by the descent of the new surface snow, but are -frequently accompanied by surface streams in case there has been a -recent storm. The paths ploughed out by the avalanches are frequently -sheathed with glassy ice, formed by the freezing of water produced by -the melting of snow on account of the heat produced by the friction of -the moving mass. A third variety of avalanches, due to falling stones, -has already been noticed.</p> - -<p>The floor of my snow-chamber was the surface of the old snow on which -we had pitched our tents at the time we first reached that camping -place. On this hard surface, and forming the walls of the cell, there -were thirty inches of clear white snow, the upper limit of which was -marked by a blue layer of ice about a quarter of an inch thick. This -indicated the thickness of snow that fell during the first storm. Its -surface had been melted and softened during the days of sunshine that -followed its fall, and had frozen into clear ice. Above the blue band -which encircled the upper portion of my chamber was the soft, pure -white snow of the second storm. The stratification of snow which I had -seen fall rendered it evident that my interpretation of the -stratification observed in the sides of crevasses was correct. The -snow when it fell was soft and white, and composed of very fine -crystals; but under the influence of the air and sunshine it changed -its texture and became icy and granular, and then resembled the névé -snow so common in high mountains.</p> - -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page157"><small><small>[p. 157]</small></small></a></span> -<p>The day following the storm was bright and beautiful; the -sunlight was warm and pleasant, but the temperature in the shadows was -always below freezing. The surface of the snow did not melt -sufficiently during the day to freeze and form a crust during the -night. It thus became more and more apparent that the season was too -far advanced to allow the snow to harden sufficiently for us to be -able to climb the mountain. The snow settled somewhat and changed its -character, but even at midday the crystals on the surface glittered as -brilliantly in the sunlight as they did in the early morning. Although -the snow did not melt, its surface was lowered slightly by -evaporation. The tracks of the raven, at first sunken a quarter of an -inch in the soft surface, after the first day of sunshine stood -slightly in relief, but were still clearly defined.</p> -<br> - -<p>On the sixth day after separating from my companions, judging that -they must have returned at least to the camping place where we had -separated, I packed my blankets and what food remained, abandoned the -tent and oil-stove, and started to descend the mountain. The snow had -settled somewhat, but was still soft and yielding and over six feet -deep. Tramping wearily on through the chaff-like substance, I slowly -worked my way downward, and again threaded the maze of crevasses, now -partially concealed by the layer of new snow, with which we had -struggled several times before. Midway to the next camping place I met -my companions coming up to search for me. Instead of meeting three -men, as I expected, I saw five tramping along in single file through -the deep snow. The sight of human beings in that vast solitude was so -strange that I watched them for some time before shouting. Glad as I -was to meet my companions once more, I could not help noticing their -rough and picturesque appearance. Each man wore colored glasses and -carried a long alpenstock, and two or three had packs strapped on -their backs. Several weeks of hard tramping over moraines and -snow-fields had made many rents in their clothes, which had been -mended with cloth of any color that chanced to be available. Not a few -rags were visible fluttering in the wind. To a stranger they would -have appeared like a dangerous band of brigands.</p> - -<p>The reason for the presence of five men instead of three was this: -Lindsley and Stamy, when they left us at Rope cliff to -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page158"><small><small>[p. 158]</small></small></a></span> return -for additional rations, were obliged to go back to Camp 12 in order to -get a tent and an oil-stove. On reaching that place the temptation to -return to Blossom island was so great that Lindsley could not resist -it and went back to the base-camp, where he reported that Kerr and I -were storm-bound in the mountains and in need of assistance. Three -men, Partridge, Doney, and White, started at once, and found Stamy, -who had waited for their arrival at Camp 12. A day was thus lost, -which increased Mr. Kerr's hardship and might have proved disastrous. -The party then returned to Rope cliff and joined Kerr on the evening -of August 29. On this occasion, as on several others, I found myself -indebted to Stamy for willing assistance when others hesitated.</p> - -<p>During my imprisonment at the highest camp, Mr. Kerr was detained -under similar circumstances at the camp below Rope cliff. On -endeavoring to rejoin me with the supply of coal oil, so very valuable -under the circumstances, he was caught in the storm and was unable to -reach the rendezvous appointed. He reached Rope cliff late in the -afternoon of the first day of the storm, climbed the precipice, and -found his way through the gathering darkness, along the nearly -obliterated trail beneath the avalanche cliffs, and up the steps cut -in the snow-cliff, to the site of our bivouac camp. Finding nothing -there, and being unable to proceed farther through the blinding storm, -he abandoned the attempt and returned to the camp below Rope cliff. In -descending the rope, he found that its lower end had become fast in -the snow. The taut line, sheathed with ice, was an uncertain help in -the darkness. Midway in the descent his hands slipped and he slid to -the bottom; but the cushion of new snow broke the fall and prevented -serious injury. Alone, without fire, without blankets, having only a -canvas cover and a rubber cloth for shelter, and with but little food, -he passed three anxious days and nights before the arrival of the camp hands.</p> -<br> - -<center>T<small>HE</small> R<small>ETURN</small>.</center> - -<p>Deciding that the ascent of Mount St. Elias could not be accomplished -through the new snow, which refused to harden, it was decided to -abandon the attempt and return to Blossom island. Our retreat was none -too soon. Storm succeeded storm throughout September. Each time the -clouds lifted, the mantle -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page159"><small><small>[p. 159]</small></small></a></span> -of new snow was seen to have descended -lower and lower. Our last view showed the wintry covering nearly down -to timber-line.</p> - -<p>On the night of August 31 we slept at the camp beneath Rope cliff, but -had a most uncomfortable night. Six men sleeping in a tent measuring -seven by seven feet, with but little protection from the ice beneath, -certainly does not seem inviting to one surrounded by the comforts of -civilization. A large part of the night was occupied by Doney in -preparing breakfast over our oil-stove. An early start was welcome to -all; we were disappointed at not being able to reach the top of St. -Elias, and were anxious to return to more comfortable quarters. Kerr -concluded to return at once to Blossom island to recuperate, while I -made an excursion up the Seward glacier, with the hope of gaining the -upper ice-fall and seeing the amphitheatre beyond.</p> - -<p>We left Rope cliff about six in the morning, and found the snow hard -and traveling easy for several hours. After descending the lower -ice-fall, however, the snow became soft, and a change in the -atmosphere indicated the approach of another storm. Kerr and Doney -pressed on and were soon lost to sight, while the rest of the party -were delayed, owing to Partridge having become snow-blind and almost -helpless. As the crevasses were exceedingly numerous and the -snow-bridges soft and uncertain, the task of conducting a blind man to -a place of safety was by no means light. Partridge bore up bravely -under his affliction, however, and did not hesitate in crawling across -the treacherous snow-bridges with a rope fastened about his body and a -man before and behind to assist his movements. Late in the day we -reached our camping place at the eastern border of the Agassiz -glacier, while Kerr and Doney crossed Dome pass and spent the night in -a tent that had been left standing at the first camping east of the -pass. We pitched a tent on our old camping place at Camp 16, and had -the luxury of a rocky bed to sleep on that night. As Partridge's -blindness still continued, White was sent ahead to tell Kerr and Doney -to wait for us in the morning, so that Partridge could accompany them -to Blossom island. Rain continued all that night and all the next day. -As Partridge's eyes were still unserviceable in the morning, I -concluded to wait a day before allowing him to start for Blossom island.</p> - -<p>Toward evening on September 2 we moved our camp across -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page160"><small><small>[p. 160]</small></small></a></span> Dome -pass, and pitched our tent on the high ridge beside the one occupied -by Kerr and Doney. In the morning, although the storm still continued, -our party divided, Kerr, Doney, and Partridge starting early for -Blossom island, while Stamy, White, and myself, after following their -tracks for a few miles, turned to the left and worked our way -northeastward among the crevasses of the Seward glacier. Toward -evening we reached the northwestern spur of Mount Owen, but found the -cliffs rising abruptly from the glacier and too favorable for -avalanches to admit of our camping near them. Again we were forced to -go into camp on the open glacier, and were less comfortable than -previously on similar occasions, owing to the fact that we had been -exposed to the rains for three successive days and our blankets and -clothes were wet. Rain continued all night and all the next day, and -on the following night changed to snow.</p> - -<p>On the morning of September 4 we awoke to find the skies clear, but -the mountains all about us were white with snow. Before the sun rose, -White and I started for the top of the high ridge above us, determined -to have at least a distant view of the amphitheatre which we wished to -explore. The snow about our camp was only six or eight inches deep, -but as we ascended the mountain it grew more and more troublesome, and -at a height of a thousand feet above camp was thirty inches deep. On -gaining the summit of the ridge a magnificent view was obtained of the -upper portion of the Seward glacier and of Mount Irving and Mount -Logan, and many bold, tapering mountains farther northeastward. The -whole landscape was snow-covered, and as the sun rose clear in the -east became of the most dazzling brilliancy. An icy wind swept down -from the northeast and rendered it exceedingly difficult to take -photographs or to make measurements. On endeavoring to use my -prismatic compass, I found that, having been soaked with moisture -during the previous days of storm, it froze solid and refused to move, -on being exposed to the air. Making what observations I could, we -started back to camp with the intention of abandoning all further -attempts to work in the high mountains.</p> - -<p>On the steep slope now exposed to the full sunshine several avalanches -had gone down, and there was great danger of others. Selecting a point -where an avalanche had already swept away the new snow, we worked our -way downward in a zigzag course and reached the bottom safely, -although an avalanche starting -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page161"><small><small>[p. 161]</small></small></a></span> -near at hand swept by within a -few yards. When nearly at the bottom my attention was attracted by a -noise above, and on looking up I saw two rocks bounding down the slope -and coming straight for me. To dodge them on the steep slippery slope -was difficult and dangerous. Allowing one to pass over my right -shoulder, I instantly moved in that direction and allowed the other to -pass over my left shoulder. They shot by me like fragments of shells, -but did no injury. Reaching camp, we found that Stamy had dried our -blankets and clothes.</p> - -<p>Resuming our packs, we slowly threaded our way downward to Camp 14, at -the western end of the Pinnacle pass cliffs. We there found cans of -rations left several days before and, pitching our tent, passed the -night. We knew by the signs found there that Kerr and his companions, -after taking lunch, had renewed their journey toward Blossom island. -Our camp was just at the lower limit of the new snow. To the northward -all was of the purest white, but southward, down the glacier, the -snow-fields were yellow and much discolored. Many changes had taken -place in the Seward glacier since we first saw it; the pinnacles, -snow-tables, and crevasses in the rapids were less striking than -formerly, and had evidently suffered greatly from the summer's heat. -About the bases of the cliffs there were dark, irregular patches of -débris, where a month previously all was white. As nearly as could be -judged, the surface of the glacier had been lowered by melting and -settling during our absence about fifty feet.</p> - -<p>The following morning, September 5, we started for Blossom island, the -weather still continuing thick and stormy. On crossing Pinnacle pass -we found over a foot of new snow which had fallen since our companions -passed that way. Toward nightfall the lower limit of snow on the -Marvine glacier was reached, and at night we camped on the first -moraines which appeared below the névé. The day following, September -6, we reached Blossom island about noon, and found that Kerr and his -party had arrived there safely, and that Partridge had recovered from -his snow-blindness.</p> -<br> - -<p>Our stay above the snow-line had lasted thirty-five days, and we were -extremely glad to see the light of a camp-fire and have the trees and -flowers about us once more. The vegetation indicated that the season -was already far advanced. Most of the flowers had faded, and autumn -tints gave brilliancy to the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page162"><small><small>[p. 162]</small></small></a></span> -lower mountain slopes; salmon -berries and huckleberries were in profusion, and furnished an -exceedingly agreeable change in our diet. After a bath in one of the -small lakelets on the island and a good night's rest on a luxuriant -bed of spruce boughs, we felt fully restored and ready for another -campaign.</p> - -<p>As Kerr was anxious to get back to Port Mulgrave, it was arranged that -Lindsley and Partridge should go with him, and that the rest of the -men should remain. Kerr took his departure on the morning of September -7, and on the following day Christie, Doney, and myself crossed the -Marvine glacier to the southern end of the Hitchcock range, and the -following day made an excursion out upon the Malaspina glacier. The -day of our excursion was bright and beautiful, and the mountains to -the northward revealed their full magnificence. The level plateau of -ice formed a horizontal plain, from which the mountain rose -precipitously and appeared grander and more majestic than from any -other point of view. St. Elias rose clear and sharp, without a cloud -to obscure its dizzy height, and appeared to be one sheer precipice. -It is doubtful if a more impressive mountain face exists anywhere else -in the world. After learning all we could concerning the Malaspina -glacier we returned to our camp at the end of the Hitchcock range, and -the following day tramped across the extremely rough moraine-covered -surface back to Blossom island.</p> - -<p>The following morning, September 12, we started on our return trip to -Yakutat bay. Two small tents and many articles for which we had no -further use were abandoned, so as to make our packs light as possible. -We crossed the Hayden glacier, and at night camped at the foot of -Floral pass. After making two intermediate camps, traveling each day -in the rain, we reached the shore of Yakutat bay on September 15.</p> - -<p>Doney and I halted at Dalton's cabin for the purpose of seeing what we -could of the openings there made for coal, while the rest of the party -pressed on to our old camping place on the shore. There they found -Kerr and his party still encamped, but ready to leave for Port -Mulgrave early the next morning.</p> - -<p>September 18 was occupied by us in catching salmon and trout. We were -abundantly successful, as every man returned to camp with all that he -could carry. These were spread out on a rack over our camp-fire and -smoked for further use, as we did not know how long our stay would be -extended. On the next day Stamy and Lindsley returned from Port -Mulgrave, where they -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page163"><small><small>[p. 163]</small></small></a></span> -had left Kerr, quite recovered from his -exposure on the mountain. Stormy weather continued, and a gale from -the northeast piled the ice high on the beach and threatened to sweep -away our tents, as has already been briefly described in earlier pages.</p> - -<p>On September 20, our tents having been beaten in by a violent storm -and our camping place overflowed by the waters from a lake above us, -we removed our goods to a place of safety and went to Dalton's cabin, -where we awaited better weather. The morning of September 23 dawned -clear and bright, and after drying our clothes around a blazing -camp-fire, we started back to our camping place on the shore. Before -reaching there, however, we were rejoiced to see the <i>Corwin</i> coming -up the bay. It took us but a short time to get on board, where Captain -C. L. Hooper, her commander, did everything in his power to make us -welcome and comfortable. To him we are indebted for a delightful -voyage back to civilization.</p> - -<p>After steaming up Disenchantment bay nearly to the ice-cliffs of the -Hubbard glacier, and obtaining a fine view of the glaciers about -Disenchantment bay, the <i>Corwin</i> returned to Port Mulgrave and, on -September 25, put to sea. After a splendid ocean passage, we arrived -at Port Townsend on October 2.</p> -<br> - -<p>During our stay in Alaska not a man was seriously sick and not an -accident happened. The work planned at the start was carried out -almost to the letter, with the exception that snow-storms and the -lateness of the season did not permit us to reach the summit of Mount St. Elias.</p> -<br> - -<center>S<small>UGGESTIONS</small>.</center> - -<p>Should another attempt be made to climb Mount St. Elias, the shortest -and most practicable route from the coast would be to land at Icy bay -and ascend the Agassiz glacier. The course taken by us in 1890 could -be intersected just north of where the tributary glacier from Dome -pass joins the main ice-stream; and from there the route followed last -summer would be the most practicable. A camp should be established on -the divide between Mount St. Elias and Mount Newton, from which -excursions to either of these peaks could be made in a single day.</p> - -<p>In the preceding narrative many details have been omitted. One of -these is that tents, together with blankets, rations, etc., were left -at two convenient points between Blossom island and -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page164"><small><small>[p. 164]</small></small></a></span> the Agassiz -glacier, and were used by the men in bringing up supplies. In -attempting to ascend Mount St. Elias from Icy bay by the route -suggested, at least three such relay stations should be established -between the Chaix hills, where wood for camp-fires can be obtained (as -is known from the reports of the New York <i>Times</i> and Topham -expeditions), and the high camp on the divide. The relay camps -suggested should be one day's march apart, and would serve not only -for stopping places while carrying rations during the advance, but -would furnish a line of retreat. A party making this journey should be -provided with snow-shoes, which unfortunately we did not take with us.</p> - -<p>All rations intended for use above the snow-line should be packed in -tin cans, each of sufficient size to hold between fifty and sixty -pounds, and each should be securely soldered. All articles packed in -this way should be thoroughly dry and should be packed in a dry, warm -room. When secured in this manner they are about as easy to carry as -if packed in bags, and can be "cached" anywhere out of the reach of -floods and avalanches, with the certainty of being serviceable when -wanted. The more perishable articles to be used where camp-fires are -possible should also be secured in tin cans. Sacks of flour, -corn-meal, etc., should be protected by an outer covering of strong -canvas. The experience of last summer showed that the cans of rations -intended for use above the snow-line should each contain about the -following ration, which may be varied to suit individual taste:</p> - -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="4" cellpadding="0" summary="Expedition supplies"> - <tr> - <td>Bacon, smoked</td> - <td align="right">10</td> - <td align="center">lbs.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Corned beef, in can</td> - <td align="right">6</td> - <td align="center">"</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Flour and corn-meal, with - necessary <br> quantity of baking powder</td> - <td align="right" valign="top">15</td> - <td align="center" valign="top">"</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Coffee</td> - <td align="right">2</td> - <td align="center">"</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Rolled oats</td> - <td align="right">5</td> - <td align="center">"</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Sugar</td> - <td align="right">5</td> - <td align="center">"</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Chocolate, sweet</td> - <td align="right">2</td> - <td align="center">"</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Salt</td> - <td align="right">¼</td> - <td align="center">"</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Extract of beef</td> - <td align="right">¼</td> - <td align="center">"</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Tobacco</td> - <td align="right">½</td> - <td align="center">"</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Condensed milk (small cans)</td> - <td align="right">2</td> - <td align="center"> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Matches (wax)</td> - <td align="right">1</td> - <td align="center">box.</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p>Our experience with oil-stoves showed that they are serviceable. While -on the march they can be carried as hand packs in -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page165"><small><small>[p. 165]</small></small></a></span> gunny-sacks. -Rectangular cans holding about a gallon each, with small screw-tops, -were found convenient for carrying coal oil. The experience of Arctic -explorers indicates that alcohol would perhaps be better than coal oil -to use in snow-camps.</p> - -<p>Among the most important articles to be provided are strong shoes or -boots; of these each man should have at least two pairs. Strong -hip-boots, with lacings over the instep, are exceedingly serviceable. -When sleeping on the ice the boot-legs may be spread beneath one's -blankets and the feet used as a pillow. The long legs are serviceable -alike in the thick brush on the shore and in the deep snow on the high -mountains. With their protection, many streams can be waded without -getting wet. Leather, waxed ends, awls, etc., for repairing boots, and -tallow mixed with bees-wax for greasing them, should be taken and -distributed in part through the cans of rations. Heavy woolen socks -are indispensable, and an effort should be made to have a dry pair -always at hand. This may be arranged, even under the most unfavorable -conditions, by drying a pair as thoroughly as is convenient and -carrying them in the bosom of one's shirt.</p> - -<p>Long alpenstocks are always necessary. My own choice is a stiff one of -hickory, about six feet long and an inch and a quarter in diameter, -provided with a spike and hook at one end and a chisel about two -inches broad at the other. Ice axes are desirable while climbing in -the high mountains, but even more serviceable are light axes of the -usual pattern, but with handles about fourteen inches long; these -supplement the alpenstock, and when not actually in use are carried in -the packs.</p> - -<p>Each man should be provided with a water-tight match-box, and should -have, besides, a bundle of wax matches wrapped in oil-cloth and sewed -in the collar of his shirt, to be held as a last reserve. Each man -should also have a small water-tight bag in which to carry salt enough -to last a week or ten days, in case he has to live by hunting or -fishing. A heavy hunting knife is very convenient, and can be used not -only in cutting trails through thick brush, but in cases of necessity -is serviceable in making steps in ice. Heavy woolen clothing is -preferable to furs. Sleeping bags were not used during our expedition, -but are highly recommended by others. For protection at night, a thick -woolen blanket with a light canvas cover and a sheet of light rubber -cloth to protect it are all that is necessary. Our tents were of -cotton drilling, seven feet square and about six feet high, and -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page166"><small><small>[p. 166]</small></small></a></span> -provided with ridge-ropes. Alpenstocks were used for tent poles. -"Sou'westers" and strong water-proof coats are indispensable in a -climate like that of Alaska, and at night may be used as a substratum -on which to sleep. While traveling over the snow-line we used colored -glasses to protect the eyes, and also found that a strip of dark -mosquito netting tied across the face below the eyes afforded great -protection. Some of the party found relief from the glare of the snow -by blacking their faces with grease and burnt cork, but one experiment -with that method is usually enough. While camping below timber-line -during the months of June to September fine mosquito netting is -indispensable. In carrying packs, hemp "cod-line" of the largest size -was found to answer every requirement, and is preferred by expert -packers to pack-straps.</p> - -<p>It has been suggested that experienced Swiss guides are necessary to -ensure success in climbing Mount St. Elias. Having never followed a -guide in the mountains, I am not able to judge of their efficiency, -but it must be remembered that no one can <i>guide</i> in a region that has -never been traversed. The "guide" as understood in Europe is unknown -in America. In the exploration of this country by engineers, -geologists, etc., the camp hands have followed their leaders and have -not shown them the way. In every frontier town there are hunters, -trappers, miners, prospectors, cow-boys, voyageurs, etc.—men who have -passed their lives on the plains or among "the hills" and are enured -to hardship and danger. This is the best material in the world from -which to recruit an exploring party. A foreigner engaging the services -of such men must take into account the independent spirit that -animates them and is the secret of their usefulness. They are not -servants, but retainers; that too in regions far beyond the reach of -civil law. They will follow their leader anywhere, support him in all -dangers, and do their work faithfully so long as their rights as men -are respected.</p> - -<p>By taking proper precautions while traveling across crevassed snow and -ice, and guarding against avalanches and snow-blindness, an excursion -can be made above the snow-line with as little danger as in better -known and more frequented regions.</p> -<br> -<br> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page167"><small><small>[p. 167]</small></small></a></span> -<br> -<br> -<h4>PART III.</h4> - -<h3>SKETCH OF THE GEOLOGY OF THE ST. ELIAS REGION.</h3> -<br> - -<center>G<small>ENERAL</small> F<small>EATURES</small>.</center> - -<p>In the preceding narrative, many references have been made to the -character of the rocks and to the geological structure of the region -explored. It was not practicable during the journey to carry on -detailed geological studies, but such facts as were noted are of -interest, for this reason, if for no other: they relate to a country -previously unknown.</p> - -<p>My reconnoissance enabled me to determine that there are three -well-defined formations in the St. Elias region. These are—</p> - -<blockquote>1. The sandstones and shales about Yakutat bay and westward along the -foot of the mountain to Icy bay, named the <i>Yakutat system</i>.</blockquote> - -<blockquote>2. A system of probably later date, composed of shale, conglomerate, -limestone, sandstone, etc., best exposed in the cliffs of Pinnacle -pass and along the northern and western borders of the Samovar hills, -and named the <i>Pinnacle system</i>.</blockquote> - -<blockquote>3. The metamorphic rocks of the main St. Elias range, called the <i>St. -Elias schist</i>.</blockquote> -<br> - -<center>Y<small>AKUTAT</small> S<small>YSTEM</small>.</center> - -<p>The rocks of this system are of gray and brown sandstones and nearly -black shales. They are uniform in lithological character over a large -area, and are usually greatly crushed and seamed. So great has been -the crushing to which they have been subjected that it is difficult to -work out a hand specimen with fresh surfaces. Fragments broken out -with a hammer are almost invariably bounded by plains of previous -crushing, and are usually somewhat weathered.</p> - -<p>These rocks form the bold shores of Yakutat and Disenchantment bays, -and were the only rocks seen along our route from Yakutat bay to -Pinnacle pass. The whole of the Hitchcock range is composed of rocks -of this series, as are also the Chaix -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page168"><small><small>[p. 168]</small></small></a></span> -hills and the hills west -of Icy bay and the southern portion of the Samovar hills. North of -Pinnacle pass there are rocks undistinguishable lithogically from -those about Yakutat bay. These are exposed in Mount Owen and on each -side of Dome pass; they also form the bold spurs about the immediate -bases of Mount Augusta, Mount Malaspina, and Mount St. Elias. In the -three instances last named these rocks dip beneath the schist forming -the crest of the St. Elias range, and it is probable that a great -overthrust there took place before the formation of the faults to -which the present relief of the mountains is due.</p> - -<p>All the mountain spurs of Mount Cook, so far as is known, are composed -of sandstones and shales of the Yakutat series, with the exception of -the Pinnacle pass cliffs. Nearly all the débris on the glaciers from -Disenchantment bay to the Seward glacier, and probably beyond, is -derived from the rocks of this system. The distribution of the rocks -from which the débris was derived may be ascertained in a general way -by tracing out the sources of the glaciers. Medial moraines on the -Hayden and Marvine glaciers, however, have their sources on the -northern slope of Mount Cook, and are composed of gabbro and -serpentine. These rocks were not seen in place, and their relation to -the Yakutat series can only be conjectured.</p> - -<p>Although the rocks of this system are stratified, it is impossible to -determine their thickness, for the reason that they have been greatly -crushed and overthrust. This is well illustrated in the Hitchcock -range, which, as already explained, trends about northeast and -southwest, and is composed of strata of shale and sandstone, having a -nearly east-and-west strike and a uniform dip toward the northeast. -Were the rocks in normal position their thickness would be incredible. -In addition to this negative evidence, there is the crushed condition -of the strata to show that movement has taken place all through their -mass; and in a few instances thrust faults were distinguished, dipping -northeastward at about the same angle as the lines of bedding. In the -crushing to which the rocks have been subjected the shales have -suffered more than the sandstones, and have been drawn out into -wedge-shaped masses, the sharp edges of which usually point toward the -northeast, which is presumably the direction from which the crushing -force acted.</p> - -<p>The hypothesis that the rocks in the St. Elias region have been -crushed and overthrust explains many otherwise -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page169"><small><small>[p. 169]</small></small></a></span> inharmonious -facts, and accounts for the superposition of the St. Elias schist upon -rocks of the Yakutat system.</p> - -<p>Coal has been discovered in the rocks of the Yakutat system about two -miles west of the southern end of Disenchantment bay, and is reported -to be of workable thickness. I saw thin lignite seams at the surface -at this locality, but as the shafts were filled with water I was -unable to examine the coal in the openings, and cannot vouch for its -thickness. Samples obtained from the mine show it to be a black -lignite which would apparently be of value for fuel. Fossil leaves are -reported to occur in connection with the lignite, but these have never -been seen by any one who could identify them.</p> - -<p>The rocks of the Yakutat system, wherever seen, dip northeastward, -except when greatly disturbed near fault-lines. East of Disenchantment -bay the inclination of the beds is from 15° to 20°; farther westward -the dip increases gradually all the way to the Hitchcock range, where -the prevailing inclination is from 30° to 40°, and frequently still -greater. Beneath Mount Malaspina and Mount St. Elias the Yakutat -sandstones dip northeastward at an angle of about 15°, and in the -hills west of Icy bay the dip is about the same. Exceptions to the -prevailing dips occur along the immediate shore of Yakutat bay, -northwest of Knight island, and at the southern extremity of each of -the mountain spurs between Yakutat bay and Blossom island. At these -localities the rocks are frequently vertical or nearly so, owing their -high dip to the proximity of lines of displacement. The faults -indicated by these unusual dips also mark the boundary between the -mountains and the seaward-stretching plateau of alluvium and ice.</p> - -<p>The crushing, overthrusting and faulting that has affected the rocks -of this system render it doubtful whether the coal seams which occur -in it, even if of requisite thickness, can be worked to advantage. -Some of the samples of coal obtained at the openings made near Yakutat -bay were slickensided, showing that movements in the coal seam had -there taken place.</p> - -<p>As already stated, the rocks of the Yakutat series are remarkably -uniform in character throughout the extent now known, and offer but -little variety. The sandstones are intersected in every direction by -thin quartz seams, which stand in relief on the weathered surfaces, -giving the rocks a peculiar and -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page170"><small><small>[p. 170]</small></small></a></span> -characteristic appearance. The -first important change in the geology along the route traversed by us -was met on reaching Pinnacle pass.</p> -<br> - -<center>P<small>INNACLE</small> S<small>YSTEM</small>.</center> - -<p>The rocks of this system, as already stated, are best exposed in the -great fault-scarp forming the northern wall of Pinnacle pass. They are -more varied in composition and have preserved a better record of the -conditions under which they were deposited than the sandstones and -shales of the Yakutat system.</p> - -<p>Only an approximate section of the rocks exposed in the Pinnacle-pass -cliff was obtained.</p> - -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="4" cellpadding="0" summary="Pinnacle rock composition"> - <tr> - <td>Sandstone and conglomerate weathering into spires</td> - <td align="right">500</td> - <td align="center">feet.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Evenly bedded, sandy shale in thin layers</td> - <td align="right">600</td> - <td align="center">"</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Coarse conglomerate; bowlders of crystalline rock</td> - <td align="right">50</td> - <td align="center">"</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Thinly bedded, dark-colored sandstone and shale</td> - <td align="right">500</td> - <td align="center">"</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Reddish conglomerate</td> - <td align="right">10</td> - <td align="center">"</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Light-gray sandstone, with thin, irregular coal seams </td> - <td align="right"><u> 40</u></td> - <td align="center">"</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td> Total</td> - <td align="right">1,800</td> - <td align="center">"</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p>There is also a compact, crystalline, gray limestone near the upper -portion of the series, which escaped notice in the cliffs. At the end -of the Pinnacle-pass cliffs, however, where the rocks are turned -northward by the great fault which decides the course of the Seward -glacier, and dip eastward at a high angle, the limestone is well -exposed, and has a thickness of about 50 feet. In many places the -surfaces of the layers are covered with fragments of large <i>Pecten</i> -shells. Associated with the limestone there are reddish shales, much -crushed and broken, and a peculiar conglomerate. The pebbles in the -conglomerate are of many varieties, and were observed at places along -the Pinnacle pass cliffs. Their most marked peculiarity lies in the -fact that they have been sheared by a movement in the rocks and -sometimes broken into several fragments which have been reunited, -probably by pressure. These faulted pebbles are characteristic of the -strata from which they were derived. Similar pebbles were afterward -obtained in the Marvine glacier near its junction with the Malaspina -glacier, thus indicating that there are other outcrops of the -conglomerate about Mount Cook, near where the Marvine glacier -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page171"><small><small>[p. 171]</small></small></a></span> -has its source. Two quartz pebbles from the conglomerate of Pinnacle -pass are shown in the accompanying illustrations. The larger pebble -(shown in figure 7) is of bluish-gray quartz, and the smaller one -(depicted in figure 8) is of white quartz. The fragments into which -they have been broken are now firmly united. The engravings are -photo-mechanical (Moss process) reproductions from the objects.</p> - -<a name="fig7"></a> -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="Figure 7"> - <tr> - <td width="663"> - <img src="images/f7.jpg" alt="Faulted pebble"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="663" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 7—<i>Faulted Pebble from Pinnacle Pass</i>.</small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<br><br> -<a name="fig8"></a> -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="Figure 8"> - <tr> - <td width="339"> - <img src="images/f8.jpg" alt="Faulted pebble"> - </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td width="339" align="center"> - <small>F<small>IGURE</small> 8—<i>Faulted Pebble from Pinnacle Pass</i>.</small> - </td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p>In the northern and western part of the Samovar hills the rocks of the -Pinnacle system again appear, forming a bold angular ridge, curving -southward and reaching the border of the Agassiz glacier. The southern -face of this range is precipitous and, like the Pinnacle pass cliffs, -exhibits the edges of northward-dipping strata. Its northern and -western slopes are heavily snow-bound. It is in reality a continuation -of the Pinnacle pass fault, but thrown out of line by the cross-fault -which marked out the course of the Seward glacier.</p> - -<p>The Yakutat and Pinnacle systems are so easily recognized that their -distribution can be distinguished at a glance, when the outcrops are -not concealed beneath the nearly universal covering of snow. The rocks -of the Yakutat series are heavily bedded sandstones and shales, and -have in general a light-brown tint; while the rocks of the Pinnacle -series are thinly bedded and dark in color, appearing black at a distance.</p> - -<p>The presence of a <i>Pecten</i> (<i>P. caurinus</i> (?) Gld.) in the limestone -of the Pinnacle series has already been mentioned. Other fossils were -obtained from sandstones and shales at the crest of the cliffs above -Pinnacle pass at an elevation of 5,000 feet. These -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page172"><small><small>[p. 172]</small></small></a></span> were -submitted to Dr. W. H. Dall, who kindly identified them as follows:</p> - -<blockquote><i>Mya arenaria</i>, L.;<br> - <i>Mytilus edulis</i>, L.;<br> - <i>Leda fossa</i>, Baird, or <i>L. minuta</i>, Fabr.;<br> - <i>Macoma inconspicua</i>, B. and S.;<br> - <i>Cardium islandicum</i>, L.;<br> - <i>Litorina atkana</i>, Dall.</blockquote> - -<p>All of these species are stated by Dall to be still living in the -oceanic waters of Alaska. The very recent age of the rocks in which -they occur is thus established.</p> - -<p>In strata closely connected with the layers in which these shells were -found there occur many fine leaf impressions, a few of which were -brought away. These have been examined by Professor L. F. Ward, who -has identified them with four species of <i>Salix</i>, closely resembling -living species. The report on these interesting fossils forms <a href="#page199">Appendix D</a>.</p> - -<p>The age indicated by both invertebrates and plants is late Tertiary -(Pliocene) or early Pleistocene. This determination is of great -significance when taken in connection with the structure of the -region, and shows that the mountains in the St. Elias region are young.</p> - -<p>Not only was a part, at least, of the Pinnacle system deposited during -the life of living species of mollusks, but also the whole of the -Yakutat series, the stratigraphic position of which is, if my -determination is correct, above the Pinnacle system. After the -sediments composing the rocks of these two series were -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page173"><small><small>[p. 173]</small></small></a></span> deposited -in the sea as strata of sand, mud, etc., they were consolidated, -overthrust, faulted, and upheaved into one of the grandest mountain -ridges on the continent. Then, after the mountains had reached a -considerable height, if not their full growth, the snows of winter -fell upon them, and glaciers were born; the glaciers increased to a -maximum, and their surfaces reached from a thousand to two thousand -feet higher than now on the more southern mountain spurs, and -afterward slowly wasted away to their present dimensions. All of this -interesting and varied history has been enacted during the life of -existing species of plants and animals.</p> - -<p>The relative age of the Yakutat and Pinnacle series is the weakest -point in the history sketched above. The facts on which it rests are -as follows: At Pinnacle pass the sandstones and shales forming the -southern wall belong to the Yakutat system and are much disturbed, -while the northern wall, or the heaved side of the fault, is composed -of the rocks of the Pinnacle system, inclined northward at an angle of -30° or 40°. North of this fault-scarp, in the foothills of Mount Owen, -sandstones and shales, seemingly identical with those of the Yakutat -system, again occur, although their direct connection with the rocks -south of Pinnacle pass was not observed, owing to the snow that -obscured the outcrops. Again at Dome pass a similar relation seems -evident, but cannot be directly established. The immediate foothills -of Mounts Augusta, Malaspina, and St. Elias are also of sandstone, -lithologically the same as the Yakutat series. The conclusion that the -Yakutat system is younger than the Pinnacle-pass rocks was reached in -the field after many other hypotheses had been tried and found -wanting, and to my mind it explains all the observations made. Even -should the supposed relations of the two series under discussion be -reversed, it would still be true that a very large part of the rocks -of the St. Elias region were deposited since the appearance of living -species of mollusks and plants, and that the prevailing structure of -the region was imposed at a still later date. This will appear more -clearly after examining the structure of the region.</p> -<br> - -<center>S<small>T</small>. E<small>LIAS</small> S<small>CHIST</small>.</center> - -<p>The rock forming several thousand feet of the upper portion of the St. -Elias range is a schist in which the planes of bedding -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page174"><small><small>[p. 174]</small></small></a></span> are -preserved. The dip of the strata is northeastward, and has exerted a -decided influence on the weathering of the mountain crests. As the -opportunities for examining this formation were unsatisfactory, a -detailed account of it will not now be attempted.</p> -<br> - -<center>G<small>EOLOGICAL</small> S<small>TRUCTURE</small>.</center> - -<p>The abnormal thickness of the Yakutat series, due to crushing and -overthrust, has been referred to, as has also the superposition of the -St. Elias schist upon rock supposed to belong to the Yakutat system.</p> - -<p>The plane of contact between the sandstone and the overlying schist of -the St. Elias range dips northeastward at an angle of about 15°, -corresponding, as nearly as can be determined, with the dip of the -strata in the sandstone itself. All of the observations made in this -connection indicate that the schist has been overthrust upon the -sandstones. After this took place the great faults to which the range -owes its present relief were formed.</p> - -<p>About Mount Cook, however, and in the elevated plateau east of Yakutat -bay, the conditions are different from those observed along the base -of the St. Elias range. The only displacements known in the Yakutat -system south and east of Pinnacle pass is the great fault which -presumably exists where the rocks of the foothills disappear beneath -the gravel and glaciers of the Piedmont region, the faults referred to -belonging to the same series as those which determine the southern and -southwestern borders of the St. Elias range and many of the foothills -south of the main escarpment. Besides the great faults which trend -from St. Elias toward the northeast and northwest, there are several -cross-faults, one of which determines the position of the Seward -glacier through a portion of its course, while another marks out the -path of the Agassiz glacier; and two others may be recognized just -east of the summit of St. Elias, which have dropped portions of the -eastern end of the orographic block forming the crowning peak of the range.</p> - -<p>The southern face of Mount St. Elias is a fault-scarp. The mountain -itself is formed by the upturned edge of a faulted block in which the -stratification is inclined northeastward. As has just been mentioned, -the mountain stands at the intersection of two lines of displacement, -one trending in a northeasterly and the other in a northwesterly -direction. The one trending -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page175"><small><small>[p. 175]</small></small></a></span> -northwestward extends beyond the end -of the northeast fault. The point of union is at the pass between -Mount St. Elias and Mount Newton. The upturned block, bounded on the -southwest by a great fault, projects beyond the junction with the -northeasterly fault. It is this projecting end of a roof-like block -that forms Mount St. Elias. That this is the case may be clearly seen -when viewing the mountain from the glacier near the base of Mount -Owen. Such a view is shown on plate 20. The crest-line of St. Elias -extends with a decreasing grade northwestward from the culminating -peak, and the northern slope of the ridge is the surface of the tilted block.</p> -<a name="plate20"></a> -<center><img src="images/20.jpg" alt="Mt. St. Elias"></center> - -<p>From what has been stated already, it will be seen that the St. Elias -range is young. Its upheaval, as indicated by our present knowledge, -was since the close of the Tertiary. The breaking of the rocks and -their upheaval is an event of such recent date that erosion has -scarcely modified the forms which the mountains had at their birth. -The formation of glaciers followed the elevation of the region so -quickly, that there was no opportunity for streams to act. The ice -drainage is consequent upon the geological structure, and has made but -slight changes in the topography due to that structure.</p> - -<p>About Mount Cook, and in the elevated plateau east of Yakutat bay, -there has been deeper erosion than about Mount St. Elias. The glaciers -in this region occupy deep valleys radiating from the higher peaks; -but whether these are really valleys of erosion is not definitely -known. In some instances, changes of dip on opposite sides of the -valleys indicate that they may in part be due to faulting; but, owing -principally to the fact that every basin has its glacier, it has not -been practicable, up to the present time, to determine how they were formed.</p> - -<p>The crests of the mountains are always sharp and angular, by reason of -the rapid weathering of their exposed summits, but while -disintegration is rapid, no evidences of pronounced decay are -noticeable. The peaks on the summits of the St. Elias range are either -pyramids or roof-like crests with triangular gables. These forms have -resulted from the weathering of schist in which the planes of bedding -are crossed by lines of jointing.</p> -<br> -<br> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page176"><small><small>[p. 176]</small></small></a></span> -<br> -<br> -<h4>PART IV.</h4> - -<h3>GLACIERS OF THE ST. ELIAS REGION.</h3> -<br> - -<center>N<small>ATURAL</small> D<small>IVISIONS OF</small> G<small>LACIERS</small>.</center> - -<p>The glaciers of the St. Elias region form two groups. The ice-streams -from the mountain are of the type found in Switzerland, and hence -termed <i>Alpine glaciers</i>. The great plateau of ice along the ocean -formed by the union and expansion of Alpine glaciers from the -mountains belongs to a class not previously described, but which in -this paper have been called <i>Piedmont glaciers</i>. The representative of -the latter type between Yakutat bay and Icy bay is the Malaspina -glacier. Both types are to be distinguished from <i>Continental -glaciers</i>.</p> -<br> - -<center>A<small>LPINE</small> G<small>LACIERS</small>.</center> - -<p>The glaciers in the mountains are all of one type, but present great -diversity in their secondary features, and might be separated into -three or four subordinate divisions. The great trunk glaciers have -many tributaries, and drain the snows from the mountains through broad -channels, which are of low grade throughout all the lower portions of -their courses. Besides the trunk glaciers and the secondary glaciers -which flow into them, there are many smaller glaciers which do not -join the main streams, but terminate in the gorges or on the exposed -mountain sides in which they originate. These have nearly all the -features of the larger streams, but are not of sufficient volume to -become rivers of ice.</p> - -<p>A minor division of Alpine glaciers for which it is convenient to have -a special name includes those that end in the sea and, breaking off, -form icebergs. These may be designated as "tide-water glaciers." -Typical examples of this class are furnished by the Dalton and Hubbard -glaciers, but other ice-streams having the same characteristics occur -in Glacier bay, in Taku inlet, and at the heads of several of the deep -fjords along the coast of southeastern Alaska.</p> - -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page177"><small><small>[p. 177]</small></small></a></span> -<p>A noticeable feature of the Alpine glaciers of Alaska is that -they expand on passing beyond the valleys through which they flow and -form delta-like accumulations of ice on the plains below. This -expansion takes place irrespective of the direction in which the -glaciers flow, and, so far as may be judged from the many examples -examined, is independent of the débris that covers them. It should be -remembered, however, that none of the Alaskan glaciers thus far -studied show marked inequalities in the distribution of the moraines -upon their surfaces. Should one side of a glacier, on leaving a cañon, -be heavily loaded with marginal moraines, while the opposite border -was unprotected, it is to be presumed that a deflection of the ice -would take place similar to the change in direction recorded by the -moraines about Mono lake, California.<small><small><sup>34</sup></small></small> The normal tendency of ice, -when not confined, to expand in all directions and form a plateau is -illustrated on a grand scale by the Malaspina glacier.</p> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>34</sup></small> Eighth Ann. Rept. U. S. Geol. Surv., 1889, part I, pp. -360–366.</small></blockquote> - -<p>The most important ice-streams about Mount St. Elias and Mount Cook -are indicated on the map forming plate 8. The Tindall, Guyot, and -Libbey glaciers and the lower part of the Agassiz glacier there -represented are taken from a map published by H. W. -Topham.<small><small><sup>35</sup></small></small> All of -the other glaciers indicated on the map were hastily surveyed during -the present expedition and are described to some extent in the -accompanying narrative. By far the most important of these is the one -named the Seward Glacier.</p> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>35</sup></small> Alpine Journal, -London, vol. XIV, 1887, pl. op. p. 359.</small></blockquote> -<br> - -<p>The Seward Glacier is of the Alpine type, and is the largest tributary -of the Malaspina glacier. Its length is approximately 40 miles, and -its width in the narrowest part, opposite Camp fourteen, is about 3 -miles. The main amphitheatre from which its drainage is derived is -north of Mount Owen and between Mount Irving and Mount Logan. The -general surface of the broad level floor of this névé field has an -elevation of approximately 5,000 feet. The snow from the northern and -western sides of Mount Irving, from the northern slope of Mount Owen, -and from numerous valleys and cañons in the vast semicircle of -towering peaks joining these two mountains, unite to form the great -glacier. There is another amphitheatre between Mount Owen and the -Pinnacle pass cliffs supplied principally by snows -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page178"><small><small>[p. 178]</small></small></a></span> from the -northwestern slope of Mount Cook, which sends a vast flood of ice and -snow into the main drainage channel. Other tributary glaciers descend -the steep slopes of Mount Augusta and Mount Malaspina, and a lesser -tributary flows eastward from Dome pass. All of these ice-drainage -lines converge toward the narrow outlet of Camp 14 (plate 8) and -discharge southward down a moderately steep descent several miles in -length. Below Camp 14 there are other névé fields bordering the -glacier, which contribute no insignificant amount of ice and snow to -its mass. Between the extremity of the Hitchcock range and the Samovar -hills the path of the glacier is again contracted and greatly broken -as it descends to the plateau below.</p> - -<p>The Seward glacier, like all ice rivers of its class, has its névé -region above, and its ice region below. The limit between the two is -the lower margin of the summer snow, and occurs just above the -ice-fall between the southern extremity of the Hitchcock range and the -Samovar hills. All the névé region is pure white and without moraines, -except at the immediate bases of the most precipitous cliffs. At the -bases of the Corwin cliffs, which rise fully 2,000 feet above its -border, no débris can be distinguished even in midsummer. An absence -of moraines along the base of Pinnacle pass cliffs was also noticed -during our first visit, but when we returned over the same route in -September the melting of the snow had revealed many large patches of -dirt and disintegrated rock. In several places near the bases of steep -cliffs, strata of dirty ice, containing many stones, were observed in -deep crevasses. It was evident that vast quantities of débris were -sealed up in the ice along the borders of the glacier, only to appear -at the surface far down the stream where summer melting exceeds the -winter accumulation.</p> - -<p>The surface of the glacier below the lower fall is composed of solid -ice with blue and white bands, and has broad moraines along its -borders. The course of the glacier, after entering the great plateau -of ice to which it is tributary, may be traced for many miles by the -bands of débris along its sides. These moraines belong to the -Malaspina glacier, and have already been referred to.</p> - -<p>At the outlet of the upper amphitheatre, about 6 miles above Mount -Owen, there is an ice-fall which extends completely across the -glacier. Below the pinnacles and crevasses formed by this fall the ice -is recemented and flows on with a broad, gently -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page179"><small><small>[p. 179]</small></small></a></span> descending -surface, gashed, however, by thousands of crevasses, as shown in plate -20, to the end of the Pinnacle pass cliffs. It there finds a more -rapid descent, and becomes crevassed in an interesting way. The slope -is not sufficient to be termed a fall, but causes a rapid in the ice-stream.</p> - -<p>The change of grade in the bed of the glacier is first felt about a -mile above Camp 14. A series of crevasses there begins, which extends -four or five miles down-stream. At first the cracks are narrow, and -trend upstream in the manner usual with marginal crevasses. Soon the -cracks from the opposite sides meet in the center and form a single -crevasse, bending upstream in the middle. A little lower down, the -crevasse becomes straight, showing that the ice in the center of the -current flows more rapidly than at the sides. The more rapid movement -of the center is indicated by the form of the crevasses all the way -down the rapid. After becoming straight they bow in the center and -form semi-lunar gashes, widest in the center and curving up-stream at -each extremity. Still farther down they become more and more bent in -the center and at the same time greatly increased in breadth. Still -lower the curve becomes an angle and the crevasses are <big>V</big>-shaped, the -arrow-like point directed down-stream. These parallel <big>V</big>-shaped gashes -set in order, one in front of the other, are what gives the glacier -the appearance of "watered" ribbon when seen from a distance.</p> - -<p>With the change in direction and curvature of the crevasses, there is -an accompanying change in color. The cracks in the upper part of the -rapid are in a white surface and run down into ice that looks dark and -blue by contrast. Lower down, as the cracks increase in width, broad -white tables are left between them. Cross-fractures are formed, and -the sides of the table begin to crumble in and fill up the gaps -between. As the surface melts the tables lose their pure whiteness and -become dust-covered and yellow; but the blocks falling into the -crevasses expose fresh surfaces, and fill the gulfs with pure white -ice. In this way the color of the sides of the crevasses changes from -deep blue to white, while the general surface loses its purity and -becomes dust-covered. Far down the rapid where the <big>V</big>-shaped crevasses -are most pointed, the tables have crumbled away and filled up the -gulfs between, so that the watered-ribbon pattern is distinguished by -color alone. The scars of the crevasses formed above are shown by -white bands on a dark dust-covered -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page180"><small><small>[p. 180]</small></small></a></span> -surface. Before the lower -fall is reached nearly all traces of the thousands of fissures formed -in the rapids above have disappeared.</p> - -<p>On looking down on the rapids from any commanding point, the definite -arrangement of the crevasses along the center of the ice-stream at -once attracts attention, and their order suggests a rapid central -current in the stream.</p> - -<p>Below Camp 14, for at least two or three miles, as well as at many -places above that point, the Seward glacier flows between banks of -snow. Along its border there are marginal crevasses trending -up-stream, and in the adjacent banks there are similar breaks trending -down-stream. Where the two systems meet there is a line of irregular -crevasses, exceedingly difficult to cross, which mark the actual -border of the flowing ice. A similar arrangement of marginal crevasses -and of shore crevasses has been referred to in connection with the -Marvine glacier, and was observed in many other instances.</p> - -<p>While occupying Camp 14 we could hear the murmur of waters far down in -the glacier below our tent, but there were no surface streams visible. -Crashing and rumbling noises made by the slowly moving ice frequently -attracted our attention, and sometimes at night we would be awakened -by a dull thud, accompanied by a trembling of the rocks beneath us, as -if a slight earthquake had occurred. Occasionally a pinnacle of ice -would fall and be engulfed in the crevasses at its base. These -evidences of change indicated that movements in the Seward glacier -were constantly in progress. A short base-line was measured and sights -taken to well-marked points in the Seward glacier for the purpose of -measuring its motion. The angles between the base-line and lines of -sight to the chosen points were read on several successive days, but -when these observations were compared they gave discrepant results. -The measurements which seemed most reliable indicate that the central -part of the ice-stream has a movement of about twenty feet a day. This -is to be taken only as an approximation, which needs to be verified -before much weight can be attached to it.</p> -<br> - -<center>C<small>HARACTERISTICS OF</small> A<small>LPINE</small> G<small>LACIERS -ABOVE THE</small> S<small>NOW</small>-L<small>INE</small>.</center> - -<p>The surface of the névé is white, except near its lower limit in late -summer, where it frequently becomes covered with dust -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page181"><small><small>[p. 181]</small></small></a></span> blown from -neighboring cliffs. It is almost entirely free from moraines, but at -the bases of steep slopes small areas of débris sometimes appear at -the surface when the yearly melting has reached its maximum. The -absence of moraines is accompanied by an absence of glacial tables, -sand-cones and other details of glacial surfaces due to differential -melting. Streams seldom appear at the surface, for the reason that -usually the water produced by surface melting is quickly absorbed by -the porous strata beneath; yet the crevasses are frequently filled -with water, and sometimes shallow lakes of deep blue occur at the -bottoms of the amphitheatres and form a marked contrast to the even -white of the general surface. Crevasses are present or absent -according to the slope of the surface on which the névé rests. In the -crevasses the edges of horizontal layers of granular ice are -exhibited, showing that the névé down to a depth of at least one or -two hundred feet is horizontally stratified. In the St. Elias region -the strata are most frequently from ten to fifteen feet thick, but in -a few instances layers without partings over fifty feet thick were -seen. The surface is always of white, granular ice, but in the -crevasses the layers near the bottom appear more compact and bluer in -color than those near the surface.</p> - -<p>Some of the most striking features of the névé are due to the -crevasses that break their surfaces. The orderly arrangement of -marginal crevasses and of the interior crevasses at the rapids in the -Seward glacier have already been referred to; but there are still -other crevasses, especially in the broad, gently sloping portions of -the snow-fields where the motion is slight, which, although less -regular in their arrangement, are fully as interesting. The crevasses -on such slopes generally run at right angles to the direction in which -the snow is moving. On looking down on such a surface, the breaks look -like long clear-cut gashes which have stretched open in the center, -but taper to a sharp point at each end. The ability of the névé ice to -stretch to a limited extent is thus clearly shown. The initiation of -the crevasses seems to be due to the movement of the névé ice over a -surface in which there are inequalities of such magnitude that the ice -cannot stretch sufficiently to allow it to accommodate itself to them, -so that strains are produced which result in fractures at right angles -to the line of general movement. Crevasses found where the grade is -gentle vary from a fraction of an inch to 10 or 15 feet in width, and -are sometimes two or three -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page182"><small><small>[p. 182]</small></small></a></span> -thousand feet long. Broader gulfs are -seldom formed unless the slope has an inclination of 15° or 20°.</p> - -<p>The grandest crevasses are in the higher portions of the névé, and -occur especially on the borders of the great amphitheatres. In such -situations the crevasses are usually fewer in number but are of -greater size than in equal areas lower down. A length of three or four -thousand feet and a breadth of fifty feet or more is not uncommon. The -finest and most characteristic glacial scenery is found among these -great cañon-like breaks. Standing on the border of one of the gulfs, -as near the brink as one cares to venture, their full depth cannot -usually be seen. In some instances they are partially filled with -water of the deepest blue, in which the ice-walls are reflected with -such wonderful distinctness that it is impossible to tell where the -ice ends and its counterfeit begins. The walls of the crevasses are -most frequently sheer cliffs of stratified ice, with occasional -ornamentations, formed of ice-crystals or a pendent icicle. After a -storm they are frequently decorated in the most beautiful manner with -fretwork and cornice of snow. The bridges spanning the crevasses are -usually diagonal slivers of ice left where the clefts overlap; but at -times, especially in the case of the larger crevasses, there are true -arches resembling the Natural Bridge of Virginia, but on a larger -scale, spanning the blue cañons and adding greatly to their strange, -fairy-like beauty. The most striking feature of these cracks is their -wonderful color. All tints, from the pure white of their crystal lips -down to the deepest blue of their innermost recesses, are revealed in -each gash and rent in the hardened snow.</p> - -<p>Above the snow-line all of the mountain tops that are not precipitous -are heavily loaded with snow. Where the snow breaks off at the verge -of a precipice and descends in avalanches a depth of more than a -hundred feet is frequently revealed, but in the valleys and -amphitheatres the snow has far greater thickness. Pinnacles and crests -of rock, rising through the icy covering, indicate that the thickness -of the névé must be many hundreds of feet.</p> - -<p>There are no evidences of former glaciation on the mountain crests -which project above the névé fields. There are no polished and -striated rock surfaces or glaciated domes to indicate that the -mountains were ever covered by a general capping of ice, as has been -postulated for similar mountains elsewhere. When the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page183"><small><small>[p. 183]</small></small></a></span> glaciers -had their greatest expansion the higher mountains were in about their -present condition. The increase in the volume of the glaciers was felt -almost entirely in their lower courses.</p> -<br> - -<center>C<small>HARACTERISTICS OF</small> A<small>LPINE</small> -G<small>LACIERS BELOW THE</small> S<small>NOW</small>-L<small>INE</small>.</center> - -<p>The first feature that attracts attention on descending from the névé -region to the more icy portion of the glaciers is the rapid melting -everywhere taking place. Every day during the summer the murmur and -roar of rills, brooks and rivers are to be heard in all of the -ice-fields. The surface streams are usually short, on account of the -crevasses which intercept them. They plunge into the gulfs, which are -many times widened out by the flowing waters so as to form wells, or -<i>moulins</i>, and join the general drainage beneath. The streams then -flow either through caverns in the glaciers or in tunnels at the -bottoms. While traversing the glacier one may frequently hear the -subdued roar of rivers coursing along in the dark chambers beneath -when no other indication of their existence appears at the surface. -When these subglacial streams emerge, usually near the margin of the -ice, they issue from archways forming the ends of tunnels, and perhaps -flow for a mile or two in the sunlight before plunging into another -tunnel to continue their way as before.</p> - -<p>The best example of a glacial river seen during our exploration was -near the western border of the Lucia glacier. It is shown in the -illustration forming <a href="#plate12">plate 12</a>, which is reproduced mechanically from a -photograph. This Styx of the ice-world has been described on an -earlier page. The lakes formed at the southern end of nearly every -mountain spur projecting into the Malaspina glacier discharge through -tunnels in the ice, which are similar in every way to those formed by -the stream already mentioned.</p> - -<p>In the beds of the glacial streams there are deposits of sand and -gravel, and when the streams expand into lakes these deposits are -spread over their bottoms in more or less regular sheets. When streams -from the mountains empty into the lakes, deltas are formed. While -these deltas have the same characteristics as those built in more -stable water bodies, many changes in detail occur, owing to the -fluctuation of the water level.</p> - -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page184"><small><small>[p. 184]</small></small></a></span> -<p>One of the tunnels leading to a dry lake-bed at the end of the -Hitchcock range was explored for several rods and found to be a high, -arching cavern following a tortuous course, and large enough to allow -one to drive a coach and four through it without danger of collision. -Its floor was formed of gravel and bowlders, and its arching roof was -clear ice. Here and there the courses of crevasses could be traced by -the stones and finer débris that had fallen in from above, giving the -appearance of veins in a mine. The deposit on the floor of the tunnel -rested upon ice, and would certainly be greatly disturbed and broken -up before reaching a final resting place in case the glacier should -melt. In the lake basins, also, the sand and gravel forming their -bottoms frequently rested upon substrata of ice, and are greatly -disturbed when the ice melts.</p> - -<p>At the ends of the glaciers the subglacial and intraglacial drainage -issues from tunnels and forms muddy streams. These usually flow out -from the foot of a precipice of ice, down which rills are continually -trickling. The streams flowing away from the glaciers are usually -rapid, owing to the high grade of their built-up channels, and sweep -away large quantities of débris which is deposited along their -courses. The streams widen and bifurcate as they flow seaward, and -spread vast quantities of bowlders, sand, and gravel over the country -to the right and left, not infrequently invading the forests and -burying the still upright trees. The deposits formed by the streams -are of the nature of alluvial fans, over which the waters meander in a -thousand channels. Where this action has taken place long enough the -alluvial fans end in deltas; but should there be a current in the sea, -the débris is carried away and formed into beaches and bars along -adjacent shores. Should these glaciers disappear, it is evident that -these great bowlder washes would form peculiar topographic features, -unsupported at the apexes, and it might be perplexing to determine -from whence came the waters that deposited them. I am not aware that -similar washes have been recognized along the southern border of the -Laurentide glaciers, but they should certainly be expected to occur there.</p> - -<p>Another very striking difference in the appearance of the glaciers -above and below the snow-line is due to the prevalence of débris on -the lower portion. The melting that takes place -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page185"><small><small>[p. 185]</small></small></a></span> below the -snow-line removes the ice and leaves the rocks. In this manner the -stones previously concealed in the névé are concentrated at the -surface, and finally form sheets of débris many miles in extent. So -far as my observations go, there is nothing to indicate that stones -are brought to the surface by any other means than the one here -suggested. Upward currents in the ice that would bring stones to the -surface have been postulated by certain writers, but nothing -sustaining such an hypothesis has been found in Alaska.</p> - -<p>The moraines on the lower extremities of the Alpine glaciers may -frequently be separated into individual ridges, which in many -instances would furnish instructive studies; but in no case has the -history of these accumulations been worked out in detail.</p> - -<p>With the appearance of moraines at the surface come a great variety of -phenomena due to unequal melting. Ridges of ice sheathed with débris, -glacial tables, sand cones, etc., everywhere attract the attention; -but these features are very similar on all glaciers where the summer's -waste exceeds the winter's increase, and have been many times -described.</p> - -<p>The general distribution of the moraines of the lower portion of the -Alpine glaciers of the St. Elias region merits attention. The moraines -themselves exhibit features not yet observed in other regions. From -Disenchantment bay westward to the Seward glacier the lower portions -of the ice-streams are covered and concealed by sheets of débris. -About their margins the débris fields support luxuriant vegetation, -and not infrequently are so densely clothed with flowers that a tint -is given to their rugged surfaces. On the extreme outer margins of the -moraines there are sometimes thickets and forests so dense as to be -almost impenetrable. The best example of forest-covered moraines -resting on living glaciers, however, is found along the borders of the -Malaspina ice-field.</p> -<br> - -<center>P<small>IEDMONT</small> G<small>LACIERS</small>.</center> - -<p>This type is represented in the region explored by the Malaspina -glacier. This is a plateau of ice having an area of between 500 and -600 square miles, and a surface elevation in the central part of -between 1,500 and 1,600 feet. It is fed by the Agassiz, Seward, -Marvine, and Hayden glaciers, and is of such volume that -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page186"><small><small>[p. 186]</small></small></a></span> it has -apparently displaced the sea and holds it back by a wall of débris -deposited about its margin. All of its central portion is of clear -white ice, and around all its margins, excepting where the Agassiz and -Seward glaciers come in, it is bounded by a fringe of débris and by -moraines resting on the ice. Along the seaward border the belt of -fringing moraines is about five miles broad. The inner margin of the -moraine belt is composed of rocks and dirt, without vegetation, and -separated more or less completely into belts by strips of clear ice. -On going from the clear ice toward the margin of the glacier one finds -shrubs and flowers scattered here and there over the surface. Farther -seaward the vegetation becomes more dense and the flowers cover the -whole surface, giving it the appearance of a luxuriant meadow. Still -farther toward the margin dense clumps of alder, with scattered spruce -trees, become conspicuous, while on the outer margin spruce trees of -larger size form a veritable forest. That this vegetation actually -grows on the moraines above a living glacier is proved beyond all -question by holes and crevasses which reveal the ice beneath. The -curious lakes scattered abundantly over the moraine-covered areas, and -occupying hour-glass-shaped depressions in the ice, have already been described.</p> - -<p>From the southern end of the Samovar hills, where the Seward and -Agassiz glaciers unite, there is a compound moraine stretching -southward, which divides at its distal extremity and forms great -curves and swirl-like figures indicating currents in the glacier.</p> - -<p>All the central part of the plateau is, as already stated, of clear -white ice, free from moraines; at a distance it has the appearance of -a broad snow surface. This is due to the fact that the ice is melted -and honey-combed during the warm summer and the surface becomes -vesicular and loses its banded structure. A rough, coral-like crust, -due to the freezing of the portions melted during the day, frequently -covers large areas and resembles a thick hoar-frost. Crevasses are -numerous, but seldom more than a few feet deep. They appear to be the -lower portions of deep crevasses in the tributary streams which have -partially closed, or else not completely removed by the melting and -evaporation of the surface.</p> - -<p>Many of the crevasses are filled with water, but there are no surface -streams and no lakes. Melting is rapid during the warm -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page187"><small><small>[p. 187]</small></small></a></span> summer -days, but the water finds its way down into the glacier and joins the -general subglacial drainage. It is evident that the streams beneath -the surface must be of large size, as they furnish the only means of -escape for the waters flowing beneath the Agassiz, Seward and Marvine -glaciers, as well as for the waters formed by the melting of the great -Malaspina glacier.</p> - -<p>The outer borders of the Malaspina glacier are practically stationary, -but there are currents in its central part. Like the expanded ends of -some of the Alpine glaciers, as the Galiano and Lucia glaciers, for -example, this glacier is of the nature of a delta of ice, analogous in -many of its features to river deltas. As a stream in meandering over -its delta builds up one portion after another, so the currents in an -expanded ice-foot may now follow one direction and deposit loads of -débris, and then slowly change so as to occupy other positions. This -action tends to destroy the individuality of morainal belts and to -form general sheets of débris. The presence of such currents as here -suggested has not been proved by measurements, but the great swirls in -the Malaspina glacier and the tongues of clear ice in the upper -portions of the débris fields on the smaller glaciers strongly suggest -their existence.</p> - -<p>The Malaspina glacier is evidently not eroding its bed; any records -that it is making must be by deposition. Should the glacier melt away -completely, it is evident that a surface formed of glacial débris, and -very similar to that now existing in the forested plateau east of -Yakutat bay, would be revealed.</p> - -<p>The former extent of the Malaspina glacier cannot be determined, but -it is probable that during its greatest expansion it extended seaward -until deep water was reached, and broke off in bergs in the same -manner as do the Greenland glaciers at the present day. Soundings in -the adjacent waters might possibly determine approximately the former -position of the ice-front, and it is possible that submarine moraines -might be discovered in this way. The Pimpluna reefs, reported by -Russian navigators and indicated on many maps, may possibly be a -remnant of the moraine left by the Piedmont glacier from the adjacent coast.</p> - -<p>The glaciers west of Icy bay were seen from the top of Pinnacle pass -cliffs, and are evidently of the same character as the Malaspina -glacier and fully as extensive. A study of these -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page188"><small><small>[p. 188]</small></small></a></span> Piedmont -glaciers will certainly throw much light on the interpretations of the -glacial records over northeastern North America. Their value in this -connection is enhanced by the fact that they are now retreating and -making deposits rather than removing previous geological records.</p> -<br> - -<p>The expedition of last summer was a hasty reconnoissance, during which -but little detail work could be undertaken. The actual study of the -ice-fields of the St. Elias region remains for those who come later.</p> -<br> -<br> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page189"><small><small>[p. 189]</small></small></a></span> -<br> -<br> -<h4>PART V.</h4> - -<h3>HEIGHT AND POSITION OF MOUNT ST. ELIAS.</h3> -<br> - -<p>The height and position of Mount St. Elias have been measured several -times during the past century with varying results. The measurements -made prior to the expedition of 1890 have been summarized and -discussed by W. H. Dall, of the United States Coast and Geodetic -Survey, and little more can be done at present than give an abstract -of his report.</p> - -<p>The various determinations are shown in the table below. The data from -which these results were obtained have not been published, with the -exception of the surveys made by the United States Coast Survey in -1874, printed in report of the superintendent for 1875.</p> - -<center><i>Height and Position of Mount St. Elias</i>.</center> -<br> -<table align="center" border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="4" summary="Height and position of Mt. St. Elias"> - <tr> - <td>Date.</td> - <td align="center">Authority.</td> - <td align="center">Height.</td> - <td align="center">Latitude.</td> - <td align="center">Longitude<br>W.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1786</td> - <td>La Pérouse</td> - <td>12,672 feet</td> - <td>60° 15' 00"</td> - <td>140° 10' 00"</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1791</td> - <td>Malaspina</td> - <td>17,851 feet</td> - <td>60° 17' 35"</td> - <td>140° 52' 17"</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1794</td> - <td>Vancouver</td> - <td align="center">——</td> - <td>60° 22' 30"</td> - <td>140° 39' 00"</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1847</td> - <td>Russian Hydrographic Chart 1378</td> - <td>17,854 feet</td> - <td>60° 21' 00"</td> - <td>141° 00' 00"</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1847</td> - <td>Tebenkof (Notes)</td> - <td>16,938 feet</td> - <td>60° 22' 36"</td> - <td>140° 54' 00"</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1849</td> - <td>Tebenkof (Chart VII)</td> - <td>16,938 feet</td> - <td>60° 21' 30"</td> - <td>140° 54' 00"</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td> </td> - <td>Buch. Can. Inseln</td> - <td>16,758 feet</td> - <td>60° 17' 30"</td> - <td>140° 51' 00"</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1872</td> - <td>English Admiralty Chart 2172</td> - <td>14,970 feet</td> - <td>60° 21' 00"</td> - <td>141° 00' 00"</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1874</td> - <td>U. S. Coast Survey</td> - <td>19,500 ±400</td> - <td>60° 20' 45"</td> - <td>141° 00' 12"</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p>All of the figures given in the table have been copied from Dall's -report, with the exception of the position determined by Malaspina; -this is from a report of astronomical observations made during -Malaspina's voyage, which places the mountain in latitude 60° 17' 35" -and longitude 134° 33' 10" west of Cadiz.<small><small><sup>36</sup></small></small> Taking the longitude of -Cadiz as 6° 19' 07" west of Greenwich, the figures tabulated above are -obtained.</p> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>36</sup></small> Ante, p. 65.</small></blockquote> - -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page190"><small><small>[p. 190]</small></small></a></span> -<p>It was intended that Mr. Kerr's report, forming Appendix B, -should contain a detailed record of the triangulation executed last -summer, but a careful revision of his work by a committee of the -National Geographic Society led to the conclusion that the results -were not of sufficient accuracy to set at rest the questions raised by -the discrepancies in earlier measurements of the height of Mount St. -Elias; and as the work will probably be revised and extended during -the summer of 1891, only the map forming plate 8 will be published at -this time. Some preliminary publications of elevations have been made, -but these must be taken as approximations merely.<small><small><sup>37</sup></small></small></p> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>37</sup></small> The shore-line of the map, plate 8, and the positions of -the initial points or base-line of the triangulation are from the work -of the United States Coast Survey. The extreme western portion is from -maps published by the New York <i>Times</i> and Topham expeditions. All the -topographic data are by Mr. Kerr, and all credit for the work and all -responsibility for its accuracy rest with him. The nomenclature is -principally my own, and has been approved by a committee of the -National Geographic Society.</small></blockquote> - -<p>By consulting the map forming <a href="#plate08">plate 8</a> it will be seen that Mounts -Cook, Vancouver, Irving, Owen, etc., are not in the St. Elias range. -Neither do they form a distinct range either topographically or -geologically. Each of these mountains is an independent uplift, -although they may have some structural connection, and are of about -the same geological age. Mount Cook and the peaks most intimately -associated with it are composed mainly of sandstone and shale -belonging to the Yakutat system. Mounts Vancouver and Irving are -probably of the same character, but definite proof that this is the -case has not been obtained.</p> - -<p>The St. Elias uplift is distinct and well marked, both geologically -and topographically, and deserves to be considered as a mountain -range. The limits of the range have not been determined, but, so far -as known, its maximum elevation is at Mount St. Elias. The range -stretches away from this culminating point both northeastward and -northwestward, and has a well-marked <big>V</big>-shape. The angle formed by the -two branches of the range where they unite at Mount St. Elias is, by -estimate, about 140°. Each arm of the <big>V</big> is determined by a fault, or -perhaps more accurately by a series of faults having the same general -course, along which the orographic blocks forming the range have been -upheaved. The structure of the range is monoclinal, and -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page191"><small><small>[p. 191]</small></small></a></span> -resembles the type of mountain structure characteristic of the great -basin. The dip of the tilted blocks is northward.</p> - -<p>The crest of the St. Elias range, as already stated, is composed of -schists which rest on sandstone, supposed to belong to the Yakutat -system. The geological age of the uplift is, therefore, very recent. -The secondary topographic forms on the crest of the range have -resulted from the weathering of the upturned edges of orographic -blocks in which the bedding planes are crossed by joints. The -resulting forms are mainly pyramids and roof-like ridges with -triangular gables. Extreme ruggedness and angularity characterize the -range throughout. There are no rounded domes or smoothed and polished -surfaces to suggest that the higher summits have ever been subjected -to general glacial action; neither is there any evidence of marked -rock decay. Disintegration of all the higher peaks and crests is -rapid, owing principally to great changes of temperature and the -freezing of water in the interstices of the rock; but the débris -resulting from this action is rapidly carried away by avalanches and -glaciers, so that the crests as well as the subordinate features in -the sculpture of the cliffs and pyramids are all angular. The subdued -and rounded contour, due to the accumulation of the products of -disintegration and decay, the indications of the advancing age of -mountains, are nowhere to be seen. The St. Elias range is young; -probably the very youngest of the important mountain ranges on this -continent. No evidences of erosion previous to the formation of the -ice-sheets that now clothe it have been observed. Glaciers apparently -took immediate possession of the lines of depression as the mountain -range grew in height, and furnish a living example from which to -determine the part that ice streams play in mountain sculpture.</p> -<br> -<br> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page192"><small><small>[p. 192]</small></small></a></span> -<br> -<br> -<h4>A<small>PPENDIX</small> A.</h4> - -<h3>OFFICIAL INSTRUCTIONS GOVERNING THE EXPEDITION.</h3> -<br> - -<p>In order to make the records of the St. Elias expedition complete, -copies of the instructions under which the work was carried out are -appended:</p> -<br> -<div align="right">D<small>EPARTMENT OF THE</small> I<small>NTERIOR</small>, - <br> -U<small>NITED</small> S<small>TATES</small> G<small>EOLOGICAL</small> -S<small>URVEY</small>, G<small>EOLOGIC</small> B<small>RANCH</small>, - <br> -<i>Washington, D. C., May 28, 1890</i>. - </div> - -<blockquote>Mr. I. C. R<small>USSELL</small>, <i>Geologist</i>.</blockquote> - -<blockquote>S<small>IR</small>: You are hereby detailed to visit the St. Elias range of Alaska -for work of exploration, under the joint auspices of the National -Geographic Society and the United States Geological Survey. The -Geological Survey furnishes instruments and contributes the sum of -$1,000 towards the expenses of the expedition. The money devoted to -this purpose is taken from the appropriation for the fiscal year -ending June 30, 1890, and the manner of its expenditure must conform -to that fact.</blockquote> - -<blockquote>The Survey expects that you will give special attention to glaciers, -to their distribution, to the associated topographic types, to -indications of the former extent of glaciation, and to types of -subaërial sculpture under special conditions of erosion, and that you -will also bring back information with reference to the age of the -formations seen and the type of structure of the range.</blockquote> - -<blockquote>With the aid of Mr. Kerr, it is expected that you will secure definite -geographic information as to the belt of country traversed by you.</blockquote> - -<div align="right">Very respectfully, - - -G. K. G<small>ILBERT</small>, - <br> -<i>Chief Geologist</i>. - <br> - </div> - -<blockquote> <i>Approved</i>,<br> - -J. W. P<small>OWELL</small>, <i>Director</i>.</blockquote> -<br> -<hr align="center" width="25%"> -<br> -<div align="right">D<small>EPARTMENT OF THE</small> I<small>NTERIOR</small>, - <br> -U<small>NITED</small> S<small>TATES</small> G<small>EOLOGICAL</small> -S<small>URVEY</small>, G<small>EOLOGIC</small> B<small>RANCH</small>, - <br> -<i>Washington, D. C., May 28, 1890</i>. - </div> - -<blockquote>Mr. I. C. R<small>USSELL</small>, <i>Geologist</i>.</blockquote> - -<blockquote>S<small>IR</small>: You will proceed at the earliest practicable date to Tacoma, -Washington Territory, and thence by water to Sitka, Alaska, at which -point you will make special arrangements to visit the St. Elias range -of mountains and make geological examinations as per instructions -otherwise communicated. Mr. Mark B. Kerr, Disbursing Agent, will -report to you at Victoria, B. C., and accompany you on the expedition, -assisting you in the capacities of Disbursing Agent and Topographer. -On the completion of -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page193"><small><small>[p. 193]</small></small></a></span> -your work you will return to Washington, -the route being left to your discretion, to be determined by -considerations which cannot now be foreseen.</blockquote> - -<div align="right">Very respectfully, - - -G. K. G<small>ILBERT</small>, - <br> -<i>Chief Geologist</i>. - <br> - </div> - -<blockquote> <i>Approved</i>,<br> - -J. W. P<small>OWELL</small>, <i>Director</i>.</blockquote> -<br> -<hr align="center" width="25%"> -<br> -<div align="right">D<small>EPARTMENT OF THE</small> I<small>NTERIOR</small>, - <br> -U<small>NITED</small> S<small>TATES</small> G<small>EOLOGICAL</small> -S<small>URVEY</small>, G<small>EOLOGIC</small> B<small>RANCH</small>, - <br> -<i>Washington, D. C., May 28, 1890</i>. - </div> - -<blockquote>Mr. M<small>ARK</small> B. K<small>ERR</small>, <i>Disbursing Agent</i>.</blockquote> - -<blockquote>S<small>IR</small>: You are hereby detailed to assist Mr. I. C. Russell, Geologist, -who starts at once on an expedition to Alaska, under the joint -auspices of the National Geographic Society and the United States -Geological Survey. It is expected that you will immediately aid him in -disbursement, and that you will act during the exploratory part of the -expedition as topographer. Your duties will, however, not be limited -to these special functions, but you will be expected to perform any -other duties he may assign to you, and to labor in every way for the -success of the expedition.</blockquote> - -<blockquote>It is expected that you will be reappointed to the grade of -topographer on the United States Geological Survey on the 1st of July, -1890, and you will please take the required oath of office before your departure.</blockquote> - -<blockquote>The money remaining in your possession as Disbursing Agent includes -that needed to meet Mr. Russell's salary and your own, and also the -sum of $1,000, allotted from the funds of the Geographic Branch for -expenses of the expedition prior to June 30. This amount you will -expend as directed by Mr. Russell, and his authority and certificate -will need to accompany your vouchers in rendering account of the same.</blockquote> - -<div align="right">Very respectfully, - - -G. K. G<small>ILBERT</small>, - <br> -<i>Chief Geologist</i>. - <br> - </div> - -<blockquote> <i>Approved</i>,<br> - -J. W. P<small>OWELL</small>, <i>Director</i>.</blockquote> -<br> -<hr align="center" width="25%"> -<br> -<div align="right">D<small>EPARTMENT OF THE</small> I<small>NTERIOR</small>, - <br> -U<small>NITED</small> S<small>TATES</small> G<small>EOLOGICAL</small> -S<small>URVEY</small>, G<small>EOLOGIC</small> B<small>RANCH</small>, - <br> -<i>Washington, D. C., May 28, 1890</i>. - </div> - -<blockquote>Mr. M<small>ARK</small> B. K<small>ERR</small>, <i>Disbursing Agent</i>.</blockquote> - -<blockquote>S<small>IR</small>: You will proceed at once to San Francisco, California, and thence -by steamer or by rail and steamer to Sitka, Alaska. It is expected -that you will join Mr. I. C. Russell, Geologist, at Victoria, B. C., -or at Sitka; and you will report to him for further orders.</blockquote> - -<div align="right">Very respectfully, - - -G. K. G<small>ILBERT</small>, - <br> -<i>Chief Geologist</i>. - <br> - </div> - -<blockquote> <i>Approved</i>,<br> - -J. W. P<small>OWELL</small>, <i>Director</i>.</blockquote> -<br> -<hr align="center" width="25%"> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page194"><small><small>[p. 194]</small></small></a></span> -<br> -<div align="right"><i>Washington, D. C., May 29, 1890</i>. - </div> - -<blockquote>Mr. M<small>ARK</small> B. K<small>ERR</small>, <i>Topographer</i>.</blockquote> - -<blockquote>S<small>IR</small>: You are hereby assigned to field-work in the vicinity of Mount -St. Elias, Alaska, in the party under charge of Mr. I. C. Russell. -Upon the receipt of these instructions you will please proceed without -delay to the field, and map upon a scale of four miles to an inch such -territory in the vicinity of Mount St. Elias, including that mountain, -as the field season will permit. The work should, if practicable, be -controlled by triangulation. Special attention in the course of your -work should be given to measuring the altitude of Mount St. Elias, and -it should be determined by triangulation and also, if practicable, by -barometer in such manner as to be conclusive.</blockquote> - -<blockquote>The topographic work should be controlled by triangulation. As many -positions on this coast are approximately known, including a number of -the prominent peaks, astronomical determinations of position will not -be necessary unless needed to supplement the triangulation.</blockquote> - -<blockquote>The details of your outfitting and the management of the work will be -left to your own judgment.</blockquote> - -<div align="right">Very respectfully, - - -H<small>ENRY</small> G<small>ANNETT</small>, - <br> -<i>Chief Topographer</i>. - <br> - </div> -<br> -<hr align="center" width="25%"> -<br> -<center><i>NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY</i>.</center> - -<blockquote><i>Memorandum of Instructions to the Party sent out under the Direction -of Mr. I. C. Russell, assisted by Mr. Mark B. Kerr, to explore the -Mount St. Elias Region, Alaska, 1890</i>.</blockquote> -<br> - -<blockquote>The general object of the expedition is to make a geographic -reconnoissance of as large an area as practicable in the St. Elias -range, Alaska, including a study of its glacial phenomena, the -preparation of a map of the region explored, and the measurement of -the height of Mount St. Elias and other neighboring mountains. -Observations should also be made and information collected on other -subjects of general scientific interest as far as practicable.</blockquote> - -<blockquote>The purpose of these instructions is mainly to suggest the lines of -investigation that give promise of valuable results, but it is not -intended that they shall limit the director of the expedition in the -exercise of his own discretion.</blockquote> - -<div align="right">G<small>ARDINER</small> G. H<small>UBBARD</small>, <i>Chairman</i>, - <br> -M<small>ARCUS</small> B<small>AKER</small>, - - - <br> -W<small>ILLARD</small> D. J<small>OHNSON</small>, - - <br> -<i>Committee</i>. - - </div> - -<blockquote> <i>Washington, D. C., May 29, 1890</i>.</blockquote> -<br> -<br> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page195"><small><small>[p. 195]</small></small></a></span> -<br> -<br> -<h4>A<small>PPENDIX</small> B.</h4> - -<h3>REPORT ON TOPOGRAPHIC WORK.</h3> - -<center><small>BY MARK B. KERR</small>.</center> -<br> - -<p>In addition to the ascent of Mount St. Elias, it was part of the -original plan of the expedition to make an accurate topographic map of -the region explored. It was not, however, for this purpose proposed to -divide the party or to deviate much from the most direct route to -Mount St. Elias from Yakutat bay. Triangulation of fair precision was -provided for. Details were to be filled in by approximate methods.</p> - -<p>Field-work began June 20 by the careful measurement of a base-line, -3,850 feet in length, near the point of landing, on the northern shore -of Yakutat bay. Expansion was readily carried to the foot-hills, and -several horizontal angles were taken to an astronomical station of the -United States Coast and Geodetic Survey at Port Mulgrave. In the -region of these initial triangles, work was done from a central camp; -and topographic details were fixed with considerable precision by -intersection and vertical angles.</p> - -<p>After the departure of the expedition from the Base Line camp, an -accident to the transit made resort to an inferior instrument -necessary, and, furthermore, as the region traversed proved to be -ill-adapted to, and the line of travel too direct for, the proper -development of a narrow belt of triangles, the anticipation of a -degree of precision in the triangulation which would give high value -to the determinations of position and altitude of the several peaks -was not realized; but topographic map work, showing the general -features, altitudes and location of the mountain ranges, valleys and -glaciers, was extended over about 600 square miles.</p> - -<p>Within the approximate geometric control, stations were interpolated -by the three-point method, and minor locations were multiplied by -intersection and connected by sketch. The best meander possible under -the circumstances was carried forward on the line of travel by compass -directions and estimates of distance from time intervals. The work -ceased August 22 with the abandonment of the instruments in a -snow-storm of four days' duration on the eastern slope of Mount St. Elias.</p> - -<p>The accompanying map (a reduction of which forms <a href="#plate08">plate 8</a>, page 75) -shows the ice-streams and peculiar mountain topography of a region -heretofore unvisited, and constitutes a considerable addition to the -geography of Alaska.</p> -<br> -<br> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page196"><small><small>[p. 196]</small></small></a></span> -<br> -<br> -<h4>A<small>PPENDIX</small> C.</h4> - -<h3>REPORT ON AURIFEROUS SANDS FROM YAKUTAT BAY.</h3> - -<center><small>BY J. STANLEY-BROWN</small>.</center> -<br> - -<p>Among the specimens obtained by Mr. I. C. Russell during the course of -his explorations on and about Mount St. Elias is a bottle of sand -procured from the beach on the extreme southern end of Khantaak -island, Yakutat bay, and characteristic of the shore material over a -large area. This sand was turned over to me for examination, and -additional interest was given to its study by the fact that it is from -a comparatively uninvestigated region and possesses, perhaps, economic -value; for the sample is gold-bearing, and it is said that a "color" -can readily be obtained by "panning" at many points on the bay shore.</p> - -<p>Macroscopically, the sand has the appearance of ordinary finely -comminuted beach material; but it differs in the uniformity of the -size of its particles from beach sand from Fort Monroe and Sullivan -island, South Carolina, with which it was compared. Its mineralogic -constituents greatly surpass in variety those of the sands referred -to, but are markedly similar to those of gold-bearing sand from New -Zealand. At least twelve minerals are present, with an unusual -predominance of one, as will be noted later. Through the mixture of -white, green, and black grains, a dull greenish-black color is given -to the mass. The roundness of fragments is such as usually results -from water action, but it is less than that which results from -transportation by wind.</p> - -<p>When put into a heavy liquid (Thoulet solution of a density of 3.1) in -order to determine the specific gravity of the constituents, it was -found that the sand is made up largely of the heavier materials, for -the amount that floated was trifling compared with that which quickly -sank. Even the abundant quartz was largely carried down by the -weightier ingredients bound up within it, and only a few water-clear -fragments were left behind. This would seem to suggest that the -lighter minerals are lacking in the neighboring rocks, or else have -been carried to greater distances by the sorting power of the water.</p> - -<p>Among the minerals recognized, gold is the most important, though -relatively not abundant. It occurs in flakes or flattened grains from -a quarter to a half of a millimeter in size. The particles are -sufficiently numerous to be readily selected from their associates by -the aid of "panning" and a hand lens of good magnifying power, and if -distributed throughout the beach as plentifully as in the sample -would, under favorable conditions, pay for working. The flakes in -their rounded character show the effect of the agency which separated -them from their matrix; a separation so complete that no rock is found -adhering to the grains.</p> - -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page197"><small><small>[p. 197]</small></small></a></span> -<p>Magnetite is present in great abundance and in a finely divided -state, the largest grains not exceeding a millimeter in length. It -forms by weight alone 15 or 20 per cent. of the entire mass, and when -the latter is sifted through a sieve of a hundred meshes to the inch -it constitutes 44 per cent. of this fine material. Crystallographic -faces are rare, and though often marred, still octahedrons (111, 1) of -considerable perfection are found.</p> - -<p>Garnet occurs in such profusion that a pink tint is given to a mass of -selected grains of uniform size, and its predominance may be -considered the chief physical characteristic of the sand.</p> - -<p>Two species were noted: one is a brilliant wine-red variety, which, -though not nearly so numerous as its duller relative, occurs more -frequently in crystals—the trapezohedral faces (211, 2–2) -predominating. The other garnet is readily distinguished by its -lighter amethystine tint and its greater abundance. Crystallographic -faces are somewhat rare and invariably dodecahedral (110, i). In the -absence of chemical analyses, any statements as to the exact species -to which these garnets should be referred would be largely -conjectural. Attention is quickly drawn to the perfection of these -minute garnets in their crystallographic faces and outlines, and to -their association with rounded fragments of their own kind as well as -of other minerals. Have these crystals survived by reason of their -hardness or by favoring conditions, or does their preservation suggest -the impotency of wave-action in the destruction of minute bodies?</p> - -<p>Among the black, heavy grains occur individuals which, except in shape -and non-magnetic character, resemble magnetite. On crushing between -glass slides, thin slivers are obtained which in transmitted light are -green, and which, from their cleavage, pleochroism, high index of -refraction, small extinction angle, and insolubility in acid, are -readily recognized as hornblende.</p> - -<p>Two groups of grains were noted which are distinguishable by slight -variation in color. Both are clear-yellowish green, but one is -somewhat darker than the other. The optical properties of both -indicate pyroxene and possibly olivine. Fortunately a fragment was -obtained in the orthodiagonal zone nearly normal to an optic axis -which gave an axial figure of sufficient definiteness to indicate its -optically positive character. A number of grains were selected from -minerals of both colors and subjected to prolonged heating in -hydrochloric acid without decomposition, indicating that both minerals -are pyroxene.</p> - -<p>A few zircons, a fraction of a millimeter in size but perfect in form, -were found associated with others rounded on their solid angles and -edges. The crystals are of the common short form and bear the usual -faces in a greater or less degree of development. Pyramids of the -first and second order alternate in magnitude; pinacoid encroaches -upon prism, and <i>vice versa</i>.</p> - -<p>Quartz constitutes by far the largest proportion of the minerals, both -in bulk and in weight. It is always fragmental; sometimes water-clear, -but chiefly occurs in opaque grains of different colors. It is seldom -free from material of a higher specific gravity, and is often so -tinted as to be almost indistinguishable from magnetite, but readily -bleaches in acid.</p> - -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page198"><small><small>[p. 198]</small></small></a></span> -<p>Feldspar is sparingly present, and includes both monoclinic and -triclinic forms, whose crystallographic boundaries are invariably -lacking.</p> - -<p>Treatment of the sand with dilute acid produces effervescence, which -is not due to incrustations of sodium carbonate. By persistent search -among particles separated in a heavy solution, a few grains were -discovered which, from their complete solubility with effervescence in -very dilute acid, as well as their optical properties, left no doubt -as to their being calcite.</p> - -<p>The mica group has only one representative, biotite, and this occurs -most sparingly. Though much of the sand was examined, but few -fragments were found. Its foliated character renders it easily -transported by water and explains its absence from among the heavy minerals.</p> - -<p>Shaly, slaty and schistose material forms the major part of the -coarser grains. Thin sections from the largest pieces plainly -indicated hornblende schist.</p> - -<p>A region of glaciers would seem to be favorable not only to the -collection of meteoric material, but also to the destruction of the -country rocks, the setting free of their mineralogic constituents in a -comparatively fresh state, and their transportation to the sea. It was -hoped that this sand would yield some of the rarer varieties of -minerals, but tests for native iron, platinum, chromite, gneiss, and -the titaniferous minerals proved ineffectual. Titanium is present, but -in such small quantities that it could only be detected by means of -hydrogen peroxide. The use of acid supersulphate and the borotungstate -of calcium test of Lasaulx failed to reveal the presence of native iron.</p> - -<p>It will be seen from the foregoing enumeration that the sand is made -up of grains of gold, magnetite, garnet, hornblende, pyroxene, zircon, -quartz, feldspar, calcite and mica, associated with fragments of a -shaly, slaty and schistose character. While the information at hand is -hardly sufficient to warrant much speculation concerning the rock -masses of the interior, still there is no doubt that the sand is -derived from the destruction of metamorphic rocks.</p> -<br> -<br> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page199"><small><small>[p. 199]</small></small></a></span> -<br> -<br> -<h4>A<small>PPENDIX</small> D.</h4> - -<h3>REPORT ON FOSSIL PLANTS.</h3> - -<center><small>BY LESTER F. WARD</small>.</center> -<br><br> -<div align="right">D<small>EPARTMENT OF THE</small> I<small>NTERIOR</small>, - <br> -U<small>NITED</small> S<small>TATES</small> G<small>EOLOGICAL</small> -S<small>URVEY</small>, - <br> -<i>Washington, D. C., March 12, 1891</i>. - </div> - -<blockquote>Mr. I. C. R<small>USSELL</small>, <i>United States Geological Survey</i>.</blockquote> - -<blockquote>M<small>Y</small> D<small>EAR</small> S<small>IR</small>: -The following report upon the small collection of fossil -plants made by you at Pinnacle pass, near Mount St. Elias, Alaska, and -sent to this division for identification has been prepared by -Professor F. H. Knowlton, who gave the collection a careful study -during my absence in Florida. Previous to going away I had somewhat -hastily examined the specimens and seen that they consisted chiefly of -the genus <i>Salix</i>, some of them reminding me strongly of living -species. I have no doubt that Professor Knowlton's more thorough -comparisons can be relied upon with as much confidence as the nature -of the collection will permit, and I also agree with his conclusions.</blockquote> - -<blockquote>"The collection consists of seven small hand specimens, upon which are -impressed no less than seventeen more or less completely preserved -dicotyledonous leaves.</blockquote> - -<blockquote>"These specimens at first sight seem to represent six or eight -species, but after a careful study I think I am safe in reducing the -number to four, as several of the impressions have been nearly -obliterated by prolonged exposure and cannot be studied with much -satisfaction.</blockquote> - -<blockquote>"The four determinable species belong, without much doubt, to the -genus <i>Salix</i>. Number 1, of which there is but a single specimen, I -have identified with <i>Salix californica</i>, Lesquereux, from the -auriferous gravel deposits of the Sierra Nevada in -California.<small><small><sup>38</sup></small></small> The -finer nervation of the specimens from the auriferous gravels is not -clearly shown in Lesquereux's figures, nor is it well preserved in the -Mount St. Elias specimens; but the size, outline, and primary -nervation are identical.</blockquote> - -<blockquote>"Number 2, of which there are six or eight specimens, may be compared -with <i>Salix raeana</i>, Heer,<small><small><sup>39</sup></small></small> -a species that was first described from -Greenland and was later detected by Lesquereux in a collection from -Cooks inlet, Alaska.<small><small><sup>40</sup></small></small> -The Mount St. Elias specimens are not very -much like the original figures of Heer, but are very similar, in -outline at least, to this species as figured by -Lesquereux.<small><small><sup>41</sup></small></small> -They are also very similar to -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page200"><small><small>[p. 200]</small></small></a></span> -some forms of the living <i>S. rostrata</i>, -Richardson, with entire leaves. It is clearly a willow, but closer -identification must remain for more complete material.</blockquote> - -<blockquote>"Number 3, represented by four or five specimens, is broadly -elliptical in outline, and is also clearly a <i>Salix</i>. It is unlike any -fossil form with which I am familiar, but is very similar to the -living <i>S. nigricans</i>, For., var. <i>rotundifolia</i>, and to certain forms -of <i>S. silesiaca</i>, Willd. The nervation is very distinctly preserved, -and has all the characters of a willow leaf.</blockquote> - -<blockquote>"Number 4, represented by three or four very fine specimens, is a very -large leaf, measuring 13 cm. in length and 3½ cm. in width at the -broadest point. It may be compared with <i>Salix macrophylla</i>, -Heer,<small><small><sup>42</sup></small></small> -but it cannot be this species. It is also like some of the living -forms of <i>S. nigra</i>, Marsh., from which it differs in having perfectly -entire margins.</blockquote> - -<blockquote>"While it is manifestly impossible, on the basis of the above -identifications, to speak with confidence as to the age or formation -containing these leaves, it can hardly be older than the Miocene, and -from its strong resemblance to the present existing flora of Alaska it -is likely to be much younger." [F. H. Knowlton.]</blockquote> - -<div align="right">Very sincerely yours, - - -L<small>ESTER</small> F. W<small>ARD</small>. - </div> -<br> -<blockquote><small><small><sup>38</sup></small> Mem. Mus. Comp. Zool., vol. VI, no. 2, 1878, p. 10, pl. -i, figs. 18–21.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>39</sup></small> Flor. foss. Arct., vol. I, 1868, p. 102, pl. iv, figs. -11–13; pl. xlvii, fig. 11.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>40</sup></small> Proc. Nat. Mus., vol. V, 1882, p. 447.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>41</sup></small> loc. cit., pl. viii, fig. 6.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>32</sup></small> Tert. Fl. Helv., vol. II, 1856, p. 29, pl. lxvii, fig. -4.</small></blockquote> -<br> -<br> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page201"><small><small>[p. 201]</small></small></a></span> -<br> -<br> -<h3>INDEX.</h3> -<br> - -Admiralty bay, <a href="#page56">56</a><br> -<br> -Agassiz glacier, Ascent of, <a href="#page147">147</a><br> -— — named, <a href="#page73">73</a><br> -<br> -Age of St. Elias range, <a href="#page175">175</a><br> -<br> -Alpenstocks, Necessity for, <a href="#page165">165</a><br> -<br> -Alpine glaciers, <a href="#page176">176</a>, <a href="#page180">180</a><br> -<br> -Alton, Edmund, Contributions to exploration fund by, <a href="#page75">75</a><br> -<br> -<i>Archangelica</i>, Mention of, <a href="#page89">89</a>, <a href="#page114">114</a><br> -<br> -<i>Atrevida</i> (The), Mention of, <a href="#page63">63</a><br> -<br> -Arevida glacier, <a href="#page92">92</a>, <a href="#page105">105</a><br> -<br> -Auriferous sands, <a href="#page196">196</a>, <a href="#page197">197</a>, <a href="#page198">198</a><br> -<br> -Avalanches, <a href="#page145">145</a>, <a href="#page155">155</a><br> -<br> -<br> -Baie de Monti, <a href="#page56">56</a><br> -— named by La Pérouse, <a href="#page60">60</a><br> -<br> -Baker, Marcus, Explorations by, <a href="#page70">70</a>, <a href="#page72">72</a><br> -— reference to bibliography by, <a href="#page58">58</a><br> -<br> -Base Line, Measurement of, <a href="#page86">86</a><br> -<br> -Bear, Meeting with, <a href="#page94">94</a>, <a href="#page109">109</a><br> -<br> -Belcher, Sir Edward, Explorations by, <a href="#page68">68</a>, <a href="#page69">69</a><br> -<br> -Bell, A. Graham, Contribution to exploration fund by, <a href="#page75">75</a><br> -<br> -Bell, Charles J., Contribution to exploration fund by, <a href="#page75">75</a><br> -<br> -Bering bay, Mention of, <a href="#page56">56</a><br> -<br> -Bering, Vitus, Explorations by, <a href="#page58">58</a><br> -<br> -Bien, Morris, Contribution to exploration fund by, <a href="#page75">75</a><br> -<br> -Birnie, Jr., Rogers, Contribution to exploration fund by, <a href="#page75">75</a><br> -<br> -Black glacier, Brief account of, <a href="#page101">101</a>, <a href="#page104">104</a><br> -<br> -Blossom island, Description of, <a href="#page113">113</a>, <a href="#page122">122</a><br> -<br> -Boursin, Henry, Mention of, <a href="#page79">79</a><br> -<br> -Broka, George, Explorations by, <a href="#page73">73</a>, <a href="#page74">74</a><br> -<br> -<br> -Camp hands, <a href="#page166">166</a><br> -<br> -Carpenter, Z. T., Contribution to exploration fund by, <a href="#page75">75</a><br> -<br> -Carroll, Captain James, <a href="#page78">78</a><br> -<br> -Cascade glacier named, <a href="#page144">144</a><br> -<br> -Chaix hills named, <a href="#page73">73</a><br> -<br> -Chariot, The, Mention of, <a href="#page140">140</a><br> -<br> -Chatham, Mention of, <a href="#page66">66</a><br> -<br> -Cherikof, Alexei, Explorations of, <a href="#page58">58</a><br> -<br> -Christie, J. H., Member of expedition, <a href="#page76">76</a><br> -— Work of, <a href="#page82">82</a>, <a href="#page83">83</a>, <a href="#page84">84</a>, <a href="#page96">96</a>, <a href="#page103">103</a>, <a href="#page112">112</a>, <a href="#page113">113</a>, <a href="#page123">123</a>, <a href="#page162">162</a><br> -<br> -Clover, Richardson, Contribution to exploration fund by, <a href="#page75">75</a><br> -<br> -Cook, Captain James, Explorations of, <a href="#page58">58</a><br> -<br> -<i>Corwin</i> (The) in Disenchantment bay, <a href="#page100">100</a><br> -— Return of, <a href="#page163">163</a><br> -<br> -Crevasses, <a href="#page181">181</a>, <a href="#page182">182</a><br> -— at Pinnacle pass, <a href="#page130">130</a><br> -<br> -Cross sound, visited by Vancouver's expedition, <a href="#page67">67</a><br> -<br> -Crumback, J. H., Member of expedition, <a href="#page76">76</a><br> -— Work of, <a href="#page96">96</a>, <a href="#page103">103</a>, <a href="#page122">122</a>, <a href="#page125">125</a>, <a href="#page129">129</a>, <a href="#page131">131</a>, <a href="#page135">135</a>, <a href="#page137">137</a><br> -<br> -<br> -Dagelet, M., Mention of, <a href="#page60">60</a><br> -<br> -Dall, W. H., Explorations by, <a href="#page70">70</a>, <a href="#page72">72</a><br> -— reference to bibliography by, <a href="#page58">58</a><br> -<br> -Dalton, John, glacier named for, <a href="#page98">98</a><br> -— mention of, <a href="#page73">73</a><br> -<br> -Definition of formations in St. Elias region, <a href="#page167">167</a><br> -<br> -Desengaño bay, named by Malaspina, <a href="#page63">63</a><br> -<br> -Digges' sound, named by Vancouver, <a href="#page68">68</a><br> -<br> -Diller, J. S., Contribution to exploration fund by, <a href="#page75">75</a><br> -<br> -Dip at Pinnacle pass, <a href="#page140">140</a><br> -<br> -<i>Discovery</i> (The), Mention of, <a href="#page66">66</a><br> -<br> -Disenchantment bay, Canoe trip in, <a href="#page96">96</a>, <a href="#page103">103</a><br> -— — last view of, <a href="#page163">163</a><br> -— — mention of, <a href="#page56">56</a><br> -— — visited by Malaspina, <a href="#page63">63</a>, <a href="#page64">64</a><br> -<br> -Dixon, Captain George, Explorations of, <a href="#page60">60</a>, <a href="#page62">62</a><br> -<br> -De Monti bay, Arrival at, <a href="#page79">79</a><br> -<br> -<i>Descubierta</i> (The), Mention of, <a href="#page63">63</a><br> -<br> -Devil's club (<i>Panax horridum</i>), Mention of, <a href="#page95">95</a>, <a href="#page115">115</a><br> -<br> -Dobbins, J. W., Contribution to exploration fund by, <a href="#page75">75</a><br> -<br> -Dome pass, named, <a href="#page146">146</a><br> -<br> -Doney, L. S., Member of expedition, <a href="#page76">76</a><br> -— Work of, <a href="#page85">85</a>, <a href="#page158">158</a>, <a href="#page159">159</a>, <a href="#page160">160</a>, <a href="#page162">162</a><br> -<br> -Douglass, Captain, Explorations of, <a href="#page62">62</a><br> -<br> -Dry bay, Mention of, <a href="#page55">55</a><br> -<br> -<br> -Farenholt, Lieutenant Commander O. F., Commander of U. S. S. <i>Pinta</i>, <a href="#page79">79</a><br> -<br> -Faulted pebble from Pinnacle pass, <a href="#page171">171</a><br> -<br> -Faults, <a href="#page83">83</a>, <a href="#page136">136</a><br> -— Thrust, in Hitchcock range, <a href="#page118">118</a><br> -<br> -Floral hills, brief account of, <a href="#page105">105</a>, <a href="#page108">108</a><br> -— pass, brief account of, <a href="#page105">105</a>, <a href="#page108">108</a>, <a href="#page110">110</a><br> -<br> -Formations of the St. Elias region, <a href="#page167">167</a><br> -<br> -Fossils at Pinnacle pass, <a href="#page140">140</a><br> -— description of Yakutat system, <a href="#page172">172</a><br> -<br> -Fossil plants, Report on, by Lester F. Ward, <a href="#page199">199</a>, <a href="#page200">200</a><br> -<br> -<br> -Gabbro on the Marvine glacier, <a href="#page123">123</a><br> -<br> -Galiano, Don Dionisio Alcala, Mention of, <a href="#page63">63</a><br> -<br> -Galiano glacier, Visit to, <a href="#page89">89</a>, <a href="#page90">90</a><br> -<br> -Gannett, Henry, Contribution to exploration fund by, <a href="#page75">75</a><br> -— Instructions from, <a href="#page194">194</a><br> -<br> -Geology of the St. Elias region, <a href="#page167">167</a>, <a href="#page190">190</a>, <a href="#page191">191</a>, <a href="#page174">174</a><br> -<br> -Geological Survey, Instructions from, <a href="#page192">192</a>, <a href="#page193">193</a>, <a href="#page194">194</a><br> -<br> -Gilbert, G. K., Instructions from, <a href="#page192">192</a>, <a href="#page193">193</a><br> -<br> -Glacial currents, <a href="#page187">187</a><br> -— river, best example of, <a href="#page183">183</a><br> -— streams, <a href="#page183">183</a>, <a href="#page184">184</a><br> -<br> -Glacier bay, mention of, <a href="#page67">67</a><br> -<br> -Glaciers in Disenchantment bay in <a href="#page179">179</a>2, <a href="#page64">64</a>, <a href="#page65">65</a>, <a href="#page97">97</a><br> -— — — — observed by Malaspina, <a href="#page64">64</a>, <a href="#page65">65</a><br> -— — — — — — Puget, <a href="#page67">67</a>, <a href="#page68">68</a><br> -— of the St. Elias region, <a href="#page176">176</a><br> -— west of Icy bay, <a href="#page187">187</a><br> -<br> -Greely, A. W., Contribution to exploration fund by, <a href="#page75">75</a><br> -<br> -Guides, use of in ascending St. Elias, <a href="#page166">166</a><br> -<br> -Guyot glacier named, <a href="#page73">73</a><br> -<br> -<br> -Haenke, D. Tadeo, Haenke island named for, <a href="#page65">65</a><br> -— island, Condition of, when seen by Malaspina, <a href="#page63">63</a>, <a href="#page64">64</a>, <a href="#page65">65</a>, <a href="#page97">97</a><br> -— — visit to, <a href="#page96">96</a>, <a href="#page103">103</a><br> -<br> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page202"><small><small>[p. 202]</small></small></a></span> -Hayden, Dr. F. V., glacier named for, <a href="#page108">108</a><br> -<br> -Hayden, Everett, Contributions to exploration fund by, <a href="#page75">75</a><br> -<br> -Hayden glacier, Brief account of, <a href="#page108">108</a>, <a href="#page110">110</a>, <a href="#page111">111</a><br> -<br> -Hays, J. W., Contribution to exploration fund by, <a href="#page75">75</a><br> -<br> -Height and position of St. Elias, <a href="#page189">189</a>, <a href="#page190">190</a><br> -<br> -Hendriksen, Reverend Carl J., mention of, <a href="#page80">80</a>, <a href="#page83">83</a><br> -<br> -Hitchcock, Professor Edward, range named for, <a href="#page112">112</a><br> -— range, brief account of, <a href="#page112">112</a><br> -— — from Pinnacle pass, <a href="#page133">133</a><br> -— — structure of, <a href="#page118">118</a><br> -<br> -Hooper, Captain C. L., Navigation of Disenchantment bay, <a href="#page56">56</a>, <a href="#page100">100</a><br> -<br> -Hosmer, E. S., Contribution to exploration fund by, <a href="#page75">75</a><br> -— return of, <a href="#page83">83</a><br> -—, volunteer assistant, <a href="#page76">76</a><br> -<br> -Hubbard, Gardiner G., Contribution to exploration fund by, <a href="#page75">75</a><br> -—, glacier named for, <a href="#page99">99</a><br> -<br> -Hubbard glacier, brief description of, <a href="#page99">99</a><br> -<br> -<br> -Icebergs, Formation of, <a href="#page98">98</a>, <a href="#page99">99</a>, <a href="#page101">101</a>, <a href="#page102">102</a><br> -— in Yakutat bay, description of, <a href="#page87">87</a><br> -<br> -Ice tunnels, <a href="#page184">184</a><br> -<br> -Instructions from Geological Survey, <a href="#page192">192</a>, <a href="#page193">193</a>, <a href="#page194">194</a><br> -— — National Geographic Society, <a href="#page194">194</a><br> -<br> -Irving, Professor R. D., Mountain named for, <a href="#page144">144</a><br> -<br> -<br> -Johnson, Willard D., Contribution to exploration fund by, <a href="#page75">75</a><br> -— exploration planned by, <a href="#page75">75</a><br> -<br> -Judd, J. G., Contribution to exploration fund by, <a href="#page75">75</a><br> -<br> -Jungen, Ensign C. W., Mention of, <a href="#page81">81</a><br> -<br> -<br> -Kerr, Mark B., assigned as an assistant, <a href="#page75">75</a><br> -— report on topographic work, <a href="#page193">193</a><br> -<br> -Khantaak island, village on, <a href="#page79">79</a>, <a href="#page80">80</a><br> -<br> -King, Harry, Contribution to exploration fund by, <a href="#page75">75</a><br> -<br> -Knapp, Hon. Lyman E., Mention of, <a href="#page79">79</a><br> -<br> -Knight island, scenery near, <a href="#page83">83</a><br> - — — named by Puget, <a href="#page68">68</a><br> -<br> -Knowlton, F. H., Report on fossil plants, <a href="#page199">199</a>, <a href="#page200">200</a><br> -<br> -<br> -<i>L'Astrolabe</i>, Mention of, <a href="#page58">58</a><br> -<br> -<i>La Boussole</i>, Mention of, <a href="#page58">58</a><br> -<br> -Lake Castani, Named, <a href="#page73">73</a><br> -<br> -Lakelets on the glaciers, <a href="#page119">119</a>, <a href="#page120">120</a><br> -<br> -Lakes, Abandoned beds of, near Blossom island, <a href="#page116">116</a><br> -<br> -La Pérouse, J. F. S., Explorations of, <a href="#page58">58</a>, <a href="#page60">60</a><br> -<br> -Leach, Boynton, Contribution to exploration fund by, <a href="#page75">75</a><br> -<br> -Libbey, Professor William, explorations by, <a href="#page72">72</a>, <a href="#page73">73</a><br> -<br> -Lindsley, W. L., Member of expedition, <a href="#page76">76</a><br> -— Work of, <a href="#page122">122</a>, <a href="#page131">131</a>, <a href="#page134">134</a>, <a href="#page135">135</a>, <a href="#page139">139</a>, <a href="#page144">144</a>, <a href="#page149">149</a>, <a href="#page150">150</a>, <a href="#page153">153</a>, <a href="#page157">157</a>, <a href="#page158">158</a>, <a href="#page164">164</a><br> -<br> -Lituya bay, mention of, <a href="#page55">55</a><br> -<br> -Logan, Sir W. E., Mountain named for, <a href="#page141">141</a><br> -<br> -Lucia glacier, brief account of, <a href="#page192">192</a><br> -— — crossing of, <a href="#page105">105</a>, <a href="#page106">106</a>, <a href="#page108">108</a>, <a href="#page109">109</a><br> -<br> -Lynn canal, mention of, <a href="#page78">78</a><br> -<br> -<br> -Malaspina, Alejandro, Explorations of, <a href="#page62">62</a>, <a href="#page66">66</a><br> -<br> -Malaspina glacier, character of, <a href="#page187">187</a><br> -— —, described and named, <a href="#page71">71</a>, <a href="#page72">72</a><br> -— —, excursion on, <a href="#page120">120</a>, <a href="#page121">121</a>, <a href="#page162">162</a><br> -— —, from Blossom island, <a href="#page118">118</a>, <a href="#page119">119</a><br> -— —, mention of, <a href="#page56">56</a><br> -<br> -Maldonado, reference to, <a href="#page62">62</a>, <a href="#page63">63</a><br> -<br> -Marvine, A. R., Glacier named for, <a href="#page112">112</a><br> -<br> -Marvine glacier, Account of, <a href="#page112">112</a>, <a href="#page122">122</a>, <a href="#page124">124</a><br> -<br> -McCarteney, C. M., Contribution to exploration fund by, <a href="#page75">75</a><br> -<br> -Mirage in Yakutat bay, <a href="#page87">87</a><br> -<br> -Moraines, <a href="#page195">195</a><br> -— medial, on the Marvine glacier, <a href="#page123">123</a><br> -— on the Malaspina glacier, <a href="#page134">134</a><br> -— near Yakutat bay, <a href="#page191">191</a><br> -<br> -Mount Augusta, avalanches on the sides of, <a href="#page145">145</a><br> -— elevation of, <a href="#page117">117</a><br> -<br> -Mount Bering, Height and condition of, <a href="#page65">65</a><br> -<br> -Mount Cook, Appearance of, <a href="#page92">92</a><br> -— named, <a href="#page72">72</a><br> -— rocks composing, <a href="#page92">92</a><br> -<br> -Mount Fairweather, height of, <a href="#page69">69</a><br> -<br> -Mount Logan, named, <a href="#page141">141</a><br> -<br> -Mount Malaspina, Elevation of, <a href="#page117">117</a><br> -— named, <a href="#page72">72</a><br> -<br> -Mount Newton, named, <a href="#page146">146</a><br> -<br> -Mount St. Elias (see <a href="#stelias">St. Elias, Mount</a>)<br> -<br> -Mount Vancouver, named, <a href="#page72">72</a><br> -<br> -Muir glacier, Visit to, <a href="#page78">78</a>, <a href="#page79">79</a><br> -<br> -Mulgrave, Lord, Port Mulgrave named for, <a href="#page60">60</a><br> -<br> -<br> -National Geographic Society, Instructions from, <a href="#page194">194</a><br> -<br> -Névé fields, <a href="#page180">180</a>, <a href="#page181">181</a>, <a href="#page182">182</a><br> -<br> -Newton glacier, Ascent of, <a href="#page150">150</a><br> -<br> -Newton, Henry, Mountain named for, <a href="#page146">146</a><br> -<br> -New York <i>Times</i>, Expedition of, <a href="#page72">72</a>, <a href="#page73">73</a><br> -<br> -Nordhoff, Charles, Contribution to exploration fund by, <a href="#page75">75</a><br> -<br> -Norris glacier, Mention of, <a href="#page78">78</a><br> -<br> -Nunatak in the Lucia glacier, <a href="#page106">106</a><br> -<br> -<br> -Oil stoves, Use of, <a href="#page164">164</a><br> -<br> -<i>Orel</i>, Mention of the, <a href="#page70">70</a><br> -<br> -<i>Otkrytie</i>, Mention of the, <a href="#page69">69</a><br> -<br> -Outfit necessary for Alaskan expeditions, <a href="#page165">165</a><br> -<br> -<br> -<i>Panax horridum</i>, <a href="#page95">95</a>, <a href="#page115">115</a><br> -<br> -Partridge, William, Member of expedition, <a href="#page76">76</a><br> -— Work of, <a href="#page158">158</a>, <a href="#page159">159</a>, <a href="#page162">162</a><br> -<br> -Piedmont glaciers, characteristics of, <a href="#page122">122</a>, <a href="#page176">176</a>, <a href="#page185">185</a>, <a href="#page186">186</a><br> -— — example of, <a href="#page120">120</a>, <a href="#page121">121</a><br> -— type of glaciers, mention of, <a href="#page57">57</a><br> -<br> -Pimpluna rocks, mention of, <a href="#page70">70</a>, <a href="#page187">187</a><br> -<br> -Pinnacle pass cliffs, account of, <a href="#page132">132</a>, <a href="#page137">137</a><br> -— — —, height of, <a href="#page137">137</a><br> -— — —, view from, <a href="#page132">132</a><br> -— —, description of, <a href="#page130">130</a>, <a href="#page132">132</a><br> -— — named, <a href="#page130">130</a><br> -— system, description of rocks of, <a href="#page167">167</a>, <a href="#page170">170</a><br> -— — named, <a href="#page131">131</a><br> -<br> -<i>Pinta</i>, mention of the, <a href="#page79">79</a>, <a href="#page81">81</a><br> -<br> -Phipps, C. J., Port Mulgrave named for, <a href="#page60">60</a><br> -<br> -Plants on Blossom island, <a href="#page114">114</a><br> -<br> -Point Esperanza, Camp at, <a href="#page82">82</a>, <a href="#page84">84</a>, <a href="#page85">85</a><br> -— Glorious, named, <a href="#page137">137</a><br> -— Riou, Mention of, <a href="#page69">69</a><br> -<br> -Port Mulgrave, <a href="#page56">56</a><br> -— — named by Dixon, <a href="#page60">60</a><br> -<br> -Powell, J. W., Contribution to exploration fund by, <a href="#page75">75</a><br> -<br> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page203"><small><small>[p. 203]</small></small></a></span> -Powell, William B., Contribution to exploration fund by, <a href="#page75">75</a><br> -<br> -Puerto del Desengaño, Mention of, <a href="#page56">56</a><br> -<br> -Puget, Peter, Explorations of, <a href="#page66">66</a>, <a href="#page68">68</a><br> -<br> -Pyramid harbor, Mention of, <a href="#page78">78</a><br> -<br> -<br> -<i>Queen Charlotte</i>, Mention of the, <a href="#page60">60</a><br> -—, voyage on the, <a href="#page78">78</a>, <a href="#page79">79</a><br> -<br> -<br> -Rations, <a href="#page164">164</a><br> -<br> -Report on sands from Yakutat bay by J. Stanley-Brown, <a href="#page196">196</a>, <a href="#page197">197</a>, <a href="#page198">198</a><br> -<br> -Rivers, Glacial, <a href="#page183">183</a><br> -<br> -Rope cliff, named, <a href="#page149">149</a><br> -<br> -Route (new), suggested, <a href="#page163">163</a>, <a href="#page164">164</a><br> -<br> -Russell, Israel C., Contribution to exploration fund by, <a href="#page75">75</a><br> -<br> -<br> -Salmon (and trout) fishing, <a href="#page162">162</a><br> -<br> -Sands, Auriferous from Yakutat bay, <a href="#page196">196</a>, <a href="#page197">197</a>, <a href="#page198">198</a><br> -<br> -Schwatka, Lieutenant Frederick, explorations by, <a href="#page72">72</a>, <a href="#page73">73</a><br> -<br> -Serpentine on the Marvine glacier, <a href="#page123">123</a><br> -<br> -Seton-Karr, H. W., explorations of, <a href="#page72">72</a>, <a href="#page73">73</a><br> -<br> -Seward glacier, crevasses on, <a href="#page133">133</a>, <a href="#page179">179</a>, <a href="#page180">180</a><br> -— — crossing of, <a href="#page142">142</a><br> -— — description of, <a href="#page177">177</a>, <a href="#page178">178</a>, <a href="#page179">179</a><br> -<br> -Seward, Hon. W. H., Glacier named for, <a href="#page129">129</a><br> -<br> -Sitka, arrival at, <a href="#page79">79</a><br> -<br> -Snow crests, figures of, <a href="#page143">143</a><br> -— line, description of Alpine glaciers above, <a href="#page180">180</a><br> -— — — — — — below, <a href="#page183">183</a><br> -<br> -Snow line, elevation of, <a href="#page92">92</a>, <a href="#page111">111</a><br> -— on mountain crests, <a href="#page182">182</a><br> -<br> -Soundings in Disenchantment bay, <a href="#page56">56</a><br> -<br> -Stamy, Thomas, Member of expedition, <a href="#page76">76</a><br> -— Work of, <a href="#page137">137</a>, <a href="#page139">139</a>, <a href="#page144">144</a>, <a href="#page150">150</a>, <a href="#page153">153</a>, <a href="#page157">157</a>, <a href="#page158">158</a>, <a href="#page160">160</a><br> -<br> -Stanley-Brown, J., Report on sands from Yakutat bay, <a href="#page196">196</a>, <a href="#page197">197</a>, <a href="#page198">198</a><br> -<br><a name="stelias"></a> -St. Elias described by La Pérouse, <a href="#page59">59</a>, <a href="#page60">60</a><br> -—, discovery of, by Bering, <a href="#page58">58</a><br> -—, first full view of, <a href="#page135">135</a><br> -—, view of, <a href="#page91">91</a>, <a href="#page92">92</a><br> -—, height and position of, <a href="#page189">189</a>, <a href="#page190">190</a><br> -— — — — —, by Tebenkof, <a href="#page69">69</a><br> -— — — of, determined by La Pérouse, <a href="#page60">60</a><br> -— — — — — Malaspina, <a href="#page64">64</a>, <a href="#page65">65</a>, <a href="#page66">66</a><br> -— range, age of, <a href="#page175">175</a><br> -— —, character of peaks of, <a href="#page175">175</a><br> -— region, glaciers of, <a href="#page176">176</a><br> -— schist, description of rocks of, <a href="#page167">167</a>, <a href="#page173">173</a><br> -—, suggested new route to, <a href="#page163">163</a>, <a href="#page164">164</a><br> -— uplift, <a href="#page190">190</a><br> -<br> -Stein, Robert, translations by, <a href="#page59">59</a>, <a href="#page64">64</a>, <a href="#page65">65</a>, <a href="#page66">66</a><br> -<br> -Strait of Annan, <a href="#page56">56</a><br> -<br> -Structure, <a href="#page174">174</a><br> -<br> -Swiss guides in Alaskan exploration, <a href="#page166">166</a><br> -<br> -<i>Sulphur</i>, Mention of the, <a href="#page69">69</a><br> -<br> -<br> -Taku glacier, Mention of, <a href="#page78">78</a><br> -— inlet, Visit to, <a href="#page78">78</a><br> -<br> -Tebenkof, Captain, Notes on Alaska by, <a href="#page69">69</a>, <a href="#page70">70</a><br> -<br> -Terrace on northern shore of Yakutat bay, <a href="#page82">82</a>, <a href="#page85">85</a><br> -— point, Brief account of, <a href="#page106">106</a><br> -<br> -Thompson, Gilbert, Contribution to exploration fund by, <a href="#page75">75</a><br> -<br> -Tide-water glaciers defined, <a href="#page101">101</a><br> -<br> -Topographic work, Report on, <a href="#page195">195</a><br> -<br> -Topham, Edwin, Explorations by, <a href="#page73">73</a>, <a href="#page74">74</a><br> -<br> -Topham, W. H., explorations by, <a href="#page73">73</a>, <a href="#page74">74</a><br> -— reference to map by, <a href="#page177">177</a><br> -<br> -Triangulation, Commencement of, <a href="#page86">86</a><br> -<br> -Tunnels in the ice, <a href="#page184">184</a><br> -<br> -Tyndall glacier, Named, <a href="#page73">73</a><br> -<br> -Tyndall, J., cited on marginal crevasses, <a href="#page127">127</a><br> -<br> -<br> -United States Coast and Geodetic Survey, explorations of, <a href="#page70">70</a>, <a href="#page72">72</a><br> -<br> -<br> -Vancouver, Captain George, Explorations by, <a href="#page66">66</a>, <a href="#page68">68</a><br> -<br> -<i>Veratrum viride</i>, Mention of, <a href="#page114">114</a><br> -<br> -<br> -Ward, Lester F., Report on fossil plants, <a href="#page199">199</a>, <a href="#page200">200</a><br> -<br> -White, Thomas, Member of expedition, <a href="#page76">76</a><br> -—, Work of <a href="#page158">158</a>, <a href="#page160">160</a><br> -<br> -Willis, Baily, contribution to exploration fund by, <a href="#page75">75</a><br> -<br> -Williams, C. A., contribution to exploration fund by, <a href="#page75">75</a><br> -<br> -Williams, William, explorations by, <a href="#page73">73</a>, <a href="#page74">74</a><br> -<br> -<br> -Yakutat bay, Arrival at, <a href="#page79">79</a><br> -— —, Base camp on Western shore of, <a href="#page86">86</a>, <a href="#page89">89</a><br> -— —, Shores of described, <a href="#page57">57</a><br> -— —, Synonomy of, <a href="#page56">56</a><br> -— Indians, described by Dixon, <a href="#page61">61</a><br> -— system, Description of rocks of, <a href="#page167">167</a><br> -— — named, <a href="#page131">131</a><br> -<br> -<br> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page204"><small><small>[p. 204]</small></small></a></span> -<br> -<br> -<center><img src="images/cover5.jpg" alt="cover to issue 5"></center> -<br> -<br> -<h3>CONTENTS.</h3> -<hr align="center" width="25%"> -<br> -<p><a href="#page205">The Cartography and Observations of Bering's First Voyage</a>; by - A. W. G<small>REELY</small></p> - -<p><a href="#page231">Height and Position of Mount St. Elias</a>; by I<small>SRAEL</small> C. R<small>USSELL</small></p> - -<p><a href="#page238">The Heart of Africa</a>; by E. C. H<small>ORE</small></p> - -<p><a href="#page248">Report of Committee on Exploration in Alaska</a></p> - -<p>Notes—<a href="#page250">La Carte de France, dite de l'Etat Major</a>, par M. J. C<small>OLLET</small></p> - -<blockquote><a href="#page252">Polar Regions</a></blockquote> - -<blockquote><a href="#page253">The Crossing of Tibet</a></blockquote> - -<blockquote><a href="#page255">Statistics of Railways in United States</a></blockquote> - -<p><a href="#page257">Index to volume III</a></p> - -<blockquote><a href="#pagei">Title-page and Imprimatur of Board of Managers</a></blockquote> - -<blockquote><a href="#pageiii">Contents and Illustrations</a></blockquote> - -<blockquote><a href="#pagev">Publications of the National Geographic Society</a></blockquote> - -<blockquote><a href="#pagevii">Proceedings of the National Geographic Society</a></blockquote> - -<blockquote><a href="#pagexiv">Officers of the Society for 1892</a></blockquote> - -<blockquote><a href="#pagexv">Members of the Society</a></blockquote> -<br> -<br> -<br> -<br> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page205"><small><small>[p. 205]</small></small></a></span> -<center><small>V<small>OL</small>. III, PP. 205–230, PL. 21 - - - -J<small>ANUARY</small> 28, 1892</small></center> -<h4>THE</h4> -<h2>NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE.</h2> -<hr> -<br> -<br> -<br> -<br> -<h3>THE CARTOGRAPHY AND OBSERVATIONS</h3> -<h4>OF</h4> -<h3>BERING'S FIRST VOYAGE.</h3> -<h5>BY</h5> -<h4>GENERAL A. W. GREELY.</h4> - -<center><small>(<i>Presented before the Society March 20, 1891.</i>)</small></center> -<br> -<hr align="center" width="25%"> -<br> -<p>It was with no ordinary pleasure that the members of the National -Geographic Society listened to the critical review and admirable essay -on Bering's first expedition, 1725–1730, read before this Society, -together with a translation of Bering's report on the expedition in -question, by one of our learned and distinguished members, Professor -William H. Dall. The subject then under consideration is one of great -interest, and this Society owes a debt of gratitude to Professor Dall -for his assiduous labor in collating and translating the available -data on this voyage, and must indorse the general conclusions reached -in a critical essay which is the result of careful, conscientious -research conjoined to much erudition. It is especially fortunate, in -view of the vagueness of Bering's report, that it should have been -translated and reviewed by a traveler and investigator so thoroughly -familiar with the topography of Bering strait and the adjacent region.</p> - -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page206"><small><small>[p. 206]</small></small></a></span> -<p>It may appear somewhat presumptuous for the present writer to -further dwell on some points of subordinate importance, even with the -view of supplementing the investigations of Professor Dall; but he is -encouraged to the effort by the admirable spirit in which that -gentleman works, which is so clearly indicated in his own words: "I am -well aware this paper cannot be regarded as a finality, but as a -contribution to the geographical history of North America it will not -be without its value." This spirit encourages every one to contribute -his mite to elucidate the history of this interesting and ill-known period.</p> - -<p>The supplementary remarks now presented mainly relate to two points: -first, the cartographic reproduction of Bering's discoveries; second, -the alleged observations of lunar eclipses in Kamshatka by Bering and -his lieutenants in 1728–'29.</p> - -<p>In attempting to add to Professor Dall's essay or to elucidate some -points, it is but natural to felicitate one's self that chance has put -in one's way rare data in the shape of text and map. Nevertheless, -much difficulty has been experienced in efforts to consult -publications and charts bearing on this subject, as supplementary to -the data in the writer's own library. Fortunately, among his personal -books and maps are the following, which have escaped the critical, if -not casual, observation of Professor Dall:</p> - -<p>1. The original Hague<small><small><sup>1</sup></small></small> edition of Père du Halde, which Dall was -unable to consult; it is entitled "Description Géographique, -Historique, Chronologique, Politique, et Physique de l'Empire et de la -Tartarie Chinoise," etc. 4 vols., 4°: à la Haye, 1736.</p> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>1</sup></small> The first edition, in French, was published at Paris, 4 -vols., folio, 1735.</small></blockquote> - -<p>2. De l'Isle's scattered essays, entitled "Mémoires pour servir à -l'histoire et au progres de l'Astronomie, de la Géographie, et de la -Physique, etc., etc.: à St. Petersbourg, de l'imprimeris de l'Académie -des Sciences. MDCCXXXVIII [1738]."</p> - -<p>3. "Atlas Russien: contenant une Carte Générale et dix-neuf Cartes -particulieres de tout l'Empire de Russie et des Pays limitrophes -construites conformément aux règles de la Geographie et aux dernières -Observations. Par l'Académie Impériale des Sciences de St. -Petersbourg. St. Petersbourg, 1745."</p> - -<p>This was the first atlas published in Russia in the map department -established by order of Peter the Great in the Academy of Sciences of -St. Petersburg. It includes a general map of the Russian Empire and -nineteen maps of provinces.</p> - -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page207"><small><small>[p. 207]</small></small></a></span> -<p>4. "Carte de la Sibérie et des Pays voisins. Pour servir a -Histoire générale des Voyages par le S. Bellin, Ing. de la Marine," -two parts, undated, but to which E. Dufosse, of Paris, assigns the -date of 1749. The atlas for this work was originally published by Abbe -Prevost at Paris, 1747, et seq., the charts being engraved by Bellin.</p> - -<p>This chart appears on casual inspection to be more accurate than -either that of d'Anville or of de l'Isle, or of the Russian atlas.</p> - -<p>5. The very interesting and valuable map of J. N. de l'Isle, Paris, -1752 (without, however, the accompanying memoir).</p> - -<p>I do not think the original map has ever fallen under the notice of -Professor Dall, although a garbled reproduction of it is mentioned in -his review as follows:</p> - -<blockquote><small>"A chart which deserves notice, though almost wholly fictitious, being -chiefly devoted to the spurious discoveries of the alleged Admiral de -Fonte, was issued by J. N. de l'Isle with the concurrence of M. P. -Bauche or at his suggestion. It appeared at Paris in 1752, and was -copied for Jeffery's second edition of voyages from Asia to America in -1764. I do not know if this copy appeared in the first edition, but -presume it did."</small></blockquote> - -<p>As the original of de l'Isle's chart (1752) is here exhibited -to-night, it is evident that Jeffery was careless, and that the map, -which I infer Dall has never seen, is really more valuable than is set -forth in his address; otherwise so critical an observer as Dall would -not have said: "I suspect this (referring to d'Anville's map of 1753, -with Bering island thereon) is the first publication of a cartographic -kind on which Bering island is laid down, as the map of the Imperial -Academy of Sciences, embodying the geographical results of Bering's -voyage to the coast of America, was not engraved until a year later, -while de l'Isle's of 1752 does not contain them." You will see that -this is an error, for the "I(sle) de Beering" is plainly inscribed on -the map. (This map has been reproduced by photolithography and forms -the accompanying plate 21.)</p> - -<center><img src="images/21.jpg" alt="cover"></center> - -<p>Dall further describes the copy of this map in the following terms:</p> - -<blockquote><small>"Connected with America and north of the Chukchi peninsula is land -with an island off it corresponding not badly to Wrangell and Herald -islands and marked 'Discovered in 1722.' It is possible that this land -is a hypothetical compound of the land reported by the Chukchis east -of the strait with that which they knew to be visible in clear weather -from Cape Yakan, more or less confused accounts of which had long been -current among persons interested in these regions."</small></blockquote> - -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page208"><small><small>[p. 208]</small></small></a></span> -<p>The legend on the original chart indicates that Dall's surmise -is correct, for the copy is not only abbreviated, but is in error as -to date. On the original it runs: "Grande Terre découverte en 1723 au -s'enfeuit les Tzutzy l'orsqu'ils sont poursuivis par les Russes que ne -les ont pas encore soumis."</p> - -<p>There is another important legend on a very large imaginary island -about five degrees of longitude to the east of Bering island. On the -northern side of this land the text runs thus: "Terres dont le -Capitaine Beering's à en des indices dans son premier voyages en -1728." On the southern edge is the legend: "Cotes vues par Mrs. -Tchirikow et de l'Isle en Septembre 1741." Immediately south of the -land are two route tracks, with these legends: "Route du Kamtschatka a -l'Amerique par le Capitaine Tchirikow et Mr. de l'Isle de la Croyere -en Juin et Juillet, 1741," "Retour de l'Amerique au Kamtschatka en -Aout et Septembre 1741." The latter route track touches an indentation -in the southwestern coast, as though the vessel had entered the bay, -which has five mountains in the background.</p> - -<p>The legend—"Terres vues par les Russes en 1741 ou le Capitaine -Tchirikow perdit sa Chaloupe armée de 10 hommes"—is likewise of -interest, as controverting the statement that "De l'Isle's (chart) of -1752 does not contain ... the geographical results of Bering's voyage -to the coast of America." It embodies a large part, but not all, of -the discoveries.</p> - -<p>6. Buache's memoir and maps entitled: "Considerations geographiques et -physiques sur les Nouvelles Decouvertes au Nord de la Grande Mer, -appellee vulgairement la Mer du Sud; avec des Cartes qui y sont -relatives. Par Philippe Buache, Premier Geographe," etc. A Paris -M.DCC.LIII [1753], 4°, 158 pp. With my copy there is a separate -pamphlet, consisting of 13 maps, folio, with a preface and index, -quarto. The preface (4°, two leaves unpaged) is entitled: "Exposé des -Découvertes au Nord de la Grande Mer, etc., etc. Presenté au Roy le 2. -Septembre 1753, par Philippe Buache, etc." The index (4°, 4 pp.) runs: -"Liste des Cartes concernant les Nouvelles Découvertes au Nord de la -Grande Mer, &c. Par Philippe Buache, &c. Janvier, 1755."</p> - -<p>These thirteen maps are very interesting. The first and second charts -bear particularly on the subject of this paper. The first is entitled: -"Carte des Nouvelles Découvertes entre la partie Orient'le de l'Asie -et l'Occid'le de l'Amerique avec des Vues sur la Gr'de Terre reconnue -par les Russes en 1741 &c., &c. Dressée -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page209"><small><small>[p. 209]</small></small></a></span> par Philippe Buache. -Presentée a l'Acad. des Sciences le 9. Aout 1752 et approuvée dans son -Assemblée du 6. Septembre suivant."</p> - -<p>This map, somewhat fuller in details than that of de l'Isle, shows: -"Découvertes des Russes depuis 20 ans." There are route tracks of the -first expedition marked: "Route des Russes au N.E. et au N. en 1728 et -1731," and "Retour en 1731." Two route tracks of the later voyage have -the legends: "Route de Kamtchatka a l'Amerique en 1741. Retour des -Russes au Kamtchatka." Other legends are as follows: "Isle Beering;" -"Detroit du Nord" (Bering strait); "Terre déc. en 1723 par les Russes, -ou Isle dont le P. Avril a parle" (large land near Wrangell island); -"Terres reconnues par les Russes" (American coast in latitude 56 N.); -"Côtes vues par les Russes en 1741; Port ou les Russes ont aborde" -(fictitious and extensive land east of Bering island, on which are -also the following: "Puchochotskes selon Strahlenberg," and "Terre -habitée, ou Presqu' Isle, que je suppose joindre les découvertes des -Russes avec celles de l'Am'l de Fonte").</p> - -<p>The second map, "Carte des Découv'tes de l'Am'al de Fonte avec les -Terres vuës et reconnues par les Russes, par Philippe Buache," has -other pertinent and interesting legends. In Bering strait appears: -"Beering a trouvé au N. et a l'E. de ce parage que la Mer y etoit -libre," and immediately eastward on the American coast below the -parallel of the arctic circle: "Terre découv. en 1731, et ou les -Russes ont rencontré un home qui s'est dit habitant d'un gr'd -Continent." On the American coast from 55° to 57° north latitude: -"Terres déc. en Juill., 1741, et où les Russes ont laisse 10 homes qu' -ils n' ont pu rejoindre." Over "Terre habitée," a large land just east -of Bering island: "Le Capitaine Beering a trouvé dans ce parage de 50 -à 60 deg. les Indices d'une Côte et une gr. Riv. ou il a envoye -quelqu's homes qui ne sont revenus."</p> - -<p>It is evident that these maps must have been actually published as -early as September 2, 1753, the date on which was presented the -"Exposé des Découvertes, etc., au Roy," but the charts give no further -indication than the legend: "Publiée sous le privilege de l'Acad. -R'le. des Sc. du 6 Sept'bre, 1752: à Paris." The actual date of issue -may or may not have been earlier than the map of de l'Isle of -September 9, 1752.</p> - -<p>7. (Possibly most important of all) a letter of an officer of the -Russian Navy. This appeared first in Russian, presumably -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page210"><small><small>[p. 210]</small></small></a></span> printed -at St. Petersburg in 1752 or 1753; the original Russian I have not -seen. It was translated, however, into French and printed at Berlin -(not dated) in 1753, under the following title: "Lettre d'un officier -de la Marine Russienne. A un Seigneur de la Cour concernant la carte -des nouvelles découvertes au nord de la mer du Sud et le mémoire qui y -sert d'explication. Publiée par M. de l'Isle, à Paris en 1752. Traduit -de l'Original Russe, à Berlin, chez Haude et Sperer, Libraires de la -Cour et de l'Academie Royale (1753)."</p> - -<p>This edition forms part of my library, and is the only copy which I -know of in the United States. It is not to be found in the Library of -Congress, the Astor Library, the Boston Athenæum, or the Boston Public -Library. It is not even in the Royal Library at St. Petersburg, but, -as might be anticipated, is in the British Museum. I find it nowhere -catalogued in any bibliography of arctic or subarctic works. The -French edition was inserted, with some changes, it is believed, in the -eighteenth volume of the Nouvelle Bibliotheque Germanique.</p> - -<p>8. "A letter from a Russian Sea-Officer to a Person of Distinction at -the Court of St. Petersburg, containing Remarks on Mr. de l'Isle's -Chart and Memoir relative to the New Discoveries North and East from -Kamtschatka, together with some Observations on that Letter by Arthur -Dobbs, Governor of East Carolina, to which is added Mr. de l'Isle's -Explanatory Memoir on his Chart." 8vo, 85 pp., London, 1754.</p> - -<p>The "Arthur Dobbs" who published this edition, and who possibly was -the translator thereof, is well known as the energetic promoter of the -discovery of the "northwest passage," and was personally interested in -discovery voyages to Hudson bay. The explanatory memoir of de l'Isle's -chart is a translation of the memoir previously mentioned as belonging -to the map of 1752, which memoir I have not been able to consult in -the original French. It may be added that Dobbs' reproduction of the -"Letter from a Russian naval officer" is not accurate, the translation -in places being so carelessly or indifferently made that the text -cannot be relied on for critical purposes.</p> - -<p>This English translation is to be found neither in the Library of -Congress, the Boston Public Library, the Boston Athenæum, nor in the -Library of the American Geographic Society. It is, however, in the -Astor Library, and a second copy at one time belonged to the library -of Mr. J. C. Brevoort.</p> - -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page211"><small><small>[p. 211]</small></small></a></span> -<p>9. "Mappe Monde. Carte Universelle de la Terre. Par J. B. Nolin, -Geographe." 1755, 20¼ x 27 inches. On this appear the legends: "I. de -Beering; Detroit de Nord; Terres découvertes par les Ruses [sic] en -1741; Terres veues en 1741."</p> - -<p>It is quite possible that this is the first map of the world on which -Bering island was charted.</p> - -<p>10. John Christopher Adelung's very interesting history of sea voyages -for the discovery of a "northeast passage," which was published in -quarto form under the following title: "Geschichte der Schiffahrten -und Versuche welche zur Entdeckung des Nordöstlichen Weges nach Japan -und China von verschiedenen Nationen unternommen worden. Zum Behufe -der Erdbeschreibung und Naturgeschichte dieser Gegenden entworfen von -Johann Christoph Adelung, Herzoglich Sachsichen Rath Halle bey Johann -Justinus Gebauer, 1768."</p> - -<p>11. Notice des Ouvrages de M. d'Anville. 8°, Paris, An. X [1802], 120 -pp. By Barbic du Bocage.</p> - -<p>In addition to these and other works from my own collection, I have -consulted at the library of the United States Naval Observatory, in -this city, "Histoire de l'Academie Royale des Sciences, Année 1750," -Paris, 1754, and the same, "Année 1754," Paris, 1757, which contain -articles on de l'Isle's manuscript maps of 1731 and 1752, the latter -being substantially identical with the published map of 1752.</p> -<br> - -<p>From Dall's review we learn that Lauridsen is responsible for the -statement that the discoveries of Bering in his first voyage were -shown on a chart made at Moscow in 1731, but no authority is given as -to the cartographer. Later I shall adduce evidence to confirm Dall's -opinion that the Moscow map was merely a copy, such as were -distributed to personages of importance or to those connected with the -expedition. It is further susceptible of, as I think, tolerably -satisfactory proof that the outlines of Kamshatka, with fairly correct -meridians of longitude, were made public in a chart by de l'Isle not -in 1731, but the year following, 1732, and it is likely that the lost -map of that year was substantially reproduced in the chart of 1752, -which I have the pleasure of now presenting for your examination.</p> - -<p>De l'Isle presented this map to the Academy of Sciences of Paris on -April 8, 1750. The circumstances connected with the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page212"><small><small>[p. 212]</small></small></a></span> presentation -have been drawn from the official records of the Royal Academy of -Sciences, and are as follows:<small><small><sup>2</sup></small></small></p> - -<blockquote><small>Cette année (1750) M. de l'Isle lut à l'assemblee publique de -l'Acadèmie, un Mémoire sur les Nouvelles Découvertes au nord de la mer -du Sud; et presenta en meme temps une Carte que M. Buache avoit -dressée sur ses Mémoires, et qui representoit ces Découvertes avec -toute la partie du Globe terrestre, à laquelle elles appartiennent. -Ces Ouvrages, alors manuscrit, furent depuis publiés en 1752, M. -Buache presenta dans cette meme année la première partie de ses -Considérations géographiques sur le meme sujet, avec les Cartes qui y -étoient relatives.<small><sup>3</sup></small></small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>"Muni de ces premières connoissances [referring to the discoveries of -1729–1739] M. de l'Isle traça une carte qui representoit l'extremite -orientale de l'Asie, avec la partie opposée de l'Amerique -septentrionale qui y répond, afin de faire voir aisément ce qui -restoit à découvrir, et il dressa un Mémoire dans lequel il exposoit -la manière qu'il jugeoit la plus avantageuse pour faire ces -découvertes."<small><sup>4</sup></small></small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>"Mais les vaisseaux Russes qui avoient été envoyés pour les -découvertes dont nous venous de parler (1731–1741), n'étant pas encore -revenus lorsqu'elle lui fut envoyé il extremit l'examen après son -retour en France, qui étoit assez prochain. A son arrivée, il -communiqua ses vues et cette relation a M. Buache; celui-ci, qui par -la," etc., etc.<small><sup>5</sup></small></small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>"Cette Mémoire [de l'Isle, 1750] étoit accompagnée d'une carte qui -étoit comme l'esquisse du système géographique de M. de l'Isle sur -cette partie."<small><sup>6</sup></small></small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>2</sup></small> Extracts from Histoire de l'Acadèmie Royale des Sciences, -Année MDCCL (1750), 4°, Paris, 1754; and the same, Année 1753, 4°, -Paris, 1757.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>3</sup></small><i> Loc. cit.</i>, "Année MDCCL," p. 142.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>4</sup></small> <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 151.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>5</sup></small> <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 145.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>6</sup></small> <i>Loc. cit.</i>, "Année 1753," p. 263.</small></blockquote> - -<p>It has been pointed out by several authorities that some of M. de -l'Isle's statements in his memoir of 1752 are to be received with -caution, especially his elaborate endeavors to impress the Paris -Academy with the belief that the discoveries of Bering subsequent to -the first voyage were the result of his (de l'Isle's) own carefully -considered instructions. In this connection Adelung says:</p> - -<blockquote><small>"De l'Isle, in his Explication de la carte des nouvelles découvertes -au Nord [1752], traces out his proposed route quite differently -[referring to de l'Isle's previous statements in his report to the St. -Petersburg Academy in 1732], somewhat as if it had been outlined in -view of accomplished facts."</small></blockquote> - -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page213"><small><small>[p. 213]</small></small></a></span> -<p>It behooves us, then, to inquire carefully into the authenticity -of the alleged map of de l'Isle of 1731, since if he antedated his -opinions as to the route he might also have antedated his map. -Fortunately we do not have to depend only on de l'Isle's own -statement, either in 1750 before the Academy of Sciences at Paris, or -as published in 1738 at St. Petersburg and printed at the printing -office of the Royal Academy; for we also have extraneous and -convincing evidence, even from sources critically hostile to the -French astronomer.</p> - -<p>M. de l'Isle, in his Mémoires sur les Nouvelles découvertes au Nord de -la mer du Sud, Paris, 1752, says:</p> - -<blockquote><small>"After I had, near twenty years ago, got these first informations of -the longitude of Kamschatka by means of Captain Bering's map and -journal, I made use of them in constructing the map, representing the -eastern extremity of Asia, with the opposite coast of North America, -in order to show at once what still remains for discovery between two -large parts of the world.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>"This map I had the honor of presenting to the Empress Anne and the -Senate, in order to animate the Russians to undertake these -discoveries, and it took effect, this princess ordering a second -voyage to be made according to the plan which I had drawn up for it."</small></blockquote> - -<p>"Two maps," he adds, were presented to the Academy in Paris, "one -being a copy of the map which I had drawn at St. Petersburg, 1731, on -Captain Bering's first voyage, and had the honor of presenting to the -Empress Anne and the Senate, with a manuscript memoir explaining its -use and construction." The other map (from which the lithograph before -you was lately reproduced) was, according to de l'Isle, only changed -by adding the later discoveries of Bering and his lieutenants.</p> - -<p>De l'Isle further says of this chart:</p> - -<blockquote><small>"The second manuscript map which I laid before the Academy at Paris -was in all respects like the former, only with the advantages of the -new discoveries made since 1731."</small></blockquote> - -<p>Ph. Buache, the French geographer, made for de l'Isle a reduced copy -of the second chart, and it is supposed that the map before you is a -substantial reproduction of that copy.</p> - -<p>In the preface to de l'Isle's scattered essays, 1738, St. Petersburg, -page 2, we find:</p> - -<blockquote><small>"Aiant comparé la situation du Kamschatka et des pais voisins, avec -celle de la Chine, du roiaume de Corée, du Japon, et de la terre -d'Yeco, qui m'étoit connue d'ailleurs, je me suis fait un sistème, & -j'ai dressé l'an <span class="pagenum"><a name="page214"><small>[p. 214]</small></a></span> -1731, une carte de cette extremité orientale de -l'Asie. J'ai marque aussi sur cette carte les dernières terres connues -de l'Amerique, les plus voisines de cette partie septentrionale de -l'Asie, afin de faire voir ce qui restoit encore d'inconnu entre-deux. -On trouvera dans ce recueil une reduction de cette carte, avec le -Mémoire que j'ai dressé dans ce temsla, & lu a l'Academie, dans lequel -je rends raison de la construction de cette carte."</small></blockquote> - -<p>Only one volume of de l'Isle's essays appeared, so that the map and -memoir promised in the introduction were never, so far as can be -learned, published in their original form. The statements made by de -l'Isle, however, unless definitely refuted, should be given full -credit, seeing that the work was published by the Academy of Sciences -at St. Petersburg, to which the map and memoir were presented, as is -claimed, only seven years earlier. A doubt does, however, exist as to -the date of the map made by de l'Isle. On this point Adelung, in his -"History of Northeastern Voyages," Halle, 1768, page 569, evidently -quoting from Müller, says:</p> - -<blockquote><small>"On the 17th of April, 1732, the order was, therefore, sent from the -privy Cabinet to the Senate, which thereupon inquired of the Academy -of Sciences of St. Petersburg what and how much had as yet been found -out about Kamschatka, the surrounding countries and waters. The -Academy confided the making of the report to Mr. Delisle, who prepared -a chart upon which Kamschatka, Jeso, according to the description of -the crew upon the Castricom, the Staten island, Company island, and -the coast of Gama were designated. This chart was supplemented by a -memoir in which he described the discoveries already made and -suggested various routes for making new ones. He expressed himself in -regard to those routes in the following manner: 'If one have attained -the northern boundary of Asia, and at the same time the eastern -limits, as far as Captain Bering went on his first voyage, one cannot -fail to arrive in America, and might even choose the route, either -northeast or southeast, whichever he prefers, as he would have, at -most, only 600 miles to pass over. 2. Or, without venturing so far, it -would perhaps be better and more comfortable to sail from the east -coast of Kamschatka, go directly east, to look for the neighboring -country which Bering found traces of in his first voyage. 3. Finally, -he thought that if they should sail southeast from Kamschatka they -would perhaps more speedily and more certainly discover the country -seen by Juan de Gama.'"</small></blockquote> - -<p>Can the inconsistency between the dates, as given by Müller and -Adelung on the one hand, and by de l'Isle on the other, be reconciled, -or is it apparent rather than real? As Bering, according to the -Russian marine officer (Waxel?) returned to St. Petersburg on March 1, -1730, it is reasonable to suppose that de l'Isle, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page215"><small><small>[p. 215]</small></small></a></span> whose duties -were those of a cartographer, had finished within the next year and a -half his reproduction of Bering's working chart. The fact that the -order of inquiry about the results of the voyage did not leave the -privy council until April 17, 1732, does not necessarily indicate that -the map at least, if not the memoir, was not already prepared, even if -not in possession of the Academy of Sciences. It appears probable that -the map may have been drawn by de l'Isle in 1731, but it is quite -certain that it was not made public until 1732.</p> - -<p>Lauridsen speaks of a map in Moscow in 1731, and, as it is evident -from "Lettre d'un" that there was no difficulty in persons of -influence procuring copies from the Senate, it is likely that the -Moscow chart was a copy of the map of de l'Isle, and that the date of -1731 is correct; but this theory must rest on Lauridsen producing -evidence that such a map existed in Moscow in 1731.</p> - -<p>The Russian officer speaks with authority as to the map of 1732. -Commenting on de l'Isle's account of the circumstances under which he -compiled the map of 1732, he continues as follows:</p> - -<blockquote><small>"The Empress Anne having directed her Senate to give instructions to -M. Bering for the second voyage, that body believed that it could not -act with success unless it obtained from the Academy the fullest -information relative to the situation of the lands and seas to be -traversed. Therefore the Academy was so ordered by the Senate, which -enjoined on M. de l'Isle the construction of the map of which I speak, -and, for a clearer understanding, an explanatory memoir; which being -done, both map and memoir were presented to the Academy by the Senate. -Consequently, there is no reason to doubt that, far from exciting the -Russians to new discoveries, far from being the cause of Bering's -second voyage, M. de l'Isle only worked under specific orders. It is -quite another question whether or not the memoir contributed to the -success of the expedition, which I will discuss later. However that -may be, the Senate gave a copy of it, as well as of the map, to M. -Bering. I took a second copy of the memoir, which enabled me to -compare it with what M. de l'Isle has now said to us of it in his -later memoir of Paris."</small></blockquote> - -<p>These and other statements confirm those of de l'Isle as to the date -of the map, in which year d'Anville engraved it (1732, or 1731 at the -earliest), and likewise indicate that copies of both map and memoir -were obtainable without great difficulty.</p> - -<p>An interesting note as to the authenticity and origin of the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page216"><small><small>[p. 216]</small></small></a></span> -chart of d'Anville, 1737, appears in the narrative of Adelung, who -speaks with a certain air of authority. He says:</p> - -<blockquote><small>"These Beering maps were, after the captain's return, sent from Russia -to the King of Poland, who presented them to Mr. du Halde or, rather, -to Mr. d'Anville, who made the charts for his work. Du Halde is -therefore very correctly informed when he, in the Mémoires de Trevoux -(737 pages, 2,389 f.) considers these charts questionable and imagines -that they were merely made by d'Anville from Beering's journal."</small></blockquote> - -<p>But further evidence from an unquestionable source is available as to -date. The charts in du Halde's "China" were engraved between the years -1729 and 1734, and all but the general maps were completed prior to -1733. The date 1732 is assigned by d'Anville's colleague to the map of -Bering's journey. Of these maps it is further said:</p> - -<blockquote><small>"They form what is commonly known as d'Anville's Atlas of China. -Nevertheless this geographer did not participate equally in the -production of all. The detailed maps (of which the Bering map is one) -were furnished by the Jesuits and he only supervised the engraving, -but the general charts were entirely the work of d'Anville, who -reconstructed and amplified them from all possible sources. They were -reproduced at Hague under the title 'New Atlas of China,' etc., by M. -d'Anville."</small></blockquote> - -<p>These statements of d'Anville's colleague, M. Barbic du Bocage, are -thus verified by du Halde, page lxix:</p> - -<blockquote><small>"Pour les Cartes Générales, nous y avons peu touché & celle du Voyage -du Capitaine Beerings paroit sans le moindre changement."</small></blockquote> - -<p>In the Russian atlas, 1745, the explanatory text regarding map 19, -whereon appears the extreme northeastern coast of Siberia and the -greater part of Kamshatka, runs as follows:</p> - -<blockquote><small>"We have determined the location of these provinces in part by -astronomical observations which have been made there, and in part upon -certain geographical and hydrographic maps which have been transmitted -to us."</small></blockquote> - -<p>So far as Kamshatka and the Bering strait regions go, it is reasonable -to believe that this chart, since it was published by the Royal -Academy of Sciences, is substantially a reproduction of the map -transmitted to the Academy by de l'Isle in 1732, especially as this -geographer was employed for about thirteen years in amassing data for -the atlas in question.</p> - -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page217"><small><small>[p. 217]</small></small></a></span> -<p>The writer has very carefully compared the chart of Kamshatka -and adjoining regions as published in d'Anville's atlas of 1736, in -the Russian atlas of 1745, and in the de l'Isle chart of 1752. From -comparisons he is led to believe that these maps have substantially -the same basis—that is, the chart prepared by de l'Isle in 1732 for -the Academy of Sciences, St. Petersburg. In this connection the -criticism of the Russian officer is significant. He says: "I will now -finish with a general observation about the part of Siberia that we -see on M. de l'Isle's chart (1752). It is simply a copy of the Russian -atlas (1745), without even corrections of the errors of drawing and -writing which have crept into that work." Elsewhere he adds: "We can -correct the error of M. de l'Isle, who places Bering island at 54 -degrees, only a short distance from Avatscha, whereas it is on the -56th parallel, 60 miles off Avatscha and 40 Dutch miles from the mouth -of the Kamschatka river."</p> - -<p>It is worthy of note that on Bellin's map of 1749(?) Bering island is -crossed by the 56th parallel of latitude, and that along the southern -edge of the Arctic ocean is a route track, marked "Voyage fait par Mer -en 1648 par 3 vaisseaux Russiens dont un est parvenu a la -Kamtschatka." On de l'Isle's chart of 1752 also appears the route of -1648, but Bering island is in latitude 54°. As to the position of -Bering isle, the truth, as the Wise Man tells us is oft the case, -abides between the two, as the 55th parallel intersects the land in -question. At Cape Shelagskoi, d'Anville, 1737, the Russian atlas of -1745 and the de l'Isle of 1752 agree in charting four islands -northeast of the cape instead of two islands to the west. This -indicates a common origin to the charts, and where else can it be -ascribed than to the de l'Isle map of 1732? The Russian officer, -however, gives a clue as to the date when work on the map was -commenced. He says:</p> - -<blockquote><small>"At that time I visited M. de l'Isle. I was a witness of his -geographical labors as far as they had new discoveries for their -object. I acted as interpreter to M. Bering in the conversations which -he had with him; and I can assert positively that when M. de l'Isle -began that chart the second expedition was already ordered, and -Captain Bering, knowing what was still wanting to his discoveries, -offered to continue them and his lieutenants with him, and they -received promotion in consequence."</small></blockquote> - -<p>Lauridsen says:</p> - -<blockquote><small>"On January 5, 1732, the Senate gave him leave of absence to go to St. -Petersburg.... Almost simultaneously he was promoted, in regular -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page218"><small><small>[p. 218]</small></small></a></span> -succession, to the position of captain-commander in the Russian fleet, -the next position below that of rear-admiral."</small></blockquote> - -<p>This indicates that the expedition was decided on at least as early as -January 5, 1732; possibly earlier. Fortunately we are not left to -inference, for elsewhere the Russian officer says:</p> - -<blockquote><small>"Mr. de l'Isle 'throws discredit on our discoveries by leaving on his -chart the fictitious land of Gama, which, in order to avoid -conflicting with our accounts, he places (in 1752) a little more to -the west and south than he did on his chart of 1732.'"</small></blockquote> - -<p>This definitely fixes the year in which de l'Isle presented the map to -the Senate.</p> - -<p>We learn, however, from Lauridsen that "as early as April 17 (1732) -the Empress ordered that Bering's proposition should be executed, and -charged the Senate to take the necessary steps for that purpose.... On -May 2 it [<i>i.e.</i>, the Senate] promulgated two ukases, in which it -declared the objects of the expedition and sought to indicate the -necessary means." It is very improbable that, in the case of so -dilatory a man as de l'Isle, this chart could have been elaborated and -drawn, the memoir written, a report made by the Academy to the Senate, -and action be taken in the fifteen days which elapsed between the -order for the chart and Bering's instructions. It is possible that the -chart was drawn at the end of 1731, and that de l'Isle, for obvious -reasons, gave it the earliest possible date.</p> - -<p>In giving an account of Bering's provisions, as Dall says, every -historian has followed a mutilated, if not garbled, paragraph from -Bering's original report. The excerpts from Brooke's translation of du -Halde, which was followed in Campbell's edition of Harris' Voyages, -are as follows:</p> - -<blockquote><small>"The provisions consisted of carrots for want of corn [= grain or -wheat], the fat of fish, uncured, served instead of butter, and salt -fish supplied the place of all other meats."</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>"Fish oil was his butter and dried fish his beef and pork. Salt he was -obliged to get from the sea; ... he distilled spirits from 'sweet -straw.'"</small></blockquote> - -<p>It appears from Bering's own journal, as well as from du Halde's -account, that in 1727 Bering ordered one of his officers to endeavor -to "deliver to the command at Kamschatka some part of the provisions, -iron, and tar." Bering himself said that he was obliged to use tar -made from the native spruce, "since -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page219"><small><small>[p. 219]</small></small></a></span> -the tar which we should have -brought with us had not arrived." This is confirmed by the additional -note in du Halde, which says that the provisions, iron, pitch, and tar -did not arrive till 1728, conveying the inference that it came too -late to be of service. Bering appears to have had, on July 3, 1727, -2,300 poods of flour, equal to about 8,300 pounds, which would be less -than a year's supply for his entire party. I cannot agree with Dall -that Bering had plenty of flour or meal and meat.</p> - -<p>I have said "From Bering's own report," because it seems incredible -that du Halde did not have a transcript of Bering's report, since his -narrative (du Halde's) follows almost word for word Dall's -translation. It is not surprising that different transcripts should -differ slightly on unimportant matters.</p> - -<p>However this may be, it is evident that Brooke's translation of du -Halde is careless. For instance, in Brooke's translation (edition -London, 1736) of du Halde, on page 430, the number of Bering's party -should be 33 instead of 30, and on page 440, where the voyage from -Ochotsk to Takutski is given as from July 23 to October 2, the -first-named date should be July 29.</p> - -<p>Dall doubts that "carrots" were of Bering's provisions. Brooke omits -the italicized words of du Halde's narrative (p. 567, la Haye, 1736): -"Les provisions consistoient en carottes <i>et en racines</i>." As -indicated by context, the roots were radishes and turnips. The word -"carottes" is explained by a passage in Grieve's Kamshatka as follows: -"The morkovai poushki, or <i>carrot</i> bunches, are so called because they -are like carrots in their leaf as well as in taste. They likewise eat -this green in the spring, but they oftener sour it like sour crout or -make a liquor with it." Doubtless Bering took these "carrot bunches" -with him.</p> - -<p>Another question which has engaged my attention is that concerning the -lunar eclipses which Bering or his party is said to have observed in -the winter 1728–'9. Dall says: "In none of the published reports of -the expedition is any mention made by Bering or his officers of the -occurrence or observation of an eclipse.... However, Middendorf states -(Sib. Reise, iv. I, p. 56) that Bering and his lieutenants in the -years 1728 and 1729 observed in Kamtschatka two eclipses of the moon, -by which they corrected the longitude. He gives," says Dall, "no -authority for this statement, and it is probable that an eclipse -observed at Ilimsk, in middle Siberia, by Chirikoff is thus -erroneously referred <span class="pagenum"><a name="page220"><small><small>[p. 220]</small></small></a></span> -to." Mr. Marcus Baker, in a paper appended -to Dall's account, makes it evident that such eclipses, if any, were -those of February 25 (local calendar), 1728, or February 24, 1729.</p> - -<p>My own investigations confirm the statements of Middendorf, and in -support of this I refer to de l'Isle and to the author of the -"Letter." In this connection, however, we have the clear and definite -statements of de l'Isle, both in his essays of 1738 at St. Petersburg -and his memoir of 1752 at Paris. These statements are fully confirmed -by the evidence of the Russian marine officer, who certainly served -with Bering in his later expeditions if not in the first, and whose -familiarity with all the records and papers should have enabled him -definitely to contradict de l'Isle on the main question instead of -correcting him in details. In his St. Petersburg memoirs of 1738 (page -10) de l'Isle writes:</p> - -<blockquote><small>"On verra a cette occasion la situation du Kamtchatka de terminée par -deux eclipses de Lune, que M. le Capitaine Bering & ses gens y sont -observées dans leur premier voyage [the expedition 1725–'30], & dont -j'ai rendu compte a l'Academie aussi-tot que ces observations m'ont -ete communiquées."</small></blockquote> - -<p>In the paper of Paris, 1752 ("Nouvelles découvertes au Nord de la Mer -du Sud") de l'Isle says on this point:</p> - -<blockquote><small>"Captain Beering and his lieutenant likewise took observations at -Kamschatka of two eclipses of the moon in the years 1728 and 1729, -which helped me to chart the longitude of that eastern extremity of -Asia with all the precision which the nature of these observations, -made by seamen and with their own instruments, would admit of; but -these first determinations have been since confirmed by observations -on Jupiter's satellites, taken in that place with the utmost accuracy -by my brother and some Russians conversant in this kind of -observations and who were provided with the best of instruments."</small></blockquote> - -<p>It appeared to me possible that the report on the eclipses of the moon -made by de l'Isle to the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences might be -traced up among the archives of that society. In searching for -information on this point it was learned from Mr. O. Fassig, librarian -of the Signal Office, that among the unpublished manuscripts in the -Pulkova library, St. Petersburg, were a number by de l'Isle. A list of -the manuscripts of M. de l'Isle was compiled and published in 1844 by -the distinguished astronometer O. Struve, and among the number is one -entitled: "Observations pour la longitude du Kamchat, d'ou se conclut -aussi de Tobolsk. 1729, MSS."</p> - -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page221"><small><small>[p. 221]</small></small></a></span> -<p>It was reasonable, in view of de l'Isle's statements in 1738, to -suppose that this is the report made to the Academy by him as soon as -the observations were furnished him. I had hoped to present with this -sketch definite information on this point, since a kinsman of the -collator of the manuscripts (I refer to the very distinguished -representative of Russia to the United States, M. de Struve) most -courteously offered his valuable mediation in the matter. -Unfortunately, I have as yet no further information, but I expect a -communication as to the contents of the MSS. at an early day.</p> - -<p>Criticising the memoir of de l'Isle of 1752, the Russian officer -ridicules the author for speaking of Kamshatka as a town, but he -adds:<small><small><sup>7</sup></small></small></p> - -<blockquote><small>"It is certain likewise that M. Bering and his lieutenant, M. -Tschirikow [quoting from de l'Isle's Memoir of 1752], had, in the -years 1728 and 1729, observed at Kamschatka two eclipses of the moon; -but that by these observations M. de l'Isle was enabled to determine -the longitude of this most eastern part of Asia, with such precision -that the same had been confirmed in the second expedition, by precise -observations of the satellites of Jupiter is what I cannot well -conceive. Mr. de l'Isle himself intimates that Messieurs Bering and -Tschirikow were not provided with astronomical instruments. They -observed both these eclipses by the help, not of pendulums, but of -their watches, without being able to know whether they went right or -wrong; which makes it almost incredible that a determination based on -these two eclipses should exactly agree with that deduced from the -observations of Jupiter's satellites."</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>7</sup></small> "Une Lettre," Berlin, p. 19.</small></blockquote> - -<p>The officer, from his own account, served with Bering. In the -introduction to "Une Lettre" he says:</p> - -<blockquote><small>"The orders of your Excellency [to whom the letter was addressed as -written by his orders] will be complied with by me with more than one -inspiring motive, and I shall not dwell on my unfitness, although I -could find excellent pretexts for such an excuse, inasmuch as many of -greater experience and equal application participated with me in the -discoveries which resulted from the two voyages, called by us the -Kamtschatkan expeditions. The only grounds on which preference could -be shown me over them arise from my being charged, after my return -from America, with the comparison of the journals of the various -vessels together and with whatever was elsewhere to be found relative -to lands situated in the South Sea, in order to therefrom construct a -map which should accurately represent them all."</small></blockquote> - -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page222"><small><small>[p. 222]</small></small></a></span> -<p>This officer, then, should be the very best authority on this -question, especially as he gives details, is always exact in his -dates, and sets no value on the observations. Whether or not such -observations of lunar eclipses took place, these extracts tend to -confirm Dall's opinion that they served no purpose in determining the -longitude of Kamshatka.</p> - -<p>The letter and its author are worth some attention at our hands. As -has been said, it was published anonymously, and I do not know that -its authorship has ever been traced. It appears from the letter that -the writer was an officer of the Russian navy; that he was a Russian; -that he was on familiar terms with both Bering and de l'Isle; that he -acted as interpreter between them in 1730–1731; that he was with -Bering in his last voyage to America, and was one of the ship-wrecked -mariners on Bering island, and that on his return to St. Petersburg he -was charged with the compilations from the various ship journals. As -the naval officer states he was with Bering on Bering island, it is -evident that it must have been either Swen Waxel, Sophron Chitrow, or -Steller, the well-known scientific professor serving with Bering's -expedition. It could not have been Steller, since the professor was a -German, and moreover he died in November, 1746, prior to the date of -the letter. It is improbable that it was Chitrow, who was originally -in a subordinate position as a master-of-fleet, but while serving in -Kamshatka and prior to Bering's second voyage was made a lieutenant. -It is not likely that a subordinate of Chitrow's position should have -been so situated in St. Petersburg as to have served as an interpreter -between Bering and de l'Isle. It is therefore more than probable that -Lieutenant Swen Waxel was the author of the letter. In further -confirmation, this officer says that he is charged with the -preparation of a chart out of the material furnished by the maps and -journals of the separate vessels. As we know from other sources, Waxel -later made a chart of the Kamschatka region.</p> - -<p>Waxel displayed great energy and excellent judgment in conducting -affairs on Bering island, both before and after Bering's death, and it -is gratifying to note his intellectual discrimination in dealing with -de l'Isle's fictitious account of a journey in America said to have -been made by one Admiral de Fonte. Waxel skilfully dissects this -geographical invention, clearly proving its inconsistencies, while -geographical writers in England were engaged years later in -endeavoring to prove its truthfulness.</p> - -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page223"><small><small>[p. 223]</small></small></a></span> -<p>It is significant that although Waxel omits any reference to it, -the following paragraph, which is evidently intended to be exculpatory -of Bering's turning back at the most northerly point of his first -voyage, forms part of Bering's report as translated by Dall: "Neither -from the Chukchi coast nor to the eastward could any extension of the -land be observed." This very important sentence does not appear in du -Halde's account, and evidently was not in the copy which was furnished -him. Possibly the person who furnished the copy to du Halde omitted -it. Elsewhere Waxel adds:</p> - -<blockquote><small>"I say nothing here which I have not repeatedly heard M. Bering say. I -also saw his instructions."</small></blockquote> - -<p>This gives value to his statements in reference to Bering's efforts to -find land east of Avatscha bay, whereof Waxel quotes de l'Isle as -saying:</p> - -<blockquote><small>"On his return to Kamtschatka (in 1729) M. Bering learned that there -was a land to the east, which could be seen in clear, fine weather. He -attempted to go thither, after having repaired the damage his vessel -had suffered in a storm. The second attempt was fruitless, for after -sailing about forty leagues to the east without seeing land, he was -assailed by a violent tempest and a contrary wind, which quickly drove -him back to the port whence he had emerged."</small></blockquote> - -<p>In criticism Waxel adds:</p> - -<blockquote><small>"Would not this narrative lead one to believe that the second attempt -of M. Bering had been made immediately after the first voyage [in -1729]? However, it was entirely otherwise: Before making this journey -M. Bering wintered at Kamtschatka, set sail only on June 5, 1729, and, -<i>without intending to return to the port which he was quitting</i>, -doubled the southern point of Kamtschatka and went straight to the -mouth of the river Bolschaia-Reka and thence to Ochozk."</small></blockquote> - -<p>He further says:</p> - -<blockquote><small>"Perhaps it may appear strange that M. Bering during this voyage did -not fall in with the island (Bering island) whereon he was shipwrecked -during his second expedition; but the isle might have been hidden by -fogs, which are very common in that sea."</small></blockquote> - -<p>Waxel's account of the second voyage is worth translating, being the -plain tale of a participant, who is as modest as he is truthful, for -Waxel nowhere mentions his own name nor the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page224"><small><small>[p. 224]</small></small></a></span> -efficient service he -rendered first to his chief and later to his shipwrecked comrades. He -writes in "Une Lettre" as follows:</p> - -<blockquote><small>"Let us now come to the details of the second expedition, which M. de -l'Isle pretends owes its origin to a map of <i>his</i> and was undertaken -according to a memoir made by himself. 'I had the honor,' he says, 'in -1731 to present this chart to the Empress Anne and to the Senate, in -order to stimulate the Russians to explorations of what still remained -to be discovered, and it had its effect.' Was it time or age which -caused M. de l'Isle to commit this error? Could he have forgotten the -orders which led him to make the chart in question? Had he remembered -it, perhaps he would not have said that he presented the chart to the -Empress, and still less that he made it in order to excite the -Russians to new discoveries. At that time I visited M. de l'Isle; I -was a witness of his geographical labors, as far as they had new -discoveries for their object; I acted as interpreter to M. Bering in -the conversations which he had with him; and I can assert positively -that when M. de l'Isle began that chart the second expedition was -already ordered, and Captain Bering, knowing what was still wanting to -his discoveries, offered to continue them and his lieutenants with -him; and they each received promotion in consequence.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>"It is therefore true that M. de l'Isle's work must be attributed to -the orders of his superiors; and I remember that the Empress Anne -having commissioned her secretary to give the necessary instructions -to M. Bering for his new voyage, the latter did not think he could -carry it on successfully without getting from the Academy all the -information possible concerning the countries and waters where he was -to navigate. The Academy was therefore called upon by the Senate, and -it ordered M. de l'Isle to compile the chart of which I speak, and in -order that it might be better understood, to explain it in a memoir; -which having been done, the chart and the memoir were presented to the -Senate by the Academy; so that there can be no possible doubt that, so -far from having stimulated the Russians to new discoveries, so far -from having occasioned the new voyage of M. Bering, M. de l'Isle only -worked according to the orders he had received. There arises another -question, as to whether the memoir caused the success of the -expedition, which I will treat later on. However that may be, the -Senate gave a copy of it to M. Bering as well as of the chart. I took -a second copy, which enables me to compare it with what M. de l'Isle -tells us about it in his last memoir from Paris.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>"He pretends to have proposed three different routes to be followed in -order to discover what was still unknown. The first, to sail straight -to Japan, pass Yeco, or rather the straits which separate it from the -island of the States and the land of the Company, to discover what is -to the north of Yeco and search for the passage between that country -and the coast of eastern Tartary. This is what is called giving advice -after the event. In the original memoir there is not a word said about -any such researches. M. de l'Isle contents himself with proposing -three different routes for finding the countries lying near to -Kamshatka on the east. <span class="pagenum"><a name="page225"><small>[p. 225]</small></a></span> -The first two, we must admit, agree well -enough with the second and third routes mentioned in the Paris memoir. -They are expressed in these terms:</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>"1. 'If one advances to the most northern extremity of Asia, and at -the same time the most eastern point reached by Captain Bering (wrong -supposition, as I have already remarked), one cannot fail to reach -America, no matter what route one takes between the northeast and -southeast, at a distance of not more than 600 leagues (great error in -estimating the distance of the opposite lands of Asia and America, -since they are only separated in the north by a narrow strait which -widens as it goes south).'</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>"2. 'Without going so far, it would perhaps be easier to start from -the eastern coast of Kamshatka, sail directly east and reconnoitre the -neighboring land, of which M. Bering discovered indications on his -first voyage.'</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>"In regard to the third route, M. de l'Isle conjectures as follows:</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>"3. 'Perhaps the countries seen by Don Juan de Gama might be found -more speedily and with more certitude by seeking them to the southeast -of Kamshatka;' the outcome of which project showed him his mistake, -which is apparently the reason that induced him to change it to that -of the route by Japan and Yeco.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>"Nothing is so imperfect in detail, and withal so dry, as the recital -of M. Bering's voyage with which M. de l'Isle regales us. He makes him -start in 1741 to look to the east of Kamshatka for the land which he -had seen indications of in his first voyage. 'He did not go very far,' -he says, 'for, being assailed by a violent storm during thick weather, -he could not remain at sea, and brought up on a desert island in -latitude 54°, only a short distance from the Port of Avatcha from -whence he had sailed.'</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>"M. Bering, then, did nothing but fail, and he did so soon after -leaving port. I must therefore supplement the meagreness of M. de -l'Isle's relation by giving an account of the voyage of M. Bering and -the other officers, chiefs of these expeditions, which will be so much -the more easy as I took part in them and as I can, besides, refer to -the charts and journals of each vessel as proofs of my correctness.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>"The Captain Commanding Bering and Captains Spangenberg and -Tschirikow, with several other naval officers, left St. Petersburg in -the spring of 1733. They waited at Yakouzk and Ochozk until the -vessels being built at this latter place for their expedition were -completed, and when all was ready for the departure of M. de -Spangenberg he was dispatched first, according to the orders of the -Senate. He started, then, from Ochozk in the month of June, 1738, -having three vessels under his command, to which he added a large -covered row-boat of 24 oars, which he caused to be constructed at -Bolscherezkoi Ostrog in Kamshatka, where he wintered. This boat was to -be used to go into the narrow straits between the islands that they -might find and where the ships could not go. In the summer of 1739 he -went to Japan, the long chain of islands situated between Japan and -Kamshatka serving to guide him. He landed at two different places in -Japan and was received with great civility by the people of the -country; but he never went to Matsmai, the principal place -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page226"><small>[p. 226]</small></a></span> on -the island of Yeco, as M. de l'Isle erroneously states. He thought he -had sufficiently complied with his instructions without doing so, and -returning to Ochozk, passed the winter at Yakouzk. As soon as a -detailed account of this voyage was seen in St. Petersburg they -concluded by the route which M. Spangenberg had followed that he must -have passed near the coast of Corea, and he was therefore ordered to -make a second voyage in order to confirm the first. He started in 1741 -and 1742, but his ship, built hastily and of unseasoned wood, leaked -and obliged him to return.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>"MM. Bering and Tschirikow left Ochozk the 4th of September, 1740. -They both had the same destination; the second was to follow the track -of the first. They only took different vessels so as to be able to -assist each other more efficaciously in case of any accident. Without -entering the Bolschaia-Reka river, as is customary in coming from -Ochozk, they immediately rounded the southern point of Kamshatka and -anchored at Avatscha, or port of St. Peter and St. Paul, as they -called it. While wintering in these places, they made all their -preparations for commencing in spring their principal voyage, which -was to have America as its object. Owing, however, to the uncertainty -as to the route which they were to follow, M. Bering assembled a naval -council on the 4th of May, 1741, and it was resolved to endeavor first -to discover the land of Don Juan de Gama, a fatal resolution which was -the cause of all of our disasters. The 4th June we put to sea. M. -Bering had on his vessel, sent by the Academy, an adjutant, M. -Steller, physician by profession, but above all well versed in all -that pertained to natural history. M. de la Croyere was with M. -Tschirikow. Although M. Bering and M. Tschirikow were not to separate, -according to their instructions, they could not avoid it, for eight -days after sailing they were separated by storms and fogs. The search -for the pretended land of Gama caused them to direct their course -southeast; they continued to sail in that direction as far as the 46th -degree without, however, finding the slightest vestige of it. They -then changed their course to the northeast and both reached the coast -of America, but in different places and without knowing of the -whereabouts of the other. M. Bering and we who accompanied him saw -land for the first time after being six weeks at sea. We then -calculated that we were about five hundred Dutch leagues from -Avatscha. We provided ourselves with fresh water. We saw indications -of inhabitants, but could perceive no one. After being at anchor three -days, M. Bering consulted with his officers, and it was resolved to -return. The 21st July we weighed anchor before sunrise. There was -nothing to do but to follow the coast, which stretched westward; but -navigation was seriously embarrassed by frequent islands, and when we -tried to put to sea we were met by storms and contrary winds, which -caused us new delays every day. In order to procure fresh water, we -returned towards the coast, from which we had kept as far as possible. -Soon it was in sight, seeming about ten miles distant. We anchored -between the islands, and the one where we landed was -Schoumagin-Ostrow. The water was good, but although taken from a lake, -there was, nevertheless, some sea water in it brought by the tide, -which sometimes inundated the island. Afterwards -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page227"><small>[p. 227]</small></a></span> we felt -disastrous effects from its use, in sickness and the loss of several -of our men, who died. We tried in vain during three or four days to -discover some natives of the country, whose fires we could see at -night on the coast. The 4th of September these savages finally came, -of themselves, in little canoes, and, having announced their arrival -to us by a loud cry, they presented us with their calumets, in sign of -peace. These calumets were sticks with the wings of falcons attached -to the end. We understood from their gestures that they were inviting -us to come on land in order to furnish us with provisions and fresh -water. We wished to profit by the opportunity, and some of us ventured -to follow them; but soon, however, misunderstandings arose and all -communication was broken off.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>"The 6th of September, after having at first had a tolerably good wind -for the voyage, we began to find that as we advanced the obstacles -were increasing, nothing but coasts and islands on every side. M. -Bering wished to get away from them by sailing more southwards, and, -in truth, for several days the sea appeared much more free. Our joy, -however, was of short duration. The 24th of September, in latitude 54 -degrees, we came upon coasts bordered with a number of islands, and at -the same time a violent tempest arose, which lasted seventeen days and -sent us back a distance of eighty miles. An old pilot acknowledged -that during the fifty years that he had followed the sea he had never -seen such a storm. We should then stop calling this ocean 'Pacific.' -This name may, perhaps, be suitable to it in the tropics, but -certainly is wrongly given to it here. The weather became calm again, -but our provisions were by this time considerably diminished and there -was only about a third of our crew who remained well and serviceable -after all the hardships to which they had been exposed. There was -still more than half of our way to make, counting from the extreme -point of our voyage in the East to Avatscha. In view of these facts, -many of us were of opinion that it would be better to winter somewhere -in America, rather than run the risk of encountering new dangers -worse, perhaps, than those we had just escaped; and these counsels -came near prevailing over those who were of opinion that we should -make a supreme effort to reach Avatscha, and that it would be time to -think of seeking another refuge when we had lost all hope of -succeeding in so doing. The month of October, however, was passed as -fruitlessly as the preceding ones. The 30th of that month we came upon -two islands, which seemed to us to bear some resemblance to the first -two of those islands which stretch from the southern extremity of -Kamshatka to Japan. Thereupon we directed our course northwards, and -the 4th November, having observed the latitude, we found that we were -under the 56th parallel. The 5th, however, finished our voyage. -Wishing to sail to the west, we struck upon a desert island, where we -had a good prospect of finishing our lives. Our vessel went to pieces -upon one of those banks with which the island is surrounded, and we -were not long in seeking land, which we fortunately reached with -everything which we thought we should need. By a special dispensation -of Providence, the winds and waves threw the remains of our vessel on -shore; we gathered them -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page228"><small>[p. 228]</small></a></span> -together to try, with the aid of God, -to put ourselves in a position to leave this sorry dwelling. The -island where we now found ourselves was destitute of trees. We were, -therefore, obliged to depend upon the wood that the sea brought us to -build our cabins and warm ourselves. We gave to this desert place the -name of Bering island, in honor of the chief of our expedition, and it -was there that he died, on the 8th of December, of grief and sorrow at -having to give up all hope of returning to Kamshatka. He refused to -eat or drink, and disdained the shelter of our cabins; his advanced -age could not rally under such a disaster. We young men kept our -courage up, resisted with firmness all discouragement, made it a duty -to still enjoy life and to make as much as we could out of our prison -home. Before our arrival, Bering island was the refuge only of the -inhabitants of the sea, who came there to breathe the air and deposit -their young. We were, therefore, able at first to observe these -creatures very closely without their taking fright. It was only after -having seen several of their number fall before our guns that they -fled at our approach. We killed a great number of them, as much to -furnish us with food as for their skins. It was by these valuable -spoils, splendid castor skins, that we were repaid in some measure for -our sufferings.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>"At the approach of spring the following year we built of the remains -of our vessel, as we had intended, a large covered boat, furnished -with anchors and sails and able to live at sea if not exposed to -storms. In this boat we confided ourselves to the sea, trusting in -Providence, the 17th of August, 1742, and after nine days at sea, with -beautiful calm weather, we arrived safely at Avatscha on the 26th, -giving thanks to the Almighty, who had delivered us from such great -dangers, and imbued us with gratitude such as time can never efface.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>"From this account we can correct the error of M. de l'Isle, who -places Bering island at the 54th degree, only a short distance from -Avatscha, whereas it is on the 56th parallel, sixty miles from -Avatscha and forty Dutch miles from the mouth of the Kamshatka river.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>"The voyage of M. Tschirikow, although attended with less fatigue and -danger, was not less painful to him. His tender heart, which his -profession of mariner had not rendered indifferent to the sufferings -of others, was indeed sorely tried. After parting from M. Bering, -sailing northwest, he came on the 15th of July to a country the shores -of which were lined with rugged rocks, at the foot of which rolled a -deep sea. He prudently refrained from approaching too near the shore, -but at the end of three days sent the pilot, Abraham Dementiew, with a -crew of ten men, to reconnoiter the country. Neither Dementiew nor any -of those who accompanied him ever returned; and most sincerely was he -mourned, and deservedly so, for he was young, good-looking, of an -honorable family, steady and clever in his profession, and zealous in -the service of his country. After waiting six days, M. Tschirikow sent -the boatman, Sidor Sawelef, with three men, but they did not return -any more than the others. While waiting for their return we constantly -saw smoke on the shores, and the day after the departure of the -boatman two men, in different boats, came from the spot where -Dementiew and Sawelew had -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page229"><small>[p. 229]</small></a></span> -landed. When they had approached near -enough to be heard they began to call out, 'Agai, agai,' and then went -back. M. Tschirikow did not know what to think of their conduct, and -now, despairing of the return of his men and having no more boats to -send on shore, he determined, on the 27th of July, to leave the place, -follow the coast as much as possible, and then return to Kamshatka. M. -de l'Isle, then, makes an addition of his own when he says that 'M. -Tschirikow made many excursions into the country, during the month of -August, while waiting for the return of his men.' To return to the -truth, M. Tschirikow, in a distance of one hundred miles, never lost -sight of land; he battled often with contrary winds, had much anxiety -on account of the heavy fogs, and lost an anchor which he had put out, -not far from the coast, in a moment of great danger. He was visited by -twenty-one canoes, of tanned skins, each one containing a man; but -this was all—for he was unable to converse with them. The scarcity of -water and the scurvy carried off many of his men. Among the officers -he lost two lieutenants—Lichatschew and Plautin, fine men and -excellent mariners—who might have rendered good service had they -lived. M. Tschirikow himself began to have the symptoms of disease, -but good food and the air on land restored him to health. M. de la -Croyere was not so fortunate; he appeared to have held his own until -he was just at the point of death. His companions marveled at the good -effects of the large quantities of brandy which he drank every day; -but they soon saw that the only good it did him was to make him forget -his sufferings. He died on the 10th of October, as they were entering -the port of Avatscha, having dressed himself to go on shore and having -celebrated his arrival by new excesses. We cannot ignore the important -service rendered by M. de la Croyere to the expedition, when he -recognized the Americans who came to M. Tschirikow as bearing great -resemblance to the inhabitants of Canada, whom he had met while -serving in that country seventeen years before coming to Russia, with -the King of France's troops."</small></blockquote> -<br> -<hr align="center" width="25%"> -<br> -<p>N<small>OTE</small>.—A pamphlet which has just come into my possession, entitled -"Lettre de Monsieur d'Anville au R. P. Castel, Jesuit. Au sujet des -Pays de Kamtchatka," etc. (24mo, Paris, 1737), throws some light on -the map of du Halde (1732), and definitely fixes the date and locality -of the observation of the eclipse of the moon referred to by de l'Isle -and the Russian officer, as well as later geographers.</p> - -<p>D'Anville says:</p> - -<blockquote><small>"The map of Bering's voyage is attributed to me.... -The only part I had therein was to reduce it from the much larger -original map, of which I had made a tracing by means of oiled -paper.... I first learned of Bering's voyage by letters from de -l'Isle, then in Russia; and finally an account of this voyage having -been sent to R. P. du Halde by His Majesty Stanislas, King of Poland, -it was placed in my hands.</small></blockquote> - -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page230"><small><small>[p. 230]</small></small></a></span> -<blockquote><small>"Likewise, both by a sheet of <i>astronomical observations made by -Bering which came to me</i> later, and by the same letters of M. de -l'Isle, I knew that the mouth of the river of Kamtchatka was found by -astronomical determination to be in latitude 56° and some minutes.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>"Bering in his navigation doubled the southern point of this continent -[Kamshatka] in latitude 51° 10", as is expressly noted in the sheet of -<i>observations</i> which is now before me.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>"But though the solution of the difficulty in the case of the Land of -Jeco may be very simple and natural, yet it was not obvious to me, it -may be said, for Bering's voyage and observations caused me to recur -to this subject, and I can no longer doubt that the eastern coast of -Tartary should be moved to the east as far as the maps of the Jesuits -first indicated; for although M. de Strahlenberg in his excellent map -of Siberia shows only 65° of longitude between Tobolsk and Okhotsk, -and there are even less in de l'Isle's map of Tartary, yet Bering's -map indicates that there are 74°.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>"It was found that it (Ohkotz) is 25° off of the meridian of Peking, -which the observations of P. Gaubil placed in 113° fifty-odd minutes -from Paris, so that it closely approximates the 139° which we have -found it to be from Bering's observations. This determination does not -differ much from the result of some astronomical observations, which, -as I learn from China, M. de l'Isle, now in Russia, contemplated using -in order to ascertain approximately the longitude of Kamtchat. The -observation upon which I place the most dependence, and which likewise -gives the greatest difference, is of an eclipse of the moon of -February 25, 1728, of which the end was observed on the west coast of -Kamtshat in latitude 52° 46' N., Sirius having an altitude of 19° 18' -to the west, wherefrom M. de l'Isle calculated that the true time -answered to 6h. 52m. p.m.</small></blockquote> - -<blockquote><small>"This eclipse, the end especially, fell throughout Europe in the -daytime, but having been observed at Carthagena, West Indies, by D. -Jean Herrera, where it ended at 3h. 34m. a.m., a difference of 8h. -42m. is deduced between the meridians of Carthagena and the coast of -Kamtshat."</small></blockquote> - -<p>It is thus evident that Bering observed an eclipse of the moon in -Kamshatka, and that the observations came into the hands of M. -d'Anville.</p> - -<div align="right">A. W. G. </div> - -<blockquote>J<small>ANUARY</small> 21, 1892.</blockquote> -<br> -<br> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page231"><small><small>[p. 231]</small></small></a></span> -<br> -<br> -<h3>HEIGHT AND POSITION OF MOUNT ST. ELIAS.</h3> - -<h5>BY</h5> - -<h4>ISRAEL C. RUSSELL.</h4> - -<center><small>(<i>Laid before the Board of Managers December 11, 1891</i>.)</small></center> -<br> -<hr align="center" width="25%"> -<br> -<p>The height and position of Mount St. Elias have been measured several -times during the past century with varying results. The measurements -made prior to 1891 have been summarized and discussed by W. H. Dall, -of the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey.<small><small><sup>1</sup></small></small> The various results -obtained are shown in the following table. With the exception of the -position determined by Malaspina and the measurements of 1891, they -are copied from Dall's report.</p> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>1</sup></small> Rep. of the Superintendent of the U. S. Coast Survey for -1875, pp. 157–188.</small></blockquote> -<br> -<center><i>Height and Position of Mount St. Elias</i>.</center> -<br> -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="4" summary="Height and Position of St Elias"> - <tr> - <td align="center"><u>Date.</u></td> - <td align="center"><u>Authority.</u></td> - <td align="center"><u>Height.</u></td> - <td align="center"><u>Latitude.</u></td> - <td align="center"><u>Longitude.</u></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1786</td> - <td>La Pérouse</td> - <td align="right">12,672 feet</td> - <td>60° 15' 00"</td> - <td>140° 10' 00"</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1791</td> - <td>Malaspina</td> - <td align="right">17,851 feet</td> - <td>60° 17' 35"</td> - <td>140° 52' 17"</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1794</td> - <td>Vancouver</td> - <td align="right">—————</td> - <td>60° 22' 30"</td> - <td>140° 39' 00"</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1847</td> - <td>Russian Hydrographic Chart, 1378</td> - <td align="right">17,850 feet</td> - <td>60° 21' 00"</td> - <td>141° 00' 00"</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1847</td> - <td>Tebenkof (Notes)</td> - <td align="right">16,938 feet</td> - <td>60° 22' 36"</td> - <td>140° 54' 00"</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1849</td> - <td>Tebenkof (Chart VII)</td> - <td align="right">16,938 feet</td> - <td>60° 21' 30"</td> - <td>140° 54' 00"</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td> </td> - <td>Bach. Can. Inseln</td> - <td align="right">16,758 feet</td> - <td>60° 17' 30"</td> - <td>140° 51' 00"</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1872</td> - <td>English Admiralty Chart 2172</td> - <td align="right">14,970 feet</td> - <td>60° 21' 00"</td> - <td>141° 00' 00"</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1874</td> - <td>U. S. Coast Survey</td> - <td align="right">19,500±400 feet</td> - <td>60° 20' 45"</td> - <td>141° 00' 12"</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1891</td> - <td>Nat. Geog. Soc. Ex.</td> - <td align="right">18,100±100 feet</td> - <td>60° 17' 51"</td> - <td>140° 55' 30"</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p>The position given by Malaspina is from a report on astronomical -observations made during his voyage,<small><small><sup>2</sup></small></small> which places the mountain in -longitude 134° 33' 10" west of Cadiz. Taking -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page232"><small><small>[p. 232]</small></small></a></span> -the longitude of -Cadiz as 6° 19' 07" west of Greenwich, the figures given in the table -are obtained.</p> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>2</sup></small> Memorias sobre las obversaciones astronomicas hechas por -les navegantes Españoles en distintos lugares del globe; Por Don Josef -Espinosa y Tello. Madrid, en la Imprente real, Ano de 1809: 2 vols., -large 8°; vol. 1, pp. 57–60. My attention was directed to this work by -Dr. Dall, who owns the only copy I have seen.</small></blockquote> - -<p>The data from which the various determinations made previous to 1874 -were obtained have not been published. The observations made by -Messrs. Dall and Baker, of the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, are -published in full in the annual report of that Survey for 1875, -already referred to. The observations made by myself last summer as a -part of the work of an expedition sent to Mount St. Elias by the -National Geographic Society and the U. S. Geological Survey, from -which the height and position of the mountain have been computed, are -as follows:</p> - -<p>A base line 16,876 feet long was measured on the beach at Icy bay. The -line, with the exception of section <i>C</i> to <i>D</i>, as shown below, was -measured three times in sections of about 3,000 feet each. The -distances given below in columns 1 and 2 were obtained with a 100-foot -steel tape, and those given in column 3 with a 300-foot iron wire. -These are rough measurements, made without the use of a plumb-bob and -without taking account of temperature. The ground was quite smooth, -with a rise of about five feet in the center; but section <i>C</i> to <i>D</i> -was crossed by a stream channel about 300 feet broad and twenty feet -deep. Throughout much of the distance the ground was covered with -grass, which was only partially cleared away. The stations at the ends -of the line were ten feet above high tide. The bearing of the line -from the western base was S. 89° E., magnetic.</p> -<br> -<center><i>Measurements of Base Line</i>.</center> -<br> -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="4" summary="Measurements of Base Line"> - <tr> - <td> </td> - <td align="center"><b>1.</b></td> - <td align="center"><b>2.</b></td> - <td align="center"><b>3.</b></td> - <td align="center">Mean.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td> </td> - <td><i>Ft. in.</i></td> - <td><i>Ft. in.</i></td> - <td><i>Ft. in.</i></td> - <td> <i>Ft. in.</i></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Western base to station <i>A</i> </td> - <td>3,179 10</td> - <td>3,178 7</td> - <td>3,178 9</td> - <td> 3,179 1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Station <i>A</i> to station <i>B</i></td> - <td>2,355 2</td> - <td>2,354 1</td> - <td>2,354 2</td> - <td> 2,354 6</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Station <i>B</i> to station <i>C</i></td> - <td>3,589 0</td> - <td>3,587 9</td> - <td>3,586 0</td> - <td> 3,587 7</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Station <i>C</i> to station <i>D</i></td> - <td>Rejected.</td> - <td>2,609 2</td> - <td>2,609 5</td> - <td> 2,609 3</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td valign="top">Station <i>D</i> to eastern base</td> - <td valign="top">5,145 5</td> - <td valign="top">5,144 10</td> - <td>Not meas-<br>ured.</td> - <td valign="top"><u> 5,145 1</u></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td align="right">Length of base line</td> - <td> </td> - <td> </td> - <td> </td> - <td>16,875 6</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p>The measurements of angles were made with a gradienter reading by -vernier to minutes. The error of the vertical arc was –3', and -remained constant during the observations.</p> - -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page233"><small><small>[p. 233]</small></small></a></span> -<br> -<center><i>Measurements of Angles at Western Base</i>.</center> -<br> -<table align="center" border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="4" summary="Measurements of Angles at Western Base"> - <tr> - <td> </td> - <td> </td> - <td align="center">Right<br>vernier.</td> - <td align="center">Left<br>vernier.</td> - <td align="center">Vertical<br>angle.</td> - <td align="center">Date.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1.</td> - <td>St. Elias<br>Eastern base</td> - <td align="right">218° 35'<br>317 6 </td> - <td align="right">38° 35'<br>137 7 </td> - <td align="right">+5° 40'<br>—— </td> - <td>1891, Aug. 14, 10 a.m.<br> - " - " "</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>2.</td> - <td>St. Elias<br>Eastern base</td> - <td align="right">218° 34'<br>317 6 </td> - <td align="right">38° 37'<br>137 7 </td> - <td align="right">+5° 40'<br>—— </td> - <td> " - " "<br> - " - " "</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>3.</td> - <td>St. Elias<br>Eastern base</td> - <td align="right">218° 37'<br>317 6 </td> - <td align="right">38° 39'<br>137 8 </td> - <td align="right">+5° 40'<br>—— </td> - <td> " - " "<br> - " - " "</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>4.</td> - <td>St. Elias<br>Eastern base</td> - <td align="right">261° 41'<br>0 10 </td> - <td align="right">81° 43'<br>180 11 </td> - <td align="right">+5° 40'<br>—— </td> - <td> " - " "<br> - " - " "</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>5.</td> - <td>St. Elias<br>Eastern base</td> - <td align="right">261° 41'<br>0 10 </td> - <td align="right">81° 43'<br>180 10 </td> - <td align="right">+5° 40'<br>—— </td> - <td> " - " "<br> - " - " "</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>6.</td> - <td>St. Elias<br>Eastern base</td> - <td align="right">50° 15'<br>148 45 </td> - <td align="right">230° 15'<br>328 45 </td> - <td align="right">+5° 40'<br>—— </td> - <td>1891, Aug. 14, 6 p.m.<br> - " - " "</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>7.</td> - <td>St. Elias<br>Eastern base</td> - <td align="right">50° 15'<br>148 45 </td> - <td align="right">—— <br>—— </td> - <td align="right">—— <br>—— </td> - <td> " - " "<br> - " - " "</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>8.</td> - <td>St. Elias<br>Eastern base</td> - <td align="right">181° 5'<br>279 30 </td> - <td align="right">1° 5'<br>99 32 </td> - <td align="right">+5° 40'<br>—— </td> - <td> " - " "<br> - " - " "</td> - </tr> -</table> -<br><br> -<center><i>Measurements of Angles at Eastern Base</i>.</center> -<br> -<table align="center" border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="4" summary="Measurements of Angles at Eastern Base"> - <tr> - <td> </td> - <td> </td> - <td align="center">Right<br>vernier.</td> - <td align="center">Left<br>vernier.</td> - <td align="center">Vertical<br>angle.</td> - <td align="center">Date.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1.</td> - <td>St. Elias<br>Western base</td> - <td align="right">252° 26'<br>176 19 </td> - <td align="right">72° 27'<br>356 19 </td> - <td align="right">+5° 34'<br>—— </td> - <td>1891, Aug. 17, 11.30 a.m.<br> - " - " "</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>2.</td> - <td>St. Elias<br>Western base</td> - <td align="right">252° 26'<br>176 19 </td> - <td align="right">72° 26'<br>356 19 </td> - <td align="right">+5° 34'<br>—— </td> - <td> " - " "<br> - " - " "</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>3.</td> - <td>St. Elias<br>Western base</td> - <td align="right">252° 25'<br>176 19 </td> - <td align="right">72° 26'<br>356 19 </td> - <td align="right">+5° 34'<br>—— </td> - <td> " - " "<br> - " - " "</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>4.</td> - <td>St. Elias<br>Western base</td> - <td align="right">252° 26'<br>176 19 </td> - <td align="right">72° 27'<br>356 19 </td> - <td align="right">+5° 34'<br>—— </td> - <td> " - " "<br> - " - " "</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>5.</td> - <td>St. Elias<br>Western base</td> - <td align="right">252° 26'<br>176 19 </td> - <td align="right">72° 26'<br>—— </td> - <td align="right">+5° 34'<br>—— </td> - <td> " - " "<br> - " - " "</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>6.</td> - <td>St. Elias<br>Western base</td> - <td align="right">252° 27'<br>176 20 </td> - <td align="right">72° 28'<br>356 20 </td> - <td align="right">+5° 34'<br>—— </td> - <td>1891, Aug. 17, 2 p.m.<br> - " - " "</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>7.</td> - <td>St. Elias<br>Western base</td> - <td align="right">252° 28'<br>176 21 </td> - <td align="right">—— <br>—— </td> - <td align="right">—— <br>—— </td> - <td>1891, Aug. 17, 4.30 p.m.<br> - " - " "</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page234"><small><small>[p. 234]</small></small></a></span> -<p>From these observations the following angles between the base -line and the line of sight to the summit of Mount St. Elias are -obtained. The correction for error of vertical circle has been applied -to the angles of elevation.</p> -<br> -<center><i>Resulting Angles</i>.</center> -<br> -<table align="center" border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="4" summary="Resulting anles"> - <tr> - <td align="center" colspan="4">W<small>ESTERN</small> B<small>ASE</small>.</td> - <td align="center" colspan="4">E<small>ASTERN</small> B<small>ASE</small>.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td> </td> - <td align="center">Right<br>vernier.</td> - <td align="center">Left<br>vernier.</td> - <td align="center">Corrected<br>vertical<br>angle.</td> - <td> </td> - <td align="center">Right<br>vernier.</td> - <td align="center">Left<br>vernier.</td> - <td align="center">Corrected<br>vertical<br>angle.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1<br>2<br>3<br>4<br>5<br>6<br>7<br>8</td> - <td>98° 31'<br>98 32<br>98 29<br>98 29<br>98 29<br>98 30<br>98 30<br>98 25</td> - <td>98° 32'<br>98 30<br>98 29<br>98 28<br>98 27<br>98 30<br> ——<br>98 27</td> - <td align="center">+5° 43'<br>+5 43'<br>+5 43'<br>+5 43'<br>+5 43'<br>+5 43'<br>+5 43'<br>+5 43'</td> - <td>1<br>2<br>3<br>4<br>5<br>6<br>7<br> </td> - <td>76° 7'<br>76 7<br>76 6<br>76 7<br>76 7<br>76 7<br>76 7<br> </td> - <td>76° 8'<br>76 7<br>76 7<br>76 8<br> ——<br>76 8<br> <br> </td> - <td align="center">+5° 37'<br>+5 37<br>+5 37<br>+5 37<br>+5 37<br>+5 37<br> <br> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td> </td> - <td>98 29 22</td> - <td>98 29 00</td> - <td> </td> - <td> </td> - <td>76 6 51</td> - <td>76 7 36</td> - <td> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="4"> Mean 98° 29' 12" +5° 43'</td> - <td colspan="4"> Mean 76° 7' 10" +5° 37'</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p>The known elements of the triangle from which the distance of St. -Elias from the ends of the base line may be determined are:</p> - -<center><img src="images/triangle.jpg" alt="distance triangle"></center> - -<p>These data were sent from the field to the Secretary of the National -Geographic Society, and, in connection with other measurements made at -the same time, have been computed by -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page235"><small><small>[p. 235]</small></small></a></span> -Mr. S. S. Gannett, of the -United States Geological Survey. The results of the computation, so -far as they relate to Mount St. Elias, are given below:</p> -<br> -<center><i>Computation of the Height of Mount St. Elias</i>.</center> -<br> -<hr> -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="4" summary="Computation of height"> - <tr> - <td align="center"><i>Station</i>.</td> - <td align="center"><i>Angle</i>.</td> - <td align="center" colspan="2">16,876 <i>ft. log.</i></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td> </td> - <td> </td> - <td>Dist. E. base — W. base =</td> - <td>4.227270</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>St. Elias</td> - <td> 5° 23' 38"</td> - <td>A. C. log. sine =</td> - <td>1.026862</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Western base</td> - <td>98 29 12</td> - <td> log. sine =</td> - <td>9.995218</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Eastern base</td> - <td><u>76 07 10</u></td> - <td> log. sine =</td> - <td><u>9.987129</u></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td> </td> - <td> </td> - <td>St. Elias — W. base =</td> - <td>5.241261</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td> </td> - <td> </td> - <td>St. Elias — E. base =</td> - <td>5.249350</td> - </tr> -</table> -<hr> -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="4" summary="Computation of height2"> - <tr> - <td> </td> - <td> </td> - <td align="center"><i>log. feet</i>.</td> - <td align="center"><i>log. miles</i>.</td> - <td align="center"><i>miles</i>.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="2">Log. distance: St. Elias — W. base = </td> - <td align="right">5.241261</td> - <td align="right">1.518627</td> - <td align="right">33.01</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="2">Log. tan angle of elevation 5° 43' =</td> - <td align="right"><u>9.000465</u></td> - <td> </td> - <td> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td> </td> - <td align="right">17447 ft. </td> - <td align="right">4.241726</td> - <td> </td> - <td> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Curvature and refraction =</td> - <td align="right">+623 </td> - <td> </td> - <td> </td> - <td> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Western base above sea</td> - <td align="right"><u> +10</u> </td> - <td colspan="3" rowspan="2">Correction for curvature and<br>refraction in feet = <small><sup>4</sup></small>/<small>7</small> sq. of<br>dist. in miles.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>St. Elias above sea =</td> - <td align="right">18080 ft. </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td> </td> - <td> </td> - <td colspan="2">log. distance miles =</td> - <td align="right">1.51863</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td> </td> - <td> </td> - <td> </td> - <td> </td> - <td align="right">1.51863</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td> </td> - <td> </td> - <td colspan="2"> log. 4 =</td> - <td align="right"> 0.60206</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td> </td> - <td> </td> - <td colspan="2">A. C. log. 7 =</td> - <td align="right"><u>9.15490</u></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td> </td> - <td> </td> - <td colspan="2">log. 623 ft. =</td> - <td align="right">2.79422</td> - </tr> -</table> -<hr> -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="4" summary="Computation of height3"> - <tr> - <td> </td> - <td> </td> - <td align="center"><i>log. feet</i>.</td> - <td align="center"><i>log. miles</i>.</td> - <td align="center"><i>miles</i>.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="2">Log. distance: St. Elias — E. base = </td> - <td align="right">5.249350</td> - <td align="right">1.526716</td> - <td align="right">33.63</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="2">Log. tan 5° 37'</td> - <td align="right"><u>8.992750</u></td> - <td align="right">1.526716</td> - <td> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td> </td> - <td> </td> - <td> </td> - <td align="right">0.602060</td> - <td> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td> </td> - <td align="right">17462 = </td> - <td align="right">4.242100</td> - <td align="right"><u>9.154902</u></td> - <td> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Curvature and refraction</td> - <td align="right">+646 </td> - <td> </td> - <td> </td> - <td> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>E. base above sea</td> - <td align="right"><u> +10</u> </td> - <td align="right">log. 646 ft.</td> - <td align="right">= 2.810394</td> - <td> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>St. Elias above sea =</td> - <td align="right">18118 ft. </td> - <td> </td> - <td> </td> - <td> </td> - </tr> -</table> -<hr> -<center>Mean elevation above sea level = 18099 ft.; or in round numbers 18,100 ft.</center> - -<p>Mr. A. Lindenkohl, of the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, and Mr. S. -S. Gannett have each computed the geographic position of Mount St. -Elias, using the azimuth and angle of elevation of the mountain -obtained by the U. S. Coast Survey at Port Mulgrave in 1874,<small><small><sup>3</sup></small></small> and -the elevation given above. From -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page236"><small><small>[p. 236]</small></small></a></span> -these data the approximate -position of Mount St. Elias was found to be:</p> - -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="4" summary="St Elias position"> - <tr> - <td>Lat.,</td> - <td align="right">60° 17' 51" N.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Long.,</td> - <td align="right">140° 55' 30" W.</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>3</sup></small> Report of the Superintendent of the U. S. Coast Survey -for 1875, Appendix 10, pp. 157–188.</small></blockquote> - -<p>The computation by which these results were obtained is given below:</p> -<br> -<center><i>Computation of Geographic Position of Mount St. Elias</i>.</center> -<br> -<hr> -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="4" summary="computation of position"> - <tr> - <td>Azimuth: Port Mulgrave to Mount St. Elias =</td> - <td align="right">142° 17' 17"</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Diff. azimuth</td> - <td align="right">–59 55 </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td> + 180°</td> - <td align="right">+<u>180° </u></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Azimuth: Mount St. Elias to Port Mulgrave =</td> - <td align="right">321° 17' 22"</td> - </tr> -</table> -<hr> -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="4" summary="computation of position2"> - <tr> - <td align="center"><i>Latitude</i>.</td> - <td> </td> - <td align="center"><i>Longitude</i>.</td> - <td> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td align="right">59° 33' 42"</td> - <td>= Port Mulgrave</td> - <td align="right">139° 46' 16"</td> - <td> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td align="right"><u>+44 09 </u></td> - <td>= Diff. lat.</td> - <td align="right"><u>+1 09 14 </u></td> - <td>= Diff. long.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td align="right">60° 17' 51"</td> - <td>= Mount St. Elias </td> - <td align="right">140° 55' 30"</td> - <td> </td> - </tr> -</table> -<hr> -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="4" summary="computation of position3"> - <tr> - <td> </td> - <td> </td> - <td align="center">1st Term.</td> - <td> </td> - <td align="center">2d Term.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td> </td> - <td> </td> - <td align="center"><i>Log. meters</i>.</td> - <td> </td> - <td> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="2">Log. K = (Distance, Mulgrave — St.Elias)</td> - <td align="right">= 5.0183184</td> - <td> K<small><sup>2</sup></small></td> - <td>= 0.0366</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="2">Log. cosine azimuth, Z, 142° 17' 17"</td> - <td align="right">= 9.8982292</td> - <td> Sine<small><sup>2</sup></small> Z</td> - <td>= 9.5731</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="2">Log. B</td> - <td align="right">= <u>8.5093902</u></td> - <td> Log. C</td> - <td>= <u>1.6335</u></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td align="right" colspan="2">Log. 2666".5</td> - <td align="right">= 3.4259378</td> - <td> Log. 17".6</td> - <td>= 1.2432</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td align="right">1st term =</td> - <td>+ 2666".5</td> - <td> </td> - <td> </td> - <td> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td align="right">2d term =</td> - <td>–<u> 17 .6</u></td> - <td> </td> - <td> </td> - <td> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td align="right">Difference lat. =</td> - <td> 2648".9</td> - <td> </td> - <td> </td> - <td> </td> - </tr> -</table> -<hr> -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="4" summary="computation of position4"> - <tr> - <td>Log. K</td> - <td>= 5.0183184</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Log. sine azimuth</td> - <td>= 9.7865328</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Log. A<small><small><sup>4</sup></small></small></td> - <td>= 8.5086148</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Arithmetical complement 60° 17' 51"</td> - <td>=<u> 0.3049593</u></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Log. diff. in longitude 4153".6</td> - <td>= 3.6184253</td> - </tr> -</table> -<hr> -<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="4" summary="computation of position5"> - <tr> - <td>Log. diff. long.</td> - <td>= 3.61843</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Log. sine mean latitude 59° 55' 46"</td> - <td>=<u> 9.93722</u></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Log. diff. azimuth — 3595"</td> - <td>= 3.55565</td> - </tr> -</table> -<hr> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>4</sup></small> <i>A</i>, <i>B</i> and <i>C</i> are terms depending on the size and -figure of the earth and the latitude of the place.</small></blockquote> - -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page237"><small><small>[p. 237]</small></small></a></span> -<p>The geographic position of Mount St. Elias is of popular -interest in connection with the boundaries of Alaska.</p> - -<p>In the convention between Great Britain and -Russia,<small><small><sup>5</sup></small></small> wherein the -boundaries of Alaska are supposed to be defined, it is stated that the -boundary, beginning at the south, after leaving Portland channel, -shall follow the summit of the mountains situated parallel to the -coast as far as the 141st meridian, and from there northward the said -meridian shall be the boundary to the Arctic ocean. Whenever the -summit of the mountains between Portland channel and the 141st -meridian "shall prove to be at the distance of more than ten marine -leagues from the ocean, the limit between the British possessions and -the line of coast which is to belong to Russia, above mentioned, shall -be formed by a line parallel to the windings of the coast and which -shall never exceed the distance of ten marine leagues therefrom."</p> - -<blockquote><small><small><sup>5</sup></small> Message from the President of the United States, -transmitting Report on the boundary line between Alaska and British -Columbia. 50th Congress, 2d session, Ex. Doc. No. 146, Senate, 1889.</small></blockquote> - -<p>As Mount St. Elias is approximately in longitude 140° 55' 30" west -from Greenwich, as already shown, it is therefore only 4' and 30" of -longitude or 2½ statute miles east of the boundary of the main portion -of Alaska. Its distance from the nearest point on the coast is 33 -statute miles. There is no coast range in southeastern Alaska parallel -with the coast within the limits specified by the treaty, and the -boundary must therefore be considered as a line parallel with the -coast and ten marine leagues, or 34½ statute miles, inland. The -mountain is thus one and one-half miles south of the boundary and -within the territory of the United States. Its position is so near the -junction of the boundary separating southeastern Alaska from the -Northwest Territory with the 141st meridian that it is practically a -corner monument of our national domain.</p> -<br> -<br> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page238"><small><small>[p. 238]</small></small></a></span> -<br> -<br> -<h3>THE HEART OF AFRICA.</h3> - -<h5>BY</h5> - -<h4>E. C. HORE.</h4> - -<center><small>(<i>Abstracts of two Lectures presented before the Society March 6 and -March 13, 1891</i>.)</small></center> -<br> -<hr align="center" width="25%"> - -<h5>I.</h5> - -<p>The subject of Africa and its people has recently become a most -interesting and popular one. We are but now beginning to realize the -size and importance of Africa, as we are reminded that it contains -nearly one-fourth part of the land area of the world; that it has -mountains at least 1,000 feet higher than the most lofty American -peaks; that the known extent of the Nile and the Congo now make them -the rivals of the Yang-tse-Kiang and the Mississippi as the longest -rivers in the world; that its central regions, instead of the great -desert blank so long shown on our maps, is a rich and beautiful -elevated region, having upon its heights a splendid collection of -fresh-water lakes or inland seas, fertilizing by their outflowing -streams the whole continent; and that it is known to contain over -250,000,000 people, or about one-seventh part of the world's -population. It is called the "dark continent:" rather should it be -called the "new world," in which our interest and -responsibility—political, commercial and social—is rapidly growing.</p> - -<p>For purposes of general description, there are three great divisions -of the African continent and its peoples and affairs:</p> - -<blockquote><i>The northern division</i>, stamped and characterized—men, manners and -things—by the orientalism of its conquering settlers, so intimately -blended by blood, religion and character with the natives as to have -become essentially African, its original peoples so thoroughly -influenced by the incoming foreigners as to be now essentially -oriental;</blockquote> - -<blockquote><i>The southern division</i>, overrun in more modern times by foreigners of -other races, and having its own peculiar civilization and -characteristics due to that influx; and</blockquote> - -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page239"><small><small>[p. 239]</small></small></a></span> -<blockquote><i>Central Africa</i>, including all that portion of the continent -lying between, say, the Albert Nyanza and the river Zambesi, and -Zanzibar and the Congo mouth, and which, although no part now remains -of it that is not nominally the territory either of the Congo Free -state or some European power, is still almost entirely in the -possession and occupation of its lawful owners, the native uncivilized tribes.</blockquote> - -<p>As well as this transverse political division of Africa, we may make -what may be called a concentric analysis. Commencing with the outer -<i>skin</i>, the 16,000 miles of African coast, we find upon it certain -excrescences, which, if our examination went but skin-deep, might well -lead us to regard Africa not as a "new," but as an "old, old" world. -On the north and east the remains of ancient civilizations, Morocco, -Tangier, Egypt, remind us of Africa's bygone grandeur—remind us how -very much of forms of beauty and secrets of science and art came to us -in the birth of civilized Europe from or through Africa. On the south -and west again, memorials of Phoenician, of Portuguese, of Dutch, -English and American conquering visitors and adventurers remind us of -the constant preying of the nations on the dark continent—remind us, -through certain prison castles still to be seen on the western coast, -of the great world's crime, the slave trade. But on the outer surface -of Africa other signs are to be read: North, south, east and west -there are ports and roadsteads forested with the masts of the world's -shipping conveying to Africa's every shore those products of the -civilized world which, according to their nature for good or harm, are -to influence and civilize the Africans; carrying away from her shore -the land's products—a constant stream, increasing perhaps just now, -but which has always been flowing—of wool, cotton, oil, rich spices, -dyes and medicinal and ornamental woods, india-rubber, gum-copal, -ivory, precious stones, gold. Are these the products of a desert land -inhabited only by a lazy and savage people?</p> - -<p>Following our concentric analysis, the first layer behind the outer -skin of Africa may be said to consist of a verdant slope, broad and -luxuriant in the tropics, where nature herself has been lavish, -narrower, but still ever widening, in the drier north and south, as -the oriental and the European respectively advance their groves of -fruit and fields of corn, maintained in luxuriance alike by the vapors -of the sea and the down drainage from the higher lands, and from the -same causes also malarious and -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page240"><small><small>[p. 240]</small></small></a></span> -unhealthy. In another sense, too, -this outer belt is both rich and unhappy. Into it come those men and -things representing "civilization" from afar. To it, from the -interior, gravitate those of the natives who are influenced by contact -with those men and things, deprived to a great extent of the old -uncivilized condition and its innocencies and partially imbued with -what of civilization has come to them. Mankind, too, in this outer -belt is often only too rank and unhealthy in his character. It is -truly "darkest Africa;" for, first, the slave trade and then the rum -bottle have in many parts been the preponderating representatives to -them of outer civilization.</p> - -<p>The next layer is a step or terrace of flat sandy semi-arid country, -narrow in the tropics, widening toward each extreme, until it bulges -out in the north into the Sahara desert, in the south into the -Kalahari, some parts always bare and sandy or covered with a sparkling -saline or alkaline deposit, some parts forming broad savannas or -prairies, bearing rich grasses in the rains, burnt bare in the dry -season; others covered with thickets of thorns or stunted and crippled -trees under the same variations of seasons. This is the land of the -ostrich and the pelican, the scene of vast prairie fires or whirling -dust spouts; it is the land also of the nomad man. Across the Sahara -the wandering Arab leads his camels from oasis to oasis; amid the -wastes of the Kalahari the homeless Bushman finds a congenial hunting -territory; in the narrow, tropical parts such semi-nomads as the -Somali, the Wamasai, and the Wagogo lead their cattle from place to -place, as the grass and water serve them with the seasons.</p> - -<p>This terrace or flat sandy belt being crossed, we come to the true -central region of Africa, a long irregular oval-shaped elevation of -mountain masses, spreading out in many places as vast plateaus and -forming altogether that mysterious elevated region reported from time -to time by old investigators as well as compilers of native reports as -the Mountains of the Moon. In the crevices of this central mass, in -rocky basins, in fathomless chasms, in vast depressions of the -plateaus, lie those great natural rainwater tanks known as the central -African lakes. On and around it are the richest and most beautiful and -healthful countries. Spreading over it and around its beautiful waters -are the most intelligent and industrious of the native African tribes, -their native industry and enterprise yet almost undisturbed by the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page241"><small><small>[p. 241]</small></small></a></span> -busy excitement of civilization. Hence there may fairly be drawn -something like a sample of the real African native character and -condition. They live in families; among them the family tie and the -rights of property are regarded; conscience pronounces criminal and -offensive the same irregularities as are so regarded among civilized -peoples; in stature and physical condition they come up to the best -standards. I argue that the life and condition which presents this -state of things after isolation for thousands of years from all we -call civilized can scarcely be called evil or degraded.</p> - -<p>Among these people, both pastoral and agricultural, are to be found in -progress the germs at least of all the useful arts—the procuring and -working of both iron and copper, pottery-making, the spinning and -weaving of cotton cloth, the very beautiful development of plaiting of -all kinds of vegetal fibers into string, rope, mats, baskets and -cloth; and where valuable materials and products are naturally -confined to particular localities, as is the case sometimes with oil, -salt, etc., it is manufactured and distributed. Too often are people -described as lacking in industry who are not the same as ourselves; -but it seems to me ridiculous that a man should be called lazy because -he has ample leisure between his busy times, who has made with his own -hands, from nature's absolutely raw material, his house, his axe and -hoe and spear, his clothing and ornaments, his furniture, his corn -mill, all things that he has, and who, though liable often in a -lifetime to have to repeat that whole process over again, has the -energy and enterprise to commence afresh. Too often have the same -people been called savage and bloodthirsty who, through all experience -and by all their traditions getting naturally to regard unintroduced -armed strangers as enemies, have the same desperate energy to defend -themselves and their own which, as displayed by our own ancestral -relatives, we love to term patriotism and courage.</p> - -<p>In a fairly central position on this great central elevation is the -elongated basin surrounded by a mountain rim in the bottom of which, -in a long chasm, lies Lake Tanganyika, in a position alike so central -and so unique that I have termed it the Heart of Africa. Inside the -mountain basin rim, the rainfall all converges into Tanganyika; -outside, it all flows to the outer shores of the continent by the -Nile, the Congo or the Zambesi. Fifteen years ago the waters of Lake -Tanganyika, having very slowly -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page242"><small><small>[p. 242]</small></small></a></span> -gained upon the evaporation (the -then only means of carrying off its surplus) attained to the height of -the lowest gap in its rim and commenced to flow out, and thence its -surplus water ever since has found an exit and now forms part of the -Congo system. Tanganyika is 400 miles long and from 15 to 50 miles in -width, and is 2,700 feet above the sea.</p> - -<p>To leave, however, this very rough general description of Africa at -this point would convey a wrong idea. We have described the verdant -slope from the coast, the terrace of flatter country, the central -elevation and its heart; now we may imagine a series of great ridges -and furrows and other radial features diverging from the heart of -Africa to its very shores, besides certain isolated ridges and peaks, -some of them snow-clad, and certain isolated depressions forming lakes -or swamps; first the three great furrows of the Nile, Zambesi and -Congo and the three great ridges formed by their dividing water-sheds, -and so on through fan-like expansions of rim or ridges and furrows -until the previously described concentric formation, although still -there, is considerably cut up.</p> - -<p>The great central mountain mass, buttressed by its far-stretching -ridges, forms <i>the backbone</i>, from which, outward and downward, in -intricate articulations, extends the complicated <i>bony skeleton</i> of Africa.</p> - -<p>Set like sparkling jewels in its crevices and depressions, the great -lakes send forth the streams which, flowing through gaps in their -surrounding mountain barriers, rushing through narrow channels, oozing -slowly through elevated flats or bounding in beautiful cascades over -steep steps, and carrying the vitalizing fluid in every direction -through the length and breadth of Africa, form <i>its system of circulation</i>.</p> - -<p>Bordering the great lakes and clustering on the slopes, forests of -gigantic trees form the <i>flesh and muscle</i> of this great creation; -preserved in perpetual verdure wherever water constantly remains and -in long extending lines and network fringing the ever-winding banks of -the streams, and finally joining with the verdant belt of the -sea-coast to form the brilliant <i>epidermis</i> of the whole, and forming -background and filling to the network of these prominent features, in -broad concentric curves and in belts and patches, the more stunted -thorny growth, long grass, broad savanna and sandy plain, ever -changing in color and aspect.</p> - -<p>The great new and beautiful world of Africa lies open before -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page243"><small><small>[p. 243]</small></small></a></span> us; -250,000,000 intelligent and courageous people have become exposed to -the influence, for good or evil, of the civilized races. What shall we -do with it and them? Quite possible is it fairly and honestly so to -explore and deal with both country and people as to develop its -resources and benefit them, while adding to the world's treasury of -comfort-bringing products and human brotherhood the riches and the -friendship of a new continent; but it must be by peaceful and just -measures and by honest trade with wholesome wares.</p> -<br> -<hr align="center" width="25%"> - -<h5>II.</h5> - -<p>As a practical way of leading you in imagination to the heart of -Africa, and as indicating the circumstances and experience upon which -my observations on Africa are based, I shall describe one of my many journeys.</p> - -<p>In the year 1882 I had the honor to be leader of the largest European -expedition that has yet entered Africa, having in it, for instance, -200 more men than the Emin Pasha relief expedition. There were ten -Europeans, all told, who represented survey and navigation, medicine, -carpentry, blacksmithing, and other specially selected talent for the -purpose of exploration and civilization, as well as those specially -devoted to the teaching of Christianity, which was the ultimate aim of -all. We entered Africa from the village of Saadani, on the eastern -coast, opposite Zanzibar, our destination being the shores of Lake -Tanganyika at Ujiji.</p> - -<p>To make not only our progress sure, but work and residence at our -destination safe and possible in such a land, we had stores of -groceries, medicines, tools and clothing, and a large quantity of -calico and other cloth, which forms the currency of the country, for -the purchase of supplies and payment of wages to porters, servants and workmen.</p> - -<p>The special locality to be worked being the countries surrounding Lake -Tanganyika, to which that extensive and beautiful inland sea gives -access, we carried with us also, for its navigation, a sailing boat -built of steel, of the form of a sea-going life-boat, and constructed -in small sections and pieces for transport. This boat I designed -myself. Six of the sections were to travel on -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page244"><small><small>[p. 244]</small></small></a></span> specially -constructed light carts, drawn by African natives, and the rest, in -small pieces, were to be carried by the porters in the ordinary way.</p> - -<p>The mode of travel was walking, except when now and then an invalid -was carried in a hammock. The method of transport was by means of -native porters, hundreds of whom devote themselves to this work. They -are paid $5 per month as wages, payable at Zanzibar on their return to -the coast, less such advance in kind as they may draw from their -leader along the road. In addition, they get a regular allowance of -two yards of white calico per seven days, each man, as barter with -which to obtain food.</p> - -<p>The organization and start of such a party took some time, and parties -of from 100 to 300 were dispatched along the road as things were -ready, until, when I started with the final rear guard, we had on the -road over 900 of these porters, with their headmen and petty officers, -all under complete organization.</p> - -<p>The first start of the boat-section carts was the scene of apparent -disaster. The men, wild with excitement and uniting their shouts with -those of onlookers, were beyond all restraint for the moment, and as -they rounded a sharp turn to get out of the village of Saadani, over -went the carts, one after the other, on their sides; and it was some -time before I could train the men to steer more carefully or to move -gently down a declivity. In time, however, the whole thing worked -well. The fore compartment of the boat, going stem first, often forced -its own way through masses of brush and creeper, helping to clear the -way for the narrower sections, whose carts insinuated themselves -through surprisingly small gaps. The men themselves were most zealous -in the service, and as we emerged from lengthy stretches of jungle, -ascended steep river banks, or jolted whole days over rugged stony -places unharmed, we made up our minds that, these carts would "go -anywhere." In twenty days we reached Upwapwa, 200 miles from the -coast, and joined an advance party awaiting us; and after a few days -rest and reorganization, we started once more westward.</p> - -<p>The first village beyond, in the country of Ugogo, was thirty miles -off. The first day was a comparatively easy march to a watering place, -but the next two days gave us tough work. The thick, tangled, thorny -scrub became quite dense, and for those two days we had to cut our way -through it foot by foot. Hour -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page245"><small><small>[p. 245]</small></small></a></span> -after hour the twang of the -sword-bayonets and the thud of the axes were almost the only sounds to -be heard till the train of carts moved slowly on as the way was -opened. Toward evening of the second day we followed a narrow pass -along the side of a rocky river bed, stout, inflexible trunks and -branches here projecting into our path. On some of these ebony bars -the axes resounded as on an anvil, and they yielded only to the more -patient saw. As the sun descended we began to flag, but help was at -hand; for a party coming back to us from the camp ahead with food and -water, we picked up strength and spirit and reached camp late in the evening.</p> - -<p>The level plains of Ugogo, which here represent the flat, open step or -terrace to which I have referred in the general description of Africa, -enabled us to make a week or so of splendid and comfortable marches. -Ugogo passed, there lay before us the much-dreaded wilderness, -so-called, of the Magunda-Mkali, separated from Ugogo by a steep, -rocky ascent, which we could only tackle one cart at a time, and we -soon came to a point so rugged with broken rocks that we could proceed -no further; but the sections were unlashed, the carts taken to pieces, -and all handed or dragged across the difficult place and put together -again beyond. Over the scrubby, rugged hill and dale of Magunda-Mkali, -without inhabitants, 20 to 25 miles a day was often made; every man -knew the necessity of pushing on for food and water, and the danger, -from wild beasts or wandering highwaymen, of lagging in the rear.</p> - -<p>On, on, went the novel train, through weary miles of forest, across -the scorched plain, rattling over the hard sun-baked footprints of the -elephant and rhinoceros; on through grassy glades where the nimble -antelope bounded, scared out of our path, and the zebra and giraffe -were startled by the rattling of these strange disturbers of their -solitude; on still, through miles of swamp, with its croaking legions; -on through scenes of surpassing beauty, bright flowers and gleaming -birds and butterflies; on past the bleaching bones of other travelers -waylaid or exhausted, till the sun creeps up high overhead and eager -glances are cast at green spots where water once had been; on, till -the pace grows slow with weariness and thirst, and still on, till it -revives again as the welcome messenger from the front appears in sight -with water or the camp-fires tell of food and rest.</p> - -<p>Completing this difficult section of the journey and mounting -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page246"><small><small>[p. 246]</small></small></a></span> to -the beautiful forests and numerous villages of Unyamwesi, we had -arrived upon the central heights of the continent, which everything -around us bespoke its best part; the clearer, more healthy air, the -rich land, the open forests, the numerous and industrious people, all -spoke eloquently of a better and brighter state of things in the -interior of Africa than on its outside.</p> - -<p>At Urambo we elicited the pleased surprise of our friend, the famous -chief Mirambo. Said Mirambo, laying his hand emphatically on one of -the boat sections, "This boat and these carts are mine, and all -Unyamwesi is yours." It was his way of expressing sympathy and -admiration of what he considered to be a very wonderful enterprise, -and we left him pondering more deeply than ever on the doings of the -"white men."</p> - -<p>The rains were now at hand and the country rich and verdant; we -hastened on with all speed possible to enable us to cross the -Malagarasi river before it should be too swollen. Emerging from -elevated forest land to a view of the valley of the river, it appears -like a vast level expanse of harmless grass, but the swift river is -flowing in the bottom. The toll required by the natives being paid, we -descended to the river through the thick grass. We crossed the river -in tiny dug-out or bark canoes managed by the natives. One old man, a -leader among these ferrymen, we had especial cause to notice; we -called him "the old admiral." He wore a curious skull cap apparently -made of bladder, and presented a most odd appearance. To him we paid a -special fee of propitiation for the boatmen. As we proceeded down -toward the river the first sign of it among the long grass was quiet -shallow water on the path; this grew deeper and deeper as we walked on -until we were immersed to the armpits, the grass rising avenue-like -overhead. We emerged upon a small island or rising ground, and the -river proper was before us. On this little eminence stood "the old -admiral" superintending all. The porters and their ordinary loads all -crossed in the usual way, two or three at a time in the little canoes. -The two large carts, with the bow and stern compartments of the boats, -were floated along the watery avenue by the buoyancy of their -tank-like loads; the others came, sections and carts, separately. The -fare for each load was one yard of calico, but when the carts appeared -there was general astonishment among the ferrymen, who showed signs of -clearing off altogether; "the old admiral" alone was unmoved; his -stolid countenance showed no sign, but a deep bass growl, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page247"><small><small>[p. 247]</small></small></a></span> "Eight -yards, eight yards for these!" expressed at once his nonchalance and -his determination; and eight yards we had to pay. All was safely got -over in a day. Two of the bark canoes were lashed together with poles -across, and one section or one cart at a time laid on top, and thus -all was carried across.</p> - -<p>Obstacles which further back would have been regarded as great -hindrances were now made little of; success seemed assured to all, and -the men even began to rehearse their triumphal entry into Ujiji. One -more difficult river, the Lusugi, we had to cross. We reached its -banks, down a rocky descent, late one night in a heavy fall of rain. -We waited an hour or two next morning till the river had somewhat -subsided, and then commenced work. Two or three volunteers swam across -with a stout rope, which was then hauled tight across the stream. The -porters, holding this rope in one hand, slowly but surely made their -way across. Then the carts and sections were attached to a block -running on the rope, and so, carefully attended by two or three men, -were floated over in safety.</p> - -<p>Ujiji was now only a few marches ahead. The view of the lake was -caught at last, a narrow strip of its waters gleaming in the sun in -the distance, and next morning we slowly marched into Ujiji in a -compact body. The boat was duly launched and has now been for years at -work on Lake Tanganyika in the cause of civilization and Christianity.</p> - -<p>The <i>completion</i> of this journey, however, was but the <i>commencement</i> -of a still larger enterprise in the region reached. Stations were -established among the tribes on the lake shores; a larger vessel, with -steam power, was built and launched on the lake, and a substantial -mission was established and is still at work at a point which is only -400 miles from that point on the Congo river accessible to the -steamers of the missions there.</p> -<br> - -<p>All the work I have described was done at the expense of the London -Missionary Society.</p> -<br> -<br> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page248"><small><small>[p. 248]</small></small></a></span> -<br> -<br> -<h3>REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON EXPLORATION IN ALASKA.</h3> - -<center><small>(<i>Accepted April 3, 1891</i>.)</small></center> -<br> -<hr align="center" width="25%"> -<br> -<div align="right"><i>Washington, D. C., April 3, 1891</i>. </div> - -<p>T<small>O THE</small> B<small>OARD OF</small> M<small>ANAGERS OF -THE</small> N<small>ATIONAL</small> G<small>EOGRAPHIC</small> S<small>OCIETY</small>,<br> - <i>Washington, D. C.</i></p> - -<p><i>Gentlemen:</i> Your Committee, instructed "to consider the advisability -of further Alaskan exploration by the Society this year and if deemed -advisable, to consider and report upon ways and means for -accomplishing it," respectfully submit the following report:</p> - -<p>The general question of desirability has been decided affirmatively by -the Board of Managers; it therefore is inferred that the question of -advisability may be taken as involved in that of ways and means.</p> - -<p>In outlining a plan of work, concerning which such inquiry is to be -made, it has been found necessary, in the lack of formulated opinion -by the Society, to make assumptions as to what should be its purpose -and policy in undertaking exploration. It is assumed tentatively that -in order best to further the object for which the Society is -organized, namely, "the increase and diffusion of geographic -knowledge," the aim in exploration should be not so much to promote -the growth of science as to diffuse a general interest in geographic -work in its several departments, and, adhering to the principle of -attractiveness, to increase the sum of knowledge by discovery and by -the addition of general and elementary facts rather than by detailed -investigation, for appreciation of which scientific training must be -presupposed. It is furthermore believed that the policy of the Society -should be to invite coöperation, offering opportunity at the same time -for special study in related sciences; to effect the organization and -devise the plan, and itself to take part directly in field work only -so far as may be necessary to initiate and promote it.</p> - -<p>Your Committee find that apparently it will be practicable, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page249"><small><small>[p. 249]</small></small></a></span> with -coöperation, for the Society to extend this year the exploration work -of last year in the vicinity of Mount St. Elias. Specifically it is -recommended that the plan be to determine directly, from a long base -line near the coast, the height of the mountain, to ascend it, to -observe systematically the unique phenomena of physical geography of -the Malaspina glacier from Icy bay to the initial point of last year's -exploration, and to explore the Seward glacier to its head if deemed -advisable after the ascent of the peak.</p> - -<p>In view of the fact that it is the purpose of the Coast and Geodetic -Survey to carry the international boundary survey into this region -within one or two years, it is considered inexpedient for the Society -to undertake extended topographic work. It is, however, submitted, as -a principle which this Society should emphasize in projecting -exploration, that facts of physical geography have minimum value and -may lead to false conclusions unless correlated through their space -relations; and it is recommended that the expedition aim always to -employ such means as may be practicable for making record of its -course and of its observations in approximate geometric relation to -surroundings.</p> - -<p>Conditional offers of coöperation have been made by the Revenue Marine -Service, the Geological Survey, the Coast and Geodetic Survey, and the -Century Company of New York. Transportation from Seattle to Alaska and -return, it is thought, may be secured on the steamer Corwin, and that -vessel's commander, Captain Hooper, has expressed a desire to extend -his coast-line exploration of last year by making a survey of -Disenchantment bay. The Geological Survey offers to detail Mr. Russell -to conduct the expedition, and to bear the expense of a number of -field hands and of their equipment. The Coast and Geodetic Survey has -expressed a desire to aid, if practicable, by beginning boundary work -in the same field this year, and incidentally to do other surveying -with special relation to the work of the expedition. The Century -Company offers to send an artist experienced in Alpine work and to pay -the greater portion of his expenses. The opportunity for study of the -fauna and flora of the region it is thought should not be neglected.</p> - -<p>The cost to the Society, wholly in items of field expense otherwise -unprovided for, which may be considered as the cost of enabling the -combination to work as one organization, is estimated at $500.</p> - -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page250"><small><small>[p. 250]</small></small></a></span> -<p>The expedition should leave Seattle in the latter part of May, -aiming to reach Icy bay by the first of June, and field work should -close by the end of September.</p> - -<p>Your committee consider further exploration in Alaska by the Society -this year as practicable, and recommend that the proposed expedition -be authorized, and that Mr. Russell be at once invited to organize and -conduct it, under the auspices of the Society.</p> - -<div align="right">Very respectfully, - - - - <br> -G. K. G<small>ILBERT</small>, - <br> -E<small>VERETT</small> H<small>AYDEN</small>, - <br> -W<small>ILLARD</small> D. J<small>OHNSON</small>, - <br> -<i>Committee on Exploration</i>. </div> -<br> -<hr align="center" width="25%"> -<br> -<br> -<h3>NOTES.</h3> -<br> -<p><i>La Carte de France, dite de l'Etat Major, par M. J. Collet. Paris, -1887. 8vo, pp. 92, with 4 plates.</i>—This pamphlet describes the great -"Staff Map" of France, recently completed, giving its history, the -methods employed in the field and office work, the contents of the -map, and the means of representing the various features therein -described. The scale of the map is 1:80,000. Relief is represented by -hachures, for drawing which approximate contour lines have been -located, but these are not otherwise used. A great variety of cultural -features are shown, many of which are ephemeral, and which contribute -to the overloading of the map with details. Moreover, as the time -which has ordinarily elapsed between the survey and the issuance of -the work in printed form is ten or twelve years, most of this culture -has become not only of no value but misleading by the time it is published.</p> - -<p>The account of the organization and methods by which the map has been -produced is of special interest. The primary triangulation upon which -it is based is one of the most elaborate and accurate ever executed in -any country. No expense has been spared in this direction. Within this -triangulation is a secondary triangulation, also very elaborate, from -the stations of which numerous additional points are cut in, or -located by unclosed triangles. All this work is of the highest order -of excellence, being infinitely more accurate than the map requires. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page251"><small><small>[p. 251]</small></small></a></span> -With this, however, the accuracy appears to end. The detail -consists of the map, or the map proper, little more than a compilation -of commune cadastral plans. These were fitted to the triangulation -points and to one another, a process which appears to have been by no -means easy of satisfactory accomplishment. This adjustment having been -completed, the culture was brought up to date of survey and a survey -was made of the relief features by the use of such inferior -instruments as the clinometer compass and chain.</p> - -<p>The principal and obvious criticism upon such work is that it is -top-heavy. The triangulation is far more elaborate than is required, -while the provision for making the map itself is by no means -comparable with it: it is as far below the requirements of the scale -as the triangulation is above it.</p> - -<p>This leads up to a broader proposition, which may be stated thus: That -the general tendency of surveying organizations is in the direction -illustrated by that of the "French Staff." Organized originally for -map-making, they progress little by little in the direction of -devoting their energies to geodetic work, while at the same time the -topographic work proper, for which they were created, is belittled and -neglected. As a consequence the latter depreciates in quality and -diminishes in quantity; the main purpose of the organization is lost, -and a mere means becomes the ultimate end of the work. This tendency -should be recognized in map-making organizations. The weakness of our -modern maps is seldom in the primary control. It is easy to do -triangulation of sufficient accuracy for the control of maps upon such -scales as that above considered, little knowledge or experience being -required beyond that gained at our engineering schools; while the more -accurate triangulation, generally known as geodetic work, requires -merely better instruments, more time, and more experienced observers.</p> - -<p>The weak features of maps are generally the details, the part of the -work that, strange to say, is usually relegated to the lowest grade of -professional men. This weakness consists in an insufficiency of minor -locations for the control of the sketch and in unfaithful sketching. -It is the sketching that requires the most careful attention and the -best and most experienced men. The instrumental portion of the work is -the least difficult; the artistic portion, or sketching, is the most -difficult. It would seem more logical and would doubtless produce -better results to reverse the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page252"><small><small>[p. 252]</small></small></a></span> -usual order of promotion and place -the topographer above the triangulator. Moreover, the triangulation -should be regarded as merely a means for the correction of the -sketching, and it should be required only that it be of sufficiently -high grade to meet this condition. The minor locations should be -sufficiently numerous and well distributed to fully control and -correct the sketching; and finally the sketching should be as faithful -a representation of the topography as is consistent with the necessary -generalization of the surface features.</p> - -<div align="right"><small>H. G.</small> </div> -<br> -<hr align="center" width="10%"> -<br> -<p><i>Polar Regions</i>.—The <i>Societe de Geographie</i> of Paris in its -Proceedings publishes the following communication from M. Ch. Rabot on -the new Danish expedition engaged in the exploration of the eastern -coast of Greenland, under the command of Lieutenant Ryder, of the -royal Danish navy. The expedition has in view the examination of the -unknown coast between Franz-Josef fiord, in latitude 73°, and the most -northerly point reached by Commander Holm and Lieutenant Garde, about -latitude 66°. Lieutenant Ryder left Copenhagen June 7, 1891, in the -Norwegian whaler <i>Hekla</i>, which had been chartered by the Danish -government. The first ice was met on the 20th, in latitude 68° 12', -longitude 13° 05' west. Unable to pass through the pack to the -Greenland shore after several attempts, the ship proceeded northward, -and in the vicinity of Jan Mayen made soundings and successful -dredgings. Several attempts to reach the coast of Greenland were made -from the 75th parallel southward, but without success up to July 2, -when the <i>Hekla</i> was in latitude 71° 31', longitude 6° 30' west. Since -that date there has been no direct news, but on July 26, in latitude -72° 40', longitude 14° 25' west, the English whaler <i>Active</i> saw the -<i>Hekla</i> a few miles to the northeast, heading to the south-southwest. -On August 2 the <i>Active</i>, in latitude 71° 40', approached within 12 -miles of the coast, and on August 20, in 70° 30', was within 7 miles -of the mainland. In both instances the intervening sea was free of -ice. The English captain believes that the <i>Hekla</i> made the eastern -coast in about 71° 30'. The <i>Hekla</i> is provisioned for the winter, and -there is a prospect of marked success by the Danish officers in their -undertaking.<p> -<br> -<hr align="center" width="10%"> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page253"><small><small>[p. 253]</small></small></a></span> -<br> -<p><i>The Crossing of Tibet</i>.—The explorations of Mr. Rockhill in -Tibet and his renewed attempt to reach Lassa, the "holy city" of that -country, creates an unusual interest for Americans in the account of -the crossing of Tibet by M. G. Bonvalot, Prince Henri d'Orleans, and -P. Dedeken, published in the last Bulletin of the Paris Geographical Society.</p> - -<p>Six days' journey from Moscow brought the party through Russia and -Turkestan to Kouldja (45° N., 41° W.), in extreme western Mongolia. -Having obtained authority from the Chinese governor of the province to -proceed, the party, aggregating 15 in number, left that place -September 12, 1889, with Batang, China, as an objective point. On -October 5, after a journey of about 450 miles, during which they -crossed the Thian-chan ("heavenly") mountains by Narat pass, they -camped at Korla, near Bagratch-koul. Here they were warned that they -could proceed no farther, and the governor of Ili sent an order to -arrest them. The mandarin and other local authorities did not, -however, actively oppose their departure, which took place during the -night of October 10, the party then consisting of 20 horsemen and 40 -pack-animals. On October 28 they reached Kara-douran, the western end -of Lob-nor. A side trip by d'Orleans and Dedeken to Lob-nor proved it -to be no longer a lake but a series of swamps and sandy islands, with -the water nowhere more than four feet deep. Meantime Bonavolot -accumulated supplies and replaced from the hardy Mongols the more -timid among their camp-followers, the party being reduced to seven, -with a few extra men for a short distance.</p> - -<p>Quitting Tcharkalik on November 17, they followed the route taken by -Carey; but on the advice of the natives they resolved after crossing -the Altyn-tagh to go directly southward instead of turning eastward, -and thus to attempt a new route, on which they were beset by the usual -physical discomforts attendant on travel at great elevations. On these -mountain ranges they saw only wild sheep, blue hares, wild horses, -crows and partridges. On December 5, just south of a large salt lake -(Ouzoun-tchour), they, saw a caravan of Kalmouk pilgrims returning -from Lassa by an unknown route, which they refused to make known, and -decided to temporarily abandon their idea of reaching Batang and -instead to go direct to Lassa by retracing the caravan trail. From -this point (about 38° 30' N. and 87° 30' W.) they proceeded directly -southward. The region penetrated was unknown, the winds -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page254"><small><small>[p. 254]</small></small></a></span> violent -the entire day, the desert treeless and without water, the route lined -with the carcasses of camels and their drivers, the only fuel the dung -of wandering yaks or caravan camels, and the trail so indistinct that -at times they marched by compass. The elevation gradually and steadily -increased to 15,000 and even 16,500 feet; the mountain fever became -worse, the storms more violent and continuous, and the temperature -ranged from 7° (–14° C.), with wind, at midday to 30° below zero (–33° -C.) at night. One by one their horses and camels died, and also an old -Kirgese who followed them. Extensive glaciers were passed, from which -flow on the one side the Salouen and Mekong into Indian ocean, and on -the other the Yang-tse to China sea. On January 8, 1890, they skirted -a large unfrozen lake named Montcalm, 50 miles long by 12 miles wide, -and on January 14 traversed Duplex pass, 20,000 feet elevation. On the -31st they finally ran across a man, a wild Tibetan, small, thin, with -enormous lips, long knotted hair, clothed in sheepskin and armed with -a saber and flint-lock gun, whom they called "appa" (father); he knew -neither Chinese nor Mogul, but spoke Tibetan of which the travelers -knew scarcely a dozen words. Other Tibetans, with flocks of sheep, -soon appeared and sold them mutton, a little salt, and rancid butter, -and then followed on horseback for fifteen days without losing sight -of the explorers. Often they were counseled in Mogul by those in -authority to turn back.</p> - -<p>In the middle of February they reached lake Nam-tso ("heaven"), or -Tengri-nor, a large frozen body of water. Out of 40 camels only 15 -remained, and, of 20 horses but one survived; three of the party of -seven were in desperate state of health, while all were worn out and -almost without provisions. They were finally obliged to stop in a -mountain pass of the Nindjin-tangla, which led directly to Lassa, then -not more than sixty miles distant. On February 17 the Tibetan -authorities sent a large party to meet them and ask their intentions. -Mistaken for Russians, it took 13 days to convince the authorities -that they were French. They received presents from the authorities and -obtained costumes from Lassa, but found it impossible to visit the -"holy city." After 49 days of negotiation, on April 5, provided with -arms, provisions and horses, and also a safe permit from the Talia -lama to cross Tibet to Batang by an unknown route, they started -eastward, on a course nearly -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page255"><small><small>[p. 255]</small></small></a></span> -parallel to and north of Salouen -river, reaching Sô and once again seeing houses on April 15. They -arrived at Batang early in June, their route some distance west of it -having joined the Imperial highway from Pekin to Lassa over which -l'Abbe Huc travelled. From Tatsien-lou, where the French Tibetan -mission is located, their route turned southward to Red river, which -was reached, at Manhoau, on September 21, when their journey -practically ended, as Hanoai was reached two days later.</p> - -<p>An excellent map of the itinerary, by Prince Henri, accompanies the -article.</p> - -<div align="right"><small>A. W. G.</small> </div> -<br> -<hr align="center" width="10%"> -<br> -<p><i>Third Annual Report on the Statistics of Railways in the United -States to the Interstate Commerce Commission, for the year ending June -30, 1890:</i> Washington, Government Printing Office, 1891 (advance copy, -pp. 1–100).—This pamphlet, by Professor Henry C. Adams, is issued in -advance of the full report, which is promised to comprise about 875 -pages. It contains a summary, digest and discussion of the full report.</p> - -<p>It appears that the total railroad mileage on June 30, 1890, was -163,597, an increase of 5,838 miles during the year. The increase came -mainly from southeastern and western states. This mileage was owned by -1,797 distinct corporate bodies, but entirely controlled in one way or -another by only 747 companies. To illustrate the extent to which -consolidation of railroad property has gone, it may be stated that -47.5 per cent of all railroad mileage is controlled by but forty -companies, and that 65.4 per cent is controlled by seventy-five -companies. The greatest mileage controlled by one company is 6,053, -operated by the Southern Pacific company.</p> - -<p>The total capital and bonded debt of railroad companies was -$9,871,378,389, or $60,340 per mile. Stock and bonds were about equal -in amount. Mr. Adams estimates the value of railroad property by -capitalizing at 5 per cent the dividends and interest on bonds paid -during the year, reaching as a result $6,627,461,140, or about <small><sup>2</sup></small>/<small>3</small> of -the nominal capital and bonded debt. The justice of this method may -fairly be questioned. A comparison of the ruling prices of -dividend-paying stocks with the rate per cent of the dividend shows -that 5 per cent stocks are above par and that 4 per cent stocks -average nearly par. <span class="pagenum"><a name="page256"><small><small>[p. 256]</small></small></a></span> -Moreover, it is well known that many -railroads are built and operated, not for their own immediate earnings -but to give value to other property of the companies, notably to -lands, from the sale or lease of which the companies derive profits. -Again, many railroads are built, not for present but for future -profits, after they shall have induced settlement of their territory; -and, furthermore, numerous branch roads have been built as defensive -measures to prevent rivals from occupying territory; and in many cases -earnings are used in betterment of property instead of distributing it -as dividends. In all these cases the roads have value, although they -are not paying dividends.</p> - -<p>Taking all these matters into account, it does not appear that the -railroad stocks of the country have, collectively, been watered to any -great extent, if by "watering" is meant expanding nominal values above -actual values.</p> - -<p>Concerning dividends paid on stock, Mr. Adams presents a table showing -that 63.76 per cent of all stock paid no dividends; that but 6.47 per -cent paid less than 4 per cent; that 25.26 per cent paid from 4 to 8 -per cent, the remainder paying above 8 per cent. It appears that in -the northeastern states much the highest dividends were paid, while in -the west, so far as dividends are concerned, the stockholders have to -wait for future developments.</p> - -<p>The total passenger mileage for the year was 11,847,785,617, a slight -increase over the previous year. The total freight mileage was -76,207,047,298, an increase of nearly 10 per cent over that of the -previous year. The gross earnings of the year were $1,051,877,632, and -the operating expenses $692,093,971, leaving as the income from -operations $359,783,661. The income from other sources was -$126,767,064, and the total deductions from income were $384,792,138, -leaving as the net income $101,758,587, out of which there was paid as -dividends on stock $89,688,204.</p> - -<p>The magnitude of the railway interests of the country is set forth in -the above enormous figures. It is still further emphasized by the fact -that nearly three-quarters of a million men are in the employ of this -industry. Assuming that each such employé supports two others besides -himself, it is seen that the railroad interest supports two and a -quarter millions, or more than one thirtieth of the inhabitants of the country.</p> - -<div align="right"><small>H. G.</small> </div> -<br> -<br> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page257"><small><small>[p. 257]</small></small></a></span> -<br> -<br> -<h3>INDEX.</h3> -<hr align="center" width="25%"> -<br> - -A<small>BBE</small>, C<small>LEVELAND</small>, cited on isostaths, <a href="#page43">43</a><br> -—, Record of communication by, <a href="#pageviii">viii</a><br> -— — — discussion by, <a href="#pageviii">viii</a><br> -<br> -A<small>BORIGINES</small> of South America, <a href="#page7">7</a><br> -<br> -A<small>CADEMY OF</small> S<small>CIENCES</small>, Russian, Quotation from records of, <a href="#page212">212</a><br> -<br> -A<small>DAMS</small>, H<small>ENRY</small> C., Review of report on railway operations by, <a href="#page255">255</a><br> -<br> -A<small>DELUNG</small>, J. C., Geographic work by, <a href="#page211">211</a><br> -—, Quotation from, on de l'Isle's map, <a href="#page212">212</a>, -<a href="#page213">213</a>, <a href="#page214">214</a><br> -<br> -A<small>DMIRALTY BAY</small>, <a href="#page56">56</a><br> -<br> -A<small>FRICA</small>, Area of, <a href="#page32">32</a><br> -—, Conquest and division of, <a href="#page31">31</a><br> -—, Natural divisions of, <a href="#page238">238</a><br> -—, Population of, <a href="#page238">238</a><br> -— (The Heart of); E. C. Hore, <a href="#page238">238</a><br> -<br> -A<small>GASSIZ GLACIER</small>, Ascent of, <a href="#page147">147</a><br> -— — named, <a href="#page73">73</a><br> -<br> -A<small>GE</small> of St. Elias range, <a href="#page175">175</a><br> -<br> -A<small>LASKA</small> (An expedition to Mount St. Elias,); I. C. Russell, <a href="#page53">53</a><br> -—, Boundaries of, <a href="#page237">237</a><br> -—, Early works concerning, <a href="#page206">206</a><br> -—, Report of committee on exploration in, <a href="#page248">248</a><br> -<br> -A<small>LLEN</small>, J<small>AMES</small>, cited on isostaths, <a href="#page44">44</a><br> -<br> -A<small>LPENSTOCKS</small>, Necessity for, <a href="#page165">165</a><br> -<br> -A<small>LPINE</small> glaciers, <a href="#page176">176</a>, <a href="#page180">180</a><br> -<br> -A<small>LTON</small>, E<small>DMUND</small>, Contribution to exploration fund by, <a href="#page75">75</a><br> -<br> -A<small>LVORD</small>, H. E., Remarks by, at field meeting, <a href="#pagex">x</a><br> -<br> -A<small>MAZON</small>, Discovery of the, <a href="#page11">11</a><br> -—, Sketch of the, <a href="#page4">4</a><br> -<br> -A<small>MENDMENT</small> to by-laws proposed, <a href="#pagexii">xii</a><br> -<br> -A<small>NDES</small>, General description of the, <a href="#page1">1</a><br> -<br> -A<small>NEMOMETER</small> formula devised by C. F. Marvin, <a href="#page49">49</a><br> -<br> -A<small>NGOT</small>, A., Reference to work of, <a href="#page46">46</a><br> -<br> -A<small>NTIQUITIES</small> of Peru, <a href="#page8">8</a><br> -<br> -A<small>RCHANGELICA</small>, Mention of, <a href="#page89">89</a>, <a href="#page114">114</a><br> -<br> -A<small>RGENTINE</small> R<small>EPUBLIC</small>, Sketch of, <a href="#page19">19</a><br> -<br> -A<small>SIA</small>, Exploration in, <a href="#page253">253</a><br> -<br> -A<small>TREVIDA</small>, Mention of the, <a href="#page63">63</a>, <a href="#page92">92</a>, <a href="#page105">105</a><br> -<br> -A<small>URIFEROUS</small> sands from Yakutat bay, <a href="#page196">196</a><br> -<br> -A<small>VALANCHES</small>, <a href="#page145">145</a>, <a href="#page155">155</a><br> -<br> -<br> -B<small>AIE DE</small> M<small>ONTI</small>, <a href="#page56">56</a><br> -— named by La Pérouse, <a href="#page60">60</a><br> -<br> -B<small>AKER</small>, M<small>ARCUS</small>, cited on early eclipses, <a href="#page220">220</a><br> -— — — Mount St. Elias, <a href="#page232">232</a><br> -—, Explorations by, <a href="#page70">70</a>, <a href="#page72">72</a><br> -—, Reference to bibliography by, <a href="#page58">58</a><br> -—, Record of discussion by, <a href="#pageviii">viii</a>, <a href="#pageix">ix</a><br> -<br> -B<small>ASE</small> L<small>INE</small>, Measurement of, <a href="#page86">86</a><br> -<br> -B<small>ATES</small>, H. W., Quotation from, on South America, <a href="#page29">29</a><br> -<br> -B<small>EAR</small>, Meeting with the, <a href="#page94">94</a>, <a href="#page109">109</a><br> -<br> -B<small>ELCHER</small>, S<small>IR</small> E<small>DWARD</small>, Explorations by, <a href="#page68">68</a>, <a href="#page69">69</a><br> -<br> -B<small>ELL</small>, A. G<small>RAHAM</small>, Contribution to exploration fund by, <a href="#page75">75</a><br> -<br> -B<small>ELL</small>, C<small>HARLES</small> J., Contribution to exploration fund by, <a href="#page75">75</a><br> -<br> -B<small>ELLIN</small>, S., Geographic work by, <a href="#page207">207</a><br> -<br> -B<small>ERING BAY</small>, Mention of, <a href="#page56">56</a><br> -<br> -B<small>ERING'S</small> first voyage (The cartography and observations of); A. W. Greely, <a href="#page205">205</a><br> -— provisions, <a href="#page219">219</a><br> -<br> -B<small>ERING</small>, V<small>ITUS</small>, Explorations by, <a href="#page58">58</a><br> -<br> -B<small>ERG</small>, M., cited on thunderstorms, <a href="#page44">44</a><br> -<br> -B<small>IEN</small>, M<small>ORRIS</small>, Contribution to exploration fund by, <a href="#page75">75</a><br> -<br> -B<small>IGELOW</small>, F. H., Record of communication by, <a href="#pageviii">viii</a><br> -<br> -B<small>IRNIE</small>, J<small>R</small>., R<small>OGERS</small>, Contribution to exploration fund by, <a href="#page75">75</a><br> -<br> -B<small>LACK</small> G<small>LACIER</small>, Brief account of, <a href="#page101">101</a>, <a href="#page104">104</a><br> -<br> -B<small>LODGETT</small>, J. H., Record of discussion by, <a href="#pagevii">vii</a>, <a href="#pageix">ix</a><br> -<br> -B<small>LOSSOM</small> I<small>SLAND</small>, Description of, <a href="#page113">113</a>, <a href="#page122">122</a><br> -<br> -B<small>OARD ON GEOGRAPHIC NAMES</small>, Institution of the, <a href="#page39">39</a><br> -<br> -B<small>ONVALOT</small>, G., Crossing of Tibet by, <a href="#page253">253</a><br> -<br> -B<small>OURSIN</small>, H<small>ENRY</small>, Mention of, <a href="#page79">79</a><br> -<br> -B<small>RAZIL</small>, Revolution in, <a href="#page36">36</a><br> -—, Sketch of, <a href="#page17">17</a><br> -<br> -B<small>ROKA</small>, G<small>EORGE</small>, Explorations by, <a href="#page73">73</a>, <a href="#page74">74</a><br> -<br> -B<small>UACHE</small>, P<small>HILLIPE</small>, Geographic work by, <a href="#page208">208</a><br> -<br> -B<small>UCHAN</small>, A<small>LEX</small>., Reference to work of, <a href="#page44">44</a><br> -<br> -B<small>UCKLE</small>, S<small>IR</small> H<small>ENRY</small>, Quotation from, on tropical America, <a href="#page29">29</a><br> -<br> -B<small>Y-LAWS</small>, Proposed amendment to the, <a href="#pagexii">xii</a><br> -<br> -<br> -C<small>AMP</small> hands, <a href="#page166">166</a><br> -<br> -C<small>ARPENTER</small>, Z. T., Contribution to exploration fund by, <a href="#page75">75</a><br> -<br> -C<small>ARTOGRAPHY</small>, Discussion of, <a href="#page251">251</a><br> -— (The) and Observations of Bering's First Voyage; A. W. Greely, <a href="#page205">205</a><br> -<br> -C<small>ASCADE</small> G<small>LACIER</small> named, <a href="#page144">144</a><br> -<br> -C<small>ENTURY</small> C<small>OMPANY</small>, Offer of coöperation by, <a href="#page249">249</a><br> -<br> -C<small>HAIX HILLS</small> named, <a href="#page73">73</a><br> -<br> -C<small>HARIOT</small>, T<small>HE</small>, Mention of, <a href="#page140">140</a><br> -<br> -C<small>HATHAM</small>, Mention of, <a href="#page66">66</a><br> -<br> -C<small>HERIKOF</small>, A<small>LEXEI</small>, Explorations of, <a href="#page58">58</a><br> -<br> -C<small>HINA</small>, Exploration in, <a href="#page253">253</a><br> -<br> -C<small>HRISTIE</small>, J. H., Member of expedition, <a href="#page76">76</a><br> -—, Work of, <a href="#page82">82</a>, <a href="#page83">83</a>, <a href="#page84">84</a>, -<a href="#page96">96</a>, <a href="#page103">103</a>, <a href="#page112">112</a>, <a href="#page113">113</a>, -<a href="#page123">123</a>, <a href="#page162">162</a><br> -<br> -C<small>LIMATE</small> of South America, <a href="#page6">6</a><br> -<br> -C<small>LOVER</small>, R<small>ICHARDSON</small>, Contribution to exploration fund by, -<a href="#page75">75</a><br> -<br> -C<small>OAST AND</small> G<small>EODETIC</small> S<small>URVEY</small>, Explorations by, -<a href="#page70">70</a>, <a href="#page72">72</a><br> -—, Offer of coöperation by, <a href="#page249">249</a><br> -<br> -C<small>OLD WAVES</small>, Prediction of, <a href="#page51">51</a><br> -<br> -C<small>OLLETT</small>, M. J., Review of map described by, <a href="#page250">250</a><br> -<br> -C<small>OMMERCE</small> of South America, <a href="#page17">17</a>, <a href="#page19">19</a>, <a href="#page23">23</a><br> -<br> -C<small>OOK</small>, C<small>APTAIN</small> J<small>AMES</small>, Explorations of, <a href="#page58">58</a><br> -<br> -C<small>ORDILLERAS</small> of South America, <a href="#page1">1</a><br> -<br> -C<small>ORWIN CLIFFS</small>, Mention of, <a href="#page138">138</a><br> -<br> -C<small>ORWIN</small> (The) in Disenchantment bay, <a href="#page100">100</a><br> -— Return of the, <a href="#page163">163</a><br> -<br> -C<small>REVASSES</small>, <a href="#page181">181</a>, <a href="#page182">182</a><br> -— at Pinnacle pass, <a href="#page130">130</a><br> -<br> -C<small>ROSS SOUND</small>, visited by Vancouver's expedition, <a href="#page67">67</a><br> -<br> -C<small>RUMBACK</small>, J. H., Member of expedition, <a href="#page76">76</a><br> -—, Work of, <a href="#page96">96</a>, <a href="#page103">103</a>, <a href="#page122">122</a>, -<a href="#page125">125</a>, <a href="#page129">129</a>, <a href="#page131">131</a>, -<a href="#page135">135</a>, <a href="#page137">137</a><br> -<br> -C<small>URTIS</small>, W. E., Record of communication by, <a href="#pagexi">xi</a><br> -<br> -C<small>YCLONES</small>, Theory of, <a href="#page42">42</a><br> -<br> -<br> -D<small>AGELET</small>, M., Mention of, <a href="#page60">60</a><br> -<br> -D<small>AHLGREN</small>, U<small>LRICA</small>, Presentation of flag by, <a href="#pageviii">viii</a><br> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page258"><small><small>[p. 258]</small></small></a></span> -<br> -D<small>ALL</small>, W. H., cited on Bering's first voyage, <a href="#page205">205</a><br> -— — — — supplies, <a href="#page219">219</a><br> -— — — de l'Isle's map, <a href="#page218">218</a><br> -— — — early eclipses, <a href="#page219">219</a><br> -— — — Mount St. Elias, <a href="#page231">231</a><br> -—, Explorations by, <a href="#page70">70</a>, <a href="#page72">72</a><br> -—, Quotation from, on map by de l'Isle, <a href="#page207">207</a><br> -—, Record of discussion by, <a href="#pagevii">vii</a><br> -—, Reference to bibliography by, <a href="#page58">58</a><br> -<br> -D<small>ALTON</small>, J<small>OHN</small>, Glacier named for, <a href="#page98">98</a><br> -—, Mention of, <a href="#page73">73</a><br> -<br> -D'A<small>NVILLE</small>, M., cited on early eclipses, <a href="#page229">229</a><br> -<br> -D<small>AVIS</small>, W. M., Reference to meteorologic review by, <a href="#page47">47</a><br> -<br> -D<small>EDEKEN</small>, P., Crossing of Tibet by, <a href="#page253">253</a><br> -<br> -D<small>EFINITION</small> of formations in St. Elias region, <a href="#page167">167</a><br> -<br> -D<small>E</small>K<small>ALB</small>, C<small>OURTENAY</small>, Record of communication by, <a href="#pageix">ix</a><br> -<br> -D<small>E L</small>'I<small>SLE</small>, J. N., Authenticity of map by, <a href="#page211">211</a>, <a href="#page213">213</a><br> -—, Geographic work by, <a href="#page206">206</a><br> -—, Map by, <a href="#page207">207</a><br> -—, Quotation from, on eclipses, <a href="#page220">220</a><br> -<br> -D<small>E</small> M<small>ONTI BAY</small>, Arrival at, <a href="#page79">79</a><br> -<br> -D<small>ESCUBIERTA</small> (The), Mention of, <a href="#page63">63</a><br> -<br> -D<small>ESENGAÑO BAY</small>, named by Malaspina, <a href="#page63">63</a><br> -<br> -D<small>EVIL'S CLUB</small> (<i>Panax horridum</i>), Mention of, <a href="#page95">95</a>, <a href="#page115">115</a><br> -<br> -D<small>IGGES' SOUND</small>, named by Vancouver, <a href="#page68">68</a><br> -<br> -D<small>ILLER</small>, J. S., Contribution to exploration fund by, <a href="#page75">75</a><br> -<br> -D<small>IP</small> at Pinnacle pass, <a href="#page140">140</a><br> -<br> -D<small>ISCOVERY</small> (The), Mention of, <a href="#page66">66</a><br> -<br> -D<small>ISENCHANTMENT BAY</small>, Canoe trip in, <a href="#page96">96</a>, <a href="#page103">103</a><br> -—, Last view of, <a href="#page163">163</a><br> -—, Mention of, <a href="#page56">56</a><br> -—, visited by Malaspina, <a href="#page63">63</a>, <a href="#page64">64</a><br> -<br> -D<small>IXON</small>, C<small>APTAIN</small> G<small>EORGE</small>, Explorations of, <a href="#page60">60</a>, <a href="#page62">62</a><br> -<br> -D<small>OBBINS</small>, J. W., Contribution to exploration fund by, <a href="#page75">75</a><br> -<br> -D<small>OBBS</small>, A<small>RTHUR</small>, Geographic work by, <a href="#page210">210</a><br> -<br> -D<small>OME PASS</small> named, <a href="#page146">146</a><br> -<br> -D<small>ONEY</small>, L. S., Member of expedition, <a href="#page76">76</a><br> -—, Work of, <a href="#page85">85</a>, <a href="#page158">158</a>, <a href="#page159">159</a>, -<a href="#page160">160</a>, <a href="#page162">162</a><br> -<br> -D'O<small>RLEANS</small>, P<small>RINCE</small> H<small>ENRI</small>, Crossing of Tibet by, <a href="#page253">253</a><br> -<br> -D<small>OUGLASS</small>, E. M., Record of discussion by, <a href="#pagexi">xi</a><br> -<br> -D<small>OUGLASS</small>, C<small>APTAIN</small>, Explorations of, <a href="#page62">62</a><br> -<br> -D<small>RY BAY</small>, Mention of, <a href="#page55">55</a><br> -<br> -D<small>U</small> B<small>OCAGE</small>, B<small>ARBIC</small>, Geographic work by, <a href="#page211">211</a><br> -—, Quotation from, on de l'Isle's map, <a href="#page216">216</a><br> -<br> -D<small>U</small> F<small>OSSE</small>, E., cited on early publications, <a href="#page207">207</a><br> -<br> -D<small>U</small> H<small>ALDE</small>, P<small>ÈRE</small>, Geographic work by, <a href="#page206">206</a><br> -—, Quotation from, on de l'Isle's map, <a href="#page218">218</a><br> -<br> -<br> -E<small>ARTHQUAKES</small>, South American, <a href="#page2">2</a><br> -<br> -E<small>CLIPSES</small>, Early, observed in Kamshatka, <a href="#page219">219</a>, <a href="#page229">229</a><br> -<br> -E<small>IFFEL TOWER</small>, Use of, in meteorology, <a href="#page46">46</a><br> -<br> -E<small>KHOLM</small>, N<small>ILS</small>, cited on isostaths, <a href="#page43">43</a><br> -<br> -E<small>LDORADO</small>, Early accounts of, <a href="#page14">14</a><br> -<br> -E<small>LECTION</small> of officers, <a href="#pagexii">xii</a><br> -<br> -E<small>SPERANZA</small>, P<small>OINT</small>, Mention of, <a href="#page14">14</a>, <a href="#page85">85</a><br> -<br> -E<small>XPEDITION</small> (An) to Mount St. Elias, Alaska; I. C. Russell, <a href="#page53">53</a><br> -<br> -E<small>XPLORATION</small> in Alaska, <a href="#page248">248</a><br> -<br> -<br> -F<small>ARENHOLT</small>, L<small>IEUTENANT</small> C<small>OMMANDER</small> O. F., of -U. S. S. <i>Pinta</i>, <a href="#page79">79</a><br> -<br> -F<small>AULTED</small> pebble from Pinnacle pass, <a href="#page171">171</a><br> -<br> -F<small>AULTS</small> <a href="#page83">83</a>, <a href="#page136">136</a><br> -—, Thrust, in Hitchcock range, <a href="#page118">118</a><br> -<br> -F<small>ERREL</small>, W<small>ILLIAM</small>, cited on cyclones, <a href="#page42">42</a><br> -—, Reference to treatise by, <a href="#page47">47</a><br> -<br> -F<small>INLEY</small>, J. P., Reference to work of, <a href="#page50">50</a><br> -<br> -F<small>LORAL HILLS</small>, Brief account of, <a href="#page105">105</a>, <a href="#page108">108</a><br> -<br> -F<small>LORAL PASS</small>, Brief account of, <a href="#page105">105</a>, <a href="#page108">108</a>, -<a href="#page110">110</a><br> -<br> -F<small>ORMATIONS</small> of the St. Elias region, <a href="#page167">167</a><br> -<br> -F<small>OSSILS</small> at Pinnacle pass, <a href="#page140">140</a><br> -—, Description of, of Yakutat system, <a href="#page172">172</a><br> -<br> -F<small>OSSIL PLANTS</small>, Report on, by Lester F. Ward, <a href="#page199">199</a>, <a href="#page200">200</a><br> -<br> -F<small>RANCE</small>, Review of Staff Map of, <a href="#page250">250</a><br> -<br> -<br> -G<small>ABBRO</small> on the Marvine glacier, <a href="#page123">123</a><br> -<br> -G<small>ALIANO</small>, D<small>ON</small> D<small>IONISIO</small> A<small>LCALA</small>, -Mention of, <a href="#page63">63</a><br> -<br> -G<small>ALIANO GLACIER</small>, Visit to, <a href="#page89">89</a>, <a href="#page90">90</a><br> -<br> -G<small>ANNETT</small>, H<small>ENRY</small>, Contribution to exploration fund by, <a href="#page75">75</a><br> -—, Instructions from, <a href="#page194">194</a><br> -—, Review of railway operations by, <a href="#page255">255</a><br> -— — — Staff Map of France, by, <a href="#page250">250</a><br> -<br> -G<small>ANNETT</small>, S. S., Computation of height of Mount St. Elias, by, <a href="#page235">235</a><br> -<br> -G<small>EOGRAPHIC</small> names, Board of, <a href="#page39">39</a><br> -<br> -G<small>EOGRAPHY</small> of the Air; A. W. Greely, <a href="#page41">41</a><br> -— — — Land; H. G. Ogden, <a href="#page31">31</a><br> -<br> -G<small>EOLOGICAL</small> S<small>URVEY</small>, Acknowledgments to, <a href="#page40">40</a><br> -—, Instructions from, <a href="#page192">192</a>, <a href="#page193">193</a>, <a href="#page194">194</a><br> -—, Offer of coöperation by, <a href="#page249">249</a><br> -<br> -G<small>EOLOGY</small> of the St. Elias region, <a href="#page167">167</a>, <a href="#page174">174</a>, -<a href="#page190">190</a>, <a href="#page191">191</a><br> -<br> -G<small>ILBERT</small>, G. K., Instructions from, <a href="#page192">192</a>, <a href="#page193">193</a><br> -—, Record of discussion by, <a href="#pagevii">vii</a>, <a href="#pageix">ix</a>, <a href="#pagex">x</a><br> -—, Remarks by, at field meeting, <a href="#pagex">x</a><br> -—, Report on exploration by, <a href="#page250">250</a><br> -<br> -G<small>LACIAL</small> currents, <a href="#page187">187</a><br> -— river, Example of, <a href="#page183">183</a><br> -— streams, <a href="#page183">183</a>, <a href="#page184">184</a><br> -<br> -G<small>LACIER BAY</small>, Mention of, <a href="#page67">67</a><br> -<br> -G<small>LACIERS</small> in Disenchantment bay in 1792, <a href="#page64">64</a>, -<a href="#page65">65</a>, <a href="#page97">97</a><br> -— — — — observed by Malaspina, <a href="#page64">64</a>, <a href="#page65">65</a><br> -— — — — — — Puget, <a href="#page67">67</a>, <a href="#page68">68</a><br> -— of the St. Elias region, <a href="#page176">176</a><br> -— west of Icy bay, <a href="#page187">187</a><br> -<br> -G<small>RACE</small>, M. P., Financial operations by, <a href="#page23">23</a><br> -<br> -G<small>REELY</small>, A. W., Contribution to exploration fund by, <a href="#page75">75</a><br> -— cited on Mississippi floods, <a href="#page38">38</a><br> -—; Geography of the Air, <a href="#page41">41</a><br> -—, Note by, on polar regions, <a href="#page252">252</a><br> -— — — — the crossing of Tibet, <a href="#page253">253</a><br> -—, Record of communication by, vii, <a href="#pageviii">viii</a>, <a href="#pagexi">xi</a><br> -—; The Cartography and Observations of Bering's First Voyage, <a href="#page205">205</a><br> -<br> -G<small>UIANA</small>, Sketch of, <a href="#page13">13</a><br> -<br> -G<small>UIDES</small>, Use of, in ascending St. Elias, <a href="#page166">166</a><br> -<br> -G<small>UYOT GLACIER</small> named, <a href="#page73">73</a><br> -<br> -<br> -H<small>AENKE</small>, D. T<small>ADEO</small>, Haenke island named for, <a href="#page65">65</a><br> -<br> -H<small>AENKE ISLAND</small>, Condition of, when seen by Malaspina, <a href="#page63">63</a>, -<a href="#page64">64</a>, <a href="#page65">65</a>, <a href="#page97">97</a><br> -—, Visit to, <a href="#page96">96</a>, <a href="#page103">103</a><br> -<br> -H<small>ANN</small>, J<small>ULIUS</small>, cited on cyclones, <a href="#page42">42</a><br> -<br> -H<small>AYDEN</small>, D<small>R</small>. F. V., Glacier named for, <a href="#page108">108</a><br> -<br> -H<small>AYDEN</small>, E<small>VERETT</small>, Contributions to exploration fund by, <a href="#page75">75</a><br> -—, Record of discussion by, <a href="#pagevii">vii</a>, <a href="#pageviii">viii</a>, <a href="#pageix">ix</a>, <a href="#pagexi">xi</a><br> -—, Report on exploration by, <a href="#page250">250</a><br> -<br> -H<small>AYDEN GLACIER</small>, Brief account of, <a href="#page108">108</a>, -<a href="#page110">110</a>, <a href="#page111">111</a><br> -<br> -H<small>AYS</small>, J. W., Contribution to exploration fund by, <a href="#page75">75</a><br> -<br> -H<small>AZEN</small>, H. A., Reference to work of, <a href="#page50">50</a><br> -<br> -H<small>EIGHT</small> and position of St. Elias, <a href="#page189">189</a>, <a href="#page190">190</a><br> -<br> -H<small>ENDRIKSEN</small>, R<small>EVEREND</small> C<small>ARL</small> J., Mention of, -<a href="#page80">80</a>, <a href="#page83">83</a><br> -<br> -H<small>ILL</small>, S. A., Reference to work of, <a href="#page47">47</a><br> -<br> -H<small>ILL</small>, R. T., Record of communication by, <a href="#pagexiii">xiii</a><br> -<br> -H<small>ITCHCOCK</small>, P<small>ROFESSOR</small> E<small>DWARD</small>, -Range named for, <a href="#page112">112</a><br> -<br> -H<small>ITCHCOCK</small> R<small>ANGE</small>, Brief account of, <a href="#page112">112</a><br> -— from Pinnacle pass, <a href="#page133">133</a><br> -—, Structure of, <a href="#page118">118</a><br> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page259"><small><small>[p. 259]</small></small></a></span> -<br> -H<small>OOGEWERFF</small>, J. A., Record of communication by, <a href="#pageviii">viii</a><br> -<br> -H<small>OOPER</small>, C<small>APTAIN</small> C. L., Navigation of -Disenchantment bay, <a href="#page56">56</a>, <a href="#page100">100</a><br> -—, Offer of coöperation by, <a href="#page249">249</a><br> -<br> -H<small>ORE</small>, E. C., Record of address by, <a href="#pagevii">vii</a><br> -—; The Heart of Africa, <a href="#page238">238</a><br> -<br> -H<small>OSMER</small>, E. S., Contribution to exploration fund by, <a href="#page75">75</a><br> -—, Return of, <a href="#page83">83</a><br> -—, Volunteer assistant, <a href="#page76">76</a><br> -<br> -H<small>OTCHKISS</small>, J<small>ED</small>., Record of communication by, <a href="#pageix">ix</a>, <a href="#pagex">x</a><br> -—, Testimonial to, <a href="#pagex">x</a><br> -<br> -H<small>OVEY</small>, H. C., Record of communication by, <a href="#pagex">x</a><br> -—, Remarks by, at field meeting, <a href="#pagex">x</a><br> -<br> -H<small>OWELL</small>, E. E., Record of communication by, <a href="#pagexi">xi</a><br> -<br> -H<small>UBBARD</small>, G<small>ARDINER</small> G., Contribution to exploration fund by, <a href="#page75">75</a><br> -—, Glacier named for, <a href="#page99">99</a><br> -—, Presentation of flag by, <a href="#pageviii">viii</a><br> -—, Record of presidential address by, <a href="#pagexiii">xiii</a><br> -—; South America: Annual address by the President, <a href="#page1">1</a><br> -<br> -H<small>UBBARD GLACIER</small>, Brief description of, <a href="#page99">99</a><br> -<br> -H<small>UC, L</small>'A<small>BBÉ</small>, Route of, <a href="#page255">255</a><br> -<br> -H<small>UGHES</small>, T. M<small>C</small>K<small>ENNEY</small>, Record of communication by, <a href="#pagex">x</a><br> -<br> -<br> -I<small>CEBERGS</small>, Formation of, <a href="#page98">98</a>, <a href="#page99">99</a>, -<a href="#page101">101</a>, <a href="#page102">102</a><br> -— in Yakutat bay, Description of, <a href="#page87">87</a><br> -<br> -I<small>CE</small> tunnels, <a href="#page184">184</a><br> -<br> -I<small>NCAS</small> of Peru, <a href="#page8">8</a><br> -<br> -I<small>NDIANS</small> of South America, <a href="#page7">7</a><br> -<br> -I<small>NSTRUCTIONS</small> from Geological Survey, <a href="#page192">192</a>, -<a href="#page193">193</a>, <a href="#page194">194</a><br> -— — National Geographic Society, <a href="#page194">194</a><br> -<br> -I<small>RVING</small>, P<small>ROFESSOR</small> R. D., Mountain named for, <a href="#page144">144</a><br> -<br> -<br> -J<small>ACKSON</small>, S<small>HELDON</small>, Record of discussion by, <a href="#pageix">ix</a><br> -<br> -J<small>OHNSON</small>, J. B., Record of discussion by, <a href="#pagexi">xi</a><br> -<br> -J<small>OHNSON</small>, W<small>ILLARD</small> D., Contribution to exploration fund -by, <a href="#page75">75</a><br> -—, Exploration planned by, <a href="#page75">75</a><br> -—, Record of discussion by, <a href="#pagevii">vii</a><br> -—, Report on exploration by, <a href="#page250">250</a><br> -<br> -J<small>UDD</small>, J. G., Contribution to exploration fund by, <a href="#page75">75</a><br> -<br> -J<small>UNGEN</small>, E<small>NSIGN</small> C. W., Mention of, <a href="#page81">81</a><br> -<br> -<br> -K<small>AMSHATKA</small>, Cartography of, <a href="#page217">217</a><br> -—, Early eclipses in, <a href="#page219">219</a>, <a href="#page229">229</a><br> -<br> -K<small>ERR</small>, M<small>ARK</small> B., assigned as an assistant, <a href="#page75">75</a><br> -— cited on Mount St. Elias, <a href="#page39">39</a><br> -—, Report on topographic work by, <a href="#page195">195</a><br> -<br> -K<small>HANTAAK ISLAND</small>, Village on, <a href="#page79">79</a>, <a href="#page80">80</a><br> -<br> -K<small>ING</small>, H<small>ARRY</small>, Contribution to exploration fund by, <a href="#page75">75</a><br> -<br> -K<small>NAPP</small>, H<small>ON</small>. L<small>YMAN</small> E., Mention of, <a href="#page79">79</a><br> -<br> -K<small>NIGHT ISLAND</small>, Scenery near, <a href="#page83">83</a><br> -— named by Puget, <a href="#page68">68</a><br> -<br> -K<small>NOWLTON</small>, F. H., Report on fossil plants, <a href="#page199">199</a><br> -<br> -<br> -L<small>A</small> B<small>OUSSOLE</small>, Mention of, <a href="#page58">58</a><br> -<br> -L<small>AKE</small> C<small>ASTANI</small> named, <a href="#page73">73</a><br> -<br> -L<small>AKELETS</small> on the glaciers, <a href="#page119">119</a>, <a href="#page120">120</a><br> -<br> -L<small>AKES</small>, Abandoned beds of, near Blossom island, <a href="#page116">116</a><br> -<br> -L<small>A</small> P<small>ÉROUSE</small>, J. F. S., Explorations of, <a href="#page58">58</a>, <a href="#page60">60</a><br> -<br> -L<small>A</small> P<small>LATA</small> river, Sketch of, <a href="#page5">5</a><br> -<br> -L<small>ASSA</small>, recent attempt to reach, <a href="#page253">253</a><br> -<br> -L'A<small>STROLABE</small>, Mention of, <a href="#page58">58</a><br> -<br> -L<small>AURIDSEN</small>, P., cited on early maps, <a href="#page215">215</a><br> -—, Quotation from, on de l'Isle's map, <a href="#page217">217</a><br> -<br> -L<small>EACH</small>, B<small>OYNTON</small>, Contribution to exploration fund by, <a href="#page75">75</a><br> -<br> -L<small>EVÉE</small> systems of the Mississippi, <a href="#page37">37</a><br> -<br> -L<small>IBBEY</small>, P<small>ROFESSOR</small> W<small>ILLIAM</small>, Explorations by, -<a href="#page72">72</a>, <a href="#page73">73</a><br> -<br> -L<small>INDENKOHL</small>, A., Computation of position of Mount St. Elias by, <a href="#page235">235</a><br> -<br> -L<small>INDSLEY</small>, W. L., Member of expedition, <a href="#page76">76</a><br> -—, Work of, <a href="#page122">122</a>, <a href="#page131">131</a>, <a href="#page134">134</a>, -<a href="#page135">135</a>, <a href="#page139">139</a>, <a href="#page144">144</a>, <a href="#page149">149</a>, -<a href="#page150">150</a>, <a href="#page153">153</a>, <a href="#page157">157</a>, <a href="#page158">158</a>, -<a href="#page164">164</a><br> -<br> -L<small>ITTLEHALES</small>, G. W., Record of discussion by, <a href="#pagevii">vii</a><br> -<br> -L<small>ITUYA BAY</small>, Mention of, <a href="#page55">55</a><br> -<br> -L<small>OB-NOR</small>, Character of, <a href="#page253">253</a><br> -<br> -L<small>OGAN</small>, S<small>IR</small> W. E., Mountain named for, <a href="#page141">141</a><br> -<br> -L<small>ONDON</small> M<small>ISSIONARY</small> S<small>OCIETY</small>, Acknowledgments to, <a href="#page247">247</a><br> -<br> -L<small>UCIA GLACIER</small>, Brief account of, <a href="#page92">92</a><br> -— —, Crossing of, <a href="#page105">105</a>, <a href="#page106">106</a>, -<a href="#page108">108</a>, <a href="#page109">109</a><br> -<br> -L<small>YNN CANAL</small>, Mention of, <a href="#page78">78</a><br> -<br> -<br> -M<small>ALASPINA</small>, A<small>LEJANDRO</small>, cited on Mount St. Elias, <a href="#page231">231</a><br> -—, Explorations of, <a href="#page62">62</a>, <a href="#page66">66</a><br> -<br> -M<small>ALASPINA GLACIER</small>, Character of, <a href="#page187">187</a><br> -— described and named, <a href="#page71">71</a>, <a href="#page72">72</a><br> -—, Excursion on, <a href="#page120">120</a>, <a href="#page121">121</a>, <a href="#page162">162</a><br> -— from Blossom island, <a href="#page118">118</a>, <a href="#page119">119</a><br> -—, Mention of, <a href="#page56">56</a><br> -<br> -M<small>ALDONADO</small>, Reference to, <a href="#page62">62</a>, <a href="#page63">63</a><br> -<br> -M<small>APS</small> of Alaska, Rare, <a href="#page206">206</a><br> -— (Staff) of France, Review of the, <a href="#page250">250</a><br> -<br> -M<small>ARVIN</small>, C. F., Reference to work of, <a href="#page48">48</a><br> -<br> -M<small>ARVINE</small>, A. R., Glacier named for, <a href="#page112">112</a><br> -<br> -M<small>ARVINE GLACIER</small>, Account of, <a href="#page112">112</a>, <a href="#page122">122</a>, -<a href="#page124">124</a><br> -<br> -M<small>C</small>C<small>ARTENEY</small>, C. M., Contribution to exploration fund by, <a href="#page75">75</a><br> -<br> -M<small>C</small>G<small>EE</small>, W J, Record of communication by, <a href="#pagexiii">xiii</a><br> -—, Record of discussion by, <a href="#pagex">x</a>, <a href="#pagexi">xi</a><br> -<br> -M<small>ELVILLE</small>, G. W., Record of communication by, <a href="#pageviii">viii</a><br> -<br> -M<small>ENDENHALL</small>, T. C., Record of discussion by, <a href="#pagexi">xi</a><br> -<br> -M<small>ETEOROLOGY</small>, Condition of, <a href="#page41">41</a><br> -<br> -M<small>EYER</small>, H<small>UGO</small>, Reference to work of, <a href="#page47">47</a><br> -<br> -M<small>IRAGE</small> in Yakutat bay, <a href="#page87">87</a><br> -<br> -M<small>ISSISSIPPI RIVER</small>, Flood of, <a href="#page37">37</a><br> -<br> -M<small>ONSOONS</small>, Characteristics of, <a href="#page47">47</a><br> -<br> -M<small>ONGOLIA</small>, Exploration in, <a href="#page255">255</a><br> -<br> -M<small>OON</small>, Mountains of the, <a href="#page240">240</a><br> -<br> -M<small>ORAINES</small>, <a href="#page195">195</a><br> -—, Medial, on the Marvine glacier, <a href="#page123">123</a><br> -— on the Malaspina glacier, <a href="#page134">134</a><br> -— near Yakutat bay, <a href="#page191">191</a><br> -<br> -M<small>OUNTAINS</small> of South America, <a href="#page1">1</a><br> -<br> -M<small>OUNT</small> A<small>UGUSTA</small>, Avalanches on the sides of, <a href="#page145">145</a><br> -— Elevation of, <a href="#page117">117</a><br> -<br> -M<small>OUNT</small> B<small>ERING</small>, Height and condition of, <a href="#page65">65</a><br> -<br> -M<small>OUNT</small> C<small>OOK</small>, Appearance of, <a href="#page92">92</a><br> -— named, <a href="#page72">72</a><br> -—, Rocks composing, <a href="#page92">92</a><br> -<br> -M<small>OUNT</small> F<small>AIRWEATHER</small>, Height of, <a href="#page69">69</a><br> -<br> -M<small>OUNT</small> L<small>OGAN</small> named, <a href="#page141">141</a><br> -<br> -M<small>OUNT</small> M<small>ALASPINA</small>, Elevation of, <a href="#page117">117</a><br> -— named, <a href="#page72">72</a><br> -<br> -M<small>OUNT</small> N<small>EWTON</small> named, <a href="#page146">146</a><br> -<br> -M<small>OUNT</small> S<small>T</small>. E<small>LIAS</small>, Expedition to, <a href="#page53">53</a><br> -— (see <a href="#stelias2">St. Elias, Mount</a>).<br> -<br> -M<small>OUNT</small> V<small>ANCOUVER</small> named, <a href="#page72">72</a><br> -<br> -M<small>UIR GLACIER</small>, Visit to, <a href="#page78">78</a>, <a href="#page79">79</a><br> -<br> -M<small>ULGRAVE</small>, L<small>ORD</small>, Port Mulgrave named for, <a href="#page60">60</a><br> -<br> -<br> -N<small>ATIONAL</small> G<small>EOGRAPHIC</small> S<small>OCIETY</small>, Instructions -from, <a href="#page194">194</a><br> -<br> -N<small>ÉVÉ</small> fields, <a href="#page180">180</a>, <a href="#page181">181</a>, <a href="#page182">182</a><br> -<br> -N<small>EWELL</small>, F. H., Record of communication by, <a href="#pagexi">xi</a><br> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page260"><small><small>[p. 260]</small></small></a></span> -<br> -N<small>EWTON GLACIER</small>, Ascent of, <a href="#page150">150</a><br> -<br> -N<small>EWTON</small>, H<small>ENRY</small>, Mountain named for, <a href="#page146">146</a><br> -<br> -N<small>EW</small> Y<small>ORK</small> T<small>IMES</small>, -Expedition of the, <a href="#page72">72</a>, <a href="#page73">73</a><br> -<br> -N<small>ICARAGUA</small> C<small>ANAL</small>, Progress of the, <a href="#page37">37</a><br> -<br> -N<small>OLIN</small>, J. B., Geographic work by, <a href="#page211">211</a><br> -<br> -N<small>OMENCLATURE</small>, Geographic, <a href="#page39">39</a><br> -<br> -N<small>ORDHOFF</small>, C<small>HARLES</small>, Contribution to exploration fund by, <a href="#page75">75</a><br> -<br> -N<small>ORRIS GLACIER</small>, Mention of, <a href="#page78">78</a><br> -<br> -N<small>UNATAK</small> in Lucia glacier, <a href="#page106">106</a><br> -<br> -<br> -O<small>FFICERS</small>, Election of, <a href="#pagexii">xii</a><br> -<br> -O<small>GDEN</small>, H. G.; Geography of the Land, <a href="#page31">31</a><br> -—, Record of communication by, <a href="#pagexi">xi</a><br> -—, Record of discussion by, <a href="#pageviii">viii</a>, <a href="#pagexi">xi</a><br> -<br> -O<small>IL</small> stoves, Use of, <a href="#page164">164</a><br> -<br> -O<small>REL</small>, Mention of the, <a href="#page70">70</a><br> -<br> -O<small>RINOCO RIVER</small>, Sketch of, <a href="#page3">3</a><br> -<br> -O<small>RTHOGRAPHY</small> of geographic names, <a href="#page39">39</a><br> -<br> -O<small>RTON</small>, J<small>AMES</small>, Quotation from, on South America, <a href="#page28">28</a><br> -<br> -O<small>TKRYTIE</small>, Mention of the, <a href="#page69">69</a><br> -<br> -O<small>UTFIT</small> necessary for Alaskan expeditions, <a href="#page165">165</a><br> -<br> -<br> -P<small>ANAX HORRIDUM</small>, <a href="#page95">95</a>, <a href="#page115">115</a><br> -<br> -P<small>AMPAS</small>, Characteristics of, <a href="#page19">19</a><br> -<br> -P<small>ANAMA CANAL</small> project, Revival of the, <a href="#page37">37</a><br> -<br> -P<small>AN</small>-A<small>MERICAN</small> congress, Work of the, <a href="#page36">36</a><br> -— railway route, <a href="#page27">27</a><br> -<br> -P<small>ARTRIDGE</small>, W<small>ILLAIM</small>, Member of expedition, <a href="#page76">76</a><br> -—, Work of, <a href="#page158">158</a>, <a href="#page159">159</a>, <a href="#page162">162</a><br> -<br> -P<small>ARTSCH</small>, D<small>R</small>., Reference to work of, <a href="#page46">46</a><br> -<br> -P<small>EARY</small>, R. E., Record of communication by, <a href="#pageviii">viii</a><br> -<br> -P<small>ERU</small>, Incas of, <a href="#page8">8</a><br> -—, Sketch of, <a href="#page22">22</a><br> -<br> -P<small>HIPPS</small>, C. J., Port Mulgrave named for, <a href="#page60">60</a><br> -<br> -P<small>IEDMONT</small> glaciers, Characteristics of, <a href="#page122">122</a>, -<a href="#page176">176</a>, <a href="#page185">185</a>, <a href="#page186">186</a><br> -— —, Example of, <a href="#page120">120</a>, <a href="#page121">121</a><br> -— type of glaciers, Mention of, <a href="#page57">57</a><br> -<br> -P<small>IMPLUNA</small> rocks, Mention of, <a href="#page70">70</a>, <a href="#page187">187</a><br> -<br> -P<small>INNACLE PASS</small> cliffs, Account of, <a href="#page132">132</a>, <a href="#page137">137</a><br> -— —, Height of, <a href="#page137">137</a><br> -— —, View from, <a href="#page132">132</a><br> -—, Description of, <a href="#page130">130</a>, <a href="#page132">132</a><br> -— named, <a href="#page130">130</a><br> -<br> -P<small>INNACLE SYSTEM</small>, Description of rocks of, <a href="#page167">167</a><br> -— named, <a href="#page131">131</a><br> -<br> -P<small>INTA</small>, Mention of the, <a href="#page79">79</a>, <a href="#page81">81</a><br> -<br> -P<small>IZARRO</small>, G<small>ONZALO</small>, Discovery of the Amazon by, <a href="#page11">11</a><br> -<br> -P<small>LANTS</small> on Blossom island, <a href="#page114">114</a><br> -<br> -P<small>OINT</small> E<small>SPERANZA</small>, Camp at, <a href="#page82">82</a>, -<a href="#page84">84</a>, <a href="#page85">85</a><br> -<br> -P<small>OINT</small> G<small>LORIOUS</small> named, <a href="#page137">137</a><br> -<br> -P<small>OINT</small> R<small>IOU</small>, Mention of, <a href="#page69">69</a><br> -<br> -P<small>OLAR</small> regions, Recent work in, <a href="#page252">252</a><br> -<br> -P<small>OMORTSEW</small>, D<small>R</small>., Reference to work of, <a href="#page46">46</a><br> -<br> -P<small>OPULATION</small> of Africa, <a href="#page238">238</a><br> -— of South America, <a href="#page6">6</a>, <a href="#page15">15</a><br> -<br> -P<small>ORT</small> M<small>ULGRAVE</small>, <a href="#page56">56</a><br> -— named by Dixon, <a href="#page60">60</a><br> -<br> -P<small>OWELL</small>, J. W., Contribution to exploration fund by, <a href="#page75">75</a><br> -—, Record of communication by, <a href="#pageviii">viii</a><br> -— — — discussion by, <a href="#pagex">x</a><br> -— — — introductory remarks by, <a href="#pagexiii">xiii</a><br> -<br> -P<small>OWELL</small>, W<small>ILLIAM</small> B., Contribution to exploration fund by, <a href="#page75">75</a><br> -<br> -P<small>UERTO DEL</small> D<small>ESENGAÑO</small>, Mention of, <a href="#page56">56</a><br> -<br> -P<small>UGET</small>, P<small>ETER</small>, Explorations of, <a href="#page66">66</a>, <a href="#page68">68</a><br> -<br> -P<small>YRAMID HARBOR</small>, Mention of, <a href="#page78">78</a><br> -<br> -<br> -Q<small>UEEN</small> C<small>HARLOTTE</small>, Mention of the, <a href="#page60">60</a><br> -—, Voyage on the, <a href="#page78">78</a>, <a href="#page79">79</a><br> -<br> -<br> -R<small>ABOT</small>, C<small>H</small>., cited on polar exploration, <a href="#page252">252</a><br> -<br> -R<small>AILROADS</small>, South American, <a href="#page25">25</a><br> -—, Statistics of, <a href="#page255">255</a><br> -<br> -R<small>ALEIGH</small>, S<small>IR</small> W<small>ALTER</small>, Expeditions by, <a href="#page14">14</a><br> -<br> -R<small>ATIONS</small>, <a href="#page164">164</a><br> -<br> -R<small>EPORT</small> on sands from Yakutat bay by J. Stanley-Brown, <a href="#page196">196</a><br> -<br> -R<small>ESOLUTION</small> relating to publication, <a href="#pagexii">xii</a><br> -<br> -R<small>EVENUE</small> M<small>ARINE</small> S<small>ERVICE</small>, Offer of coöperation by, <a href="#page249">249</a><br> -<br> -R<small>EYNOLDS</small>, J. J., Remarks by, at field meeting, <a href="#pagex">x</a><br> -<br> -R<small>IO DE LA</small> P<small>LATA</small>, Sketch of, <a href="#page5">5</a><br> -<br> -R<small>IVERS</small>, Glacial, <a href="#page183">183</a><br> -— of South America, <a href="#page3">3</a><br> -<br> -R<small>OCKHILL</small>, W. W., Reference to explorations by, <a href="#page253">253</a><br> -<br> -R<small>OPE CLIFF</small> named, <a href="#page149">149</a><br> -<br> -R<small>OUTE</small> (New), Suggested, <a href="#page163">163</a>, <a href="#page164">164</a><br> -<br> -R<small>USSELL</small>, I. C.; An Expedition to Mount St. Elias, <a href="#page53">53</a><br> -— cited on Mount St. Elias, <a href="#page39">39</a><br> -—, Contribution to exploration fund by, <a href="#page75">75</a><br> -—, Height and Position of Mount St. Elias, <a href="#page231">231</a><br> -—, Proposed exploration by, <a href="#page249">249</a><br> -—, Record of communication by, <a href="#pagevii">vii</a>, <a href="#pagexi">xi</a><br> -— — — discussion by, <a href="#pagevii">vii</a>, <a href="#pageix">ix</a><br> -<br> -R<small>USSELL</small>, T<small>HOMAS</small>, Acknowledgments to, <a href="#page62">62</a><br> -— cited on cyclones, <a href="#page43">43</a><br> -—, Reference to work of, <a href="#page51">51</a><br> -<br> -R<small>USSIAN</small> Academy of Sciences, Quotation from records of, <a href="#page212">212</a><br> -<br> -"R<small>USSIAN</small> O<small>FFICER</small>," Geographic work by the, <a href="#page209">209</a><br> -—, Identity of the, <a href="#page222">222</a><br> -—, Quotation from the, on de l'Isle's map, <a href="#page215">215</a>, <a href="#page217">217</a><br> -— — — — — — writings, <a href="#page221">221</a><br> -<br> -<br> -S<small>ALMON</small> fishing, <a href="#page162">162</a><br> -<br> -S<small>ANDS</small>, Auriferous, from Yakutat bay, <a href="#page196">196</a><br> -<br> -S<small>AN</small> F<small>RANCISCO RIVER</small>, Sketch of, <a href="#page5">5</a><br> -<br> -S<small>ANGAI</small>, Active vulcanism of, <a href="#page2">2</a><br> -<br> -S<small>CHWATKA</small>, L<small>IEUTENANT</small> F<small>REDERICK</small>, -Explorations by, <a href="#page72">72</a>, <a href="#page73">73</a><br> -<br> -S<small>ERPENTINE</small> on the Marvine glacier, <a href="#page123">123</a><br> -<br> -S<small>ETON</small>-K<small>ARR</small>, H. W., Explorations of, -<a href="#page72">72</a>, <a href="#page73">73</a><br> -<br> -S<small>EWARD GLACIER</small>, Crevasses on, <a href="#page133">133</a>, <a href="#page179">179</a>, -<a href="#page180">180</a><br> -—, Crossing of, <a href="#page142">142</a><br> -—, Description of, <a href="#page177">177</a>, <a href="#page178">178</a>, <a href="#page179">179</a><br> -<br> -S<small>EWARD</small>, H<small>ON</small>. W. H., Glacier named for, <a href="#page129">129</a><br> -<br> -S<small>HARP</small>, B<small>ENJAMIN</small>, Record of communication by, <a href="#pagexiii">xiii</a><br> -<br> -S<small>HENDUN</small>, Field meeting at, <a href="#pageix">ix</a>, <a href="#pagex">x</a><br> -<br> -S<small>IEMENS</small>, W<small>ERNER VON</small>, cited on air currents, <a href="#page45">45</a><br> -<br> -S<small>ITKA</small>, Arrival at, <a href="#page79">79</a><br> -<br> -S<small>NOW</small> crests, Figures of, <a href="#page143">143</a><br> -— line, Description of Alpine glaciers above, <a href="#page180">180</a><br> -— — — — — — below, <a href="#page183">183</a><br> -— —, Elevation of, <a href="#page92">92</a>, <a href="#page111">111</a><br> -— on mountain crests, <a href="#page182">182</a><br> -<br> -S<small>OUNDINGS</small> in Disenchantment bay, <a href="#page56">56</a><br> -<br> -S<small>OUTH</small> A<small>MERICA</small>: Annual address by the President; -Gardiner G. Hubbard, <a href="#page1">1</a><br> -<br> -S<small>PRUNG</small>, A., cited on air currents, <a href="#page45">45</a><br> -<br> -S<small>TAMY</small>, T<small>HOMAS</small>, Member of expedition, <a href="#page76">76</a><br> -—, Work of, <a href="#page137">137</a>, <a href="#page139">139</a>, <a href="#page144">144</a>, -<a href="#page150">150</a>, <a href="#page153">153</a>, <a href="#page157">157</a>, <a href="#page158">158</a>, -<a href="#page160">160</a><br> -<br> -S<small>TANLEY</small>-B<small>ROWN</small>, J., Record of communication by, <a href="#pagevii">vii</a><br> -—, Report on sands from Yakutat bay by, <a href="#page196">196</a><br> -<a name="stelias2"></a> -<br> -S<small>T</small>. E<small>LIAS</small>, Described by La Pérouse, <a href="#page59">59</a>, <a href="#page60">60</a><br> -—, Discovery of, by Bering, <a href="#page58">58</a><br> -— expedition, Review of, <a href="#page39">39</a><br> -—, First full view of, <a href="#page135">135</a><br> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page261"><small><small>[p. 261]</small></small></a></span> -— (Height and position of Mount); I. C. Russell, <a href="#page231">231</a><br> -— — — — — <a href="#page40">40</a>, -<a href="#page189">189</a>, <a href="#page190">190</a><br> -— — — — — determined by La Pérouse, <a href="#page60">60</a><br> -— — — — — — — Tebenkof, <a href="#page69">69</a><br> -— — — — — — — Malaspina, <a href="#page64">64</a>, -<a href="#page65">65</a>, <a href="#page66">66</a><br> -— range, Age of, <a href="#page175">175</a><br> -— —, Character of peaks of, <a href="#page175">175</a><br> -— region, Glaciers of the, <a href="#page176">176</a><br> -— schist, Description of rocks of, <a href="#page167">167</a>, <a href="#page173">173</a><br> -—, Suggested new route to, <a href="#page163">163</a>, <a href="#page164">164</a><br> -— uplift, <a href="#page190">190</a><br> -<br> -S<small>TEIN</small>, R<small>OBERT</small>, Translations by, <a href="#page59">59</a>, -<a href="#page64">64</a>, <a href="#page65">65</a>, <a href="#page66">66</a><br> -<br> -S<small>TEPNIAK</small>, S<small>ERGIUS</small>, Record of address by, <a href="#pageviii">viii</a><br> -<br> -S<small>TRAIT OF</small> A<small>NNAN</small>, <a href="#page56">56</a><br> -<br> -S<small>TRUCTURE</small>, <a href="#page174">174</a><br> -<br> -S<small>TRUVE</small>, C<small>H</small>., Acknowledgments to, <a href="#page221">221</a><br> -<br> -S<small>TRUVE</small>, O., cited on manuscript records, <a href="#page220">220</a><br> -<br> -S<small>WISS</small> guides in Alaskan exploration, <a href="#page166">166</a><br> -<br> -S<small>ULPHUR</small>, Mention of the, <a href="#page69">69</a><br> -<br> -<br> -T<small>AKU GLACIER</small>, Mention of, <a href="#page78">78</a><br> -<br> -T<small>AKU INLET</small>, Visit to, <a href="#page78">78</a><br> -<br> -T<small>ANGANYIKA</small>, L<small>AKE</small>, Characteristics of, <a href="#page241">241</a><br> -<br> -T<small>EBENKOF</small>, C<small>APTAIN</small>, Notes on Alaska by, <a href="#page69">69</a>, <a href="#page70">70</a><br> -<br> -T<small>ERRACE</small> on northern shore of Yakutat bay, <a href="#page82">82</a>, <a href="#page85">85</a><br> -— point, Brief account of, <a href="#page106">106</a><br> -<br> -T<small>HUNDERSTORMS</small>, Relation of, to air-pressure, <a href="#page44">44</a><br> -<br> -T<small>HOMPSON</small>, G<small>ILBERT</small>, Contribution to exploration fund by, <a href="#page75">75</a><br> -<br> -T<small>IBET</small>, Note on the crossing of, <a href="#page253">253</a><br> -<br> -T<small>IDE-WATER</small> glaciers defined, <a href="#page101">101</a><br> -<br> -T<small>OPOGRAPHIC</small> work, Report on, <a href="#page195">195</a><br> -<br> -T<small>OPHAM</small>, E<small>DWIN</small>, Explorations by, <a href="#page73">73</a>, <a href="#page74">74</a><br> -<br> -T<small>OPHAM</small>, W. H., Explorations by, <a href="#page73">73</a>, <a href="#page74">74</a><br> -—, Reference to map by, <a href="#page177">177</a><br> -<br> -T<small>ORNADOES</small>, Results of, <a href="#page50">50</a><br> -<br> -T<small>RADE</small>, South American, <a href="#page23">23</a><br> -<br> -T<small>RIANGULATION</small>, Commencement of, <a href="#page86">86</a><br> -<br> -T<small>UCKER</small>, J. R<small>ANDOLPH</small>, Remarks by, at field meeting, <a href="#pagex">x</a><br> -<br> -T<small>UNNELS</small>, Ice, <a href="#page184">184</a><br> -<br> -T<small>YNDALL GLACIER</small> named, <a href="#page73">73</a><br> -<br> -T<small>YNDALL</small>, J., cited on marginal crevasses, <a href="#page127">127</a><br> -<br> -<br> -V<small>AN</small> B<small>EBBER</small>, A., Reference to work of, <a href="#page47">47</a><br> -<br> -V<small>ANCOUVER</small>, C<small>APTAIN</small> G<small>EORGE</small>, Explorations by, <a href="#page66">66</a>, <a href="#page68">68</a><br> -<br> -V<small>ERATRUM VIRIDE</small>, Mention of, <a href="#page114">114</a><br> -<br> -V<small>OLCANOES</small> of the Andes, <a href="#page2">2</a><br> -<br> -<br> -W<small>ARD</small>, L<small>ESTER</small> F., Report on fossil plants, -<a href="#page199">199</a>, <a href="#page200">200</a><br> -<br> -W<small>AXEL</small>, S<small>WEN</small>, Quotations from, on de l'Isle's map, <a href="#page223">223</a><br> -—, Translations from letter by, <a href="#page224">224</a><br> -—, Work of, <a href="#page222">222</a><br> -<br> -W<small>HITE</small>, T<small>HOMAS</small>, Member of expedition, <a href="#page76">76</a><br> -—, Work of, <a href="#page158">158</a>, <a href="#page160">160</a><br> -<br> -W<small>ILLIAMS</small>, C. A., Contribution to exploration fund by, <a href="#page75">75</a><br> -<br> -W<small>ILLIAMS</small>, W<small>ILLIAM</small>, Explorations by, <a href="#page73">73</a>, <a href="#page74">74</a><br> -<br> -W<small>ILLIS</small>, B<small>AILY</small>, Contribution to exploration fund by, <a href="#page75">75</a><br> -<br> -W<small>ILSON</small>, H. M., Record of communication by, <a href="#pageix">ix</a><br> -<br> -<br> -Y<small>AKUTAT BAY</small>, Arrival at, <a href="#page79">79</a><br> -—, Base camp on western shore of, <a href="#page86">86</a>, <a href="#page89">89</a><br> -—, Shores of described, <a href="#page57">57</a><br> -—, Synonomy of, <a href="#page56">56</a><br> -<br> -Y<small>AKUTAT</small> I<small>NDIANS</small> described by Dixon, <a href="#page61">61</a><br> -— system, Description of rocks of, <a href="#page167">167</a><br> -— — named, <a href="#page131">131</a> - -<div style='display:block; margin-top:4em'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE, VOL. III. 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