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diff --git a/old/st04w10.txt b/old/st04w10.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..fefbe95 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/st04w10.txt @@ -0,0 +1,2138 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook The Lives Of The Caesars, by Suetonius, V4 +#4 in our series by C. Suetonious Tranquillus + +Copyright laws are changing all over the world. Be sure to check the +copyright laws for your country before downloading or redistributing +this or any other Project Gutenberg eBook. + +This header should be the first thing seen when viewing this Project +Gutenberg file. Please do not remove it. Do not change or edit the +header without written permission. + +Please read the "legal small print," and other information about the +eBook and Project Gutenberg at the bottom of this file. Included is +important information about your specific rights and restrictions in +how the file may be used. You can also find out about how to make a +donation to Project Gutenberg, and how to get involved. + + +**Welcome To The World of Free Plain Vanilla Electronic Texts** + +**EBooks Readable By Both Humans and By Computers, Since 1971** + +*****These EBooks Were Prepared By Thousands of Volunteers***** + + +Title: The Lives Of The Twelve Caesars, Volume 4. + [CALIGULA] + +Author: C. Suetonius Tranquillus + +Release Date: August, 2004 [EBook #6389] +[Yes, we are more than one year ahead of schedule] +[This file was first posted on December 3, 2003] + +Edition: 10 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + + + + + +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK LIVES OF THE CAESARS, SUETONIUS, V4 *** + + + +This eBook was produced by Tapio Riikonen +and David Widger <widger@cecomet.net> + + + + + + THE LIVES + OF + THE TWELVE CAESARS + + By + C. Suetonius Tranquillus; + + To which are added, + + HIS LIVES OF THE GRAMMARIANS, RHETORICIANS, AND POETS. + + + The Translation of + Alexander Thomson, M.D. + + revised and corrected by + T.Forester, Esq., A.M. + + + + +(251) + + + + CAIUS CAESAR CALIGULA. + + +I. Germanicus, the father of Caius Caesar, and son of Drusus and the +younger Antonia, was, after his adoption by Tiberius, his uncle, +preferred to the quaestorship [377] five years before he had attained the +legal age, and immediately upon the expiration of that office, to the +consulship [378]. Having been sent to the army in Germany, he restored +order among the legions, who, upon the news of Augustus's death, +obstinately refused to acknowledge Tiberius as emperor [379], and offered +to place him at the head of the state. In which affair it is difficult +to say, whether his regard to filial duty, or the firmness of his +resolution, was most conspicuous. Soon afterwards he defeated the enemy, +and obtained the honours of a triumph. Being then made consul for the +second time [380], before he could enter upon his office he was obliged +to set out suddenly for the east, where, after he had conquered the king +of Armenia, and reduced Cappadocia into the form of a province, he died +at Antioch, of a lingering distemper, in the thirty-fourth year of his +age [381], not without the suspicion of being poisoned. For besides the +livid spots which appeared all over his body, and a foaming at the mouth; +when his corpse was burnt, the heart was found entire among the bones; +its nature being such, as it is supposed, that when tainted by poison, it +is indestructible by fire. [382] + +II. It was a prevailing opinion, that he was taken off by the +contrivance of Tiberius, and through the means of Cneius Piso. This +person, who was about the same time prefect of Syria, and made no secret +of his position being such, that (252) he must either offend the father +or the son, loaded Germanicus, even during his sickness, with the most +unbounded and scurrilous abuse, both by word and deed; for which, upon +his return to Rome, he narrowly escaped being torn to pieces by the +people, and was condemned to death by the senate. + +III. It is generally agreed, that Germanicus possessed all the noblest +endowments of body and mind in a higher degree than had ever before +fallen to the lot of any man; a handsome person, extraordinary courage, +great proficiency in eloquence and other branches of learning, both Greek +and Roman; besides a singular humanity, and a behaviour so engaging, as +to captivate the affections of all about him. The slenderness of his +legs did not correspond with the symmetry and beauty of his person in +other respects; but this defect was at length corrected by his habit of +riding after meals. In battle, he often engaged and slew an enemy in +single combat. He pleaded causes, even after he had the honour of a +triumph. Among other fruits of his studies, he left behind him some +Greek comedies. Both at home and abroad he always conducted himself in a +manner the most unassuming. On entering any free and confederate town, +he never would be attended by his lictors. Whenever he heard, in his +travels, of the tombs of illustrious men, he made offerings over them to +the infernal deities. He gave a common grave, under a mound of earth, to +the scattered relics of the legionaries slain under Varus, and was the +first to put his hand to the work of collecting and bringing them to the +place of burial. He was so extremely mild and gentle to his enemies, +whoever they were, or on what account soever they bore him enmity, that, +although Piso rescinded his decrees, and for a long time severely +harassed his dependents, he never showed the smallest resentment, until +he found himself attacked by magical charms and imprecations; and even +then the only steps he took was to renounce all friendship with him, +according to ancient custom, and to exhort his servants to avenge his +death, if any thing untoward should befall him. + +IV. He reaped the fruit of his noble qualities in abundance, being so +much esteemed and beloved by his friends, that Augustus (to say nothing +of his other relations) being a long time in doubt, whether he should not +appoint him his successor, at last ordered Tiberius to adopt him. He was +so extremely popular, that many authors tell us, the crowds of those who +went to meet him upon his coming to any place, or to attend him at his +departure, were so prodigious, that he was sometimes in danger of his +life; and that upon his return from Germany, after he had quelled the +mutiny in the army there, all the cohorts of the pretorian guards marched +out to meet him, notwithstanding the order that only two should go; and +that all the people of Rome, both men and women, of every age, sex, and +rank, flocked as far as the twentieth milestone to attend his entrance. + +V. At the time of his death, however, and afterwards, they displayed +still greater and stronger proofs of their extraordinary attachment to +him. The day on which he died, stones were thrown at the temples, the +altars of the gods demolished, the household gods, in some cases, thrown +into the streets, and new-born infants exposed. It is even said that +barbarous nations, both those engaged in intestine wars, and those in +hostilities against us, all agreed to a cessation of arms, as if they had +been mourning for some very near and common friend; that some petty kings +shaved their beards and their wives' heads, in token of their extreme +sorrow; and that the king of kings [383] forbore his exercise of hunting +and feasting with his nobles, which, amongst the Parthians, is equivalent +to a cessation of all business in a time of public mourning with us. + +VI. At Rome, upon the first news of his sickness, the city was thrown +into great consternation and grief, waiting impatiently for farther +intelligence; when suddenly, in the evening, a report, without any +certain author, was spread, that he was recovered; upon which the people +flocked with torches (254) and victims to the Capitol, and were in such +haste to pay the vows they had made for his recovery, that they almost +broke open the doors. Tiberius was roused from out of his sleep with the +noise of the people congratulating one another, and singing about the +streets, + + Salva Roma, salva patria, salvus est Germanicus. + Rome is safe, our country safe, for our Germanicus is safe. + +But when certain intelligence of his death arrived, the mourning of the +people could neither be assuaged by consolation, nor restrained by +edicts, and it continued during the holidays in the month of December. +The atrocities of the subsequent times contributed much to the glory of +Germanicus, and the endearment of his memory; all people supposing, and +with reason, that the fear and awe of him had laid a restraint upon the +cruelty of Tiberius, which broke out soon afterwards. + +VII. Germanicus married Agrippina, the daughter of Marcus Agrippa and +Julia, by whom he had nine children, two of whom died in their infancy, +and another a few years after; a sprightly boy, whose effigy, in the +character of a Cupid, Livia set up in the temple of Venus in the Capitol. +Augustus also placed another statue of him in his bed-chamber, and used +to kiss it as often as he entered the apartment. The rest survived their +father; three daughters, Agrippina, Drusilla, and Livilla, who were born +in three successive years; and as many sons, Nero, Drusus, and Caius +Caesar. Nero and Drusus, at the accusation of Tiberius, were declared +public enemies. + +VIII. Caius Caesar was born on the day before the calends [31st August] +of September, at the time his father and Caius Fonteius Capito were +consuls [384]. But where he was born, is rendered uncertain from the +number of places which are said to have given him birth. Cneius Lentulus +Gaetulicus [385] says that he was born at Tibur; Pliny the younger, in +the country of the Treviri, at a village called Ambiatinus, above +Confluentes [386]; and he alleges, as a proof of it, that altars are +there shown with this inscription: "For Agrippina's child-birth." Some +verses which were published in his reign, intimate that he was born in +the winter quarters of the legions, + + In castris natus, patriis nutritius in armis, + Jam designati principis omen erat. + + Born in the camp, and train'd in every toil + Which taught his sire the haughtiest foes to foil; + Destin'd he seem'd by fate to raise his name, + And rule the empire with Augustan fame. + +I find in the public registers that he was born at Antium. Pliny charges +Gaetulicus as guilty of an arrant forgery, merely to soothe the vanity of +a conceited young prince, by giving him the lustre of being born in a +city sacred to Hercules; and says that he advanced this false assertion +with the more assurance, because, the year before the birth of Caius, +Germanicus had a son of the same name born at Tibur; concerning whose +amiable childhood and premature death I have already spoken [387]. Dates +clearly prove that Pliny is mistaken; for the writers of Augustus's +history all agree, that Germanicus, at the expiration of his consulship, +was sent into Gaul, after the birth of Caius. Nor will the inscription +upon the altar serve to establish Pliny's opinion; because Agrippina was +delivered of two daughters in that country, and any child-birth, without +regard to sex, is called puerperium, as the ancients were used to call +girls puerae, and boys puelli. There is also extant a letter written by +Augustus, a few months before his death, to his granddaughter Agrippina, +about the same Caius (for there was then no other child of hers living +under that name). He writes as follows: "I gave orders yesterday for +Talarius and Asellius to set out on their journey towards you, if the +gods permit, with your child Caius, upon the fifteenth of the calends of +June [18th May]. I also send with him a physician of mine, and I wrote +to Germanicus that he may retain him if he pleases. Farewell, my dear +Agrippina, and take what care you can to (256) come safe and well to your +Germanicus." I imagine it is sufficiently evident that Caius could not +be born at a place to which he was carried from The City when almost two +years old. The same considerations must likewise invalidate the evidence +of the verses, and the rather, because the author is unknown. The only +authority, therefore, upon which we can depend in this matter, is that of +the acts, and the public register; especially as he always preferred +Antium to every other place of retirement, and entertained for it all +that fondness which is commonly attached to one's native soil. It is +said, too, that, upon his growing weary of the city, he designed to have +transferred thither the seat of empire. + +IX. It was to the jokes of the soldiers in the camp that he owed the +name of Caligula [388], he having been brought up among them in the dress +of a common soldier. How much his education amongst them recommended him +to their favour and affection, was sufficiently apparent in the mutiny +upon the death of Augustus, when the mere sight of him appeased their +fury, though it had risen to a great height. For they persisted in it, +until they observed that he was sent away to a neighbouring city [389], +to secure him against all danger. Then, at last, they began to relent, +and, stopping the chariot in which he was conveyed, earnestly deprecated +the odium to which such a proceeding would expose them. + +X. He likewise attended his father in his expedition to Syria. After +his return, he lived first with his mother, and, when she was banished, +with his great-grandmother, Livia Augusta, in praise of whom, after her +decease, though then only a boy, he pronounced a funeral oration in the +Rostra. He was then transferred to the family of his grandmother, +Antonia, and afterwards, in the twentieth year of his age, being called +by Tiberius to Capri, he in one and the same day assumed the manly habit, +and shaved his beard, but without receiving any of the honours which had +been paid to his brothers on a similar (257) occasion. While he remained +in that island, many insidious artifices were practised, to extort from +him complaints against Tiberius, but by his circumspection he avoided +falling into the snare [390]. He affected to take no more notice of the +ill-treatment of his relations, than if nothing had befallen them. With +regard to his own sufferings, he seemed utterly insensible of them, and +behaved with such obsequiousness to his grandfather [391] and all about +him, that it was justly said of him, "There never was a better servant, +nor a worse master." + +XI. But he could not even then conceal his natural disposition to +cruelty and lewdness. He delighted in witnessing the infliction of +punishments, and frequented taverns and bawdy-houses in the night-time, +disguised in a periwig and a long coat; and was passionately addicted to +the theatrical arts of singing and dancing. All these levities Tiberius +readily connived at, in hopes that they might perhaps correct the +roughness of his temper, which the sagacious old man so well understood, +that he often said, "That Caius was destined to be the ruin of himself +and all mankind; and that he was rearing a hydra [392] for the people of +Rome, and a Phaeton for all the world." [393] + +XII. Not long afterwards, he married Junia Claudilla, the daughter of +Marcus Silanus, a man of the highest rank. Being then chosen augur in +the room of his brother Drusus, before he could be inaugurated he was +advanced to the pontificate, with no small commendation of his dutiful +behaviour, and great capacity. The situation of the court likewise was +at this time favourable to his fortunes, as it was now left destitute of +support, Sejanus being suspected, and soon afterwards taken off; and he +was by degrees flattered with the hope of succeeding Tiberius in the +empire. In order more effectually to secure this object, upon Junia's +dying in child-bed, he engaged in a criminal commerce with Ennia Naevia, +the wife (258) of Macro, at that time prefect of the pretorian cohorts; +promising to marry her if he became emperor, to which he bound himself, +not only by an oath, but by a written obligation under his hand. Having +by her means insinuated himself into Macro's favour, some are of opinion +that he attempted to poison Tiberius, and ordered his ring to be taken +from him, before the breath was out of his body; and that, because he +seemed to hold it fast, he caused a pillow to be thrown upon him [394], +squeezing him by the throat, at the same time, with his own hand. One of +his freedmen crying out at this horrid barbarity, he was immediately +crucified. These circumstances are far from being improbable, as some +authors relate that, afterwards, though he did not acknowledge his having +a hand in the death of Tiberius, yet he frankly declared that he had +formerly entertained such a design; and as a proof of his affection for +his relations, he would frequently boast, "That, to revenge the death of +his mother and brothers, he had entered the chamber of Tiberius, when he +was asleep, with a poniard, but being seized with a fit of compassion, +threw it away, and retired; and that Tiberius, though aware of his +intention, durst not make any inquiries, or attempt revenge." + +XIII. Having thus secured the imperial power, he fulfilled by his +elevation the wish of the Roman people, I may venture to say, of all +mankind; for he had long been the object of expectation and desire to the +greater part of the provincials and soldiers, who had known him when a +child; and to the whole people of Rome, from their affection for the +memory of Germanicus, his father, and compassion for the family almost +entirely destroyed. Upon his moving from Misenum, therefore, although he +was in mourning, and following the corpse of Tiberius, he had to walk +amidst altars, victims, and lighted torches, with prodigious crowds of +people everywhere attending him, in transports of joy, and calling him, +besides other auspicious names, by those of "their star," "their chick," +"their pretty puppet," and "bantling." + +XIV. Immediately on his entering the city, by the joint acclamations of +the senate, and people, who broke into the senate-house, Tiberius's will +was set aside, it having left his (259) other grandson [395], then a +minor, coheir with him, the whole government and administration of +affairs was placed in his hands; so much to the joy and satisfaction of +the public, that, in less than three months after, above a hundred and +sixty thousand victims are said to have been offered in sacrifice. Upon +his going, a few days afterwards, to the nearest islands on the coast of +Campania [396], vows were made for his safe return; every person +emulously testifying their care and concern for his safety. And when he +fell ill, the people hung about the Palatium all night long; some vowed, +in public handbills, to risk their lives in the combats of the +amphitheatre, and others to lay them down, for his recovery. To this +extraordinary love entertained for him by his countrymen, was added an +uncommon regard by foreign nations. Even Artabanus, king of the +Parthians, who had always manifested hatred and contempt for Tiberius, +solicited his friendship; came to hold a conference with his consular +lieutenant, and passing the Euphrates, paid the highest honours to the +eagles, the Roman standards, and the images of the Caesars. [397] + +XV. Caligula himself inflamed this devotion, by practising all the arts +of popularity. After he had delivered, with floods of tears, a speech in +praise of Tiberius, and buried him with the utmost pomp, he immediately +hastened over to Pandataria and the Pontian islands [398], to bring +thence the ashes of his mother and brother; and, to testify the great +regard he had for their memory, he performed the voyage in a very +tempestuous season. He approached their remains with profound +veneration, and deposited them in the urns with his own hands. Having +brought them in grand solemnity to Ostia [399], with an ensign flying in +the stern of the galley, and thence up the Tiber to Rome, they were borne +by persons of the first distinction in the equestrian order, on two +biers, into the mausoleum [400], (260) at noon-day. He appointed yearly +offerings to be solemnly and publicly celebrated to their memory, besides +Circensian games to that of his mother, and a chariot with her image to +be included in the procession [401]. The month of September he called +Germanicus, in honour of his father. By a single decree of the senate, +he heaped upon his grandmother, Antonia, all the honours which had been +ever conferred on the empress Livia. His uncle, Claudius, who till then +continued in the equestrian order, he took for his colleague in the +consulship. He adopted his brother, Tiberius [402], on the day he took +upon him the manly habit, and conferred upon him the title of "Prince of +the Youths." As for his sisters, he ordered these words to be added to +the oaths of allegiance to himself: "Nor will I hold myself or my own +children more dear than I do Caius and his sisters:" [403] and commanded +all resolutions proposed by the consuls in the senate to be prefaced +thus: "May what we are going to do, prove fortunate and happy to Caius +Caesar and his sisters." With the like popularity he restored all those +who had been condemned and banished, and granted an act of indemnity +against all impeachments and past offences. To relieve the informers and +witnesses against his mother and brothers from all apprehension, he +brought the records of their trials into the forum, and there burnt them, +calling loudly on the gods to witness that he had not read or handled +them. A memorial which was offered him relative to his own security, he +would not receive, declaring, "that he had done nothing to make any one +his enemy:" and said, at the same time, "he had no ears for informers." + +XVI. The Spintriae, those panderers to unnatural lusts [404], he +banished from the city, being prevailed upon not to throw them (261) into +the sea, as he had intended. The writings of Titus Labienus, Cordus +Cremutius, and Cassius Severus, which had been suppressed by an act of +the senate, he permitted to be drawn from obscurity, and universally +read; observing, "that it would be for his own advantage to have the +transactions of former times delivered to posterity." He published +accounts of the proceedings of the government--a practice which had been +introduced by Augustus, but discontinued by Tiberius [405]. He granted +the magistrates a full and free jurisdiction, without any appeal to +himself. He made a very strict and exact review of the Roman knights, +but conducted it with moderation; publicly depriving of his horse every +knight who lay under the stigma of any thing base and dishonourable; but +passing over the names of those knights who were only guilty of venial +faults, in calling over the list of the order. To lighten the labours of +the judges, he added a fifth class to the former four. He attempted +likewise to restore to the people their ancient right of voting in the +choice of magistrates [406]. He paid very honourably, and without any +dispute, the legacies left by Tiberius in his will, though it had been +set aside; as likewise those left by the will of Livia Augusta, which +Tiberius had annulled. He remitted the hundredth penny, due to the +government in all auctions throughout Italy. He made up to many their +losses sustained by fire; and when he restored their kingdoms to any +princes, he likewise allowed them all the arrears of the taxes and +revenues which had accrued in the interval; as in the case of Antiochus +of Comagene, where the confiscation would have amounted to a hundred +millions of sesterces. To prove to the world that he was ready to +encourage good examples of every kind, he gave to a freed-woman eighty +thousand sesterces, for not discovering a crime committed by her patron, +though she had been put to exquisite torture for that purpose. For all +these acts of beneficence, amongst other honours, a golden shield was +decreed to him, which the colleges of priests were to carry annually, +upon a fixed day, into the Capitol, with the senate attending, and the +youth of the nobility, of both sexes, celebrating the praise of his +virtues in (262) songs. It was likewise ordained, that the day on which +he succeeded to the empire should be called Palilia, in token of the +city's being at that time, as it were, new founded. [407] + +XVII. He held the consulship four times; the first [408], from the +calends [the first] of July for two months: the second [409], from the +calends of January for thirty days; the third [410], until the ides [the +13th] of January; and the fourth [411], until the seventh of the same +ides [7th January]. Of these, the two last he held successively. The +third he assumed by his sole authority at Lyons; not, as some are of +opinion, from arrogance or neglect of rules; but because, at that +distance, it was impossible for him to know that his colleague had died a +little before the beginning of the new year. He twice distributed to the +people a bounty of three hundred sesterces a man, and as often gave a +splendid feast to the senate and the equestrian order, with their wives +and children. In the latter, he presented to the men forensic garments, +and to the women and children purple scarfs. To make a perpetual +addition to the public joy for ever, he added to the Saturnalia [412] one +day, which he called Juvenalis [the juvenile feast]. + +XVIII. He exhibited some combats of gladiators, either in the +amphitheatre of Taurus [413], or in the Septa, with which he intermingled +troops of the best pugilists from Campania and Africa. He did not always +preside in person upon those occasions, but sometimes gave a commission +to magistrates or friends to supply his place. He frequently entertained +the people with stage-plays (263) of various kinds, and in several parts +of the city, and sometimes by night, when he caused the whole city to be +lighted. He likewise gave various things to be scrambled for among the +people, and distributed to every man a basket of bread with other +victuals. Upon this occasion, he sent his own share to a Roman knight, +who was seated opposite to him, and was enjoying himself by eating +heartily. To a senator, who was doing the same, he sent an appointment +of praetor-extraordinary. He likewise exhibited a great number of +Circensian games from morning until night; intermixed with the hunting of +wild beasts from Africa, or the Trojan exhibition. Some of these games +were celebrated with peculiar circumstances; the Circus being overspread +with vermilion and chrysolite; and none drove in the chariot races who +were not of the senatorian order. For some of these he suddenly gave the +signal, when, upon his viewing from the Gelotiana [414] the preparations +in the Circus, he was asked to do so by a few persons in the neighbouring +galleries. + +XIX. He invented besides a new kind of spectacle, such as had never been +heard of before. For he made a bridge, of about three miles and a half +in length, from Baiae to the mole of Puteoli [415], collecting trading +vessels from all quarters, mooring them in two rows by their anchors, and +spreading earth upon them to form a viaduct, after the fashion of the +Appian Way [416]. This bridge he crossed and recrossed for two days +together; the first day mounted on a horse richly caparisoned, wearing on +his head a crown of oak leaves, armed with a battle-axe, a Spanish +buckler and a sword, and in a cloak made of cloth of gold; the day +following, in the habit of a charioteer, standing in a chariot, drawn by +two high-bred horses, having with him a young boy, Darius by name, one of +the Parthian hostages, with a cohort of the pretorian guards attending +him, and a (264) party of his friends in cars of Gaulish make [417]. +Most people, I know, are of opinion, that this bridge was designed by +Caius, in imitation of Xerxes, who, to the astonishment of the world, +laid a bridge over the Hellespont, which is somewhat narrower than the +distance betwixt Baiae and Puteoli. Others, however, thought that he did +it to strike terror in Germany and Britain, which he was upon the point +of invading, by the fame of some prodigious work. But for myself, when I +was a boy, I heard my grandfather say [418], that the reason assigned by +some courtiers who were in habits of the greatest intimacy with him, was +this; when Tiberius was in some anxiety about the nomination of a +successor, and rather inclined to pitch upon his grandson, Thrasyllus the +astrologer had assured him, "That Caius would no more be emperor, than he +would ride on horseback across the gulf of Baiae." + +XX. He likewise exhibited public diversions in Sicily, Grecian games at +Syracuse, and Attic plays at Lyons in Gaul besides a contest for pre- +eminence in the Grecian and Roman eloquence; in which we are told that +such as were baffled bestowed rewards upon the best performers, and were +obliged to compose speeches in their praise: but that those who performed +the worst, were forced to blot out what they had written with a sponge or +their tongue, unless they preferred to be beaten with a rod, or plunged +over head and ears into the nearest river. + +XXI. He completed the works which were left unfinished by Tiberius, +namely, the temple of Augustus, and the theatre (265) of Pompey [419]. +He began, likewise, the aqueduct from the neighbourhood of Tibur [420], +and an amphitheatre near the Septa [421]; of which works, one was +completed by his successor Claudius, and the other remained as he left +it. The walls of Syracuse, which had fallen to decay by length of time, +he repaired, as he likewise did the temples of the gods. He formed plans +for rebuilding the palace of Polycrates at Samos, finishing the temple of +the Didymaean Apollo at Miletus, and building a town on a ridge of the +Alps; but, above all, for cutting through the isthmus in Achaia [422]; +and even sent a centurion of the first rank to measure out the work. + +XXII. Thus far we have spoken of him as a prince. What remains to be +said of him, bespeaks him rather a monster than a man. He assumed a +variety of titles, such as "Dutiful," "The (266) Pious," "The Child of +the Camp, the Father of the Armies," and "The Greatest and Best Caesar." +Upon hearing some kings, who came to the city to pay him court, +conversing together at supper, about their illustrious descent, he +exclaimed, + + Eis koiranos eto, eis basileus. + Let there be but one prince, one king. + +He was strongly inclined to assume the diadem, and change the form of +government, from imperial to regal; but being told that he far exceeded +the grandeur of kings and princes, he began to arrogate to himself a +divine majesty. He ordered all the images of the gods, which were famous +either for their beauty, or the veneration paid them, among which was +that of Jupiter Olympius, to be brought from Greece, that he might take +the heads off, and put on his own. Having continued part of the Palatium +as far as the Forum, and the temple of Castor and Pollux being converted +into a kind of vestibule to his house, he often stationed himself between +the twin brothers, and so presented himself to be worshipped by all +votaries; some of whom saluted him by the name of Jupiter Latialis. He +also instituted a temple and priests, with choicest victims, in honour of +his own divinity. In his temple stood a statue of gold, the exact image +of himself, which was daily dressed in garments corresponding with those +he wore himself. The most opulent persons in the city offered themselves +as candidates for the honour of being his priests, and purchased it +successively at an immense price. The victims were flamingos, peacocks, +bustards, guinea-fowls, turkey and pheasant hens, each sacrificed on +their respective days. On nights when the moon was full, he was in the +constant habit of inviting her to his embraces and his bed. In the day- +time he talked in private to Jupiter Capitolinus; one while whispering to +him, and another turning his ear to him: sometimes he spoke aloud, and in +railing language. For he was overheard to threaten the god thus: + + Hae em' anaeir', hae ego se; [423] + Raise thou me up, or I'll-- + +(267) until being at last prevailed upon by the entreaties of the god, as +he said, to take up his abode with him, he built a bridge over the temple +of the Deified Augustus, by which he joined the Palatium to the Capitol. +Afterwards, that he might be still nearer, he laid the foundations of a +new palace in the very court of the Capitol. + +XXIII. He was unwilling to be thought or called the grandson of Agrippa, +because of the obscurity of his birth; and he was offended if any one, +either in prose or verse, ranked him amongst the Caesars. He said that +his mother was the fruit of an incestuous commerce, maintained by +Augustus with his daughter Julia. And not content with this vile +reflection upon the memory of Augustus, he forbad his victories at +Actium, and on the coast of Sicily, to be celebrated, as usual; affirming +that they had been most pernicious and fatal to the Roman people. He +called his grandmother Livia Augusta "Ulysses in a woman's dress," and +had the indecency to reflect upon her in a letter to the senate, as of +mean birth, and descended, by the mother's side, from a grandfather who +was only one of the municipal magistrates of Fondi; whereas it is +certain, from the public records, that Aufidius Lurco held high offices +at Rome. His grandmother Antonia desiring a private conference with him, +he refused to grant it, unless Macro, the prefect of the pretorian +guards, were present. Indignities of this kind, and ill usage, were the +cause of her death; but some think he also gave her poison. Nor did he +pay the smallest respect to her memory after her death, but witnessed the +burning from his private apartment. His brother Tiberius, who had no +expectation of any violence, was suddenly dispatched by a military +tribune sent by his order for that purpose. He forced Silanus, his +father-in-law, to kill himself, by cutting his throat with a razor. The +pretext he alleged for these murders was, that the latter had not +followed him upon his putting to sea in stormy weather, but stayed behind +with the view of seizing the city, if he should perish. The other, he +said, smelt of an antidote, which he had taken to prevent his being +poisoned by him; whereas Silanus was only afraid of being sea-sick, and +the disagreeableness of a voyage; and Tiberius had merely taken a +medicine for an habitual cough, (268) which was continually growing +worse. As for his successor Claudius, he only saved him for a laughing- +stock. + +XXIV. He lived in the habit of incest with all his sisters; and at +table, when much company was present, he placed each of them in turns +below him, whilst his wife reclined above him. It is believed, that he +deflowered one of them, Drusilla, before he had assumed the robe of +manhood; and was even caught in her embraces by his grandmother Antonia, +with whom they were educated together. When she was afterwards married +to Cassius Longinus, a man of consular rank, he took her from him, and +kept her constantly as if she were his lawful wife. In a fit of +sickness, he by his will appointed her heiress both of his estate and the +empire. After her death, he ordered a public mourning for her; during +which it was capital for any person to laugh, use the bath, or sup with +his parents, wife, or children. Being inconsolable under his affliction, +he went hastily, and in the night-time, from the City; going through +Campania to Syracuse, and then suddenly returned without shaving his +beard, or trimming his hair. Nor did he ever afterwards, in matters of +the greatest importance, not even in the assemblies of the people or +before the soldiers, swear any otherwise, than "By the divinity of +Drusilla." The rest of his sisters he did not treat with so much +fondness or regard; but frequently prostituted them to his catamites. +He therefore the more readily condemned them in the case of Aemilius +Lepidus, as guilty of adultery, and privy to that conspiracy against him. +Nor did he only divulge their own hand-writing relative to the affair, +which he procured by base and lewd means, but likewise consecrated to +Mars the Avenger three swords which had been prepared to stab him, with +an inscription, setting forth the occasion of their consecration. + +XXV. Whether in the marriage of his wives, in repudiating them, or +retaining them, he acted with greater infamy, it is difficult to say. +Being at the wedding of Caius Piso with Livia Orestilla, he ordered the +bride to be carried to his own house, but within a few days divorced her, +and two years after banished her; because it was thought, that upon her +divorce she returned to the embraces of her former husband. (269) Some +say, that being invited to the wedding-supper, he sent a messenger to +Piso, who sat opposite to him, in these words: "Do not be too fond with +my wife," and that he immediately carried her off. Next day he published +a proclamation, importing, "That he had got a wife as Romulus and +Augustus had done." [424] Lollia Paulina, who was married to a man of +consular rank in command of an army, he suddenly called from the province +where she was with her husband, upon mention being made that her +grandmother was formerly very beautiful, and married her; but he soon +afterwards parted with her, interdicting her from having ever afterwards +any commerce with man. He loved with a most passionate and constant +affection Caesonia, who was neither handsome nor young; and was besides +the mother of three daughters by another man; but a wanton of unbounded +lasciviousness. Her he would frequently exhibit to the soldiers, dressed +in a military cloak, with shield and helmet, and riding by his side. To +his friends he even showed her naked. After she had a child, he honoured +her with the title of wife; in one and the same day, declaring himself +her husband, and father of the child of which she was delivered. He +named it Julia Drusilla, and carrying it round the temples of all the +goddesses, laid it on the lap of Minerva; to whom he recommended the care +of bringing up and instructing her. He considered her as his own child +for no better reason than her savage temper, which was such even in her +infancy, that she would attack with her nails the face and eyes of the +children at play with her. + +XXVI. It would be of little importance, as well as disgusting, to add to +all this an account of the manner in which he treated his relations and +friends; as Ptolemy, king Juba's son, his cousin (for he was the grandson +of Mark Antony by his daughter Selene) [425], and especially Macro +himself, and Ennia likewise [426], by whose assistance he had obtained +the empire; all of whom, for their alliance and eminent services, he +rewarded with violent deaths. Nor was he more mild or respectful in his +behaviour towards the senate. Some who had borne the (270) highest +offices in the government, he suffered to run by his litter in their +togas for several miles together, and to attend him at supper, sometimes +at the head of his couch, sometimes at his feet, with napkins. Others of +them, after he had privately put them to death, he nevertheless continued +to send for, as if they were still alive, and after a few days pretended +that they had laid violent hands upon themselves. The consuls having +forgotten to give public notice of his birth-day, he displaced them; and +the republic was three days without any one in that high office. A +quaestor who was said to be concerned in a conspiracy against him, he +scourged severely, having first stripped off his clothes, and spread them +under the feet of the soldiers employed in the work, that they might +stand the more firm. The other orders likewise he treated with the same +insolence and violence. Being disturbed by the noise of people taking +their places at midnight in the circus, as they were to have free +admission, he drove them all away with clubs. In this tumult, above +twenty Roman knights were squeezed to death, with as many matrons, with a +great crowd besides. When stage-plays were acted, to occasion disputes +between the people and the knights, he distributed the money-tickets +sooner than usual, that the seats assigned to the knights might be all +occupied by the mob. In the spectacles of gladiators, sometimes, when +the sun was violently hot, he would order the curtains, which covered the +amphitheatre, to be drawn aside [427], and forbad any person to be let +out; withdrawing at the same time the usual apparatus for the +entertainment, and presenting wild beasts almost pined to death, the most +sorry gladiators, decrepit with age, and fit only to work the machinery, +and decent house-keepers, who were remarkable for some bodily infirmity. +Sometimes shutting up the public granaries, he would oblige the people to +starve for a while. + +XXVII. He evinced the savage barbarity of his temper chiefly by the +following indications. When flesh was only to be had at a high price for +feeding his wild beasts reserved for the spectacles, he ordered that +criminals should be given them (271) to be devoured; and upon inspecting +them in a row, while he stood in the middle of the portico, without +troubling himself to examine their cases he ordered them to be dragged +away, from "bald-pate to bald-pate." [428] Of one person who had made a +vow for his recovery to combat with a gladiator, he exacted its +performance; nor would he allow him to desist until he came off +conqueror, and after many entreaties. Another, who had vowed to give his +life for the same cause, having shrunk from the sacrifice, he delivered, +adorned as a victim, with garlands and fillets, to boys, who were to +drive him through the streets, calling on him to fulfil his vow, until he +was thrown headlong from the ramparts. After disfiguring many persons of +honourable rank, by branding them in the face with hot irons, he +condemned them to the mines, to work in repairing the high-ways, or to +fight with wild beasts; or tying them by the neck and heels, in the +manner of beasts carried to slaughter, would shut them up in cages, or +saw them asunder. Nor were these severities merely inflicted for crimes +of great enormity, but for making remarks on his public games, or for not +having sworn by the Genius of the emperor. He compelled parents to be +present at the execution of their sons; and to one who excused himself on +account of indisposition, he sent his own litter. Another he invited to +his table immediately after he had witnessed the spectacle, and coolly +challenged him to jest and be merry. He ordered the overseer of the +spectacles and wild beasts to be scourged in fetters, during several days +successively, in his own presence, and did not put him to death until he +was disgusted with the stench of his putrefied brain. He burned alive, +in the centre of the arena of the amphitheatre, the writer of a farce, +for some witty verse, which had a double meaning. A Roman knight, who +had been exposed to the wild beasts, crying out that he was innocent, he +called him back, and having had his tongue cut out, remanded him to the +arena. + +XXVIII. Asking a certain person, whom he recalled after a long exile, +how he used to spend his time, he replied, with flattery, "I was always +praying the gods for what has happened, that Tiberius might die, and you +be emperor." Concluding, therefore, that those he had himself banished +also (272) prayed for his death, he sent orders round the islands [429] +to have them all put to death. Being very desirous to have a senator +torn to pieces, he employed some persons to call him a public enemy, fall +upon him as he entered the senate-house, stab him with their styles, and +deliver him to the rest to tear asunder. Nor was he satisfied, until he +saw the limbs and bowels of the man, after they had been dragged through +the streets, piled up in a heap before him. + +XXIX. He aggravated his barbarous actions by language equally +outrageous. "There is nothing in my nature," said he, "that I commend +or approve so much, as my adiatrepsia (inflexible rigour)." Upon his +grandmother Antonia's giving him some advice, as if it was a small matter +to pay no regard to it, he said to her, "Remember that all things are +lawful for me." When about to murder his brother, whom he suspected of +taking antidotes against poison, he said, "See then an antidote against +Caesar!" And when he banished his sisters, he told them in a menacing +tone, that he had not only islands at command, but likewise swords. One +of pretorian rank having sent several times from Anticyra [430], whither +he had gone for his health, to have his leave of absence prolonged, he +ordered him to be put to death; adding these words "Bleeding is necessary +for one that has taken hellebore so long, and found no benefit." It was +his custom every tenth day to sign the lists of prisoners appointed for +execution; and this he called "clearing his accounts." And having +condemned several Gauls and Greeks at one time, he exclaimed in triumph, +"I have conquered Gallograecia." [431] + +XXX. He generally prolonged the sufferings of his victims by causing +them to be inflicted by slight and frequently repeated strokes; this +being his well-known and constant order: (273) "Strike so that he may +feel himself die." Having punished one person for another, by mistaking +his name, he said, "he deserved it quite as much." He had frequently in +his mouth these words of the tragedian, + + Oderint dum metuant. [432] + I scorn their hatred, if they do but fear me. + +He would often inveigh against all the senators without exception, as +clients of Sejanus, and informers against his mother and brothers, +producing the memorials which he had pretended to burn, and excusing the +cruelty of Tiberius as necessary, since it was impossible to question the +veracity of such a number of accusers [433]. He continually reproached +the whole equestrian order, as devoting themselves to nothing but acting +on the stage, and fighting as gladiators. Being incensed at the people's +applauding a party at the Circensian games in opposition to him, he +exclaimed, "I wish the Roman people had but one neck." [434] When +Tetrinius, the highwayman, was denounced, he said his persecutors too +were all Tetrinius's. Five Retiarii [435], in tunics, fighting in a +company, yielded without a struggle to the same number of opponents; and +being ordered to be slain, one of them taking up his lance again, killed +all the conquerors. This he lamented in a proclamation as a most cruel +butchery, and cursed all those who had borne the sight of it. + +XXXI. He used also to complain aloud of the state of the times, because +it was not rendered remarkable by any public (274) calamities; for, while +the reign of Augustus had been made memorable to posterity by the +disaster of Varus [436], and that of Tiberius by the fall of the theatre +at Fidenae [437], his was likely to pass into oblivion, from an +uninterrupted series of prosperity. And, at times, he wished for some +terrible slaughter of his troops, a famine, a pestilence, conflagrations, +or an earthquake. + +XXXII. Even in the midst of his diversions, while gaming or feasting, +this savage ferocity, both in his language and actions, never forsook +him. Persons were often put to the torture in his presence, whilst he +was dining or carousing. A soldier, who was an adept in the art of +beheading, used at such times to take off the heads of prisoners, who +were brought in for that purpose. At Puteoli, at the dedication of the +bridge which he planned, as already mentioned [438], he invited a number +of people to come to him from the shore, and then suddenly, threw them +headlong into the sea; thrusting down with poles and oars those who, to +save themselves, had got hold of the rudders of the ships. At Rome, in a +public feast, a slave having stolen some thin plates of silver with which +the couches were inlaid, he delivered him immediately to an executioner, +with orders to cut off his hands, and lead him round the guests, with +them hanging from his neck before his breast, and a label, signifying the +cause of his punishment. A gladiator who was practising with him, and +voluntarily threw himself at his feet, he stabbed with a poniard, and +then ran about with a palm branch in his hand, after the manner of those +who are victorious in the games. When a victim was to be offered upon an +altar, he, clad in the habit of the Popae [439], and holding the axe +aloft for a while, at last, instead of the animal, slaughtered an officer +who attended to cut up the sacrifice. And at a sumptuous entertainment, +he fell suddenly into a violent fit of laughter, and upon the consuls, +who reclined next to him, respectfully asking him the occasion, +"Nothing," replied he, "but that, upon a single nod of mine, you might +both have your throats cut." + +(275) XXXIII. Among many other jests, this was one: As he stood by the +statue of Jupiter, he asked Apelles, the tragedian, which of them he +thought was biggest? Upon his demurring about it, he lashed him most +severely, now and then commending his voice, whilst he entreated for +mercy, as being well modulated even when he was venting his grief. As +often as he kissed the neck of his wife or mistress, he would say, "So +beautiful a throat must be cut whenever I please;" and now and then he +would threaten to put his dear Caesonia to the torture, that he might +discover why he loved her so passionately. + +XXXIV. In his behaviour towards men of almost all ages, he discovered a +degree of jealousy and malignity equal to that of his cruelty and pride. +He so demolished and dispersed the statues of several illustrious +persons, which had been removed by Augustus, for want of room, from the +court of the Capitol into the Campus Martius, that it was impossible to +set them up again with their inscriptions entire. And, for the future, +he forbad any statue whatever to be erected without his knowledge and +leave. He had thoughts too of suppressing Homer's poems: "For why," said +he, "may not I do what Plato has done before me, who excluded him from +his commonwealth?" [440] He was likewise very near banishing the +writings and the busts of Virgil and Livy from all libraries; censuring +one of them as "a man of no genius and very little learning;" and the +other as "a verbose and careless historian." He often talked of the +lawyers as if he intended to abolish their profession. "By Hercules!" +he would say, "I shall put it out of their power to answer any questions +in law, otherwise than by referring to me!" + +XXXV. He took from the noblest persons in the city the ancient marks of +distinction used by their families; as the collar from Torquatus [441]; +from Cincinnatus the curl of (276) hair [442]; and from Cneius Pompey, +the surname of Great, belonging to that ancient family. Ptolemy, +mentioned before, whom he invited from his kingdom, and received with +great honours, he suddenly put to death, for no other reason, but because +he observed that upon entering the theatre, at a public exhibition, he +attracted the eyes of all the spectators, by the splendour of his purple +robe. As often as he met with handsome men, who had fine heads of hair, +he would order the back of their heads to be shaved, to make them appear +ridiculous. There was one Esius Proculus, the son of a centurion of the +first rank, who, for his great stature and fine proportions, was called +the Colossal. Him he ordered to be dragged from his seat in the arena, +and matched with a gladiator in light armour, and afterwards with another +completely armed; and upon his worsting them both, commanded him +forthwith to be bound, to be led clothed in rags up and down the streets +of the city, and, after being exhibited in that plight to the women, to +be then butchered. There was no man of so abject or mean condition, +whose excellency in any kind he did not envy. The Rex Nemorensis [443] +having many years enjoyed the honour of the priesthood, he procured a +still stronger antagonist to oppose him. One Porius, who fought in a +chariot [444], having been victorious in an exhibition, and in his joy +given freedom to a slave, was applauded so vehemently, that Caligula rose +in such haste from his seat, that, treading upon the hem of his toga, he +tumbled down the steps, full of indignation, (277) and crying out, "A +people who are masters of the world, pay greater respect to a gladiator +for a trifle, than to princes admitted amongst the gods, or to my own +majesty here present amongst them." + +XXXVI. He never had the least regard either to the chastity of his own +person, or that of others. He is said to have been inflamed with an +unnatural passion for Marcus Lepidus Mnester, an actor in pantomimes, and +for certain hostages; and to have engaged with them in the practice of +mutual pollution. Valerius Catullus, a young man of a consular family, +bawled aloud in public that he had been exhausted by him in that +abominable act. Besides his incest with his sisters, and his notorious +passion for Pyrallis, the prostitute, there was hardly any lady of +distinction with whom he did not make free. He used commonly to invite +them with their husbands to supper, and as they passed by the couch on +which he reclined at table, examine them very closely, like those who +traffic in slaves; and if any one from modesty held down her face, he +raised it up with his hand. Afterwards, as often as he was in the +humour, he would quit the room, send for her he liked best, and in a +short time return with marks of recent disorder about them. He would +then commend or disparage her in the presence of the company, recounting +the charms or defects of her person and behaviour in private. To some he +sent a divorce in the name of their absent husbands, and ordered it to be +registered in the public acts. + +XXXVII. In the devices of his profuse expenditure, he surpassed all the +prodigals that ever lived; inventing a new kind of bath, with strange +dishes and suppers, washing in precious unguents, both warm and cold, +drinking pearls of immense value dissolved in vinegar, and serving up for +his guests loaves and other victuals modelled in gold; often saying, +"that a man ought either to be a good economist or an emperor." Besides, +he scattered money to a prodigious amount among the people, from the top +of the Julian Basilica [445], during several days successively. He built +two ships with ten banks of oars, after the Liburnian fashion, the poops +of which blazed with jewels, and the sails were of various parti-colours. +They were fitted up with ample baths, galleries, and saloons, and +supplied with a great variety of vines and other fruit-trees. In these +he would sail in the day-time along the coast of Campania, feasting (278) +amidst dancing and concerts of music. In building his palaces and +villas, there was nothing he desired to effect so much, in defiance of +all reason, as what was considered impossible. Accordingly, moles were +formed in the deep and adverse sea [446], rocks of the hardest stone cut +away, plains raised to the height of mountains with a vast mass of earth, +and the tops of mountains levelled by digging; and all these were to be +executed with incredible speed, for the least remissness was a capital +offence. Not to mention particulars, he spent enormous sums, and the +whole treasures which had been amassed by Tiberius Caesar, amounting to +two thousand seven hundred millions of sesterces, within less than a +year. + +XXXVIII. Having therefore quite exhausted these funds, and being in want +of money, he had recourse to plundering the people, by every mode of +false accusation, confiscation, and taxation, that could be invented. He +declared that no one had any right to the freedom of Rome, although their +ancestors had acquired it for themselves and their posterity, unless they +were sons; for that none beyond that degree ought to be considered as +posterity. When the grants of the Divine Julius and Augustus were +produced to him, he only said, that he was very sorry they were obsolete +and out of date. He also charged all those with making false returns, +who, after the taking of the census, had by any means whatever increased +their property. He annulled the wills of all who had been centurions of +the first rank, as testimonies of their base ingratitude, if from the +beginning of Tiberius's reign they had not left either that prince or +himself their heir. He also set aside the wills of all others, if any +person only pretended to say, that they designed at their death to leave +Caesar their heir. The public becoming terrified at this proceeding, he +was now appointed joint-heir with their friends, and in the case of +parents with their children, by persons unknown to him. Those who lived +any considerable time after making such a will, he said, were only making +game of him; and accordingly he sent many of them poisoned cakes. He +used to try such causes himself; fixing previously the sum he proposed to +raise during the sitting, and, after he had secured it, quitting the +tribunal. Impatient of the least delay, he condemned by a single +sentence forty (279) persons, against whom there were different charges; +boasting to Caesonia when she awoke, "how much business he had dispatched +while she was taking her mid-day sleep." He exposed to sale by auction, +the remains of the apparatus used in the public spectacles; and exacted +such biddings, and raised the prices so high, that some of the purchasers +were ruined, and bled themselves to death. There is a well-known story +told of Aponius Saturninus, who happening to fall asleep as he sat on a +bench at the sale, Caius called out to the auctioneer, not to overlook +the praetorian personage who nodded to him so often; and accordingly the +salesman went on, pretending to take the nods for tokens of assent, until +thirteen gladiators were knocked down to him at the sum of nine millions +of sesterces [447], he being in total ignorance of what was doing. + +XXXIX. Having also sold in Gaul all the clothes, furniture, slaves, and +even freedmen belonging to his sisters, at prodigious prices, after their +condemnation, he was so much delighted with his gains, that he sent to +Rome for all the furniture of the old palace [448]; pressing for its +conveyance all the carriages let to hire in the city, with the horses and +mules belonging to the bakers, so that they often wanted bread at Rome; +and many who had suits at law in progress, lost their causes, because +they could not make their appearance in due time according to their +recognizances. In the sale of this furniture, every artifice of fraud +and imposition was employed. Sometimes he would rail at the bidders for +being niggardly, and ask them "if they were not ashamed to be richer than +he was?" at another, he would affect to be sorry that the property of +princes should be passing into the hands of private persons. He had +found out that a rich provincial had given two hundred thousand sesterces +to his chamberlains for an underhand invitation to his table, and he was +much pleased to find that honour valued at so high a rate. The day +following, as the same person was sitting at the sale, he sent him some +bauble, for which he told him he must pay two hundred thousand sesterces, +and "that he should sup with Caesar upon his own invitation." + +(280) XL. He levied new taxes, and such as were never before known, at +first by the publicans, but afterwards, because their profit was +enormous, by centurions and tribunes of the pretorian guards; no +description of property or persons being exempted from some kind of tax +or other. For all eatables brought into the city, a certain excise was +exacted: for all law-suits or trials in whatever court, the fortieth part +of the sum in dispute; and such as were convicted of compromising +litigations, were made liable to a penalty. Out of the daily wages of +the porters, he received an eighth, and from the gains of common +prostitutes, what they received for one favour granted. There was a +clause in the law, that all bawds who kept women for prostitution or +sale, should be liable to pay, and that marriage itself should not be +exempted. + +XLI. These taxes being imposed, but the act by which they were levied +never submitted to public inspection, great grievances were experienced +from the want of sufficient knowledge of the law. At length, on the +urgent demands of the Roman people, he published the law, but it was +written in a very small hand, and posted up in a corner, so that no one +could make a copy of it. To leave no sort of gain untried, he opened +brothels in the Palatium, with a number of cells, furnished suitably to +the dignity of the place; in which married women and free-born youths +were ready for the reception of visitors. He sent likewise his +nomenclators about the forums and courts, to invite people of all ages, +the old as well as the young, to his brothel, to come and satisfy their +lusts; and he was ready to lend his customers money upon interest; clerks +attending to take down their names in public, as persons who contributed +to the emperor's revenue. Another method of raising money, which he +thought not below his notice, was gaming; which, by the help of lying and +perjury, he turned to considerable account. Leaving once the management +of his play to his partner in the game, he stepped into the court, and +observing two rich Roman knights passing by, he ordered them immediately +to be seized, and their estates confiscated. Then returning, in great +glee, he boasted that he had never made a better throw in his life. + +XLII. After the birth of his daughter, complaining of his (281) poverty, +and the burdens to which he was subjected, not only as an emperor, but a +father, he made a general collection for her maintenance and fortune. He +likewise gave public notice, that he would receive new-year's gifts on +the calends of January following; and accordingly stood in the vestibule +of his house, to clutch the presents which people of all ranks threw down +before him by handfuls and lapfuls. At last, being seized with an +invincible desire of feeling money, taking off his slippers, he +repeatedly walked over great heaps of gold coin spread upon the spacious +floor, and then laying himself down, rolled his whole body in gold over +and over again. + +XLIII. Only once in his life did he take an active part in military +affairs, and then not from any set purpose, but during his journey to +Mevania, to see the grove and river of Clitumnus [449]. Being +recommended to recruit a body of Batavians, who attended him, he resolved +upon an expedition into Germany. Immediately he drew together several +legions, and auxiliary forces from all quarters, and made every where new +levies with the utmost rigour. Collecting supplies of all kinds, such as +never had been assembled upon the like occasion, he set forward on his +march, and pursued it sometimes with so much haste and precipitation, +that the pretorian cohorts were obliged, contrary to custom, to pack +their standards on horses or mules, and so follow him. At other times, +he would march so slow and luxuriously, that he was carried in a litter +by eight men; ordering the roads to be swept by the people of the +neighbouring towns, and sprinkled with water to lay the dust. + +XLIV. On arriving at the camp, in order to show himself an active +general, and severe disciplinarian, he cashiered the lieutenants who came +up late with the auxiliary forces from different quarters. In reviewing +the army, he deprived of their companies most of the centurions of the +first rank, who had now served their legal time in the wars, and some +whose time would have expired in a few days; alleging against them their +age and infirmity; and railing at the covetous disposition (282) of the +rest of them, he reduced the bounty due to those who had served out their +time to the sum of six thousand sesterces. Though he only received the +submission of Adminius, the son of Cunobeline, a British king, who being +driven from his native country by his father, came over to him with a +small body of troops [450], yet, as if the whole island had been +surrendered to him, he dispatched magnificent letters to Rome, ordering +the bearers to proceed in their carriages directly up to the forum and +the senate-house, and not to deliver the letters but to the consuls in +the temple of Mars, and in the presence of a full assembly of the +senators. + +XLV. Soon after this, there being no hostilities, he ordered a few +Germans of his guard to be carried over and placed in concealment on the +other side of the Rhine, and word to be brought him after dinner, that an +enemy was advancing with great impetuosity. This being accordingly done, +he immediately threw himself, with his friends, and a party of the +pretorian knights, into the adjoining wood, where lopping branches from +the trees, and forming trophies of them, he returned by torch-light, +upbraiding those who did not follow him, with timorousness and cowardice; +but he presented the companions, and sharers of his victory with crowns +of a new form, and under a new name, having the sun, moon, and stars +represented on them, and which he called Exploratoriae. Again, some +hostages were by his order taken from the school, and privately sent off; +upon notice of which he immediately rose from table, pursued them with +the cavalry, as if they had run away, and coming up with them, brought +them back in fetters; proceeding to an extravagant pitch of ostentation +likewise in this military comedy. Upon his again sitting down to table, +it being reported to him that the troops were all reassembled, he ordered +them to sit down as they were, in their armour, animating them in the +words of that well-known verse of Virgil: + + (283) Durate, et vosmet rebus servate secundis.--Aen. 1. + Bear up, and save yourselves for better days. + +In the mean time, he reprimanded the senate and people of Rome in a very +severe proclamation, "For revelling and frequenting the diversions of the +circus and theatre, and enjoying themselves at their villas, whilst their +emperor was fighting, and exposing himself to the greatest dangers." + +XLVI. At last, as if resolved to make war in earnest, he drew up his +army upon the shore of the ocean, with his balistae and other engines of +war, and while no one could imagine what he intended to do, on a sudden +commanded them to gather up the sea shells, and fill their helmets, and +the folds of their dress with them, calling them "the spoils of the ocean +due to the Capitol and the Palatium." As a monument of his success, he +raised a lofty tower, upon which, as at Pharos [451], he ordered lights +to be burnt in the night-time, for the direction of ships at sea; and +then promising the soldiers a donative of a hundred denarii [452] a man, +as if he had surpassed the most eminent examples of generosity, "Go your +ways," said he, "and be merry: go, ye are rich." + +XLVII. In making preparations for his triumph, besides the prisoners and +deserters from the barbarian armies, he picked out the men of greatest +stature in all Gaul, such as he said were fittest to grace a triumph, +with some of the chiefs, and reserved them to appear in the procession; +obliging them not only to dye their hair yellow, and let it grow long, +but to learn the German language, and assume the names commonly used in +that country. He ordered likewise the gallies in which he had entered +the ocean, to be conveyed to Rome a great part of the way by land, and +wrote to his comptrollers in the city, "to make proper preparations for a +triumph against (284) his arrival, at as small expense as possible; but +on a scale such as had never been seen before, since they had full power +over the property of every one." + +XLVIII. Before he left the province, he formed a design of the most +horrid cruelty--to massacre the legions which had mutinied upon the death +of Augustus, for seizing and detaining by force his father, Germanicus, +their commander, and himself, then an infant, in the camp. Though he was +with great difficulty dissuaded from this rash attempt, yet neither the +most urgent entreaties nor representations could prevent him from +persisting in the design of decimating these legions. Accordingly, he +ordered them to assemble unarmed, without so much as their swords; and +then surrounded them with armed horse. But finding that many of them, +suspecting that violence was intended, were making off, to arm in their +own defence, he quitted the assembly as fast as he could, and immediately +marched for Rome; bending now all his fury against the senate, whom he +publicly threatened, to divert the general attention from the clamour +excited by his disgraceful conduct. Amongst other pretexts of offence, +he complained that he was defrauded of a triumph, which was justly his +due, though he had just before forbidden, upon pain of death, any honour +to be decreed him. + +XLIX. In his march he was waited upon by deputies from the senatorian +order, entreating him to hasten his return. He replied to them, "I will +come, I will come, and this with me," striking at the same time the hilt +of his sword. He issued likewise this proclamation: "I am coming, but +for those only who wish for me, the equestrian order and the people; for +I shall no longer treat the senate as their fellow-citizen or prince." +He forbad any of the senators to come to meet him; and either abandoning +or deferring his triumph, he entered the city in ovation on his birth- +day. Within four months from this period he was slain, after he had +perpetrated enormous crimes, and while he was meditating the execution, +if possible, of still greater. He had entertained a design of removing +to Antium, and afterwards to Alexandria; having first cut off the flower +of the equestrian and senatorian orders. This is placed beyond all +question, by two books which were found in his cabinet (285) under +different titles; one being called the sword, and the other, the dagger. +They both contained private marks, and the names of those who were +devoted to death. There was also found a large chest, filled with a +variety of poisons which being afterwards thrown into the sea by order of +Claudius, are said to have so infected the waters, that the fish were +poisoned, and cast dead by the tide upon the neighbouring shores. + +L. He was tall, of a pale complexion, ill-shaped, his neck and legs very +slender, his eyes and temples hollow, his brows broad and knit, his hair +thin, and the crown of the head bald. The other parts of his body were +much covered with hair. On this account, it was reckoned a capital crime +for any person to look down from above, as he was passing by, or so much +as to name a goat. His countenance, which was naturally hideous and +frightful, he purposely rendered more so, forming it before a mirror into +the most horrible contortions. He was crazy both in body and mind, being +subject, when a boy, to the falling sickness. When he arrived at the age +of manhood, he endured fatigue tolerably well; but still, occasionally, +he was liable to a faintness, during which he remained incapable of any +effort. He was not insensible of the disorder of his mind, and sometimes +had thoughts of retiring to clear his brain [453]. It is believed that +his wife Caesonia administered to him a love potion which threw him into +a frenzy. What most of all disordered him, was want of sleep, for he +seldom had more than three or four hours' rest in a night; and even then +his sleep was not sound, but disturbed by strange dreams; fancying, among +other things, that a form representing the ocean spoke to him. Being +therefore often weary with lying awake so long, sometimes he sat up in +his bed, at others, walked in the longest porticos about the house, and +from time to time, invoked and looked out for the approach of day. + +LI. To this crazy constitution of his mind may, I think, very justly be +ascribed two faults which he had, of a nature directly repugnant one to +the other, namely, an excessive confidence and the most abject timidity. +For he, who affected so (286) much to despise the gods, was ready to shut +his eyes, and wrap up his head in his cloak at the slightest storm of +thunder and lightning; and if it was violent, he got up and hid himself +under his bed. In his visit to Sicily, after ridiculing many strange +objects which that country affords, he ran away suddenly in the night +from Messini, terrified by the smoke and rumbling at the summit of Mount +Aetna. And though in words he was very valiant against the barbarians, +yet upon passing a narrow defile in Germany in his light car, surrounded +by a strong body of his troops, some one happening to say, "There would +be no small consternation amongst us, if an enemy were to appear," he +immediately mounted his horse, and rode towards the bridges in great +haste; but finding them blocked up with camp-followers and baggage- +waggons, he was in such a hurry, that he caused himself to be carried in +men's hands over the heads of the crowd. Soon afterwards, upon hearing +that the Germans were again in rebellion, he prepared to quit Rome, and +equipped a fleet; comforting himself with this consideration, that if the +enemy should prove victorious, and possess themselves of the heights of +the Alps, as the Cimbri [454] had done, or of the city, as the Senones +[455] formerly did, he should still have in reserve the transmarine +provinces [456]. Hence it was, I suppose, that it occurred to his +assassins, to invent the story intended to pacify the troops who mutinied +at his death, that he had laid violent hands upon himself, in a fit of +terror occasioned by the news brought him of the defeat of his army. + +LII. In the fashion of his clothes, shoes, and all the rest of his +dress, he did not wear what was either national, or properly civic, or +peculiar to the male sex, or appropriate to mere mortals. He often +appeared abroad in a short coat of stout cloth, richly embroidered and +blazing with jewels, in a tunic with sleeves, and with bracelets upon his +arms; sometimes all in silks and (287) habited like a woman; at other +times in the crepidae or buskins; sometimes in the sort of shoes used by +the light-armed soldiers, or in the sock used by women, and commonly with +a golden beard fixed to his chin, holding in his hand a thunderbolt, a +trident, or a caduceus, marks of distinction belonging to the gods only. +Sometimes, too, he appeared in the habit of Venus. He wore very commonly +the triumphal ornaments, even before his expedition, and sometimes the +breast-plate of Alexander the Great, taken out of his coffin. [457] + +LIII. With regard to the liberal sciences, he was little conversant in +philology, but applied himself with assiduity to the study of eloquence, +being indeed in point of enunciation tolerably elegant and ready; and in +his perorations, when he was moved to anger, there was an abundant flow +of words and periods. In speaking, his action was vehement, and his +voice so strong, that he was heard at a great distance. When winding up +an harangue, he threatened to draw "the sword of his lucubration," +holding a loose and smooth style in such contempt, that he said Seneca, +who was then much admired, "wrote only detached essays," and that "his +language was nothing but sand without lime." He often wrote answers to +the speeches of successful orators; and employed himself in composing +accusations or vindications of eminent persons, who were impeached before +the senate; and gave his vote for or against the party accused, according +to his success in speaking, inviting the equestrian order, by +proclamation, to hear him. + +LIV. He also zealously applied himself to the practice of several other +arts of different kinds, such as fencing, charioteering, singing, and +dancing. In the first of these, he practised with the weapons used in +war; and drove the chariot in circuses built in several places. He was +so extremely fond of singing and dancing, that he could not refrain in +the theatre from singing with the tragedians, and imitating the gestures +of the actors, either by way of applause or correction. A night +exhibition which he had ordered the day he was slain, was thought to be +intended for no other reason, than to take the opportunity afforded by +the licentiousness of the season, to make his first appearance upon the +stage. Sometimes, also, (288) he danced in the night. Summoning once to +the Palatium, in the second watch of the night [458], three men of +consular rank, who feared the words from the message, he placed them on +the proscenium of the stage, and then suddenly came bursting out, with a +loud noise of flutes and castanets [459], dressed in a mantle and tunic +reaching down to his heels. Having danced out a song, he retired. Yet +he who had acquired such dexterity in other exercises, never learnt to +swim. + +LV. Those for whom he once conceived a regard, he favoured even to +madness. He used to kiss Mnester, the pantomimic actor, publicly in the +theatre; and if any person made the least noise while he was dancing, he +would order him to be dragged from his seat, and scourged him with his +own hand. A Roman knight once making some bustle, he sent him, by a +centurion, an order to depart forthwith for Ostia [460], and carry a +letter from him to king Ptolemy in Mauritania. The letter was comprised +in these words: "Do neither good nor harm to the bearer." He made some +gladiators captains of his German guards. He deprived the gladiators +called Mirmillones of some of their arms. One Columbus coming off with +victory in a combat, but being slightly wounded, he ordered some poison +to be infused in the wound, which he thence called Columbinum. For thus +it was certainly named with his own hand in a list of other poisons. He +was so extravagantly fond of the party of charioteers whose colours were +green [461], that he supped and lodged for some time constantly in the +stable where their horses were kept. At a certain revel, he made a +present of two millions of sesterces to one Cythicus, a driver of a +chariot. The day before the Circensian games, he used to send his +soldiers to enjoin silence in the (289) neighbourhood, that the repose of +his horse Incitatus [462] might not be disturbed. For this favourite +animal, besides a marble stable, an ivory manger, purple housings, and a +jewelled frontlet, he appointed a house, with a retinue of slaves, and +fine furniture, for the reception of such as were invited in the horse's +name to sup with him. It is even said that he intended to make him +consul. + +LVI. In this frantic and savage career, numbers had formed designs for +cutting him off; but one or two conspiracies being discovered, and others +postponed for want of opportunity, at last two men concerted a plan +together, and accomplished their purpose; not without the privity of some +of the greatest favourites amongst his freedmen, and the prefects of the +pretorian guards; because, having been named, though falsely, as +concerned in one conspiracy against him, they perceived that they were +suspected and become objects of his hatred. For he had immediately +endeavoured to render them obnoxious to the soldiery, drawing his sword, +and declaring, "That he would kill himself if they thought him worthy of +death;" and ever after he was continually accusing them to one another, +and setting them all mutually at variance. The conspirators having +resolved to fall upon him as he returned at noon from the Palatine games, +Cassius Chaerea, tribune of the pretorian guards, claimed the part of +making the onset. This Chaerea was now an elderly man, and had been +often reproached by Caius for effeminacy. When he came for the +watchword, the latter would give "Priapus," or "Venus;" and if on any +occasion he returned thanks, would offer him his hand to kiss, making +with his fingers an obscene gesture. + +LVII. His approaching fate was indicated by many prodigies. The statue +of Jupiter at Olympia, which he had ordered to be taken down and brought +to Rome, suddenly burst out into such a violent fit of laughter, that, +the machines employed in the work giving way, the workmen took to their +heels. When this accident happened, there came up a man named Cassius, +who said that he was commanded in a dream to sacrifice a bull to Jupiter. +The Capitol at Capua was (290) struck with lightning upon the ides of +March [15th March] as was also, at Rome, the apartment of the chief +porter of the Palatium. Some construed the latter into a presage that +the master of the place was in danger from his own guards; and the other +they regarded as a sign, that an illustrious person would be cut off, as +had happened before on that day. Sylla, the astrologer, being, consulted +by him respecting his nativity, assured him, "That death would +unavoidably and speedily befall him." The oracle of Fortune at Antium +likewise forewarned him of Cassius; on which account he had given orders +for putting to death Cassius Longinus, at that time proconsul of Asia, +not considering that Chaerea bore also that name. The day preceding his +death he dreamt that he was standing in heaven near the throne of +Jupiter, who giving him a push with the great toe of his right foot, he +fell headlong upon the earth. Some things which happened the very day of +his death, and only a little before it, were likewise considered as +ominous presages of that event. Whilst he was at sacrifice, he was +bespattered with the blood of a flamingo. And Mnester, the pantomimic +actor, performed in a play, which the tragedian Neoptolemus had formerly +acted at the games in which Philip, the king of Macedon, was slain. And +in the piece called Laureolus, in which the principal actor, running out +in a hurry, and falling, vomited blood, several of the inferior actors +vying with each other to give the best specimen of their art, made the +whole stage flow with blood. A spectacle had been purposed to be +performed that night, in which the fables of the infernal regions were to +be represented by Egyptians and Ethiopians. + +LVIII. On the ninth of the calends of February [24th January], and about +the seventh hour of the day, after hesitating whether he should rise to +dinner, as his stomach was disordered by what he had eaten the day +before, at last, by the advice of his friends, he came forth. In the +vaulted passage through which he had to pass, were some boys of noble +extraction, who had been brought from Asia to act upon the stage, waiting +for him in a private corridor, and he stopped to see and speak to them; +and had not the leader of the party said that he was suffering from cold, +he would have gone back, and made them act immediately. Respecting what +followed, (291) two different accounts are given. Some say, that, whilst +he was speaking to the boys, Chaerea came behind him, and gave him a +heavy blow on the neck with his sword, first crying out, "Take this:" +that then a tribune, by name Cornelius Sabinus, another of the +conspirators, ran him through the breast. Others say, that the crowd +being kept at a distance by some centurions who were in the plot, Sabinus +came, according to custom, for the word, and that Caius gave him +"Jupiter," upon which Chaerea cried out, "Be it so!" and then, on his +looking round, clove one of his jaws with a blow. As he lay on the +ground, crying out that he was still alive [463], the rest dispatched him +with thirty wounds. For the word agreed upon among them all was, "Strike +again." Some likewise ran their swords through his privy parts. Upon +the first bustle, the litter bearers came running in with their poles to +his assistance, and, immediately afterwards, his German body guards, who +killed some of the assassins, and also some senators who had no concern +in the affair. + +LIX. He lived twenty-nine years, and reigned three years, ten months, +and eight days. His body was carried privately into the Lamian Gardens +[464], where it was half burnt upon a pile hastily raised, and then had +some earth carelessly thrown over it. It was afterwards disinterred by +his sisters, on their return from banishment, burnt to ashes, and buried. +Before this was done, it is well known that the keepers of the gardens +were greatly disturbed by apparitions; and that not a night passed +without some terrible alarm or other in the house where he was slain, +until it was destroyed by fire. His wife Caesonia was killed with him, +being stabbed by a centurion; and his daughter had her brains knocked out +against a wall. + +LX. Of the miserable condition of those times, any person (292) may +easily form an estimate from the following circumstances. When his death +was made public, it was not immediately credited. People entertained a +suspicion that a report of his being killed had been contrived and spread +by himself, with the view of discovering how they stood affected towards +him. Nor had the conspirators fixed upon any one to succeed him. The +senators were so unanimous in their resolution to assert the liberty of +their country, that the consuls assembled them at first not in the usual +place of meeting, because it was named after Julius Caesar, but in the +Capitol. Some proposed to abolish the memory of the Caesars, and level +their temples with the ground. It was particularly remarked on this +occasion, that all the Caesars, who had the praenomen of Caius, died by +the sword, from the Caius Caesar who was slain in the times of Cinna. + + * * * * * * + +Unfortunately, a great chasm in the Annals of Tacitus, at this period, +precludes all information from that historian respecting the reign of +Caligula; but from what he mentions towards the close of the preceding +chapter, it is evident that Caligula was forward to seize the reins of +government, upon the death of Tiberius, whom, though he rivalled him in +his vices, he was far from imitating in his dissimulation. Amongst the +people, the remembrance of Germanicus' virtues cherished for his family +an attachment which was probably, increased by its misfortunes; and they +were anxious to see revived in the son the popularity of the father. +Considering, however, that Caligula's vicious disposition was already +known, and that it had even been an inducement with Tiberius to procure +his succession, in order that it might prove a foil to his own memory; it +is surprising that no effort was made at this juncture to shake off the +despotism which had been so intolerable in the last reign, and restore +the ancient liberty of the republic. Since the commencement of the +imperial dominion, there never had been any period so favourable for a +counter-revolution as the present crisis. There existed now no Livia, +to influence the minds of the senate and people in respect of the +government; nor was there any other person allied to the family of +Germanicus, whose countenance or intrigues could promote the views of +Caligula. He himself was now only in the twenty-fifth year of his age, +was totally inexperienced in the administration of public affairs, had +never performed even the smallest service to his country, and was +generally known to be of a character which (293) disgraced his +illustrious descent. Yet, in spite of all these circumstances, such was +the destiny of Rome, that his accession afforded joy to the soldiers, who +had known him in his childhood, and to the populace in the capital, as +well as the people in the provinces, who were flattered with the delusive +expectation of receiving a prince who should adorn the throne with the +amiable virtues of Germanicus. + +It is difficult to say, whether weakness of understanding, or corruption +of morals, were more conspicuous in the character of Caligula. He seems +to have discovered from his earliest years an innate depravity of mind, +which was undoubtedly much increased by defect of education. He had lost +both his parents at an early period of life; and from Tiberius' own +character, as well as his views in training the person who should succeed +him on the throne, there is reason to think, that if any attention +whatever was paid to the education of Caligula, it was directed to +vitiate all his faculties and passions, rather than to correct and +improve them. If such was really the object, it was indeed prosecuted +with success. + +The commencement, however, of his reign was such as by no means +prognosticated its subsequent transition. The sudden change of his +conduct, the astonishing mixture of imbecility and presumption, of moral +turpitude and frantic extravagance, which he afterwards evinced; such as +rolling himself over heaps of gold, his treatment of his horse Incitatus, +and his design of making him consul, seem to justify a suspicion that his +brain had actually been affected, either by the potion, said to have been +given him by his wife Caesonia, or otherwise. Philtres, or love-potions, +as they were called, were frequent in those times; and the people +believed that they operated upon the mind by a mysterious and sympathetic +power. It is, however, beyond a doubt, that their effects were produced +entirely by the action of their physical qualities upon the organs of the +body. They were usually made of the satyrion, which, according to Pliny, +was a provocative. They were generally given by women to their husbands +at bed-time; and it was necessary towards their successful operation, +that the parties should sleep together. This circumstance explains the +whole mystery. The philtres were nothing more than medicines of a +stimulating quality, which, after exciting violent, but temporary +effects, enfeebled the constitution, and occasioned nervous disorders, by +which the mental faculties, as well as the corporeal, might be injured. +That this was really the case with Caligula, seems probable, not only +from the falling sickness, to which he was subject, but from the habitual +wakefulness of which he complained. + +(294) The profusion of this emperor, during his short reign of three +years and ten months, is unexampled in history. In the midst of profound +peace, without any extraordinary charges either civil or military, he +expended, in less than one year, besides the current revenue of the +empire, the sum of 21,796,875 pounds sterling, which had been left by +Tiberius at his death. To supply the extravagance of future years, new +and exorbitant taxes were imposed upon the people, and those too on the +necessaries of life. There existed now amongst the Romans every motive +that could excite a general indignation against the government; yet such +was still the dread of imperial power, though vested in the hands of so +weak and despicable a sovereign, that no insurrection was attempted, nor +any extensive conspiracy formed; but the obnoxious emperor fell at last a +sacrifice to a few centurions of his own guard. + +This reign was of too short duration to afford any new productions in +literature; but, had it been extended to a much longer period, the +effects would probably have been the same. Polite learning never could +flourish under an emperor who entertained a design of destroying the +writings of Virgil and Livy. It is fortunate that these, and other +valuable productions of antiquity, were too widely diffused over the +world, and too carefully preserved, to be in danger of perishing through +the frenzy of this capricious barbarian. + + + + +FOOTNOTES: + + +[377] A.U.C. 757. + +[378] A.U.C. 765. + +[379] A.U.C. 770. + +[380] A.U.C. 767. + +[381] A.U.C. 771. + +[382] This opinion, like some others which occur in Suetonius, may +justly be considered as a vulgar error; and if the heart was found +entire, it must have been owing to the weakness of the fire, rather than +to any quality communicated to the organ, of resisting the power of that +element. + +[383] The magnificent title of King of Kings has been assumed, at +different times, by various potentates. The person to whom it is here +applied, is the king of Parthia. Under the kings of Persia, and even +under the Syro-Macedonian kings, this country was of no consideration, +and reckoned a part of Hyrcania. But upon the revolt of the East from +the Syro-Macedonians, at the instigation of Arsaces, the Parthians are +said to have conquered eighteen kingdoms. + +[384] A.U.C. 765. + +[385] It does not appear that Gaetulicus wrote any historical work, but +Martial, Pliny, and others, describe him as a respectable poet. + +[386] Supra Confluentes. The German tribe here mentioned occupied the +country between the Rhine and the Meuse, and gave their name to Treves +(Treviri), its chief town. Coblentz had its ancient name of Confluentes, +from its standing at the junction of the two rivers. The exact site of +the village in which Caligula was born is not known. Cluverius +conjectures that it may be Capelle. + +[387] Chap. vii. + +[388] The name was derived from Caliga, a kind of boot, studded with +nails, used by the common soldiers in the Roman army. + +[389] According to Tacitus, who gives an interesting account of these +occurrences, Treves was the place of refuge to which the young Caius was +conveyed.--Annal. i. + +[390] In c. liv. of TIBERIUS, we have seen that his brothers Drusus and +Nero fell a sacrifice to these artifices. + +[391] Tiberius, who was the adopted father of Germanicus. + +[392] Natriceus, a water-snake, so called from nato, to swim. The +allusion is probably to Caligula's being reared in the island of Capri. + +[393] As Phaeton is said to have set the world on fire. + +[394] See the Life of TIBERIUS, c. lxxiii. + +[395] His name also was Tiberius. See before, TIBERIUS, c. lxxvi. + +[396] Procida, Ischia, Capri, etc. + +[397] The eagle was the standard of the legion, each cohort of which had +its own ensign, with different devices; and there were also little images +of the emperors, to which divine honours were paid. + +[398] See before, cc. liii. liv. + +[399] See TIBERIUS, c. x.; and note. + +[400] The mausoleum built by Augustus, mentioned before in his Life, +c. C. + +[401] The Carpentum was a carriage, commonly with two wheels, and an +arched covering, but sometimes without a covering; used chiefly by +matrons, and named, according to Ovid, from Carmenta, the mother of +Evander. Women were prohibited the use of it in the second Punic war, by +the Oppian law, which, however, was soon after repealed. This chariot +was also used to convey the images of the illustrious women to whom +divine honours were paid, in solemn processions after their death, as in +the present instance. It is represented on some of the sestertii. + +[402] See cc. xiv. and xxiii. of the present History. + +[403] Ib. cc. vii. and xxiv. + +[404] Life of TIBERIUS, c. xliii. + +[405] See the Life of AUGUSTUS, cc. xxviii. and ci. + +[406] Julius Caesar had shared it with them (c. xli.). Augustus had +only kept up the form (c. xl.). Tiberius deprived the Roman people of +the last remains of the freedom of suffrage. + +[407] The city of Rome was founded on the twenty-first day of April, +which was called Palilia, from Pales, the goddess of shepherds, and ever +afterwards kept as a festival. + +[408] A.U.C. 790. + +[409] A.U.C. 791. + +[410] A.U.C. 793. + +[411] A.U.C. 794. + +[412] The Saturnalia, held in honour of Saturn, was, amongst the Romans, +the most celebrated festival of the whole year, and held in the month of +December. All orders of the people then devoted themselves to mirth and +feasting; friends sent presents to one another; and masters treated their +slaves upon a footing of equality. At first it was held only for one +day, afterwards for three days, and was now prolonged by Caligula's +orders. + +[413] See AUGUSTUS, cc. xxix and xliii. The amphitheatre of Statilius +Taurus is supposed to have stood in the Campus Martius, and the elevation +now called the Monte Citorio, to have been formed by its ruins. + +[414] Supposed to be a house, so called, adjoining the Circus, in which +some of the emperor's attendants resided. + +[415] Now Puzzuoli, on the shore of the bay of Naples. Every one knows +what wealth was lavished here and at Baiae, on public works and the +marine villas of the luxurious Romans, in the times of the emperors. + +[416] The original terminus of the Appian Way was at Brundusium. This +mole formed what we should call a nearer station to Rome, on the same +road, the ruins of which are still to be seen. St. Paul landed there. + +[417] Essedis: they were light cars, on two wheels, constructed to carry +only one person; invented, it is supposed, by the Belgians, and by them +introduced into Britain, where they were used in war. The Romans, after +their expeditions in Gaul and Britain, adopted this useful vehicle +instead of their more cumbrous RHEDA, not only for journeys where +dispatch was required, but in solemn processions, and for ordinary +purposes. They seem to have become the fashion, for Ovid tells us that +these little carriages were driven by young ladies, themselves holding +the reins, Amor. xi. 16. 49. + +[418] Suetonius flourished about seventy years after this, in the reign +of Adrian, and derived many of the anecdotes which give interest to his +history from cotemporary persons. See CLAUDIUS, c. xv. etc. + +[419] See TIBERIUS, c. xlvii. and AUGUSTUS, c. xxxi. + +[420] This aqueduct, commenced by Caligula and completed by Claudian, a +truly imperial work, conveyed the waters of two streams to Rome, +following the valley of the Anio from above Tivoli. The course of one of +these rivulets was forty miles, and it was carried on arches, immediately +after quitting its source, for a distance of three miles. The other, the +Anio Novus, also began on arches, which continued for upwards of twelve +miles. After this, both were conveyed under ground; but at the distance +of six miles from the city, they were united, and carried upon arches all +the rest of the way. This is the most perfect of all the ancient +aqueducts; and it has been repaired, so as to convey the Acqua Felice, +one of the three streams which now supply Rome. See CLAUDIUS, c. xx. + +[421] By Septa, Suetonius here means the huts or barracks of the +pretorian camp, which was a permanent and fortified station. It stood to +the east of the Viminal and Quirinal hills, between the present Porta Pia +and S. Lorenzo, where there is a quadrangular projection in the city +walls marking the site. The remains of the Amphitheatrum Castrense stand +between the Porta Maggiore and S. Giovanni, formerly without the ancient +walls, but now included in the line. It is all of brick, even the +Corinthian pillars, and seems to have been but a rude structure, suited +to the purpose for which it was built, the amusement of the soldiers, and +gymnastic exercises. For this purpose they were used to construct +temporary amphitheatres near the stations in the distant provinces, which +were not built of stone or brick, but hollow circular spots dug in the +ground, round which the spectators sat on the declivity, on ranges of +seats cut in the sod. Many vestiges of this kind have been traced in +Britain. + +[422] The Isthmus of Corinth; an enterprize which had formerly been +attempted by Demetrius, and which was also projected by Julius Caesar, +c. xliv., and Nero, c. xix.; but they all failed of accomplishing it. + +[423] On the authority of Dio Cassius and the Salmatian manuscript, this +verse from Homer is substituted for the common reading, which is, + + Eis gaian Danaon perao se. + Into the land of Greece I will transport thee. + +[424] Alluding, in the case of Romulus, to the rape of the Sabines; and +in that of Augustus to his having taken Livia from her husband.-- +AUGUSTUS, c. lxii. + +[425] Selene was the daughter of Mark Antony by Cleopatra. + +[426] See c. xii. + +[427] The vast area of the Roman amphitheatres had no roof, but the +audience were protected against the sun and bad weather by temporary +hangings stretched over it. + +[428] A proverbial expression, meaning, without distinction. + +[429] The islands off the coast of Italy, in the Tuscan sea and in the +Archipelago, were the usual places of banishment. See before, c. xv.; +and in TIBERIUS, c. liv., etc. + +[430] Anticyra, an island in the Archipelago, was famous for the growth +of hellebore. This plant being considered a remedy for insanity, the +proverb arose--Naviga in Anticyram, as much as to say, "You are mad." + +[431] Meaning the province in Asia, called Galatia, from the Gauls who +conquered it, and occupied it jointly with the Greek colonists. + +[432] A quotation from the tragedy of Atreus, by L. Attius, mentioned by +Cicero. Off. i. 28. + +[433] See before, AUGUSTUS, c. lxxi. + +[434] These celebrated words are generally attributed to Nero; but Dio +and Seneca agree with Suetonius in ascribing them to Caligula. + +[435] Gladiators were distinguished by their armour and manner of +fighting. Some were called Secutores, whose arms were a helmet, a +shield, a sword, or a leaden ball. Others, the usual antagonists of the +former, were named Retiarii. A combatant of this class was dressed in a +short tunic, but wore nothing on his head. He carried in his left hand a +three-pointed lance, called Tridens or Fuscina, and in his right, a net, +with which he attempted to entangle his adversary, by casting it over his +head, and suddenly drawing it together; when with his trident he usually +slew him. But if he missed his aim, by throwing the net either too short +or too far, he instantly betook himself to flight, and endeavoured to +prepare his net for a second cast. His antagonist, in the mean time, +pursued, to prevent his design, by dispatching him. + +[436] AUGUSTUS, c. xxiii. + +[437] TIBERIUS, c. xl. + +[438] See before, c. xix. + +[439] Popae were persons who, at public sacrifices, led the victim to +the altar. They had their clothes tucked up, and were naked to the +waist. The victim was led with a slack rope, that it might not seem to +he brought by force, which was reckoned a bad omen. For the same reason, +it was allowed to stand loose before the altar, and it was thought a very +unfavourable sign if it got away. + +[440] Plato de Repub. xi.; and Cicero and Tull. xlviii. + +[441] The collar of gold, taken from the gigantic Gaul who was killed in +single combat by Titus Manlius, called afterwards Torquatus, was worn by +the lineal male descendants of the Manlian family. But that illustrious +race becoming extinct, the badge of honour, as well as the cognomen of +Torquatus, was revived by Augustus, in the person of Caius Nonius +Asprenas, who perhaps claimed descent by the female line from the family +of Manlius. + +[442] Cincinnatus signifies one who has curled or crisped hair, from +which Livy informs us that Lucius Quintus derived his cognomen. But of +what badge of distinction Caligula deprived the family of the Cincinnati, +unless the natural feature was hereditary, and he had them all shaved--a +practice we find mentioned just below--history does not inform us, nor +are we able to conjecture. + +[443] The priest of Diana Nemorensis obtained and held his office by his +prowess in arms, having to slay his competitors, and offer human +sacrifices, and was called Rex from his reigning paramount in the +adjacent forest. The temple of this goddess of the chase stood among the +deep woods which clothe the declivities of the Alban Mount, at a short +distance from Rome--nemus signifying a grove. Julius Caesar had a +residence there. See his Life, c. lxxi. The venerable woods are still +standing, and among them chestnut-trees, which, from their enormous girth +and vast apparent age, we may suppose to have survived from the era of +the Caesars. The melancholy and sequestered lake of Nemi, deep set in a +hollow of the surrounding woods, with the village on its brink, still +preserve the name of Nemi. + +[444] An Essedarian was one who fought from an Esseda, the light +carriage described in a former note, p. 264. + +[445] See before, JULIUS, c. x., and note. + +[446] Particularly at Baiae, see before, c. xix. The practice of +encroaching on the sea on this coast, commenced before,-- + + Jactis in altum molibus.--Hor. Od. B. iii. 1. 34. + +[447] Most of the gladiators were slaves. + +[448] The part of the Palatium built or occupied by Augustus and +Tiberius. + +[449] Mevania, a town of Umbria. Its present name is Bevagna. The +Clitumnus is a river in the same country, celebrated for the breed of +white cattle, which feed in the neighbouring pastures. + +[450] Caligula appears to have meditated an expedition to Britain at the +time of his pompous ovation at Puteoli, mentioned in c. xiii.; but if +Julius Caesar could gain no permanent footing in this island, it was very +improbable that a prince of Caligula's character would ever seriously +attempt it, and we shall presently see that the whole affair turned out a +farce. + +[451] It seems generally agreed, that the point of the coast which was +signalized by the ridiculous bravado of Caligula, somewhat redeemed by +the erection of a lighthouse, was Itium, afterwards called Gessoriacum, +and Bononia (Boulogne), a town belonging to the Gaulish tribe of the +Morini; where Julius Caesar embarked on his expedition, and which became +the usual place of departure for the transit to Britain. + +[452] The denarius was worth at this time about seven pence or eight +pence of our money. + +[453] Probably to Anticyra. See before, c. xxix. note + +[454] The Cimbri were German tribes on the Elbe, who invaded Italy +A.U.C. 640, and were defeated by Metellus. + +[455] The Senones were a tribe of Cis-Alpine Gauls, settled in Umbria, +who sacked and pillaged Rome A.U.C. 363. + +[456] By the transmarine provinces, Asia, Egypt, etc., are meant; so +that we find Caligula entertaining visions of an eastern empire, and +removing the seat of government, which were long afterwards realized in +the time of Constantine. + +[457] See AUGUSTUS, c. xviii. + +[458] About midnight, the watches being divided into four. + +[459] Scabella: commentators are undecided as to the nature of this +instrument. Some of them suppose it to have been either a sort of cymbal +or castanet, but Pitiscus in his note gives a figure of an ancient statue +preserved at Florence, in which a dancer is represented with cymbals in +his hands, and a kind of wind instrument attached to the toe of his left +foot, by which it is worked by pressure, something in the way of an +accordion. + +[460] The port of Rome. + +[461] The Romans, in their passionate devotion to the amusements of the +circus and the theatre, were divided into factions, who had their +favourites among the racers and actors, the former being distinguished by +the colour of the party to which they belonged. See before, c. xviii., +and TIBERIUS, c. xxxvii. + +[462] In the slang of the turf, the name of Caligula's celebrated horse +might, perhaps, be translated "Go a-head." + +[463] Josephus, who supplies us with minute details of the assassination +of Caligula, says that he made no outcry, either disdaining it, or +because an alarm would have been useless; but that he attempted to make +his escape through a corridor which led to some baths behind the palace. +Among the ruins on the Palatine hill, these baths still attract +attention, some of the frescos being in good preservation. See the +account in Josephus, xix. 1, 2. + +[464] The Lamian was an ancient family, the founders of Formiae. 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