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-The Project Gutenberg EBook of Medical Jurisprudence, Volume 2 (of 3), by 
-John Ayrton Paris and John Samuel Martin Fonblanque
-
-This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most
-other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
-whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of
-the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at
-www.gutenberg.org.  If you are not located in the United States, you'll have
-to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook.
-
-Title: Medical Jurisprudence, Volume 2 (of 3)
-
-Author: John Ayrton Paris
-        John Samuel Martin Fonblanque
-
-Release Date: November 21, 2020 [EBook #63830]
-
-Language: English
-
-Character set encoding: UTF-8
-
-*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MEDICAL JURISPRUDENCE, VOLUME 2 ***
-
-
-
-
-Produced by Sonya Schermann and the Online Distributed
-Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was
-produced from images generously made available by The
-Internet Archive)
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-                           Transcriber’s Note
-
-
-When italics were used in the original book, the corresponding text has
-been surrounded by _underscores_.
-
-Some corrections have been made to the printed text. These are listed in
-a second transcriber’s note at the end of the text.
-
-
-
-
-                                MEDICAL
-
-                             JURISPRUDENCE.
-
-
-                         ---------------------
-
-
-                                   BY
-
-                    J. A. PARIS, M.D. F.R.S. F.L.S.
-               FELLOW OF THE ROYAL COLLEGE OF PHYSICIANS;
-
-                                  AND
-
-                       J. S. M. FONBLANQUE, ESQ.
-                           BARRISTER AT LAW.
-
-           --------------------------------------------------
-
-“Hæc est illa amica Imperantiam atque Medentium conspiratio, qua
-effectum est, ut aliquo veluti connubio Medicina ac Jurisprudentia inter
-se jungerentur.”
-
-                                      _Hebenstreit Anthropolog: Forens:_
-
-           --------------------------------------------------
-
-                           IN THREE VOLUMES.
-
-                                VOL. II.
-
-                         ---------------------
-
-                                LONDON:
-
-    PRINTED & PUBLISHED BY W. PHILLIPS, GEORGE YARD, LOMBARD STREET;
-     SOLD ALSO BY T. & G. UNDERWOOD, AND S. HIGHLEY, FLEET STREET;
-                      AND W. & C. TAIT, EDINBURGH.
-
-                                 1823.
-
-
-
-
-                         Medical Jurisprudence.
-
-                         PART III _continued_.
-
-3. _Of Homicide generally._—4. _Of Real and Apparent Death._—5. _Of the
-  Physiological Causes, and Phenomena of Sudden Death._—6. _Of
-  Syncope._—7. _Of Suffocation, by Drowning, Hanging, and other
-  causes._—8. _Death by exposure to Cold—Heat—Lightning—Starvation._—9.
-  _Application of the Physiological Facts established in the preceding
-  chapters, to the general treatment of Asphyxia._—10. _Of the Coroner’s
-  Inquest._—11. _Suicide._—12. _Of Murder generally—by Wounding or
-  Blows—by Poisoning._—13. _Of Poisons, Chemically, Physiologically, and
-  Pathologically considered._—14. _Of Homicide, by Misadventure or
-  Accident._—15. _A Synopsis of the Objects of Inquiry in Cases of
-  sudden and mysterious Sickness and Death,—Commentary thereon,
-  including practical rules for Dissection._—16. _Abortion and
-  Infanticide—with Physiological Illustrations._—17. _Of Criminal
-  Responsibility, and Pleas in bar of Execution._—18. _Of
-  Punishments._—19. _Postscript._
-
-
-
-
-                       3. OF HOMICIDE GENERALLY.
-
-
-To aid the administration of justice in cases of homicide is not only
-the most useful, but the most frequent, application of medical
-jurisprudence; this subject, as well for its complexity as for its
-importance, must be subdivided into many heads. It is first necessary
-that the medical practitioner should determine by examination,
-inspection, or dissection, whether the matter ought to be referred to
-the criminal tribunals, or whether the decease of the party is to be
-attributed to any of those natural causes, which are generally classed
-as “Death by the Visitation of God.” In some instances this examination
-will take place in aid of the coroner’s inquest, in others it will be
-preparatory to it; in both cases it is equally important that it should
-be minutely, faithfully, and ably conducted; for it is on the medical
-report that the first impressions will be founded, and the prejudices
-created by it in the public mind may not easily be effaced by any
-subsequent investigation. If, however, it be determined that the cause
-of death has been violent, it is then necessary to enquire to which of
-the classes of homicide the act is to be attributed.
-
-“Homicide, properly so called, is either against a man’s own life, or
-that of another.” 1 _Hawk. P. C._ 102.
-
-The first offence constitutes the crime of suicide or _felo de se_.
-
-The second has many varieties; it may be justifiable, excusable, or
-wilful; and this last again, may be with, or without, malice prepense,
-which constitutes the difference between manslaughter and murder; both
-are felony, the one with,[1] the other without, the benefit of clergy;
-to these and their numerous subdivisions we shall separately direct the
-attention of our reader; having first, by a general view of the
-physiology of death, and some practical observations on the best modes
-of investigation, prepared the way for a minuter examination of many of
-those various modes of destruction to which human life is liable.
-
-
-
-
-                      OF REAL AND APPARENT DEATH.
-
-
-If life be defined, that power by which organized beings are enabled to
-resist the physical and chemical operation of surrounding agents, it
-follows that death must be marked by the occurrence of those phenomena
-to which the elective attractions, no longer suspended or controlled,
-will necessarily give rise; hence putrefaction has been considered by
-many authors as the only certain sign of dissolution; unfortunately,
-however, this process of decomposition does not immediately display its
-agency by visible effects; the countenance has remained unchanged for a
-considerable time after death, and cases have occurred in which its
-colour and complexion have not only been preserved, but even heightened.
-This difference in the celerity with which the body putrefies did not
-escape the observation of the ancients, and like every other mysterious
-occurrence, was attributed by them to divine interposition; we
-accordingly find that their poets mentioned those who preserved the
-appearance of freshness after death, as favoured persons, who had fallen
-by the gentle darts of Apollo and Diana; thus Hecuba[2] declares that
-Hector, although dead for twelve days, still remains fresh, like one who
-had died by the hands of Apollo. On the other hand, in certain morbid
-states of the living frame, so feebly do the powers of life resist the
-operation of physical agents, that if the body cannot be said actually
-to enter into a state of putrefaction, it may at least assume
-appearances so analogous as to be mistaken for it. The test of death,
-therefore, must rather be sought for amongst those signs which indicate
-the quiescence, or cessation of the functions of life, than from those
-which manifest the decomposition of the organs by which they are
-performed; and here again it may be imagined that no difficulty or
-fallacy can occur; the total cessation of respiration, pulsation,
-sensation, and all motion, it might be supposed, would indicate to the
-least experienced the departure of life, while the general aspect of the
-body, its pale and livid hue, the coldness of its surface, and the
-stiffness of its limbs, we might conclude were signs so palpable and
-satisfactory as to defy the possibility of doubt. To the skilful medical
-practitioner we apprehend such signs must ever be unequivocal; but we
-are not prepared to say that a common observer may not be sometimes
-deceived by them; in cases of extreme debility, as in the latter stage
-of fever, and where the patient is confined in vitiated air, the
-exhaustion may be so considerable as to lend all the appearance of
-death; indeed that such cases have occurred we have no less a testimony
-than that of the philanthropic _Howard_, who, in his work on Prisons,
-says, “I have known instances where persons supposed to be dead of the
-gaol fever, and brought out for burial, on being washed with cold water,
-have shewn signs of life, and soon afterwards recovered.” _Hippocrates_,
-in his Epidemics, also mentions the case of a woman who, being in
-appearance dead, from fever, was recovered by throwing thirty amphoræ of
-cold water over her body. _Diemerbroeck_[3] relates the case of a rustic
-who having appeared to die of the plague, discovered after three days no
-signs of respiration, but, on being carried to the grave, recovered and
-lived many years afterwards; and _Paul Zacchias_ relates an analagous
-case which occurred at the hospital of _Santo Spirito_ at Rome. At a
-period when the small-pox raged with such epidemic fury, and physicians
-so greatly aggravated its violence by their stimulating plan of cure,
-there can be no doubt but that many persons were condemned as dead who
-afterwards recovered; amongst the numerous cases that might be cited in
-support of this opinion, the following may be considered as well
-authenticated: the daughter of _Henry Laurens_, the first President of
-the American congress, when an infant, was laid out as dead, in the
-small-pox; upon which the window of the apartment, that had been
-carefully closed during the progress of the disease, was thrown open to
-ventilate the chamber, when the fresh air revived the supposed corpse,
-and restored her to her family; this circumstance occasioned in the
-father so powerful a dread of living interment, that he directed by will
-that his body should be burnt, and enjoined on his children the
-performance of this wish as a sacred duty.
-
-We can also imagine, that women, after the exhaustion consequent on
-severe and protracted labours, may lie for some time in a state so like
-that of death, as to deceive the by-standers; a very extraordinary case
-of this kind is related in the _Journal des Sçavans_, Janvier 1749.
-
-_Dr. Gordon Smith_, in his work on Forensic Medicine, has observed that
-in cases of precipitancy or confusion, as in times of public sickness,
-the living have not unfrequently been mingled with the dead, and that in
-warm climates, where speedy interment is more necessary than in
-temperate and cold countries, persons have even been entombed alive; we
-feel no hesitation in believing that such an event may be possible; but
-the very case with which the author illustrates his position is
-sufficient to convince us that its occurrence would be highly culpable,
-and could only arise from the most unpardonable inattention; “I was”
-says _Dr. Smith_, “an eye witness of an instance in a celebrated city on
-the continent, where a poor woman, yet alive, was solemnly ushered to
-the margin of the grave in broad day, and whose interment would have
-deliberately taken place, but for the interposition of the by-standers;”
-if the casual observer was thus able to detect the signs of animation,
-the case is hardly one that should have been adduced to shew the
-difficulty of deciding between real and apparent death. Many other
-illustrations might be adduced, but it is not our intention to amuse the
-reader with a relation of those numerous _nugæ canoræ_ that enliven
-several popular productions on the subject of _trances_, premature
-interments, and extraordinary resuscitations; the public have always
-betrayed a morbid curiosity upon the subject, and the stories of persons
-buried alive have ever found a ready access to our credulity, as well as
-to our compassion.
-
-Amongst the different anecdotes which have been brought forward in
-support of the popular belief in the frequency of living interment, and
-in proof of the fallacy of those signs which are commonly received as
-the unerring indications of death, we read of numerous instances where
-the knife of the anatomist has proved the means of resuscitating the
-supposed corpse; _Philippe Peu_, the celebrated French accoucheur,
-relates, himself, the case of a woman, upon whose supposed corpse he
-proceeded to perform the cæsarean section, when the first incision
-betrayed the awful fallacy under which he operated; the history of the
-unfortunate _Vesalius_, physician to Philip II. of Spain, furnishes
-another instance, upon which considerable stress has been laid; upon
-dissecting a Spanish gentleman, it is said that on opening the thorax
-the heart was found palpitating; for which he was brought before the
-inquisition, and would probably have suffered its most severe judgment,
-had not the king interceded in his behalf, and obtained for him the
-privilege of expiating his offence by a pilgrimage to the Holy Land.[4]
-
-_M. Bruhier_[5] also relates a case on the authority of _M. l’Abbé
-Menon_, of a young woman who was restored by the first incision of the
-anatomist’s scalpel, and lived many years afterwards. With respect to
-the instance of _Vesalius_ we would make this general observation, which
-will probably apply to most of the cases on record; that the movements
-which have been observed on such occasions are not to be received as
-demonstrations of life, they merely arise from a degree of muscular
-irritability which often lingers for many hours after dissolution, and
-which, on its apparent cessation, may be even re-excited by the
-application of galvanic stimuli.
-
-But there is a propensity in the human mind to believe in these horrors,
-because between credulity and fear there is an inherent affinity and
-alliance; and it may be very safely asserted, that there is nothing of
-which we have a greater instinctive horror,[6] than of any force by
-which our voluntary exertions are totally repressed; hence it is, as
-_Cuvier_ has remarked, that the poetic fictions best calculated to
-insure our sympathy, are those which represent sentient beings inclosed
-within immoveable bodies; the sighs of Clorinda issuing, with her blood,
-from the trunk of the cypress, as related in the fable of Tasso, would
-arrest the fury of the most savage mortal; and the sufferings which
-attended the confinement of Ariel, by the witch _Sycorax_, within the
-rift of a cloven pine, are described by Prospero as being of so pitiable
-a description as to move the sympathy of the very beasts of the forest.
-
-            --------“She did confine thee,
-            By help of her more potent ministers,
-            And in her most unmitigable rage,
-            Into a cloven pine; within which rift
-            Imprison’d, thou didst painfully remain
-            A dozen years.”
-
-            --------------“Thou best knows’t
-            What torment I did find thee in: thy groans
-            Did make wolves howl, and penetrate the breasts
-            Of ever-angry bears; it was a torment
-            To lay upon the damn’d.”
-
-                                             _Tempest_, _Act_ i, _s._ 2.
-
-The author of the present chapter had once an opportunity of witnessing
-a most striking manifestation of the popular feeling to which he has
-just alluded; a sailor, who had died suddenly on board a vessel in
-Mount’s Bay, was sent on shore for interment on the same evening: this
-indecent haste in consigning the yet warm corpse of a human being to the
-grave, excited a very strong and natural feeling in those to whom the
-fact was communicated; in a few hours the knowledge of the circumstance
-became general in the town of Penzance, and imagination which, in cases
-that interest the feelings, is always ready to colour each feature with
-the hue most congenial to the fancy, soon represented the case as one of
-living interment, and by midnight the impression had produced so strong
-an effect upon the credulity of the town, that many hundred persons
-assembled at the house of the mayor and insisted upon the disinterment
-of the body; the author, in his professional capacity, was called upon
-to accompany the magistrates in the investigation, which was
-accomplished by torch light, amidst an immense concourse of people; the
-body was disinterred, when, it is almost needless to add, that not the
-slightest mark was observed that could in the least sanction the popular
-belief so readily adopted, and enthusiastically maintained.
-
-Within the last few years a singular and unphilosophical work[7] has
-appeared from the pen of a learned divine, which is well calculated to
-cherish the public credulity upon the subject under discussion, and to
-excite many groundless alarms, as well as unjust expectations,
-respecting the possibility of latent life; the reverend author, it must
-be confessed, has furnished a practical proof of his talents in his
-favourite art of resuscitation, by recalling into life the numerous idle
-tales, and superstitious histories, that we had hoped had long since
-been for ever consigned to the “tombs of all the Capulets.” The
-histories of persons having been buried alive, or recovered after
-apparent death, are not, however, confined to the annals of modern
-times; we are informed by _Diogenes Laertius_ that _Empedocles_ acquired
-great fame for restoring a woman, supposed to be dead, from a paroxysm
-of hysteria; and _Pliny_, in his Natural History, devotes a chapter to
-the subject, under the title of “_De his qui elati revixerunt_[8];” in
-which an interesting case is related of _Avicola_, whose body was
-brought out and placed on the funeral pile, the flames of which are said
-to have resuscitated the unhappy victim, but too late to allow it to be
-rescued from its powers; but such cases merely go to shew that the
-common observer may be deceived. We feel no hesitation in asserting that
-it is physiologically impossible for a human being to remain more than a
-few minutes in such a state of asphyxia, as not to betray some sign by
-which a medical observer can at once recognise the existence of
-vitality, for if the respiration be only suspended for a short interval,
-we may conclude that life has fled for ever; of all the acts of animal
-life this is by far the most essential and indispensable; _breath_ and
-_life_ are very properly considered in the scriptures as convertible
-terms, and the same synonym, as far as we know, prevails in every
-language.[9] However slow and feeble respiration may become by disease,
-yet it must always be perceptible, provided the naked breast and belly
-be exposed; for when the intercostal muscles act, the ribs are elevated,
-and the sternum is pushed forward; when the diaphragm acts, the abdomen
-swells; now this can never escape the attentive eye, and by looking at
-the chest and belly we shall form a safer conclusion than by the popular
-methods which have been usually adopted, such as the placing a vessel of
-water on the thorax, in order to judge by the stillness or agitation of
-the fluid; or holding the surface of a mirror before the mouth, which,
-by condensing the aqueous vapour of the breath, is supposed to denote
-the existence of respiration, although too feeble to be recognised in
-any other way.
-
-            ----“Lend me a looking-glass;
-            If that her breath will mist or stain the stone,
-            Why, then she lives.”
-
-                                              _Lear_, _Act_ v, _s._ iii.
-
-For the same purpose, light down, or any flocculent substance, from the
-extreme facility with which it is moved, has been supposed capable of
-furnishing a similar indication; but the result must not be received as
-an unequivocal proof, and accordingly _Shakspeare_, with that knowledge
-and judgment which so pre-eminently distinguish him, has represented
-_Prince Henry_ as having been thus deluded, when he carried off the
-crown from the pillow of _Henry_ the _Fourth_—
-
-             --------------“By his gates of breath
-             There lies a downy feather, which stirs not.
-             Did he suspire, that light and weightless down
-             Perchance must move.”
-
-With respect to the above tests it may be remarked, that an
-imperceptible current of air may agitate the light down, and thus
-simulate the effects of respiration, while an exhalation, totally
-unconnected with that function, may sully the surface of a mirror held
-before the mouth; on the other hand, we have learnt from experience that
-mirrors have been applied to persons in a state of mere syncope without
-being in the least tarnished.
-
-Having thus considered the value of the tests of respiration, we shall
-proceed to appreciate those which have been considered as furnishing no
-less certain indications of death. The absence of the circulation, the
-impossibility of feeling the pulsations of the heart and arteries have
-been regarded as infallible means of deciding whether the individual be
-dead; but it is proved beyond all doubt that a person may live for
-several hours without its being possible to perceive the slightest
-movement in the parts just mentioned. It has been thought also, says
-_Orfila_, that an individual was dead when he was cold, and that he
-still lived if the warmth of the body was preserved; there is perhaps no
-sign of so little value; the drowned who may be recalled to life, are
-usually very cold; whilst in cases of apoplexy, and some other fatal
-diseases, a certain degree of warmth is preserved even for a long period
-after death. Stiffness of the body is another sign of death upon which
-great reliance has been placed; but as it sometimes happens that it
-exists during life, it becomes necessary to point out the difference
-between the stiffness of death, and that which occurs during life, in
-certain diseases. For the following observations upon this subject we
-acknowledge ourselves indebted to the judicious treatise of _Orfila_.
-
-1. Stiffness may be very considerable in a person who has been frozen,
-  who is not yet dead, and who may even be recalled to life. This
-  stiffness cannot be confounded with that which is the inevitable
-  result of death, because it is known that the body has been exposed to
-  the action of severe cold, and above all because it is very general;
-  in fact, the skin, breasts, the belly, and all the organs may possess
-  the same rigidity as the muscles, a circumstance not observable in
-  _cadaverous_ stiffness, in which the muscles alone present any degree
-  of resistance; besides, when the skin of a frozen person is depressed,
-  by pressing forcibly upon it with the finger, a hollow is produced
-  which is a long time in disappearing. When the position of a frozen
-  limb is changed, a little noise is heard, caused by the rupture of
-  particles of ice contained in the displaced part.
-
-2. The stiffness to which the late _M. Nysten_ has given the name of
-  _convulsive_, and which sometimes manifests itself in violent nervous
-  diseases, may be easily distinguished from _cadaverous_ stiffness;
-  when a limb is stiff in consequence of convulsions, &c. the greatest
-  difficulty is experienced in changing its direction, and when left, it
-  immediately resumes its former position; it is not the same in
-  stiffness from death; the limb, the direction of which has been
-  changed, does not return to its former position.
-
-3. The stiffness which occurs in certain forms of _Syncope_, can never
-  be confounded with _cadaverous_ stiffness; for, in the former case,
-  the stiffness takes place immediately after the commencement of the
-  disease, and the trunk preserves a degree of warmth; whereas the
-  _cadaverous_ stiffness is not observed until some time after death,
-  and when the heat of the body is no longer evident to the senses.
-
-If, from a cause which it is not always possible to foresee, the
-individual who has been thought dead for a long time be cold and
-_flexible_, instead of offering a certain degree of stiffness, and at
-the same time if no evidence of putrefaction has as yet displayed
-itself, the body ought not to be buried hastily—“_Satius est adhiberi
-millies nimiam diligentiam, quam semel omitti necessariam._”
-
-The cadaverous state of the face, of which _Hippocrates_ has given the
-following description, has been regarded as a sign of real death; the
-forehead wrinkled and dry, the eye sunken, the nose pointed, and
-bordered with a violet or black circle, the temples sunken, hollow, and
-retired, the ears sticking up, the lips hanging down, the cheeks sunken,
-the chin wrinkled and hard, the colour of the skin leaden or violet, the
-hairs of the nose and eye-lashes sprinkled with a kind of yellowish
-white dust. It must be admitted that such signs, if taken separately,
-are of no value, since they are sometimes observed in patients
-twenty-four or forty-eight hours before death; while, on the other hand,
-they are often absent in cases of sudden dissolution. The softness,
-dimness, and above all, the flaccidity of the globe of the eye have been
-considered as very unequivocal in their indication. _Professor
-Louis_[10] has offered some remarks upon this subject worthy our notice;
-he says that, in the dead, the transparent cornea is commonly covered
-with a thin slimy membrane, which breaks in pieces when touched, and is
-easily removed by wiping the cornea; but he remarks that some appearance
-of it takes place in the eyes of the dying, and also allows that it may
-be the result of disease; so much for the value of this sign: the one
-which follows appears to us less exceptionable; in a few hours after
-death, adds this author, the eyes become soft and flabby, an effect not
-to be produced under any circumstances in the living body; we join in
-this opinion; but how often does it happen that the globe of the eye
-undergoes no alteration in form, until the putrefactive process has been
-fully established?
-
-
-
-
-      OF THE PHYSIOLOGICAL CAUSES, AND PHŒNOMENA OF SUDDEN DEATH.
-
-
-It has been asserted by _Bichat_[11] that the immediate cause of death,
-when it takes place suddenly, must be the cessation of the functions of
-the heart, brain, or lungs; although it is sometimes difficult to
-determine which of these organs is the first to fail in its action; this
-may be well exemplified by the poisonous operation of Arsenic upon the
-animal economy, which when introduced into the circulating system will,
-according to the valuable experiments of _Mr. Brodie_, occasion stupor
-and paralysis, a feeble and intermitting contraction of the heart, and
-slow and laborious respiration; but it is found that in some cases, one
-order of symptoms will predominate, and be the first to display
-themselves, whilst in others, the very contrary will obtain, without
-perhaps our being able to assign the immediate cause of such deviations.
-There are, moreover, cases of sudden death, in which the principle of
-animation would seem to be at once annihilated in every part of the
-animal machine, and when every organ appears to be simultaneously
-affected, as in that occasioned by the agency of intense cold, and
-sometimes, for it is not in every instance, by that of lightning, or
-electricity; still, as a general proposition, the aphorism of _Bichat_
-must be admitted; and we shall proceed to investigate the subject of
-sudden death, as connected with medico-judicial inquiry, upon principles
-deduced from the enlightened views of this distinguished philosopher. To
-the able and satisfactory researches of our English physiologist, _Mr.
-Brodie_, we are also greatly indebted for a correct notion of the nature
-and order of succession, of those events by which life is quickly
-extinguished; his attention was many years ago directed to one important
-branch of this subject,—to the investigation of that series of changes
-produced on living bodies by the operation of poisons, the results of
-which were published in the _Philosophical Transactions_,[12] to which
-we shall have frequent occasion to refer in the following pages. Since
-that period he has diligently pursued the subject in its more extensive
-ramifications, and in his lectures, delivered from the anatomical chair
-of the College of Surgeons during the last year, he presented a
-condensed and philosophical history of the phenomena of death, in
-general, in which he elucidated many leading points that were before
-obscure, established several propositions that have long been considered
-doubtful, and rejected a mass of popular error, which, under the
-sanction of authority, has continued to retard our inquiries, and to
-embarrass and misguide our practice. The author of the present section
-of this work has to acknowledge the kindness and liberality by which he
-is enabled to avail himself of these luminous researches, having been
-furnished by his friend _Mr. Brodie_ with the manuscript notes from
-which the lectures were delivered.
-
-The organs more immediately necessary to life are, the HEART, which
-conveys to every part of the body that fluid, without a constant supply
-and change of which, vitality must be speedily exhausted; and the LUNGS,
-by whose functions this essential fluid undergoes those unknown changes,
-from the action of the atmosphere, which adapt it for the performance of
-the important duties to which we have alluded.
-
-In conformity with these views, the functions of the heart, and their
-connection with those of the lungs and brain, very naturally present
-themselves as the first objects of physiological inquiry; and there is
-certainly no discovery in modern times more interesting in its
-relations, and at the same time so useful in practical application, as
-that which has determined the nature of the connections between the
-functions of respiration and the motions of the heart; and shewn why the
-cessation of the former should occasion the destruction of the latter.
-The existence of this mysterious connection constituted a subject of
-interest and inquiry in the more remote ages, and it will not be
-unprofitable to take a review of the different theories which have been
-proposed for its explanation. Until the celebrated experiment[13] of
-_Hook_, it was supposed that the heart’s motion was maintained by the
-alternate contraction and dilatation of the lungs in the act of
-breathing; but the extraordinary philosopher above mentioned decided
-this point by exposing the thorax of a dog, and separating the pleura
-extensively from the external surface of the lungs, and then, by means
-of a pair of double bellows, keeping up a constant stream of air through
-the air cells; by this contrivance respiration was duly performed, while
-the lungs remained motionless, and yet it was found that the vigour of
-the heart’s action was not in the least impaired; whereas, if the theory
-which _Hook_ undertook to refute, had been founded in truth, the heart,
-under such circumstances, must necessarily have become quiescent. _Mr.
-Hunter_[14] supposed the existence of a sympathy, or association,
-between the motions of the heart and lungs; and the same opinion appears
-to have been entertained by _Dr. Currie_[15]; _Dr. Darwin_[16] deduced
-the existence of this immediate connection from that general law of the
-animal œconomy, by which motions that are frequently repeated in
-succession acquire the power of recurring in the same order,
-independently of the original exciting cause; “it is thus,” says he,
-“that by the stimulus of the blood in the right chamber of the heart the
-lungs are induced to expand themselves.” _Dr. Bostock_[17], however, has
-very satisfactorily opposed this hypothesis, by observing that in the
-fœtus the heart commences its contractions immediately upon its
-formation, while the lungs remain perfectly at rest; and that when the
-animal leaves the uterus, the motion of the lungs commences, but the
-periods of the contraction of the diaphragm bear no determinate ratio to
-those of the systole of the heart.
-
-It was long supposed that the cessation of respiration occasioned that
-of the heart’s motion, in consequence of the black blood not having
-sufficient power to stimulate its fibres; but does not the right side of
-the heart, which, under all circumstances, contains de-oxygenated blood,
-contract with a vigour equal to that of the left? It was reserved for
-_Bichat_ to offer a true explanation of this phenomenon; he has very
-justly stated that, in consequence of the suspension of the respiratory
-function, the coronary vessels, by which the muscular structure of the
-heart is supplied, are compelled to carry black, instead of scarlet
-blood; a fact which in itself is quite adequate to explain the cause of
-the heart ceasing to contract; for the irritability of this, like that
-of every other muscle, can be alone maintained by duly oxygenized blood.
-But it remains to be shewn how the functions of the brain and nervous
-system stand related to those of the heart and lungs. Although the
-agency of nervous influence is necessarily involved in impenetrable
-obscurity, yet we shall not have much difficulty in proving, that _the
-brain_[18] _is immediately necessary to life only because the muscles of
-respiration owe their action to its influence_. _M. Lallemand_ has
-published the history of a fœtus, in which the brain and spinal marrow
-were equally deficient, notwithstanding which, it even exceeded the
-usual size, the heart was perfect, and it was evident that the
-circulation had been properly performed; no sooner, however, was the
-monster born than it perished, because the diaphragm and other muscles
-of respiration were unable to perform their functions without the aid of
-nervous excitement; no air was therefore inhaled into the lungs, and in
-a few minutes the heart ceased to contract from the deficient supply of
-oxygenized blood. If the phrenic nerves of a quadruped be divided,[19]
-the motion of the diaphragm ceases, and the animal breathes by the
-motion of the ribs alone, panting and respiring with difficulty and
-distress. If the spinal marrow be divided below the origin of the
-phrenic nerves in the lower part of the neck, no interruption is given
-to the transmission of the nervous influence to the diaphragm, but the
-ribs now become motionless, and respiration is performed by the
-diaphragm only; if the spinal marrow be divided in the upper part of the
-neck, above the origin of the phrenic nerves, the nervous influence is
-neither transmitted to the diaphragm, nor to the muscles which produce
-the motion of the ribs, and respiration is entirely suspended; under
-these circumstances the heart continues to contract for some minutes,
-after which it ceases, as there is no supply of blood which has received
-the influence of the air, and, consequently, the muscular fibres of the
-heart lose their excitability, and the blood is no longer circulated;
-if, however, the lungs be artificially inflated, before the action of
-the heart has ceased, its motions are continued. The experiment may also
-be very satisfactorily varied in the following manner; apply a ligature
-to the carotid arteries in the neck, so as to prevent the occurrence of
-hemorrhage, and then decapitate the animal; if respiration be now
-artificially maintained, the heart will suffer no disturbance in its
-motions, but the circulation will be preserved for several hours in the
-body of the decapitated animal. In further illustration of this view of
-the subject, _Mr. Brodie_ observes, that many reptiles which are capable
-of respiring by means of the skin, will survive the loss of the brain
-for so long a period, that the wound made by decapitation, becomes
-cicatrized, and death only takes place at last in consequence of
-inanition.—(_Manuscript Notes._)
-
-In farther illustration of these views, let us observe the mode in which
-death takes place in apoplexy, or in cases of pressure on the brain,
-whether occasioned by a depressed portion of bone, or by blood
-extravasated within the cranium. At first the patient is insensible to
-all external impressions, but the breathing is not affected; after an
-interval, however, the respiration becomes difficult and laborious, and
-the purple hue of the lips and cheeks, from the sub-cutaneous vessels,
-demonstrates that the blood is imperfectly oxygenized. The arterial
-action becomes more slow, in proportion only as the respiration is more
-difficult; and the pulse may even be distinguished at the wrist, after
-the breathing has altogether ceased; under such circumstances it is
-obvious that life might be protracted for several hours by artificial
-inflation of the lungs, but as no ultimate benefit could be derived from
-such an operation, its expediency may be fairly questioned.
-
-Enough has been said to shew that the brain is not _immediately_
-necessary to the action of the heart; but _Mr. Brodie_ has very justly
-observed that the general proposition thus established, must not lead us
-to the conclusion that the heart is therefore incapable of being
-affected by violent impressions on the nervous system; the fact is quite
-otherwise, for although the brain may be removed, and the circulation be
-nevertheless maintained by artificial respiration, yet an injury
-inflicted on the brain, of another kind, may be followed by those
-immediately fatal consequences which decapitation itself would not
-produce. _Dr. Wilson Philip_ states that if the brain be violently
-crushed, the action of the heart is immediately stopped; and the fact is
-too notorious to be questioned, that a blow on the head is frequently
-succeeded by Syncope; there are but few circumstances, says _Mr.
-Brodie_, in the history of the animal œconomy which appears more
-remarkable than this fact, that _an injury of a part which is not
-immediately essential to the heart’s action, should nevertheless, under
-certain circumstances, have the effect of occasioning its immediate
-cessation_. The late researches of _Le Gallois_ may perhaps receive
-farther elucidation from the above proposition; this physiologist has
-stated that if a wire be introduced into the _Theca vertebralis_, and be
-moved upward and downward, so as to destroy the texture of the spinal
-marrow, the action of the heart presently ceases; and he from thence
-advances to the conclusion, not only that the spinal marrow is necessary
-to the heart’s action, but that every part of the animal body derives
-its vital properties from it; from what I have observed, says _Mr.
-Brodie_ (_Manuscript Notes_) in the repetition of the foregoing
-experiment, I should infer that the fact is correctly stated, as far as
-it relates to warm-blooded animals, but the conclusions are undoubtedly
-premature; and the history of the fœtus, as related by _Lallemand_, in
-which, notwithstanding the absence of the brain and spinal marrow, the
-child was even larger than usual, the heart perfect, and it was manifest
-that the circution had been duly performed, is in direct opposition to
-such a theory. We must here agree with _Mr. Brodie_, that such phenomena
-are quite incompatible with the doctrine in which the spinal marrow is
-supposed to be directly necessary to the existence of vitality in the
-system generally, and to the action of the heart in particular; and that
-we must therefore look for some other explanation of the effects which
-are produced by the destruction of the spinal marrow in warm-blooded
-quadrupeds.—May they not be explained by supposing them to be the effect
-of the shock which must necessarily attend the removal of the spinal
-marrow, which can never be effected with the facility that attends
-decapitation?
-
-We have deemed it necessary to offer these few remarks upon the
-relations which subsist between the functions of the heart, lungs, and
-brain, in as much as the propositions which have been thus established
-respecting them, can alone lead to a correct pathology of those
-diseases, by which life is suddenly extinguished, or suggest a rational
-and effectual plan of treatment, in cases of suspended animation.
-
-
-
-
-                                SYNCOPE:
-
-  In which the pulsations of the heart cease, before the action of the
-                          respiratory organs.
-
-
-The heart may cease to beat either from organic lesions in its own
-structure, or in that of its vessels; or from being sympathetically
-affected by injuries in other parts[20]; or from the operation of
-certain poisons; or from a shock of the general nervous system, as
-experienced in paroxysms of certain passions.
-
-In ordinary fainting it is evident that some slight and feeble motions
-of the heart still continue, although insufficient to produce a sensible
-pulsation in the more distant arteries; and where this has continued for
-an unusual period, and the respiration has been so obscure as to escape
-common observation, the phenomenon has been eagerly seized by the
-admirers of the marvellous, and credulity has attached to its history,
-under the name of _Trance_,[21] circumstances of extravagance and
-mystery, to which it can hardly be necessary to allude on the present
-occasion. But the motions of the heart may have ceased altogether, and
-in such cases it becomes a question, no less interesting to the
-practical physician than to the physiologist, whether they can ever be
-restored, and if so, we have to inquire under what limitation, as to
-time; under what circumstances; and by what means? The views which have
-been already offered respecting the pathology of Syncope will afford us
-considerable assistance in the solution of a problem, so intimately
-connected with inquiries of forensic importance. It would appear that
-where the heart has ceased to pulsate, _in consequence of the cessation
-of respiration, it can never again be set in motion_; but that where it
-has stopped from other causes, as from the operation of certain poisons,
-its muscular irritability not having been exhausted, its action may be
-occasionally revived. Where Syncope arises from hemorrhage, we shall
-find, on dissection, that the heart and its great vessels are either
-empty, or contain only a small quantity of blood in their cavities; but
-where Syncope arises from other causes, the heart is seen distended to
-an unusual magnitude, and the blood in the left auricle and ventricle is
-generally of a more or less florid colour, and has not the hue of venous
-blood; a circumstance which depends upon the pulsation of the heart
-ceasing before the function of respiration, and which is the very
-reverse of what happens in death from suffocation, as we shall hereafter
-explain.
-
-Violent passions of the mind very commonly produce syncope, which has in
-some instances terminated in death; we are however inclined to believe
-that in fatal cases of this nature the persons must have laboured under
-some organic affection of the heart, or its vessels; _Philip V._ died
-suddenly on being told that the Spaniards had been defeated, and on
-opening the body, his heart was found ruptured.
-
-_Dr. Tissot_ relates also the case of the father of a numerous family,
-who having lost his wife whom he tenderly loved, was suddenly seized
-with laborious respiration, and died at the end of two days; when the
-lungs were found gorged with blood, and the heart ruptured. Now in both
-these cases, it is probable that the muscular structure of the heart had
-been softened by previous disease.[22] So in the case of _Mr. John
-Hunter_, whose life was suddenly extinguished by mental emotion, the
-valves of the heart had been long in a state of disease, and so well
-aware was he of the danger to which he was constantly exposed, that he
-had for some time previous to his death, been in the habit of retiring
-from all those situations, in which his passions were likely to be
-excited. It is said that the instances of death from sudden joy are more
-numerous than those from grief, probably because the effect of this
-latter passion is rather to retard than to accelerate the circulation;
-_Sophocles_, being desirous of proving that at an advanced age he was in
-full possession of his intellectual powers, composed a tragedy, was
-crowned, and died through joy; the same fate befel _Philippides_ the
-comic writer; thus too the Lacedemonian _Chilon_ expired in the embrace
-of his son who had borne away the prize at the Olympic games; and we
-read of Roman women who died in the same manner, upon seeing their sons
-return from the battles of Thrasymene and Cannæ. On the other hand, we
-might adduce much classical authority to shew that death has frequently
-been the sudden effect of grief.
-
-_Montaigne_ relates the case of a German, who after having performed
-great feats of valour, was killed at the siege of Osen; one of the
-general officers having desired to see the corpse of so gallant a man,
-was conducted to the body, when he instantly recognised the features of
-his own son, and died on the spot. The record of our own times will
-furnish us with an instance in which an actor of celebrity suddenly
-expired upon repeating a passage that contained a fancied allusion to
-the domestic affliction under which he was suffering.
-
-_Dr. Ozanam_,[23] in illustration of the influence of pain and terror in
-producing sudden extinction of life, relates the case of a middle aged
-criminal, who having throughout evinced extreme weakness and depression,
-expired in his way to the scaffold, and was stiff before he arrived at
-the place of execution, which was about seven miles distant.
-
-In such cases of sudden death, from the operation of violent mental
-emotions, we apprehend that dissection will frequently demonstrate the
-existence of previous disease in some of the organs immediately
-essential to life; and we shall hereafter have occasion to refer to the
-influence of the passions in hastening the fatal termination of a
-chronic disease; on the present occasion we introduce the following
-extremely interesting case, in confirmation of the position we are
-endeavouring to maintain; the case was originally published in the
-_Transactions of the Physico-Medical Society of New York, by Dr.
-Valentine Mott_; it afterwards appeared in the _Journal Universel des
-Sciences Medicales, Avril, 1819_; and lately it has found its way into
-the _Medical Repository_ of this country. A robust and plethoric female,
-aged 22, long addicted to dissolute and intemperate habits, had
-complained for some time of slight and apparently rheumatic pains; but
-within a day or two of the fatal event, she had been deserted by a man
-to whom she was engaged in marriage; in consequence of which her mind
-became very deeply affected; after having supped on the preceding night,
-she retired to rest as usual, and in the morning was found dead in bed;
-she lay in a bent position on the left side; and was hence supposed at
-first to be in a profound sleep; neither the countenance nor the limbs
-were in the least distorted. On dissection the pericardium was found to
-contain ten ounces of coagulated blood, and two of serum; the heart on
-all sides being covered by it, was of ordinary volume, but much loaded
-with fat; at the summit of the aortic ventricle was discovered the
-breach from which the effused blood had issued; the parietes of the
-ventricle around the rupture were much thicker than in the natural
-state, and on close examination a very sensible fluctuation was
-distinguished, to the extent of an inch on one side of it, from which
-flocculi of a cheese-like substance were discharged on pressure; the
-pericardium also presented traces of inflammation.
-
-We have here then a case in which a morbid change in the structure of
-the heart had existed for a considerable period, and which was suddenly
-brought to a fatal termination by an affection of the mind.
-
-Before we quit the consideration of _Syncope_, we have to notice a fatal
-variety of that disease, which well deserves the attentive consideration
-of the forensic Physician, whose highest duty, let it be remembered, is
-the investigation of sudden death. It is described by _Mr.
-Chevalier_[24] under the term _Asphyxia Idiopathica_, in which the
-patient suddenly faints and dies; the essential circumstances of the
-disease evidently denote, says _Mr. Chevalier_, a sudden loss of power
-in the extreme vessels to propel the blood; in consequence of which the
-heart after having contracted, so as to empty itself, and then dilated
-again, continues relaxed for want of the return of its accustomed
-stimulus, and dies in that dilated state. On dissection all the cavities
-of the heart are found completely empty, and the viscus itself in a
-state of extreme flaccidity.
-
-
-
-
-                              SUFFOCATION.
-
-
-Suffocation may be defined, the destruction of life by the suspension of
-the function of respiration, occasioned by external violence. Unless we
-add “_by external violence_” we shall perceive that the definition would
-be far too comprehensive; and the term _Suffocation_ would be made to
-embrace a much wider range of subjects than its popular acceptation
-would allow. If the physiological views be correct which we have adopted
-and explained in the foregoing section, “On the causes and phenomena of
-sudden death,” we should be compelled, without such a protecting
-adjunct, to include under the history of Suffocation, not only the
-phenomena of Drowning, Strangling, Hanging, Smothering, and noxious
-inhalation, but even those of Apoplexy, fatal Intoxication, and various
-diseases of the brain and spinal marrow, together with the effects of a
-great proportion of Poisons; for by such agents death is undoubtedly
-occasioned through the failure of the respiratory functions.
-
-In Death from Suffocation the heart continues to pulsate for several
-minutes after the breathing has entirely ceased, in consequence of which
-the blood which passes through the pulmonary vessels no longer receives
-the influence of oxygen, and therefore _black_ blood circulates; the
-brain, it would appear, soon feels the want of the florid arterial
-stream, by which alone its energies can be maintained. _Bichat_ has
-shewn that when dark coloured blood is injected into the vessels of the
-brain, by means of a syringe connected with the carotid artery, the
-functions of the brain become immediately disturbed, and, in a short
-time, entirely cease; the effect is precisely similar, whether the dark
-coloured blood be transmitted to the brain by the syringe of the
-experimentalist, or by the heart itself. It is not until after the full
-effects of the suspended respiration are thus produced on the brain,
-that the motions of the heart become enfeebled, and that the ventricles
-contract less powerfully, and at longer intervals; at length, the action
-of the heart is altogether arrested, and if the thorax be examined at
-the instant that the circulation has ceased, nothing is observed, except
-a slight tremulous motion of the auricles; the cavities of the left side
-are much contracted, and contain only a small quantity of blood, while
-the right auricle and ventricle, and the large vessels communicating
-with them, are distended to an unusual size. This state of the heart, it
-will be observed, is very different from that which we have described as
-constantly occurring after _Syncope_. In the contemplation of these
-phœnomena, a question very naturally suggests itself in regard to the
-probable interval which elapses between the cessation of respiration,
-and the consequent failure of the heart’s action; in other words, it may
-be asked, how long can the heart support its contractions without the
-aid of respiration? It would appear that this interval not only varies
-in duration in different animals, but even in the same animal under
-different circumstances, such as that of age,[25] capacity of the
-thorax, quantity of air in the lungs, state of the stomach, and general
-vigour of the animal; but in man, under the most favourable
-circumstances, it is extremely doubtful whether the heart ever continues
-to pulsate for so long a period as five minutes[26] after the lungs have
-ceased to perform their office; and it is very questionable whether, in
-most instances, the interval is not considerably shorter than this.
-
-
-                              BY DROWNING.
-
-It was formerly believed that _Asphyxia_[27] from _drowning_, always
-depended upon the lungs and intestinal canal being filled with
-water;[28] whereas it is hardly necessary to observe that it alone
-depends upon the blood, in consequence of the suspension of breathing,
-ceasing to possess the qualities which are essential to the preservation
-of life. _M. Gauteron_ immersed a dog for more than a quarter of an
-hour, without inflicting the least injury, having previously inserted a
-long tube in the trachea, which was kept elevated during the experiment
-above the surface of the water.
-
-If a small animal be immersed in water, contained in a transparent glass
-vessel, the phenomena of drowning are readily discernible; there is
-first a deep expiration, by which bubbles of air are expelled from the
-lungs; there is then an effort to inspire, but the effort is
-ineffectual; there being no air which can be received into the lungs,
-and a spasm of the muscles of the glottis seems to forbid the admission
-of any considerable quantity of water into the trachea. The attempts to
-breathe are repeated several times, and at each attempt at expiration a
-small proportion of air is expelled from the mouth and nostrils, until
-the air-cells of the lungs are almost emptied;[29] then the animal
-becomes insensible; and convulsive action of the voluntary muscles mark
-the instant when the brain begins to suffer from the influx of the dark
-coloured venous blood. After the cessation of these convulsive actions,
-the animal becomes motionless, and gives no sign of life; but if the
-hand be applied to the thorax, the actions of the heart, gradually
-becoming fainter and fainter, indicate that some remains of vitality
-still linger in the system. Before the circulation of the blood
-altogether ceases, the muscles of respiration once more resume their
-actions, and ineffectual efforts are made to breathe. It is a remarkable
-circumstance that the diaphragm continues to exert itself nearly as long
-as the heart itself, and that the interval between the cessation of the
-motions of the diaphragm and that of the motions of the heart, which is
-so short in animals that die by strangulation, is still shorter in those
-who perish by drowning.[30] These phenomena follow each other in rapid
-succession, and the whole scene is closed, and the living animal is
-converted into a lifeless corpse, incapable of recovery, in the brief
-space of a few moments, (_Brodie’s Manuscript Notes_). If however the
-animal be taken out of the water before the total extinction of life,
-and the diaphragm contract afterwards, so as to draw air into the lungs
-before the action of the heart has ceased, the circulation is
-maintained, and the animal continues to respire; he will thus have
-escaped immediate death from suffocation; but his life still remains in
-jeopardy, for there is a second period of danger, and one at which death
-may take place, when we are the least prepared to expect it; for the
-dark coloured blood which has been transmitted through the circulatory
-system, during the suspension of respiration, would seem to act like a
-narcotic poison upon the brain; no sooner therefore does it enter that
-organ, but deleterious effects are produced, the animal at first falls
-into a state of stupor, the pupils of the eyes become dilated, the
-respiration laborious, the muscles of the body convulsed, and the animal
-dies, _poisoned by its own blood_.
-
-The body of a person who has died from drowning exhibits a physiognomy
-which it is important to notice. The whole surface is distinguished by a
-remarkable coldness and pallor; the eyes are half open, and their pupils
-considerably dilated; the tongue is pushed forward to the internal edges
-of the lips, and sometimes wounded; and the mouth and nostrils are
-covered with foam. At other times, instead of a pallid visage, we have
-one that is swelled, and bloated with livid blood.
-
-Upon dissection we shall perceive the vessels of the brain more or less
-gorged with blood;[31] in the trachea a watery and bloody froth will be
-found; the lungs will appear expanded, full of frothy mucus, and,
-generally, livid; the right cavities of the heart gorged with blood, the
-left nearly empty; and it has been sometimes noticed that the blood
-remains fluid[32], and follows after every incision by the scalpel. The
-stomach will generally be found to contain some water. _Hebenstreit_
-also states, that since in the act of drowning the person dies on an
-inspiration, the diaphragm is necessarily found convex, or bent towards
-the abdomen; this statement however is erroneous.
-
-Upon these appearances we have a few observations to offer, especially
-as they have given origin to some important questions; and first, with
-respect to _the presence of water in the stomach and lungs_, than which
-few indications, connected with the subject of drowning, have given
-occasion to greater controversy.[33] For since it hath been observed
-that water is rarely found in the stomach or lungs of a person who has
-been submerged after death, it was inferred that the presence of that
-fluid in these organs necessarily proved that the individual must have
-been plunged into the water during life. As a general proposition this
-may be admitted as correct, although it is liable to certain exceptions
-with which the medical jurist ought to be acquainted; we may, for
-instance, suppose a case, in which the submerged person may be so
-plunged at once under water, as to have been suffocated without his
-previously coming to the surface, and when _asphyxia_ has taken place,
-the powers of deglutition, on which the presence of water in the stomach
-wholly depends, are at an end; or we may suppose that the party in
-question faints from terror; a remarkable instance of this kind is
-quoted by _Foderè_,[34] from _Plater_, of a young woman, who having been
-condemned to be drowned for infanticide, fainted at the moment she was
-plunged in the water, and having remained for a quarter of an hour under
-its surface, recovered after being drawn out.[35]
-
-With respect to the presence of water in the bronchiæ and lungs, we may
-observe that, in the violent struggles of a drowning man, a certain
-portion of water generally passes the epiglottis; and being immediately
-mixed with the air and mucus of the trachea, constitutes that frothy
-mucus, which we have described as being so highly characteristic of this
-species of violent death; although we are not to conclude with _Larrey_,
-that it is the immediate cause of dissolution in such cases. The
-quantity of water, however, thus forced into the pulmonary structure, is
-extremely small, for its entrance is powerfully opposed by a spasm of
-the muscles of the glottis;[36] were it to occur in any considerable
-quantity, and to appear in its fluid state, instead of that of froth,
-the influence would clearly be, that _it had passed in after death_.
-
-Although the presence of this frothy matter must be considered as a
-strong presumptive proof that the person found in the water had perished
-by drowning, the converse of this proposition is by no means established
-by the absence of such an indication.
-
-_The buoyancy of the human body_ is another point in the history of
-Drowning, which has occasioned much discussion; and in solving the
-problem, so highly important in its forensic relations, _whether a body
-found in the water, had been drowned, or thrown in after death_, it has
-been considered by some physiologists as capable of affording a certain
-degree of presumptive evidence, although we are inclined to attach but
-little or no importance to such an indication. The specific gravity of
-the human body, under ordinary circumstances, is very little greater
-than that of fresh water, so small indeed is the difference that, when
-the lungs are inflated, a man will float[37] with little or no effort,
-if he have sufficient self possession, and does not attempt to raise too
-great a portion of his body out of the sustaining fluid;[38] but, when
-the air of the lungs is expelled, and probably, at the same time, a
-certain quantity of water is taken into the stomach,[39] the body
-becomes specifically heavier, and the victim sinks. It may be assumed as
-a general rule, that no newly drowned body floats, although many facts
-have been adduced in support of a contrary opinion; the naval custom of
-loading the dead bodies with weights, before they are consigned to a
-watery grave, is not for the purpose of sinking the corpse, but for
-preventing its rising after the process of putrefaction has commenced.
-The period during which a body will remain at the bottom cannot be very
-accurately determined, as the change does not take place until a
-sufficient quantity of air be generated to buoy it again to the surface;
-in the melancholy instance of the loss of the Royal George, the dead
-bodies were observed ascending to the surface of the sea, on or about
-the fifth day. The general position of a body which has thus risen,
-provided there be no external or adventitious circumstances to change
-it, is such, that it floats nearly immersed, the face, arms, and legs
-hanging downwards, and the loins being uppermost; this is the form which
-the body must mechanically and hydrostatically assume, if the sustaining
-power of generated air be, as it generally will, in the cavity of the
-abdomen, where putrefaction is more likely to commence; for the head and
-limbs are generally[40] specifically heavier than water, while the
-trunk, especially if inflated with air, is somewhat lighter.
-
-It has been said that a position, different from that which we have just
-described, will take place where the person has been strangled, and the
-body then thrown into the water; for in this latter case, it is
-contended, that the lungs will be distended with air, and that
-consequently, the sustaining power must be in the thorax; in support of
-this opinion the story of the appearance of _Caraccioli_[41], Admiral of
-the Neapolitan navy, has been ingeniously adduced; this unfortunate man
-was hanged in pursuance of the sentence of a court martial, and his body
-was committed to the deep in the usual manner; thirteen days after
-which, while the King of Sicily was walking on the deck of Lord
-_Nelson’s_ ship, he suddenly exclaimed with a yell of horror—“_Vien!
-Viene!_”—The Admiral’s corpse, breast high, was seen floating towards
-the ship; the shot that had been attached to the feet for the purpose of
-sinking it, not being sufficiently heavy. This may perhaps be explained
-by supposing that the corpse was stiff before it was immersed, in which
-case, the centre of gravity being exceedingly low on account of the shot
-tied to the feet, he must have floated upright, wherever the buoyant
-power from generated air might be situated. At all events, we feel no
-hesitation in at once rejecting the proposition, for the support of
-which it has been brought forward; the fact is that, in relation to
-gaseous contents, the lungs are the same in strangled, as in drowned
-persons; for in both cases a quantity of air is forcibly expelled from
-them before dissolution.
-
-
-                             2. BY HANGING:
-
-The suspension of a person by means of a cord, or some other ligature,
-round the neck, by which death is produced by closing the trachea, and
-preventing respiration.
-
-Although we are in this case bound to admit that the immediate cause of
-death is suffocation, yet we cannot deny that other injuries are often
-produced by hanging, such as
-
-  1. _Pressure on the vessels._
-  2. _Pressure on the nerves._
-  3. _Fracture of the spine, and dislocation of the odontoid process._
-
-1. _Pressure on the Vessels._—The red and livid hue of the face of
-persons killed by hanging, very naturally induced a belief that
-_Apoplexy_[42] was the immediate cause of death; while it is evident
-that the pressure on the jugular veins must necessarily so prevent the
-return of blood to the heart, as to produce an accumulation in the
-vessels of the brain: _Dr. Hooper_ has a preparation of the brain of an
-executed criminal, in which blood is seen extravasated among the
-membranes; and various other cases have occurred, where dissection has
-clearly demonstrated the existence of those vascular congestions and
-sanguineous effusions, upon which apoplexy is supposed to depend; but
-this merely goes to prove that apoplexy occasionally takes place from
-hanging; it does not establish the fact of its being the common cause of
-death on such occasions.[43] _Gregory_ made the following experiment to
-shew that it is to the interception of air that death is to be
-attributed; after having opened the trachea of a dog he passed a slip
-knot round the neck, above the wound; the animal, though hanged,
-continued to live and respire, the air was alternately admitted and
-easily expelled through the small opening; but as soon as the
-constriction was made below the orifice, the animal perished. _Mr.
-Brodie_ hanged a dog, and as soon as it became insensible, the trachea
-was opened below the ligature, upon which he breathed, and his
-sensibility returned.
-
-2. _Pressure on the Nerves of the Neck._ Although the pressure of a
-ligature on the nerves of the neck cannot be considered as the immediate
-cause of death in hanging, yet _Mr. Brodie_ has very justly observed,
-that if the animal recovers of the direct consequence of the
-strangulation, he may probably suffer from the effects of the ligature
-upon the nerves afterwards. _Mr. Brodie_ passed a ligature under the
-trachea of a Guinea pig, and tied it tight on the back of the neck with
-a knot; the animal was uneasy, but nevertheless breathed and moved
-about; at the end of fifteen minutes the ligature was removed; on the
-following morning, however, the animal was found dead. On dissection no
-preternatural appearances were discovered in the brain, but the lungs
-were dark and turgid with blood, and presented an appearance similar to
-that which is observed after the division of the nerves of the eighth
-pair; I do not, observes _Mr. Brodie_ (_Manuscript Notes_) positively
-conclude from this experiment that the animal died from an injury
-inflicted upon the nerves of the eighth pair, but I think that such a
-conclusion is highly probable; and it becomes an object of inquiry
-whether a patient having recovered from hanging, may not, in some
-instances, die afterwards from the injury of the _par vagum_.
-
-3. _Fracture of the Spine, and Dislocation of the Neck._ The death of a
-hanged person may occasionally take place by the luxation of the
-cervical vertebræ, and the consequent injury of the spinal marrow; this
-effect will be more likely to happen in heavy persons, and where the
-culprit suffers on a drop that precipitates him from a considerable
-height. It is said that _Louis_ discovered that of the two executioners
-in Paris and Lyons, one dispatched the criminal condemned to be hanged
-by luxating the head on the neck, whilst those who perished by the hands
-of the other were completely strangled.
-
-An animal, when first suspended, is observed to make repeated but
-ineffectual attempts to inspire; violent convulsions of the whole body
-then ensue, but which are not to be considered as the indications of
-suffering, for they arise in consequence of the dark coloured blood
-having reached the brain and spinal marrow; and the animal at this
-period is necessarily insensible; hanging does not occasion a painful
-death.[44]
-
-The lips, nose, and all those parts in which the hue of the blood can be
-observed, exhibit a dark colour; the countenance is distorted, the eyes
-protruded, and frequently suffused with blood, the tongue is also forced
-out of the mouth, and sometimes wounded, although it has been observed
-that this phenomenon will entirely depend upon the position of the rope,
-for that when it presses above the thyroid gland the tongue will be
-pushed back, in consequence of a compression upon the _os hyoides_,
-whereas if the pressure be applied under the _cricoid_ cartilage it will
-have the effect of thrusting out the tongue. Blood is sometimes
-discharged from the ears. It is not unusual for the sufferer to void his
-urine, fæces, and even semen, in _articulo mortis_. The fingers are
-usually bent, the nails blue, and the hands nearly closed; and the whole
-physiognomy exhibits a highly characteristic appearance.
-
-       “But see, his face is black and full of blood,
-       His eye-balls further out than when he lived,
-       Staring full ghastly, like a strangled man,
-       His hair uprear’d, his nostrils stretch’d with struggling,
-       His hands abroad display’d, as one that grasp’d
-       And tugg’d for life, and was by strength subdu’d.”
-
-                               _Henry_ VI, _Part_ ii, _Act_ iii, _s._ 2.
-
-The dissection of a hanged person exhibits the same phenomena as those
-described under the history of drowning, with the exception of the
-absence of water in the _bronchiæ_. With respect to the quantity of air
-found in the lungs, much discrepancy of opinion has existed. _Dr.
-Goodwyn_, in his experiments on respiration, found that the lungs of a
-person who had died from hanging, contained double the quantity of
-gaseous contents of those who had died a natural death. This result,
-however, is certainly not correct; for there is always, as we have
-already stated, a very forcible expulsion of air from the lungs in the
-act of strangulation, and they are accordingly found almost empty after
-death. _Mr. Coleman_ hanged an animal, and then secured the _trachea_ by
-a ligature, and removed the lungs; when, upon receiving their gaseous
-contents in the hydro-pneumatic apparatus, he found their quantity was
-very far less than that which would have been collected under other
-circumstances.
-
-
-                      3. BY MANUAL STRANGULATION.
-
-Whether strangulation be induced by the suspension of the body by the
-neck, or by a ligature drawn tight, or by any other pressure upon the
-trachea, the physiological phenomena of death are the same; where,
-however, the person has died from manual strangulation, the marks about
-the neck will probably be more evident, and the discolouration will
-correspond with the marks of the fingers and nails; and we may also
-expect to find traces of violence upon the chest, for since the weight
-of the body is not obtained in such a case, additional force becomes
-necessary to consummate the fatal act. On opening the bodies of those
-who have been taken off by manual strangulation, _Dr. Smith_ thinks that
-the usual appearances of this kind of death may not seem so conclusive
-as in other cases: an opinion in which we feel inclined to coincide; for
-in consequence of the greater resistance of the sufferer, the functions
-of respiration and circulation may continue in some measure for a longer
-period than in drowning or hanging, which must be considered as more
-summary processes of suffocation. In the case of a woman who had been
-thus strangled by two men, _Littre_ found the tympanum of the left ear
-lacerated, whence flowed about an ounce of blood; the vessels of the
-brain were unusually turgid, red blood was extravasated in the
-ventricles, as well as at the base of the cranium; the lungs were
-distended and their membrane vascular; not more, however, than an ounce
-of blood was found in the right ventricle of the heart, and it was fluid
-and frothy, like that in the lungs; this circumstance deserves
-particular notice, and can only be explained by supposing that the
-respiration and circulation were not at once arrested, but that the
-unhappy sufferer was enabled to inhale air, at intervals, during the
-protracted struggle[45]; and yet in certain cases, death may be very
-easily occasioned by manual strangulation, of which the murder of _Dr.
-Clench_, in the year 1692, may be adduced as an example; this gentleman
-was strangled in a hackney coach by two men, while driving about the
-streets of the city, without the coachman having the slightest knowledge
-of the transaction, until he afterwards found him quite dead, kneeling
-down with his head on the seat, and a handkerchief bound about his neck,
-in which was a piece of coal, placed just over the windpipe.[46]
-
-
-                           4. BY SMOTHERING.
-
-In this act the transit of the air into the lungs is prevented by
-forcibly closing the nostrils and mouth. It is very obvious that such a
-mode of destruction can very rarely occur in an adult; for a
-comparatively feeble resistance will be sufficient to overcome the
-assailant in such an attempt. It may, however, occur accidentally; it is
-not difficult to imagine that a person, in a fit of intoxication, may be
-unable to extricate himself from a position in which he might fall, and
-in which respiration could not be performed. In children this mode of
-suffocation is less rare, and it may be either the result of design or
-accident, to which we shall have occasion to refer, when treating the
-subject of Infanticide.
-
-
-            5. BY THE INHALATION OF AIR DEPRIVED OF OXYGEN.
-
-There are many gases, the inspiration of which occasions death; some of
-these act simply by excluding oxygen, while others exert an absolutely
-deleterious action in consequence of the specific powers which they
-possess. It is exclusively to the first species that our attention is at
-present to be directed; the latter will constitute matter for future
-consideration, under the title of _Aërial Poisons_.
-
-It is a fact too well established to require any discussion, that
-_oxygen_ is the only principle which is capable of producing the
-necessary changes in the blood, during its transmission through the
-lungs; and that, accordingly, whenever atmospheric air is deprived of
-this principle, it is no longer capable of supporting life, and the
-animal immersed in it instantly dies. It is thus that death takes place
-from exposure to the fumes of charcoal[47], to those of lime-kilns, to
-the atmosphere of cellars, caverns, wells, and dungeons.[48]
-
-The asphyxia from privies, drains, and common sewers, depends upon a
-different cause, and will be considered under the head of _Sulphuretted
-Hydrogen_, in the history of poisons.
-
-The fatal effects of confined air in a small and crowded room, were
-fully exemplified in the year 1742, when twenty persons were crammed in
-a part of St. Martin’s round-house called the _hole_, during the night,
-several of whom died; the surgeons on that occasion gave it as their
-opinion, that when the doors and windows were shut, the place could not
-support twenty persons for three hours without danger of their lives. A
-trial took place at the Old Bailey in consequence; but we have not been
-more successful than _Dr. Gordon Smith_ in our search for its report.
-The medical jurist would be called upon, on such an occasion, for his
-opinion as to the nature of the deteriorated air, the causes of its
-accumulation, and whether it was adequate to the production of the
-alleged effects; and possibly, whether the fatal consequences might not
-have been averted by judicious caution, or active exertion. The most
-awful exemplification of the fatal effects of confined air is, however,
-recorded in the interesting narrative of what happened to the English in
-the _black hole_ at Calcutta; and which we shall briefly relate in this
-place; as it involves some physiological phenomena to which we shall
-hereafter have occasion to refer.
-
-It was in the month of June, 1756, that the Viceroy of Bengal laid siege
-to Fort William, the English factory at Calcutta. _Mr. Holwell_,
-assisted by the factors and the garrison, defended this post with
-extreme bravery; but was at length obliged to surrender. There were at
-this time remaining in the fort, an hundred and forty-five men and one
-woman. The whole of this unfortunate company, many of whom were wounded,
-and several very dangerously, were shut up the same night in a small
-prison only eighteen feet square. This prison, which is now better known
-in England by the name of the _black hole_, was enclosed by strong
-walls, and had only two small windows at one end, secured by iron
-grates. In this confined situation, which allowed only a space of about
-eighteen square inches to each individual, the heat and want of fresh
-air soon excited the most horrible effects; the prisoners, in a state of
-despair, began by attempting to force open the door, but in this they
-were unsuccessful. Mr. _Holwell_, who was placed near one of the
-windows, was more at his ease than the rest, and was consequently more
-cool and tranquil; and he recommended his companions to be quiet and
-orderly, and not to exhaust their strength by useless efforts. This
-advice produced some little calm, interrupted, however, by the groans of
-the wounded and the dying. The heat increased every moment. Mr.
-_Holwell_ recommended them to strip off their cloaths, as a means of
-acquiring more space; this was accordingly done, but with no great
-relief; they attempted to improve this by fanning the air with their
-hats, but even this was too painful a task for men who were worn out by
-the fatigue of the siege, and the heat of this dungeon. Another of the
-company was for their kneeling down, that they might have more air. They
-all readily agreed to do this; and to rise together in order to avoid
-confusion. This was done several times, but every time the signal was
-given to rise, the number of those who had strength enough to obey it
-diminished. There were constantly some remaining on the floor, who were
-unable to get up, and these were trodden to death by the survivors. All
-this happened during the first hour of their imprisonment. At nine
-o’clock in the evening they began to complain of excessive thirst, and
-to renew their efforts to open the prison door, and to tempt the
-centinels to fire upon them. Some of those who were farthest from the
-window became at once furiously delirious. The cry for water was
-unanimous. The guards brought water, and _Holwell_ and two of his
-wounded friends received it at the window in their hats, and were going
-to pass it on to the rest; but so eager and tumultuous were the efforts
-of the crowd to get at this water, that _Holwell’s_ two friends were
-suffocated, the water was spilt, and _Holwell_ saw himself surrounded
-with dead bodies, who had either been crushed to death, or died for want
-of fresh air.
-
-Hitherto the commander and benefactor of these unfortunate people, had
-been treated with some degree of respect, but now all distinction began
-to be forgotten; the whole company eagerly threw themselves towards the
-windows, and seizing the iron bars, some of them got even upon his
-shoulders. He was so borne down by this enormous weight, as to be
-deprived of all power of motion; he implored the pity of those who were
-upon his head and his shoulders, and requested them to let him go and
-die at the bottom of the prison; this request was readily complied with,
-every one was desirous of succeeding to his place, and without much
-difficulty he reached the farther end of the dungeon. The third part of
-these unhappy people were already dead, and they who were still alive
-pressed so eagerly towards the windows, that _Holwell_ found himself
-somewhat freer in his new station; but the air was so corrupted, that
-his breathing soon became extremely difficult and painful. Unable
-therefore to support this, he attempted once more to make his way to the
-windows; and leaning on a heap of dead bodies, he now resolved to wait
-patiently for death. In this situation he remained about ten minutes,
-and then he experienced such a pain of the breast, and so violent a
-palpitation of the heart, that he was obliged to make one more attempt
-towards getting a less fatal air. There were five rows of his companions
-between himself and the window; his despair carried him through four of
-these. The palpitation of his heart now began to abate, but he felt
-inexpressible thirst, and cried out for water; but the water seemed to
-increase instead of alleviating his thirst; he therefore resolved to
-drink no more, and rather chose to suck the moisture from his shirt,
-which seemed to afford him some relief. A young man quite naked, who
-stood before him, eagerly seized the sleeve of his shirt, and for some
-moments deprived him of this salutary refreshment. It was not yet
-midnight. The small number of those who were left, were transported to
-the greatest excess of rage and despair. They all called aloud for air,
-because the water that had been brought to them afforded no relief. Soon
-after this the noise suddenly ceased. The greater part who were living
-laid themselves down, deprived of all their strength, and peaceably
-breathed their last. Others aimed at getting into _Holwell’s_ situation;
-a Dutchman mounted on one of his shoulders, and a black soldier on the
-other. In this situation he remained till two in the morning, when he
-gave up his place to a marine officer, who was soon forced out of it by
-the Dutchman. The officer retired with _Holwell_ to the other corner of
-the prison, and in a few moments afterwards died. _Holwell_ himself was
-soon deprived of sense, and from that time till sun rise we have no
-account of what passed. One of those who remained alive, at five in the
-morning, drew forth _Holwell_ from the heap of dead, and found in him
-some signs of life; about that time the Viceroy inquired whether he was
-still alive; he was told, that if the door was immediately opened, it
-would, perhaps, be possible to recover him, and orders were accordingly
-given for this purpose. But the door of the prison opened inwards, and
-they who were within it, and living, were deprived of all their
-strength, so that more than twenty minutes elapsed before the dead
-bodies were removed, which prevented the door from being opened.
-
-At a quarter after six o’clock, there came out of this melancholy
-dungeon three and twenty persons, the remains of the hundred and
-forty-six who had entered it on the preceding evening.
-
-Upon the events thus related we have to remark, that no advice could be
-more judicious than that given by _Holwell_ to his companions in the
-early part of their imprisonment—“to be quiet and orderly, and not to
-exhaust their strength by useless efforts.” Nor can we imagine any
-measure more calculated to increase the sufferings of their situation
-than that which was subsequently proposed, and adopted, by another of
-the company, “to fan the air with their hats, and to kneel down and rise
-together, by a simultaneous motion.” It has been satisfactorily
-established by physiological researches, that the demand for oxygen, in
-an animal body, will be in proportion to its expenditure by muscular
-exertions.[49] Whenever, therefore, circumstances may render a supply of
-air deficient, we shall best economise that which we possess by perfect
-quiet. _Lavoisier_ says, that a man, under ordinary circumstances,
-consumes 1300 or 1400 cubic inches of oxygen in an hour, but he found
-that if he is engaged in raising weights the consumption is at the rate
-of 3200 in the hour.
-
-Infants appear to be less able to sustain the deprivation of oxygen than
-adults; and in some cases on record, life has been destroyed by
-circumstances that we should have _a priori_ considered as hardly
-adequate to such an effect. A case is related of a child, who was
-suffocated by some drunken men having repeatedly blown out a candle, and
-held the smoaking wick under its nose. The faculty of Leipsic
-investigated the circumstances, and declared the death to have taken
-place in consequence of suffocation. (_Valentini Pand: Med: Legal: Sect:
-2._)
-
-
-       6. BY OTHER MODES, NOT INCLUDED IN THE FOREGOING SECTIONS.
-
-We have already stated that if the muscles of respiration be paralysed,
-the animal can no longer breathe; and it dies in a state of suffocation.
-There are several mechanical modes by which such a condition may be
-produced; a person buried in a heap of ruins, although his head should
-be free, will perish from the pressure of the surrounding rubbish
-preventing the due action of the respiratory muscles. It was in this way
-that criminals who obstinately refused to plead, often died under the
-pressure of the weights that were heaped upon their bodies.[50].
-
-There is a mode of suffocation, described by _Galen_, as being practised
-by the slaves when brought into the presence of the judges or
-executioners; it consisted in swallowing their tongue, by which it is
-said they voluntarily terminated their own existence. Several more
-modern authors have noticed this incredible mode of suicide, as one that
-is resorted to by negroes: now to confute such an idea, we have only to
-shew the attachment of the muscles of this part, and the motions which
-they permit; equally absurd is it to suppose with other physiologists,
-that persons can occasion suffocation by a voluntary suspension of their
-breathing; for if such an attempt were even made, the effort would be
-ended when self-possession was once lost, for then the impulse of nature
-must instantly triumph over any struggle to oppose it. We are not,
-however, prepared to say that such an attempt might not, in certain
-cases, occasion such a cerebral congestion as to produce apoplexy.
-
-The last cause of suffocation which we have to mention is mechanical
-obstruction, from the entrance of foreign bodies into the aperture of
-the glottis; instances of this kind are too numerous and familiar to
-require many observations: it is thus that _Anacreon_ is said to have
-perished from a grape-seed; _Gilbert_, the poet, terminated his
-existence in a similar manner; he was a man of great appetite, and in
-the midst of a festival went into a neighbouring room, but did not
-return to the great surprise of his convivial companions. He was found
-stretched on a couch without any signs of life. The assistance
-administered by his kind but uninformed friends was useless; on opening
-the body a small piece of mutton was found, that had stopped at the
-entrance of the larynx, and completely prevented the passage of air into
-this organ. In Oct. 1821, two inquisitions were taken at Mildenhall,
-before the Coroner of Bury St. Edmonds in Suffolk; in the one case it
-appeared that _John Harris_ had eaten some honey, from the honey-comb,
-and that a bee, having been concealed in it, entered the glottis, and
-occasioned almost immediate death by suffocation; the other case was
-that of an infant, _Mary Bacon_, who fell with her face upon a quantity
-of slacked lime, when a particle of it getting into the wind-pipe,
-produced inflammation of the lungs, and sloughing of the trachea, of
-which she died. We have no doubt but that persons, during the state of
-intoxication, or that of a spasmodic paroxysm, have often perished from
-suffocation, when the death has been attributed to other causes; if the
-stomach should reject its contents during a state of insensibility[51],
-such an occurrence is by no means unlikely. We have lately received the
-history of a case of this description, which occurred in the St. James’s
-workhouse, and fell under the particular notice of Mr. _Alcock_. The
-patient was seized after a hearty meal of pork with an epileptic fit,
-during which he died; when upon opening the trachea, it was found to
-contain a quantity of animal matter resembling the pork upon which he
-had recently dined.
-
-
-
-
-                     8. DEATH BY EXPOSURE TO COLD.
-
-
-That an animal must perish as soon as the temperature of the medium in
-which it lives ceases to preserve the blood in a state of fluidity, is
-one of those self-evident propositions which scarcely requires notice,
-much less explanation; but that a degree of cold not sufficiently
-intense to occasion any physical changes upon the constituent parts of
-the body should extinguish its vitality is a fact, whose history
-involves some of the most interesting questions of physiology.
-
-The degree of cold, necessary for the production of its fatal effects,
-varies in a very remarkable degree with the strength and circumstances
-of the individual to whom it is applied, as well as with the rapidity of
-the cooling process. In some instances we find that man has endured an
-extreme degree of cold with but little inconvenience, whilst in other
-cases, we see him perishing from it in a temperature at which water even
-retains its fluidity. The interesting history of Sir _Joseph Bankes_ (at
-that time Mr. Bankes), Dr. _Solander_, and eleven others, on a botanical
-excursion to the mountains of Terra del Fuego; and more recently, the
-narrative of our enterprizing countrymen, in their voyage to the Polar
-seas, will furnish a good illustration of the former fact, whilst the
-melancholy fate of the Cambridge student, as hereafter explained,
-affords a curious and instructive example of the latter. _Animal heat_,
-as Mr. _Brodie_ observes, _is in some way or other dependant upon the
-integrity of the functions of the Nervous System_; and consequently the
-absolute degree of cold which an animal can bear with impunity will,
-_cæteris paribus_, be determined by his powers of producing heat; we
-must therefore cease to regard the fact as extraordinary, that an
-animal, which is under the influence of a deleterious narcotic poison,
-or in whom, from any other morbid cause, the powers of the nervous
-system are exhausted, may be destroyed by a diminished temperature, that
-would scarcely affect even the sensations of one, differently placed in
-relation to his nervous energy; thus it is with a person in the last
-stage of intoxication, in whom the powers of life are ebbing, in
-consequence of the previous state of morbid excitement; in the course of
-the last winter, two instances occurred of drunken persons being taken
-to the watch-house; where, there not being any charge against them, they
-were dismissed by the constable of the night, and perished in the
-streets. A military friend has lately communicated to us an instance,
-where out of a great number of troops who were exposed to intense cold,
-the only one who perished was under the influence of intoxication; and
-we learn from _Le Baume’s_ interesting account of the campaign in
-Russia, that similar results were observed during the disastrous retreat
-of the French army on that memorable occasion.
-
-In our own country scarcely a winter passes without the occurrence of
-some event equally illustrative of this physiological fact; and it is
-highly important that the medical jurist should be able to appreciate
-its influence; those who perish in this manner are generally individuals
-of the most wretched condition, and will be found to have undergone much
-suffering and privation; by which their nervous energy had been too much
-exhausted to generate sufficient heat to counteract the diminished
-temperature of the atmosphere; an event of this nature occurred in
-London during the winter of 1819, when a man and his wife, aged persons,
-and poor, but not supposed, nor indeed proved to have been quite
-destitute, were found dead in their apartment, although food was
-discovered in the room, and money was in the pocket of the man: the
-night (28th of December) had been inclement, and there was neither bed
-nor fire in the miserable couple’s apartment. It appeared in evidence
-that they had been previously ailing. The verdict recorded that they had
-perished from the inclemency of the weather, in consequence of the
-destitute circumstances under which they were found.
-
-It would seem that persons who are long exposed to intense cold do not
-suffer a painful death; they gradually lose their sensibility, become
-drowsy, and die as if through the effects of an opiate. Mr. _Brodie_[52]
-classes the effects of cold in the following order.
-
-1. It lessens the irritability, and impairs the functions of the whole
-nervous system.
-
-2. It impairs the contractile powers of the muscles.
-
-3. It causes contraction of the capillaries, and thus lessens the
-superficial circulation, and stops the cutaneous secretion.
-
-4. It probably destroys the principle of vitality, equally in every
-part, and does not exclusively disturb the functions of any particular
-organ.
-
-These positions have been confirmed by experiment. Dr. _Chassat_ states
-that in an animal immersed in a cold bath, death may take place at 79°
-Fahr. (26 _Centig._), although it may be sometimes cooled down as low as
-69° (17 _Cent._) before it dies; but, _cæteris paribus_, the animal dies
-sooner as the cooling is more rapid.
-
-M. _Portal_ thinks that cold produces death by inducing apoplexy, and
-remarks that the examination of the bodies of persons who have died from
-cold, proves the presence of sanguineous congestions in the vessels and
-cavities of the body, and especially in those of the brain. Dr. _Cooke_,
-however, has remarked that “M. _Portal’s_ notions on this subject seem
-to want confirmation. Excessive cold undoubtedly produces, first
-drowsiness and afterwards a profound sleep, in which the unfortunate
-individual generally perishes; but we have not on record a sufficient
-number of cases with particular descriptions of symptoms and appearances
-on dissection, to enable us to say positively that cold kills by
-apoplexy.”
-
-After death the blood is generally florid in the aorta, so that the
-animal does not die of suffocation; the heart sometimes contracts feebly
-after the muscular irritability of the limbs and intestines are nearly
-destroyed; the cerebral veins contain but little blood; the ventricles
-contain a small portion of fluid. Mr. _Brodie’s_ experiments coincide in
-most respects with those of Dr. _Chassat_, who uniformly found after
-death, the heart much distended with blood, as in Syncope, scarlet blood
-occupying the left side; and he also found that the heart ceased to
-contract before the diaphragm, so that he has seen the animal
-insensible, and gasp for breath, even after the chest was opened and the
-heart excised! The muscles were unusually florid, and the peristaltic
-motions of the intestines were generally observed to continue longer
-than the action of the heart. The voluntary muscles, he says, lose their
-irritability in different degrees, those of the legs before those of the
-thighs, and those of the thighs before the abdominal muscles.
-
-
-                      DEATH BY THE AGENCY OF HEAT.
-
-We have not yet a sufficient number of well reported experiments on the
-effects of heat on animals, to enable us to draw any satisfactory
-conclusions respecting the mode in which life is destroyed by this
-agent; although it seems probable that it acts by destroying the
-muscular energy of the heart and diaphragm.[53]
-
-Mr. _Brodie_ placed a rabit in a basket in an oven, the temperature of
-which was not more that 150°, and it died in a few minutes without any
-apparent suffering; the heart was afterwards found distended with blood,
-on both sides, as in Syncope.
-
-
-                          DEATH BY LIGHTNING.
-
-It has been incontrovertibly established by the experiments of modern
-philosophers, that the phœnomena of electricity are identical with those
-of thunder and lightning. The human body is alike affected by both; and
-death, whether it be occasioned by the discharge of an electrical
-battery, or by that of a thunder cloud, exhibits effects precisely
-analogous.
-
-Mr. _Hunter_ supposed that when death is thus occasioned, there is an
-instantaneous and entire annihilation of the vital principle, in every
-part of the animal machine; and that the muscles are therefore relaxed,
-and incapable of contraction, that the limbs do not stiffen[54], as in
-other cases of death, nor the blood coagulate, and that the body very
-speedily runs into a state of putrefaction. The experiments however of
-Mr. _Brodie_[55] will induce us to pause, and institute farther
-enquiries before we receive this theory as unexceptionable. It will
-appear that in the following experiments of this physiologist, an
-instantaneous extinction of vitality did not take place, but, on the
-contrary, the functions of the brain were those on which the electric
-shock exercised its primary influence. An electric battery of six jars
-having been charged with electricity, the shock was made to pass through
-a Guinea pig, in the longitudinal direction from the head to the tail:
-the animal immediately fell on one side, insensible, as if stunned; a
-convulsive action of the muscles of the extremities was observed, but
-did not long continue; and the function of respiration was not
-interrupted. In a few minutes sensibility was restored, and the animal
-recovered. A shock from a battery of nine jars was then passed in the
-same manner through another Guinea pig; the animal immediately fell on
-its side, exhibited a convulsive action of the voluntary muscles of the
-limbs, but uttered no cries, and although attentively watched, no signs
-of respiration could be discovered after the shock had passed through
-it. Three minutes afterwards, Mr. _Brodie_ opened the chest, and found
-the heart acting with regularity and vigour, about 80 times in a minute,
-and circulating dark coloured venous blood; the peristaltic motion of
-the intestines was likewise visible; and the muscles, when made the part
-of a galvanic circuit, readily contracted. In this experiment, observes
-Mr. _Brodie_, it is evident that the electric shock did not destroy the
-irritability of the muscular fibre, nor did it affect the action of the
-heart. _Death took place precisely in the same manner as from a severe
-injury of the head_; and the animal died, manifestly from the
-destruction of the functions of the brain; and, in this case, Mr.
-_Brodie_ has no doubt, but that if the lungs had been artificially
-inflated, the action of the heart might have been maintained, and the
-animal probably have been restored to life.
-
-The nature and extent of the injury inflicted by lightning, depend upon
-the intensity and direction of the electrical discharge, and vary
-greatly in degree; by far the greater number of flashes are harmless
-discharges from one cloud to another, and the instances in which it
-strikes the earth are comparatively rare: when however this does occur,
-and it directs its course through a human being, it may expend its
-influence upon the surface, and produce partial or general
-vesications.[56] Sometimes the clothes of the person have been violently
-rent, and the metallic substances about them melted; or it may pass
-through the body, without including the clothes, and it may occasion
-death without injuring the organic structure of any part of the body: or
-it may pass through only a particular portion of the body, and produce
-local injury.
-
-But it has happened that persons have been struck when the tempest has
-appeared to be at a considerable distance; this has been explained by
-Signor _Beccaria_, by supposing that it is a discharge of electric fluid
-from the earth, occasioned by the passing of a cloud that has just
-before, in the elemental strife, been rendered negatively electric. Lord
-_Stanhope_ distinguishes such a discharge by the name of the _Returning
-Stroke_.[57]
-
-As a provision for personal security during a thunder storm, a few
-precautions are necessary, and we are induced to notice them in this
-place, as their history is necessarily involved in our enquiries
-concerning death by lightning. In the open air, shelter ought not to be
-sought immediately under trees, for should they be struck, such a
-situation would be attended with the most imminent peril: on the
-contrary, the distance of twenty or thirty feet from such objects, may
-be considered as affording a place of safety, for should a discharge
-take place, they will most likely receive it, and the less elevated
-bodies will escape. Any surface of water, and even the streamlets that
-may have resulted from a recent shower should be avoided, for being
-excellent conductors, the height of a man, when connected with them, is
-very likely to determine the course of an electrical discharge. The
-partial conductors, through which the lightning directs its course when
-it enters a building, are usually the appendages of the walls and
-partitions; the most secure situation is therefore the middle of the
-room, and this situation may be rendered still more secure by lying on a
-hair mattress, or even on a thick woollen hearth rug. The part of every
-building least likely to receive injury is the middle story, as the
-lightning does not always pass from the clouds to the earth, but is
-occasionally discharged from the earth to the clouds, as in the case of
-the “_returning stroke_;” hence it is absurd to take refuge in a cellar,
-as recommended by Dr. _Priestley_; indeed many instances are on record,
-in which the basement story has been the only part of a building that
-has sustained severe injury, the electric charge being divided and
-weakened as it ascended. Any approach to a fire-place should be
-particularly avoided, for the chimneys are very likely to determine the
-course of the lightning; the same caution is necessary with respect to
-gilt furniture, bell-wires, and moderately extensive surfaces of metal
-of every description.
-
-
-                          DEATH BY STARVATION.
-
-That a living animal body cannot long survive without the ingestion of
-alimentary matter, is too self-evident to require demonstration. Living
-bodies, says _Cuvier_, may be considered as a kind of furnaces into
-which inert substances are successively thrown, which combine among
-themselves in various manners, maintain a certain place, and perform an
-action determined by the nature of the combinations they have formed,
-and at last fly off in order to become again subject to the laws of
-inanimate nature.
-
-It must, however, be observed, that there is a difference, depending on
-age and health, in the proportion of the parts which enter into the
-current, and those which abandon it; and that the velocity of the motion
-usually varies according to the different conditions of each living
-body; hence it follows, that the period during which an individual may
-exist without food, will be liable to variation. We have already stated
-(page 394) that, _cæteris paribus_, he will perish from inanition with a
-rapidity proportioned to his youth, and state of robust vigour; and we
-remarked in what strict conformity with physiological principles the
-poet _Dante_ had described the fate of _Ugolino_ and his family.[58] The
-same fact appears also to have been well understood by the ancient
-physicians;[59] equally evident is it that women are able to support
-abstinence longer than men. It has been also observed that a moist
-atmosphere contributes to the protraction of life, under circumstances
-of privation; this may depend, not only upon the fluid matter thus
-furnished to the body, but upon the non-conducting power of the medium,
-in relation to aqueous vapour; the ingestion of a very small proportion
-of water revives in an extraordinary degree, the animal perishing from
-famine, and prolongs his existence. _Redi_[60] instituted a series of
-experiments with the sole view of ascertaining how long animals can live
-without food. Of a number of capons which he kept without either solid
-or liquid food, not one survived the ninth day; but one to which he
-allowed water, drank it with avidity, and did not perish until the
-twentieth day. _Elizabeth Woodcock_, who was buried under the snow, near
-Cambridge, for the space of eight days, undoubtedly owed her
-preservation to the snow which she occasionally sucked.[61]
-
-Those cases of extraordinary fasting, which are recorded in the
-different Transactions and Journals of almost every country, are to be
-generally regarded as gross impositions; we[62] have already exposed the
-fallacy of several of the more popular histories of this kind. Such
-impostors, however, in their attempt to delude the world, have
-unintentionally offered themselves as the voluntary victims of
-physiological experiment; for we have at least learnt from them how
-small a portion of aliment is sufficient to preserve the life of a human
-being; a fact which had never before been satisfactorily proved, however
-probable it had been rendered, by the recorded habits of many of the
-early Christians, especially those of the East, who retired from
-persecution into the deserts of Arabia and Egypt.
-
-The sufferings of a person perishing from inanition[63] must be
-considered as the most acute that can befall humanity; and yet we have
-instances on record of their having been voluntarily encountered as the
-means of suicide; a very interesting and well-authenticated instance of
-this kind has been related as having occurred in Corsica;[64] and, as it
-is calculated to afford, at once, a history of the symptoms of
-Starvation, and an exemplification of their severity, we shall introduce
-a brief account of the case in this place. _Luc Antoine Viterbi_ was
-condemned to death as an accomplice in the assassination of _Frediani_,
-a crime which he denied to the last moment, and appealed against a
-sentence passed upon him by a Court composed of his personal enemies.
-Towards the end of November, _Viterbi_ (knowing his condemnation, and
-being confined in the prison of Bastia), resolved to die. To effect his
-purpose, he abstained from food for three days, and then ate
-voraciously, and to a forced excess, in the hope that, after fasting so
-long, he should thereby put an end to his existence; in this however he
-was deceived, and, on the second of December, he determined to starve
-himself to death; from that day nothing could shake his awful
-resolution, although he did not expire until the night of the 21st of
-that month. During the three first days, _Viterbi_ felt himself
-progressively tormented by hunger; under these circumstances a report
-was made to the public minister, who ordered bread, water, wine, and
-soup to be taken daily to his cell, and placed conspicuously in view. No
-debility was manifested during these three days, no irregular muscular
-movement was remarked, his ideas continued sound, and he wrote with his
-usual facility, but took no nourishment.
-
-From the 5th to the 6th, to hunger insensibly succeeded the much more
-grievous suffering of thirst, which became so acute, that on the 6th,
-without ever deviating from his resolution, he began to moisten his lips
-and mouth occasionally, and to gargle with a few drops of water, to
-relieve the burning pain in his throat; but he let nothing pass the
-organs of deglutition, being desirous not to assuage the most
-insupportable cravings, but to mitigate a pain which might have shaken
-his resolution. On the 6th, his physical powers were a little weakened;
-his voice was nevertheless still sonorous, pulsation regular, and a
-natural heat equally extended over his whole frame. From the 3d to the
-6th, he had continued to write; at night several hours of tranquil sleep
-seemed to suspend the progress of his sufferings, no change was
-observable in his mental faculties, and he complained of no local pain.
-Until the 10th, the thirst became more and more insupportable; _Viterbi_
-merely continued to gargle, without once swallowing a single drop of
-water; but in the course of the 10th, overcome by excess of pain, he
-seized the jug of water, which was near him, and drank immoderately.
-During the last three days, debility had made sensible progress, his
-voice became feeble, pulsation had declined, and the extremities were
-cold. _Viterbi_, however, continued to write; and sleep, each night,
-still afforded him several hours ease.
-
-From the 10th to the 12th the symptoms made a slight progress. The
-constancy of _Viterbi_ never yielded an instant; he dictated his
-journal, and afterwards approved and signed what had been thus written
-agreeably to his dictation. During the night of the 12th, the symptoms
-assumed a more decided character, debility was extreme, pulsation
-scarcely sensible, his voice extraordinarily feeble, the cold had
-extended itself all over the body, and the pangs of thirst were more
-acute than ever. On the 13th the unhappy man thinking himself at the
-point of death, again seized the jug of water, and drank twice, after
-which the cold became more severe; and congratulating himself that death
-was nigh, he stretched his body on the bed, and said to the gendarmes
-who were guarding him, “Look how well I have laid myself out.” At the
-expiration of a quarter of an hour, he asked for some brandy; the keeper
-not having any, he called for some wine, of which he took four
-spoonsful; when he had swallowed these the cold suddenly ceased, heat
-returned, and _Viterbi_ enjoyed a sleep of four hours. On awaking (on
-the morning of the 13th) and finding his powers restored, he fell into a
-rage with the keeper, protesting that they had deceived him, and then
-began beating his head violently against the wall of his prison, and
-would inevitably have killed himself, had he not been prevented by the
-gendarmes. During the two following days he resisted his inclination to
-drink, but continued to gargle occasionally with water; during the two
-nights he suffered a little from exhaustion, but in the morning found
-himself rather relieved. It was then that he penned some stanzas. On the
-16th, at five o’clock in the morning, his powers were almost
-annihilated, pulsation could hardly be felt, and his voice was almost
-inaudible; his body was benumbed with cold, and it was thought that he
-was on the point of expiring. At ten o’clock he began to feel better,
-pulsation was more sensible, his voice strengthened, and, finally, heat
-again extended over his frame, and in this state he continued during the
-whole of the 17th. From the latter day until the 20th, _Viterbi_ only
-became more inexorable in his resolution to die. During the 19th, the
-pangs of hunger and thirst appeared more grievous than ever; so
-insufferable, indeed, were they, that for the first time, _Viterbi_ let
-a few tears escape him; but his invincible mind instantly spurned this
-human tribute. For a moment he seemed to have resumed his wonted energy,
-and said, in the presence of his guards, and the gaoler, “I will
-persist, whatever may be the consequence; my mind shall be stronger than
-my body; my strength of mind does not vary, that of my body daily
-becomes weaker.” A little after this energetic expression, an icy
-coldness again assailed his body, the shiverings were frequent and
-dreadful, and his loins, in particular, were seized with a stone-like
-coldness, which extended itself down his thighs. During the 19th a
-slight pain at intervals affected his heart, and for the first time, he
-felt a ringing sensation in his ears; at noon, on this day, his head
-became heavy; his sight, however, was perfect, and he conversed almost
-as usual, making some signs with his hands.
-
-On the 20th, _Viterbi_ declared to the gaoler and physician, that he
-would not again moisten his mouth; and feeling the approach of death he
-stretched himself, asking, as on a former occasion, whether he was well
-out, and added, “I am prepared to leave this world.” Death did not this
-time betray his hopes. On the 21st _Viterbi_ was no more.
-
-In this interesting history, we receive a faithful account of the
-physical effects of starvation upon a human being, and perceive how
-greatly a very inconsiderable portion of liquid is capable of producing
-an invigorating effect upon the body, when in a state of extreme
-inanition; but the mind of the subject before us was stern and
-invincible, inflexibly bent upon self destruction; and we therefore do
-not perceive the developement of those moral effects, which in other
-cases are the general consequences of starvation. The histories of
-besieged towns[65] would afford us ample evidence upon this subject; and
-would shew that famine destroys all the most powerful instincts of our
-nature. We know not, however, a more awful illustration of this fact
-than that furnished by the account of the wreck of the _Méduse_,[66] and
-its appalling consequences; it appears that this frigate struck on the
-bank of Arguin, and as all attempts to save her were fruitless, nothing
-remained but to concert immediate measures for the escape of the
-passengers and crew; five boats were accordingly got in readiness, and a
-raft, destined to carry the greatest number of people, was hastily
-constructed; biscuit, wine, and fresh water were also apportioned to
-each; but in the tumult of abandoning the wreck, it so happened that the
-raft had the least share of the provisions, and in which there was not a
-single barrel of biscuit. This raft, containing no less than one hundred
-and fifty souls, was to have been towed by the boats, with which it was
-connected by ropes; but the adventurers had not proceeded far, when the
-boats cast off, and cruelly abandoned the raft to the mercy of the
-ocean; to the scene which ensued it is impossible for any language,
-however florid, to do adequate justice. Despair, aided by the pangs of
-hunger, soon excited a mutiny; a dreadful slaughter ensued, and the
-flesh of their murdered comrades afforded to the survivors a short
-respite from the immediate sufferings of famine.
-
-
-
-
-THE APPLICATION OF THE PHYSIOLOGICAL FACTS ESTABLISHED IN THE PRECEDING
-            CHAPTERS, TO THE GENERAL TREATMENT OF ASPHYXIA.
-
-
-Although our researches into the causes and phenomena of asphyxia, or
-suspended animation, will afford, on many occasions, but very scanty
-encouragement with regard to the extent and value of the resources of
-art, yet we apprehend that to the intelligent practitioner they will not
-on that account be less acceptable; for to him it must be well known,
-that the detection of error is the first step in the discovery of truth,
-and although the tendency of the present investigation will be to
-reject, as useless, many of those plans of treatment which have long
-enjoyed the confidence of the public and the profession; yet it will
-suggest the application of some that have not hitherto been duly
-appreciated, and regulate that of others whose efficiency entirely
-depends upon the time and manner of their administration. But the fact
-is not to be concealed, that the medical profession, as well as the
-public, have long been too sanguine in their estimate of the
-probabilities of recovery by art, in cases where life is suddenly
-arrested by the operation of external causes; and upon this occasion,
-the establishment of the “ROYAL HUMANE SOCIETY for the recovery of
-persons apparently dead,” requires some notice, in relation to the
-possible extent of its successful exertions. Without some explanation it
-will be impossible to reconcile the reports of that philanthropic
-institution, with the physiological views which we have attempted to
-establish in the present work; it therefore becomes a part of our duty
-to explain the nature of the fallacies into which the witnesses and
-reporters of cases of suspended animation appear to us to have been
-unconsciously betrayed, and which have so frequently bestowed upon fable
-the colour of truth, and given to vague report, the apparent stability
-of credible testimony. In the first place we would observe, that in
-those cases in which a long interval is stated to have occurred between
-the suspension of breathing, from drowning, and the restoration of that
-function by art, it is probable that the anxiety of by-standers who
-witnessed the struggles, and the impossibility of justly appreciating
-the lapse of time in such moments of anxiety[67] and distress, have led
-to the erroneous statements with which the subject is embarrassed. There
-is, moreover, another fallacy into which the anxious observer is very
-likely to fall,—the sufferer may have breathed unobserved during the
-alleged interval of asphyxia; and if this fact be admitted, we at once
-reduce some of the most incredible of these reports to the rational
-standard of physiological probability. Nor shall we hesitate in the
-present chapter to offer our remarks upon the plan of recovery proposed
-by this society with as much freedom, and as little reserve, as we have
-ventured to question the literal accuracy of their reports. But while,
-thus fortified by physiological arguments, we profess to discredit many
-of the results stated by this society, let it not be supposed that we
-would prefer a charge of insincerity against their authors, or attempt
-to withhold any portion of that public patronage and consideration, to
-which their zeal and philanthropy so justly entitle them.
-
-The agents which are employed in cases of suspended animation, are far
-too indiscriminately recommended; some of them, without doubt, offer
-valuable resources to the physician, and only require a judicious
-application to ensure their success; while others are entirely useless
-and frivolous, and ought to be dismissed from our service, since the
-retaining them only embarrasses the practitioner, and that too at a
-period which of all others requires the utmost decision in the selection
-of a plan of treatment, and the greatest promptness in its execution.
-
-The following may be considered as the principal resources upon which
-the _Humane Society_ rely for restoration of persons apparently dead
-from sudden accidents, viz.
-
-         1. _Inflation of the lungs._
-         2. _Application of heat._
-         3. _Internal Exhibition of stimulants._
-         4. _Friction._
-         5. _Electricity._
-         6. _Exposure of the surface of the body to cool air._
-         7. _Blood-letting._
-
-We shall offer a few observations upon the methods of applying these
-agents.
-
-
-          _On the manner of producing artificial respiration._
-
-We are indebted to _Mr. Brodie_ for the valuable directions that are to
-guide the execution of this important operation. (_Manuscript Notes._) A
-common pair of bellows will be found as manageable and efficient an
-apparatus for the inflation of the lungs, as any instrument that could
-be contrived; those manufactured for the service of the Humane Society
-are not of a size sufficient to inflate the lungs of even a large dog,
-much less those of man; nor is it necessary to employ double bellows on
-this occasion, for the air will escape from the lungs without being
-withdrawn by suction; besides which, it is stated that the forcible
-exhaustion of the lungs is liable to occasion pulmonic hemorrhage. It
-has been proposed to insert the tube of the bellows into the trachea, by
-means of a wound in that structure, but there are great objections to
-such a proceeding; the hemorrhage which is likely to occur,[68] may
-inundate the windpipe; besides which, the operation occasions delay,
-which, however trifling, will be important in cases where the action of
-the heart has become much enfeebled; and moreover the wound itself is an
-evil which ought to be avoided, if artificial respiration can be
-established without it; and were these objections even overruled, there
-still remains another; experience has shewn that the air thus introduced
-issues by the opening of the larynx, without having dilated the lungs.
-
-A tube may be constructed for the purpose of being inserted through the
-mouth into the _rima glottidis_; if the patient be sensible, the
-introduction of such a tube might be difficult; but as the patient is in
-a state of insensibility, the introduction may usually be effected
-without much difficulty, but not altogether without trouble; for the
-mere circumstance of having to open the mouth, to pull forward the
-epiglottis, to direct the tube into the proper aperture, may occasion
-delay which will be of importance in cases where success depends upon
-the skill with which the time has been economised.
-
-It is for such reasons more expedient to inflate the lungs by means of a
-tube inserted into one nostril, keeping the other and the mouth
-carefully closed: the bellows having been thus disposed, the air should
-be driven into the lungs with a certain degree of force; the lungs will
-thus become fully inflated, and in the intervals between the different
-inflations, the air from the lungs will escape by the mouth and by the
-other nostril, and when the lungs are thus emptied, the process may be
-repeated. There is but one objection to this method of exciting
-artificial respiration, viz. that at each inflation, a portion of air
-will sometimes find its way into the stomach, through the œsophagus: it
-is very desirable to prevent such an occurrence, for when the stomach is
-much distended with air, the descent of the diaphragm is prevented, and,
-consequently, a perfect inspiration cannot be accomplished. The passage
-of air into the stomach may be prevented by pressing on the thyroid
-cartilage, so as to close the communication between the pharynx and
-œsophagus. All that is necessary for the operator is, to produce the
-inspiration; we are recommended indeed to press the margin of the ribs
-gently upwards, so as to expel the air, and produce expiration; but this
-is altogether unnecessary, for the elasticity of the ribs, and the
-pressure of the abdominal muscles and viscera, and the elasticity of the
-lungs themselves, are quite sufficient to occasion the expiration
-without any assistance from external pressure. We must not omit to state
-that the inhalation of oxygen gas, instead of common air, has been
-strongly recommended, not only as being in itself a more powerful
-stimulus, but as being more efficient in the removal of the accumulation
-of that carbonized matter which, under ordinary circumstances of
-respiration, is regularly thrown off; the practical eligibility however,
-of such a plan is very questionable, and to say nothing of the
-difficulty of obtaining oxygen upon an occasion where the least delay is
-fatal, it is very doubtful whether the effects of this gas are really
-such as our theory would at once lead us to believe. We have deemed it
-necessary to enter into these details, in order to afford some practical
-instruction upon a subject of manipulation but little understood, but
-which is undoubtedly the most valuable of all the resources which art
-can furnish for the preservation of human beings that are in danger of
-perishing from accidental causes. The principal circumstances to be
-remembered are comprised in the following precepts.
-
-  1. The lungs are to be sufficiently, but not too much inflated.
-
-  2. The inspiration must be made of sufficient frequency.
-
-  3. The air is to be allowed a free exit from the lungs, so that the
-    same air shall not be transmitted more than once.
-
-  4. The method of inflating the lungs must be simple, and easy of
-    adoption; for as the interval of time, during which the artificial
-    respiration can possibly be of any service, is very limited, it is
-    important to avoid whatever may occasion the least delay.
-
-
-                         _Application of Heat._
-
-There is perhaps no medium through which we can more successfully apply
-heat to the human body than that of the bath, because we can manage its
-application with precision; we know the exact degree of heat, and can
-avoid applying it in extremes; we, at the same time, can communicate it
-more rapidly, and more equally, than by any other means, and we are
-enabled to increase or diminish the temperature, by the addition of
-fresh portions of water, as circumstances may render it expedient.
-
-
-                  _Internal Exhibition of Stimulants._
-
-The introduction of fluids into the stomach is not an easy process in
-many cases of suspended animation, as _trismus_ is by no means an
-uncommon occurrence; where, however, the spasm of the jaw has subsided,
-the practitioner with a little address may by means of a flexible tube
-easily accomplish his object. Glysters will likewise furnish an easy
-mode of applying stimulants.
-
-
-                             _Electricity._
-
-No sooner was the discovery made that galvanism is capable of exciting
-muscular contraction in animals apparently dead, than the physiological
-enthusiast seized it with avidity, and at once hailed it as the long
-desired influence that was to restore vigour to the enfeebled, and
-resuscitation to those that were in a state of suspended animation. It
-had been long known that muscles could be made to contract, by
-irritating the nerves belonging to them with the point of the scalpel,
-but not in a degree that remotely approached the vigorous contractions
-occasioned by the galvanic influence, whose stimulus seemed almost
-equivalent to that of volition. The sanguine expectations, however,
-which were thus very naturally excited, have ended in the most complete
-disappointment; and we are bound to confess that although _galvanism is
-capable of exciting extraordinary contractions in the_ VOLUNTARY
-_muscles, and of astonishing the multitude, yet its influence does not
-extend to those that are_ INVOLUNTARY. _Bichat_ states distinctly that
-_the involuntary muscles are beyond the reach of galvanism_.[69] Mr.
-_Brodie_ has frequently attempted to restore the heart’s action by the
-galvanic stimulus, in an animal dead from syncope, but never with
-success. The author of the present work may add, that he has attempted
-the same object by modifying the experiment in several different ways,
-but with no better success. But it may be said that, as galvanism will
-excite the contractions of the diaphragm, and other muscles of
-respiration, it may be made subservient to the purpose of producing
-artificial respiration: granted,—but it never can be made to act with
-the certainty, regularity, promptness, or convenience, which attend the
-operation of a common pair of bellows, nor even if it could, would any
-advantage be obtained which might not be equally insured by the use of
-this latter simple instrument. It is, moreover, questionable whether so
-powerful a stimulus may not produce a subsequent exhaustion of the
-muscular energy; such effect indeed would appear to have happened in the
-case related by Dr. _Babington_, where the asphyxia had been occasioned
-by the fumes of burning charcoal; “having passed,” says he, “a galvanic
-shock through the chest, the patient instantly, to our surprise, drew
-his breath deep; the muscles of the abdomen were seen to react, though
-feebly, while those of the face were slightly convulsed, and the eyelids
-were raised; at each successive application of this powerful agent, the
-respirations were more forcibly performed, and the stroke of the artery
-at the wrist rose in the same proportion. Having procured a bladder
-filled with oxygen gas, we caused it to be inspired, and we thought that
-it was followed by an increased activity of the powers of respiration
-and circulation; as the heat of the body was not deficient, we now
-sprinkled the face and chest with cold water, which also had the effect
-of rousing the dormant powers of sensation, as the respiratory muscles
-were uniformly thrown by it into action, though in a more feeble and
-interrupted manner than when we employed the galvanic influence. Having
-received a large supply of oxygen gas, we repeated the inhalation and
-the galvanic succussions alternately, through the chest and head, every
-half-hour, for three hours, when the galvanic influence was
-discontinued, as the heart, though uniformly excited by it, seemed in
-the intervals to act more feebly, and we were apprehensive that by
-exalting the action of one power continually, we might destroy that
-equilibrium of forces which is necessary to the maintenance of
-life.”[70]
-
-
-
-
-               TREATMENT OF PARTICULAR CASES OF ASPHYXIA.
-
-
-                                CASE I.
-
- _Wherein the action of the heart fails before that of the respiratory
-                                organs._
-
-In no case of this description can artificial inflation of the lungs
-afford the least assistance, for the left side of the heart always
-contains florid blood at the moment of its cessation; and since this
-fact proves that it failed in its action, while under the full influence
-of duly oxygenized blood, how can we expect that the stimulus, which was
-unable to preserve the heart’s action while yet in motion, shall be able
-to re-excite it after it has ceased? Such a practice can only have been
-suggested by that erroneous physiology which maintained that the motion
-of the lungs excited that of the blood.
-
-The preservation of the body from the influence of external cold is
-always important, for it is only within a certain range of temperature
-that the vital functions can be performed; and during a state of
-asphyxia, the body is necessarily incapable of generating any portion of
-animal heat; where the heat is lost it should be gradually restored, and
-for such a purpose the introduction of wine, the volatile alkali, and
-other stimulants, into the stomach, by means of a flexible tube, would
-probably, in certain states of syncope, prove serviceable; although in
-cases of suffocation it can never occasion the least benefit. We have
-been also directed to employ frictions on the surface of the body, for
-the purpose of assisting the circulation of the blood; as if, says Mr.
-_Brodie_, (_Manuscript Notes_) this could answer any useful purpose
-where the action of the heart has ceased, or as if it could be necessary
-where it still continues.
-
-Under the head ‘death from cold,’ we have stated that the left cavities
-of the heart contain florid blood; it therefore follows that the
-directions of the Humane Society, to inflate the lungs in such cases,
-are founded in error.
-
-
-                                CASE II.
-
- _Wherein the function of respiration ceases, while the heart continues
-                       to circulate black blood._
-
-It has been stated that in cases of suffocation the heart continues to
-contract for a short period, after the cessation of breathing; that this
-interval is extremely short, but liable to vary from several causes; and
-that it is uniformly shorter in cases of death by drowning, than in
-those by strangulation. To the physician this is an interval of anxiety
-and importance; let him beware how he trifles with the fleeting moments,
-in which alone the resources of his art can be of any avail. If
-artificial respiration be established at this period, the blood will
-become once more oxygenised, the action of the heart will be continued,
-the scarlet blood will be transmitted to the brain, and sensibility will
-therefore return; the nervous energy will be once more transmitted to
-the respiratory organs, and the animal will at length make a voluntary
-effort to inspire air. Here then is the interval of time, during which
-artificial breathing may be employed so as to effect a restoration to
-life, where death must otherwise have been inevitable. Mr. _Brodie_ has
-made a great variety of interesting experiments upon this subject, from
-which may be deduced the following important corollaries.
-
-  1. If the lungs be inflated, the action of the heart will continue.
-
-  2. If the action of the heart has become feeble, but the circulation
-    is nevertheless not entirely suspended, the inflation of the lungs
-    will cause the feeble actions to become again frequent and vigorous.
-
-  3. If the action of the heart has entirely ceased, it is impossible to
-    restore it by the inflation of the lungs.
-
-  4. If the action of the heart has not entirely ceased, but is so
-    feeble as no longer to maintain the circulation, the artificial
-    respiration will prove as useless, as if the heart were perfectly
-    motionless.
-
-There is still, however, another period at which artificial respiration
-may be employed with the greatest advantage; we have stated that after
-the natural respiration has been re-established, and the animal would
-appear to be advancing towards recovery, it not unfrequently relapses
-into a state of insensibility, becomes convulsed, and dies. As this
-depends upon the black blood which is circulating through the brain, so
-paralysing that organ as to prevent a necessary transmission of its
-influence to the muscles of respiration, life may be preserved if
-artificial respiration be established until the brain is again supplied
-with duly oxygenized blood; after which the animal will be enabled to
-perform its own functions without any assistance from art.
-
-The same treatment will, of course, apply in every case where the
-natural respiration ceases in consequence of being deprived of a due
-supply of nervous energy, from the insensibility of the brain; as from a
-blow on the head—the action of a narcotic poison—from lightning?
-
-It has been proposed, in cases of suffocation, to take away blood from
-some of the larger veins; as far as relates to the asphyxia, no
-advantage can accrue from such a practice, but incidental benefit may
-arise where congestion has taken place in the brain, as happens in
-hanging: in such cases the jugular veins are those from which the blood
-can be taken with the greatest chance of success.
-
-Advantage is also said to accrue from the application of volatile
-alkali, or other pungent bodies to the inside of the nostrils; whatever
-promotes sneezing or coughing is supposed to give a succussion to the
-diaphragm and its antagonist muscles, and thereby to promote the
-re-establishment of respiration.
-
-Cordials, moderate warmth, and quiet, are the resources upon which we
-are to rely for the ultimate recovery of the vital powers, after the
-complete establishment of the function of respiration.
-
-For a long period, injections of tobacco enjoyed a high, but unmerited
-reputation amongst the medicinal agents that were supposed capable of
-rousing the latent energies of life, in cases of suspended animation;
-and strange as it may appear, this most powerful narcotic poison, until
-within a few years, was annually recommended for such purposes by those
-who professed to instruct the profession and the public upon these
-important topics; this may be considered as one of the most stupendous
-errors that ever occurred in the exercise of the medical art.
-
-Where the asphyxia has arisen from the inhalation of noxious vapours, as
-those emitted by burning charcoal, the exposure of the body to cold has
-been strongly recommended. In Russia, where from the mode of heating the
-dwellings, accidents of this kind very frequently occur, the general
-practice is to rub the body with snow, and it is said with the happiest
-effect; this plan, says Dr. _Babington_, is probably of use, from the
-strong impression which is made upon the skin as a sentient organ. It is
-also a well known fact, that the recovery of the dogs which are made the
-subjects of experiment in the _Grotto del Cane_, is much favoured by
-their being plunged into a neighbouring lake.
-
-Is it necessary to repeat, that the idea respecting the presence of any
-considerable portion of water in the lungs of a drowned person, has no
-foundation in truth? we should have scarcely deemed the notice of such a
-fallacy, and that of the practice founded upon it, of hanging by the
-heels, called for in this place, had not an opinion been lately
-delivered, by a medical witness, that _a person drowned in the Thames
-might possibly have been recovered, but for the impurity of the water,
-arising from the gas-works_. We have only to observe upon this occasion,
-that had the individual in question recovered in the hands of a
-practitioner who could have delivered so absurd an opinion, he would
-have been more indebted to good fortune than to skilful attention.
-
-A drowned animal will, in general, be recovered more slowly and with
-greater difficulty than one which has fallen into a state of asphyxia
-from strangulation. It is probable that, in the former case, the sudden
-reduction of temperature will contribute to the more rapid extinction of
-vitality.
-
-Having thus examined the pretensions to which the several modes of
-restoring animation are entitled, we may conveniently introduce in this
-place some observations upon the different methods which have been
-adopted to secure condemned criminals against the fatal effects of their
-execution. There can be no doubt but that by making an opening in the
-trachea, below the ligature, death might in some cases be prevented,
-provided the neck were not dislocated, nor the weight of the body very
-considerable. _Richerand_ says, that a surgeon of the imperial armies,
-whose veracity cannot be questioned, assured him that he had saved the
-life of a soldier by performing the operation of laryngotomy some hours
-before he was executed.
-
-Dr. _Male_[71] states that it was tried on one _Gordon_, a butcher, who
-was executed at the Old Bailey in the early part of the last century;
-the body having hung the usual time, was removed to a neighbouring
-house, where a surgeon waited to receive it, and enforce every means
-calculated to restore animation: he opened his eyes, and sighed, but
-soon expired: the want of success was attributed to his great weight,
-but we apprehend that, if the statement be correct as to his opening his
-eyes and sighing, the failure must have depended upon want of skill in
-the operators. We have yet to notice those cases of spontaneous recovery
-which have taken place after execution, and which are too well
-authenticated to admit of doubt; upon this point we would observe, that
-such results by no means militate against the accuracy of the
-physiological views which have been already presented to our readers.
-Whenever such a recovery occurs, the strangulation has never been
-complete, and feeble motions of the heart have been preserved by
-imperfect and occasional respirations, during the interval of
-suspension; this may depend, in a great measure, upon the situation of
-the noose; if placed at the side of the neck, it would be pulled tight
-by the weight of the body; but if at the back of the neck, it would be
-far otherwise. _John Smith_, who was executed at Tyburn on the 24th of
-December 1705, was cut down in consequence of the arrival of a reprieve,
-nearly fifteen minutes after he had been turned off, but is said to have
-been recovered by venesection and other means[72]; Governor _Wall_ was a
-long time in the act of dying, and it was subsequently discovered that
-this was owing to an ossified portion of the trachea resisting the
-pressure of the rope; but the most extraordinary instance of this kind,
-and one well authenticated, is that of _Margaret Dickson_, of
-Musselburgh, who was tried and convicted in Edinburgh in the year 1728,
-for the murder of her child; her conviction was accomplished by the
-evidence of a medical person, who deposed that _the lungs of the child
-swam in water_; there were, however, strong reasons to suspect the
-justness of the verdict, and the sequel of the story was well calculated
-to cherish a superstitious belief on the occasion. After execution, her
-body was cut down, and delivered to her friends for the rites of
-interment; it was accordingly placed in a coffin, and sent in a cart to
-be buried at her native place, but the weather being sultry, the persons
-who had the body in charge stopped to drink, at a village called
-Peppermill, about two miles from Edinburgh; while they were refreshing
-themselves, one of them perceived the lid of the coffin move, and
-uncovering it, the woman immediately sat up, and most of the spectators
-ran away with every sign of trepidation; a person, however, who was in
-the public house immediately bled her, and in about an hour she was put
-to bed, and by the following morning, was so far recovered as to be able
-to walk to her own house[73], after which she lived twenty-five years
-and had several children.[74]
-
-
-
-
-                       OF THE CORONER’s INQUEST.
-
-
-The office of Coroner (_Coronator_, from his duty in Pleas of the Crown,
-2d Inst. 31. 4. Inst. 271) which is of great antiquity, was also of
-considerable dignity;[75] for the Coroner, together with the Sheriff,
-was to keep the peace of the county. He is to be elected by the full
-county, and for life (except in cases of misconduct, when he may be
-removed). The writ _De Coronatore eligendo_, F.N.B. 163, commands the
-Sheriff “_quod talem eligi faciat, qui melius et sciat et velit et
-possit officio illi intendere_”, and the 3 _Edw._ 1 _c._ 10. enacts,
-that none but lawful and discreet knights should be chosen. But now it
-is held sufficient if he have enough to be made a knight (1 _Bl. Com._
-347), which is but lands to the amount of £20 per annum, (I _Edw._ 1.
-_Stat. de milit_). But as the office is attended with many unpleasant
-duties, gentlemen, in these nicer times, have shrunk from its
-performance, and it has consequently fallen into disrepute; and too
-frequently into low and indigent hands. For though in great counties,
-and some populous places, it is held by very worthy and experienced men,
-yet in remoter parts it is to be feared that it is ill exercised; and at
-least, that the persons holding it have not the learning and practice
-necessary for its due execution. And this in all probability is an
-increasing evil; for an office once fallen into disrepute, and only
-propped by the addition of emoluments to be derived from fees (per job),
-generally becomes venal; and there is now too much reason to fear, that
-decency may be outraged by the ill-timed activity of some[76], as much
-as justice is defeated by the corruption and supineness of others, who
-have of late been chosen to this ancient and once honorable office. It
-is therefore to be wished that some legislative measure may correct or
-prevent this evil, by restricting the elections to persons duly
-qualified; and by appointing medical assessors or inspectors, who might
-usefully assist the Coroner in the discharge of his duties in cases of
-inquisition of death.
-
-The statute _De Officio Coronatoris_, 4 _Edw._ 1 _c._ 2. directs the
-mode in which Inquisitions of Death shall be held. “The Coroner, when
-commanded by the King’s bailiffs, or by honest men of the county, shall
-go to the places where any be slain, or suddenly dead or wounded, and
-shall forthwith command four of the next towns[77], or five or six to
-appear before him, in such a place; and when they are come thither, the
-coroner upon the oath of them shall enquire if they know where the
-person was slain; whether it were in any house, field, bed, town,
-tavern, or company, and who were there. Likewise it is to be enquired
-who were culpable either of the act or of the force; and who were
-present, either men or women, of what age, if they can speak or have any
-discretion. And such as are found culpable by inquisition shall be taken
-and delivered to the sheriff, and committed to gaol; and such as be
-found, and be not culpable (i.e. the witnesses, and these the coroner
-shall bind over by recognizance to the next assizes,) shall be attached
-until the coming of the justices[78] and their names written in the
-coroner’s roll. If any be slain and the body found in the fields or
-woods; first, it is to be enquired whether he was slain in the same
-place or not;[79] and if it were brought and laid there, endeavour shall
-be made to follow their steps who brought the body thither; whether
-brought upon a horse or in a cart. Also it shall be inquired, whether
-the dead person were known or a stranger, and where he lay the night
-before. And if any be found culpable of the murder, the coroner shall
-immediately go into his house, and inquire what goods he has, &c. how
-much land, and the yearly value, and what corn on the ground, which
-shall be valued and delivered to the township, which shall be answerable
-before the justices for all; and the land shall remain in the king’s
-hands until the lords of the fee have made fine for it, &c.
-
-“Also it is to be enquired of those who were drowned or suddenly dead;
-and after it is to be seen of such bodies whether they were so drowned
-or slain, or strangled by the sign of a cord tied straight about their
-necks, or about any of their members, or upon any other hurt found upon
-their bodies: whereupon they shall proceed in the form above said. And
-if they were slain, then ought the coroners to attach the finders and
-all others in company.
-
-“Upon appeal of wounds and such like, especially if the wounds be
-mortal, the parties appealed shall be taken immediately, and kept until
-it be known perfectly whether he that is hurt shall recover or not; and
-if he die, the offenders shall be kept: and if the party recover, the
-offenders shall be attached by four or six pledges after, as the wound
-is great or small: if it be for a maim, he shall find more than four
-pledges: and two pledges if it be for a small wound without mayhem. Also
-all wounds ought to be viewed; the length, breadth, and depth, and with
-what weapons, and in what part of the body the wound or hurt is, and how
-many wounds there be, and who gave them: all which must be enrolled by
-the coroner.
-
-“Moreover if any be appealed, the party appealing of the fact shall be
-taken, and the party appealed of the force shall be attached also, and
-kept in ward, until the parties appealed of the fact be attainted or
-delivered.
-
-“Also horses, boats, carts, &c. whereby any are slain, shall be valued,
-and delivered unto the towns as beforesaid.
-
-“If any be suspected of the death of any man, being in danger of life,
-he shall be taken and imprisoned as before is said.”
-
-This statute is but in confirmation of the common law, and therefore
-does not restrain the powers of the coroner which he before possessed,
-even though they be not mentioned in it. 1 _East. P. C._ 381, where see
-observations on each part of this duty.
-
-He is to inroll the verdict of his jury, written on parchment, and
-return the Inquisition, either to the Justices of the next gaol delivery
-of the county, or certify it into the King’s Bench, 2 _Roll. Abr._ 32.
-
-He must take notes of the evidence,[80] and bind the witnesses to
-appear, for neglect of which he may be fined, 1 & 2 _Ph. & Mary_, _c._
-13. 1 _Lil. Abr._ 327. And if he hath not enough to answer, his fine
-(for this or any other offence in execution of his office), shall be
-levied on the county, as a punishment for electing an insufficient
-officer. _Mirror_, _c._ 1. _s._ 3. 2 _Inst._ 175.
-
-When it happens that any person comes to an unnatural death, the
-township shall give notice thereof to the coroner. Otherwise if the body
-be interred before he come, the township shall be amerced. _Hale P.C._
-170. And _Holt_, C. J. says, It is a matter indictable to bury a man
-that dies a violent death, before the Coroner’ Inquest have sat upon
-him. 2 _Hawk. P.C._ _n._ 8. 1 _Burn’s Just._ 562.
-
-Though it is not necessary that the inquisition be taken in the place
-where the body was viewed, 2 _Hawk. P.C._ _c._ 9. _s._ 25. yet he has no
-authority to take an Inquisition of Death, without a view of the body,
-and if an inquest be taken by him without such view, it is void. 2
-_Lev._ 140[81]. But after the view, which must be by the jury and
-coroner together, the inquest may adjourn to a more convenient
-place.[82]
-
-He may in convenient time take up a dead body that hath been buried, in
-order to view it: but if it be buried so long that he can discover
-nothing, or if there be danger of infection, the inquest ought not to be
-taken by the coroner, but by Justices of Peace, by the testimony of
-witnesses; for none can take it on view, but the coroner. _Bro. Coron._
-167. 173. If the body is improperly buried, or suffered to lie till it
-stinks, the town shall be amerced. 2 _Danv. Ab._ 209. _Hale, P.C._ 270.
-2 _Hawk._ 48.
-
-A Coroner’s Inquisition being final, the coroner ought to hear
-counsel[83] and evidence on both sides.[84] 2 _Sid._ 90. 101. He must
-admit evidence as well against the king’s interest as for it; and for
-omitting to do so, his inquisition may be quashed. 2 _Hale, P. C._
-60.[85] 1 _East’s P.C._ 383.
-
-The coroner among other things must enquire of the deodand, which on the
-violent death of any one, even though purely accidental, has accrued to
-the king or his grantee.
-
-This mulct was, in ancient times, applied to the purpose of purchasing
-masses, for the repose of the soul of the deceased; it is now converted
-into an ill apportioned, arbitrary, or, in a few cases, inadequate
-fine[86] on the individual, whose property has been, whether innocently
-or culpably, the cause of death. It is as absurd that a ship under sail,
-from which a man has fallen and been drowned, should be forfeited to the
-king; as it is lamentable that the ignorant, and too frequently the
-criminally negligent vender of oxalic acid for Epsom salts, should
-escape all punishment.
-
-Where a thing is not in motion, that part of it which actually caused
-the death is alone forfeited, “as if a man be climbing on the wheel of a
-cart, and is killed by falling from it, the wheel alone is a deodand. 1
-_Bl. Com._ 300. But whenever the thing is in motion, not only that part
-which immediately gives the wound, (as the wheel which runs over his
-body) but all the things which move with it, and help to make the wound
-more dangerous (as the cart and loading, which increase the pressure of
-the wheel) are forfeited.” _ibid._ The utmost penalty of this law might
-often be inflicted on the proprietors of stage coaches, where the wilful
-negligence, drunkenness, or brutality of the driver had occasioned the
-loss of life. “It matters not whether the owner were concerned in the
-killing or not; for, if a man kill another with my sword, the sword is
-forfeited.” _ibid._ The learned Commentator thus concludes, “But juries
-have of late very frequently taken upon themselves to mitigate these
-forfeitures, by finding only some trifling thing, or part of an entire
-thing, to have been the occasion of the death. And in such cases,
-although the finding of the jury be hardly warrantable by law, the Court
-of King’s Bench hath generally refused to interfere on behalf of the
-lord of the franchise, to assist so unequitable a claim.” 1 _Com._ 301.
-Thus is the justice of the country injured, in order to restrain the
-rapacity of individuals, improperly invested with the prerogatives of
-the crown. See also 1 _East. P. C._ 386.
-
-A coroner may be punished for misconduct by fine, imprisonment, or
-removal; as if he be remiss in coming to do his office when he is sent
-for, he shall be removed by virtue of the statute _De Coronatoribus_ 4
-_Ed._ l. _c._ 2: _Salk._ 37. _Hale P. C._ 170. or if he do not properly
-execute his office. 1 _Lill. Abr._ 327.
-
-If his Inquisition be quashed, and a _melius Inquirendum_ is granted,
-that Inquisition must be taken by the Sheriffs or Commissioners, upon
-affidavits.[87] 1 _Danv. Abr._ 210. _Salk._ 190.
-
-The filing of a coroner’s inquest may also be stopped for mismanagement.
-1 _Mod._ 82. If he conceal felonies he shall be fined, and suffer one
-year’s imprisonment. 3 _Ed._ 1 _c._ 9. In Lord _Buckhurst’s_ case a
-coroner not returning his inquisition of murder to the next gaol
-delivery, but suppressing it, was discharged from his office, and fined
-£100. 1 _Kebl._ 280.
-
-If a coroner be convicted of extortion, wilful neglect of duty, or
-misdemeanor in his office, the Court before whom he shall be convicted,
-may adjudge that he shall be removed from his office. 25 _Geo._ 2. _c._
-29.
-
-And lastly, by the writ _De Coronatore exonerando_, _F.N.B._ 163. 164:
-he may be discharged for negligence, or insufficiency, in the discharge
-of his duty, and when coroners are so far engaged in any other public
-business that they cannot attend the office; or if they be disabled by
-old age or disease, or have not sufficient lands, or live in an
-inconvenient part of the county. 2 _Inst._ 32. 2 _Hawk. P.C._ _c._ 9.
-_s._ 12. But if any such writ be obtained on an untrue suggestion, the
-coroner may procure a commission out of Chancery to enquire thereof; and
-the king may grant a supercedeas of the writ. _Reg. Orig._ 177. 178.
-_F.N.B._ 164. As the coroner’s is an office of freehold, the Court of
-Chancery will not suffer the writ to issue, unless on affidavit that the
-defendant has been served with notice of the petition for it. 3 _Atk._
-184. On the election of a new coroner the office of the old one is _ipso
-facto_ extinguished.
-
-We have entered more fully into this description of the office and
-duties of coroner in general, as we deem the due execution of them to be
-of the utmost importance to the public welfare; not indeed intending it
-as a guide to coroners themselves, for to that purpose it would be
-insufficient; but to give some insight into the nature and character of
-the office, to those who may, from time to time, be called upon to aid
-its administration. It is however necessary for us to add that there are
-some exceptions to the above mentioned rules, arising out of local
-customs and peculiar jurisdictions; thus the Lord Mayor of London is by
-virtue of his office, coroner within the City, and the Court is holden
-before him or his deputy. 4 _Inst._ 250. And other places, as some of
-the Royal residences, &c. have their separate coroners; but all,
-whatever the mode of election or appointment, are in cases of misconduct
-subject to the jurisdiction of the Court of King’s Bench.
-
-
-
-
-                                SUICIDE.
-
-
-Self-murder is ranked among the higher crimes, being a peculiar species
-of felony, as implied in the technical term _felo de se_. To constitute
-this offence, the party must be in his senses, else it is no crime; but
-this excuse ought not to be strained to that length to which our
-coroner’s juries are too apt to carry it,[88] viz. that the very act of
-suicide is an evidence of insanity; as if every man who acts contrary to
-reason, had no reason at all; for the same argument would prove every
-other criminal _non compos_, as well as the self-murderer. The law very
-rationally judges, that every melancholy or hypochondriac fit does not
-deprive a man of the capacity of discerning right from wrong; and,
-therefore, if a real lunatic kills himself in a lucid interval, he is
-_felo de se_ as much as another man. 1 _Hales, P. C._ 412. 1 _Hawk. P.
-C._ _c._ 27, _s._ 3.
-
-As to the punishment which human laws inflict on this crime, they can
-only act upon what the criminal has left behind him,—his reputation and
-fortune; on the former, by an ignominious burial in the highway, with a
-stake driven through his body; on the latter, by the forfeiture of all
-his goods and chattels to the king.
-
-In this as well as all other felonies, the offender must be of the age
-of discretion, and _compos mentis_; and therefore an infant killing
-himself, under the age of discretion, (of which some extraordinary
-instances have lately been related in the public journals) or a lunatic
-during his lunacy, cannot be a _felo de se_. 1 _Hawk. P. C._ _c._ 27,
-_s._ 1. _Crom._ 30, _a_ 6, 31; _Hales P. C._ 28; _Dalt._ _c._ 92; 3
-_Inst._ 54.
-
-He who kills another, though at his own desire or command, is a
-murderer;[89] and the person killed is not looked upon as a _felo de
-se_, in as much as his assent was merely void, being against the law of
-God and man; 1 _Hawk. P. C._ _c._ 27, _s._ 6; _Keilw._ 136; _Moor_ 754.
-But query, as he is the guilty cause of his own death, is he not a
-felon? for if the question had been of the death of another, his consent
-to it would have been equally against the laws of God and man; yet if
-poison were given by his direction or command, even though he were not
-present, and might have repented, it would be murder, much more then,
-when he actually assists at the perpetration.
-
-Further, as to what a _felo de se_ shall forfeit, it seems clear that he
-shall forfeit all chattels, real or personal, which he hath in his own
-right; and also all chattels real, whereof he is possessed jointly with
-his wife, or in her right; and also all bonds and other personal things
-in action, belonging solely to himself; and also all personal things in
-action, and as some say, entire chattels in possession, to which he was
-entitled jointly with another, on any account, except that of
-merchandize. But it is said, that he shall forfeit a moiety only of such
-joint chattels as may be severed, and nothing at all of what he was
-possessed of as executor or administrator; 1 _Hawk. P. C._ _c._ 27, _s._
-7, and authorities there. However the blood of a _felo de se_ is not
-corrupted, nor his lands of inheritance forfeited, nor his wife barred
-of her dower. 1 _Hawk. P. C._ _c._ 27, _s._ 1; _Plowd. Com._ 261 b, 262
-a; 1 _Hales, P. C._ 413. The will of a _felo de se_ becomes void as to
-his personal property, but not as to his real estate. _Plowd._ 261.
-
-Not any part of the personal estate is vested in the king, before the
-self-murder is found by some inquisition; and consequently the
-forfeiture thereof is saved by a pardon of the offence before such
-finding; 5 _Co. R._ 110 b; 3 _Inst._ 54; 1 _Saund._ 362; 1 _Sid._ 150,
-162. But if there be no such pardon, the whole is forfeited immediately
-after such inquisition, from the time of the act done, by which the
-death was caused; and all intermediate alienations and titles are
-avoided. _Plowd. Comm._ 260; _Hales P. C._ 29; 5 _Co. R._ 110; _Finch._
-216. All such inquisitions ought to be by the coroner _super visum
-corporis_, if the body can be found; and an inquisition so taken cannot,
-as some say, be traversed. _Hale, P. C._ 29; 3 _Inst._ 55; 1 _Hawk. P.
-C._ _c._ 27, _s._ 9, 10, 11. But see also 3 _Mod._ 238, 1 _Burr._ 17.
-
-But if the body cannot be found, so that the coroner, who has authority
-only _super visum corporis_, (vide ante. p. 93), cannot proceed, the
-inquiry may be by Justices of the Peace, (who by their commissions have
-a general power to inquire of all felonies,) or in the King’s Bench, if
-the felony were committed in the county where the court sits; and such
-inquisitions are traversable by the executor, &c. 1 _Hawk. P. C._ _c._
-27, _s._ 12; 3 _Inst._ 55; _Hales P. C._ 29; 2 _Lev._ 141.
-
-Also all inquisitions of this offence being in the nature of
-indictments, ought particularly and certainly to set forth the
-circumstances of the fact; and in conclusion add, that the party in such
-manner murdered himself. 1 _Hawk. P. C._ _c._ 27, _s._ 13; 3 _Lev._ 140;
-3 _Mod._ 100; 2 _Lev._ 152. Yet if it be full in substance, the coroner
-may be served with a rule to amend a defect in form. 1 _Sid._ 225, 259;
-3 _Mod._ 101; 1 _Keb._ 907; 1 _Hawk. P. C._ _c._ 27, _s._ 15.
-
-If a person is unduly found _felo de se_; or on the other hand found to
-be a lunatic, when in fact he was not so, and therefore ought to have
-been found _felo de se_; although a writ of _melius inquirendum_ will
-not be granted, yet the inquisition is traversable in the King’s Bench.
-3 _Mod._ 238.
-
-By the rubrick in the Common Prayer, before the burial office,
-(confirmed by _Statute_ 13 and 14, _Car._ 2, _c._ 4) persons who have
-laid violent hands on themselves shall not have that office used at
-their interment. Yet the priest has no power of enquiry, or even as it
-would appear of delay, in order to enquiry, when a body (though it be of
-a notorious suicide) is brought to his church for interment. “The proper
-judges, whether persons who died by their own hands were out of their
-senses” (and a fortiori whether they did or not die by their own hands)
-“are doubtless the coroner’s jury. The minister of the parish hath no
-authority to be present at viewing the body, or to summon or examine
-witnesses, and therefore he is neither entitled nor able to judge in the
-affair; but may well acquiesce in the public determination, without
-making any private enquiry. Indeed, were he to make one, the opinion
-which he might form from thence could usually be grounded only on common
-discourse, and bare assertion. And it cannot be justifiable to act upon
-these in contradiction to the decision of a jury, after hearing
-witnesses upon oath. And though there may be reason to suppose that the
-coroner’s jury are frequently favourable in their judgment in
-consideration of the circumstances of the deceased’s family with respect
-to the forfeiture, and their verdict is[90] in its own nature
-traversable, yet the burial may not be delayed,[91] until that matter on
-trial shall finally be determined. But on acquittal of the crime of
-self-murder by the coroner’s jury, the body in that case not being
-demanded by the law, it seemeth that a clergyman may and ought” (we can
-safely add is compellable) “to admit that body to christian burial.” 1
-_Burn’s Ecc. Law_, _tit. Burial_.
-
-
-
-
-                          OF MURDER GENERALLY.
-
-
-There are so many various modes by which this infamous and horrid crime
-may be perpetrated, that it would be an almost endless task to enumerate
-them. In a legal point of view it is scarcely necessary; for wherever
-death ensues from illegal violence[92], with malice _prepense_, it is
-felony; yet for the better aid of medical investigation it is expedient
-to class them under several heads.
-
-Sir _Matthew Hale_, in his pleas of the Crown, vol. 2, p. 431,
-enumerates several ways of killing.
-
-1. By exposing a sick or weak person or infant unto the cold, to the
-intent to destroy him, 2 _Ed._ 3, 189, whereof he dieth.
-
-2. By laying an impotent person abroad, so that he may be exposed to and
-receive mortal harm, as laying an infant in an orchard, and covering it
-with leaves, whereby a kite strikes it and kills it. 6 _Eliz. Compt. de
-Pace_; 24 _Dalton_, _cap._ 93, (new edit. 145.)[93]
-
-3. By imprisoning a man so strictly that he dies, and therefore where
-any dies in gaol, the coroner ought to be sent for to enquire of the
-manner of his death.
-
-4. By starving or famine.
-
-5. By wounding or blows.
-
-6. By poisoning.
-
-7. By laying noisome and poisonous filth at a man’s door, to the intent
-by a poisonous air to poison him. _Mr. Dalton_, _cap._ 93, out of _Mr.
-Cook’s_ reading.[94]
-
-8. By strangulation or suffocation.
-
-                       “_Moriendi mille figuræ._”
-
-The two first of these modes frequently occur in cases of infanticide,
-and to that head, which requires separate consideration on account of
-its intricacy, we shall therefore refer it. Adults can seldom, if ever,
-be exposed to destruction in this manner; though, as in —— _Brownrigg’s_
-case, and others of the same class, it may constitute a part of the
-crime of murdering children, even of an advanced age, by duress and
-starvation; where it is by a combination of cruel injuries, and not by
-one specific blow or wound, that death is produced. These cases we shall
-include under a general head, having first disposed of those which
-require more specific notice.
-
-
-“_By imprisoning a man so strictly that he dies, and therefore where any
-  dies in gaol[95] the coroner ought to be sent for to enquire of the
-                       manner of his death._”[96]
-
-Death by duress of imprisonment was in all probability a very frequent
-occurrence in the earlier periods of our history, we know that it has
-often been inflicted by the individual tyranny of the nobles on their
-vassals; and we have every reason to suppose, that even the keepers of
-our public prisons were not free from the imputation of cruelty to their
-unfortunate inmates; many have died by violence, more by neglect; it was
-therefore a wise and humane precaution that the circumstances of every
-death of a prisoner should be made the subject of minute enquiry; it is
-also desirable that such enquiry should be carried on by persons of
-competent skill, and with every possible and proper publicity. Our own
-times we will hope are entirely free from the crime of premeditated
-murder on the body of a prisoner; but we must not allow our confidence
-in the modern improvements of prison discipline to lull us into a false
-security as to the conduct of gaolers and their underlings many of these
-may be men of mild and humane disposition, but as their daily occupation
-must tend to blunt the finer feelings of humanity, it is well that every
-charge of misconduct should be met by immediate and rigorous enquiry. On
-this subject see _Rex_ v. _Huggins_, warden of the Fleet, 2 _Lord Raym._
-1578; 2 _Str._ 882; 9 _Harg. St. Tri._ 107; _Bambridge’s_ case, 9 _Harg.
-St. Tri._ 146, 151; _Acton’s_ case, 9 _Harg. St. Tri._ 182, 210, 218;
-see also the several Parliamentary Reports on Coldbath-fields,
-Ilchester, &c.
-
-“A gaoler, knowing a prisoner to be infected with an epidemic[97]
-distemper, confines another prisoner against his will, in the same room
-with him, by which he catches the infection, of which the gaoler had
-notice, and the prisoner dies; this is a felonious killing. _Stra._ 856;
-9 _St. Tri._ 146. So, to confine a prisoner in a low damp unwholesome
-room, not allowing him the common conveniences which the decencies of
-nature require, by which the habits of his constitution are so affected
-as to produce a distemper of which he dies; this also is felonious
-homicide. _Stra._ 884; _Lord Raym._ 1578. For although the law invests
-gaolers with all necessary powers for the interest of the commonwealth,
-they are not to behave with the least degree of wanton cruelty to their
-prisoners. _O. B._ 1784, p. 1177; and these were deliberate acts of
-cruelty, and enormous violations of the trust the law reposeth in its
-ministers of justice. _Forster_, 322.” See I _Hawk._ P. C. by _Leach_,
-p. 119.
-
-Previous to the researches of the celebrated _John Howard_, (see his
-treatise on Prisons and Lazarettos) our prisons appear to have been in a
-most disgraceful state; they are now greatly improved, but something may
-yet be done for their amelioration, more particularly as affecting the
-health of the prisoners; and this principally, by allowing the most
-unrestrained medical inspection by disinterested practitioners, who
-should be as much as possible unconnected with local prejudices, or
-partialities; some of the parliamentary regulations of madhouses might
-in this respect be usefully extended to all places of confinement; those
-who are not _sui juris_ are ever entitled to additional protection.[98]
-
-The best practical proof of improvement, in the construction of our
-prisons, and in our prison discipline, is to be found in the
-disappearance of that fatal pest, which was commonly called the gaol
-fever, a disorder which, with something of retributive justice,
-frequently extended its ravages to those, whose proper vigilance might
-have prevented its generation. At the assizes held at Oxford in
-1577,[99] called the black assize, we learn from _Baker’s_ Chronicle (p.
-353) that all who were present died within forty hours: the Lord Chief
-Baron, the Sheriff, and about three hundred more. _Lord Bacon_ ascribed
-the fatality to a disease brought into court by the prisoners, and _Dr.
-Mead_ entertained the same opinion; nor was similar infection, though to
-a less extent, an uncommon occurrence[100], see vol. 1, p. 125. The
-ancient practice of strewing the court with aromatic herbs and flowers,
-and presenting bouquets to the Judges, is said to have derived its
-origin from the idea of preventing infection: fresh air, still wanting
-in our courts, would have proved a more powerful, and not less agreeable
-prophylaitic.
-
-
-                         BY WOUNDING, OR BLOWS.
-
-In investigating the subject of Wounds, it will be convenient to adopt,
-on the present occasion, the usual classification of local injuries,
-viz. 1. _Incised wounds_, or cuts; 2. _Punctures_, or such as are
-inflicted by pointed instruments; 3. _Bruises_, injuries occasioned by
-blunt instruments; 4. _Lacerations_, where the integuments are torn, and
-5. _Gun-shot wounds_; upon each of which we shall offer a few
-observations, and, in the first place, it may be remarked generally,
-that no graduated scale of wounds, expressive of the degree in which
-they are curable or dangerous, can ever be constructed; in appreciating
-the probable degree of danger that attends a wound other data will be
-required for the solution of the problem than those deduced from
-situation and extent, such as the constitution and temperament, age,
-habits of life, especially as they regard temperance and sobriety,
-previous state of health, unnatural structure and disposition of parts,
-and existing diseases of the wounded individual; together with the
-temperature of the season, and other extrinsic circumstances. As a
-general rule for our guidance a division of wounds into four classes has
-been suggested, viz. 1. _Absolutely mortal._ 2. _Dangerous._ 3.
-_Accidentally mortal._ 4. _Not mortal._ Every practitioner, however,
-must be aware that death will occasionally supervene on the slightest
-injury, and at other times that the patient recovers in spite of the
-most serious and extensive mischief; in proof of the former assertion,
-the author may state that he has seen a case in which the extraction of
-a tooth was followed by death in less than forty-eight hours; and every
-experienced surgeon must in the course of his practice have observed the
-slightest wound[101] productive of alarming and even fatal consequences;
-in illustration of the occasional occurrence of a contrary result we may
-recal to the recollection of the reader the extraordinary case[102] of
-Mr. _Thomas Tipple_, who recovered after an accident, by which the shaft
-of a chaise had been forced through the thorax! There have also been
-instances of the recovery of persons whose brain has been wounded to a
-considerable depth, of others shot through the head; Dr. _Male_ states
-that a pauper in Paris, some years ago, used to receive charity in a
-piece of his skull. In the second volume of the _Medico-chirurgical
-Transactions_, we have a well attested case of a bayonet wound in the
-heart not causing immediate death. _Littre_ has given us a report of a
-man who inflicted upon himself no less than eighteen stabs in the
-abdomen with a knife; and although some of them did not penetrate beyond
-the parieties, yet others wounded the contents; the symptoms which
-followed are stated to have been very severe, but by judicious treatment
-the patient recovered; seventeen months afterwards, however, he threw
-himself into the street from a three pair of stairs window, and was
-instantly killed. On examining the body all the wounds were found
-healed, and, with the exception of one, all the cicatrices were firm and
-level; they were traced into the intestines, where corresponding
-adhesions were observed.[103]
-
-The surgical practitioner will, after such cases, be cautious in his
-prognosis, and profit by the experience of Hoffman, who says, “_In
-judicio de vulnerum lethalitate ferendo multorum Medicorum fama et
-fortuna periclitantur_.”[104] Fortunately for the administration of
-justice, that act of the Legislature, called “_the Ellenborough act_,”
-relieves us from many of those embarrassments under which the
-professional witness[105] must otherwise have laboured, and the surgeon
-will appreciate the high importance and utility of the law, by which
-wounding with an intent to kill is deemed equally criminal, whether
-death be the result or not. Still, however, the testimony of the medical
-practitioner will always be important; indeed the evil intent is often
-to be inferred, or disproved, by the nature of the injury inflicted; as
-is so well illustrated in the case of a man, who fractured the skull of
-a boy with a stick, upon finding him in the act of plundering his
-orchard; when it was clearly made out in evidence, that a mere
-chastisement was only intended, for the size of the stick was not such
-as to have occasioned any fatal effect, had not the skull of the
-unfortunate boy been unusually thin.
-
-If the surgeon is called upon to inspect a wound, with a view to
-ascertain whether it produced death, he should in the first instance,
-endeavour to examine its nature and direction, so as to disturb as
-little as possible the position in which the body was found; the knife
-of the anatomist must afterwards explore its more particular condition
-and relations, by a dissection, for the performance of which we shall
-give ample directions in a future chapter.
-
-The importance of examining the wound, so as not to alter the position
-of the parts must be obvious when we consider how necessary it may
-afterwards become to compare as strictly as possible the internal
-appearances with the external lesions. The direction of a wound is
-frequently a circumstance of much greater importance than may at first
-appear, we ought not therefore to probe it without extreme caution, lest
-we should give to it a direction which it did not originally possess.
-This precaution becomes the more necessary as the putrefactive process
-advances.
-
-_Of incised wounds, or cuts._ The prognosis of wounds made with a
-cutting instrument varies, _cæteris paribus_, according to the extent
-and depth of the division, the nature of the injured parts, and the
-circumstances which attend the operation; where the instrument has been
-so sharp as not to occasion any contusion or laceration, the fibres and
-texture of the wounded part will have suffered no other injury but their
-mere division; and there is consequently less tendency to inflammation,
-suppuration, gangrene, and other bad consequences; if the wound be large
-and deep it will be more dangerous, as well as more difficult to heal,
-than one which only affects the skin. Wounds, accompanied with injury of
-considerable vessels or nerves, are more or less hazardous, according to
-the magnitude or number of those vessels or nerves; generally speaking,
-the most dangerous examples of incised wounds are those which are made
-about the throat; here there are so many large blood-vessels, nerves and
-other parts of great importance, that deep incised wounds often prove
-fatal, either immediately, or in a few days; in some cases of suicide
-the carotid artery is opened, and the person perishes from hemorrhage on
-the spot, before any assistance can be afforded; in other instances he
-divides some of the principal branches of the external carotid, and
-after losing a great deal of blood, he faints, and the hemorrhage being
-thus checked, the life of the patient is preserved, until surgical
-assistance can be procured. Cut wounds of the extremities, when such
-arteries as the femoral and brachial are injured, may also suddenly
-destroy the patient, by hemorrhage.
-
-_Punctures_, or such as are made by the thrust of pointed weapons, as by
-swords, daggers, lances, and bayonets, or by the accidental and forcible
-introduction of considerable thorns, large nails, skewers, &c. into the
-flesh,[106] comprise a class of wounds of great importance and danger,
-as they generally penetrate to a great depth, so as to injure large
-blood-vessels, nerves, viscera, and other organs of importance; and
-being inflicted with considerable violence the parts always suffer more
-injury than what would be produced by their simple division. It must
-also be considered, that a great number of the weapons by which such
-wounds are occasioned, increase materially in diameter from the point
-towards their other extremity; and hence, when they penetrate far, they
-must force the fibres asunder like a wedge, and cause a serious degree
-of stretching and contusion. It is this circumstance which gives so
-dangerous a character to bayonet wounds in the soft parts. The opening
-which the point of such a weapon produces is quite insufficient for the
-passage of the thicker part of it, which can therefore only enter by
-forcibly dilating, stretching, and otherwise injuring the fibres of the
-wounded flesh. But mortal injury may be inflicted by an extremely
-slender instrument, so as to occasion an apparently trivial puncture;
-and in some cases, the external injury is healed before the death, which
-it occasions, takes place. Such cases can only receive satisfactory
-elucidation from the lights of an anatomical dissection, under which
-head we have furnished several instructive examples.
-
-_Bruises_, or _Contusions_, strictly comprehend those injuries which are
-occasioned by the violent application of blunt or obtuse instruments to
-the soft parts. They are not unfrequently complicated with severe
-internal injury resulting from the violence which the parts have
-sustained, such as inflammation, suppuration, or even the rupture of
-some of the viscera, of which we shall hereafter present several
-illustrative cases.
-
-A blow on the region of the stomach sometimes occasions instant death;
-an effect which would appear to arise from an injury inflicted upon the
-eighth pair, and great sympathetic nerves, by which the heart is
-instantly paralysed. In these cases the heart has been found empty, and
-the stomach has appeared red and inflamed; this latter appearance is the
-obvious effect of the sudden cessation of the heart, producing the
-settling of the blood in the extreme arterial branches.
-
-Wounds of this description are, of course, more or less important,
-according to their locality; unless complicated with laceration, they
-are never attended with any considerable hemorrhage, although the minute
-vessels are necessarily ruptured, and the effusion of their contents
-produces the discoloration so characteristic of this kind of injury.
-
-As in the case of wounds, so also in respect of blows, injuries
-apparently inadequate have produced death; it then becomes difficult to
-fix the degree of guilt which should be attached to the aggressor; for
-though according to the strict letter of the law, every man is
-responsible for the ultimate effect of an illegal act committed by him;
-yet in moral justice there is much difference between the atrocity of
-him who strikes a grievous wound with a deadly weapon, from which by
-chance his victim may recover; and the fault of him who transported by
-sudden passion gives an ordinary blow, which by accident, by reason of
-some inward and unknown disease of his adversary, or by injudicious
-treatment, becomes fatal. Numerous cases might be cited in support of
-this position: that of _Brain_ for the murder of _Watts_, _Cro. Eliz._
-778: _H. P. C._ 455. is one of the most remarkable, not only from the
-circumstances attending the trial, where the jury were fined and
-imprisoned for a corrupt verdict, but also for the physiological
-circumstance, that the deceased died instantly from a blow on the calf
-of his leg. The parties had previously quarrelled and fought; and
-_Brain_, the prisoner, was hurt; the next day _Watts_ passing his shop
-made mouths at him, on which new provocation _Brain_ hit him the blow
-which instantly proved fatal. The Court held that the new provocation
-was insufficient, and that the death must be referred to precedent
-malice—might they not also have considered that a blow on the calf of
-the leg was more insufficient to produce death under ordinary
-circumstances, than a wry face to induce or inflame a quarrel? The
-prisoner was found guilty, but not without considerable and as it
-appears to us proper resistance on the part of the jury; the case being
-on Appeal, the Crown could not pardon, though the appellant might
-compromise his suit:—we are not informed whether the prisoner was
-executed.
-
-A case, nearly parallel to the above, is that of _Lydia Alder_, who was
-tried in 1744 for the murder of her husband, whom she kicked on the
-groin; in consequence of which, having at the time an inguinal rupture,
-mortification came on, and he died. Verdict, _Manslaughter_. The
-circumstances attending the case of _Bartholomew Quain_ were, in some
-respects, different; he was tried and convicted for the murder of his
-wife, at the Assizes for the Isle of Ely, in 1790. It appeared in
-evidence, that a rupture of the spleen was produced by the violent
-kicks, of which the indictment stated that she had died. The jury, under
-the direction of the Chief Judge of Ely, found a special verdict, in
-order to take the opinion of the Court of King’s Bench upon the
-following question, whether the facts found by the jury amounted to
-murder, or only to manslaughter, when the Court was clearly of opinion
-that it was murder, because there did not appear to have been any
-provocation on the part of the deceased; and no man had a right, even to
-inflict chastisement, without a just provocation.
-
-_Lacerations_, where the integuments are torn.—These differ from incised
-wounds not only in the circumstance of their being less disposed to heal
-by the first intention, but in the singular fact of their not bleeding
-to any extent; there are perhaps no facts, in the history of surgery,
-more extraordinary than those which have been recorded on the subject of
-whole limbs being torn away, without hemorrhage. The most remarkable of
-these is related by _Cheselden_, in his work on Anatomy, being the case
-of a miller, “whose arm, with the scapula, was torn off from his body,
-by a rope winding round it, the other end being fastened to the coggs of
-a mill; there was no hemorrhage, nor did any severe symptoms supervene,
-so that the wound was cured by superficial dressings only, the natural
-skin being left almost sufficient to cover it.” Analogous cases are
-recorded by _La Motte_, in his _Traité des Accouchemens_; by Mr.
-_Carmichael_, in the fifth volume of the _Edinburgh Medical
-Commentaries_; and by others, in the second volume of the _Mem. de
-l’Acad. de Chirurgie_. In appreciating the degree of danger attendant
-upon wounds of this description, the practitioner must not overlook the
-possible occurence of Tetanus.
-
-_Gun-shot wounds._ Long after the invention of gunpowder, Surgeons
-continued to entertain very vague opinions respecting the nature of
-wounds produced by it; some considered that the injured parts were
-either dreadfully burnt by the heat of the projected body, or were
-irritated by the presence of poison, communicated to them by the powder.
-_Thomas Gale_, who served as a Surgeon in the army of _Henry_ 8th, at
-Montreuil in 1554, was the first to refute the absurd opinions of “the
-poisoning, burning, and conquassation of gun-shot wounds.” A gun-shot
-wound is now defined “a violent contusion, with, or without a solution
-of continuity, suddenly and rapidly effected by a solid body projected
-from fire-arms.” If a musket or pistol ball has struck a fleshy part,
-without injuring any material blood-vessel, we see a hole about the size
-of, or smaller than the bullet itself; with a more or less discoloured
-lip forced inwards, and if it has passed through the parts, we find an
-everted edge, and a more ragged, and larger orifice at the point of its
-exit; the pain in this case is so inconsiderable that the wounded person
-is frequently not aware of his having received any injury. The course of
-balls is frequently most extraordinary, and it behoves the judicial
-surgeon to keep in mind a fact which may often throw considerable light
-upon the subject of his investigation. A ball will often strike the
-thorax or abdomen, and, to an inexperienced eye, appear to have passed
-directly across, or to be lodged in one of the cavities. If great
-difficulty of breathing or hemorrhage from the mouth, with sudden
-paleness and laborious pulse, in the one case, or deadly faintness,
-coldness of the extremities, and the discharge of stercoraceous matter
-from the wound, in the second, are not present, we shall perhaps find
-that the ball has coursed along under the integuments, and is marked in
-its progress either by a redness, which Mr. _Hunter_ compared to a
-blush, or by a wheal, or dusky line, terminated by a tumour, on the
-opening which it will be easily extracted. In some of these long and
-circuitous routes of balls, where we have not this mark, a certain
-emphysematous crackling discovers their course, and leads to their
-detection. The ball is in many instances found very close to its point
-of entrance, having nearly completed the circuit of the body. In a case
-related by Dr. _Hennen_, as one that occurred to a friend of his in the
-Mediterranean, the ball, which struck about the _Pomum Adami_, was found
-lying in the very orifice at which it had entered, having gone
-completely round the neck, and being prevented from passing out by the
-elasticity and toughness of the skin which had confined it to this
-circular course. This circuitous route is a very frequent occurrence,
-particularly when balls strike the ribs, or abdominal muscles, for they
-are turned from the direct line by a very slight resistance indeed,
-although they will at times run along a continued surface, as the length
-of a bone, along a muscle, or a fascia, to a very extraordinary
-distance. If there is nothing to check its course, and if its momentum
-be very great, it is surprising what a variety of parts may be injured
-by a musket ball. Dr. _Hennen_ states that in one instance, which
-occurred in a soldier, who having his arm extended in the act of
-endeavouring to climb up a scaling ladder, had the centre of his humerus
-pierced by a ball, which immediately passed along the limb, and over the
-posterior part of the thorax, coursed among the abdominal muscles,
-dipped deep through the glutæi, and presented on the fore part of the
-opposite thigh, about midway down. In another case, a ball which struck
-the breast of a man standing erect in the ranks lodged in the scrotum.
-The propensity of balls to take a curved direction is often seen in
-their course on a concave surface; in short, they take very unusual and
-deep-seated routes, not at all to be accounted for by any preconceived
-theories drawn from the doctrine of projectiles, nor to be explained by
-diagrams founded upon mathematical rules. These considerations ought to
-render the Surgeon very cautious how he delivers his opinion, as to the
-direction in which the shot was fired, and yet instances frequently
-occur where no difficulty can arise upon this point, such was the case
-of _Richard Annesley_, tried for the murder of _Thomas Eglestone_ (9
-_Harg. Sta. Tri._ 327). The deceased was a poacher. _Annesley_ who was
-in company with the game-keeper, stated in his defence, that his gun had
-accidentally gone off in his attempt to secure the deceased. The
-instructions given by the Court on this occasion was that if the jury
-were of opinion that the gun had so gone off accidentally, they should
-bring in a verdict of _Chance-medley_, which was returned accordingly,
-in consequence of the evidence of the Surgeon who had examined the
-wound, and stated that its direction being upwards, very satisfactorily
-proved that the fowling-piece had not been levelled from the shoulder,
-which would have implied design; but must have been discharged at the
-trail, which must have been accidental.[107] An idea long existed that a
-ball might produce injury without striking any part of the body; this
-was supposed by some to arise from the violent commotion produced in the
-air by the rapid motion of the ball; and by others, to depend upon an
-electrical shock on the parts, in consequence of the ball being rendered
-electrical by friction in the calibre of the gun, and giving off the
-electrical matter as it passes by. This, however, is contrary to all our
-received notions respecting electricity; metals can never acquire such a
-property by friction.
-
-In avowing our total disbelief in the existence of such
-_wind-contusions_, as they have been called, we are well aware that we
-shall oppose many very respectable authorities. “_Amicus Plato, sed
-magis amica Veritas._”
-
-An important question, connected with the present subject, still remains
-for elucidation; where a body has been found dead with wounds and
-contusions, by what signs we are to determine whether they were
-inflicted during life, or after death. As the solution of this
-interesting problem requires various data, its consideration will be
-reserved for that part of our work, where all the Objects of Inquiry, in
-cases of sudden and mysterious death, are considered in their various
-relations to each other, with a view to appreciate their individual and
-joint importance.
-
-
-                             BY POISONING.
-
-No species of murder is so base and cowardly, or so cool and deliberate
-in its perpetration as murder by poison, which because of its secresy
-prevents all precaution, whereas most open murder gives the party killed
-some opportunity of defence;[108] it is generally committed in violation
-of domestic duty and confidence, and too frequently evinces that
-unrelenting and barbarous depravity, which can witness the sufferings of
-its victim for days nay months unmoved; therefore our ancient laws
-adjudged those convicted of poisoning to a severer punishment than other
-offenders. 3 _Nels. Abr._ 363. _Jac. Law Dict. tit. Poison._ By the 22
-_Hen._ 8. it was _ex post facto_ enacted that _Richard Roose_, (or
-_Cooke_), for putting poison into a pot of pottage in the Bishop of
-Rochester’s kitchen, by which two persons were killed, should be boiled
-to death; and that the offence in future should be adjudged High
-Treason; but this among other new treasons (with which the reign of
-_Henry_ the 8th had abounded) was abolished by the statute of _Edward_
-6, and now to poison any one wilfully is murder if the party die in a
-year. 1 _Edw._ 6. _c._ 12.
-
-By the 43 _Geo._ 3. _c._ 58. (commonly called Lord _Ellenborough’s_ Act)
-any person administering poison with _intent_ to murder another, (though
-no death ensue) or to procure the miscarriage of a woman quick with
-child, is declared guilty of felony without benefit of clergy: and
-persons administering medicines to procure miscarriage, though the woman
-is not quick with child, are declared guilty of felony, punishable by
-imprisonment or transportation (_vide post_). If a man persuade another
-to drink a poisonous liquor, under the notion of a medicine, who
-afterwards drinks it in his absence, or if _A_, intending to poison _B_,
-put poison into a thing, and deliver it to _D_ who knows nothing of the
-matter, to be by him delivered to _B_, and _D_ innocently delivers it
-accordingly in the absence of _A_;[109] in this case the procurer of the
-felony is as much a principal as if he had been present when it was done
-(2 _Hawk. P. C._ 443: _Vin. Ab. tit. Accessory_) or if one mix poison
-with any eatable with intent to kill another, and a stranger casually
-eat it and die,[110] it is murder; _Dalton_, 93. _Agnes Gore’s_ case for
-poisoning by ratsbane (9 _Co. Rep._ 81: _Palm. R._ 547.), not so if it
-be to kill vermin; but query if it be manslaughter where there is not
-proper precaution, as where the poison is laid in ordinary places for
-keeping meat, and mixed with ordinary food, so that a child may take it.
-1 _East. P. C._ He that counsels another to give poison, if that other
-doth it, the counsellor, if absent, is accessory _before_. _Coke, P. C._
-49. Case of the murder of Sir _Thomas Overbury_, _Harg. St. Trials_. But
-he that absolutely gives or lays the poison, to the intent to poison,
-though he be absent when it is taken by the party, yet he is principal,
-and this was _Weston’s_ case. _Harg. St. Trials_: _Co. P. C._ _p._ 49.
-_Vaux’s_ case, _ubi supra_, and _Donellan’s_ case for the murder of Sir
-_Theodosius Boughton_, _Warwick Assizes_, 1784. See _Appendix_, 243.
-
-It is not our intention to detail every mode by which murder by poison
-may be committed; too many are already known to the world in general; on
-those which are known, we may safely comment; nor would there be as much
-mischief as is commonly supposed in hinting at some others; for if any
-should study this subject with evil intention, he may be assured that
-the progress of modern science, though it may have discovered some new
-modes of destruction, has been yet more fertile in antidotes for the
-injured, and in means of detecting the guilty.
-
-
-
-
-                              OF POISONS,
-
-      CHEMICALLY, PHYSIOLOGICALLY, AND PATHOLOGICALLY CONSIDERED.
-
-
-Toxicology, or the history of Poisons, forms one of the most important
-and elaborate branches of Forensic Medicine, and in tracing the subject
-through all its numerous and interesting relations to Jurisprudence, we
-shall experience no small degree of gratification by observing, how
-greatly and progressively this obscure department of science has, within
-the last few years, been enlightened by the discoveries of Chemistry and
-Physiology.
-
-The labours of the modern Chemist, indeed, have enabled us to recognise
-and identify each particular substance by its properties and habitudes,
-with an infallible delicacy, which the Physicians of a former age could
-scarcely have anticipated, and much less practised.
-
-The Physiologist, by an invaluable series of observations and
-experiments, has demonstrated the particular organ, or texture, upon
-which each individual poison exerts its energies; and the Pathologist
-has been thus enabled to establish the mode in which it depraves the
-health, or extinguishes the life of an animal. Nor has the Anatomist
-withheld his contributions upon this interesting occasion, for he has
-demonstrated the situation, extent, and intensity of the organic lesions
-which result from the operation of these terrible agents upon the living
-body; and has pointed out several appearances which occur from natural
-causes, but which might be mistaken by the unskilful or superficial
-observer, for the ravages of poison. It remains for the Forensic
-Physician to converge into one focus the scattered rays which have thus
-emanated from so many points, and thereby to elucidate and determine the
-line of conduct which the medical attendant is called upon to pursue,
-for the relief of the patient suffering under the torments of poison,
-and for the establishment of the guilt or innocence of the party charged
-with the perpetration of a crime, which may be said to rob courage of
-its just security, while it transfers to cowardice the triumphs of
-valour. That engines so powerful and secret in their work of
-destruction, should have universally excited the terror of mankind is a
-fact which cannot surprise us, and, when we consider how intimate are
-the relations between fear and credulity, we need not seek farther for
-the solution of the many problems to which the exaggerated statements of
-ancient Toxicologists[111] have given origin; the most extraordinary of
-those relate to the alleged subtlety of certain poisons, which was
-believed to be so extreme as to defeat the most skilful caution, and at
-the same time so manageable, as to be capable of the most accurate
-graduation; so that, in short, the accomplished assassin was not only
-thus enabled to ensure the death of his victim through the most secret,
-and least suspicious agents, but to measure his allotted moments with
-the nicest precision, and to occasion his death at any period that might
-best answer the objects of the assassination. The writings of
-_Plutarch_, _Tacitus_, _Theophrastus_, _Quintillian_, and _Livy_, abound
-with such instances of _occult_ and _slow_ poisoning; most of which,
-however, notwithstanding the weight they may acquire from their
-testimony, bear internal evidence of their fallacious character.
-_Plutarch_ informs us that a slow poison which occasioned heat, cough,
-spitting of blood, a lingering consumption of the body, and a weakness
-of intellect, was administered to _Aratus_ of Sicyon. This same poison
-is also alluded to by _Quintillian_ in his declamations. _Tacitus_[112]
-informs us that _Sejanus_ caused a _secret_ poison to be administered by
-an eunuch to _Drusus_, who in consequence gradually declined, as if by a
-consumptive disorder, and at length died. _Theophrastus_[113] speaks of
-a poison, prepared from Aconite, that could be so modified as to
-occasion death within a certain period, such as two, three, or six
-months, a year, and even sometimes two years.
-
-To such an extent does the crime of poisoning appear to have been
-carried, about two hundred years before the Christian æra, that
-according to _Livy_,[114] above one hundred and fifty ladies, of the
-first families in Rome, were convicted and punished for preparing and
-distributing poison. The most notorious and expert character of this
-kind is handed down to us by the historians and poets under the name of
-_Locusta_, who was condemned to die on account of her infamous actions,
-but was saved in order that she might become a state engine, and be
-numbered, as _Tacitus_ expresses it, “_Inter instrumenta regni_.” She
-was accordingly employed to poison _Claudius_ by _Agrippina_, who was
-desirous of destroying the Emperor, and yet feared to despatch him
-suddenly, whence a slow poison was prepared by _Locusta_, and served to
-him in a dish of mushrooms, of which he was particularly fond,
-“_Boletorum appetentissimus_;” but it failed in its effects, as we learn
-from _Tacitus_, until it was assisted by one of a more powerful nature.
-“_Post quem nihil amplius edit._” This same _Locusta_ prepared also the
-poison with which _Nero_ despatched _Britannicus_, the son of
-_Agrippina_, whom his father _Claudius_ wished to succeed him on the
-throne. This poison appears to have proved too slow in its operation,
-and to have occasioned only a dysentery. The Emperor accordingly
-compelled her by blows and threats, to prepare in his presence one of a
-more powerful nature, and as the tale is related by _Suetonius_, it
-appears that it was then tried on a kid, but as the animal did not die
-until the lapse of five hours, she boiled it for a longer period, when
-it became so strong as instantaneously to kill a pig to which it was
-given. In this state of concentration it is said to have despatched
-_Britannicus_ as soon as he tasted it.[115] Vide _Tac. An._ 13. _s._ 15.
-16. Now it would clearly appear from these statements that _Locusta_,
-avowedly the most accomplished poisoner of ancient Rome, was wholly
-incapable of graduating the strength of her poisons to the different
-purposes for which they were applied.
-
-The records of modern times will furnish examples no less atrocious than
-those we have just related. _Tophana_, a woman who resided first at
-Palermo, and afterwards at Naples, may be considered as the _Locusta_ of
-modern history; she invented and sold those drops so well known by the
-names of _Aqua Toffania_; _Aqua della Toffana_; _Acquetta di Napoli_, or
-simply _Acquetta_. This stygian liquor she distributed by way of charity
-to such wives as wished for other husbands; from four to six drops were
-sufficient to destroy a man, and it was asserted that the dose could be
-so proportioned as to operate within any given period.[116] It appears
-that in order to secure her poison from examination, she vended it in
-small glass phials, inscribed, “_Manna of Saint Nicolas Bari_,” and
-ornamented the vessel with the image of the Saint. Having been put to
-the rack she confessed that she had destroyed upwards of six hundred
-persons, for which she suffered death by strangulation in the year
-1709[117]. In 1670 the art of secret poisoning excited very considerable
-alarm in France; the _Marchioness de Brinvillier_, a young woman of rank
-and great personal beauty, having intrigued with, and subsequently
-married an adventurer named _Saint Croix_, acquired from him the secret
-of this diabolical act, and practised it to an extent that had never
-before been equalled. She poisoned her two brothers through the medium
-of a dish at table. She also prepared poisoned biscuits, and to try
-their strength she distributed them herself to the poor at the Hotel
-Dieu. Her own maid was likewise the subject of her experiments. To her
-father she gave poisoned broth, which brought on symptoms characteristic
-of those induced by corrosive sublimate. Her brothers lingered during
-several months under much suffering. The detection of this wretch is
-said to have been brought about in the following manner. _Saint Croix_,
-whenever engaged in the preparation of his poisons, was accustomed to
-protect himself from their dangerous fumes by wearing a glass mask,
-which happening to fall off by accident, he was found dead in his
-laboratory.[118] A casket directed to the Marchioness, with a desire
-that in case of her death it might be destroyed unopened, was found in
-his chamber, a circumstance which in itself was sufficient to excite the
-curiosity and suspicion of those into whose hands it fell. The casket
-was accordingly examined, and the disclosure of its contents at once
-developed the whole plot, and finally led to the conviction of this
-French Medea, who after a number of adventures and escapes, was at
-length arrested and sent to Paris, where she was beheaded, and then
-burnt, on the 11th of July, 1676. The practice of poisoning, however,
-did not cease with her execution, and it became necessary in 1679 to
-establish a particular Court, for the detection and trial of such
-offenders; which continued for some time to exert its jurisdiction under
-the title of CHAMBRE DE POISON, or CHAMBRE ARDENTE.
-
-With respect to the secret modes in which poisons have been supposed
-capable of acting, mankind have ever betrayed the most extravagant
-credulity, of which the numerous tales upon record afford ample proof;
-such as that reported of _Parasapis_ by _Plutarch_, from _Ctesias_, in
-his life of _Artaxerxes_, who, it is said, by anointing a knife on one
-side by poison, and therewith dividing a bird, poisoned _Statira_ with
-one half, and with the other regaled herself in perfect security. We are
-also told of _Livia_ who poisoned the figs on a tree which her husband
-was in the habit of gathering with his own hands. _Tissot_ informs us
-that _John_, king of Castille, was poisoned by a pair of boots prepared
-by a Turk; _Henry_ VI, by gloves[119]; Pope _Clement_ VII, by the fumes
-of a taper[120]; and our king _John_, in a wassail bowl, contaminated by
-matter extracted from a living toad. To these few instances of credulity
-may be added the offer of the priest to destroy queen _Elizabeth_ by
-poisoning her saddle[121], and the _Earl of Essex_, by anointing his
-chair.
-
-Incredible and absurd as these opinions now appear, they continued until
-a late period to alarm mankind, and to perplex and baffle judicial
-investigations; even _Lord Bacon_ in his charge against the _Earl of
-Somerset_ for the murder of _Sir Thomas Overbury_, in the Tower, seemed
-to give credit to the story of _Livia_, and he seriously stated, that
-“_Weston_ chased the poor prisoner with poison after poison; poisoning
-salts, poisoning meats, poisoning sweetmeats, poisoning medicines and
-vomits, until at last his body was almost come, by the use of poisons,
-to the state that _Mithridates’s_ body was by the use of treacle and
-preservatives, that the force of poisons was blunted upon him;” _Weston_
-confessing, when he was reproached for not despatching him, that he had
-given enough to poison twenty men.[122] The power of so graduating the
-force of a poison as to enable it to operate at any given period seems
-to have been considered possible by the earlier members of the Royal
-Society, for we learn from _Spratt’s_ history of that learned body, that
-very shortly after its institution, a series of questions were drawn up
-by the direction of the Fellows, for the purpose of being submitted to
-the Chinese and Indians, viz. “_Whether the Indians can so prepare that
-stupifying herb, Datura, that they make it lie several days, months,
-years, according as they will have it, in a man’s body, without doing
-him any hurt, and at the end kill him without missing half an hour’s
-time?_”
-
-That mankind were, in a very early stage of their existence, not only
-acquainted with the deadly effects of certain natural substances when
-applied in minute quantities, but that they availed themselves of such
-knowledge for the accomplishment of the worst purposes, is very
-satisfactorily shewn by the records of sacred as well as profane
-authors. But such is the ambiguity of ancient writers upon this subject,
-and so intimately blended are all their receipts with the practices of
-superstition, that every research, however learned, into the exact
-nature of the poisons which they employed, is necessarily vague and
-unsatisfactory. Of this one fact, however, we may be perfectly
-satisfied, that they were solely derived from the animal and vegetable
-kingdoms, for the discovery of mineral poisons was an event of later
-date; owing however to the defect of botanical nomenclature, it is even
-doubtful whether the plants which are designated by the terms _Cicuta_,
-_Aconitum_, &c. in ancient authors, were identical with those we
-designate by the same names. (See _Pharmacologia_, edit. v. vol. 1, p.
-66.) With respect to the poisons of _Locusta_, all cotemporary writers
-speak of the venom of the toad as the fatal ingredient of her potions,
-and in the Alexipharmaca of _Dioscorides_ we find the symptoms
-described, which are said to be produced by it;[123] but what is very
-extraordinary, the belief of the ancients on this matter was all but
-universal. _Pliny_ is express on the subject; _Ætius_ describes two
-kinds of this reptile,[124] the latter of which, as Dr. _Badham_ has
-suggested, was probably the frog, as well from the epithet, as that he
-ascribes deleterious powers only to the former. It is scarcely necessary
-to observe that this ancient belief has descended into later times; we
-find Sir _Thomas Browne_ treating such an opinion as one of the vulgar
-errors; and we have before alluded to the legend of king _John_ having
-been poisoned by a wassail bowl in which matter extracted from a living
-toad was said to have been infused. In still later times, we have heard
-of a barrel of beer poisoned by the same reptile having found its way
-into it. _Borelli_ and _Valisnieri_ maintain that it is perfectly
-harmless, and state that they had seen it eaten with impunity.
-_Spielman_[125] expresses the same opinion, “_Minus recte itaque
-effectus venenati a bufonibus metuuntur._” _Franck_,[126] on the
-contrary, accuses _Gmelin_ of too much precipitancy in rejecting the
-belief respecting toad-poison,[127] Modern naturalists recognise no
-poisonous species of toad; even the most formidable of the species, to
-appearance, that of Surinam, is said to be perfectly harmless.
-
-If we may venture to offer a conjecture upon this subject, we are
-inclined to consider the origin of this opinion to have been derived
-from the frequency with which the toad entered into the composition of
-spells or charms, into philtres or love potions, and which, like the bat
-and the owl, most probably derived its magical character from the gloom
-and solitude of its habitation. _Shakspeare_ has accordingly introduced
-this reptile into the witches’ enchanted cauldron, in _Macbeth_.
-
-                  “Round about the cauldron go;
-                  In the poison’d entrails throw.
-                  Toad that under coldest stone
-                  Days and nights hast thirty-one
-                  Swelter’d venom sleeping got,
-                  Boil thou first i’ the charmed pot!”
-
-This opinion receives further strength when it is considered how
-frequently poisons were administered under the insidious form of charms
-or incantations.[128]
-
-It has, however, been shewn by late experiments that the toad has, under
-particular circumstances, the power of ejecting from the surface of the
-body an acrid secretion which excoriates the hands of those that come in
-contact with it; and this fact may perhaps have assisted in supporting
-the general belief respecting the poisonous nature of this reptile.
-_Pelletier_ has ascertained, that this corrosive matter, contained in
-the vesicles which cover the skin of the common toad, (_Rana Bufo_) has
-a yellow colour, and an oily consistence, and to consist of,—1st, an
-acid partly united to a base, and constituting 1/20th part of the whole.
-2d, very bitter fatty matter. 3d, an animal matter bearing some analogy
-to gelatine.
-
-It would also appear from the writings of _Dioscorides_, _Galen_,
-_Nicander_, _Ætius_, _Ælian_, and _Pliny_, that the ancients derived a
-very energetic poison from the Sea Hare, _Lepus Marinus_,—the _Aplysia
-Depilans_ of _Linnæus_; and, if we may credit _Philostratus_, it was
-with such a poison that _Titus_ was killed by _Domitian_.
-
-There is, however, ample ground for supposing that the poisons of the
-ancients were, for the most part, obtained from the vegetable kingdom,
-and from the class of Narcotic plants;[129] that they were compounded of
-a great variety of such ingredients, together with others that were
-quite inert and useless, and which merely served to disguise their
-composition.
-
-Ancient writers also allude to the blood of the bullock as a poison;
-_Themistocles_ is said by _Plutarch_ to have destroyed himself by this
-fluid; and _Strabo_ states that _Midas_ died of drinking the hot blood
-of this animal, which he did, as _Plutarch_ mentions, to free himself
-from the numerous ill dreams which continually tormented him. Some
-historians assign the death of _Hannibal_ to the same draught.
-
-With respect to the poisons employed by _Tophana_, the Locusta of modern
-days, and her infamous successors, there is less doubt; _Arsenic_,
-_Corrosive Sublimate_, _Sugar of Lead_, and _Antimony_,[130] were
-amongst the most powerful of their instruments of torture and death.
-According to the declaration of the Emperor _Charles_ VII to his
-physician _Garelli_, the _Aqua Toffania_ was a solution of arsenic in
-_Aqua Cymbalariæ_.[131] Dr. _Hahneman_ considered its basis to have been
-an arsenical salt. Others have, with little probability, regarded Opium
-and Cantharides as the active ingredients. _Franck_,[132] speaking of
-the _Aqua Toffania_, agrees with _Gmelin_,[133] that it is no other than
-a solution of arsenic. The _Pulvis Successionis_, another instrument of
-death, whose title announces the diabolical intention with which it was
-administered, has been supposed to have been a preparation of lead;
-while others have considered it to have consisted of diamond dust, and
-to have acted mechanically.
-
-Having thus noticed a few of the more remarkable and interesting
-features in the literary history of Toxicology, we shall proceed to
-consider the subject of Poisons, in relation to their operation.
-
-A Poison, (_Toxicum_, _Venenum_, _Virus_), has been very correctly
-defined by _Gmelin_ to be a substance which when administered
-internally, or applied externally, in a small dose, impairs the health,
-or destroys life. This definition is adopted by _Mead_, _Sproegel_,
-_Plenck_, and _Tortosa_, and is to be preferred to every other,[134] not
-only for its simplicity, but for its independence of any theory relative
-to the _modus operandi_ of such agents. But it will be seen that, by
-accepting this definition, we are necessarily led to admit the fact,
-that poisoning may be acute, or chronic, that is to say, that it may at
-once destroy life, or produce a disease which can be protracted to any
-indefinite period. After the erroneous and vague notions which have been
-entertained upon the subject of “_Slow poisons_,” it is highly essential
-that the latitude of our belief should be accurately ascertained, and
-the precise meaning of our terms defined.
-
-
-         OF SLOW, CONSECUTIVE,[135] AND ACCUMULATIVE POISONING.
-
-1. _Slow Poisons._ According to the popular acceptation of the term,
-they may be defined, _Substances which can be administered
-imperceptibly; and a single dose of which will operate so gradually, as
-to shorten life like a lingering disease; their force, at the same time,
-admitting of so nice an adjustment as to enable the artist to occasion
-death at any required period._ We have now to inquire how far such
-alleged powers are consistent with the known laws of physiology. It
-cannot be denied that certain substances have been introduced into the
-alimentary canal, where they have remained for an indefinite period,
-without occasioning the slightest inconvenience, and at length excited a
-disease that has terminated fatally; in the _London Medical and Physical
-Journal_ for February 1816, a case is related in which death was
-occasioned by a chocolate-nut having lodged in the entrance of the
-_Appendix Vermiformis_; and in the _Edinburgh Medical and Surgical
-Journal_ for July 1816, we have an analogous case, communicated by Dr.
-_Briggs_ of Liverpool, where the _Appendix cæci_ sphacelated, owing to
-the irritation of a human tooth which was found sticking in its cavity.
-Mr. _Children_ has lately communicated to the Royal Society a case where
-a concretion in the colon produced death; upon examination it was found
-to contain a plum-stone, as a nucleus, and to consist of a fine fibrous
-vegetable substance, from the inner coat enveloping the farina of the
-oat, and which was derived from the oatmeal upon which the deceased had
-fed. (_Phil. Trans._ 1822.) However disposed we may feel, by a forced
-construction of the term, to consider such agents as _slow_ poisons, it
-is very evident that they can rarely have been made subservient to the
-purposes of secret poisoning; although a case occurred in the practice
-of the author,[136] in which a girl swallowed six copper pence for the
-avowed purpose of destroying herself; the coin produced a disease which
-remained chronic for a very considerable period, when, after a lapse of
-five years, they were voided, and the young woman recovered. A similar
-attempt was also made by _Theodore Gardelle_, after his conviction for
-the murder of Mrs. _King_ (_vide ante_), he swallowed a number of
-halfpence, for the purpose of destroying himself, but without any ill
-effect. Dr. _Baillie_, in his ‘_Morbid Anatomy_,’ relates an instance
-where five halfpence had been lodged in a pouch in the stomach for a
-considerable time, without occasioning any irritation; and Mr. _A.
-Thomson_ has also furnished us with two analogous cases in children, in
-one of which the copper coin remained six months in the intestines, and
-in the other, two months. These facts furnish sufficient data to enable
-the practitioner to appreciate the degree of danger attendant upon such
-agents, and to determine how far they can ever become successful
-instruments in the hands of the assassin.[137]
-
-But it has been supposed that certain bodies, as glass, enamel,
-diamonds,[138] agates, smalt, &c. when administered in the form of
-powder, so lacerate the membranes of the stomach, by the sharpness of
-their particles, as slowly to destroy life; and upon the same principle,
-it has been asserted, that human hair, chopped fine,[139] constitutes
-the active ingredient of a slow poison frequently employed in Turkey,
-and that it induces, by irritation, a chronic disease resembling cancer.
-With respect to the danger arising from the ingestion of diamond dust,
-enamel powder, powdered glass, and the like, there still may be said to
-exist some difference of opinion. _Caldani_, _Mandruzzato_,[140] and M.
-_Le Sauvage_, have reported experiments made upon men and inferior
-animals, in which no bad consequences followed the administration of
-such bodies; whereas _Schurigius_[141] and _Cardanus_[142] cite
-instances where persons have died of ulcerations of the stomach from
-such causes; and this opinion receives the support of _Plouquet_,[143]
-_Stoll_,[144] _Gmelin_,[145] _Foderé_,[146] _Mahon_,[147] _Franck_,[148]
-and many others. The modern pathologist will not find much difficulty in
-reconciling such conflicting testimony. The experimentalist may
-administer mechanical substances a thousand times without producing any
-ill effects, while, under certain circumstances, the most trivial body
-may lodge in the intestines and produce death; but surely the occasional
-occurrence of such accidents ought not to confer the general title of
-_poison_ upon the substances which may happen to produce them.
-
-
-Having thus disposed of a considerable number of bodies, which have been
-classed as _slow_ poisons, we may proceed to observe that most of the
-other substances which have found a place in the same division, appear
-to us to deserve consideration under a very different head, and that we
-shall get rid of much obscurity by adopting the following arrangement.
-
-2. _Consecutive Poisoning._ Where the patient, having recovered from the
-acute effects occasioned by the ingestion of a single dose of poison,
-_subsequently suffers a series of symptoms from the injured structure to
-which it had given origin_. By referring to our definition of _slow_
-poisoning, we shall at once perceive the striking and important
-distinction between that and _Consecutive poisoning_. The following
-case, related by M. _Orfila_, may serve as an illustration. _Maria
-Ladan_ drank by mistake a spoonful of _Aqua fortis_, the most violent
-symptoms supervened, but which by judicious treatment gradually
-subsided, when at length she passed by stool a long membranous
-substance, rolled up, and which represented the form of the æsophagus
-and stomach, and which, in fact, was found to be the interior membrane
-of these organs; from that moment the sensibility of the digestive
-organs became excessive, and two months after the accident she
-experienced a sudden shock and died. M. _Tartra_, in observing upon
-cases of this kind, asserts that the symptoms produced at first by the
-nitric acid decrease insensibly; and that at the end of a certain
-period, the internal membrane of the digestive canal is struck with
-death, and thrown off, and the person dies of a _Marasmus_.
-_Fordyce_[149] relates the case of a woman who was subject to cholics
-for the space of thirty years, in consequence of having _once_ taken an
-infusion of the pulp of Colocynth prepared with beer. This was
-undoubtedly an extraordinary instance of idiosyncrasy, but it is
-probable that some organic lesion was occasioned by its operation, to
-which the subsequent suffering is to be referred. We have hitherto only
-considered the effects that may arise from the ingestion of a _single_
-dose of poison, but there are numerous and very interesting cases in
-which fatal results have been produced by the repetition of small doses
-at various intervals. We therefore propose a third, and new subdivision
-of our subject, viz.
-
-
-3. _Accumulative Poisoning._—By the repeated administration of a
-substance, in doses, of which no single one could occasion harm; but
-which, by gradually accumulating in the system, ultimately occasions
-disease, and death.
-
-The familiar operation of mercury will at once suggest itself to the
-Physician, as a striking illustration of that species of poisoning which
-we have ventured to name _Accumulative_, and to the forensic student the
-effects of this metal, in reference to such a quality, will form a more
-than ordinary object of interest, as involving questions which have
-frequently embarrassed judicial inquiry; as, for instance, _Whether it
-can lie dormant any considerable time without betraying its effects upon
-the constitution_, and, having displayed its powers, and the symptoms
-having subsided, viz. salivation, &c. _Whether they can be renewed
-without a fresh application of the substance?_ See Corrosive sublimate.
-
-To how many substances this power of accumulation extends is at present
-not well understood. It may occur in those that act by absorption, and
-in those whose action is wholly local. Arsenic, digitalis, and several
-of the narcotic plants, as hemlock, may undoubtedly occasion serious
-mischief in this manner, as the author has more fully explained in
-another work,[150] and we have lately heard of several fatal cases
-arising from accumulated masses of magnesia in the _primæ viæ_, from the
-habitual use of small doses of that earth.
-
-The history of many of the arts, especially those of metallurgy, would
-furnish also abundant examples of this kind of poisoning.
-
-These few facts are we trust sufficient to authorise the foregoing
-arrangement, and we apprehend that the adoption of the distinctions,
-upon which it is founded, will be of great service in establishing fixed
-and definite notions with regard to the _chronic_ operation of poisons.
-It may perhaps be useful to present the reader with a synoptical
-recapitulation of the subject.
-
-  _A Slow Poison._ A single dose is sufficient; which produces upon its
-    administration no sensible effect, but gradually undermines the
-    health.
-
-  _A Consecutive Poison._ A single dose is sufficient; producing the
-    most violent symptoms, very shortly after its ingestion, but which
-    gradually subside, and the patient is supposed cured; when, at some
-    future period, death takes place from the organic lesions that had
-    been occasioned.
-
-  _An Accumulative Poison._ Many doses are required; the effects being
-    produced by the repetition of doses which would, _individually_, be
-    harmless.
-
-There still remains another point of view in which it is essential to
-regard the operation of a poison, in order to establish a distinction
-between those substances which, in a given dose, will destroy life under
-every circumstance of constitution, and those which occasion death in
-consequence of some constitutional peculiarity in the individual to whom
-they may have been administered, and which are innocuous to the general
-mass of mankind; the gradations by which food, medicine, and poison, are
-thus enabled to branch into each other cannot be defined, because the
-circumstances with which they are related, defy generalization. The
-distinction, however, must be acknowledged and preserved, and we know no
-terms better adapted for expressing it than those of _Absolute_ and
-_Relative_ poisons; and our readers are accordingly requested to receive
-them in conformity with this explanation, whenever they occur in the
-following pages. Every work professing to treat the subject of Poisons,
-abounds with instances, in which articles that, by universal consent,
-are considered innocuous, have occasioned the most direful effects.
-_Morgagni_ relates a case of a person who died from eating bread made
-with the farina of the chesnut. Dr. _Winterbottom_[151] says that he is
-subject to severe nettle-rash after eating sweet almonds. _Schenkius_
-relates a case in which the general law of astringents and cathartics
-was always reversed. _Donatus_ tells us of a boy whose jaws swelled,
-whose face broke out in spots, and whose lips frothed, whenever he eat
-an egg: we might add many more examples, but it is needless to encumber
-a subject with illustrations which is already so obvious and
-indisputable. Nor do the anomalies of constitutional idiosyncrasies end
-here, for they not only convert food into poison, but they change poison
-into food, or at least, into a harmless repast. The most extraordinary
-exemplification of this on record is contained in the history of the old
-man at Constantinople, as related by M. _Pouqueville_, physician to the
-French army in Egypt, and who was a prisoner at Constantinople in the
-year 1798[152]. “This man,” says he, “was well known all over
-Constantinople, by the name of _Suleyman Yeyen_, or _Suleyman, the taker
-of corrosive sublimate_. At the epoch when I was there he was supposed
-to be nearly a hundred years old, having lived under the Sultans
-_Achmet_ III, _Abdul Hamet_, and _Selim_ III. He had in early life
-habituated himself to taking opium; but, notwithstanding that he
-constantly increased the dose, he ceased to feel from it the desired
-effect, and then tried sublimate, the effects of which he had heard
-highly spoken of; for thirty years this old man never ceased to take it
-daily, and the quantity he could now bear exceeded a drachm. It is said,
-at this epoch he came into the shop of a Jewish apothecary, and asked
-for a drachm of sublimate, which he swallowed immediately, having first
-mixed it in a glass of water. The apothecary, terrified, and fearing
-that he should be accused of poisoning a Turk, immediately shut up his
-shop, reproaching himself bitterly with what he had done; but his
-surprise was very great, when, the next day, the Turk came again, and
-asked for a like dose of sublimate.”
-
-Morbid states of the body may also exist which are capable of resisting,
-to a certain extent, or of modifying, the violent operation of
-particular poisons. In the history of the Royal Academy of Sciences for
-1703, a case is related of a woman, who being tired out by a protracted
-dropsy, under which her husband had suffered, _charitably_ administered
-to him fifteen or twenty grains of opium with the intention of
-despatching him; but the dose immediately produced such copious
-evacuations by sweat and urine, that it restored him to health. This
-relation will immediately recal to the recollection of the classical
-reader the story, recorded by _Plutarch_, in his life of _Crassus_, of
-_Hyrodes_ king of the Parthians, who having fallen into a dropsical
-complaint had poison (_Aconite_) administered to him by his second son,
-_Phraates_, but which, instead of destroying the king, as intended,
-cured his disease. The son, however, having thus failed in his attempt,
-shortly afterwards smothered his father with his pillow.
-
-
-
-
-                            GENERAL REMARKS
-
-   ON THE MEDICAL EVIDENCE REQUIRED TO SUBSTANTIATE AN ACCUSATION OF
-                               POISONING.
-
-
-Although the phenomena by which we are enabled to discover the
-administration of poison, will be fully enumerated, and carefully
-examined, under the history of each particular substance, and will
-necessarily vary according to the chemical properties, and physiological
-action of each individual poison; yet there are some general points of
-evidence, and several questions of importance, upon which it is very
-essential to arrive at some definite conclusion, some fixed
-understanding, before we proceed to the consideration of the particular
-details, and subordinate ramifications, of this complicated subject.
-
-The great constituents which form the medical proof of poisoning, are
-derived from Chemical, Anatomical, and Pathological researches; viz.—the
-existence of poison in the stomach or intestines; the morbid
-appearances, corresponding to such poison, upon dissection; and the
-characteristic symptoms which accompanied the action of it, previous to
-death. Where these circumstances occur in combination, the demonstration
-may be said to be complete, for we have arrived at absolute certainty.
-
-But scientific evidence, short of such perfection, may be amply
-sufficient to lead to conviction. The fact of a poison having been found
-in the body may supersede the necessity of pathological testimony: thus
-_Hoffman_,[153] “_Si venenum adhuc intra ventriculum reperitur, res est
-clarissima, ubi vero, illud haud deprehenditur, res adhuc dubii plena
-est._” We shall hereafter find that the discovery of organic lesions,
-without the chemical proof (“_experimentum crucis_[154]”) is often
-vague, and seldom satisfactory, and that even when sanctioned by the
-testimony of the pathologist, will frequently be deemed insufficient to
-sustain an indictment, unless indeed it be collaterally supported by a
-very strong chain of circumstantial evidence of a moral nature,
-especially such as relates to the character, conduct, and presumed
-object of the prisoner.
-
-As the duty of the medical witness, upon such occasions, must always be
-anxious, and generally perplexing, it becomes our duty at least to clear
-away those adventitious difficulties with which ignorance on the one
-hand, and sophistry on the other, have obstructed a path of inquiry,
-which, from its very nature and direction, must necessarily be obscure
-and intricate.
-
-We shall endeavour upon this, as we have upon similar occasions, to
-bring the more leading and popular points of controversy within the
-scope of a few prominent questions, assigning to each a share of
-attention, commensurate with our idea of its importance.
-
-  Q. 1. _Whether all, or most of the symptoms, characteristic of the
-    action of corrosive and narcotic poisons, may not arise from morbid
-    causes of spontaneous origin?_
-
-  Q. 2. _Whether organic lesions, similar to those produced by
-    poisoning, may not occasionally result from natural causes?_
-
-  Q. 3. _Whether the rapid progress of putrefaction, in the body
-    generally, or in any particular part, is to be considered as
-    affording any presumptive evidence, in favour of a suspicion of
-    poisoning?_
-
-  Q. 4. _How far the absence of poison, or the inability of the chemist
-    to detect it, in the body, or in the fluids ejected from it, is to
-    be considered as a negative to an accusation of poisoning?_
-
-  Q. 5. _What degree of information can be derived from administering
-    the contents of the stomach of a person supposed to have been
-    poisoned, to dogs, or other inferior animals?_
-
-We shall now consider these questions in succession.
-
-
-   Q. 1. _Whether all, or most of the symptoms, characteristic of the
-  action of corrosive and narcotic poisons, may not arise from morbid
-                     causes of spontaneous origin?_
-
-It must be admitted that the symptoms produced by violent irritation in
-the primæ viæ, are not characterised by a diversity, corresponding with
-that of the causes which may excite it; thus it is, that we have a
-disease to which the term “_cholera_” has been assigned, and which is
-indicated by the following symptoms, “_Humoris biliosi vomitus, ejusdem
-simul dejectio frequens; anxietas; tormina; surarum spasmata_,” (Cullen
-Syn: LX. 1.) symptoms which supervene, and with nearly the same force,
-the spontaneous effusion of acrid bile into the intestines, and the
-ingestion of some acrid poison; and hence the nosologist has very
-properly divided _cholera_ into two species, viz.
-
-C. _Spontanea_, “Tempestate calida, sine causa manifesta oboriens.”
-
-C. _Accidentalis_, “A rebus acribus ingestis.”
-
-The problem therefore for solution, is the mode of distinguishing the
-two species from each other. Although the leading characters are, as we
-have said, the same in both, such as bilious vomiting, and purging,
-violent tormina of the bowels, cold sweats, cramps, faintings, and
-death, yet by a careful and circumstantial examination of the case, the
-intelligent practitioner will generally be enabled to arrive at a
-probable conjecture; the season of the year[155], the prevailing
-epidemics, the age[156] and constitutional predisposition of the
-patient, his habit with respect to diet, are circumstances which will
-greatly assist the diagnosis. The progress of cholera morbus is also
-rarely, or never, fatal in this climate, especially in so short a period
-as that in which death occurs from the operation of a violent, corrosive
-poison.[157] There are besides in this latter case, very frequently
-other symptoms which do not attend _cholera spontanea_,[158] such as
-sanguineous vomiting, extreme burnings in the æsophagus and region of
-the stomach, swollen countenance, great dryness and tumefaction of the
-fauces, peculiar fætor of the breath, ischuria, with discharges of
-bloody urine, and ulcerations about the fundament[159]; this latter
-symptom was particularly remarkable in the case of _Mr. Blandy_, whose
-history, as related by his physician, _Dr. Addington_, will be found in
-our _Appendix_, _p._ 236, and well deserves the attentive consideration
-of the medical jurist. The matter voided will also sometimes lead to a
-just diagnosis; in the true cholera _spontanea_ there is a discharge of
-almost pure bile by vomiting and stool, simultaneously or alternately;
-now, although the same vomiting and purging may arise from the action of
-a poison, yet it does not follow that the matter discharged is bilious.
-The evidence delivered on the extraordinary trial of _Donnall_, for the
-wilful murder of his mother-in-law, _Mrs. Elizabeth Downing_, has been
-also printed in the _Appendix_, as well illustrating those doubts with
-which the present question is naturally encompassed. An opinion has
-existed that the appearance of jaundice during, or after the severe
-symptoms of _cholera_, offers a satisfactory proof of its spontaneous
-origin. Upon this point we would observe, that by violent and protracted
-retching a person may sometimes become jaundiced, a circumstance not
-unlikely to occur in cases of poisoning. The stomach, diaphragm, and
-abdominal muscles are, under such repeated efforts, very apt to be
-rendered eminently irritable, so that at each effort of the former to
-discharge its contents, the latter will frequently be simultaneously
-thrown into strong spasmodic contractions, and the liver, together with
-the gall-bladder, will be suddenly caught, and, as it were, tightly
-squeezed in a powerful press, in consequence of which the bile will
-regurgitate, and be carried into the _venæ cavæ_; for _Haller_ has shewn
-with what facility a subtle injection, when thrown into the hepatic
-duct, will escape by the hepatic veins; upon which _Dr. Saunders_ has
-made the following remark, “I know this to be a fact, for I have
-ascertained by experiment, that water, injected in the same direction,
-will return by the veins in a full stream, although very little force is
-used.”
-
-The fact of the bile becoming, under certain circumstances, highly acrid
-and deleterious, has been seized by the humoral pathologist as a
-powerful argument in support of his doctrines. Amongst the more
-distinguished authors who have fully treated this subject, and
-maintained that our secretions may thus become acrid poisons, we have
-_Galen_[160], _Aretæus_[161], _Fernelius_[162], _Morgagni_[163],
-_Hebenstreit_[164], _Hilchen_[165], _Hoffman_[166], _Baumer_[167],
-_Belloc_[168], _Alibert_[169], _Foderé_[170], _Mahon_[171], _De la
-Mettrie_[172], and _Tronchin_[173]. Some of the authors above enumerated
-have expressed their opinions in the strongest terms; thus _Morgagni_
-(loco citato) “_Facile agnosco a prava ipsa corporis dispositione
-internum aliquando posse venenum gigni_;” and _Hebenstreit_ observes,
-“_Possunt omnino in corpore venena nasci, atque ipsi humores vitales vim
-vasa sua destruendi sæpe acquirunt._[174]” _Hilchen_, after attempting
-to establish a diagnosis between the effects of poison, and those
-arising from a morbid degeneracy of the fluids, exclaims, apparently in
-despair, “_Inquilinos corruptosque humani corporis humores, eum
-acrimoniæ gradum, eamque corrodendi vim acquirere posse, quæ eosdem edat
-effectus, quos venena corrosiva sistunt, eamdem sordium vomitu
-rejectarum putrilaginem, fætorem, haud dissimilem, et acerrimam, et
-pelves arrodentem acrimoniam certum est._” And _Plouquet_, after
-describing all the phenomena of poisoning, concludes by acknowledging
-“_Probe autem notandum hæc omnia etiam ex aliis statibus morbosis nasci
-posse._” _De la Mettrie_ also has observed upon this question, “_Il est
-prouvé que la bile se peut changer dans nos corps en espece d’Arsenic!_”
-Our own countryman, _Dr. Currie_[175], has furnished the public with an
-opinion upon the subject under discussion, and he states his belief
-that, under a peculiar state of irritation, the biliary organs may
-secrete a bile of so very acrid a nature as to excite an almost
-immediately fatal impression upon the alimentary canal, especially when
-suddenly effused, and in a highly concentrated form.
-
-We have deemed it right to adduce these various authorities, in relation
-to the important question before us, still, however, reserving our
-opinion, that the physician will on such occasions, by means of the
-subsidiary sources of discrimination above enumerated, generally be
-enabled to form a diagnosis[176] which, although it may not amount to
-certainty, must be considered as capable of increasing the weight of the
-general mass of circumstantial evidence.
-
-As the medical treatment to be adopted in cases of acute disease, or
-poisoning, can hardly be considered a subject of Medical Jurisprudence,
-we should have passed it over in silence, did not the evidence delivered
-upon the trial of Donnall imperiously call upon us for some
-animadversion; and we feel it our painful duty upon this occasion to
-observe, that the whole tenor of the medical defence displayed a very
-unbecoming contest; the witnesses conducted themselves like advocates,
-raising doubts, and defending their positions with a pertinacity that
-belongs to those who seek triumph rather than truth.
-
-In the cure of cholera the experience of the physicians of all ages
-wholly concurs. In the commencement of the disease the evacuation of the
-redundant bile is to be favoured by the plentiful exhibition of mild
-diluents, and after the redundant bile has been thus eliminated, or when
-the spasmodic affections of the alimentary canal become dangerously
-violent, opiates, in sufficiently large doses, but in small bulk, may be
-administered. To employ evacuants, as _Sydenham_ quaintly observes, “is
-to increase the disturbance, and as it were, to endeavour to quench fire
-by oil; and on the other hand, to commence with opiates is shutting up
-the enemy in the bowels.” Under such authority, we presume, one of the
-witnesses in the defence of Donnall, felt justified in condemning the
-practice of the respectable physician who attended the deceased
-(_Appendix, p._ 304); but we here see a witness assuming as a fact, what
-was never proved in evidence, and then deducing conclusions from it.
-_Dr. Edwards_ informed the court that “there were no symptoms of cholera
-morbus when _he_ saw Mrs. Downing; but from what _he_ heard of her
-complaint, he imagined that there was something offensive either in the
-stomach or bowels, which ought to be evacuated.” (_Ibid. p._ 286.)
-
-Nor are the symptoms produced by the operation of narcotic poisons so
-distinct as to escape the possibility of being confounded with those of
-spontaneous disease. They may, for instance, simulate those of apoplexy,
-or epilepsy; but the history of the case, the odour of the breath, and
-the subsequent examination of the body after death, will generally clear
-up the difficulties which may at first present themselves. But we shall
-have occasion to consider this subject hereafter; the difficulties of
-the case are well illustrated by the evidence on the trial of
-_Donellan_, for the murder of _Sir Theodosius Boughton_, with laurel
-water, for which see _Appendix, p._ 243.
-
-Before we quit the subject which involves the consideration of our
-fluids degenerating, under particular circumstances, into poisons, we
-may just notice the opinion of some foreign chemists, that in certain
-diseases the _Prussic acid_[177] is generated in some of the fluids of
-the animal body. We are not inclined to accede to this proposition,
-because during life we do not think the chemical decompositions, known
-to be necessary for the production of this substance, can ever take
-place. At all events, it must be preceded by a state of the system which
-would necessarily prevent the chance of any medico-judicial fallacy.
-
-
-Q. II. _Whether organic lesions, similar to those produced by poisoning,
-           may not occasionally result from natural causes?_
-
-In entertaining this question, we are prepared to meet with numerous
-alleged difficulties; but as many of them appear to have arisen, rather
-from the ignorance or carelessness of the operator, than from the
-natural obscurity of the subject itself, we are inclined to hope that by
-getting rid of the former source of fallacy, we shall be enabled to
-examine with some satisfaction and advantage, those which, in a greater
-or less degree, will be liable to baffle the researches of the more
-experienced anatomist.
-
-Such are the changes which an animal body undergoes after death, that
-unless the anatomist be intimately acquainted with their nature and
-extent, it is impossible that he should be able to derive any safe
-conclusions from his dissection; thus, said _Mr. John Hunter_, we may
-see appearances which are natural, and may suppose them to have arisen
-from disease; we may see diseased parts, and suppose them to be in a
-natural state, and we may suppose a circumstance to have existed before
-death, which was, in reality, a consequence of it; or we may imagine it
-to be a natural change after death, when it was truly a disease of the
-living body. It is not difficult, therefore, to perceive, how a person
-in such a state of ignorance must blunder, when he attempts to connect
-the appearances in the dead body, with the symptoms that were observed
-during life; and indeed it may be safely asserted, that the great
-utility of anatomical inspections depends upon the accuracy, judgment,
-and sagacity with which such comparisons are made. In our chapter, on
-the art of conducting dissections, we have endeavoured to point out each
-fallacy which is likely to present itself to the inexperienced
-anatomist, we shall therefore confine ourselves, on the present
-occasion, to the consideration of those points whose obscurity must be
-admitted to belong intrinsically to the subject, and to be wholly
-independent of the ignorance or skill of the dissector.
-
-Amongst the signs of the action of poison on the human body, disclosed
-by the light of dissection, the separation of the villous coat of the
-stomach has been generally considered the most certain criterion.
-_Hebenstreit_, whose opinion has been adopted by _Mahon_, and many other
-forensic physicians, has delivered his unreserved judgment upon the
-question, in the following emphatic sentence. “_Præterea sola atque
-infallibilis deglutiti veneni nota est, separata et veluti decorticata
-simulque cruenta interna ventriculi tunica: nam separatio ista supponit
-applicatam superficiei internæ ventriculi materiam fervidam, igni
-similem, quæ tunicam istam a substrata solvit vasculari nervea._”[178]
-In opposition to such an opinion, it is our duty to state that several
-cases stand recorded[179] in which the detachment of the villous coat of
-the stomach and intestines has taken place, without the slightest ground
-to suspect the administration of poison, while many vegetable poisons
-destroy life without occasioning any inflammation in the _primæ viæ_,
-and consequently leave no traces of disorganization. But there still
-remains another source of fallacy connected with the present question
-which demands a full and impartial inquiry, viz. that the gastric juice,
-by its action upon the dead stomach, can occasion such changes in
-structure, as may be mistaken for the effects of a corrosive poison;
-these changes are according to circumstances liable to vary in every
-possible degree of intensity, from the slight erosion of the interior
-villous coat of the stomach, as displayed by the smooth, thin, and more
-transparent condition of that viscus, to the destruction of all its
-membranes, and the production of large perforations in its great
-extremity. This phenomenon, the nature of which was first explained by
-_Mr. John Hunter_[180], depends upon the gastric juice, which the
-stomach secreted during life, becoming its solvent after death. Amongst
-the endless proofs which the history of the animal economy affords of
-that universal law by which chemical and vital forces are wisely
-preserved in a state of perpetual hostility, there is no illustration
-more striking and satisfactory, than that which is furnished by the
-phenomenon in question. If animals, or parts of animals, while possessed
-of the living principle, be taken into the stomach, they are not in the
-least affected by the solvent powers of its juices; thence it is that we
-so constantly find animals of various kinds living in the stomach, or
-even being hatched and bred there; but no sooner do these animals lose
-the living principle, than they become subject to the digestive powers
-of the stomach, and are accordingly dissolved, and assimilated. If it
-were possible, says _Mr. Hunter_, for a man’s hand to be introduced into
-the stomach of a living animal, and kept there for some considerable
-time, it would be found that the dissolvent powers of the stomach could
-produce no impression upon it; but if the same hand were separated from
-the body, and introduced into the same stomach, we should then find that
-this organ would immediately act upon it. _Spallanzani_, with a patience
-that almost wearies his readers, made many attempts at dissolving the
-stomach by its own juice, but succeeded satisfactorily in none; he
-proved, however, two important facts, _first_, that the process of
-digestion, or more correctly speaking, of solution, continues after
-death; and _secondly_, that the stomach itself is digestible. The truth
-of the first he demonstrated by introducing food into the stomach, after
-he had killed his animal; and that of the second, by giving the stomach
-of one dog to be devoured by another. The fact then is clearly
-established, that the stomach, after death, may be dissolved by its own
-juice[181]; and this may exist in its cavity, or be retained in the
-vessels which had secreted it. It remains for us then to examine the
-circumstances under which it is likely to occur, and the appearance by
-which it may be distinguished; and we may here be allowed to observe
-with an ingenious writer,[182] that were these points merely of a
-speculative nature, or were their decision a matter of mere curiosity,
-it would be idle to consume so much valuable time in their discussion;
-but when we remember that they are questions upon which the medical
-practitioner may be called upon to deliver a solemn opinion, in order to
-determine the fate of a criminal, they undoubtedly demand the highest
-attention of those who profess to aid the administration of Justice, by
-the lights of science. We have, therefore, first to inquire into _the
-circumstances under which this natural erosion of the stomach is known
-to take place_. _Mr. John Hunter_[183] details the history of three
-examples, in which the stomach was considerably perforated. Two of the
-men had died shortly after having their skulls fractured, and the third
-was a man who had been hanged, so that in each of these cases the person
-had been deprived of life by violence; whence _Dr. Adams_[184] inferred,
-that _Mr. Hunter_ limited the action of the gastric juice on the stomach
-to such as died from violent and sudden causes; and many physiologists
-have, accordingly, supposed that solution of the coats of the stomach
-never takes place, except where the person has died suddenly; this,
-however, is an inference, as _Mr. Burns_[185] has very justly observed,
-“by no means warranted by the general tenour of _Mr. Hunter’s_ essay,”
-indeed he expressly states, that “there are few dead bodies in which the
-stomach is not, _at its great end_, in some degree digested;” “and any
-one,” continues _Mr. Hunter_, “who is acquainted with the art of
-dissection, can easily trace the gradations from the smallest to the
-greatest.” The consideration of the vast importance of this fact, and
-frequent opportunities of investigating the subject, induced _Mr. Burns_
-to collect the observations which he had made during the dissection of
-those bodies in which he found the stomach digested; and these
-observations, he informs us, have led him to conclude, that the
-phenomenon in question is neither so rare in its occurrence as some have
-imagined, nor confined to such subjects as had been, previous to death,
-in a healthy condition; they have also convinced him, that other parts
-of the stomach, besides the large end, may be occasionally acted on by
-the gastric juice. “That the digestion of the coats of the stomach after
-death is not a very rare occurrence, I think myself authorised to infer,
-from my having examined nine bodies in which the solution had proceeded
-to such an extent as to have made holes of considerable size through
-that viscus; and, besides these nine instances in which the digestion of
-part of the stomach was complete, I have had occasion to see, in opening
-this viscus, various degrees of dissolution of its villous coat.”[186]
-
-In three of the instances alluded to by _Mr. Burns_, the patients had
-been worn out by debilitating diseases; and they were emaciated and
-anasarcous. That the solution of the coats of the stomach in these cases
-was properly attributed to the gastric juice is very satisfactorily
-shewn by the relation of the following instructive dissection. “I had
-occasion,” says _Mr. Burns_, “two days after death, to open the body of
-a very emaciated and anasarcous young girl, who had died from scrofulous
-enlargement of the mesenteric glands. On raising the coverings of the
-abdomen, the stomach, which was empty, presented itself to view, _with
-its front dissolved_.[187] The aperture was of an oblong shape, about
-two inches in its long diameter, and an inch in its short, with tender,
-flocculent, and pulpy edges. This I demonstrated to the pupils attending
-my class; and I especially called their attention to the fact, that the
-liver, which was in contact with the hole, had no impression made on it.
-Having proceeded thus far, I placed all the parts as they had been,
-stitched up the abdomen, and laid the body aside in a cold situation for
-two days. Then I opened it again, in presence of the same gentlemen, and
-we found that, now, _the liver, where it lay over the dissolved part of
-the stomach, was pulpy; its peritoneal coat was completely dissolved,
-and its substance was tender to a considerable depth_. At this time the
-other parts of the liver were equally solid as before, and as yet every
-part of the subject was free from putrefaction; _the posterior face of
-the stomach, opposite to the hole, was dissolved, all except the
-peritoneal coat, at least the internal coats were rendered pulpy and
-glutinous; the peritoneal covering had become spongy and more
-transparent than it ought to have been_.” These facts, in addition to
-the many other important conclusions to which they will give rise,
-admonish us, that in judicial investigations into the cause of
-dissolution of the coats of the stomach, _the appearances will vary,
-according to the period after death at which the body is examined_. But
-the most satisfactory case which has been reported, in proof that the
-_post mortem_ solution of the stomach may occur after a lingering
-disease, is that just published by _Dr. Haviland_,[188] where the
-patient died of fever after an illness of 22 days; when upon opening the
-body about 12 hours after death, the following appearances were noticed:
-“On raising the stomach and examining the little omentum, we were
-surprised by the appearance of a dark-coloured fluid, which seemed to
-escape from the former viscus. A most careful search was now made, and a
-large opening was perceived in the stomach on the upper and back part,
-near the cardia. The stomach was then detached, with a portion of the
-œsophagus and duodenum, when a large perforation of the diaphragm came
-into view, in the muscular part, corresponding precisely to, and
-communicating with, the hole in the stomach; so that a portion of the
-contents of the latter organ had escaped into the cavity of the chest.
-This part of the diaphragm was next removed. A careful examination of
-the other abdominal and thoracic viscera did not lead to the detection
-of the slightest diseased appearance. There was no where the smallest
-evidence of previous inflammation, no adhesions or ulcerations of any
-part of the viscera. The fluid which had escaped appeared to be nothing
-more than the contents of the stomach, of which the wine and water[189]
-formed a part, and probably gave it its dark colour. The stomach, on
-being examined after its removal from the body, afforded the following
-observations. The mucous membrane appeared to be more red and vascular
-than usual throughout its whole extent, and, here and there, were small
-spots of what seemed to be extravasated blood, lying below the mucous
-coat—for these spots were not to be washed off, nor to be removed by the
-edge of the scalpel. There were two holes in the stomach, the larger
-very near to the cardiac end of the small curvature, and on the
-posterior surface: this was more than an inch in length, and about half
-that breadth; the other not far from the former, also on the posterior
-surface, about the size of a sixpence. The edges of these holes were
-smooth, well defined, and slightly elevated. The coats of the stomach
-were thin in many other spots, and in one in particular nothing was left
-but the peritoneum, the mucous and muscular coats being entirely
-destroyed. The hole in the diaphragm was through the muscular portion,
-where it is of considerable thickness, and was large enough to admit the
-end of the finger. There was no appearance of ulceration or of pus
-adhering to the edges of this perforation of the diaphragm.” We have
-extracted a full account of this dissection, as the case is in itself
-truly interesting. The symptoms of the patient had been carefully
-watched, and no pain, or uneasiness was ever heard of, throughout the
-whole course of the disease, except in the head.
-
-The powers of the stomach, as it would appear from the report, had
-suddenly revived at about twelve hours before his death, for “he asked
-for food, and swallowed a few spoonsfull of calves’-foot jelly with
-apparent relish.” May we not then conclude by observing, that the facts
-above related very satisfactorily corroborate the truth of the corollary
-deduced by _Mr. Burns_, “that the digestion of the coats of the stomach
-may take place under two very different conditions of the body; that
-although such solution is most frequent in those who have been suddenly
-deprived of life, when in full health, that it is not confined to those
-alone, but does, under certain circumstances, occur in those who have
-died from lingering diseases.”
-
-Having then shewn under what circumstances the phenomenon in question
-may take place, we shall now proceed to describe more minutely the
-appearances which it may assume, and _first, with respect to the part of
-the stomach, more usually acted upon by the gastric solvent_. _Mr.
-Hunter_ thought, that digestion of the stomach after death was
-occasioned by that portion of the gastric juice _contained in the
-cavity_ of the stomach; consequently it followed, as a fair inference
-from this doctrine, that the coats of this viscus will only be acted on
-at that part on which the contents of the stomach rested. In _Mr.
-Hunter’s_ cases, the great end of the stomach, which in the supine
-position of the body is the most depending part of this viscus, was
-found to be chiefly affected; a fact which tended to corroborate and
-support his opinion, and to render his conjecture extremely probable.
-Other anatomists, however, have discovered instances of solution of
-other parts of the stomach than the great end, indeed we have already
-described such an instance in the case of the emaciated and anasarcous
-girl examined by _Mr. Burns_, where the situation of the aperture was
-different from what it had been in any of _Mr. Hunter’s_ cases. It was
-seated _on the fore-part_ of the stomach, about an inch distant from the
-pylorus, and mid-way between the smaller and greater curvatures of this
-viscus; at a part of the stomach with which the gastric juice _could not
-have come into contact_, as the body had constantly been in the supine
-posture. “If then,” asks _Mr. Burns_, “the stomach was not acted on by
-the fluid contained in its cavity, how came it to be dissolved?” To us
-we confess his solution of the problem appears sensible and
-satisfactory. “We cannot, with propriety, ascribe the digestion of the
-stomach, in every case, to the gastric juice which has been _poured into
-the cavity_ of that viscus; we are more properly in some instances to
-refer it to the action of the fluid _retained in the vessels_ which had
-secreted it.” If this be admitted as a correct explanation of the fact,
-we shall cease to have any difficulty in accounting for the dissolution
-of other parts of this viscus besides the large end. We shall learn that
-the part acted on must vary, according to the place of the stomach where
-the gastric juice is retained in the apparatus which secreted it, and
-thus we shall be enabled to explain some cases, which, at present, seem
-to be in opposition to the observation of _Mr. Hunter_.
-
-With respect to the appearances, which such erosions assume, some
-difference of opinion has also unfortunately existed. _Mr. Hunter_ has
-asserted that “there are very few dead bodies, in which the stomach is
-not, _at its great end_, in some degree digested; and the anatomist,”
-says he, “who is acquainted with dissections can easily trace the
-gradations from the smallest to the greatest. To be sensible of this
-effect, nothing more is necessary than to compare the inner surface of
-the great end of the stomach, with any other part of the inner surface;
-what is sound will appear soft, spongy, and granulated, and without
-distinct blood-vessels, opaque, and thick, while the other will appear
-smooth, thin, and more transparent, and the vessels will be seen
-ramifying in its surface; and upon squeezing the blood which they
-contain, from the larger to the smaller branches, it will be found to
-pass out at the digested ends of the vessels, and appear like drops on
-the inner surface.” This condition, however, of the vessels does not
-invariably accompany such solution. In three of the subjects dissected
-by _Mr. Burns_, there was no appearance of vessels ramifying on the
-coats of the stomach. To account for the absence of this vascular
-appearance several explanations have been attempted; “but we are not,”
-says _Mr. Burns_, “to regard the cause of this deviation from _Mr.
-Hunter’s_ description, as depending upon the particular part of the
-stomach acted on in the different cases; neither are we to imagine that
-the stage of the process at which we examine the body will assist us in
-this investigation; we are rather to obtain an explanation of this fact,
-from contemplating the difference of condition of the different
-individuals at the time of death; the subjects, whose cases are detailed
-by _Mr. Hunter_, were persons cut off by violence, in the plenitude of
-health, their stomachs at the time excited by the stimulus of food to
-vigorous action, and the process of digestion at the instant of death
-going on briskly, circumstances under which it is reasonable to infer
-that all the blood-vessels would be filled with blood, which it is
-evident, from the nature of the causes depriving them of life, would be
-detained in the veins. This being the state of his subjects at the
-moment of death, we shall not wonder that, when he afterwards opened the
-bodies, he could squeeze the blood from the digested ends of the
-vessels.” This is certainly an ingenious explanation, and receives
-considerable support from the important fact of the stomach presenting a
-very high degree of vascularity, in cases of sudden death, as
-exemplified by _Dr. Yelloly_[190] in his account of the appearances
-found in the stomachs of several executed criminals soon after they had
-undergone the sentence of the law. So also has dissection disclosed the
-same phenomena, in those cases where life has been suddenly extinguished
-by a blow on the region of the stomach; inflammation, in such instances,
-is necessarily out of the question, for death is immediate; the red and
-inflamed appearance therefore of the stomach can alone be accounted for
-by regarding it as the effect of the sudden cessation of the heart,
-producing an accumulation of the blood in the extreme arterial branches.
-But what shall we say of _Dr. Haviland’s_ case? so far from the patient
-dying suddenly, and in the plenitude of health, he expired after a
-lingering illness of three weeks, and yet, upon dissection, the stomach
-was found _highly vascular_. This is in direct opposition to the theory
-of _Mr. Burns_, and, we must confess, is not a little embarrassing.
-Where the gastric solution has proceeded so far as to produce
-perforations in its coats, _Mr. Hunter_ states that, “the contents of
-the stomach are generally found loose in the cavity of the abdomen,
-about the spleen and diaphragm; and that in many subjects this digestive
-power extends much farther than through the stomach. I have often
-found,” says he, “that after it had dissolved the stomach at the usual
-place, the contents had come into contact with the spleen and diaphragm,
-and had partly dissolved the spleen, &c.” With respect to the appearance
-of the gastric perforations, _Mr. Hunter_ characterises them as having
-“their edges apparently half dissolved, very much resembling that kind
-of dissolution which fleshy parts undergo when half digested in a living
-stomach, viz. pulpy, tender, and ragged.”
-
-As certain corrosive poisons will occasionally produce such organic
-lesions in the stomach, as lead to perforations in its membranes, a
-question naturally arises, _how are we to distinguish such
-disorganizations, produced by causes acting during life, from those
-which result from solution after death_? To this we may at once return a
-general answer, that in a judicial investigation, we ought not to
-attribute erosion of the stomach to poison, except it be accompanied by
-evident marks of previous inflammation and reaction, or with gangrenous
-appearances; unless indeed the poisonous substance be found in the
-stomach, or the symptoms, previous to death, be characteristic and
-satisfactory. It has been stated that the edges of the natural
-perforation are “pulpy, tender, and ragged,” whereas those produced by
-the caustic action of a poison will generally be found well defined, and
-of the same thickness as any other part of the stomach. But let it be
-remembered, that, after all, it is upon the detection of poisonous
-matter in the stomach, that the prudent physician will place his great
-reliance. We have thus offered a review of the different opinions which
-have been entertained upon this important question, and in conclusion we
-may observe, that there will necessarily exist in each particular case,
-circumstances which no general views can comprehend, and upon which the
-practitioner must exercise his judgment and discretion. It is not our
-intention at present to enter fully into the several questions which
-were raised on the memorable trial of _Charles Angus_ for the murder of
-_Margaret Burns_, but as we have already very frequently alluded to the
-medical evidence delivered on this occasion, and as we shall hereafter
-be called upon to notice some of its more striking features, we have
-subjoined a report of the trial, and of the unhappy and ill-conducted
-controversy to which it has given origin.[191] Whether the holes in the
-stomach were the effects of corrosive poison or of that solvent action
-after death, which we have just endeavoured to explain, must remain a
-matter of doubt, for the erosion in this case was so considerable, and
-the inflammation so slight, that it is impossible to assert that they
-both depended on the same cause.
-
-With respect to the possibility of confounding the appearances of
-gangrene, in the stomach, with those of putrefaction, some notice is
-necessary in this place; and we cannot better illustrate the subject,
-than by introducing the marks of discrimination which are considered by
-_Mahon_[192] as decisive upon such occasions. The spots in the stomach,
-resulting from putrefaction, says he, may be distinguished from those
-which have resulted from violent causes, during life, in the following
-manner. If the stomach retain its natural colour, and the spots are
-mixed with a red hue, or the ulcers have pale, or bright red edges, such
-have been the effect of some violent impression upon the living
-membrane; whereas, on the contrary, if the stomach be pale, livid, or
-green, and exhibit spots of the same colour, but of rather a deeper hue,
-we may safely conclude that they are the genuine phenomena of
-putrefaction. See the interesting account of the dissection of _William
-Mitchell_, p. 191.
-
-
-    Q. 3. _Whether the rapid progress of putrefaction, in the body,
- generally, or in any particular part, is to be considered as affording
-    presumptive evidence, in support of an accusation of poisoning?_
-
-There are few opinions more popular than that which considers the speedy
-putrefaction of the body as the universal and never failing consequence
-of poisoning. To appreciate, however, the true value of such an
-indication, and to avoid the fallacies with which it is surrounded, it
-is essential to remember that the body of a person dying suddenly, and
-in what may be called full health, is very liable to run rapidly into a
-state of decomposition. As far, however, as our observations enable us
-to deduce any conclusion, certain vegetable poisons appear to accelerate
-such a change; for, very shortly after death, the body, under such
-circumstances, will frequently swell, become highly offensive, assume a
-black[193] appearance, and exhibit gangrenous spots on its surface. No
-such appearances, however, it is said, usually follow as the _specific_
-consequence of the fatal operation of _mineral_ poisons; _Dr. Jaeger_ in
-an Inaugural dissertation,[194] which deserves to be better known,
-states, as the result of numerous experiments, that the putrefaction of
-animal bodies, poisoned by arsenic, whether buried or not, does not
-appear to be either unusually accelerated or retarded; and he moreover
-found that the generation of infusory animals, the production of larvæ
-and subterraneous vegetation, in and about the bodies of poisoned
-animals, took place as usual; and he remarked that “the immediate
-contact of an arsenical solution seemed, in several instances, to
-retard, in some degree, the putrefaction of the part to which it was
-applied in sufficient quantity.” In the extraordinary case examined by
-_Metzger_, in which the largest quantity of arsenic ever, perhaps, taken
-into the stomach, was found after death, the body was not opened until
-eighteen days after dissolution, and yet, says the anatomist, “_cadaver,
-quod mireris, sine ullo fœtore aut putredinis signo erat, ut et absque
-maculis lividis, si digitorum apices excipias_.” A case is also related
-by _Dr. Yelloly_,[195] in which death was occasioned by arsenic, but
-where not the slightest appearance of putrefaction was visible at the
-time of examination, which did not take place until forty-nine hours
-after death.
-
-On the other hand, _Morgagni_[196] states that, on dissecting a female
-who died from Arsenic, “_facies corporis posterior, ne suris quidem et
-calcibus exceptis, tota erat nigra_.” And in the interesting case of
-_William Mitchell_, as hereafter related, the appearance of the body
-appears to have indicated that decomposition had proceeded with more
-than ordinary celerity.
-
-The fact of accelerated, or retarded putrefaction, therefore, cannot be
-received with any confidence as a collateral indication of poisoning.
-_Dr. Carson_, however, in the trial of _Charles Angus_, adduced the
-circumstance of its absence, as a negative proof that the deceased had
-not been poisoned; and in the celebrated Scotch trial of _Patrick
-Ogilvy_, and _Catharine Nairne_,[197] the same fact was forcibly urged
-in their defence.
-
-_Gaspard à Reies_,[198] and other writers, have maintained that the
-discovery of _living_ worms in the intestines of a person, suspected to
-have died from poison, ought to be received as a direct refutation of
-the charge. We are, however, not disposed to concur in such an opinion.
-With respect to the value of the indication supposed to be afforded by
-the circumstance of froth issuing from the mouth of the corpse, soon
-after death, _Mr. Hunter_ has given a very satisfactory opinion, and to
-which we must refer the reader, see _Appendix_, p. 273.
-
-
- Q. IV. _How far the absence of poison, or the inability of the chemist
- to detect it, in the body, or in the fluids ejected from it, is to be
-         received as a negative to an accusation of poisoning?_
-
-We have already stated, that of all the proofs which can be adduced by
-the physician, in support of a charge of murder by poison, no one can be
-put in competition with that which arises from the discovery of the
-poisonous substance itself, in the stomach, or in the contents of the
-matter ejected by vomiting or purging. The law expects, therefore, that
-the professional witness should be prepared to state, that every
-experiment, calculated to detect the presence of poison, has been
-scrupulously and faithfully performed; and we may take this occasion to
-observe, that the circumstance of advanced putrefaction can rarely, in
-the present state of our chemical knowledge, be admitted as a
-satisfactory plea for not having proceeded to an anatomical inspection,
-as preliminary to chemical inquiry; and, as to the danger of such
-dissections, _Dr. Gordon Smith_ has very truly observed, “that much is
-placed to this account which belongs merely to disgust.” Had an
-examination of the body taken place in the case of _Ogilvy_ and
-_Nairne_, how many doubts would have been cleared away; indeed, this
-omission afforded the prisoners a strong ground of defence; they
-complained that the informer had intentionally prevented the dissection
-of the body, being conscious that the suspicions he had raised, and the
-project he had formed for their ruin, would, by such a measure, have
-been totally removed and defeated. To this it was answered, that when
-the informer (a younger brother of the deceased) arrived, he did insist
-on the body being opened and examined, as soon as a physician of
-eminence could be present, which the prisoners did not then oppose; but
-that when the physician arrived on the ensuing day, he declared the body
-to be in such a putrid state, that no certain conclusions could be drawn
-from outward appearances, nor even from a dissection of the body, which,
-besides, could not be performed with safety to the surgeon and
-attendants, and that he therefore thought proper to decline the
-investigation. Fortunately for the ends of justice, the circumstantial
-evidence of guilt was too strong to be affected by this culpable defect
-in the medical testimony, although it has been often asserted that the
-prisoners should have received the benefit of the omission by an
-acquittal. See _Donellan’s_ case in the _Appendix_, p. 243.
-
-With respect to the mode of conducting a chemical analysis upon these
-occasions, we have reserved our directions, until we shall enter on the
-discussion of poisons individually. We have, however, in this place some
-remarks of a general nature to offer, to which we are desirous of
-drawing the attention of those, who, without much experience, may be
-called upon to conduct such investigations. In the first place, we are
-desirous of convincing him, that the processes which he must institute,
-for the detection of a mineral body, are by no means so elaborate and
-embarrassing, as a superficial view of the subject may lead him to
-conclude. During the progress of the present work the author has
-repeatedly felt the truth of the opinion which he is now expressing;
-for, like _Becher_, he has laid down his pen, and taken up his tests,
-and, by the most simple modes of manipulation, has satisfied his own
-mind of the extreme delicacy of the different processes which are
-recommended for the detection of a poisonous mineral; in short, it is
-very difficult to convince those whose chemical knowledge is wholly
-theoretical, with how little trouble, and with how much pleasure and
-profit, such experiments may be conducted. If such then be the perfect
-state at which our analytical knowledge has arrived, the reader may
-perhaps conclude, that _in every case of mineral poisoning the
-deleterious substance should be found, and that the inability of the
-chemist to detect its presence, should go far to negative the charge_.
-Such an inference, however, is neither correct, nor philosophical, for
-the poison may have been absorbed, or eliminated, during life, it may
-have undergone chemical changes, or it may have entered into
-combinations, by which its characters are masked, or wholly changed. To
-_Dr. Bostock_ the judicial physician is under many obligations, but
-there is no discovery for which he is more deeply indebted to him, than
-for that which has resulted from his satisfactory experiments, in
-elucidation of the present question. He has shewn, in the instance of
-_Corrosive Sublimate_,[199] that an animal may be suddenly killed by
-receiving a metallic poison into the stomach, and yet that the most
-delicate chemical re-agents may not be able to detect any portion of
-such poison, after death, in the contents of that viscus. _Dr. Henry_,
-in a letter to _Dr. Duncan_,[200] communicates the case of _Hannah
-Tomlinson_, aged twenty, who died, under the care of _Dr. Holme_, on the
-sixth day after a dose of _Corrosive Sublimate_. In this case, although
-an ounce of the mercurial salt had been swallowed, and the fluid ejected
-from the stomach was examined, only twelve hours afterwards, by _Drs.
-Henry_ and _Roget_, yet not the slightest trace of the poison could be
-detected! More recently we have received from the pen of _Mr. Alexander
-Murray_,[201] surgeon of Alford, some highly interesting cases of
-poisoning by Arsenic, and which are so illustrative of the present
-question, as well as several others that have fallen under
-consideration, that no apology can be necessary for introducing some
-account of them in this place. A family of the name of _Mitchell_, and
-which consisted of _William_, a robust man, aged 45, _James_, æt: 52,
-_Mary_, æt: 50, and _Helen_, æt: 48, breakfasted together on Sunday
-morning, (August 19, 1821) on porridge, consisting of milk, salt, and
-meal. _William_ partook largely, but _James_, who perceived “a sickening
-taste,” took less than common, while the sisters had their usual
-quantity. _William_ was seized with sickness shortly afterwards, about
-10 _a. m._, on his way to church, and then with thirst and headache;
-and, on his return home, between three and four in the afternoon, he was
-seized with vomiting, which recurred often during the next four or five
-days, especially on his attempting to quench his thirst. In the early
-part of the week, he was heard to complain of pain in his stomach, eyes,
-throat, breast, and arms; he was observed to void his urine frequently;
-and about this time, he pointed out to one of his sisters a hollow[202]
-between his breast and belly, into which according to her expression,
-“she could have laid her arm.”
-
-His illness had scarcely at any time confined him to bed. On the evening
-of Friday, the 24th of August, he rode six miles, for the purpose of
-consulting _Mr. Murray_, the surgeon, and reporter of the cases; on
-Wednesday the 22d he had taken a dose of Epsom salts which operated, and
-at the time _Mr. Murray_ first saw him he complained of the following
-symptoms:—pain and heat in the region of the stomach and lower part of
-the chest; occasional uneasiness in the abdomen, and sometimes
-ineffectual efforts to go to stool; thirst; difficulty of breathing;
-heat and uneasiness of throat, with hoarseness; soreness of eyes, which
-had the common appearance of inflammation; shifting pains in his
-extremities, particularly the arms, which had not their usual strength;
-great restlessness; anxious expression of countenance; pulse frequent,
-100-110, not strong.
-
-A blister was applied over the stomach and lower part of the chest, and
-he took an opiate at bed time. On the following day, (Saturday 25th)
-_Mr. Murray_ visited him at his own house, and found him nearly as
-before, except that his countenance more strongly exhibited a disturbed
-and anxious expression, and the redness of the eyes, and the hoarseness
-were increased. _Mr. Murray_ also observed small roundish white
-accuminated prominences, on the palate and uvula, apparently as if the
-membrane covering the palate bones and _velum pendulum_, was detached at
-the parts by a whitish liquid. This day he took an ounce of castor oil,
-which operated in the afternoon, his illness was not observed to change
-during the evening, and he retired at about eight o’clock to rest. At a
-little past two in the morning, he rose in search of water to drink, and
-on returning to bed he was heard to utter a deep groan; after which he
-lay motionless and quiet, and very soon was found to have expired. The
-surgeon who saw the body, about 10 _a. m._, states that “_many bluish
-spots were observed on the inferior extremities_.” _James_, _Mary_, and
-_Helen Mitchell_ were attacked the same forenoon with their brother
-_William_, and with nearly similar symptoms; they were all, however,
-fortunate enough to recover, although a considerable period elapsed
-before their usual strength returned, and in all of them a numbness of
-the arms, or legs, occurred, together with a loss of muscular power.
-
-The body of _William Mitchell_ was, owing to particular circumstances,
-not opened until the 29th of August, (3 days 8 hours after death) when
-the following appearances presented themselves. “The face had a natural,
-composed appearance; and the rigidity of the body did not appear to be
-different from what is common. The right ear, and corresponding side of
-the face, as well as the scalp, exhibited a deep clay-blue colour. On
-the chest and belly, several spots and streaks, some green, others blue,
-were observed; and the back, upon which the body lay, was from head to
-foot of a livid colour; while several roundish spots, of a still deeper
-hue, gave to the shoulders and neck a mottled appearance. The penis was
-much swollen and red. The scrotum also was enlarged, and of a dark blue
-colour.
-
-Upon opening the abdomen, the smell was not unusually offensive, and its
-contents did not appear to have undergone alteration after death, but
-several ounces of a highly-coloured liquid were found in the cavity. The
-surface of the jejunum and ilium presented many purple spots, some of
-which were several inches in circumference. The peritoneal surface of
-the stomach, in a tract which extended from the cardia, and occupied,
-for some distance downwards, the whole circumference of that viscus,
-except the small curvature, was of a clear, dark red colour; and through
-this space dark lines, apparently veins, were observed to ramify. This
-appearance, perhaps, from 20 to 30 square inches in extent, was strongly
-marked in contrast with the natural state of the inferior extremity and
-small curvature. The substance connecting the stomach to the spleen,
-was, as well as a small part of the transverse colon, of a red colour.
-The spleen was gorged with blood; the liver healthy. The duodenum, from
-a small distance below the pylorus, almost to its inferior extremity,
-and round nearly the whole intestine, was of a very dark purple colour.
-Upon opening the stomach, the internal surface of that part where the
-outward appearance, already described, existed, was found of a bright
-red colour, and over this lighter dots were thickly scattered[203],
-making such an appearance as might be produced by a red colour being
-dashed from a painter’s pencil, upon a somewhat darker _ground_.
-
-The internal coats of the duodenum were very dark coloured, with a
-slightly reddish hue, pulpy, thickened, and easily separated from the
-peritoneal covering, while in one roundish spot, of the size of a crown
-piece, the villous and muscular coats were entirely wanting. Red patches
-were observed on the inner surface of the jejunum and ilium, the shape,
-size, and situation of which were the same as those of the appearances
-already noted as occurring on the outside of these intestines. The
-stomach and duodenum contained about a quart of a brown, semi-opaque,
-thickish liquid; the jejunum and ilium were empty, and coated with a
-yellow viscid matter. The lungs and heart were quite healthy; but in the
-cavity of the thorax were ten ounces of a reddish turbid liquid, and
-about half that quantity in the pericardium. The pharynx was of an
-unusually red colour. The whole of the brain was healthy, and of firm
-consistence.”
-
-_Mr. Murray_ concludes by stating that no part of the salt and milk used
-on the sunday morning, was to be found after he visited the family, and
-that although the remainder of the meal, and also the contents of
-_William Mitchell’s_ stomach and duodenum were examined by _Drs.
-Henderson_ and _Fraser_, of Aberdeen, as well as by _Mr. Craigie_,
-surgeon, who assisted in the dissection, and _Mr. Alexander Murray_,
-yet, “_no poisonous ingredient was detected in these substances_.”
-
-The pathological and anatomical facts were, however, in themselves, so
-striking and satisfactory, that not the slightest doubt can exist as to
-the cause of the sufferings and death of the deceased; while, as _Mr.
-Murray_ very justly states, the high probability, arising from the
-separate symptoms of each individual, is strengthened almost to
-certainty, by the simultaneous occurrence of these in a whole family of
-four persons; while no similar disease, indeed no epidemic of any kind,
-prevailed at that time.
-
-We have only to add that the brother-in-law of this family was, in
-October, 1821, tried before the Judiciary Court at Aberdeen, for
-administering poison to his four relations; when the testimony given by
-the medical witnesses induced the judge and jury to consider the
-abstract act of poisoning proved. The accused afterwards confessed his
-guilt, and that he perpetrated the crime by means of _Arsenic_, put
-among the salt on the sunday morning on which the family were taken ill.
-
-The public, and the profession, are greatly indebted to _Mr. Alexander
-Murray_ for the details of this instructive case; and the patient
-attention and judgment with which he conducted the investigation,
-deserve the highest commendation, and afford an example which we
-sincerely hope future practitioners will endeavour to follow.
-
-
-Q. V. _What degree of information can be derived from administering the
- contents of the stomach of a person supposed to have been poisoned, to
-                        dogs, or other animals?_
-
-It has from time immemorial been generally believed, that no proof of
-poisoning is more satisfactory than that which is furnished by the
-effects produced upon dogs, by their swallowing the contents of the
-stomach of persons who are supposed to have died from poison. Writers on
-Forensic medicine have, however, adduced several objections to the
-validity of such a test; some of which are undoubtedly worthy of
-consideration, while others are the deductions of a theory which
-receives no support from experience. In the first place it has been
-stated, that substances poisonous to man, will not always occasion
-deleterious effects upon animals[204]; this, to a certain extent, is
-undoubtedly true; some of the _Ruminantia_ appear to be less sensible to
-the operation of narcotic plants, than carnivorous animals. _Aloes_ are
-injurious to dogs and foxes. Oxen are said to eat the _Philandria
-Palustris_, which is pernicious to horses; but we are very much inclined
-to believe that a poison sufficiently powerful to destroy the life of a
-man, would if administered in the same state of concentration, destroy
-that also of an inferior animal. It is in smaller doses only that the
-difference in the action of such bodies upon various animals becomes
-evident and appreciable. This opinion is confirmed by numerous
-experiments. _Mr. John Hunter_, in his evidence[205] on the trial of
-_Donellan_, in answer to the question, whether any certain conclusion
-can be drawn respecting the poisonous operation of a substance upon man,
-from its effects upon an animal of the brute creation, replied, “_As far
-as my experience goes, which is not a very confined one, because I have
-poisoned some thousands of animals, they are very nearly the same;
-opium, for instance, will poison a dog similar to a man; arsenic will
-have very near the same effect upon a dog, as it would have, I take it
-for granted, upon a man; I know something of the effects of them, and I
-believe their operations will be nearly similar._” If any farther
-confirmation of this opinion were required, how extensively and
-satisfactorily has it been afforded by the late experiments of _M.
-Orfila_.[206] _Mr. Hunter_ also, on the memorable trial above mentioned,
-explained a source of fallacy which attends such experiments upon
-animals; he is asked “whether there are not many things which kill
-animals almost instantaneously, that will have no detrimental or noxious
-effect upon a human subject, such, for instance, as spirits?” He replies
-that a great deal depends upon the manner of conducting the experiment,
-and that by forcing an animal to drink, the liquor often passes into the
-lungs. See _Appendix_, _p._ 272. _Orfila_, in his valuable work on
-poisons, instituted a series of experiments upon this subject, with the
-intention of determining the value of an experiment so generally
-accredited; from which he is led to conclude, 1st. That the practitioner
-should never attempt by force to make an animal swallow the suspected
-substance, nor should he put it into his food; for by such a proceeding
-he would not only run the hazard of losing the greatest part of it,
-because the animal would reject it, but the food with which it is
-combined might exert upon it some chemical action, or so envelope it as
-to protect the coats of the stomach from its contact; besides which it
-would, says he, happen, at least six times in ten, that a part of it
-would flow through the larynx into the lungs, and the animal will die of
-Asphyxia. 2d. The best method that can be employed, consists in
-detaching the œsophagus, perforating it with a small hole, introducing
-into it a glass funnel, and pouring the liquid into the stomach; that
-being done, the œsophagus is to be tied below the opening. It would,
-observes _M. Orfila_, be imprudent to prefer to this method, the use of
-an elastic gum tube adapted to a syringe, for many bite the tube, pierce
-it with holes, and the fluid then flows out of the mouth; besides which,
-syringes of tin might decompose certain poisonous fluids. The obvious
-objection to such a mode of administration is anticipated by this
-laborious experimenter with much ingenuity. It may be asserted, says he,
-that the animal perished from the operation of tying the œsophagus, and
-not from the action of the poison thus introduced into the stomach, but
-such an objection has no foundation in truth, for either the suspected
-substance is in quantity sufficient to destroy the animal, or it is not;
-in the first case death will take place during the first forty-eight
-hours, and will be preceded by symptoms more or less severe, a
-phenomenon never observed in the simple ligature of the œsophagus; in
-the second case, the experiment will not be more conclusive, than if the
-œsophagus had not been tied: and the author asserts, that the operation
-of tying the œsophagus would not, of itself, produce during the first
-forty-eight hours any other symptom than a slight dejection, and that
-consequently all other morbid phenomena that may be observed, upon such
-trials, ought to be attributed to the poisonous substance. To all this
-we reply, that we believe, in the hands of _Orfila_ who has made a
-thousand experiments, that such results may be satisfactory, but we feel
-no hesitation in declaring, that we should not place the smallest
-reliance upon such an experiment when conducted by a person unaccustomed
-to the operations of experimental physiology. If there be no other mode
-of employing an animal as a test for poison, but by tying his œsophagus,
-we must, in a judicial point of view, reject it altogether.
-
-But there still remains another source of fallacy connected with these
-experiments, to which considerable importance has been attached. It has
-been said that the acrid humours ejected from the stomach of a person
-labouring under a _spontaneous_ disease, may kill an animal.
-_Morgagni_[207] relates a very remarkable instance, in illustration of
-this fact. A child having died of a fever was opened, when a quantity of
-green bile was found in the stomach, which changed the colour of the
-scalpel to violet; having dipped the point of the knife into this bile,
-two pigeons were wounded with it, and they soon died in convulsions. The
-bile was then mixed with some bread, and given to a cock, which also
-died in the same manner. From this general view of the subject before
-us, the forensic physician will be enabled to appreciate its just value,
-and to apply the indications it may furnish, in each particular case,
-without the risk of error. In some instances such experiments may prove
-nothing, in others they may afford only equivocal results, but which may
-add something to the general weight of circumstantial evidence; while
-others, again, may furnish proofs so unquestionable, as to leave no
-doubt upon the subject; such was the case in the instance of _Michael
-Whiting_[208], who was convicted of administering corrosive sublimate to
-his brothers-in-law, when it appeared in evidence that a portion of the
-poisoned dumpling was given to a sow, who in consequence became sick,
-and remained ill for several days.
-
-We have now disposed of the several questions connected with the subject
-of poisoning, which must be regarded, in their forensic relations, as
-being of the highest importance. In considering the subjects, generally,
-there must necessarily remain doubts, many of which will be considerably
-diminished, or entirely removed, upon their application to particular
-cases; still, however, the nature of medical evidence upon such
-occasions must be frequently regarded as only sustaining high
-probabilities, and the professional witness may exclaim with
-_Hoffman_[209] “_Ardua sane provincia ei imponitur cui determinandæ
-ejusmodi quæstiones exhibentur._”
-
-
-
-
-                   ON THE CLASSIFICATION OF POISONS.
-
-
-Poisonous substances have been very differently arranged by different
-authors, each appearing to have adopted a classification best suited to
-promote the particular views and objects of his own pursuit; thus, the
-botanist and chemist, engaged in the examination of the physical
-characters by which poisons may be individually distinguished and
-identified, have very judiciously erected their system upon the basis of
-natural history. The pathologist, whose leading object is the
-investigation of the morbid effects which follow the administration of
-these agents, with equal propriety and justice prefers a classification
-deduced from a generalization of the symptoms they are found to
-occasion; while the physiologist, who seeks to ascertain through what
-organs, and by what mechanism they destroy life, may be reasonably
-expected to arrange the different poisons under divisions corresponding
-with the results of so interesting an inquiry.
-
-To meet the comprehensive views of the forensic toxicologist, an
-arrangement would seem to be required, that should at once embrace the
-several objects which we have just enumerated; for the data from which
-the proof of poisoning is to be inferred, are, as we have often stated,
-highly complicated in their relations. No such classification, however,
-can be accomplished, and we are therefore compelled to select one which
-may approach the nearest to our imaginary fabric. That which was
-proposed by _Fodéré_,[210] and adopted, with some trivial alteration in
-the order of succession of the classes, by _Orfila_, in his celebrated
-system of toxicology, although it has many defects and some errors,
-nevertheless merits the preference of the forensic physician; its basis
-is strictly pathological, and yet it distributes the different poisons,
-with some few and unimportant exceptions, in an order corresponding with
-that of their natural history.
-
-The first two classes, for instance, present us with substances of a
-mineral origin; the third and fourth, with those which are principally
-of a vegetable nature; and the sixth, with objects chiefly belonging to
-the animal kingdom. The importance of acknowledging a division, which
-has a reference to the three great kingdoms of Nature, is perhaps
-greater than the reader may anticipate; for in enumerating the various
-experiments to be instituted for the detection of poisons, we are, by
-such an arrangement, enabled to bring together a connected series of
-processes, nearly allied to, intimately connected with, and in some
-respects, mutually dependant upon each other.
-
-The following is the arrangement of _Fodéré_ as modified by _Orfila_:
-viz. Cl. I, _Corrosive_, or _Escharotic poisons_. Cl. II, _Astringent
-poisons_. Cl. III, _Acrid_ or _Rubefacient poisons_. Cl. IV, _Narcotic_
-or _Stupefying poisons_. Cl. V, _Narcotico-Acrid poisons_. And Cl. VI,
-_Septic_ or _Putrefying poisons_.
-
-Class I. CORROSIVE or ESCHAROTIC POISONS. Such as corrode and burn the
-textures to which they are applied. When internally administered they
-give origin to the following symptoms: violent pain accompanied with a
-sense of heat and burning in the stomach, and throughout the whole
-extent of the alimentary canal; frequent vomitings, often sanguineous,
-and alternating with bloody diarrhœa, with or without tenesmus; the
-pulse hard, small, frequent, and at length imperceptible; an icy
-coldness of the body; cold sweats; a great anxiety and oppression at the
-præcordia; and hiccup. Sometimes the heat of the skin is intense, the
-thirst inextinguishable, and the unhappy patient is tormented with
-Dysuria and Ischuria, violent cramps in the extremities, and horrid
-convulsions, which are relieved only by death. Such are the general
-symptoms by which this species of poisoning is characterised; the
-rapidity with which the symptoms terminate their course, will depend
-upon the violence of the dose, and the particular species of poison
-which has produced them; there are, moreover, other symptoms which will
-be more conveniently described, when we come to speak of the effects of
-corrosive poisons individually. In this class are ranked the following
-substances. METALS. I. Arsenic—1. _Arsenious Acid_, or white oxide of
-Arsenic. 2. _Arsenites_, or combinations of that acid with _salifiable
-bases_. 3. _Arsenic Acid._ 4. _Arseniates_, or combination of the
-preceding acid with the bases. 5. _Sulphurets of Arsenic_, or _Orpiment_
-and _Realgar_. II. Mercury—1. _Corrosive Sublimate of Mercury_, or
-_Oxy-muriate of Mercury_. 2. _Red Oxide of Mercury._ 3. _Red
-Precipitate_, or _Nitric Oxide of Mercury_. 4. Other preparations of
-Mercury. III. Antimony—1. _Tartarized Antimony_, or _Tartar Emetic_. 2.
-_Oxide_ _of Antimony._ 3. _Antimonial Wine._ 4. _Muriate of Antimony_,
-or _Butter of Antimony_. IV. Copper—1. _Blue Vitriol_, or _Sulphate of
-Copper_. 2. _Verdegris._ 3. _Oxide of Copper._ 4. Other preparations of
-Copper. V. Tin—1. _Muriate of Tin._ VI. Zinc—1. _Sulphate of Zinc_, or
-_White Vitriol_. 2. _Oxide of Zinc._ VII. Silver—1. _Nitrate of Silver_,
-or _Lunar Caustic_. The Concentrated Acids—1. _Sulphuric._ 2.
-_Muriatic._ 3. _Nitric._ 4. _Phosphoric_, &c. Hot Liquids—1. _Boiling
-water._ 2. _Melted Lead._ The Caustic Alkalies—1. _Potass._ 2. _Soda._
-3. _Ammonia._ The Caustic Alkaline Earths—1. _Lime._ 2. _Baryta._ 3.
-_Muriate_, and _Carbonate of Baryta_. Cantharides. Phosphorus.
-
-Class II. ASTRINGENT POISONS. They occasion a remarkable and unrelenting
-constriction of the great intestines, especially the colon, so as to
-resist the operation of the most powerful cathartic remedies. Violent
-cholics ensue, and partial paralysis; in the end if the dose be
-sufficiently large, or if small doses have been frequently repeated,
-they will excite inflammation of the alimentary canal, but it is not
-succeeded by that disorganization which generally characterises the
-operation of poisons, belonging to the preceding division. We rank under
-the present class only the preparations of Lead, viz. 1, _Acetate of
-Lead_, or _Sugar of Lead_; 2, _Oxides of Lead_; _Red Lead_; _Litharge_;
-3, Various Saturnine impregnations.
-
-Class III. ACRID, or RUBEFACIENT POISONS. These poisons are known by
-their producing an acrid taste, more or less pungent and bitter; a
-burning heat, and considerable dryness in the mouth and fauces; and a
-constriction, more or less painful, in the throat. Acute pains are,
-after a short interval, experienced in the stomach and bowels, which are
-quickly followed by copious vomiting and purging, and which continue,
-with the most painful efforts, long after the alimentary canal has been
-completely evacuated. A few hours after, phenomena are observed which
-indicate a lesion of the nervous system, such as vertigo, dilated
-pupils, dejection, insensibility, laborious respiration, and death. The
-lesions of texture, occasioned by the action of _Acrid_ poisons, have
-the greatest analogy to those produced by _Corrosive_ poisons; in fact,
-says _M. Orfila_, “we do not hesitate to declare, that there exists a
-perfect identity between the alterations of the digestive canal produced
-by the poisons of these two classes, when introduced into the stomach.”
-The substances included under this class belong, for the most part, to
-the vegetable kingdom, such as _Scammony_, _Camboge_, _Black_ and _White
-Hellebore_, _Bryony_, _Euphorbium_, Seeds of the _Ricinus_, _Iatropa
-Curcas_ (Indian nut), _Croton Tiglium_, _Squill_, _Aconite_, &c. &c.
-
-Class IV. NARCOTIC, or STUPEFYING POISONS. Such as occasion stupor,
-drowsiness, paralysis, or apoplexy, and convulsions. They do not produce
-any change in the structure of parts to which they are applied. _M.
-Orfila_ has satisfactorily ascertained that no alteration can be
-discovered, on dissection, in the digestive canal of persons who have
-swallowed any one of the poisonous substances of this class.
-
-Class V. NARCOTICO-ACRID POISONS. This division, as its name implies, is
-intended to receive such substances as produce the united effects of
-those belonging to the two preceding classes, acting for instance at the
-same time, as narcotics and rubefacients. Amongst the articles of this
-class the following may be enumerated, _Belladonna_, _Stramonium_,
-_Tobacco_, _Foxglove_, _Hemlock_, _Nux Vomica_, _Camphor_, _Cocculus
-Indicus_, certain _Mushrooms_, _Alcohol_, &c. &c.
-
-Class VI. SEPTIC and PUTREFYING POISONS. By this term are included those
-poisons which, according to _Orfila_, “occasion a general debility,
-dissolution of the humours, and syncope, but which do not, in general,
-alter the intellectual faculties.” The articles of this class belong
-almost entirely to the animal kingdom, with the exception perhaps of a
-few gaseous compounds, and the _Spurred Rye_, or _Ergot_, viz. _venomous
-animals_; _animals whose fluids have been depraved by antecedent
-disease_; _the poison of fishes_; _substances in a state of putridity_;
-_Spurred Rye_, or _Ergot_.
-
-Such is the classification which, for reasons already stated, it is our
-intention to adopt on the present occasion. We shall, however, in an
-additional chapter, under the title of “_Aërial Poisons_,” treat of
-those substances which are exclusively capable of acting upon the body
-through the medium of the atmosphere, or which require to be in a state
-of vapour, or gas, to ensure their operation.
-
-With regard to the classification of _Fodéré_ and _Orfila_, we must here
-observe that we follow it only conventionally, and that, while we
-acknowledge it as being very convenient for the consideration of
-poisons, in reference to their forensic relations, yet we must not be
-considered as insensible to its many defects and fallacies. In the first
-place, it has little or no reference to the enlarged views of the modern
-physiologist, respecting the “_modus operandi_” of poisons; nor indeed
-is its construction susceptible of such modifications and improvements,
-as can ever render its degree of perfection progressive with the
-advancement of science. In the next place, the classes are in many
-particulars ill-defined, and indistinctly, if not erroneously, divided.
-How questionable, for instance, are the boundaries which separate
-_Corrosive_ from _Acrid_ poisons? even the respective species of each
-class are, in many instances, less allied to each other than the great
-divisions to which they are subordinate. As an exemplification of this
-fact we have only to compare the physiological actions of _Arsenic_ and
-_Corrosive Sublimate_; the former of these substances occasions death by
-being absorbed, and thus acting as a vital agent, the latter, by its
-local action as a caustic on the textures with which it comes in
-contact. In the same manner, if we examine the individual actions of the
-different species composing the class of “_Acrid_” poisons, we shall
-find the same want of uniformity; thus the _Spurge-flax_, and the
-_Jatropa Curcas_ act by occasioning a local inflammation, while the
-_Hellebore_, being rapidly absorbed, exerts a fatal action on the
-nervous system, and produces only a very slight inflammation. The class
-of Narcotic poisons is more absolute in its definition, and more uniform
-in its physiological affinities, and therefore less objectionable, than
-the divisions to which we have just alluded; but the propriety of the
-term “_Narcotico-Acrid_” may be very reasonably questioned;[211] even
-_Orfila_ expresses his doubts upon the subject, “because the narcotic or
-sedative effects only follow the previous excitement.” Some of the
-poisons, under this last mentioned class, are rapidly absorbed, and act,
-through the medium of the circulation, on the nervous system, without
-producing any local inflammation; whilst others, again, merely act upon
-the extremities of the nerves, with which they come in contact, and
-without being absorbed, occasion death by a species of sympathetic
-action.
-
-These few objections, and many more might be adduced, are sufficient to
-demonstrate the imperfection of the classification under consideration,
-and which would render it wholly unavailable to the pathologist who must
-adopt his treatment according to the physiological action of each
-poison. The author has accordingly, in his “Pharmacologia”[212] ventured
-to propose an arrangement, in conformity with such views; and the
-following sketch of it may perhaps form a useful introduction to the
-general observations which it will be hereafter necessary to offer upon
-the “_modus operandi_” of poisons.
-
-
-
-
- A CLASSIFICATION OF THE DIFFERENT MODES BY WHICH POISONS PRODUCE THEIR
-                                EFFECTS.
-
-
-† This mark denotes that the substance, against which it is placed, may
-also act by being absorbed.
-
-‡ Signifies that the article has also a local action.
-
-  I. BY ACTING THROUGH THE MEDIUM OF THE NERVES, WITHOUT BEING ABSORBED,
-    AND WITHOUT EXCITING ANY LOCAL INFLAMMATION.
-
-    a. _By which the functions of the nervous system are destroyed._
-
-
-                       Acrid.
-
-                       Aconite.
-                       Jatropa Curcas.
-
-
-                       Narcotico-Acrid.
-
-                       Alcohol.
-                       Oil of Tobacco.
-
-
-                       Narcotic.
-
-                       Essential Oil of Almonds.†
-                       Camphor.†
-                       Opium†?
-
-  b. _By rendering the heart insensible to the stimulus of the blood._
-
-                          Infusion of Tobacco.
-                          _Upas Antiar._
-
-  II. BY ENTERING THE CIRCULATION, AND ACTING THROUGH THAT MEDIUM WITH
-    DIFFERENT DEGREES OF FORCE, ON THE HEART, BRAIN, AND ALIMENTARY
-    CANAL.
-
-                          Corrosive.
-
-                          Arsenic.
-                          Emetic Tartar.
-                          Muriate of Baryta.
-
-
-                          Acrid.
-
-                          Hellebore.
-                          Savine.
-                          Meadow Saffron.
-                          Squill.
-
-
-                          Narcotic.
-
-                          Opium.‡
-                          Lettuce.
-                          Henbane.
-                          Prussic acid.
-
-
-                          Narcotico-Acrid.
-
-                          Deadly Nightshade.‡
-                          Hemlock.
-                          Camphor.‡
-                          Cocculus Indicus.
-
-  III. BY A LOCAL ACTION ON THE MUCOUS MEMBRANE OF THE STOMACH, EXCITING
-    A HIGH DEGREE OF INFLAMMATION.
-
-                         Corrosive.
-
-                         Corrosive Sublimate.†
-                         Verdegris.
-                         Muriate and
-                         Oxide of Tin.
-                         Sulphate of Zinc.
-                         Nitrate of Silver.
-                         Acids.
-                         Alkalies.
-                         Cantharides.†
-
-
-                         Acrid.
-
-                         Bryony.
-                         Elaterium.†
-                         Colocynth.†
-                         Camboge.
-                         Euphorbium.
-                         Hedge Hyssop.
-                         Croton Tiglium.
-                         Ranunculi.
-
-The preceding classification of poisons will not only furnish the
-practitioner with a general theorem for the administration of antidotes,
-but it will suggest the different modes and forms of administration of
-which each particular substance is susceptible; it will shew, that
-certain poisons may occasion death without coming into contact with any
-part of the alimentary canal, and that others will produce little or no
-effect, however extensively they may be applied to an external surface.
-The first class comprehends such poisons as operate, through the medium
-of the nerves, upon the organs immediately subservient to life; in the
-application of such agents it is obvious that they cannot require to be
-introduced into the stomach, they may convey their destructive influence
-by an application to any part duly supplied with nerves, and whose
-extremities are exposed to their action; although at the same time, it
-may be observed that, in general, poisons of this kind act most
-powerfully when internally administered, owing to the extensive
-sympathetic relations of this central organ over every function of the
-living body. The second class consists of poisons that are incapable of
-producing any effect, except through the medium of the circulation;
-whence we shall be enabled to explain and appreciate the various
-circumstances which may accelerate or retard their operation. Poisons of
-this class may be applied externally to abraded parts, or even to
-surfaces covered with cuticle, provided their absorption be promoted by
-friction; and it may be here observed, that the function of absorption
-is not performed with the same force in every tissue; as a general
-proposition it may be said to be energetic in proportion to the number
-of lymphatics and veins, although the late experiments of _M. Majendie_
-have shewn how greatly it is influenced by the state of the
-circulation.[213] If these poisons be administered internally, they find
-their way into the circulating current either through the branches of
-the thoracic duct, or those of the _venæ portarum_; when, as if by a
-species of election, each substance very frequently expends its venom
-upon some one particular system of organs. Many of the substances
-arranged under this second division, have moreover a local effect upon
-the structure with which they first come in contact; it is thus with
-_Colocynth_, and some other bodies; while on the contrary, several of
-those poisons which are distinguished for their _local action_, are
-subsequently absorbed, and are thus as it were enabled to ensure their
-work of destruction by a double mode of operation. We shall receive
-ample evidence of this truth, as we proceed in the history of particular
-poisons. The third class comprises such agents as inflict their
-vengeance upon the mucous membrane of the stomach, by actual contact,
-and destroy, by exciting local inflammation.
-
-
-
-
-                           _MINERAL POISONS._
-
-
-Under this head is included the greater proportion of those substances
-which are employed as the instruments of crime; for they are generally
-of easy access, require but little preparation, and are so destructive
-in small doses, and, at the same time, so little disgusting in flavour,
-as to furnish the assassin with the sure and secret means of
-destruction. Fortunately, however, for the ends of justice, such agents
-are pre-eminently the objects of successful analysis. In treating of the
-history of the individual substances derived from this kingdom, we shall
-consider, 1st. their _external characters_, such as form, colour, odour,
-taste, specific gravity; 2d. their _chemical composition, and
-habitudes_; 3d. _the tests by which their presence may be recognised_;
-_4th. the symptoms which they occasion_; _5th. their physiological
-action_; _6th. their different modes and forms of application_; _7th.
-the lesions of structure they occasion_; _8th. the phenomena presented
-on dissection_.
-
-
-                       Cl. 1. CORROSIVE POISONS.
-
-
-                                ARSENIC.
-
-The greek word Αρσενικον was employed by _Dioscorides_, and other
-writers of that period, to denote a particular mineral of a reddish
-colour, which _Aristotle_ had already described by the name of
-σανδαρακη,[214] and his disciple _Theophrastus_, by that of αρρενικον.
-It was employed by the ancients both as a pigment and as a medicine, and
-appears to have been a compound of Sulphur, and a peculiar metal, to
-which the name of _Arsenic_ is now exclusively applied. At what period
-this metal was first discovered seems very doubtful; and although a
-process for obtaining it is described in the Pharmacopœia of
-_Schroeder_, published in 1649, yet its peculiar nature was examined,
-for the first time by _Brandt_, in 1733.
-
-The metal, Arsenic, is distinguished by the following properties, viz.
-
-It has a bluish-grey colour, not unlike that of steel, and a
-considerable lustre; its texture is grained, and sometimes scaly; its
-hardness not very considerable, but its fragility is so great that it
-falls to pieces under a moderate blow of the hammer, and admits of being
-easily reduced to a very fine powder; according to _Bergman_ its
-specific gravity is 8·31. When cold, it emits no sensible odour, but if
-heated, it yields a strong _alliaceous_, or garlic-like smell, which is
-to be considered as the most characteristic of its properties. Its point
-of fusion is unknown, for it is the most volatile of all the metals, and
-sublimes, before it melts, at the temperature of 540° Fah., and if the
-process be conducted slowly in close vessels, the metallic sublimate
-will assume a _tetrahedral_[215] form of crystallization; if the air be
-admitted, and the temperature still farther raised, it will burn with an
-obscure bluish flame.
-
-Arsenic is extremely susceptible of oxidation, and, by mere exposure to
-the air, shortly loses its metallic lustre; and yet it may be kept under
-the surface of _cold_ water, for any length of time without exhibiting
-the signs of oxidation, or solution; a covering of this fluid, or of
-alcohol, is therefore considered as affording the best means of
-preserving the metal in a state of integrity.
-
-Arsenic is capable of combining with two proportions of oxygen, and of
-forming two definite compounds, which we shall hereafter consider under
-the title of _Arsenious_ and _Arsenic_ acids. The substance described by
-some authors as the _black oxide_ of this metal would seem to be an
-indefinite mixture of the metal itself, and the arsenious acid.
-
-Arsenic does not appear to possess any deleterious properties, but it is
-almost impossible to reduce the metal to powder, so as to adapt it for
-exhibition without its becoming oxidized. _M. Renault_ therefore, in
-order to decide the question, had recourse to its alloys; and he found
-that _Mispickel_ (an alloy of Arsenic and Iron), when given to the
-extent even of two drachms, scarcely produced any effect; a result which
-very satisfactorily accords with the conclusion drawn by _Bayen_, in his
-work on Tin, and which proves that the arsenic contained in that metal,
-need not excite the least alarm, since it exists in a metallic state. We
-have upon another occasion[216] observed, that the vapours characterised
-by an alliaceous odour are probably less noxious than the arsenical
-fumes which are inodorous; and that the little injury experienced by
-workmen who solder silver filligree with an arsenical alloy, may
-probably depend upon the deoxidized state of its fumes.
-
-
-               ARSENIOUS ACID, or WHITE OXIDE OF ARSENIC.
-
-This is justly considered as the most fatal of all mineral poisons, and
-is the one more frequently selected than any other, as the instrument of
-assassination and suicide; while its numerous applications in medicine
-and the arts, by making it an article of general and indiscriminate
-sale, have rendered it an accidental as well as criminal source of
-suffering and death.
-
-It is seldom prepared by the chemist, since it exists in a native state,
-and is moreover procured abundantly and economically, during the
-extraction of the other metals from their ores.[217] In the commercial
-world the substance is still known by the name of _White Arsenic_; and
-continues to be expressed in popular language, by the simple term
-_Arsenic_.
-
-It generally occurs in the form of white compact masses, opaque on their
-exterior surface; transparent, and presenting a vitrified aspect in the
-interior. Its taste is acrid and corrosive, but not to a degree
-corresponding with its virulence. _Specific gravity_ 3·7. When reduced
-to powder it bears a strong resemblance to refined sugar, for which it
-has sometimes been fatally mistaken, and with which it has been often
-mingled for criminal purposes. At the temperature of 383° _Fah._ it is
-volatilized, and is capable of crystallizing in tetrahedrons with
-truncated angles, or rather in octohedrons; by a strong heat, in close
-vessels, it is vitrified and becomes pellucid, and acquires the specific
-gravity 5·000[218]; but when exposed to the air, it shortly returns to
-its former appearance. _In the state of vapour it is quite inodorous_,
-although the contrary is positively asserted in several chemical works
-of high authority, and it is stated to be characterised by a smell like
-that of garlic; the fact is, that the _alliaceous or garlic-like smell
-is wholly confined to metallic arsenic in a state of vapour_; and
-whenever the arsenious acid seems to yield such an odour, we may very
-confidently conclude that its decomposition has taken place, and that it
-has been reduced to its _metallic_ state. Such a reduction will
-generally happen when it is projected upon ignited charcoal, or when
-heated in contact with those metallic bodies which readily unite with
-oxygen, such as _Antimony_, _Zinc_, &c. It is stated by _Orfila_ and
-other writers, that if it be projected upon heated copper the alliaceous
-odour is evolved. This assertion is undoubtedly true, but the fact
-requires to be explained with more precision, or we may fall into an
-important error respecting it. The author has shewn by several
-experiments, already published in his _Pharmacologia_,[219] that the
-phenomenon takes place only when the copper is in a state of ignition,
-at which temperature its affinity for oxygen enables it to reduce the
-arsenious acid, and consequently to develope the metallic odour. We have
-ascertained by repeated experiments that if a few grains of arsenious
-acid be heated on a plate of copper, by means of a spirit lamp or the
-blow-pipe, no odour is perceptible; for, in this case, the whole of the
-acid will be dissipated before the copper can acquire a temperature
-sufficiently exalted to deoxidize, and reduce it. If the arsenious acid
-be heated on a plate of zinc, the smell will not be evolved until the
-latter metal is in the state of fusion. If, instead of the foregoing
-surfaces, we employ in our experiments those of gold, silver, or
-platina, no alliaceous smell whatever is produced, at any temperature,
-provided every source of fallacy be carefully avoided; but it deserves
-particular notice, that the author has found the flame of the spirit
-lamp to be in itself, capable of decomposing the arsenious acid, in
-consequence, it is presumed, of the operation of its hydrogen;[220] a
-fact which is very likely to betray the experimenter, as in the first
-instance it did the author, into a belief that the arsenious acid does
-actually yield the odour in question.
-
-The term Arsenious _acid_ was first bestowed upon this substance by
-_Fourcroy_, since it was found to possess many of the essential
-habitudes of an acid; as for instance, that of combining with the pure
-alkalies to saturation. It dissolves in water; but, according to
-_Klaproth_, although it requires for its solution 400 parts of that
-fluid, at the temperature of 60° _Fah._ it requires not more than 13, at
-212°; and it moreover appears that if 100 parts of water be boiled on
-the arsenious acid, and suffered to cool, it will retain 3 grains in
-solution, and deposit the remainder in crystals. This fact shews the
-great importance of employing boiling water in every chemical
-examination of substances supposed to contain arsenic. It proves also
-that a fatal dose of the poisonous mineral may be very easily
-administered in any watery vehicle, a fact which was denied on the trial
-of _Ogilvy_ and _Nairne_[221] by _Dr. James Scott_, who deposed that
-“Arsenic would not dissolve in warm water, but almost instantly subside
-to the bottom of the vessel,” although, at the same time, he
-acknowledged that “if it were put into tea with milk and sugar, and
-stirred about, it _might_ be suspended long enough to kill those who
-should drink the potion.” It is soluble in alcohol, and in fixed oils,
-the former taking up two per cent. By the addition of an alkali, an
-_arsenite_ of great solubility will result, and a solution of extreme
-virulence may be thus effected. With _lime-water_ arsenious acid
-produces a white precipitate of _arsenite of lime_, but which is soluble
-in an excess of the acid. With _magnesia_ it also forms a very soluble,
-and extremely active, _arsenite_.
-
-
-             _Symptoms of Poisoning by the Arsenious Acid._
-
-_Hahnemann_, in his work on Arsenic, proposes a classification of its
-effects founded on their relative duration and violence, and which it is
-our intention to adopt on the present occasion, without any other
-alteration than that of reversing the order of the classes.
-
-Poisoning by Arsenic may accordingly be considered as admitting of three
-degrees of intensity, viz. 1st. Where the case, although attended with
-dangerous symptoms, does not terminate fatally. 2d. Where death does not
-follow until after a lapse of twenty-four hours. 3d. Where death takes
-place within twenty-four hours after the exhibition of the poison.
-
-1. _Symptoms of the first and lowest degree._ In the slighter cases in
-which the operation of arsenic is recorded as producing poisonous
-effects, the symptoms were, uneasiness of the præcordia; cholics;
-thickness, redness, and stiffness of the palpebræ; soreness of the gums;
-ptyalism; itching over the surface of the body, sometimes attended with
-a slight eruption; restlessness; cough; head-ache; strangury, and _ardor
-urinæ_. Where the dose of poison has been somewhat greater, although
-still inadequate to the destruction of life, violent vomiting is
-commonly the first symptom, preceded in some instances with a sense of
-heat and dryness in the fauces; in such cases where the vomiting has
-very shortly succeeded the ingestion of the Arsenic, and the stomach has
-at the same time been filled with food, the patient may owe his escape
-to the poison being discharged before it had time to act. _Morgagni_
-relates a case of poisoning at an Italian feast, where the dessert was
-intentionally sprinkled with Arsenic instead of flour; those who had
-previously eaten but little speedily perished, but those who had eaten
-heartily were saved by vomiting. Although in this degree of poisoning
-the life of the patient may be spared, yet a variety of _consecutive_
-symptoms may continue to harrass him for a longer or shorter period,
-such as indigestion, debility, partial paralysis, and epilepsy. The
-history[222] of the cases of _Mr. Turner_ and his family, of Chancery
-lane, for the poisoning of whom _Eliza Fenning_ was executed, will
-afford a striking illustration of this fact. The hair of the head has
-also been observed, in some cases, to fall off. _Dr. Male_ is also of
-opinion that the long protracted and injudicious use of this mineral, as
-a medicine, will induce exostosis and caries of the bones.
-
-2. _Symptoms of the second degree._ In this case where the patient lives
-two or three days, or perhaps longer, as in the case of _William
-Mitchell_ above described (p. 190), the earliest symptoms are heat and
-thirst, or vomiting, and inexpressible uneasiness and anxiety, the
-former of which is less frequently observed than the two latter;
-purging, or sometimes a repeated but ineffectual desire to go to stool;
-wandering pains; quick, but feeble pulse; head-ache; distended and
-painful abdomen; priapism; towards the close of the scene the patient
-often becomes more tranquil and is inclined to sleep, although, in some
-instances, the pains, attended with convulsions, continue to the latest
-moments. In general, death takes place suddenly. In cases where the
-effects of the poison are not immediately fatal, we must necessarily
-expect the occurrence of many phenomena, indicative of the re-action of
-the system, and which will be better illustrated by a reference to the
-history of individual cases, such for instance, as those of _William
-Mitchell_, (p. 190) and _Mr. Blandy_, (_Appendix_) than by any general
-description which can be given in this place. It is also worthy remark
-that in such cases, from the length of time, there will necessarily
-occur a greater opportunity for the co-operation of other contingent
-causes, whether they be connected with previously existing diseases, or
-the action of remedies; and the intelligent practitioner will not
-neglect to appreciate their influence in modifying the character of each
-particular case. There are besides symptoms highly characteristic when
-they do arise, but which are of comparatively rare occurrence, such as
-the ulcerated condition of the fundament, as in the case of _Mr.
-Blandy_, and the inflamed eyes and state of the mucous membranes, in
-that of _William Mitchell_.
-
-3. _Symptoms of the third and highest degree._ Soon after a large dose
-of Arsenic has been swallowed, an austere taste, and a sense of heat and
-constriction of the pharynx and œsophagus are perceived; in a short
-period excruciating pains in the stomach and bowels, accompanied with
-vomiting of the most violent character, the matter voided being
-generally of a brown colour, and not unfrequently mixed with blood; with
-these symptoms are conjoined an inexpressible anxiety about the
-præcordia, and frequent faintings; the stomach at the same time acquires
-such a high degree of irritability, as to reject the mildest fluids. The
-alvine discharges now become frequent and painful, and consist of dark
-and extremely fœtid matter, frequently mixed with blood. The thirst is
-unquenchable, and the heat of the surface becomes extreme. The pulse is
-small, frequent, and irregular; palpitations of the heart, violent
-cramps in the legs, sometimes a painful strangury and bloody micturition
-ensue. The powers of life begin to fail, respiration becomes laborious,
-cold sweats break out, hiccup occurs, the countenance assumes a singular
-character of anxiety and distress, a livid circle appears around the
-eyes, the pulse is imperceptible, the body swells and sometimes becomes
-covered with a species of miliary eruption, or with dark purple spots.
-In some cases convulsions ensue, but delirium, or loss of reason, is
-very rarely the consequence of this species of poisoning, and the
-unfortunate sufferer is conscious until a few moments before the
-termination of his existence. Such are the general symptoms, but it is
-rare to see them all united in the same case; sometimes the greater part
-of them are absent. _M. Chaussier_ reports the case of a robust middle
-aged man, who swallowed a quantity of arsenious acid in large lumps, and
-died without discovering any other symptom than slight syncope; other
-cases are related where only vomiting and purging[223] have been
-observed, and the symptoms have been mistaken for those of _cholera
-spontanea_.
-
-The practitioner is therefore not to withhold his belief in a case of
-poisoning, on account of the absence of several of those symptoms which
-are enumerated in systematic works on Toxicology.
-
-It is only by the study of individual cases, that he can learn to
-appreciate the just value of those pathognomonic combinations which
-afford the least exceptionable evidence upon such occasions.
-
-
-         _The different modes of Poisoning by Arsenious Acid._
-
-It has been proved by numerous experiments that the life of an animal
-may be destroyed with equal certainty by arsenious acid, whether it be
-_internally_ administered, or _externally_ applied to abraded surfaces,
-sores, or bleeding wounds; and it has been, moreover, shewn, that in
-either instance the symptoms will be analogous, except in the latter
-case they will often be more rapid in their course.
-
-_Lionardo di Capoa_ relates the case of a child killed by the violent
-vomiting and purging arising from a slight wound made in the head by a
-comb, wet with oil in which arsenic had been infused for the purpose of
-killing vermin; and we have numerous instances on record, where the
-application of arsenical cerates and ointments has been followed by
-violent and dangerous symptoms. We also learn from the different
-historians of the Plague of London, that the arsenical amulets which
-were worn, as preservatives, on that occasion, were sometimes attended
-with deleterious consequences; _Crato_[224] observed an ulcer of the
-breast produced by them. _Verzascha_, violent pains and syncope.
-_Diemerbroeck_,[225] and Dr. _Hodges_,[226] death itself. Amongst the
-foreign authors who have related cases of poisoning by the external
-application of arsenic we may mention _Desgranges_,[227] who records the
-history of a chambermaid, poisoned by having rubbed her head with an
-arsenical ointment for the purpose of destroying vermin; and
-_Roux_,[228] who confessed to have killed a girl of eighteen by an
-application of the “_Pâte Arsenicale_” to a cancerous breast. _M.
-Renault_ has also given us the results of his experiments upon Arsenic
-when applied externally to dogs; when the skin was sound, it excited a
-pustular eruption without inflammation; but, when the skin was broken,
-more serious effects followed, both general and local, and in some cases
-death.[229]. In an experiment performed by Mr. _Hunter_, and Mr. _Home_,
-in which arsenic was applied to a wound in a dog, the animal died in
-twenty-four hours, and the stomach was found to be considerably
-inflamed. Mr. _Brodie_ repeated the experiment several times, always
-with the precaution of tying a bandage, to prevent the animal licking
-the wound; the results were uniform; the stomach was, in every case, not
-only more violently, but more rapidly, inflamed, than when the poison
-had been internally administered, and it even preceded any inflammatory
-appearance of the wound. In the _Journal de Medecine_, the following
-case is related of a woman who was killed by her husband having
-insinuated powdered arsenic into the vagina,[230] at the moment of
-enjoying the conjugal rites. “A woman at _Leneux, departement de
-l’Ourthe_, aged forty, having died after a short illness, attended with
-considerable tumefaction of the genital parts, uterine hemorrhage,
-vomiting, and purging, the body was inspected by order of the mayor,
-when the surgeons reported that they found the vulva in a state of
-gangrene, the abdomen much distended with air, and the intestines
-inflamed and gangrenous. The culprit was arrested, convicted, and
-executed.” In the _Acts of the Society of Copenhagen_, a similar crime
-stands recorded, and which was also committed by a peasant; in this
-latter case, although some small pieces of arsenic were found within the
-vagina, yet some doubts arose respecting the possibility of such a
-species of poisoning, and the magistrates accordingly consulted the
-College of Medicine of Copenhagen, who decided the question in the
-affirmative, having first instituted a series of experiments upon
-horses.
-
-Death may also be produced by the introduction of arsenic into the
-rectum; it is said that Sir _Thomas Overbury_, after the failure of the
-various poisons[231] that were administered to him, was at last
-despatched by an arsenical glyster.
-
-With respect to the quantity of arsenic required for the production of
-such effects it is difficult to offer a decided opinion, as its
-operation must in every case be liable to contingency; but a very few
-grains are in general amply sufficient.
-
-
-               _Physiological action of Arsenious Acid._
-
-It had long been supposed that arsenic occasioned death by inflaming the
-stomach; but Mr. _Brodie_[232] has very satisfactorily proved, that its
-influence arises from its being absorbed, and that it must be regarded
-as a _vital_ rather than as a _chemical_ agent, and as having a
-constitutional, not a local mode of operation.
-
-In the first place, he has in many instances found the inflammation of
-the stomach so slight,[233] that on a superficial examination it might
-have been easily overlooked; and in most of his experiments with
-arsenic, death took place in too short a period to be considered as the
-mere effect of inflammation. In the next place we have already shewn
-that in whatever manner the poison is applied, whether _externally_ to a
-wound, or _internally_, to the alimentary canal, the same inflammatory
-appearance will be visible in the stomach; a fact which can only be
-explained by admitting that the poison is absorbed, and that it acts
-upon these organs through the medium of the circulation; it acts at the
-same time upon the brain, and heart, but with different degrees of force
-in different cases; so that it is sometimes difficult to ascertain which
-of these organs is the first to fail in its functions. According then to
-these experiments and observations, inflammation of the alimentary canal
-is not to be considered as the general cause of death in poisoning by
-arsenic; and yet cases will occur, where the local affection may prove
-fatal, the animal having survived the effects produced on the organs
-more immediately subservient to life, as the brain and heart. Mr. _Henry
-Earle_ communicated to Mr. _Brodie_ a case highly illustrative of this
-fact, which occurred in St. Bartholomew’s hospital; a woman had taken
-arsenic, and having recovered from the alarming symptoms which first
-occurred, died at the end of four or five days, when upon dissection,
-there appeared extensive ulcerations of the stomach and bowels. This
-then was evidently a case of “_Consecutive_” poisoning.
-
-The dissertation of _Dr. Jaeger_, to which we have before alluded,
-contains the result of a very extensive series of experiments, in
-illustration of the physiological action of the arsenic. He diligently
-examined its effects upon all classes of organized beings, as well of
-the vegetable as of the animal kingdoms. The general conclusions which
-he has drawn from his experiments on vegetables are, that arsenic is in
-most cases a rapidly destructive poison to them, with the exception
-perhaps of a few of the simplest forms of existence;[234] and that their
-death was induced by means of the gradual absorption and distribution of
-the poison by the vessels and cellular membrane, so that the parts died
-in succession, as the particles of the poison reached them. _Dr. Jaegar_
-also found that arsenic was a quick and destructive poison to animals,
-and that death was preceded, in every instance, from the infusory
-animalcula up to man, by inordinate motions; and that the secretion was
-most remarkably increased from the mucous membranes. His experiments
-also proved that arsenic exerted the most powerful effects, when it was
-injected into the veins, or applied to a bleeding wound; next, when it
-was introduced into the stomach; but less so, when injected into the
-large intestines, which have fewer absorbing vessels.[235]
-
-
-              _Organic Lesions, discovered on Dissection._
-
-The examination of the bodies of persons poisoned by arsenic, must not
-be expected to furnish constant and uniform results, since they will be
-found to vary very considerably in different cases. As we have already
-considered the value of accelerated and retarded putrefaction, as an
-indication of poisoning, we shall at once proceed to the description of
-the morbid phenomena which are presented by the internal organs on
-dissection. The stomach and intestines are the parts in which we may
-expect to find the most decided marks of the ravages from arsenic. The
-former viscus will be found more or less inflamed; in some instances,
-the dusky redness will appear in patches, interspersed with points and
-streaks of a brighter hue; the villous coat of the stomach will be
-almost always softened, and, as if macerated, can be easily rubbed off
-in pieces with the fingers from the coats beneath; actual ulceration and
-sloughing are, according to the observations of _Mr. Brodie_, never
-found unless where death is late in taking place, in which case
-extensive ulceration of all the coats, amounting to actual perforation,
-may be expected to happen. This statement agrees with the observation of
-_Ruysch_, who says that where there had been sufficient time, he found
-the stomach ulcerated in those who had died from the effects of arsenic,
-but that if death supervened earlier, he only discovered bloody points,
-distant from each other, throughout the viscus. On the subject of
-sloughs upon such occasions, our enlightened author remarks, that
-anatomists have often been betrayed into a fallacy respecting their true
-nature; on opening the stomach of a dog which had taken a large quantity
-of arsenic, _Mr. Brodie_ observed a dark brown spot about an inch in
-diameter, having all the appearance of a slough; on a closer
-examination, however, it appeared that this spot was no other than a
-very thin layer of coagulated blood, of a dark colour, and adhering very
-firmly to the surface of the mucous membrane, and having a few particles
-of arsenic entangled in it. He states that he has at several times
-observed a similar appearance but occupying a less extent of surface;
-and he informs us that, in the Hunterian museum, there is a human
-stomach, which was preserved for the sake of exhibiting what was
-considered a slough, produced by the action of arsenic; but that, on
-examining the preparation carefully, the dark coloured spot was
-discovered to be simply a layer of coagulated blood, similar to that
-before described. _Dr. Baillie_ and _Dr. Yelloly_ have found the stomach
-thickened in several parts, as if by coaguable lymph, and in one case
-the thickening of the coats was the only alteration of structure
-observable; and _M. Renault_ relates a case, where the arsenic was taken
-in large pieces, which produced no other effect than slight syncope on
-the approach of death; and that, upon opening the body, the arsenic was
-found in the state it was swallowed, but there was neither inflammation
-nor erosion of the stomach. Where the arsenic has been swallowed in
-substance, it will be generally found attached to the membrane of the
-stomach by a peculiar glairy fluid; if the poison should have been
-administered in solution, the same organic lesions will be discovered,
-but the presence of the arsenic in the stomach can scarcely be expected,
-although the contents of the viscus, as well as all the matter ejected
-from the body before death, must be carefully examined by a chemical
-process to be hereafter described. The duodenum, like the stomach,
-generally affords evidence of the same inflamed and disorganized
-condition; and the whole track of the intestinal canal will be found
-more or less affected, according to the quantity of arsenic that has
-been administered, the period of time which has elapsed before death,
-and other circumstances which have been already enumerated as capable of
-modifying the action of this destructive substance. It however deserves
-notice that in many cases the rectum appears to be more affected than
-the other intestines; _Dr. Male_[236] states, that he has frequently
-found it abraded and ulcerated, and even more inflamed than the stomach
-itself; _Mr. Brodie_ likewise observed, in his physiological experiments
-upon this substance, that the inflammation produced by it was greatest
-in the stomach and the rectum. _Dr. Baillie_ has recorded several
-instances where a mortification of the rectum followed as an effect of
-this poison; and in the case of _Mr. Blandy_, detailed in the
-_Appendix_, p. 237, _Dr. Addington_ stated, that the extremity of the
-rectum was extremely painful, and surrounded by excoriations and ulcers.
-
-_Mr. Brodie_ has stated, in the paper to which we have so often alluded,
-that the organic lesions occasioned by arsenic are confined to the
-stomach and intestines, and that he _never found any appearance of
-inflammation in the pharynx or œsophagus_. This statement, however, is
-at variance with a great weight of authority; we have ourselves
-witnessed cases in which dissection has demonstrated extensive
-inflammation in these parts; indeed it would appear, that this poison
-acts more particularly on the mucous membranes; and it is reasonable
-therefore to conclude, that those with which it comes in actual contact
-will not escape its virulence. The serous membranes which receive less
-blood, and more lymphatics, are necessarily less affected by it.
-
-In the case of _William Mitchell_, as related at _page_ 188, the patient
-complained of soreness of the eyes, heat and uneasiness in the mouth and
-throat; and the surgeon observed the membrane on the palate and uvula to
-be detached; so in that, again, of _Mr. Blandy_, _Dr. Addington_ found
-on inspection that “his tongue was swelled, and his throat inflamed and
-excoriated; his lips, especially the upper one, dry and rough, and
-having angry pimples on them; the inside of his nostrils in the same
-condition, and his eyes a little blood shot.” (_Append._ _l. c._). In
-the celebrated Scotch case of _Oglivy_ and _Nairne_ (_see page_ 184)
-_Peter Meik_, surgeon of Alyth, deposed, that, upon inspecting the body
-four or five days afterwards, he found “the tongue swelled beyond its
-natural size, and cleaving to the roof of the mouth, which he had never
-observed after a natural death.” Many more instances might be adduced to
-shew that the fauces, pharynx, and œsophagus are very frequently
-inflamed and excoriated by the ingestion of arsenic. Mortification of
-the pudenda[237] has been said to be an effect peculiar to the action of
-arsenic; certain it is that in males, priapism is sometimes a symptom of
-this poison, and the penis is found swollen and red after death, as was
-observed in the case of _William Mitchell_ (p. 190). The scrotum was
-also enlarged and of a dark colour. We have been long aware that persons
-exposed to the fumes of arsenic, or accustomed to handle any of its
-preparations, have been liable to a peculiar affection of these parts,
-but we have generally explained the fact by supposing that the poison
-had in such cases, been locally applied to them. The author has been
-lately informed by his friend _Mr. Parkes_, that several persons in his
-establishment were thus attacked, during the time they were engaged in
-preparing an arsenical solution, as a dye for the calico printers; and
-we have stated on another occasion,[238] that the smelters and workmen
-engaged in the copper works, and tin burning houses of Cornwall, are
-occasionally affected with a cancerous disease in the scrotum, somewhat
-similar to that which infests chimney sweepers. It is also singular that
-_Stahl_, in describing the putrescent tendency in the bodies of those
-who die from this poison, mentions in particular the gangrenous
-appearances of the parts of generation. The other organs of the body do
-not exhibit any particular appearances, which ought to be regarded as
-characteristic of death by arsenic; we must necessarily expect to find
-the traces of morbid action, especially where life has been unusually
-protracted; and the serous effusions found in the body of _William
-Mitchell_, are to be referred to such a cause.
-
-_Mr. Brodie_ has stated that, in animals killed by arsenic, the blood is
-usually found fluid in the heart and vessels after death; this agrees
-with the observation of _Ruysch_, who says that he never found the blood
-coagulated in the human body, after death occasioned by this poison; as
-well as with that of _Dr. Jaeger_, who describes the cavities of the
-heart, especially of the right side, to be, upon these occasions, turgid
-with blood, but that coagula are very seldom found in them.
-
-A question, of a very considerable importance in a forensic point of
-view, has arisen with respect to the means, by which we may distinguish
-whether arsenic, found in the body, had been introduced into the
-digestive canal during life, or after death. In general, this fact is
-placed beyond suspicion by the testimony of those to whose care the body
-had been confided, previous to dissection. But cases have occurred where
-a poisonous substance has been introduced into the rectum of a dead
-body, with the diabolical intention of accusing an innocent person of
-having been the perpetrator of the poisoning. We are not aware of any
-English case of this kind, but _M. Orfila_ states that in the
-proceedings of the Criminal Court of Stockholm such a case stands
-recorded. Fortunately there would not be much difficulty in detecting
-the crime; for were the arsenic applied to the rectum after death, the
-change of structure would not extend beyond the part in actual contact
-with it, but would be distinctly separated from the rest of the
-intestine _by a well defined line of demarcation_, which can never
-happen where the arsenic has acted during life; for, in this latter
-case, the transition from the diseased to the healthy structure will be
-gradual, and the limits of each imperceptible.
-
-Before we conclude our observations upon the organic lesions occasioned
-by arsenic, we may caution the anatomist not to confound the red or
-violet colour which characterises inflammation, with that which has been
-occasionally found to arise from the ingestion of certain coloured
-drinks. The following case related by _Foderé_, and cited by _Orfila_,
-may serve to illustrate this subject. “A private person of Châlons
-sur-Marne, who was in a state of convalescence from a disease under
-which he had laboured, took a slight purgative, and died very shortly
-afterwards. He was believed to have been poisoned through some error in
-the medicine, and in order to be assured of this, the body was opened.
-The œsophagus and stomach were found to be red, and in certain places
-livid, as if in a state of gangrene. These appearances at first induced
-a belief that the deceased had died from poison; but _M. Varnier_, a
-physician of Châlons, concluded from the appearances, that death was the
-consequence of the disease, and that the apparent convalescence was only
-an insidious respite. It became therefore necessary to give some account
-of the state of the œsophagus and stomach; and having learnt that the
-deceased was in the habit of using a _strong infusion of red poppies_,
-the idea immediately struck him that the extraordinary colour of these
-organs might possibly depend on this infusion. In order to determine the
-validity of this explanation, he caused a dog to swallow, several times,
-a similar infusion; when upon opening its body, he discovered that the
-corresponding parts of this animal had assumed the same colour as had
-been observed in the stomach of the deceased above-mentioned, and,
-moreover, that this violet red colour was so firmly fixed that it
-resisted the action of repeated washings.” _Tincture of Cardamoms_ will
-also be liable to occasion a coloured appearance in the stomach, as
-described in _Mr. Stanley’s_ case of the death of a woman by a dose of
-opium.[239]
-
-
-_Of the Chemical Processes, by which the presence of Arsenious Acid may
-                             be detected._
-
-This poison may either be submitted to the judicial physician for
-examination, in its solid form, or in that of solution; and in this
-latter state it may be mixed with various alimentary substances, whose
-presence will necessarily embarrass the inexperienced operator, and
-multiply the apparent difficulties of his task. It becomes our duty,
-therefore, upon this occasion, to enter very fully and minutely into the
-history of the various processes, which have been proposed for the
-solution of the important problem under consideration; to appreciate the
-relative value of each, and to point out the sources of fallacy and
-failure, to which they are severally exposed.
-
-Such a review of the subject would, moreover, appear to be essentially
-necessary at the present period, since the evidence, lately delivered on
-an extraordinary trial,[240] has, to a certain extent, very unjustly
-shaken the public confidence in the tests of chemistry. We shall
-therefore proceed to consider the processes which are calculated to lead
-to the detection of _Arsenic_, in relation to the different
-circumstances under which it may be presented for investigation, viz. 1,
-In a solid form; 2, In the simple state of solution; and 3, In the state
-of combination with various alimentary substances.
-
-1. _The Arsenic is in a solid form._ This is the most simple case which
-can occur, and the experiments by which its presence is to be
-demonstrated, will constitute the basis of the inquiry, which we shall
-be hereafter called upon to institute, for the detection of the same
-substance under other circumstances of mixture and combination.
-
-The order of succession to be observed in the different experiments
-which we are about to describe, must, in a great measure, be regulated
-by the quantity of the material to be submitted to examination. Should
-it be small, it will be prudent to reserve the process of metallization,
-by which a considerable loss must necessarily arise, until we have
-submitted it to the various re-agents which are calculated to afford
-indications of its nature. If, on the contrary, the quantity of the
-substance exceed two or three grains, it will be adviseable to proceed
-in its examination by the following processes, reserving a portion for
-future analysis.
-
-A. _By its reduction to a metallic state._ Mix a portion of the
-suspected substance in powder, with three times its weight of _black
-flux_[241]; put the mixture into a thin glass tube, about eight inches
-in length, and a quarter of an inch in diameter, and which is
-hermetically sealed[242] at one end. Should any of the powder adhere to
-the sides of the tube it must be carefully brushed off with a feather,
-so that the inner surface of its upper part may be perfectly clean and
-dry. The closed end of the tube, by way of security, may be thinly
-coated with a mixture of pipe-clay and sand[243]; but this operation is
-not absolutely necessary. The open extremity of the tube is to be
-loosely plugged with a piece of paper. The coated end must now be
-submitted to the action of heat, by placing it in a chaffing dish of red
-hot coals, for ten minutes, or a quarter of an hour; when, if our
-supposition respecting the nature of the substance has been correct,
-metallic arsenic will sublime, and be found lining the upper part of the
-tube with a brilliant metallic crust. The glass tube, when cold, may be
-separated from its sealed end by the action of a file, which will enable
-us to collect and examine the metallic sublimate. If a portion of this
-brilliant matter be laid on heated iron, it will indicate its nature by
-exhaling in dense fumes, having a powerful smell of garlic. Another
-portion should be reserved for future experiments.
-
-This method of detecting the presence of _Arsenious acid_ has been
-considered the most decisive, and indeed the only unexceptionable one,
-but of this we shall speak hereafter; at present we have only to
-observe, that it is very far from being a minute test, for _Dr.
-Bostock_[244] confesses that where less than _three-fourths of a grain_
-were used, he could not say that the metallic crust was clearly
-perceptible; and _Dr. Black_[245] appears to have considered that _one
-grain_ was the smallest quantity which could be distinctly recognised by
-such a process.
-
-Chemists were formerly[246] in the habit of at once projecting any
-substance, supposed to be _Arsenic_, on some burning body, in order to
-develope the alliaceous odour; we have accidentally stumbled upon an
-instance of this kind, in the fourth volume of the _London Medical and
-Physical Journal_, which may serve as an illustration; it is a case
-communicated by _F. Thackeray, Esq._ of a child poisoned by arsenic, in
-which the author says, “_the inner surface of the stomach was very red,
-and was studded throughout with a white powder, which when exposed to
-the flame of a candle, yielded fumes, and a garlic odour was emitted,
-proving it was arsenic; of which there can be no doubt, as the girl
-afterwards confessed that she had given arsenic to the infant_.”
-
-After the facts we have offered with respect to the _alliaceous odour_
-of arsenical fumes, it is only necessary to state, in this place, that
-such a test, when conducted in the manner just related, must be
-considered as extremely equivocal.
-
-Another method of identifying “_White Arsenic_,” by metallization, is to
-form at the moment of its reduction, an alloy with copper, which may be
-easily effected in the following manner: Mix the suspected powder with
-_black flux_, as in the former experiment, and place the mixture between
-two polished plates of copper; bind them tightly together by iron wire,
-and expose them to a low red heat; if the included substance contain
-arsenic, a silvery white stain will be left on the surface of the
-copper, which is an alloy of the two metals. In this, as in the former
-experiment, the presence of an _alkali_ in the flux is essential, since
-it forms immediately an _arsenite of potass_, and thereby fixes the
-arsenious acid, and prevents it from being volatilized before the
-temperature is sufficiently high to enable the charcoal to decompose it;
-we therefore differ with _Dr. Bostock_, when he states that _powdered
-charcoal_ may be substituted for the _black flux_.
-
-The property of _whitening_ copper is regarded as a very satisfactory
-test of the presence of arsenic; but _Dr. Bostock_ has pointed out some
-circumstances attending it, which we shall here enumerate for the
-instruction and satisfaction of the less experienced operator. “It may
-be necessary,” says he, “in the first place, to describe the phenomena
-that take place when copper is heated according to the process that is
-described above, but without the addition of the arsenic. Two copper
-disks, of nearly an inch and a half in diameter, scoured bright with
-sand, had one grain of powdered charcoal, made into a paste with oil,
-placed between them; they were bound together with an iron wire, and
-then kept red hot for ten minutes. When they were withdrawn from the
-fire, the metal was found to have lost its former appearance, and to
-have acquired the dull white colour of lead or zinc; the insides of the
-disks were found to present the same whitish appearance, except on the
-spot where the charcoal was placed, a small part of which still remained
-unconsumed. As the disks cooled the whitish matter which covered them
-began to separate, and fly off with some force, in the form of small
-scales, leaving a clean surface of the proper copper colour. The
-charcoal was rubbed off, and the surface below it was found smooth and
-polished; it had acquired a light colour, resembling that of brass; and,
-near the centre, there was a small spot, which approached to a steel
-grey. This appearance still continued, after it had been rubbed with
-fine sand. The above description,” concludes _Dr. Bostock_, “will
-probably impress the Society[247] with the same idea, that, I confess,
-it gave to myself, that if I had performed this experiment upon a
-substance, which had been suspected to contain arsenic, and I had not
-been aware of the appearance that I was to meet with, I should have
-conceived that I had detected its presence. Upon repeating the process,
-in precisely a similar manner, except that one grain of arsenic was
-added to the charcoal, the oxidation of the copper took place as before,
-and a small part of the charcoal remained unconsumed; but upon rubbing
-it, the white stain was perfectly visible. However, when these disks
-were compared with those in which the former experiment had been made,
-the difference between them seemed more in _degree_ than in _kind_; so
-that I should not choose to decide upon the presence of arsenic, as
-indicated by this test, unless the result were more obvious than we can
-ever expect to find it, where the quantity of arsenic is so small. It
-may be proper to observe, that copper, whitened in this manner by
-arsenic, is very subject to tarnish; in three days I could with
-difficulty distinguish which of the disks had been employed in these two
-experiments.”
-
-In connection with the different modes of identifying arsenic by
-metallization, we may relate a test lately proposed by _Mr. A. Thomson_,
-which, as a collateral proof, merits some attention. “Into any solution,
-in which arsenic may be suspected, stir a moderate quantity of charcoal
-powder; allow it to settle; then pour off the clear supernatant liquor,
-or filter the mixture; and when the powder which remains on the filter
-is dry, sprinkle some of it on a red hot poker; if the solution contain
-arsenic, the odour of garlic will be rendered sensible. This effect
-becomes more obvious if a few grains of dry sub-carbonate of potass be
-added to the dried charcoal powder.”[248]
-
-If, instead of _Black flux_, or charcoal, the arsenious acid be heated
-in a glass tube with quick-lime, a sudden ignition will take place, when
-one part of the white arsenic will be metallized, and the other farther
-acidified, so as to produce an _arseniate of lime_; in this case,
-therefore, a certain portion of the arsenious acid is robbed of its
-oxygen to complete the acidification of the rest.
-
-The habitudes of arsenious acid with the _nitrates_, as first observed
-by _Kunkel_, deserve also some attention. If they be heated together,
-the former will be oxygenated at the expense of the nitric acid, nitrous
-acid vapour will be disengaged, and an _arseniate of potass_ remain. The
-forensic chemist may avail himself of these facts, and obtain a very
-useful test, which may be applied in the following manner.[249] Take a
-grain or two of the suspected powder, and mix it with double the
-quantity of _Nitrate of Potass_; introduce this mixture in a small glass
-tube, and apply the flame of a spirit lamp under the powder; when, if it
-contain arsenic, the nitrate will be decomposed, nitric oxide and
-nitrous acid be evolved in a gaseous form, and an arseniate of potass
-remain.
-
-The acid vapour may be easily recognised by its colour and smell, or by
-placing a piece of moistened litmus paper within the tube. The
-_arseniate_ may be identified by the _brick-red_ precipitate, produced
-in its solution, by _Nitrate_ of Silver. So small is the quantity of
-arsenic required for this latter mode of trial, that _Mr. Smithson_, in
-a late paper, observes “that a drop of a solution of arsenious acid in
-water, which at the height of 54·5 _Fah._ contains not more than 1/80th
-of the acid, put to nitrate of potass in a platina spoon, and fused,
-affords a considerable quantity of _arseniate_ of silver. Hence when no
-solid particle of oxide of arsenic can be obtained, the presence of it
-may be established by infusing in water the matters which contain
-it.”[250]
-
-
-     B. _By the application of certain re-agents, or tests, to its
-                              solutions._
-
-_a._ _Fused Nitrate of Silver, or Lunar Caustic._ For this test we are
-indebted to _Mr. Hume_, who first suggested its application in the
-Philosophical Magazine for May 1809, (vol. xxxiii). His method of using
-it is as follows: into a clean Florence flask introduce two or three
-grains of the suspected substance, in the state of powder, to which add
-about eight ounces of rain or distilled water, and heat the solution
-until it begins to boil; then while it boils frequently shake the flask,
-and add to the hot solution a grain or two of sub-carbonate of potass,
-agitating the whole to make the mixture uniform. Pour into a wine glass
-about two table spoonsful of the solution, and touch the surface of the
-fluid with a stick of lunar caustic. If arsenic be present, a beautiful
-yellow precipitate will instantly proceed from the point of contact, and
-settle towards the bottom of the glass as a flocculent and copious
-precipitate. By this test the 60th part of a grain may be satisfactorily
-recognised in two ounces of water. The presence of some alkali is
-essential to the success of the experiment, since arsenious acid is
-incapable, by the operation of simple affinity, to decompose the
-_nitrate of silver_.[251] The validity of this test has been questioned
-on several distinct grounds, and which the author has endeavoured to
-answer in another work[252]; such, however, is the importance of the
-question in its judicial consequences, that we shall re-consider it on
-the present occasion.
-
-OBJECTION 1. _The alkaline Phosphates are found to produce precipitates
-with silver, analogous in colour and appearance to the arsenite of
-silver._ This constituted one of the principal points in the evidence
-for the defence, on the trial of _Donnall_ for the murder of _Mrs.
-Downing_ (_see Appendix_, p. 299), and it must be admitted as a valid
-objection, if the experiment be performed in the manner just stated; but
-there are other reagents which will immediately distinguish these
-bodies, as we shall presently have occasion to state, under the history
-of the _Ammoniuret of silver_, as a test for arsenic. The author has
-also shewn that there is a mode of so modifying the application of the
-present test, that no error or doubt can arise in the use of it, from
-the presence of any phosphoric salt. This method consists in conducting
-the trial on writing paper, instead of in glasses; thus—drop the
-suspected fluid on a piece of white paper, making with it a broad line;
-along this line a stick of _lunar caustic_ is to be slowly drawn several
-times successively, when a streak is produced of a colour resembling
-that known by the name of _Indian Yellow_; and this is equally produced
-by the presence of arsenic, and that of an alkaline phosphate, but the
-one from the former is rough, curdy, and flocculent, as if effected by a
-crayon, that from the latter is homogeneous and uniform, resembling a
-water-colour laid smoothly on with a brush; but a more important and
-distinctive peculiarity soon succeeds, for, in less than two minutes the
-phosphoric yellow fades into a _sad green_, and becomes gradually
-darker, and ultimately quite black; while, on the other hand, the
-arsenical yellow remains permanent, or nearly so, for some time, when it
-becomes brown. In performing this experiment the sun-shine should be
-avoided, or the transitions of colour will take place too rapidly. It
-would be also prudent for the inexperienced operator to perform a
-similar experiment on a fluid known to contain arsenic, and on another
-with a phosphoric salt, as a standard of comparison.
-
-In this way the _nitrate of silver_, without the intervention of any
-other test, is capable of removing every ambiguity, and of furnishing a
-distinguishing mark between the chemical action of arsenic and that of
-the phosphates. _Mr. Hume_[253] states that he has repeated this
-modification of his experiment with entire satisfaction; and that, in a
-late unfortunate case of poisoning, he derived considerable information
-by its application. One of the great advantages of this test is the very
-small quantity that is required for examination, and which will
-therefore never prevent our pursuing the subject through the other
-channels of investigation.
-
-OBJECTION 2. _The muriates produce precipitates with silver, so copious
-and flocculent, as to overcome every indication which the presence of
-arsenic would otherwise afford._
-
-From the general use of common salt, the chemist must be prepared to
-meet with a _muriate_ in almost every examination after arsenic, besides
-which this latter substance is occasionally adulterated with the
-_muriate of baryta_ and by _sulphate of lime_. _Dr. Marcet_ proposes to
-obviate the difficulties which the presence of a _muriate_ must
-occasion, by adding to the fluid to be examined dilute _nitric_ acid,
-and then cautiously applying the _nitrate of silver_ until all
-precipitation ceases; in this way the muriatic acid will be entirely
-removed, while the arsenic, if present, will be retained in solution,
-and may be afterwards rendered evident by the affusion of ammonia, which
-will instantly produce the yellow precipitate in its characteristic
-form. It must, however, be confessed, that this mode appears
-complicated, and, moreover, requires some chemical address for its
-accomplishment; it should be also known that the yellow precipitate thus
-produced is not always permanent, for it is soluble in an excess of
-_ammonia_. Under these circumstances, it is surely preferable to
-precipitate at once from the fluid under examination, all the substances
-which nitrate of silver can affect, and then to expose the mixed and
-ambiguous precipitate, so obtained, to a low heat, in a glass tube, when
-the arsenious acid will be separated by sublimation. In this way the
-presence of _muriates_ and even _phosphates_, may, in certain cases, be
-serviceable, especially if the quantity of arsenic be very minute; for,
-by increasing the bulk of the precipitate, we shall decrease the
-difficulty of its examination.
-
-OBJECTION 3. _Chromate of potass produces with nitrate of silver a
-yellow precipitate, which, when placed side by side with one produced by
-arsenious acid, cannot be distinguished by colour or appearance from
-it._ This fact has lately been announced by Dr. Porter, of the
-University of South Carolina (_Silliman’s Journal_, _iii._ 355); but as
-the presence of _Chromate of Potass_ can never be suspected in any
-research after arsenic, in cases of forensic interest, it is unnecessary
-to enter into any details respecting it.
-
-We have stated above, that in consequence of the inability of arsenious
-acid to decompose _nitrate of silver_ by simple elective attraction, the
-presence of _some_ alkali becomes indispensable in the examination; and
-for this purpose _Dr. Marcet_ suggested the superior advantages which
-would attend the application of _ammonia_, in all those cases where the
-arsenic had not been previously combined with a fixed alkali; since the
-former does not, when added singly, decompose nitrate of silver; a
-circumstance which, in using the fixed alkalies, is very liable to
-occasion fallacy. This led _Mr. Hume_ to improve his original plan, by
-forming at once a compound,[254] which he calls the _Ammoniaco-nitrate
-of silver_, but which may with more propriety be designated, as an
-_ammoniuret_ of that metal.
-
-_b._ The _Ammoniuret of Silver_. This is an improvement of considerable
-value; for, while it obviates the necessity of ascertaining the exact
-proportion[255] of alkali required in each experiment, it possesses the
-desirable property of not in the least disturbing the solution of
-_phosphate of soda_.
-
-_c._ _Sulphate of Copper._ This test of arsenic is the one discovered by
-_Scheele_; when added to the _arsenite of potass_ a beautiful green
-precipitate (constituting a pigment known by the name of _Scheele’s
-green_) is produced; “so decidedly,” says _Dr. Bostock_, “does this
-phenomenon indicate the presence of arsenic, that I thought it desirable
-to ascertain, as exactly as possible, what were the best proportions in
-which the ingredients should be employed, and in what way they should be
-mixed, so as to exhibit the effect in the most obvious manner. After a
-number of trials, in which the substances were employed in various
-quantities, and under different circumstances, I am disposed to
-recommend that the proportions of the _arsenic_, the _potass_, and the
-_sulphate of copper_, should be to each other as the numbers _one_,
-_three_, and _five_, respectively; for instance, if one grain of arsenic
-and three grains of potass, be dissolved in two drachms of water; and,
-in another equal quantity of water, five grains of sulphate be
-dissolved, we have two solutions, which are transparent, and nearly
-colourless; but upon mixing them together, the whole is converted into
-the most beautiful grass-green, from which a copious precipitate of the
-same hue slowly subsides, leaving the supernatant fluid nearly without
-colour. If the same materials are employed, in the same manner, but
-without the arsenic, a delicate _sky-blue_ is formed, which is so
-decidedly different from the former colour as not to admit of the
-possibility of error.” In this experiment then, as well as in that with
-the nitrate of silver, it is necessary that the arsenious acid should be
-combined with an alkaline base; and for the same reason, in order to
-bring the double elective attractions into play; _Mr. Hume_ has
-accordingly availed himself of the property of ammonia, to form an
-_ammoniuret of copper_, which is to be made according to the formula
-already given for the preparation of the silver test.
-
-_d._ _Ammoniuret of Copper._ In using this test care must be taken that
-it be not too highly concentrated, for in that state it will not produce
-precipitation.
-
-Notwithstanding the confidence with which _Dr. Bostock_ has supported
-the pretensions of the _Sulphate of Copper_, as an infallible test for
-arsenic, its validity has been lately called in question, and it has
-been stated that a _decoction of onions_ has the property of imparting
-to the copper precipitate, produced by a fixed alkali, a green colour
-and appearance completely analogous to that which is occasioned by the
-presence of arsenic. This opinion was boldly advanced, and supported, on
-the trial of _Donnall_, before alluded to, and of which we have given a
-very ample report in the _Appendix_. Since this event an opportunity
-occurred which enabled the author to examine this alleged fact, by a
-fair and appropriate series of experiments,[256] the result of which has
-satisfactorily proved that the opinion was grounded on an optical
-fallacy, arising from the _blue_ precipitate assuming a _green_ colour,
-in consequence of having been viewed through a yellow medium.[257] The
-phosphoric salts may also, under similar circumstances, be mistaken for
-arsenic; for the intense blue colour of the _phosphate of copper_ will,
-when viewed through a yellow medium, necessarily appear green. Such
-instances of optical fallacy are by no means uncommon in the history of
-chemical reagents; thus _corrosive sublimate_ has been said to possess
-alkaline characters, in consequence of appearing to turn the syrup of
-violets green, whereas this apparent change is to be solely attributed
-to the optical combination of the yellow hue of the sublimate with the
-blue colour of the violet.
-
-Whenever therefore such a source of fallacy can be suspected, the
-operator would do well to repeat his experiment on white paper, in the
-manner we have already pointed out, when treating of the silver test;
-and let it be remembered that the results, when obtained in glasses,
-should always be examined by day light, and viewed by reflected, and not
-by transmitted light. _Dr. Bostock_ observes, that a weak solution of
-the sulphate of copper, without any addition, when held between the eye
-and the window, frequently presents a greenish tinge. It should be also
-known that the usual reaction of the _ammoniuret of copper_, upon a
-diluted solution of arsenic, is prevented by the presence of _tannin_;
-strong tea may therefore render the test inefficient.
-
-_e._ _Sulphuretted hydrogen._ This is a very delicate test for arsenic,
-producing with its solution a beautiful golden coloured liquor, which,
-after a short time, lets fall a precipitate, and which will take place
-sooner if a small quantity of acetic acid be added. By this re-agent so
-small a quantity as 1/100000 may be detected in solution. The test,
-however, is not, says _Dr. Bostock_, sufficiently discriminative to be
-depended upon alone; since _tartarized antimony_ and some other bodies,
-will produce phenomena that may be mistaken for the effects of arsenic.
-It has, however, the merit of not being affected by _tannin_, and may
-therefore be conveniently employed for precipitating arsenious acid,
-when dissolved in tea.
-
-_f._ _Lime water_ produces with the solution of arsenic a beautiful
-white precipitate of _arsenite of lime_, which easily dissolves in an
-excess of arsenious acid.
-
-The precipitates occasioned by the foregoing reagents, should be
-carefully collected, and treated with _black flux_, in a glass tube, for
-the purpose of obtaining the metallic sublimate, as above described.
-
-We cannot quit this part of our subject without directing the reader’s
-attention to the chemical evidence given by _Dr. Addington_, on the
-trial of _Mary Blandy_ (_see Appendix, p._ 241) to prove that arsenic
-was contained in a powder with which she was supposed to have poisoned
-her father. To those in the least acquainted with the habitudes of
-arsenious acid, it must be evident, that no one of the appearances
-described by _Dr. Addington_ indicates the presence of arsenic;[258] and
-his evidence is only to be reconciled upon the supposition that, instead
-of the arsenic itself, he, in this case, detected the foreign substances
-with which it had been adulterated; thus it has been before stated that
-_white arsenic_, as sold by the druggists, is often adulterated with
-_sulphate of lime_; and the decomposition of this substance by the
-_sub-carbonate of ammonia_ (“_Spirit of sal-ammoniac_”) or by the
-_sub-carbonate of potass_ (“_Lixivium of tartar_”) would occasion the
-precipitation of a white substance, as stated in the evidence; it is
-however difficult to account for the “considerable precipitation of a
-lightish coloured substance” by muriatic acid (_spirit of salt_) by the
-presence of any impurity likely to be contained in the arsenic, or in
-the water employed for its solution. If any lime were present, it would
-probably give “white glittering crystals” of sulphate of lime, by the
-addition of sulphuric acid (_spirits of vitriol_). The only plausible
-evidence of the presence of arsenic in the suspected powder is “the
-alliaceous smell and white flowers” which _Dr. Addington_ describes as
-occurring when it was thrown on red hot iron; it must however be
-confessed, that from the fallacy of the other experiments, it is even
-impossible to place any confidence in those last mentioned.
-
-Arsenic does not blacken a knife by which it is cut, as stated on the
-trial of _Eliza Fenning_; nor does it, when mixed with dough, prevent
-its rising.[259]
-
-We have now concluded our history of the different tests which have been
-proposed for the detection of arsenic. Much has been said and written
-upon the relative degree of confidence to which they are respectively
-entitled, and it has been asserted on several occasions, that nothing
-short of the reproduction of the metal ought to be received by the
-tribunals of justice, as an unequivocal proof of the presence of
-arsenious acid. (See _Dr. Neale’s Evidence on the trial of Donnall_.
-_Appendix, p._ 297.) In taking an impartial review of all the evidence
-which the investigation of this subject can furnish, it must appear to
-the most fastidious, that the _Silver_ and _Copper_ tests, above
-described, are capable, under proper management and precaution, of
-furnishing striking and infallible indications; and that in most cases
-they will be equally conclusive, and in some even more satisfactory in
-their results, than the metallic reproduction upon which so much stress
-has been laid; and for this obvious reason, that unless the quantity of
-metal be considerable, its metallic splendour and appearance is often
-very ambiguous and questionable. The author is personally acquainted
-with a case, where the medical person, by no means deficient in chemical
-address, actually ascribed the presence of arsenic to that which was no
-other than a film of finely divided charcoal: in this state of doubt the
-last resource was to ascertain whether it yielded, or not, upon being
-volatilized, an alliaceous odour. Surely an unprejudiced judge would
-prefer the evidence of _sight_, as furnished by the tests, to that of
-_smell_, as afforded in the experiment to which we allude; especially
-after the various fallacies, which we have shewn in the course of the
-present enquiry, to have occurred with regard to this latter sense. But
-the question at issue may be easily disposed of to the satisfaction of
-all parties; for let it be remembered, that the application of chemical
-reagents on solutions suspected to contain arsenic, so far from throwing
-any obstacle in the way of the _metallic reproduction_ of that
-substance, are the very steps which should be adopted as preparatory to
-the “_experimentum crucis_.” It is only necessary to collect the
-precipitates, and to decompose them in the manner already described; and
-this confirmation of our results should never be neglected, for it is
-the bounden duty of the forensic chemist, who is called upon to decide
-so important a question as the presence of a corrosive poison, to
-prosecute by the fullest enquiry every point which admits of the least
-doubt; he should also remember that in a criminal case, where the life
-of a human being depends upon his testimony, he has not only to satisfy
-his own conscience, but that he is bound, as far as he is able, to
-convince the public mind of the accuracy and truth of his researches.
-
-
-   2. _The Arsenious Acid is mixed with various alimentary and other
-                              substances._
-
-The detection of the presence of arsenic, amidst a complicated mass of
-alimentary matter, has long been a problem of interest and difficulty.
-In the directions which have been already offered for the discovery of
-arsenic in solution, we have in some measure anticipated several of the
-resources, of which we are now to avail ourselves. It has been seen how
-greatly coloured fluids are capable of obscuring, and changing, and even
-altogether preventing, the arsenical indications. _M. Orfila_, with an
-assiduity and accuracy which so eminently characterise all his
-toxicological labours, has accordingly investigated the peculiar
-appearances assumed by the arsenical precipitates in different media,
-such as bile, tea, coffee, wine, broth, jelly, &c. Since the publication
-of the great work[260] in which these phenomena are recorded, its author
-has proposed a new method[261] of removing its difficulties and
-embarrassments, occasioned by the colouring matter of the above media;
-which consists in a previous application of _Chlorine_, so as to change
-the colour to a shade, that will not offer any optical impediment to the
-characteristic indications of the tests in question. We are ready to
-admit that such a mode of proceeding may, on certain occasions, assist
-the accomplished chemist in his analysis; but in the hands of a person
-less accustomed to chemical manipulation, we hesitate not to declare
-that it is subject to fatal fallacies; whereas, by collecting the
-precipitate, and submitting it to the process of sublimation we shall at
-once obtain the arsenious acid in a pure form, and be enabled to test
-it, in distilled water without the chance of error. Why then should we
-attempt to pursue our game through the windings of a labyrinth, when a
-direct road lies before us by which we may drive it into the open plain?
-
-We accordingly recommend the juridical chemist, who suspects the
-presence of arsenious acid in broth, coffee, or any coloured liquid, to
-add a solution of _ammoniuret of silver_, and thus to precipitate
-indiscriminately all the bodies which it may be capable of so affecting.
-The precipitate may then be collected, and submitted to heat in a glass
-tube, as before directed.
-
-But the _Arsenious acid_ may perchance be so mixed with various foreign
-matter as to render its separation by filtration difficult; in such a
-case, after having boiled it in distilled water, in order to procure all
-the soluble matter from it, the residual mass may be evaporated to
-dryness, care being taken that the heat applied for such a purpose never
-exceeds 250° _Fah._ or we shall lose the arsenic, should any be present,
-by volatilization. The residue thus obtained may then be submitted to a
-higher temperature in a subliming vessel, in order to procure the
-arsenious acid in its pure state. This process applies particularly to
-the examination of the matter vomited, or the feculent evacuations
-passed, by the patient. Should the arsenious acid have, in the first
-instance, been dissolved in oil, _Dr. Ure_ proposes to boil the solution
-in distilled water, and to separate the oil afterwards by the capillary
-action of wick threads. If the arsenious acid be mixed with resinous
-bodies, _Oil of Turpentine_ may be employed as their solvent, which will
-leave the arsenic untouched. _Dr. Black_ directed the application of
-alcohol for this purpose, but this is obviously improper, since
-arsenious acid is soluble in that fluid.
-
-If the physician be called upon to investigate the contents of the
-alimentary canal after death, and the arsenious acid cannot be
-discovered amongst the suspected matter, the stomach itself must be cut
-into small pieces, and in compliance with the directions of _Orfila_,
-boiled in ten or twelve times their weight of distilled water, which
-should be renewed as fast as a portion of it flies off in vapour; this
-liquor should be cooled and decanted, in order to put a few drops of it
-into the solutions of the different re-agents which we have before
-described. If the precipitates should indicate the presence of arsenic,
-we may proceed according to the directions we have already laid down;
-if, on the other hand, the fluid offers no indication of poison, the
-mass exhausted by water should be treated, according to the process
-suggested by _Rose_, by boiling it for some time in a solution of
-potass, by which means the stomach will be partly decomposed and
-dissolved, and the arsenious acid, with which it might have been
-combined, saturated by the alkali. In this state the liquor is to be
-filtered, again boiled, and nitric acid added, little by little, until
-it passes from a dark to a clear yellow colour. The object of the acid
-in this stage of the process being to decompose and destroy the animal
-matter. The excess of acid should be saturated with potass, when an
-_Arsenite of Potass_ will be formed, if there really existed any
-arsenious acid in the stomach. This _M. Orfila_ recommends us to
-precipitate by the _Hydro-sulphuret of Ammonia_, and a few drops of
-nitric acid; (_Rose_ prefers _lime water_ for the same purpose); a
-yellow _sulphuret of Arsenic_ will be the result, from which the whole
-of the metal may be obtained, by drying it upon a filter, mixing it with
-an equal bulk of potass, and melting it in a small glass tube.
-
-This complicated mode of proceeding will rarely be found necessary; but
-it should not be neglected, where the presence of arsenic cannot be
-otherwise detected in the alimentary canal of those who are suspected to
-have died from its ingestion, especially in the examination of a body
-where, from the length of time it may have been under ground, there is
-reason to suppose that the acid exists in a state of intimate
-combination with the animal matter. And we may take this opportunity to
-observe, that advanced putrefaction, however disagreeable it may render
-such researches, will not, in the case of arsenic, defeat their success;
-let the forensic physician, then, remember, that the length of time
-which may have elapsed since the death of the body, ought never to be
-urged as a plea for not having proceeded in its dissection. The task may
-be personally disagreeable, but it will be less painful than the
-reflections which must attend a breach of duty; upon such an occasion we
-would address the anatomist in the quaint but expressive words of
-_Teichmeyer_[262], “_Præstat enim manus quam conscientiam cruentare et
-contaminare._”
-
-
-                      ARSENIC ACID, and ITS SALTS.
-
-It has been stated, that the Metal Arsenic is susceptible of two degrees
-of oxidizement, the result of its first degree being Arseni_ous_ acid,
-and that of its second Arsen_ic_ acid. This latter compound, of which we
-are now to treat, may be obtained by the repeated distillation of white
-arsenic with nitric acid. In a solid state it is white, not
-crystallizable; of a sour, and at the same time, metallic taste; its
-specific gravity is 3·391; when exposed to the action of heat in a close
-vessel, it does not become volatile, but melts and vitrifies; thrown on
-burning coals, it swells, parts with its water, and becomes opaque; if
-the process of deoxidation be continued, it will, at length, rise in
-vapours, like those of arsenious acid, and which, like them, will yield
-an alliaceous odour, or not, according to the circumstances already
-explained. The _Arsenic acid_ dissolves very readily in water, and is
-even indeed deliquescent. With alkalies, earths, and oxides, it
-constitutes a class of salts, called “_Arseniates_,” all of which, as
-well as the pure acid, are extremely active poisons; fortunately,
-however, they are not much employed[263] in this country, and are not
-likely to become the instruments of crime. These salts, like those of
-the arsenious acid, are obedient to the different re-agents which were
-enumerated under the consideration of this latter substance, but with
-different results; thus the _silver_ test, instead of producing the
-yellow indication, occasions an equally characteristic precipitate of a
-red, or brick colour. The ammoniuret, and acetate of copper, furnish a
-bluish-white precipitate. The arsenic acid, in a solid form, or the
-arseniate, mixed with black flux, will, like white arsenic, furnish a
-metallic sublimate, when heated in a glass tube.
-
-
-                       THE SULPHURETS OF ARSENIC.
-
-There are two Sulphurets of Arsenic: the yellow variety known in
-commerce under the name of _Orpiment_, and the red sulphuret, termed
-_Realgar_. The bodies, as they occur _native_, do not appear to be
-endowed with the virulent powers which distinguish the other compounds
-of arsenic. _M. Renault_[264] gave as much as two drachms of the native
-orpiment to dogs of different sizes, from which they experienced no
-inconvenience. _Hoffman_[265] also offers his testimony of the inertness
-of this substance. The same observations apply to the _Realgar_. It is
-not a little singular that while these native sulphurets of arsenic
-should be so harmless, those which are produced by artificial fusions,
-are extremely virulent in very small doses. _M. Renault_ supposed that
-this remarkable difference of effect was owing to the arsenic being
-oxidized in the latter compound, and in its metallic state in the
-former. This explanation, however, is not considered as satisfactory by
-_M. Orfila_, who states that it does not embrace all the varieties of
-the case, for that the _sulphuret_, which is artificially obtained by
-pouring the arsenious acid into a solution of sulphuretted hydrogen, is
-as inert as the native compounds; besides which, chemical analysis has
-proved that there is no oxygen in any of these _sulphurets_, and that
-they only differ from one another, by a greater or less proportion of
-their two ingredients. This apparent anomaly induced _M. Orfila_ to
-institute a series of experiments for its investigation, but the results
-which he has obtained are too unsatisfactory to enable him to decide the
-question.
-
-The presence of an _Arsenical Sulphuret_ is to be sought for by
-calcination with caustic potass, in a small glass tube. The sulphuret is
-decomposed in a few seconds, yielding its sulphur to the potass, while
-its metallic element is volatilized with the usual phenomena.
-
-
-                                MERCURY.
-
-Mercury, or Quicksilver[266], was known in the earliest ages. Its
-external characters are too familiar to require any particular
-description in this place. Its specific gravity is 13·568.[267] In its
-metallic state it exerts no action on the living system, except that
-which may depend upon its mechanical properties, although a different
-opinion has been entertained, (see _Pharmacologia_, art. Hydrargyrum.)
-
-Several of the combinations of this metal are, however, highly
-destructive in small doses, and are consequently objects of forensic
-interest.
-
-
-                          CORROSIVE SUBLIMATE.
-
-           _Oxy-muriate of Mercury. Bi-chloride of Mercury._
-
-This metallic salt is by far the most active of all the mercurial
-preparations. According to the latest views of Chemistry it is a
-compound of two proportionals of chlorine, and one proportional of
-metallic mercury, and is therefore a _bi-chloride of Mercury_. It
-generally occurs in the form of a crystalline mass, made up of very
-small prismatic crystals, which undergo a slight alteration by exposure
-to air, becoming opaque and pulverulent. Its taste is extremely acrid,
-with a metallic astringency, occasioning a sensation of obstruction in
-the throat which continues for some time. Its specific gravity is
-5·1398[268]. When pulverised and thrown upon burning coals, it is
-immediately volatilized, giving out a thick white smoke, of a very
-pungent smell, not at all resembling garlic, but which irritates the
-mucous membranes extremely, and is highly dangerous to those who breathe
-it. It is soluble in eleven parts of cold, and in three of boiling
-water; and this solubility may be farther increased by the addition of a
-few drops of rectified spirit, or of muriatic acid. When swallowed in
-small quantities it acts as a most virulent poison.[269]
-
-
-            _Symptoms of Poisoning by Corrosive Sublimate._
-
-The effects, as well as the _modus operandi_, of this salt, will vary
-with the quantity swallowed. We shall, therefore, first consider the
-acute symptoms which supervene a dose sufficiently powerful to destroy
-life in a few hours; and afterwards those which may arise from its long
-continued use in small quantities, and at different intervals.
-
-1. _Symptoms which follow a large dose._ A most painful burning and
-sense of constriction is experienced in the fauces; dryness of the mouth
-and lips; excruciating pain in the stomach and bowels, increased by the
-slightest pressure, and generally attended with considerable distention;
-excessive vomiting and purging of frothy mucus; the countenance is
-frequently red and swollen, and the eyes exhibit a sparkling appearance,
-accompanied by contraction of the pupils. The pulse is in general quick,
-small, and hard; suppression of urine takes place, and cold sweats;
-anxiety; universal pains; convulsions, and death. If the patient
-survives long enough, a violent ptyalism, and sloughing of the mouth and
-gums may take place.
-
-2. _Symptoms which are produced by the repetition of small doses._ In
-this case the mercurial salt acts as an “Accumulative Poison.” (_See
-page_ 148). The most striking of the symptoms are those arising from its
-specific action upon the salivary glands, in consequence of which an
-increased flow of saliva takes place, the gums become tender and sore,
-the breath intolerably offensive, and if the use of the salt be not
-discontinued, the teeth loosen, and even fall out, and their loss is
-sometimes followed by that of the bones of the palate, or maxillæ; at
-the same time other evils, although perhaps less apparent, soon arise;
-the strength and muscular powers of the body begin to fail; emaciation
-proceeds rapidly; cardialgia, dyspepsia, diarrhæa, and a train of morbid
-symptoms succeed; violent pains are experienced in the muscles, tendons,
-or joints; tremors of the limbs, and even paralysis may result; and in
-some cases, pulmonary consumption terminates the existence of the
-unhappy sufferer. It has been asserted that _Corrosive Sublimate_, when
-taken for a long time in small quantities, will sometimes occasion all
-the symptoms of debility above enumerated, together with hectic fever,
-without producing salivation. This is a truth which the author’s
-personal experience will enable him to confirm. The Countess of
-Soissons, mother of the celebrated Prince Eugene, was accused, at the
-latter end of the seventeenth century, of having destroyed her husband
-by these means. A question of considerable importance has arisen, with
-regard to the specific effects of mercury, which demands some notice in
-this place. _Whether salivation, after having entirely subsided, can
-ever return without a fresh exhibition of Mercury?_ Two instances are
-related by _Dr. Mead_ of the return of salivation, after an interval of
-several months, when not a particle of mercury had been administered, in
-any form, during that period.[270] _Dr. Male_, in his work on Juridical
-Medicine,[271] relates an analogous case which occurred in his own
-practice: “In March, 1815,” says he, “I gave a small quantity of
-triturated mercury to a respectable woman in this town, who had been
-long ill; she became suddenly and unexpectedly salivated. She soon
-recovered, and enjoyed better health than she had done for a
-considerable time. In October, without (as she informed me) having taken
-any medicine whatever, the salivation returned with extreme violence,
-her mouth sloughed and mortified; and in a few weeks she died.” _Dr.
-Hamilton_, the Professor of Midwifery in Edinburgh, relates in his
-lectures the case of a married lady, who had been under the necessity of
-going through a course of mercury, under the care of the late _Mr.
-Bennet_, who, from motives of delicacy did not enquire very minutely
-into the particular circumstances; but, according to the rule of the
-day, gave his patient a sore mouth. Four months afterwards she
-miscarried, and salivation again came on. It was removed for a week, at
-the end of which it returned, and harrassed her for about twelve
-months.[272] The author, in his _Pharmacologia_,[273] has cited a case
-from _Hufeland’s Journal_, (vol. ix) wherein mercurial influence, after
-its complete subsidence, had been renewed by doses of opium. In the
-trial of _Miss Butterfield_, at the Croydon assizes, for poisoning _Mr.
-Scawen_, in the year 1775, the merit of the case entirely hinged upon
-this question. See vol. 1, p. 303.
-
-
-             _Physiological action of Corrosive Sublimate._
-
-When this salt is introduced into the stomach in a large dose, it
-immediately exerts a corrosive action on that organ, in consequence of
-which the heart and brain become sympathetically affected, and death
-results from the suspension of their functions. For this view of the
-_modus operandi_ of this mercurial salt we are indebted to _Mr.
-Brodie_,[274] whence it would appear that its physiological action is
-very different from that of arsenious acid; the former acting as a
-simple _escharotic_, on the coats of the alimentary canal, the latter
-requiring to be absorbed, before it can display its energies. These
-observations, however, apply only to those cases in which the quantity
-of poison has been so considerable as to destroy life in a few hours;
-where the dose has been small, and the symptoms have arisen from its
-frequent repetition, the salt produces its effects by a different mode
-of operation. In this latter case it is absorbed, and carried into the
-current of the blood, so as to be distributed to every part of the
-living system; and it has been asserted that, after the long continued
-and improper use of mercury, it has been discovered in different parts
-of the body, and even in the brain, in the form of globules. In this way
-then deleterious effects may arise from the external application of
-corrosive sublimate, and numerous instances are recorded where such
-consequences have followed the injudicious use of lotions and plasters,
-into which it had entered as an ingredient.[275] In the _Medical
-Repository_, for December, 1821, _Mr. Sutleffe_ has communicated the
-case of a girl of five years of age, who became salivated, and died, in
-consequence of an application made to the head for _tinea capitis_,
-consisting of pomatum rubbed up with a few grains of _corrosive
-sublimate_.
-
-
-                  _Antidotes to Corrosive Sublimate._
-
-After the view which we have taken of the operation of this salt in
-large doses, it necessarily follows that copious dilution is the very
-first object which we have to accomplish, and then the ejection of the
-fluid by vomiting. _Sydenham_ relates an interesting case of poisoning
-by this substance, which was successfully treated by copious draughts of
-water, and repeated vomiting.[276] But it becomes a question of great
-practical importance to enquire, whether there may not exist some
-counterpoison or antidote which, by decomposing the salt, will at once
-disarm it of its virulence? This question has been investigated in a
-very masterly style by _Orfila_, who has clearly proved by experiment,
-that neither the _alkaline salts_ and _earths, the sulphurets of potass
-and of lime_, nor the _martial alkaline tinctures_, as proposed by
-_Navier_,[277] deserve the least confidence; for although the salt may
-by some of these bodies be decomposed, yet the resulting oxide will
-prove as virulent as the original compound; equally inefficient are the
-other substances which have been proposed as counter-poisons, such as
-_sulphuretted hydrogen_, _solutions of sugar_,[278] _the infusions of
-Peruvian bark_,[279] and _metallic mercury_.[280]
-
-_M. Orfila_ having observed the facility with which _albumen_ decomposes
-corrosive sublimate, and gives rise to a triple compound of albumen,
-muriatic acid, and protoxide of mercury, induced him to ascertain by
-experiments whether the _white of eggs_ might not prove an antidote to
-that poison; the result of his inquiry has shewn that this is the case;
-and that by mixing such albuminous matter, in _large quantities_, with
-the diluents given to provoke vomiting, the happiest effects may be
-anticipated. Many examples are recorded of the success of this practice.
-In the Transactions of the King and Queen’s College of Physicians in
-Ireland, an interesting case of this kind is related by _Dr. Lendrick_;
-it is, however, but justice to state, that there are instances also of
-the failure of this antidote. In the 41st volume of the _London Medical
-and Physical Journal_, p. 204, the reader will find the case of a girl
-who was poisoned by a drachm of sublimate, and who, notwithstanding the
-copious administration of albumen, died in ninety hours afterwards.
-
-It has lately been discovered that vegetable _gluten_, as existing in
-wheat flour, is capable of producing upon corrosive sublimate the same
-chemical decomposition, as that which we have stated to arise from the
-action of albumen; whence the administration of wheat flour and water
-has been suggested as a ready antidote. On the trial of _Michael
-Whiting_, for administering poison (_corrosive sublimate_) to his
-brothers-in-law, _George_ and _Joseph Langman_, the housekeeper,
-_Catharine Carter_, stated in evidence, that the flour, (which was
-subsequently proved to contain corrosive sublimate) could scarcely be
-made into dumplings with milk[281]; and another witness, _Mrs. Hopkins_,
-a neighbour who took charge of the dumpling that had not been boiled,
-described it as “_a comical sort of paste; like glazier’s putty more
-than paste, though not greasy_.” In order to ascertain the correctness
-of this statement, we mixed powdered sublimate with wheat flour, and
-proceeded to make it into dough with milk; when the same difficulty as
-that stated by the above witnesses, embarrassed the process, and
-satisfied us of the truth of their testimony. The phenomenon would
-appear to depend upon the mutual chemical changes which arise in the
-gluten and mercurial salt.
-
-
-              _Organic Lesions discovered on Dissection._
-
-The œsophagus and stomach will be found inflamed, and sometimes eroded,
-as in poisoning by arsenic. _Salin_ has asserted, that this salt never
-produces perforation of the intestinal tube; this, however, is not the
-fact; and we know not of any exclusive appearances, by which the organic
-lesions inflicted by this poison can be distinguished, unless indeed it
-be the black appearance of the stomach, as if it had been burnt, which
-occasionally presents itself.
-
-
-_Of the Chemical Processes by which the presence of Corrosive Sublimate
-                           may be detected._
-
-As the chemist, devoted to forensic enquiry, will be required to
-identify this substance under very different states of mixture and
-combination, we shall proceed to enumerate the various obstacles that
-may possibly oppose his researches; and, at the same time, to suggest
-the expedients by which they may be successfully evaded. Unlike
-arsenious acid, corrosive sublimate is so readily decomposed by various
-alimentary substances, that, when we attempt to demonstrate its presence
-in such mixtures, we shall be more frequently compelled to rest our
-proof upon the products of the analysis, than upon the actual
-reproduction of the salt.
-
-We shall proceed to consider the best modes of establishing the presence
-of this salt, in the different forms in which it may occur, viz. 1, _In
-the solid form_; 2, _Dissolved in water or spirit_; 3, _In various
-coloured liquids_; 4, _In a state of mixture with various solids_; 5,
-_Combined with solid or liquid aliments, by which it undergoes
-decomposition_; 6, _In a state of combination with the textures of the
-alimentary canal_.
-
-1. _The sublimate is in its solid form._ The external characters by
-which this salt is distinguished will go far to establish its identity;
-but the fact should always receive the support of a chemical proof; and
-as this is to be derived from the phenomena afforded by its solutions
-through the intervention of various tests, it will meet with full
-consideration in the following section, viz.
-
-2. _The salt is in the state of solution, in water, or spirit._ Let us
-then suppose that we have a solution of some body in distilled water,
-which we suspect to be corrosive sublimate, by what means are we able to
-identify it?
-
-(_a_) _By its metallization, through the agency of galvanism._ We are
-indebted to _Mr. Sylvester_ for first suggesting the mode by which
-galvanic electricity might be applied for the detection of minute
-quantities of corrosive sublimate in solution. His method is as follows.
-A piece of zinc or iron wire, about three inches in length, is to be
-twice bent at right angles, so as to resemble the greek letter π, the
-two legs of this figure should be distant about the diameter of a common
-wedding ring from each other, and the two ends of the bent wire must
-afterwards be tied to a ring of this description. Let a plate of glass,
-not less than three inches square, be laid as nearly horizontal as
-possible, and on one side drop some sulphuric acid, diluted with about
-six times its weight of water, till it spreads to the size of a
-halfpenny. At a little distance from this, towards the other side, next
-drop some of the solution supposed to contain corrosive sublimate, till
-the edges of the two liquids become joined; and let the wire and ring,
-prepared as above, be laid in such a way, that the wire may touch the
-acid, while the gold ring is in contact with the suspected liquid. If
-the minutest quantity of corrosive sublimate be present, the ring, in a
-few minutes, will be covered with metallic mercury on the part which
-touched the fluid.
-
-The above experiment may be beautifully simplified in the following
-manner[282]. Drop a small quantity of a solution, supposed to contain
-the salt in question, on a piece of gold, and bring into contact a key,
-or some piece of iron, so as to form a galvanic circuit; when, if
-sublimate be present, the gold will immediately be whitened.
-
-A solution of _nitrate of silver_ will, under similar treatment,
-occasion on gold a white precipitate; but as no amalgamation takes
-place, it is readily wiped off, and cannot therefore occasion any
-fallacy.
-
-(_b_) _By precipitating metallic mercury from its solution, by the
-contact of a single metal._ It should be generally known that, by virtue
-of superior affinity, certain metals will decompose the solution of
-corrosive sublimate, with different phenomena; in those cases where the
-precipitating metal is capable of forming a direct union with mercury,
-we shall find the precipitates to consist of an amalgam of the metal
-employed; where no such combination takes place, the mercury may be
-frequently seen standing on the surface as a metallic dew. This is
-particularly striking when iron or steel has been employed. In the
-evidence given on the trial of _Mary Bateman_[283], better known by the
-name of the “Yorkshire Witch,” _Mr. Thomas Chorley_, surgeon at Leeds,
-stated that he had received from his assistant, _Mr. Hammerton_, a jar
-which he had carefully preserved in his possession, and of the contents
-of which he gave the following account. “Upon tasting a portion, it was
-very acrid, styptic, and permanent upon the tongue; I then took a small
-quantity of it upon a clean knife, and rubbed it with my finger; a
-change of colour immediately appeared; _further rubbing produced
-numerous globules of quicksilver_, and the knife was, at the same time,
-blackened by it; this change of colour led me to suspect that it must be
-a mercurial composition, and having made a solution of it, and subjected
-it to a series of tests and experiments, it is my opinion, that the
-mixture in the pot did contain _honey_, and _corrosive sublimate of
-mercury_. In order, however, more fully to satisfy myself upon this
-point, a mixture was made of these ingredients, when it was found to
-yield the same results.” In the above experiment, the steel knife
-decomposed the sublimate, forming a _chloride of iron_, while the
-mercury, thus disengaged in its metallic form, being unable to
-amalgamate with the iron, appeared in globules[284] upon its surface. At
-the same time the knife _became blackened_ owing to the precipitation of
-carbonaceous matter from the steel.
-
-(_c_) _Carbonate of Potass._ A saturated solution of this salt, added to
-that of corrosive sublimate, will produce a _deep brick coloured_
-sediment, which is stated to consist of per-carbonate of mercury[285];
-while a muriate of potass will be found to remain in solution. The
-_sub-carbonate of potass_ will occasion a somewhat different
-precipitate, of a _clear brick_ colour, and consisting of a mixture of
-the carbonate, and oxide of the metal.[286]
-
-(_d_) _Ammonia._ A solution of the volatile alkali produces a _white
-precipitate_, which is an insoluble triple salt, composed of muriatic
-acid, ammonia, and oxide of mercury; being heated it grows yellow; it
-passes afterwards to red, and according to _Orfila_ gives out ammoniacal
-gas, nitrogen, calomel, and metallic mercury. In this operation the
-oxide of mercury is supposed to be deoxidized by the hydrogen which
-results from a portion of the decomposed ammonia.
-
-(_e_) _Lime water._ This reagent may be said to decompose corrosive
-sublimate more perfectly than any alkaline body; occasioning a
-precipitate of a deep yellow colour, which will be found to be a
-peroxide of mercury; unless indeed the quantity of lime water be very
-small, when it will be a sub-muriate of the peroxide.
-
-(_f_) _Nitrate of Tin._ According to _Dr. Bostock_[287] this test is
-capable of detecting the three-millionth part of a grain in solution. A
-single drop will produce an immediate and copious dark-brown
-precipitation.
-
-All the above precipitates, if rubbed on a bright plate of copper, will
-render its surface silvery white, in consequence of the amalgamation
-which takes place.
-
-_Brugnatelli_ has lately proposed a method of distinguishing _corrosive
-sublimate_ from _arsenic_, which we have repeated to our satisfaction;
-but the experiment requires some nicety of manipulation to secure its
-success. Take a quantity of fresh wheat starch, mix with water, and add
-a sufficient quantity of _iodine_ to give the liquid a blue colour; if
-either of the above poisons be now introduced into it, the colour will
-be destroyed, and assume a reddish tint; but if the change has been
-effected by the latter substance, a few drops of sulphuric acid will
-restore the blue colour; whereas if it has been produced by the former,
-it is not recoverable by such means.[288]
-
-3. _It is dissolved in various coloured liquids._ Under this subdivision
-we have to consider the corrosive sublimate as existing in a state of
-solution, in liquids, whose colour will be liable to obscure the
-characteristic indications which the several reagents would otherwise
-occasion. It has been proposed to obviate such impediments by the
-previous addition of chlorine, which will discharge the colour in
-question. _Orfila_ recommends such a process, where the salt has been
-dissolved in wine. The same objections which we urged against this mode
-of proceeding, under the consideration of arsenic, appear to us to apply
-to corrosive sublimate.
-
-It will be preferable on these occasions to precipitate the salt by an
-appropriate reagent, and then to assay the precipitate for metallic
-mercury; or to evaporate the solution, and to submit the matter so
-obtained to the process of sublimation, when the sublimate may be
-dissolved in distilled water, and examined by the tests above described.
-This circuitous process may, however, in many cases be rendered
-unnecessary, by dropping the solution on the surface of white paper, and
-in such a situation proceeding to its examination by tests; when the
-colour of the precipitate will rarely be exposed to any optical fallacy.
-The Galvanic process of metallic reduction will also furnish a
-satisfactory solution of the problem.
-
-4. _It is mixed, or combined, with some medicinal body in a solid form._
-As persons have been poisoned by empirical remedies, and other medicines
-containing sublimate, accidentally or by design, it is necessary to
-point out the readiest mode by which the investigation may be pursued.
-If it should form part of a plaster, it will be adviseable to cut it up
-in small pieces, and boil them for a quarter of an hour in distilled
-water; this fluid, after standing for some time, should be filtered, and
-examined as we have before directed. It is evident that, if the
-sublimate is neither decomposed, nor strongly retained by the materials
-which compose the plaster, it ought to be found in the above solution;
-if, however, no such result can be obtained, the solid portion should be
-dried in a capsule, and mixed with potass; and in this state submitted,
-in the usual manner, to the process of sublimation, when the appearance
-of metallic globules will announce the existence of the salt in
-question, or, at least, of the presence of some mercurial preparation.
-
-5. _It is united with alimentary substances which have effected its
-decomposition._ It has been frequently stated during the course of the
-present inquiry, that corrosive sublimate is easily susceptible of
-decomposition, and that various alimentary substances, of animal as well
-as vegetable origin, have the power of converting it into
-_calomel_.[289] This important fact was first noticed by
-_Chaussier_[290] and has been more fully investigated and confirmed by
-_Orfila_.[291] Where the quantity of mercurial salt has been
-considerable, we may generally obtain, on washing the alimentary matter,
-a sufficient portion for experiment; but where the dose has been small,
-or where it has been ejected by frequent vomiting, the whole residue may
-be decomposed; in which case we must seek to establish the fact of
-poisoning, through the detection of metallic mercury, by the processes
-of calcination and sublimation.
-
-6. _It is decomposed, and a part exists in intimate combination with the
-membranes of the alimentary canal._ If all the preceding experiments
-have failed in detecting the presence of corrosive sublimate, it becomes
-our duty to examine the textures with which it may be supposed to have
-come in contact; the coats of the canal should be cut into pieces, and
-calcined with potass, when, if they have been acted upon by sublimate,
-they will yield metallic mercury by sublimation. “The alimentary canal,”
-says _M. Orfila_, “acts upon the sublimate like all other animal
-substances; muriatic acid is disengaged, and muriate of mercury _ad
-minimum_ (_calomel_) is formed, which combines with the substance of the
-viscus.
-
-It may be objected,” continues this distinguished experimentalist, “that
-this chemical action does not take place in the living animal; that our
-texture, while endued with the vital principle, is not subservient to
-the same laws as inorganic substances: I am not ignorant of the extent
-to which this objection is well-founded; but admitting the justice of
-it, the conclusion is not less true, that if the stomach contains
-corrosive sublimate at the moment of death, this body will, from that
-moment, act on the texture of the viscus itself. If the stomach contain
-a large quantity of aliment, the effects of such an action may be
-scarcely perceptible; but on the contrary, they will be easily
-applicable, should the viscus be empty, and especially if the
-examination of the body takes place several days after death.”[292]
-
-In conducting experiments upon this, and indeed all other mineral
-poisons, the chemist must be prepared to meet with anomalies depending
-upon the impurities or adulterations of the substance under examination.
-
-
-              RED OXIDE OF MERCURY. _Precipitate per se._
-
-We are not aware of any instance of death having, from accident or
-design, taken place in consequence of the administration of this
-substance; indeed its red colour, insolubility in water, and comparative
-rarity, will protect mankind sufficiently against mistake, and at the
-same time render its secret administration extremely difficult. It is,
-moreover, mild in its effects, unless in large doses, or, under
-particular circumstances of constitution. It may be identified by its
-form, which is that of minute crystalline scales, of a deep red colour,
-and by exposing it to heat in a glass tube, by which it undergoes
-decomposition, giving out metallic mercury, adhering to the sides of the
-tube, and oxygen gas, which is disengaged.
-
-
-             RED PRECIPITATE, or _Nitric Oxide of Mercury_.
-
-This is, strictly speaking, a _sub-nitrate_ of mercury, and is much more
-poisonous than the preceding substance. _Plouquet_[293] relates the case
-of a man, who swallowed by accident some red precipitate, when he
-immediately experienced violent colics, copious vomitings, a trembling
-of his limbs, and cold sweats. Its external characters will at once
-enable the chemist to identify it.
-
-
-                     OTHER PREPARATIONS OF MERCURY.
-
-The various saline compounds of this metal, as the acetate, sulphate,
-and nitrate, are all highly poisonous, but they do not appear to us to
-merit a separate consideration; and more especially as we have already
-explained the various processes by which every variety of preparation
-may be identified. We may just remark that the _sulphuret_, better known
-by the name of _cinnabar_, or _vermilion_, has been known to occasion
-deleterious effects. _Dr. Gordon Smith_[294] states, upon the authority
-of _Mr. Accum_,[295] that “Vermilion has been detected as a poisonous
-ingredient in cheese:” this may be very true, but he should have stated
-at the same time, that the deleterious effects produced by it, did not
-arise from the mercurial sulphuret, but from the red lead with which it
-happened to be adulterated; and it is necessary to acquaint the forensic
-chemist, that such a fraud[296] is by no means uncommon; it may be very
-easily detected by burning a small portion of the suspected sample on a
-piece of bread in the candle, when metallic globules will announce the
-presence of lead; for the oxide of mercury, although revived by the
-process, will at the same time be volatilized. The bread by combustion
-affords the carbon by which the metallic reduction is effected.
-
-The presence of very minute quantities of _vermilion_ may, according to
-_Mr. Smithson_, be detected by the following simple experiment. Boil a
-portion with sulphuric acid in a platina spoon, and lay the sulphate
-thus produced in a drop of muriatic acid, on a piece of gold, and then
-bring a piece of metallic tin in contact with both, when the white
-mercurial stain will be produced.
-
-
-                               ANTIMONY.
-
-Although the ancients were entirely ignorant of this metal, they were
-well acquainted with several of its combinations,[297] _Basil
-Valentine_, a German Benedictine Monk, was the first who described the
-process for obtaining it from its ore; to this work, originally written
-in high Dutch, and known by the title of the “_Currus Triumphalis
-Antimonii_,” which was published towards the end of the 15th century, we
-are indebted for almost all our knowledge respecting this metal.
-
-Antimony is of a greyish white colour, having considerable brilliancy;
-its texture is laminated, and exhibits plates crossing each other in
-every direction; its _specific gravity_ is 6·7021; when rubbed upon the
-fingers it communicates to them a peculiar taste and smell; it is very
-brittle, and fuses at the temperature of 809°, but does not appear to be
-volatile; when fused, with the access of air, it emits white fumes,
-consisting of an oxide of the metal, which formerly was called
-_Argentine flowers of Antimony_. When the metal is raised to a white
-heat, and suddenly agitated, it enters into a state of combustion, and
-is converted into the same white coloured oxide.
-
-According to _Thenard_,[298] antimony is susceptible of no less than six
-different degrees of oxidation; _Proust_, however, has shewn that they
-may all be reduced to two, viz. _protoxide_ and _peroxide_. The former
-of which alone exerts any sensible activity upon the human body; but
-this constitutes the basis of several preparations, which although in
-common use for medical purposes, are so extremely poisonous in larger
-doses, as to render them objects of interest to the forensic physician.
-
-
-               EMETIC TARTAR.[299] _Tartarized Antimony._
-
-This saline body appears in the state of white crystals, whose primitive
-figure is the regular tetrahedron, although it assumes a variety of
-secondary forms. Its chemical composition is still involved in some
-obscurity; it is stated, in the different dispensatories, to be a triple
-salt, consisting of tartaric acid, oxide of antimony, and potass, and
-that it ought therefore, according to the principles of the reformed
-nomenclature, to be termed a _Tartrate of Antimony and Potass_. The
-truth of these views, however, we have already[300] ventured to
-question; _Gay Lussac_ has stated that in the various metalline
-compounds of which _Super-tartrate of Potass_ is an ingredient, this
-latter substance acts the part of a simple acid; an opinion which
-receives considerable support from the great solvent property of _cream
-of tartar_, and from the striking fact that it is even capable of
-dissolving various oxides which are insoluble in tartaric acid, of which
-the protoxide of antimony is an example. In such a state of doubt, a
-better name could not be found than that of _tartarized antimony_.
-
-The salt, according to _Dr. Duncan_, is soluble in three times its
-weight of distilled water at 212° _Fah._ and in fifteen, at 60°.
-
-When it is heated red hot in an earthen crucible, it blackens, and
-undergoes decomposition like a vegetable body, leaving a residuum of
-metallic antimony, and slightly carbonated potass.
-
-
-               _Symptoms of Poisoning by Emetic Tartar._
-
-A question has arisen whether this salt can be considered as a poison,
-capable of occasioning death? In general where a large dose has been
-administered, it is all rejected by the vomiting which it excites; we
-accordingly find in the works of _Morgagni_ and other pathologists, the
-history of various cases in proof of the innocence of this salt.
-_Hoffman_, however, relates the case of a woman who experienced very
-severe symptoms shortly after having taken tartar emetic, and that she
-ultimately died,[301] and there are other similar instances recorded in
-the works of _Foderé_ and _Orfila_. It also deserves notice, that
-tartarized antimony is very liable to produce deleterious effects,
-where, from the insensibility of the nervous system, the operation of
-vomiting cannot be excited, as in apoplexy, drunkenness, and in that
-state of coma, which follows the ingestion of narcotic vegetables. _M.
-Cloquet_ communicated to _Orfila_ a case highly illustrative of this
-fact, in which a person, labouring under apoplexy, received into his
-stomach more than forty grains of tartar emetic, without exciting either
-nausea or vomiting. On opening the body, independent of the morbid state
-of the brain, which must be regarded as the immediate cause of death,
-extensive organic lesions were discovered in the alimentary canal, which
-could alone be attributed to the action of the tartar emetic. This fact
-will suggest a very important precaution to the practitioner, who may be
-called upon to treat a person labouring under a state of the system
-which will prevent the act of vomiting.[302].
-
-The symptoms produced by this salt will resemble those of a corrosive
-poison; and where vomiting is produced, it frequently happens that
-although the patient may be eventually saved, an irritability of
-stomach, so great as to cause the rejection of all aliments, will remain
-for a considerable period; and _Dr. Male_ states that in the only case
-of poisoning by this salt which he had ever seen, the person was
-affected with violent convulsions, which returned at intervals for
-several weeks after recovery from the immediate effects of the
-poison.[303] _M. Orfila_, after detailing several cases of poisoning by
-emetic tartar, concludes by saying that the general symptoms, upon such
-occasions, may be reduced to the following: a rough metallic taste;
-nausea; copious vomitings; frequent hiccup; cardialgia; burning heat in
-the epigastric region; pains of the stomach; abdominal colics;
-inflation; copious stools; syncope; small, contracted and accelerated
-pulse; skin cold, sometimes intensely hot; breathing difficult; vertigo,
-loss of sense, convulsive movements; very painful cramps in the legs;
-prostration of strength,—death.
-
-Sometimes to the above symptoms is joined a great difficulty of
-swallowing; deglutition may be suspended for some time. The vomiting and
-alvine evacuations do not always take place, the necessary consequence
-of which is an increase in the violence of the other symptoms.
-
-
-                              _Antidotes._
-
-The great indication to be fulfilled in a case of this description, is
-the ejection of the salt by vomiting. _MM. Orfila_ and _Berthollet_ rely
-very confidently upon the effects of _bark_, _strong tea_, _infusion of
-galls_, and other _vegetable astringents_, which have undoubtedly the
-power of decomposing the salt. They ought, therefore, to be employed as
-diluents to assist vomiting, but they are not to be considered as
-antidotes which can render this latter operation less indispensable.
-
-
-                _Physiological action of emetic tartar._
-
-_M. Majendie_ has shewn by experiment, that if _tartarized antimony_ be
-injected into the veins of a dog, the animal vomits, and has frequent
-stools; his breathing becomes difficult; his pulse frequent and
-intermitting; a great degree of disquietude, and tremblings are the
-precursory signs of death, which generally takes place within the first
-hour from the injection of the emetic tartar. On opening the body great
-alterations are perceived in the lungs; they are found of an orange or
-violet colour, have no crackling, are distended with blood, and of a
-tight texture. The mucous membrane of the intestinal canal, from the
-cardia to the extremity of the rectum is red, and strongly injected.
-
-If, instead of thus injecting the emetic tartar into the veins, it be
-injected into the stomach, and the œsophagus is tied to prevent
-vomiting, _M. Orfila_ informs us that the same alterations will be found
-after death. The very same effects will also arise from the application
-of the emetic tartar to the different absorbing surfaces, such as the
-cellular substances, &c.
-
-_Mr. Brodie_[304] has also thrown considerable light upon the action of
-this salt. He observes that the effects of emetic tartar so much
-resemble those of _arsenic_, which we have already described, and those
-of _muriate of baryta_, which will form a future subject of inquiry,
-that it would be needless to enter into a detail of the individual
-experiments which he made with it. When applied to a wound in animals
-which are capable of vomiting, it usually, but not constantly, operated
-very speedily as an emetic; in other respects he found no material
-difference in the symptoms produced in the different species of animals,
-which he had been in the habit of employing as subjects of experiment.
-The symptoms were paralysis, drowsiness, and, at last, complete
-insensibility; the pulse became feeble, but the heart continued to act
-after apparent death, and was maintained in action by means of
-artificial respiration; but never for a longer period than for a few
-minutes. Whence it would appear, that this poison acts by being
-absorbed, and that it directs a sedative influence upon the heart, as
-well as the brain, but that its principal action is on the latter. The
-length of time which elapses, from the application of the poison to the
-death of the animal, varies; in some instances _Mr. Brodie_ found that
-it did not exceed three quarters of an hour, but in others, it was two
-or three hours, or even longer, before death took place. When a solution
-of emetic tartar was injected into the stomach of a rabbit, _Mr. Brodie_
-observed the same symptoms to take place, as when it was applied to a
-wound.
-
-
-              _Organic lesions discovered by dissection._
-
-_Mr. Brodie_, in his examination of animals poisoned by _emetic tartar_,
-sometimes found the stomach bearing the marks of inflammation, but at
-other times, its appearance was perfectly natural. In no case did he
-discover any traces of inflammation in the intestines. The reader must
-compare this account with that already given by _M. Majendie_, at p.
-282.
-
-
-             1. _Tests for the detection of emetic tartar._
-
-1. _The poison is in a solid form._ Dissolve a portion of the suspected
-salt in about fifteen times its weight of boiling distilled water; if it
-be emetic tartar, the following reagents will identify it, viz.
-
-(_a_) _The hydrosulphurets_ will occasion a reddish-yellow precipitate,
-which is a combination of _oxygen_ and _antimony_, proceeding from the
-emetic tartar; and of _hydrogen_ and _sulphur_, from the reagent
-employed. If it be dried on a filter, and mixed with charcoal and the
-potass of commerce, it gives, by the action of heat, a cake of metallic
-antimony.
-
-(_b_) _Tincture of galls._ This is regarded as the most sensible test of
-this salt, affording a precipitate of a curdled, dirty white colour,
-inclining to yellow.
-
-(_c_) _Lime water._ This reagent produces a white precipitate, which is
-extremely thick, and is easily redissolved by pure nitric acid. In this
-case the lime forms an insoluble tartrate, and the tartrate of antimony,
-thus rendered insoluble, subsides along with it.
-
-(_d_) _Concentrated sulphuric acid_ gives a white precipitate, which
-consists of the oxide of antimony retaining a small portion of the acid.
-It redissolves in an excess of the precipitant.
-
-(_e_) _Vegetable extractive_, occasions in the solution of this salt, a
-reddish-yellow precipitate, which has been found to consist of _oxide of
-antimony_, and a portion of vegetable matter.
-
-
-          2. _It is mixed with various alimentary substances._
-
-If our attempts should fail to procure a solution of the salt by
-filtration, answering to the above reagents, we must rely upon the proof
-of metallic reproduction. Various circumstances may invalidate the
-action of our tests, such, for instance, as the ingestion of some
-vegetable infusion or decoction, especially that of galls, or yellow
-bark.
-
-With respect to the other preparations of antimony, it is unnecessary to
-waste our time in their consideration; the precepts already given will
-afford the practitioner every requisite hint for the prosecution of the
-enquiry.
-
-
-                                COPPER.
-
-This metal, with the exception of gold and silver, and perhaps tin, was
-known earlier than any other metal; but its applications were entirely
-confined to the arts. It was first discovered by the Greeks in the
-island of Cyprus, whence its name; and we learn from _Homer_, that even
-during the Trojan war, the combatants had no other armour but what was
-made of bronze, which is a mixture of _copper_ and _tin_.[305].
-
-The external characters of the metal are too well known to require
-minute description. Its taste is styptic and nauseous; and the hands
-when rubbed for some time on it, acquire a peculiar and disagreeable
-odour. When melted, its specific gravity is 8·667; but after being
-hammered it is 8·9. It is only susceptible of two degrees of oxidation.
-If the protoxide be _native_, it is red; if _artificial_, orange
-coloured. The peroxide is black.
-
-Copper, on exposure to a moist atmosphere, becomes tarnished, absorbs a
-portion of its oxygen, and passes into the state of an oxide, which
-shortly unites with the carbonic acid of the atmosphere, and forms a
-greenish carbonate of copper.
-
-Metallic copper, perfectly pure, does not possess any deleterious
-properties. We have already cited instances[306] sufficiently conclusive
-to establish this fact. It becomes, therefore, a subject of no little
-interest to enquire, under what circumstances it may become poisonous by
-combination. _M. Orfila_ observes that it has been long maintained, that
-milk heated, or allowed to remain in vessels of copper not oxidized,
-dissolved a portion of this metal, and acted as a poison. _Eller_, a
-philosopher of Berlin, has, however, very clearly proved such an opinion
-to be incorrect. He boiled in succession, in a kettle well freed from
-verdegris, milk, tea, coffee, beer, and rain water; after two hours
-boiling, he found it impossible to discover, in any of these fluids, the
-least vestige of copper. _M. Drouard_ has also shewn that distilled
-water, left for a month together on the filings of this metal in a glass
-bottle, did not dissolve an atom of it. The celebrated toxicologist
-above cited, after relating these important facts, concludes by
-observing, that the phenomena are very different, if, instead of pure
-water, we substitute that which contains a certain quantity of muriate
-of soda. _Eller_ has demonstrated the presence of a very small quantity
-of copper in water, which contained 1/20th of its weight of muriate of
-soda, and which had been boiled in a brass kettle. This fact is of the
-highest importance, for it will explain the reason why highly seasoned
-aliments have proved deleterious, when cooked in vessels of copper. But
-we are indebted to _Mr. Eller_ for a still more important discovery; he
-found that if, instead of heating a simple solution of common salt in
-copper vessels, the salt be previously mixed with beef, bacon, and fish,
-the fluid resulting from it does not contain an atom of copper.[307] In
-relating this fact, _M. Orfila_ observes, “however astonishing it may
-appear, it is quite correct, _M. Eller_ was the first to announce it,
-and I have several times ascertained the truth of it; it is probable,”
-continues _Orfila_, “that the combination of several kinds of aliments
-destroys the effect of the solution of the muriate of soda; which
-consequently ought to render the cases of poisoning by aliments cooked
-in copper vessels, _which are not oxidized_, extremely rare.”
-
-Copper combines with sulphur, and affords a black sulphuret.
-
-
-                            OXIDE OF COPPER.
-
-By oxidation, copper becomes poisonous. The substance may be easily
-recognised by the change of colour which it produces in ammonia; this
-alkali will dissolve it instantly, and assume a beautiful blue colour.
-It is wholly insoluble[308] in water. In oils and fatty matter it is
-easily and copiously dissolved at the ordinary temperature of the
-atmosphere. Such bodies also, when boiled in vessels of perfectly clean
-copper, facilitate their oxidation, especially if left to cool a few
-minutes before they are poured out.
-
-
-             GREEN CARBONATE OF COPPER—_Natural Verdegris_.
-
-This substance forms spontaneously on surfaces of copper and brass; it
-differs from the oxide in its green colour, and in effervescing with
-dilute sulphuric acid; with ammonia, however, it demeans itself in the
-same manner, and is likewise insoluble in water. It is poisonous.
-
-From the above history of these substances the medical practitioner will
-easily perceive under what circumstances, and by what bodies, metallic
-vessels of copper may be rendered dangerous. The oxide and carbonate,
-formed in them, will easily dissolve in acidulous and oily aliments,
-whence it follows that all preparations of such food, if conducted in
-vessels whose surfaces have contracted this change will be liable to
-prove deleterious.[309] If the vessels be perfectly clean, acid
-preparations may be safely boiled in them, but they must be poured out
-immediately, and not suffered to remain sufficiently long to allow the
-copper to become oxidized. To the formation of the oxide of copper, and
-to the acetic acid contained in the wine, vinegar, beer, and cider, _M.
-Orfila_ attributes the production of the _acetate_ which forms about the
-corners of the cocks in vessels containing these liquors. Upon the same
-principle the _soda water_ sold in this town, in a draught, from the
-pump, is liable to metallic impregnation, as we have fully satisfied
-ourselves.
-
-Equally important is it for the forensic physician to be acquainted with
-the various other sources from which copper poison may be derived. In
-consequence of the fact of the oxide of copper forming, with the acids,
-compounds of a beautiful green colour, the metal is often employed in
-cookery to impart a vivid hue to various articles; the sale of pickles,
-for instance, frequently depends upon the liveliness of their green
-colour; whence we find, in works[310] on cookery, directions for
-ensuring such an effect, by boiling the pickles with copper coin, or by
-suffering them to stand for some time in vessels of that metal. In the
-third volume of the _Medical Transactions of the College of Physicians_
-we shall find an interesting history, related by _Dr. Percival_ of
-Manchester, of a young lady who amused herself, whilst under the hands
-of the hair-dresser, with eating pickled samphire, of which she consumed
-two breakfast plates full; she shortly afterwards complained of great
-thirst, pain in the stomach, and a rash appeared upon her hands and
-breast. After an illness of nine days, during which she suffered severe
-vomitings, and tormina of the bowels, she expired. Upon examining the
-samphire, _Dr. Percival_ found that it was very strongly impregnated
-with copper. In the preparation of confectionary, especially
-sugar-plums, and sweatmeats of a green colour, copper is very generally
-introduced, and many instances are recorded of their having proved
-highly deleterious. Catsup is also said to be occasionally impregnated
-with verdegris; and vestiges of this metal have been detected in the
-well known cordial, called _Shrub_.
-
-In order to prevent the _contingent_ dangers attendant upon copper
-vessels, they ought always to be _tinned_;[311] and it is a very curious
-and interesting fact, that this latter metal, although it may cover the
-copper surface only imperfectly, will nevertheless protect us from its
-effects; for _M. Proust_ has shewn that the superior readiness with
-which _tin_ is oxidized and acted upon by acids, when compared with
-copper, will not allow this latter metal to appropriate to itself a
-single atom of oxygen.
-
-But copper vessels, notwithstanding this fact, unless well tinned,
-should be dismissed from the service of the kitchen. The Senate of
-Sweden, in the year 1753, prohibited them entirely, and ordered that
-none but such as were made of iron should be used in their fleets and
-army.
-
-
-                          VERDEGRIS. _Ærugo._
-
-The verdegris of commerce is a compound mass, consisting of the acetate,
-and sub-acetate of copper, carbonate of copper, and copper partly
-metallic, and partly oxidized; it, moreover, contains the stalks of
-grapes and other extraneous matter. Boiling water dissolves it in part,
-and, at the same time, occasions in it a chemical change, by
-transforming one portion of the _sub_-acetate into the soluble acetate,
-and another, into an oxide of copper, which is precipitated. With cold
-water, verdegris demeans itself very differently; the acetate is
-dissolved by it, whilst that portion which is in the state of _sub_-salt
-remains suspended in the form of a fine green powder. Vinegar converts
-all the _ærugo_ into a soluble acetate. Sulphuric acid poured on its
-powder decomposes it with effervescence, and vapours of acetic acid are
-disengaged; a character by which this substance may be easily
-identified.
-
-
-                  BLUE VITRIOL. _Sulphate of Copper._
-                     _Blue Copperas—Roman Vitriol._
-
-This salt occurs in crystals of a deep rich blue colour, and whose form
-is that of a rhomboidal prism; their taste is harsh, acrid, and styptic;
-on exposure to air they slightly effloresce, and assume a greenish hue.
-When treated with sulphuric acid, no effervescence occurs, a
-circumstance which at once distinguishes this salt from _ærugo_.
-
-
-            _Symptoms of Poisoning by the Salts of Copper._
-
-The operation of these bodies, upon the human system, is betrayed by an
-acrid, styptic, coppery taste, in the mouth; nausea; head-ache; a dry
-and parched tongue; vomiting; coppery eructations; a cutaneous eruption;
-violent pains in the bowels; very frequent alvine evacuations, sometimes
-green, and often bloody and blackish; great and painful distention of
-the abdomen; small and irregular pulse; heat of skin; ardent thirst;
-difficult and laborious respiration; hiccup; syncope; cold sweats;
-convulsions—death. It does not, however, kill so speedily as arsenic, or
-corrosive sublimate.
-
-
-              _Organic Lesions discovered on Dissection._
-
-Where death has been speedily produced by a cupreous poison, dissection
-will generally discover inflammation, and even gangrene in the mucous
-membrane of the alimentary canal. Like other poisons of the corrosive
-class it will also be found to have occasionally extended its
-inflammatory action to all the coats of the canal, producing sloughs,
-easily detached, and leaving perforations. _Dr. Male_ has also remarked
-that inflammation will sometimes be observed in the brain; but that this
-is not an universal effect of copper poison. It has been stated, that
-the fluids contained in the _primæ viæ_ are, upon these occasions, very
-frequently tinged with a green colour.
-
-
-_Chemical Tests by which the presence of the preparations of Copper may
-                             be detected._
-
-1. _The suspected body is in a solid form._—We have already pointed out
-the characters by which the principal preparations of copper may be
-identified. Our judgment, however, upon these occasions will require
-that confirmation from experiment, which the following processes are
-calculated to afford.
-
-A. _By its reduction to a metallic state._ If the copper presents itself
-in the form of an oxide, it may be easily reduced by heating it, in the
-usual manner, in contact with some carbonaceous matter; an earthen
-crucible will furnish the most convenient vessel for the occasion. If
-the substance has been scraped from a surface of copper, it is probably
-in the state of carbonate, (_natural verdegris_,) and may be calcined
-with charcoal in order to procure the metal. Should the substance in
-question be true _ærugo_, we may at once heat it to redness in an
-earthen crucible, when, without the aid of any carbonaceous matter, we
-shall obtain metallic copper.
-
-
- B. _By the application of certain reagents, or tests, to its solutions._
-
-It may happen that the quantity of the above substances is not
-sufficient to allow their metallic reduction by calcination. In that
-case, we must proceed to obtain a solution; but since neither the oxide,
-nor the carbonate, is soluble in water, it will be necessary to bring
-them in contact with concentrated acetic acid, so as to obtain an
-acetate of copper; which will furnish the following indications with the
-respective tests.
-
-_a._ _A surface of clean iron._ If dipped into the solution will become
-coated with metallic copper, and appear as if transmuted into that
-metal.
-
-_b._ _Ammonia._ This test, when added in a quantity more than sufficient
-to saturate any excess of acid, will strike a beautiful blue colour; in
-the first instance we shall obtain a deep blue precipitate, but this
-will be redissolved by an excess of alkali. To detect the presence of
-copper, therefore, in pickles, it is only necessary to cut them into
-small pieces, and to pour liquid ammonia, diluted with an equal bulk of
-water, over them in a stopped phial: if the pickles contain the most
-minute quantity of this metal, the ammonia will assume a blue colour. In
-the same manner cupreous impregnations may be discovered in the various
-articles of confectionary above enumerated, and in those foreign
-conserves which are imported into this country, and usually sold in
-round boxes.
-
-_c._ _Sub-carbonate of Potass._ By this re-agent a precipitate of a pale
-blue colour is produced.
-
-_d._ _Arsenite of Potass_ instantly occasions a copious precipitate in
-the acetate of copper, which is of a green colour, and is in fact an
-arsenite of the metal.
-
-_e._ _Triple Prussiate of Potass._ This test gives a brown precipitate
-with a solution of verdegris, which is found to consist of prussiate of
-copper, and prussiate of iron; while the liquor contains an acetate of
-potass.
-
-
- 2. _The suspected poison is mixed and combined with various alimentary
-                              substances._
-
-We have in this case the same embarrassments to encounter, as those
-already noticed under the consideration of arsenic. Our tests may
-produce their respective precipitates, but they will present different
-colours according to the nature of the fluids with which the substance
-happens to be mixed; whence the circumstance of colour, so
-characteristic on other occasions, cannot be received as a satisfactory
-indication. In such a difficulty, we may collect the precipitates, and
-calcine them in a crucible with charcoal, in order to obtain the metal;
-or we may at once evaporate the whole of the alimentary mass, and submit
-it to a high temperature, by which means all the vegetable and animal
-principles, which can form a part of the liquor vomited, will be
-decomposed and converted into several volatile productions, and into
-charcoal; this combustible body will decompose the oxide of copper, and
-reduce it to its metallic state.[312].
-
-Nor is this process without its fallacies; it is often difficult to
-recognise the metal, dispersed as it necessarily must be, in small
-quantity, through a considerable mass of charcoal; in this case we are
-recommended by _Orfila_ to place the product of the calcination in
-water, when in a short period, the copper, from its superior specific
-gravity will subside from the lighter particles of charcoal. But it
-would be still better to pour nitric acid upon the product of the
-calcination, and thereby to obtain a solution of _nitrate of copper_,
-which by filtration might be immediately prepared for the application of
-appropriate re-agents.
-
-It merits notice, however, that in certain cases of poisoning by copper,
-no vestiges of the substance can be found in the matters voided from the
-stomach. In that case, _Orfila_ directs that the mucous membrane of the
-stomach, and of the intestines, should be scraped off, dried, and
-submitted to the action of a strong heat in a crucible. “I have,” says
-this distinguished experimentalist, “twice obtained metallic copper, by
-calcining in this manner a portion of the membranes of the stomach of
-two dogs that I had poisoned with verdegris. This effect particularly
-takes place when the mucous membrane is of a bluish colour, hard, and
-strongly adhering to the substance of the stomach.”
-
-
-                          TIN and its MURIATE.
-
-It is clearly established by the experiments of _Bayen_ and
-_Charlard_,[313] as well as by those of _Proust_,[314] that this metal
-possesses no poisonous properties. Its muriate, however, has been shewn
-by _Orfila_ to possess highly corrosive properties. It excites violent
-vomiting, great depression, and death, without convulsions. Its antidote
-is milk, which it speedily coagulates; and by chemical combination with
-it, the poison is rendered inert. On dissection, the stomach is said to
-have been found corrugated and indurated, and has been compared to
-tanned skin, but its colour is not altered.
-
-As this substance is never likely to become an object of forensic
-interest, in this kingdom, we shall pass it over without farther notice.
-
-
-                                 ZINC.
-
-The ancients were acquainted with a mineral to which they gave the name
-of _Cadmia_,[315] from Cadmus, who first taught the Greeks to use it.
-They knew that when melted with copper it formed brass; and that when
-burnt, a white spongy kind of ashes was volatilized, which they used in
-medicine.[316] This mineral contained a good deal of zinc; and yet there
-is no proof remaining that the ancients were acquainted with that metal.
-It has a brilliant white colour, with a shade of blue, and is composed
-of a number of thin plates adhering together; its specific gravity is
-7·1. When strongly heated in a crucible, it quickly goes into fusion,
-absorbs the oxygen of the atmosphere, and burns with a beautiful white
-flame, inclining to green, and extremely brilliant. The oxide of zinc
-thus formed, is diffused through the atmosphere, and is there condensed
-into extremely light flakes of a beautiful white appearance. This oxide
-was formerly known under the fanciful names of _nihil album; lana
-philosophorum, &c._
-
-In its metallic state it is quite inert; but late experiments by
-_Vauquelin_ and _Deyeux_, have proved that it is very easily acted upon
-by water, the weakest vegetable acids, some saline substances, and
-butter; a fact which is hostile to the proposal of employing this metal
-for the manufacture of culinary utensils.
-
-
-                   WHITE VITRIOL. _Sulphate of Zinc._
-
-This salt occurs in masses, consisting of crystals which are four-sided
-prisms, terminated by four-sided pyramids. Their taste is styptic,
-metallic, and slightly acidulous. They are soluble in 2·5 times their
-weight of water at 60°, and in less than their own weight of boiling
-water, but they are quite insoluble in alcohol. Thus dissolved they
-redden the tincture of tournesol.
-
-
-              _Symptoms of Poisoning by Sulphate of Zinc._
-
-This salt, like tartarized antimony, from the high degree of emetic
-virtue which it possesses, generally proves its own antidote; still,
-however, it must be considered as a poison; for several cases are on
-record, where the most alarming symptoms, and indeed death itself, have
-been the effect of its ingestion. _Metzger_[317] mentions the case of a
-woman, who accidentally ate a trifling quantity of a cake, into which
-_White Vitriol_ had been introduced for the purpose of shortening the
-days of an old man. The woman died; but the intended victim escaped,
-after severe vomiting. _M. Orfila_ has also related several cases of
-poisoning by this salt. The symptoms which presented themselves on these
-occasions were, an astringent metalline taste, a sense of constriction
-in the fauces, so distressing as even to excite in the patient a fear of
-suffocation; frequent vomitings; copious stools; pains in the epigastric
-region, extending afterwards over the whole abdomen; difficulty of
-breathing; frequency of pulse; paleness of the countenance, and coldness
-of the extremities.
-
-We have lately heard of a case in which a noble lord swallowed a
-solution of white vitriol, which had been sent to him by mistake, for
-Epsom salts, to which it bears some analogy. Fortunately, however, the
-violent emetic effect which followed removed the poison from the
-stomach, and obviated any farther injury.
-
-
-              _Organic lesions discovered on Dissection._
-
-We have no well authenticated dissection of a human being who had died
-from the ingestion of this poison. The examination of animals[318] who
-have been so killed has shewn nothing more than an inflammation, not
-very severe, of the membrane with which it had come in contact;
-sometimes dark blood is observed to be extravasated upon the muscular
-coat of the stomach and intestines.
-
-
-      _Chemical processes for the detection of Sulphate of Zinc._
-
-The chemist must remember that the _White Vitriol_ of commerce always
-contains sulphate of iron, and sometimes sulphate of copper. When
-dissolved in distilled water it may be identified by the following
-re-agents; _viz._
-
-_a._ _Potass_, and _Ammonia_, precipitate an oxide of a greenish white
-colour, easily soluble in an excess of the latter of these alkalies. The
-oxide obtained by potass, being washed and dried, and calcined with
-charcoal, is revived, provided the temperature be very much elevated. It
-should be known, that if the salt has been previously purified, the
-above tests will occasion a _white_ precipitate.
-
-_b._ _Prussiate of Potass_ produces a precipitate of a rather deep blue
-colour; which, consists of a mixture of the prussiates of zinc and iron.
-If the salt has been divested of all impurity, the precipitate will be
-white.
-
-_c._ _The Hydro-sulphurets_ instantly occasion a blackish precipitate,
-which, like the former, will be found to be a mixture of zinc and iron,
-in the state of an hydro-sulphuret. If the salt, however, is pure, its
-colour will be white with a tinge of yellow.
-
-
-                                SILVER.
-
-This metal does not exert any influence on the living body; but its
-oxide in combination with nitric acid constitutes one of the most
-corrosive of all the metallic salts.
-
-
-                  LUNAR CAUSTIC. _Nitrate of Silver._
-                          _Lapis Infernalis._
-
-The usual state in which this substance occurs is in that of small
-cylinders, having been cast into moulds for the purpose of imparting to
-it a form best adapted for the purposes it is designed to answer.
-
-Its action on animal matter is highly caustic, and when introduced in
-any considerable quantity into the stomach, will induce death by
-corroding the texture with which it may come in contact. At the same
-time there is reason to believe that the whole, or part of its
-composition, may be absorbed; for we have many instances on record where
-the frequent repetition of this metallic salt, in small doses, has
-imparted a blue tinge to the skin, which can only be explained on the
-supposition that the oxide of the metal has been actually deposited in
-the rete mucosum[319].
-
-We are not aware that there is any modern case of poisoning by this
-salt[320]. The medical practitioner, however, ought to know, that common
-salt, is its true antidote; indeed so completely does it decompose and
-separate it from water, that if a saturated solution of nitrate of
-silver be filtered through common salt, it may be afterwards drunk with
-impunity. _M. Orfila_, by a series of experiments, has shewn that if the
-_muriate of soda_ be administered a very short time after the ingestion
-of lunar caustic, it will disarm it of its virulence by transforming it
-into an insoluble muriate, possessing no power of acting on the animal
-œconomy.
-
-
-        _Chemical processes for the detection of Lunar Caustic._
-
-If a small portion of the salt can be procured it may be dissolved in
-distilled water, and immediately identified by the following tests.
-
-_a._ _Muriatic acid, or any soluble Muriate_, will precipitate the
-muriate of silver, which is white, curdled, very heavy, insoluble in
-water, or nitric acid; but soluble in liquor ammoniæ; when exposed to
-the air it acquires a black colour.
-
-_b._ _Potass_, _Soda_, and _Lime water_, will occasion a precipitate of
-the oxide, of a deep brown colour.
-
-_c._ _Ammonia._ This alkali will form an _ammoniuret of silver_, and in
-consequence of the solubility of this new product, little or no
-disturbance is occasioned by the test.
-
-_d._ _Arsenite of Potass._ As all re-agents must be considered as
-reciprocal in their operation, it is hardly necessary to state that this
-is one of the best tests for nitrate of silver. See the history of its
-effects at p. 240.
-
-If it should be necessary to discover the nitrate of silver amongst the
-fluids vomited, or those contained in the stomach of the deceased, we
-are very properly directed by _M. Orfila_ to filter, and then assay by
-the appropriate tests; if, however, the different aliments should
-disguise the characteristic colour and appearance of these precipitates,
-we must proceed to desiccate and calcine them in order to obtain the
-silver in a metallic state.
-
-
-                        THE CONCENTRATED ACIDS.
-
-These must be regarded as the most terrible of all corrosive poisons.
-Their action is so immediate and energetic, as generally to destroy the
-membranes of the stomach, before their peculiar antidotes can be
-applied. Notwithstanding the obvious suffering they must occasion, and
-the facility with which they may be detected, such bodies have
-frequently, especially in France, been the instruments of suicide and
-murder; whilst in this country, we have had many lamentable
-illustrations of their deadly force, by their ingestion from fatal
-carelessness. In conformity with our general plan we shall proceed to
-consider the individual substances included under this general class,
-although the symptoms do not materially differ in the different kinds,
-nor are the indications of cure peculiar to any of them. There are
-however chemical characters which exclusively belong to each acid, with
-which the forensic physician must be accurately acquainted, in order
-that he may be enabled to detect their presence.
-
-
-                   OIL OF VITRIOL. _Sulphuric Acid._
-
-This acid, when perfectly pure, exists in the form of a colourless
-liquid, without smell, and of an oily consistence; whence its popular
-name. Its specific gravity is 1·85, so that, in round numbers, it may be
-stated that an ounce, by measure, will weigh fourteen drachms. It
-acquires a brown tinge from the smallest portion of carbonaceous matter;
-mere exposure to the atmosphere is sufficient to effect this change, in
-consequence of the acid disorganizing and carbonating the vegetable and
-animal matter suspended in the air. This fact sufficiently explains why
-we generally find the acid of commerce of a brown colour.
-
-Its taste is highly acid and caustic. So powerful is its affinity for
-water, that upon its admixture with this fluid, a heat, sufficiently
-great to boil water, may be produced. When exposed in its concentrated
-state to the air, it will imbibe at least seven times its own weight of
-water, and so rapidly as to have its weight doubled in a month. Straw,
-wood, and all vegetable substances, when immersed in the sulphuric acid,
-without heat, are disorganized, softened, and blackened, and there is
-separated from them a certain portion of charcoal. Like the other
-mineral acids, the _Oil of Vitriol_ has never been obtained in an
-insulated state without water; according to the latest views of _Sir H.
-Davy_, the composition of the strongest acid may be expressed as
-follows. Sulphur 30, oxygen 45, water 17.
-
-
-               _Symptoms of Poisoning by Oil of Vitriol._
-
-An extremely austere, acid, and burning taste; a painful heat in the
-fauces and throat, along the œsophagus, and in the stomach; excruciating
-pain; nausea, and excessive vomiting; at one time the fluid vomited is
-as black as ink, at another reddened by arterial or venous blood,
-producing in its passage through the throat, the most intense pain,
-accompanied with a sensation of bitterness quite intolerable; if, by
-chance, a portion of it should fall on the hearth or pavement, or on any
-other calcareous substance, it will denote its true nature by an
-effervescence; constipation, or sometimes bloody stools; gripes and
-excruciating pains over the abdomen, with a tenderness of these regions,
-so exquisite as not to allow the slightest pressure without torment;
-pains of the breast; difficulty of breathing; extreme anxiety; the pulse
-becomes frequent, small, contracted, and irregular; shiverings; great
-restlessness, dejection, and agitation; convulsive motions of the
-countenance; sometimes a cutaneous eruption betrays itself. Amidst all
-these symptoms, the intellectual powers remain unobscured. The parts
-about the fauces, the uvula, &c. having lost their vitality, slough, and
-become detached, which occasion an indescribable fetor of the breath,
-while they produce a perpetual cough, and the voice becomes so altered,
-that it resembles the sounds of a person labouring under croup.
-
-
-              _Organic lesions discovered on Dissection._
-
-As this substance destroys life by simply acting as an escharotic, it is
-not difficult to anticipate the disorganization which dissection will
-display. The extent of the lesion, however, must in every case depend
-upon the quantity and degree of concentration of the acid, the state of
-the stomach in relation to its alimentary contents, and other incidental
-circumstances not to be exactly appreciated. The mucous membrane of the
-mouth, the tongue, and œsophagus, will in general be found destroyed,
-and converted into a pulp.
-
-
-                              _Antidotes._
-
-The great indications to be fulfilled in this distressing case, is the
-immediate dilution, saturation, and expulsion of the poison. Copious
-draughts of water, holding calcined[321] magnesia in suspension, should
-be administered without any loss of time. If this is not in readiness,
-soap and water should be administered; mucilaginous drinks, milk, and
-even warm or cold water, in the absence of more eligible potations,
-should not be neglected. It must be never forgotten, exclaims _Orfila_,
-that success upon these occasions depends upon the activity of the
-practitioner; the delay of a few moments will entirely change the fate
-of the patient, as the sulphuric acid destroys the texture of the organs
-with a fearful celerity. After having thus neutralized the caustic, it
-will be our duty to obviate the effects it may be likely to occasion;
-the lancet must be used with boldness, and the detraction of blood
-repeated at short intervals; at the same time emollient clysters may be
-advantageously injected.
-
-
-       _Chemical processes for the detection of Oil of Vitriol._
-
-In the pure state, there can exist no difficulty in identifying it; its
-specific gravity, and its action on vegetable matter, will, without any
-other tests, be quite sufficient to fulfil our object. If heated with
-metallic mercury, it will disengage sulphurous acid gas; and if united
-with lime, a sulphate of lime will be produced, which the chemist may
-easily recognise by dissolving a portion in distilled water, and
-assaying the solution by _muriate of baryta_, which will produce with
-the sulphate a precipitate, insoluble in nitric acid. By the last
-mentioned tests we shall be enabled to detect the presence of sulphuric
-acid, in whatever state of complication it may happen to exist with
-alimentary matter.
-
-
-                              NITRIC ACID.
-
-This acid, when pure, assumes the form of a limpid fluid, emitting white
-fumes of a suffocating odour; its taste is highly acid, and corrosive;
-and it is at once distinguished from all other acids, by its tinging the
-skin indelibly yellow. When of the specific gravity 1·5 it contains
-74·895 per cent of dry acid, (whose ultimate elements are one
-proportional of nitrogen, and five of oxygen) the complement 25·105
-parts, is water.[322] It is decomposed with violent action by all
-combustibles, and when mixed with volatile oils it causes their
-inflammation.
-
-From the facility with which this acid undergoes decomposition, it is
-rarely found in commerce in a colourless condition; indeed the action of
-light is sufficient to impart a tawny tinge to it; when this change has
-proceeded to such an extent as to render the acid orange coloured, it is
-called _Nitrous acid_, or, in the language of the arts, _aqua fortis_,
-although in a chemical point of view, such a nomenclature is incorrect,
-for it is nothing more than nitric acid, holding nitrous acid gas
-loosely combined.
-
-
-                _Symptoms of Poisoning by Nitric Acid._
-
-This acid has been so frequently swallowed in France, for the purpose of
-committing suicide, that it has enabled the pathologists of that country
-to afford a very satisfactory account of its operation, and effects. To
-_M. Tartra_ we are particularly indebted for a very full and interesting
-investigation of the subject, and we shall avail ourselves upon the
-present occasion, of the many facts and observations with which his
-treatise[323] abounds. In describing the symptoms occasioned by the
-ingestion of this acid, _M. Tartra_ establishes four different
-gradations, viz. 1. When the death is speedy, for it is never sudden, it
-commonly takes place from the _primary_ effects in about twenty-four
-hours, varying from six to forty-eight hours. 2. When it proves fatal
-from its _secondary_ effects, at different intervals, from fifteen days
-to several years. 3. When death does not take place, but the recovery is
-imperfect. 4. When a perfect cure is sooner or later obtained. The first
-case is illustrated by the following example, which will serve to convey
-a very just idea of the progress and intensity of the symptoms. “A man,
-driven by distress to commit suicide, under the greatest agitation of
-mind, and upon an empty stomach, swallowed, at a draught, two ounces of
-concentrated nitric acid. Instantly he was seized with the most
-excruciating pains and agitation, and could not lie in bed, but rolled
-himself upon the floor. Vomiting came on, accompanied by a general
-sensation of coldness, especially in the extremities. Every time he
-vomited, the matter effervesced upon the pavement. A solution of soap
-and oil was administered to him, and in two hours he was brought to the
-hospital, often having vomited, and stopped on the road to drink. On his
-arrival, he had emollient drinks, especially linseed tea, in great
-abundance. He was in continual agitation, and his countenance was
-greatly altered. He now vomited every instant a blackish glairy matter;
-he opened his mouth easily, and his tongue was white, with a tinge of
-yellow; he complained of acute pains in his mouth, along the œsophagus,
-and in his stomach. His belly, slightly tense, could not bear the
-slightest pressure, without great torment. The surface of the body was
-cold; the pulse small and frequent; he had hiccup, and the respiration
-was laborious.
-
-His symptoms increased. He uttered sighs and lamentations; his limbs
-became icy; a cold sweat covered his whole body; his pulse was scarcely
-perceptible; the pain was constant; still he could rise and make
-continual but useless efforts to quench his thirst, and satisfy his
-urgent desire to void urine, and go to stool. He continued in this state
-during the night; the matters vomited became more clear, and of a yellow
-colour. He at last made a few drops of urine. The shocking appearance of
-his body already resembled that of a corpse, but he retained his senses,
-and was speaking when he expired, nineteen hours after swallowing the
-acid.” The burning heat and pains which are commonly the immediate
-effects of the ingestion of this acid are very variable in their
-intensity and duration, and _M. Tartra_ observes that, in general, they
-are not in proportion to the quantity or strength of the acid swallowed.
-It often happens that persons who have taken only a small dose, are
-seized with the most excruciating and dreadful pains, and some of those
-who have swallowed a great quantity, two or three ounces for example,
-have had scarcely any suffering, but remained very tranquil. In the
-first case, the patients either recover, or survive a long time; in the
-second, speedy death is almost always the consequence; thus a young man
-of twenty died in twenty hours, without any agitation or signs of acute
-pains. On opening the body, the highest degree of disorganization
-appeared, perforations of the stomach, and great effusion of its
-contents into the abdomen. The second variety of the progress and
-termination of poisoning by nitric acid, exhibits, at first, the same
-phenomena as the preceding; but less alarming symptoms succeed by
-degrees; after some months, the inner membrane of the alimentary canal
-detaches itself in portions, the patient falls into a marasmus, and
-dies. We are here presented with a case of _consecutive_ poisoning, see
-_page_ 147.
-
-The third termination is in imperfect recovery. A slow and progressive
-amendment ensures the safety of the patient; but there still remains
-some complaint; obscure pains in the throat, and especially in the
-epigastric region; habitual constipation, occasional vomiting, and
-increased sensibility of the stomach, so that it can only support light
-nourishment and bland liquors; in short, they continue invalids during
-the rest of their lives; they are subject to repeated and even habitual
-indispositions, and sometimes to pain and insupportable heat of the
-stomach; but they are able to follow their occupations, and long survive
-their poisoning.
-
-The total disappearance of the symptoms produced by swallowing nitric
-acid; or complete and absolute recovery without leaving any
-consequences, is the last variety of termination.
-
-
-              _Organic lesions discovered on Dissection._
-
-_Tartra_ has furnished us with the following interesting account of the
-dissection of those who have died of the primary effects of nitric acid.
-The external appearance of the body presents no alteration; every part
-is sound and natural, and possesses, in a certain degree, the firmness
-and freshness of life. The epidermis of the margins of the lips has
-commonly an orange colour, more or less deep. It seems burnt and easily
-separates. Sometimes yellow spots are discovered on the hands and other
-parts of the body, caused by the contact of the acid. A yellow fluid, in
-some cases very abundant, flows from the mouth and nostrils, and the
-belly is considerably distended with air. The alimentary canal is
-remarkably affected. All the internal membrane of the mouth is burnt,
-and has sometimes a white colour, but is more commonly yellow; it is
-separate in some places, and adheres in others. The teeth are often
-loose, and have a very marked yellow colour at their _crown_. The mucous
-membrane of the pharynx exhibits the same change, or is in a state of
-inflammation of a dirty red colour. The whole extent of the œsophagus is
-lined with a dense mass of a fine yellow colour, dry on its surface,
-unctuous and greasy to the touch, and which seems to be formed both of
-the mucous membrane, altered in a particular manner, and of the albumen
-contained in the viscid fluid which exudes from the membrane of the
-œsophagus, solidified by the nitric acid. This lining adheres in very
-few points, and is easily detected from the other membranes of the
-œsophagus, which are brown and blood-shot. When the stomach is not
-perforated, it has commonly a considerable size; externally, its
-membranes are slightly and partially inflamed, but very much towards the
-pylorus and beginning of the duodenum. Its colour is faded, livid, of a
-yellowish green, with large gangrenous spots. It adheres every where to
-the neighbouring parts, the diaphragm, liver, spleen, and transverse
-arch of the colon, by means of a concrete lymphatic exudation; its
-sides, which are thin and yellow in some places, and thick and black in
-others, exhibit net-work of dilated blood-vessels filled with black
-coagulated blood. Often there are several points of the stomach
-dissolved, and ready to burst with the slightest touch; it contains a
-great quantity of gas, which has a peculiar smell, resembling that of
-bitter almonds; it also very commonly contains a great quantity of
-yellow matter, of a pultaceous consistence; the substance of the stomach
-is generally swelled in some places, and deeply marked with black,
-without being dissolved; this effect is most remarkable at the great
-end, into which the acid seems to fall by its weight; the rugæ of the
-stomach are very brown, and are reduced to a mucilaginous consistence.
-The other parts of the alimentary canal exhibit the same organic
-lesions, although the phenomena have less intensity in proportion as the
-part is more distant from the stomach.
-
-In those cases where the stomach is found perforated, its bulk is very
-small; the holes commonly occur in the large and small extremities;
-their form is circular, and their edges thin, and as if dissolved. The
-urinary bladder contains no urine, although the patient have not
-discharged any.
-
-The appearances upon dissection of those who die of the _secondary_
-effects are entirely different from those above described. It would be
-difficult to find an example of greater emaciation, more advanced
-consumption, or more disgusting form. Nothing is equal to the degree of
-withering, and decrepitude of the whole organs; their colour is faded;
-the internal cavities do not contain the usual serum; the cellular and
-muscular systems are almost annihilated; the bones become dry, as in
-persons of advanced age, and break with extraordinary facility; but
-these changes are general and secondary, and depend upon local organic
-derangement of the alimentary tube. The stomach and whole intestinal
-canal are contracted to an extremely small size; the intestines are not
-larger than the little finger, sometimes not exceeding a thick writing
-quill; their coats are very thick, their cavity almost obliterated, and
-containing only a little mucosity. The stomach, which often resembles a
-portion of a small intestine, appears sound externally, and only
-presents some adhesions to the neighbouring viscera; internally, the
-most remarkable change is the contraction of the pylorus, the passage
-through which will scarcely admit a probe; and the membranes of the
-stomach itself are so thickened and compacted around it, that they have
-lost all their natural suppleness. On the internal surface, there are
-irregular spots, or rather smooth and red places, which seem to be
-covered with a regenerated mucous membrane, less villous than that which
-had been destroyed by the action of the acid; these cicatrices are
-particularly large and numerous in the great end of the stomach, and
-around the circumference of the pylorus.
-
-
-    _Chemical processes by which the presence of Nitric Acid may be
-                              discovered._
-
-If the acid be in any quantity, and without mixture, there cannot exist
-any difficulty in demonstrating its presence. If added to copper
-filings, there will be a copious disengagement of orange-coloured fumes,
-and a nitrate of copper of a blue colour will remain, as the product. If
-it be saturated with potass, we shall at once obtain by due evaporation
-the well known substance, nitre; this salt will announce its nature by
-deflagrating with charcoal or sulphur. This latter test is the one we
-must employ for the detection of nitric acid, when mixed with vinegar,
-and other liquids. Where the acid has combined with the animal matters
-with which it may have come into contact, they must be boiled for an
-hour in a solution of pure potass, when the solution will assume a
-reddish appearance; this must be filtered, and evaporated in a capsule
-of porcelain, when the mass so obtained will leave a residuum of nitrate
-of potass.
-
-_Dr. Marcet_, in a paper just published in the _Philosophical
-Transactions_,[324] on the composition of sea water, employed a new mode
-of assaying the solution for nitric acid, and for which he acknowledges
-himself indebted to _Dr. Wollaston_. Having concentrated the _bittern_
-in a glass vessel, until it began to deposit solid matter, he added
-sulphuric acid and gold leaf, and boiled the mixture; the gold leaf was
-not in the least acted upon, nor was any smell of nitric acid perceived;
-but on adding the smallest quantity of nitre to the same mixture, the
-gold was dissolved, and the smell of _aqua regia_ instantly perceived.
-The rationale of the experiment is obvious, gold, although insoluble in
-muriatic acid, is instantly dissolved on the addition of nitric acid, in
-consequence of the developement of chlorine.
-
-
-                    SPIRIT OF SALT. _Muriatic Acid._
-
-The liquid acid, of which we are about to treat, is a solution of
-muriatic acid gas in water; when of the specific gravity 1·16, according
-to _Davy_, it contains 32·32 per cent. of the gas, which recent
-experiments have proved to be a compound of _Chlorine_ (oxy-muriatic
-acid) and _hydrogen_, in equal volumes. It has accordingly received a
-name expressive of its composition, and is called _Hydro-chloric acid_.
-Its odour is strong and peculiar; when exposed to the air it emits white
-fumes; its taste is intensely sour and caustic; it is, however, the
-weakest of the three mineral acids, and no remarkable elevation of
-temperature is produced by dilution. It readily combines with potass,
-soda, &c. and furnishes a class of salts which may be easily recognised
-by their characters.
-
-
-               _Symptoms of Poisoning by Muriatic Acid._
-
-As the effects of muriatic acid do not differ from those which have been
-described, as the consequences of poisoning by the other mineral acids,
-it will be unnecessary to enumerate them. _Orfila_, however, remarks,
-that the patients who have swallowed a certain quantity of it, emit, in
-the first moments of the accident, a thick smoke of a white colour, and
-very pungent smell.
-
-
-        _Chemical processes for the detection of Muriatic Acid._
-
-This acid, in its free state, immediately announces its nature by the
-fumes which it emits. When the acid, however, exists in a more
-questionable shape, as in the matter vomited by the patient, or in that
-found in the digestive canal after death, it will be necessary to
-saturate the liquid part with pure potass, and to boil it for some time,
-when we shall obtain a fluid, from which the nitrate of silver will
-throw down a dense precipitate. By evaporation, we shall obtain a
-crystallized muriate, which may be identified by the following tests: 1,
-When concentrated sulphuric acid is poured upon it, a brisk
-effervescence is immediately occasioned, and the muriatic acid is
-disengaged in the form of white vapours, which are thick, and of an
-excessively pungent smell. 2, If instead of employing concentrated
-sulphuric acid, this acid be used in a state of dilution, and the
-muriate be mixed with some substance which easily yields its oxygen, the
-muriatic acid will be decomposed, its hydrogen, combining with the
-oxygen so as to form water, while the chlorine will be disengaged, and
-by its pungent and peculiar odour at once announce the nature of the
-acid under examination.
-
-
-                   OXALIC ACID. _Acid of Sugar._[325]
-
-This salt occurs in small crystals, whose form is that of a four sided
-prism. It is extremely acid to the taste, so that by applying the tongue
-to one of its crystals, its nature may be immediately discovered. It
-dissolves in twice its weight of cold, and in an equal weight of hot
-water; it is also soluble in boiling alcohol which takes up about half
-its weight; the solutions act powerfully on the vegetable colours, and
-at once denote their acid properties. On account of the strong
-resemblance which the crystals of this acid bear to those of sulphate of
-magnesia, or _Epsom_ salts, many fatal accidents have occurred. We are
-not aware that it is ever purchased, in retail, for any other purpose
-than as a detergent, to clean the tops of boots; in the large way, it is
-an article of extensive trade with the calico printers. Its salts[326]
-are likewise employed for various purposes in the arts.
-
-Amongst the many schemes which have been proposed to secure the public
-against the possibility of mistaking this acid for Epsom salts, there
-does not appear to be one which admits of successful application; nor
-are we able to propose any test of discrimination which is not far
-inferior in accuracy and convenience, to that which is afforded by the
-mere taste of the crystal; indeed we cannot understand how so acid a
-solution can be swallowed, without an immediate discovery.
-
-
-                _Symptoms of Poisoning by Oxalic Acid._
-
-From the history of the many cases on record, it appears that this acid
-produces all the grievous symptoms, which characterise the action of a
-corrosive poison; its operation upon the stomach is similar to that of
-any other powerful acid; and dissection displays the same destruction of
-parts, as that we have already described under the consideration of the
-mineral acids.
-
-
-                              _Antidotes._
-
-We should endeavour to form as quickly as possible an insoluble oxalate
-of lime; copious draughts of lime water, or magnesia and water, should
-be administered; and vomiting immediately excited.
-
-
-           _Chemical tests for the detection of Oxalic Acid._
-
-If any of its crystals can be obtained, we shall be immediately able to
-identify them. They dissolve very readily in water, and since the oxalic
-has a greater affinity for lime, than any other acid, and forms an
-insoluble salt with it, we have thus a ready test of its presence, for
-it will decompose all the calcareous salts, not even excepting the
-sulphate.
-
-
-                             BOILING WATER.
-
-Many cases are recorded of the death of children from the ingestion of
-boiling water; an accident which will be always liable to occur, as long
-as the peasant allows his family to quench their thirst by drinking the
-cold water through the spout of the tea kettle. It has been very
-generally supposed that fatal effects have, on these occasions,
-supervened the high state of inflammation produced in the æsophagus and
-stomach by the boiling liquid. _Dr. Marshall Hall_ has, however, lately
-published a very interesting paper on this subject, in the twelfth
-volume of the _Medico-Chirurgical Transactions_; from which it would
-appear, that the patient, under these circumstances, actually dies of
-suffocation as in croup; and that the boiling water is arrested in its
-progress to the stomach by the convulsive action of the muscles of the
-pharynx. In passing, however, to the posterior part of the mouth, it
-scalds the _epiglottis_, and _glottis_, which afterwards become more and
-more swollen, until at length the _rima glottidis_, or orifice into the
-larynx, becomes completely obstructed. Here then we have a new instance
-in which the operation of laryngotomy, or of tracheotomy, may be
-performed with the effect of preventing impending suffocation, and
-perhaps of saving life. _Dr. Marshall Hall_ relates four cases in
-illustration of this interesting fact; of which one recovered from
-imminent suffocation immediately after screaming[327]; two died from
-suffocation, one 10, the other 17 hours, after the accident; the fourth
-was completely relieved by the operation of tracheotomy, and survived 34
-hours, but died, exhausted by the irritation produced by the primary
-affection.
-
-
-                              MELTED LEAD.
-
-An instance stands recorded in the history of the destruction of the
-Eddystone-light house, by fire, where a quantity of melted lead fell
-into the mouth, and was swallowed by a person who was attentively
-watching the conflagration. It is very singular, that this man lived
-many days after the accident; a fact which at least shews what extensive
-injury the stomach will occasionally sustain, without the immediate
-destruction of life. The lead taken out of the stomach after death, in
-this case, weighed exactly seven ounces, five drachms, and eighteen
-grains.[328]
-
-
-                         THE CAUSTIC ALKALIES.
-
-These bodies are distinguished by a highly corrosive and peculiar taste;
-they change the blue[329] juices of vegetables to a green, and the
-yellow to a brown; they are soluble in water, and have the power of
-imparting the same property to oils, by combining with them, and thus
-forming saponaceous compounds. With the different acids they constitute
-peculiar salts. When applied to the flesh of animals they act as
-powerful caustics, destroying its texture, and ultimately dissolving it;
-they are accordingly arranged with great propriety under the head of
-corrosive poisons.
-
-There are three[330] alkalies—_potass_, _soda_, and _ammonia_. To the
-two former the epithet _fixed_ has been applied, since they require a
-very high temperature for their sublimation; while to the third, that of
-_volatile_ has been assigned, because, when uncombined, it exists in a
-state of gas. _Potass_, as it was considered the product of vegetation,
-has received the name of the _vegetable_ alkali, while _soda_, as the
-base of rock salt, has been distinguished by that of _mineral_ alkali.
-The distinctions, however, originally established by _Avicenna_, must
-now be abandoned, for they have not the slightest foundation in truth;
-_potass_, so far from being the exclusive product of vegetation, exists
-as a constituent part of the _Granite_, which forms the foundation of
-our globe; it has also been discovered in the _Pumice stone_; in some
-minerals of the _Zeolite_ family; in the _Leucite_; in the aluminous
-ores of _La Tolfa_, &c. and, although potass is undoubtedly procured by
-lixiviation from the ashes of burnt wood, and other vegetable
-substances, yet there is ample grounds for supposing that the living
-plant receives it from the soil in which it vegetates.
-
-
-                          POTASS, or _Potash_—
-
-LIQUOR POTASSÆ—POTASSA FUSA, or _Kali Causticum_—_Lapis
-  Infernalis_—_Causticum commune acerrimum_. POTASSA CUM CALCE—POTASSÆ
-  SUB-CARBONAS, or _Salt of Tartar_—_Potash_—_Pearl ash_.
-
-Potass is rarely met with in a pure form, except in the laboratory of
-the philosophical chemist, and is therefore not likely to become an
-object of judicial enquiry; but in various states of mixture, as
-presented in the different preparations above enumerated, it may become
-the accidental, as well as criminal means of poisoning; we shall
-therefore consider the chemical history of these different preparations
-separately, and then describe the symptoms which they generally
-occasion.
-
-
-                           _Liquor Potassæ._
-
-This may be considered as a nearly pure solution of potass, although, as
-it is usually prepared, it contains small portions of _muriate_ and
-_sulphate of potass_, _silica_, and _lime_. It is a limpid, dense,
-colourless solution; when rubbed between the fingers it feels soapy, in
-consequence of a partial solution of the cuticle. As it constitutes a
-medicine in common use, and, moreover, forms the basis of many _quack
-medicines_, as well as of those preparations which are sold under the
-name of _Depilatories_, it may readily become the accidental instrument
-of mischief.
-
-
-                  _Chemical Tests for its detection._
-
-There cannot exist any difficulty in this investigation; its highly
-alkaline characters will be immediately announced by its effects on the
-vegetable test papers, and by its power of saturating acids; while the
-particular species of alkali may be readily identified by the following
-reagents.
-
-(_a_) _Carbonic acid; or water saturated with the gas._ This will not
-produce any[331] disturbance in the solution of potass; a fact which at
-once serves to distinguish this alkali from the earths, _baryta_ and
-_lime_.
-
-(_b_) _Deuto-muriate of Platina_ occasions a canary-yellow precipitate,
-consisting of the deutoxide of platina, potass, and muriatic acid; as
-this precipitate is, to a certain extent, soluble in water, the test may
-fail through dilution. With soda, this reagent will not occasion any
-precipitate, a fact which depends upon the solubility of the triple salt
-formed, and affords an easy method of distinguishing the fixed alkalies
-from each other.
-
-(_c_) _Tartaric acid._ If an excess of this acid be added, we shall
-obtain crystals of a _bi-tartrate_; a phenomenon which will not take
-place if soda be the alkali employed.
-
-
-                  _Potassa Fusa_, or _Kali Causticum_.
-
-This substance, which occurs in sticks, or cylinders, is an extremely
-caustic and deliquescent substance; it is principally employed in
-surgery, to establish an ulcer; or, instead of incision, to open a
-tumour. See _Pharmacologia_. As it differs from potass, only in the
-degree of purity, it is unnecessary to offer any farther remarks.
-
-
-                          _Potassa cum Calce._
-
-This is a mixture of the preceding substance with lime, which is added
-with a view to diminish the deliquescent property of the alkali, and
-thus to render it more manageable as an escharotic. There will be no
-difficulty in separating these ingredients. Their different solubilities
-will furnish an easy mode of effecting it to a certain extent, and we
-may then precipitate the remaining portion of lime, by carbonic acid.
-
-
-    _Sub-carbonate of Potass_—_Salt of Tartar_—_Pearl-ash_—_Potash_.
-
-Although potass becomes comparatively mild, by its union with carbonic
-acid; yet the present preparation retains so much causticity as to
-render it poisonous, if administered in any considerable dose. _Plenck_
-reports a case of this kind, where a patient having swallowed an ounce
-of _salt of tartar_, was shortly afterwards seized with a violent
-vomiting, which continued for forty-eight hours, followed by a violent
-inflammation of the stomach; from which, however, he ultimately
-recovered.
-
-
-  _Symptoms of Poisoning by any of the above preparations of Potass._
-
-A styptic, urinous, and caustic taste; a severe heat in the throat;
-violent vomiting, generally of alkaline matter, turning the syrups of
-violets green, and where the alkali has been in the state of
-_carbonate_, effervescing with acids; sometimes the matter thus ejected
-is mixed with blood; copious alvine evacuations; severe pain in the
-epigastric region; excruciating tormina of the bowels; depravation of
-the intellectual faculties, and death. It will be easily perceived that
-the above symptoms merely indicate the operation of a corrosive poison.
-They offer no characteristic peculiarities which can enable us to decide
-upon the particular substance that has been swallowed, unless, indeed,
-the matter vomited can be submitted to examination.
-
-
-                              _Antidotes._
-
-From the experiments of _Orfila_, it appears that vinegar, diluted with
-water, is the remedy which can be administered with the greatest
-success, where any preparation of this alkali has been swallowed in a
-poisonous dose.
-
-
-              _Organic lesions discovered on dissection._
-
-In consequence of the peculiar action of this alkali upon animal matter,
-we shall generally find the stomach perforated, and its coats
-extensively dissolved. We shall moreover discover the usual indications
-of violent inflammation in this viscus, as well as in the intestines.
-
-
-                                 SODA.
-
-We have already stated by what chemical reagents this alkali may be
-distinguished from _potass_; it only remains for us to observe that its
-physiological action, the symptoms arising from its ingestion, and the
-organic lesions discovered on dissection, are strictly analogous to
-those we have described as the effects of potass.
-
-
-                      AMMONIA, and its CARBONATE.
-
-Ammonia, in its uncombined state, exists in the state of gas, and is
-incapable of application; its affinity, however, for water, enables it
-to combine with that fluid, and to form liquid ammonia, (_Liquor
-Ammoniæ_) in which state it is useful in medicine, and in the arts. This
-solution is colourless; its taste extremely caustic; and its odour
-strong, pungent, and peculiar. Exposed to the action of heat, the
-ammoniacal gas is driven off, and may be recognised by its
-characteristic odour, as well as by its effects upon moistened
-_turmeric_ paper. When brought into contact with muriatic acid, it will
-form dense white vapours, consisting of _muriate of ammonia_. A most
-elegant and sensible test for ammoniacal gas is afforded by a mixed
-solution, consisting of arsenious acid and nitrate of silver; these
-substances when mixed in solution do not occasion the least disturbance
-in each other, for reasons already explained, (see page 240) but upon
-spreading a portion of the liquid upon glass or paper, and bringing
-ammoniacal gas into contact, a beautiful yellow cloud immediately
-diffuses itself over the surface of the solution.
-
-_Sub-carbonate of ammonia_ occurs in solid, white, semi-transparent
-masses, of a highly pungent and ammoniacal odour. Its chemical
-composition has been found to vary materially according to the
-circumstances under which it has been prepared; _Mr. R. Phillips_, who
-has made some highly interesting experiments upon this subject,
-considers the _sub-carbonate_ to be a _sesqui_-carbonate, composed of 3
-atoms of carbonic acid, 2 atoms of ammonia, and 2 of water. By long
-exposure to the air, its pungency is lost, and it is converted into an
-inodorous carbonate.
-
-
-                  _Symptoms of poisoning by Ammonia._
-
-Cases wherein death has been produced in a few minutes, from the
-ingestion of liquid ammonia, stand recorded on the authority of
-_Martinet_, _Huxham_, _Haller_, and other physiologists. In such cases
-the lips, tongue, and fauces are described as being burnt by the
-causticity of the fluid; while hemorrhage of the intestines marks the
-organic lesions which it occasions. The nervous system would appear also
-to suffer greatly, at the same time that the abdominal organs are
-affected with violent inflammation.
-
-
-                      THE CAUSTIC ALKALINE EARTHS.
-
-Under this division, we have to consider the two earths, _Lime_ and
-_Baryta_; both of which are highly corrosive, although they essentially
-differ from each other in their physiological action. In this respect
-they may be compared to _corrosive sublimate_ and _arsenic_, and offer
-an additional illustration of the imperfection of the present
-classification; for while _lime_ acts as a local caustic upon the parts
-with which it comes in contact, _baryta_ will require, for its action,
-to be absorbed and carried into the current of the circulation.
-
-
-                              QUICK LIME.
-
-This earth is of a white colour, and of a hot caustic taste; with acids
-it forms peculiar salts; a fact which we shall shew affords the most
-decisive means of identifying its presence. It changes vegetable blues
-to a green, and reddens _turmeric_; it is capable of fusion; so great is
-its affinity for water, that it will absorb and solidify one third of
-its weight of that fluid, and yet remain perfectly dry. The heat,
-therefore, that is evolved in the process of slacking lime, evidently
-proceeds from the water, which yields its caloric, as it passes from the
-liquid to the solid state.
-
-
-                    _Symptoms of poisoning by Lime._
-
-It is perhaps the least energetic of the corrosive poisons; and yet,
-when taken in any quantity, it will produce nausea, vomiting, colics,
-frequent stools, and all the symptoms which characterise, or are
-complicated with, inflammation of the stomach and intestines.[332] Lime
-in combination with carbonic acid is not considered as poisonous.
-
-
-              _Organic lesions discovered on dissection._
-
-In examining the body of an animal that has been killed by caustic lime,
-we shall find the mucous membrane of the stomach reddened, and evincing
-marks of inflammation in those parts which have been in contact with it.
-
-
-                _Tests for the detection of Quick-lime._
-
-We may proceed, if the substance be free from mixture, to obtain a
-solution of the earth in distilled water, and to assay it by the
-following reagents.
-
-(_a_) _Carbonic acid, and the soluble alkaline sub-carbonates_ produce a
-copious white precipitate, which is soluble in an excess of carbonic
-acid. The _carbonate of lime_, of which this precipitate consists, is
-also decomposed by muriatic acid, with effervescence, a soluble muriate
-remaining.
-
-(_b_) _Oxalic acid, and oxalate of ammonia._ They precipitate lime-water
-of a white colour, and the resulting _oxalate_ is not soluble in an
-excess of acid.
-
-(_c_) _Sulphuric acid._ This acid does not precipitate lime water, since
-the _sulphate of lime_ formed does not require more than 300 parts of
-water to dissolve it. Whereas, says _M. Orfila_, the smallest quantity
-of an exceedingly diluted solution of _baryta_ becomes instantly turbid
-on the addition of that acid, because the _sulphate of baryta_ is
-insoluble in several thousand times its weight of water. By this test,
-therefore, we are at once enabled to distinguish lime-water, from
-barytic water.
-
-
-                         BARYTA, AND ITS SALTS.
-
-_Baryta_, like lime, is a solid, heavy, alkaline earth, having an acrid
-and peculiar taste; and turning the syrup of violets _green_, and the
-juice of turmeric _red_. When perfectly calcined, it absorbs water very
-rapidly, disengaging at the same time a quantity of caloric; the
-phenomenon is similar to that of _slacking lime_, and admits of the same
-explanation. It dissolves in about 20 parts of water, at the temperature
-of 60°; but boiling water will dissolve half its weight of this earth,
-part of which will crystallize on cooling.
-
-MURIATE OF BARYTA. This salt crystallises in square plates, or
-four-sided prisms; its taste is acrid and pungent. It dissolves in 2½
-parts of distilled water at 60° _Fah._ The solution is limpid and
-colourless, and has been employed in medicine, as a remedy in scrofula,
-cancer, some forms of syphilis, and in hectic fever connected with
-ulceration. _Dr. Johnstone_ says that he has seen a delicate female take
-as much as thirty drops of a saturated solution of this salt,
-_repeatedly_, without nausea; whence he concludes that it would require
-at least 2 or 3 drachms to do mischief.[333]
-
-
-                   _Symptoms of poisoning by Baryta._
-
-All the soluble compounds of this earth are poisonous, especially the
-_muriate_; which, whether injected into the veins, introduced into the
-stomach, or externally applied to an abraded surface, will occasion
-death in a very short period. We are not aware that any case stands
-recorded of poisoning by baryta. _Orfila_[334] and _Brodie_[335] have,
-however, investigated the symptoms which this poison produces on
-animals, and they appear to be analogous to those occasioned by the
-ingestion of arsenic. The muriate, on account of its greater solubility,
-would appear to be much more active than the pure earth, or its
-carbonate.
-
-
-                   _Physiological action of Baryta._
-
-Barytic poisons require to be absorbed before they act on the system;
-they may therefore destroy by external application, although it would
-appear that, unlike arsenic, they act sooner when internally
-administered. _Mr. Brodie_ thinks that the _muriate of baryta_ occasions
-death by acting upon the brain and the heart; at the same time it exerts
-a local action, and corrodes the viscus with which it comes into
-contact.
-
-
-                              _Antidotes._
-
-It has been shewn by the experiments of _Orfila_, that the soluble
-sulphates, as _Glauber_ or _Epsom salts_, by converting the _baryta_
-into an insoluble _sulphate_, will act as antidotes to its virulence. In
-the first instance, therefore, it will be prudent to produce this
-chemical decomposition in the poison, and then to expel it, as quickly
-as possible, by emetics.
-
-
-             _Chemical tests for the detection of Baryta._
-
-Where the pure earth, _baryta_, or its solution in water, is presented
-for our investigation, it may be identified by the following reagents.
-
-(_a_) _Sulphuric acid, and the soluble sulphates._ These bodies
-precipitate from the barytic solution, a white _sulphate_ of the earth,
-insoluble in water, and nitric acid.
-
-(_b_) _Carbonic acid gas, and the alkaline sub-carbonates_, produce in
-it a white _carbonate of baryta_.
-
-(_c_) _Muriatic acid_ combines with baryta, and furnishes a salt which
-is capable of being identified by numerous reagents. _M. Orfila_ has
-furnished us with the following satisfactory compendium of its
-habitudes. “A salt which does not redden the tincture of tournesol,
-which does not turn the syrup of violets green, which is not
-precipitated by the alkaline hydro-sulphurets,[336] nor by ammonia; but
-which, on the contrary, is precipitated by the sub-carbonate of ammonia,
-soda, or potass; which is not soluble in concentrated alcohol; which
-furnishes, with the sulphate of potass, or the sulphuric acid, a white
-precipitate insoluble in water and in the nitric acid, and which gives
-with the nitrate of silver a curdled precipitate of muriate of silver,
-likewise insoluble in the nitric acid, _can be no other than the muriate
-of baryta_.”
-
-But it may happen, that the above salt is so mixed with alimentary
-matter, as to defy the action of the tests; in this case we must
-endeavour to obtain from it the pure earth, by precipitating the
-suspected fluids by the sub-carbonate of ammonia; when a _carbonate of
-baryta_ will fall down, which must be dried on a filter, and calcined
-with charcoal.
-
-
-      CANTHARIDES. _Spanish Flies_—_Blistering Flies_. (_Cantharis
-                Vesicatoria_, Sp. 1, of Latreille.)[337]
-
-Cantharides are imported into this country in their entire state, and
-are so kept in the shops; their form and general appearance are too well
-known to require description, and they will rarely become the objects of
-inquiry; in powder, however, they may be presented to us for
-investigation, and it is therefore essential that the forensic physician
-should be acquainted with the appearances which they assume in the state
-of disintegration. This powder has a greenish colour, tinged with grey,
-and abounding with shining points of a very beautiful green colour, and
-which may be recognised in whatever state of division the powder may
-exist, even after it has passed through a silken sieve. Its odour is
-acrid and nauseous; when thrown on burning coals it emits that peculiar
-smell, which generally attends the destruction of animal matter by heat.
-The chemical history of _cantharides_ is still involved in some
-obscurity; according to _Robiquet_, who has furnished us with the most
-satisfactory analysis, they contain various fatty principles; the
-phosphates of lime, and magnesia; and the acetic and uric acids;
-together with a peculiar crystalline principle, in which the vesicatory
-properties wholly reside, and to which the name of _cantharidin_ has
-been given by _Dr. Thomson_.[338] It may be obtained in plates, having a
-micaceous lustre; when perfectly pure it is insoluble in water, but it
-is rendered soluble in that fluid, by the presence of a yellow matter
-which exists in native combination with it; it is very soluble in oils.
-
-
-                _Symptoms of poisoning by Cantharides._
-
-As this substance forms an article of the materia medica it may become
-an accidental source of poisoning; whilst a general belief in its
-aphrodisiac powers may induce a trial of its efficacy, to goad the
-exertions of exhausted nature, or to incense the passion of females,
-whose seduction is meditated. In the annals of crime in this country, we
-are acquainted with but few instances in which cantharides have been
-given with the view of destroying life; we have already referred[339] to
-the case of _Vaux_, who was executed for poisoning with cantharides;
-there is also that of _Sir Thomas Overbury_, who, on the confession of
-the person who gave it to him, is said to have taken it, mixed with his
-sauces. Cantharides may be administered in the form of powder, infusion,
-or tincture. The following may be considered the more prominent symptoms
-which will follow the ingestion of a large dose. Violent retching;
-copious alvine evacuations, frequently bloody; very severe colics;
-active inflammation of the stomach and intestines; sometimes universal
-convulsions, attended with a horror of liquids, resembling that which
-occurs in hydrophobia; furious delirium, &c. But the affections of the
-urinary passages, and organs of generation, may be regarded, κατεξοχην,
-as the peculiar symptoms of poisoning by cantharides; such as heat in
-the bladder, bloody micturition; horrible strangury; painful and
-obstinate priapism; _satyriasis_, &c. If the dose has not been
-sufficient to occasion speedy death, it may produce marasmus.
-
-
-              _Organic lesions discovered on dissection._
-
-Where the poison has been administered internally, we shall find the
-stomach and intestines presenting an appearance of inflammation, very
-similar to that which we have described as the general result of
-corrosive poisons. Marks of inflammatory action, and sometimes
-ulceration, will be also discovered in the urinary and genital organs;
-especially in those cases where the person dies shortly after the
-ingestion of the poison.
-
-
-          _Methods of detecting the presence of Cantharides._
-
-Where the poison has been administered in substance, we shall generally
-discover some of its particles mixed with the ejected matter; or, after
-death, adhering to the coats of the stomach, or to the folds of the
-intestines, and which may be easily identified by their peculiar green
-and brilliant hue. If the poison should have been administered in the
-form of infusion, or tincture, our chemical resources will fail us, and
-we must rely alone upon the evidence furnished by the symptoms, and
-organic lesions.
-
-
-                              PHOSPHORUS.
-
-This singular substance was accidentally discovered by _Brandt_, a
-chemist of Hamburgh, in the year 1669,[340] as he was attempting to
-extract from human urine a liquid capable of converting silver into
-gold. It was also subsequently discovered by _Kunkel_ and by _Boyle_,
-without these latter chemists having, in any way, participated in the
-researches of each other.
-
-Phosphorus, when pure, is semi-transparent and of a yellowish colour;
-but when kept some time in water, it becomes opaque externally, and then
-has a great resemblance to white wax. Its consistence is nearly that of
-wax; it may be cut with a knife. Its mean specific gravity is 1·770. It
-generally occurs in sticks. When exposed to the air, provided the
-temperature be not lower than 43°, it emits a white smoke, which has the
-smell of garlic, and is luminous in the dark. This smoke is more
-abundant, the higher the temperature is, and is occasioned by the
-gradual combustion of the phosphorus. When heated to 148° it takes fire,
-and burns with a very bright flame, and gives out a great quantity of
-white smoke, which is phosphoric acid. Oils dissolve phosphorus,
-provided the temperature be a little raised. Water has no effect upon
-it, unless it be aerated, when it renders the surface of the phosphorus
-opaque and white, which in a short time becomes red. This change depends
-upon oxidation.
-
-
-                 _Symptoms of poisoning by Phosphorus._
-
-This substance, whether introduced into the stomach in its pure form, or
-dissolved in oil, will occasion the most violent symptoms, from its
-escharotic action,[341] It has been employed in medicine,[342] in a
-state of minute division, in the dose of one-fourth of a grain, and is
-said by _Leroi_ to be very efficacious in restoring and establishing the
-force[343] of young persons exhausted by sensual indulgence, and of even
-prolonging the life of the aged.[344] It has also been given as a
-stimulant in local fevers. We are, however, greatly inclined to question
-the safety of such a practice, notwithstanding the diminutiveness of the
-dose. The reader will find some interesting cases of poisoning by
-phosphorus, translated from the German work of _Weickard_, in _Hooper’s_
-Medical Dictionary, under the consideration of that article. Should such
-a case present itself for the investigation of the forensic physician,
-he will not find any difficulty in identifying the substance; its
-external character, its smell, and, above all, its peculiar property of
-yielding luminous vapour, are too palpable and distinctive, to admit the
-possibility of error.
-
-
- MECHANICAL POISONS—_Powdered glass_—_Enamel powder_—_Chopped hair, &c.
-                                  &c._
-
-We have already examined the pretensions of these bodies to the rank of
-corrosive poisons, (_page_ 145) and we should have not reverted to the
-subject, but from a wish to introduce the account of “_a case of
-Schirrus in the intestines, arising from hairs remaining in the canal_,”
-as related in the _Edinburgh Medical Journal_,[345] by _Dr. Burrell_,
-and which had, on the former occasion, escaped our notice. The subject
-of this history, _Laurence Harding_, æt. 35, being a private soldier,
-was admitted into the regimental hospital, for an unrelenting
-constipation of the bowels; but it appears also that he had been
-affected with dyspeptic symptoms, and pain in his abdomen, for several
-years; which pain was aggravated by the ingestion of solid food. He
-received but little benefit from the remedies that were administered,
-his strength gradually declined, and, about a month after his admission,
-he expired.
-
-“On laying open the abdomen, the stomach was found much thickened
-throughout its whole substance, and the pylorus very much contracted,
-which contraction continued down the duodenum. Through all the
-intestines this thickening and gristly appearance was observed. The
-colon was prodigiously enlarged in its calibre, until where it forms its
-sigmoid flexure; at which point there were three distinct holes
-ulcerated through the coats of the intestine, and forming a
-communication with the abdominal cavity. Beyond the sigmoid flexure the
-intestine was contracted in its diameter, so as hardly to admit the
-little finger to pass downwards. On cutting open the pylorus and small
-intestines, the internal coats were found to be covered with a soft
-substance, which resembled size. The internal coats of the colon were of
-a dark colour, and in general were completely ulcerated, and hanging in
-shreds. The colour of the colon was of a dark lurid red. At the sigmoid
-flexure there was much contraction, and the thickening was so great on
-one side, and the valve found so considerable, as hardly to admit a
-common bougie through it. The portion forming the sigmoid flexure was
-cut out; and on laying it open, and removing some hardened fæces, _five
-or six hog’s brittles were seen distinctly crossing each other in
-different directions_; they were partially invested in the villous coat,
-which had grown over them, and which had retained them in the different
-positions in which they were placed; and so firmly were they kept down
-by those partial coverings, that it required some force to draw them
-out. The mesenteric glands were of a cartilaginous appearance; the liver
-was suffused with blood, and the gall-bladder full of bile. The spleen
-was very small, and compressed into an oblong shape, probably arising
-from the pressure of the colon when distended with feculent matter.
-
-This man had formerly been a shoemaker. There was no evidence as to the
-period at which he swallowed these hairs; but, from the derangement
-which always existed in the bowels, and the pain referred to the sigmoid
-flexure, little doubt can be entertained but that these hairs were the
-cause of all his complaints, and ultimately of his death.”
-
-
-                      CL. II. ASTRINGENT POISONS.
-
-
-                                 LEAD.
-
-This metal appears to have been known in the earliest ages; and is
-mentioned several times by _Moses_.[346] It has a bluish-white colour;
-is very brilliant when first cut with a knife, but soon tarnishes by
-exposure to air; when rubbed violently, it emits a peculiar smell; it is
-malleable and ductile, but possesses very little tenacity. It is
-scarcely sonorous; being the softest of all the metals, it yields
-readily to the hammer. Its specific gravity is 11·35; it melts at 612°.
-According to the experiments of _Dr. Thomson_,[347] it is susceptible of
-four degrees of oxidation, presenting us with four distinct, and well
-defined oxides, viz.
-
-   Yellow     (_protoxide_)   contains of lead     91·5 oxygen   8·5
-   Yellow     (_deutoxide_)   contains of lead     90·5 oxygen   9·5
-   Red        (_tritoxide_)   contains of lead     88·  oxygen  12·
-   Brown      (_peroxide_)    contains of lead     80·  oxygen  20·
-
-Lead, in its metallic state, does not exert any action on the living
-system; but, when oxidized, or in the state of salt, its virulence is
-very considerable, producing a train of symptoms, so peculiar to itself,
-as to justify our placing its preparations in a separate class, under
-the title of _astringent_ poisons, as explained at page 202.
-
-Metallic lead, although _per se_ inert, may occasion deleterious effects
-when introduced into the stomach, in consequence of its meeting with
-acids in the _primæ viæ_; from the same cause, liquids which are liable
-to become in any degree acidulous, if kept in leaden vessels, may be
-productive of much danger to those who drink them. Pure water, provided
-the air be excluded, does not appear to exert any sensible action upon
-this metal; but the combined influence of these agents converts the lead
-into a carbonate: a fact which is at once exemplified by the white line
-which is so constantly visible at the surface of the water preserved in
-leaden vessels. So well acquainted were the ancients with this fact,
-that we find frequent allusions in their works to the dangerous property
-of leaden utensils. _Vitruvius_[348] published a very strong
-remonstrance against leaden pipes, when used for the purpose of
-conveying water; and _Galen_ cautions us continually, not to employ
-water that has flowed through pipes of this metal; since he had observed
-that the _sediment_ of such water, (υποσταθμη του τουιουτου υδατος)
-rendered such as swallowed it, δυσεντερικους, subject to disorders in
-the intestines.
-
-_Dr. Lambe_, to whom we are indebted for an important work[349] upon
-this subject, states, that there is a great diversity in the corrosive
-powers of different waters; in some places the use of leaden pumps has
-been in part discontinued, from the expense entailed upon the
-proprietors by the perpetual want of repair;[350] and if any acidity be
-communicated to the water, from the accidental intrusion of decayed
-leaves or other vegetable matter, its power of dissolving this metal
-will be increased to a very dangerous extent. The noted colic of
-Amsterdam is said by _Tronchin_, who has written a history of the
-epidemic, to have been occasioned by leaves falling and putrefying in
-leaden cisterns, filled with rain water. _Van Swieten_[351] has also
-related an instance of a whole family who were afflicted with colic from
-a similar cause; and _Dr. Lambe_[352] entertains no doubt but that the
-very striking case recorded in the Medical Commentaries,[353] proceeded
-more from some foulness in the cistern than from the solvent power of
-the water; in this instance, the officers of a packet vessel used water
-out of a leaden cistern; the men also drank the same water, except that
-the latter had been kept in wood; the consequence was, that all the
-officers were seized with colic, while the men remained healthy. _Sir
-George Baker_ has furnished the following striking illustration of the
-subject. “The most remarkable case that now occurs to my memory, is that
-of _Lord Ashburnham’s_ family, in Sussex; to which, spring water was
-supplied from a considerable distance in leaden pipes. In consequence,
-his lordship’s servants were every year tormented with colic, and some
-of them died. An eminent physician of Battle, who corresponded with me
-on the subject, sent up some gallons of that water, which were analysed
-by _Dr. Higgins_, who reported that the water had contained more than
-the common quantity of carbonic acid; and that he found in it lead in
-solution, which he attributed to the carbonic acid. In consequence of
-this representation, _Lord Ashburnham_ substituted wooden for leaden
-pipes; and from that time his family have experienced no particular
-complaints in their bowels.”
-
-But the most extensive and dangerous source of poisoning by lead, is the
-presence of this metal in various wines, and acescent drinks, and meats,
-and which may arise either from accident or design. A knowledge of the
-different avenues, through which this poison may gain admittance into
-the human body, is therefore of great importance to the forensic
-physician, and we shall accordingly proceed to the investigation of the
-subject.
-
-That certain wines were occasionally liable to produce endemic colics,
-is a fact which has been long known; although the disease was
-universally ascribed to a mistaken origin, until the publication of the
-elaborate researches[354] of _Sir George Baker_, into the cause of the
-Devonshire colic; which, like the same disease observed in other
-countries, was attributed to the acidity of the liquor so abundantly
-drunk[355] in these districts. This celebrated physician, however, was
-early led to entertain doubts with respect to the truth of this
-doctrine: “when I consider,” says he, “that this colic of Devonshire is
-precisely the same disease as that which is the specific effect of all
-saturnine preparations, and that there is not the least analogy between
-the juice of apples and the poison of lead, it seems to me very
-improbable that two causes, bearing so little relation to one another,
-should make such similar impressions on the human body.” The
-investigation of the subject completely established the justness of
-these views; and no doubt remains, but that the endemic colic, which
-harrassed the cyder drinkers in Devonshire for some years, was the
-effect of saturnine impregnation, derived from the lead used in the
-construction of the apple mills and cyder presses; and in some cases,
-from the pernicious practice of introducing a leaden weight into the
-cask, or even racking the cyder into leaden cisterns, where the liquor
-fretted too much, and was thereby in danger of becoming acetous. _Sir G.
-Baker_ also states that the custom of boiling the _must_ in vessels
-capped with lead, affords another source of saturnine impregnation; and
-he informs us that, a few years ago, this very practice produced the
-_Devonshire colic_ in the county of Kent. Some cyder, which had been
-made in a gentleman’s family, being thought too sour, was boiled with
-honey in a brewing vessel, capped with lead. All, who drank this liquor,
-were seized with this disease; some more, others less violently; one of
-the servants died very soon in convulsions: several others were cruelly
-tortured a long time. The master of the family, notwithstanding all the
-assistance which art could give him, never recovered his health; but
-died miserably, after having for nearly three years languished under a
-tedious and incurable malady. _Dr. Lambe_ observes, that the saturnine
-colic is not endemial in Devonshire, or the other cyder countries,
-during the whole year, but is confined to those months when the liquor
-is still new, crude, and the fermentation incomplete. When the liquor
-becomes fine, the noxious matter in a great measure separates, and is
-carried to the bottom of the vessel, as the feculencies subside. Tartar
-is generated during the vinous fermentation, the acid of which, uniting
-with the lead, forms a salt, scarcely, if at all, soluble in water; and
-hence the purification which the liquor receives. But although this new
-salt is insoluble in water, it is otherwise in regard to vinegar; for
-this acid dissolves a small quantity, and forms a triple compound, an
-_aceto-tartrate of lead_;[356] and since no cyder, or perhaps wine, is
-wholly destitute of vinegar, it necessarily follows that if the liquor
-has been once contaminated during the first stages of fermentation, it
-is impossible for it ever to become entirely pure, except by processes
-which would render it unfit for drinking.[357] It has very lately been
-discovered, that _Gallic acid_ and _tannin_ are capable of combining
-with lead in solution, and of forming a perfectly insoluble substance,
-which falls to the bottom of the cask; hence all liquors which have been
-kept in oak casks, for a certain time, must be freed from lead. This
-explains a fact with respect to the effect of new rum in the West
-Indies, of some importance. This spirit, when newly distilled, is found
-to contain traces of lead, derived from the leaden rims of the coppers,
-and the leaden worm, used for its condensation; but, by keeping about
-twelve months in oaken casks, it loses its deleterious properties, and
-no longer exhibits any traces of this metal.[358]
-
-Another source, from which acescent liquids may contract saturnine
-impregnation, is afforded by the metallic glazing of earthenware[359];
-that for instance of the common _cream coloured_ ware is composed of an
-oxide of lead,[360] and is accordingly easily acted upon by vinegar, and
-saline compounds; jars and pots of this description ought therefore
-never to be used for preserving pickles, jellies of fruits, marmalade,
-and similar conserves. For the same reason, _Sir George Baker_ protests
-against the custom of baking fruit tarts in such ware.[361] _Stone ware_
-is glazed with muriate of soda, and is therefore not liable to such an
-objection.[362]
-
-The custom which prevails in some parts of England of keeping milk in
-leaden vessels, is extremely improper; _Dr. Darwin_[363] has illustrated
-this subject by the following case; “A delicate young girl, the daughter
-of a dairy farmer, who kept his milk in leaden cisterns, used to wipe
-off the cream from the edges of the lead, and frequently, as she was
-fond of cream, licked it from her finger. She was seized with the
-saturnine colic, and semi-paralytic wrists, and sunk from general
-debility.” We are informed by _Mr. Parkes_,[364] that in Lancashire the
-dairies are furnished with milk-pans made of lead; and that when he
-expostulated with some individuals on the danger of this practice, he
-was told that _leaden_ milk pans throw up the cream much better than
-vessels of any other kind.
-
-There is, says _Dr. Darwin_, a bad custom in almost all families, and
-public houses, of washing out their wine bottles by putting a handful of
-shot corns into them, and by shaking them about forcibly to detach the
-super-tartrate of potass from their sides; that such a practice may
-occasionally give origin to serious consequences, will become evident by
-the relation of the following case.[365] “A gentleman who had never in
-his life experienced a day’s illness, and who was constantly in the
-habit of drinking half a bottle of Madeira after his dinner, was taken
-ill three hours after dinner with a serious pain in the stomach and
-violent colic, which gradually yielded within twelve hours to the
-remedies prescribed by his medical attendant. The day following he drank
-the remainder of the same bottle of wine which was left the preceding
-day, and within two hours afterwards he was again seized with the most
-violent pains, head-ache, shiverings, and great pain over the whole
-body. His apothecary becoming suspicious that the wine he had drunk
-might be the cause of the disease, ordered the bottle, from which it had
-been decanted, to be brought to him, with a view that he might examine
-the dregs, if any were left. The bottle happening to slip out of the
-hand of the servant, disclosed a row of shot, wedged forcibly into the
-angular bent-up circumference of it. On examining the beads of shot,
-they crumbled into dust, the outer crust (defended by a coat of black
-lead with which the shot is glazed) being alone left unacted on, whilst
-the remainder of the metal was dissolved. The wine, therefore, had
-become contaminated with _lead_, and perhaps _arsenic_, for in order to
-form shot the former metal is alloyed with the latter.”[366]
-
-But we have, hitherto, only directed the reader’s attention to the
-different sources from which wine, and acescent liquors, may
-_accidentally_ derive saturnine impregnation. We have now to state that
-such liquors have, in different ages and countries, been fraudulently
-adulterated with lead. It appears to have been early discovered, that
-wines which have become morbidly acescent may be corrected by the
-addition of lead; whence, in those countries where Rhenish, Moselle, and
-other similar wines are drunk, the saturnine colic has been endemic. The
-celebrated colic which raged in the province of _Poitou_, towards the
-end of the sixteenth, and in the beginning of the seventeenth century,
-was evidently the effect of such adulteration.[367] We find that, in the
-year 1487, there was a _Recessus Imperii_ promulgated at Rotenberg; and,
-in the year 1498, at Friberg; which was enacted, in the year 1500, at
-Tubingen; and, in the year 1508, at Frankfort; and, in the year 1577, in
-the same place. By which decrees it was made a capital crime to
-adulterate wines with _litharge_, or to use _bismuth_ in the fumigation
-of them; it having been, at several periods, represented to the
-Emperors, that great mischief had accrued from such adulterations; and
-that they had been the cause of insuperable and mortal diseases. It
-should seem, that these laws were not carried into strict execution;
-and, indeed, that in the latter end of the seventeenth century, it was
-hardly known in Germany that such laws existed. In consequence of which,
-an epidemic colic arose, which was at length traced to the effects of
-lead in the wines.[368] A representation of this fact having been made
-to the _Duke of Wirtemberg_, it was ordained a capital crime to mix
-litharge with wine, or even to sell it in the shops, by a decree,
-bearing date March 10, 1696. But, notwithstanding the severity of this
-law, we are informed by _Zeller_, that in the year 1705, the same
-dangerous experiments were repeated in the circle of _Zwaabe_, with a
-view to correct the acidity of the weaker wines. _Bishop Watson_[369]
-informs us that, in the year 1750, the _Farmers general_ in France being
-astonished at the great quantities _de vin gaté_ which were brought into
-Paris, in order to be made into vinegar, redoubled their researches to
-find out the cause of the great increase in that article; for nearly
-thirty thousand hogsheads had been annually brought in for a few years
-preceding the year 1750, whereas the quantity annually brought in forty
-years before, did not exceed 1200 hogsheads. They discovered that
-several wine merchants, assuming the name of vinegar merchants, bought
-these sour wines, and afterwards, by means of litharge, rendered them
-potable, and sold them as genuine wines.[370] _Dr. Warren_[371] has
-related the cases of thirty-two persons in the _Duke of Newcastle’s_
-family, who were residing in Hanover in June, 1752, and were seized with
-the _Colica Pictonum_, after having used, as their common drink, a small
-white wine that has been adulterated with lead. Nor has the English
-vintner been less regardless of the health of his employer. In a popular
-work on wine making by _Graham_,[372] which has gone through six
-editions, and may therefore be supposed to have done some mischief, we
-find under the article of _vintner’s secrets_, the following receipts.—
-
-                    “_To hinder wine from turning_,
-
-“Put a pound of melted lead, in fair water, into a cask, pretty warm,
-and stop it close.”
-
-                        “_To soften green wine_,
-
-“Put in a little vinegar, wherein litharge has been well steeped, and
-boil some honey to draw out the wax. Strain it through a cloth, and put
-a quart of it into a tierce: and this will mend it, in summer
-especially.”
-
-We have already alluded to the presence of lead[373] in the _new_ rum of
-the West Indies, as the cause of the disease known in that country by
-the name of the _dry belly-ache_; it remains for us to state that the
-excise officers frequently avail themselves of the peculiar power of the
-_sub-acetate of lead_ to precipitate colouring matter, in order to
-remove from seized Holland gin, the colour which it obtains by being
-long kept in the tubs in which it is smuggled over. A practice which it
-is said renders the gin liable to gripe.
-
-According to the important experiments of _Proust_,[374] it appears,
-that if lead be associated with tin, it will be incapable of furnishing
-to acids any saturnine impregnation. The following are the interesting
-conclusions at which this philosopher has arrived, viz.
-
-“That the _tinning_, which contains even so large a proportion as an
-equal part of lead, cannot be dangerous; since it is sufficient that the
-lead should be combined with tin, in order to prevent it from being
-dissolved, either in lemon juice, or vinegar, the two acids most to be
-feared. The tin, being more oxidable than the lead, dissolves
-exclusively in these acids, and prevents the second from being attacked.
-_The lead cannot appropriate to itself an atom of oxygen, but the tin
-would carry it off in an instant._”
-
-
-      SUGAR OF LEAD—_Saccharum Saturni_—_Cerussa Acetata_—_Plumbi
-                             Super-acetas_.
-
-This salt of lead, to whose presence the numerous accidental maladies
-above enumerated are to be chiefly attributed, occurs in commerce in the
-form of irregular masses resembling lumps of sugar, being an aggregation
-of acicular four-sided prisms terminated by dihedral summits; its taste
-is sweet and astringent. It is soluble in 25 parts of water, hot, or
-cold; when common spring water, however, is employed for such a purpose,
-a white precipitate occurs from the presence of a certain proportion of
-_sulphates_ and _carbonates_.
-
-When this salt is exposed to the action of heat, it undergoes aqueous
-fusion, then dries, and at length is decomposed, leaving a globule of
-metallic lead, mixed with the yellow protoxide, and an acid product of a
-fetid smell. This decomposition is similar to that which vegetable
-substances undergo when heated for some time. The quantity of metallic
-lead, thus obtained, will be more considerable if the salt has been
-previously mixed with charcoal, and particularly if it be submitted for
-a long time to the action of a powerful heat. The strong sulphuric acid
-of commerce, when poured upon _sugar of lead_ in powder, decomposes it
-with effervescence, and disengages vapours of acetic acid.
-
-This must be considered as an active preparation, and may, when
-administered in doses of a few drachms, speedily occasion death. At the
-same time, like other poisons, it may by judicious administration,
-become a valuable remedy. See _Pharmacologia_, art. _Plumbi
-Super-acetas_.
-
-In consequence of the sweet taste of this salt, children have been
-induced to swallow it.
-
-
-            GOULARD’S EXTRACT. _Liquor Plumbi Sub-acetatis._
-
-This liquor is a saturated solution of the _sub-acetate of lead_. Spring
-water, from the salts which it contains, produces with it a very milky
-and turbid appearance; and even when _distilled_, in consequence of the
-carbonic acid diffused through it, it will occasion precipitation. It is
-principally used as an external application to diminish inflammation, an
-effect which it probably produces by paralysing the nerves of the part.
-Cases have occurred where this lotion has been accidentally swallowed,
-and the usual symptoms of saturnine poisoning have supervened. How far
-its external application may be capable of occasioning mischief, will
-form a subject of inquiry under the consideration of the physiological
-action of the preparations of lead.
-
-
-            WHITE LEAD. _Sub-Carbonate of Lead._ _Cerusse._
-
-The substance, known in commercial language by the name of _White Lead_,
-has received at different times, very various appellations, in
-consequence of the fluctuating opinions which have prevailed respecting
-its composition. Thus it has been successively styled a _sub-acetate_,
-an _oxide_, and a _sub-carbonate_; of which the last is unquestionably
-the correct name. In the large way it is prepared by exposing sheets of
-metallic lead to the fumes of vinegar. The sub-carbonate so produced
-appears as a white, brittle, and scaly substance, on the surface of the
-lead; which is scraped off, and afterwards ground in mills fitted for
-the purpose. Formerly, it was ground dry, and the workmen suffered
-severely from the operation; it is now ground in water, and the
-sub-carbonate is afterwards dried in earthen pans placed in stoves,
-heated by means of flues; still, however, persons employed in grinding
-white lead, as well as painters[375] who are constantly using it,
-occasionally suffer severely, from the want of cleanliness in not
-washing their hands before eating, by which some of the white lead is
-introduced into the stomach with their food.
-
-
-               LITHARGE. _Semi-vitrified Oxide of Lead._
-
-This is a yellow protoxide of lead, which has been melted, and left to
-crystallize by cooling. It is in the form of small reddish, or yellowish
-scales, which are brilliant and vitrified. Its character is so peculiar
-that it cannot easily be mistaken. It is employed for various purposes
-in the arts, and is the saturnine preparation more usually selected for
-the purpose of removing acidity from wines, as above related.
-
-When treated with a muriatic salt, and submitted to a high temperature,
-a _muriate of lead_ is produced, of a bright yellow colour, the
-brilliancy of which may be much heightened by grinding it as usual with
-oil. In this state it forms the pigment known by the name of _Turner’s
-yellow_, or _patent yellow_.[376] It is very poisonous.
-
-
-                          RED LEAD. _Minium._
-
-This red oxide of lead is easily distinguished by its colour, weight,
-and the facility with which it yields metallic lead, when heated with
-carbonaceous matter. Common red wafers, which derive their colour from
-this oxide, afford a striking illustration of this fact, for if burnt in
-a candle, globules of metallic lead will be observed to flow from them.
-It is poisonous; and we have already alluded to a case where Gloucester
-cheese[377] occasioned deleterious effects, in consequence of its
-adulteration with _red lead_. (p. 277) It is destructive also to
-inferior animals, apparently in very small quantities; red wafers prove
-poisonous to birds who may pick them up; and the same paste is sold for
-the purpose of destroying beetles, in which it succeeds very
-effectually. Since it is employed as a pigment, it may on many occasions
-prove an accidental cause of poisoning; there is indeed one very common
-and dangerous source, mentioned by _Sir George Baker_,[378] which
-deserves to be particularized in this place, viz. the practice of
-painting toys with _red lead_, and other poisonous substances; children,
-observes this distinguished physician, are apt to carry every object
-which gives them delight to their mouths, the painting of toys,
-therefore, with poisonous colours, is a practice which ought to be
-abolished, and is the more open to censure, as it is of no real utility.
-
-
-     _Symptoms of poisoning by the different preparations of Lead._
-
-The effects of this poison will vary considerably according to the
-quantity swallowed, and the circumstances under which it is taken. We
-shall, therefore, first consider its operation, in doses sufficiently
-large to occasion at once violent effects; and then describe its agency
-as an _accumulative_ poison, where it is introduced into the system
-gradually, and in small quantities, so as to act slowly and
-imperceptibly, and to lay the foundation of irreparable mischief, before
-any alarm is occasioned.
-
-1. _Symptoms which follow a large dose._ Where a salt of lead has been
-taken in a considerable dose, the patient soon experiences excruciating
-pains in the abdomen, accompanied with sickness and vomiting; the colic
-increases to a violent degree, but admits of temporary alleviation by
-pressure, a circumstance which at once distinguishes it from the effects
-of corrosive poison. Although it is necessary to observe, that
-inflammatory symptoms may afterwards occur, where the dose has been very
-considerable, and the consequences direct and speedy.
-
-The patient describes the pain as if produced by a boring instrument,
-and the abdominal muscles become knotted, and sometimes painfully
-retracted with all the contents of the abdomen towards the spine.[379]
-The sphincter muscles of the bladder and anus are always affected;
-sometimes strangury and tenesmus are the consequences; at other times, a
-total incapacity of making any water at all, and so great a contraction
-of the sphincter ani that a clyster can hardly be introduced. After
-suffering these torments for a period of an indefinite duration,
-delirium and cold sweats may supervene, and the patient die in
-convulsions. If, however, the treatment has been prompt and judicious,
-and the quantity of poison has not been excessive, he may recover from
-its immediate effects, and live to testify the severity of the
-consecutive phenomena. A most inveterate constipation of the bowels will
-continue for a considerable period, and there will be an occasional
-recurrence of colic; at length a peculiar species of palsy will
-supervene in the upper extremities, especially affecting the muscles of
-the fore arm, and wrist,[380] _Citois_ has given us a striking
-description of this stage of the saturnine disease. “_Per vicos, veluti
-larvæ, aut arte progredientes statuæ, pallidi, squalidi, macilenti
-conspiciuntur, manibus incurvis et suo pondere pendulis, nec nisi arte
-ad os et cæteras supernas partes sublatis, ac pedibus non suis, sed
-crurum muculis, ad ridiculum, ni miserandum, incessum compositis, voce
-clangosa et strepera._” It does not appear that the train of symptoms
-above described has ever been excited by any other external cause than
-the one here assigned. Whenever we meet with colic, attended with
-paralytic symptoms of the extremities, we may at once conclude that it
-has arisen from the influence of lead.
-
-The disease has been described by authors under the name of the _colic
-of Poitou_,[381] or _colica Pictonum_,[382] from the circumstance of its
-having raged with such epidemic fury in that province, in consequence of
-the adulteration of its wines with lead. It is also mentioned as the
-painter’s colic, since this class of artists is very commonly visited by
-the disease, in consequence of the _white lead_ contained in their
-pigments. At the Lead Hills, it is known to the miners, under the
-provincial name of _milreek_; and in Derbyshire, under that of
-_belland_.[383]
-
-
- 2. _Symptoms arising from the introduction of lead into the system, by
-                       small and repeated doses._
-
-The effects produced upon various artists by the imperceptible operation
-of lead, sufficiently shew the power which this metal possesses of
-accumulating in the human system, and it is probable, says _Sir George
-Baker_, that from an observation of such slow, but certain effects of
-lead, the French and Italians derived the hint of preparing their
-celebrated poisons, called “_Poudres de Succession_;”[384] the basis of
-which has been supposed to have been some preparation of that mineral.
-_Zeller_ mentions a certain chemical operator, near the confines of
-Bohemia, who, after having diligently applied himself to the composition
-of poisons, did, by means of lead, combined with some more volatile and
-corrosive substance, prepare a most slow poison, which given to dogs and
-other animals, had the power of destroying them, without producing any
-violent symptoms, after several weeks, or even months.[385]
-
-The following-curious case,[386] communicated by _Dr. Wall_, of
-Worcester to _Sir George Baker_, will serve to illustrate the present
-subject, and to shew that lead may gain admittance into the human body,
-unobserved, and even unsuspected. “A gentleman of Worcester was the
-father of a numerous offspring, having had one and twenty children, of
-whom eight died young, and thirteen survived their parents. During their
-infancy, and indeed until they had quitted the place of their usual
-residence, they were all remarkably unhealthy; being particularly
-subject to disorders of the stomach and bowels. The father, during many
-years, was paralytic; the mother, for as long a time, subject to colics
-and bilious obstructions. She died at last of an obstinate jaundice.
-This disease had been several times removed by the use of the Bath
-water; but it always came on again soon after her return to Worcester;
-and at last eluded every method and medicine which was tried. After the
-death of these parents, the family sold the house which they had so long
-inhabited. The purchaser found it necessary to repair the pump. This was
-made of lead; and, upon examination, was found to be so corroded, that
-several perforations were observed in the cylinder, in which the bucket
-plays; and the cistern in the upper part was reduced to the thinness of
-common brown paper, and was full of holes like a sieve. The waters of
-this town are remarkably hard. It is then more than probable that the
-water of this pump, thus impregnated with lead, occasioned the
-unhealthiness of the family who drank it. I have been just informed by
-the plumber,” adds _Dr. Wall_, “that he had several times repaired the
-pump in question; and that he had done so not more than three or four
-years before the gentleman’s death; when he found it nearly in the same
-state as it has been described; so that the corrosion was effected in a
-short time; and consequently the water must have been very strongly
-impregnated with the noxious quality of the metal.”
-
-
-              _Organic lesions discovered on dissection._
-
-The reports of the dissection of those who have been destroyed by
-saturnine poisons are far from being satisfactory. Where the person has
-died from the primary effects of a large dose of the acetate of lead,
-the stomach has betrayed a state of inflammation, similar to that which
-results from the action of a corrosive poison; black points and spots,
-from venous extravasation, have been also observed in the interior of
-this viscus; _M. Orfila_ states that he has seen in the stomach of
-animals who have taken a large dose of the acetate of lead, and have not
-vomited, a membraneous lining tolerably thick, of an ash colour, easily
-detaching in small pieces; the origin of which appeared to be owing to
-the decomposition of a part of the acetate of lead by the mucous,
-bilious, and other fluids, contained in this viscus. The mucous membrane
-lying under this lining, was of a dark grey colour throughout its whole
-thickness, and appeared to have exercised the same action on the acetate
-of lead. The case is very different in those who have died from the slow
-action of this metal; all anatomists agree in reporting, that in the
-_colica pictonum_, the digestive canal exhibits no vestige of
-inflammation;[387] but the diameter of the large intestines, especially
-that of the colon, is generally contracted; thus displaying the effects
-of that operation, which is supposed to be characteristic of the
-compounds of lead, and which has bestowed upon them the peculiar
-designation of _astringent_ poisons. _Foderé_ states that the mesentery
-and its glands; and the lacteal and lymphatic vessels, are inflamed and
-obstructed, and the thoracic duct almost obliterated; the liver, spleen,
-pancreas, and lungs often inflamed, tumefied and purulent, and even the
-heart shrivelled;[388] and the whole body, in consequence of the
-constriction of the chyliferous vessels, in a state of complete
-marasmus. Upon this passage _Orfila_ makes the following observation.
-“We are under the necessity of declaring, that almost all these signs
-are wanting in the majority of the cases of simple colic of lead,
-terminated by death.” _Fourcroy_, in a note to his translation of
-_Ramazzini_, “_De Morbis Artificum_,” observes that the intestines have,
-in these cases, been discovered distended by air, parched, and slightly
-altered in colour; and that in the larger ones, balls of dry, dark
-coloured, excrementitious matter, have been found.
-
-
-                _Physiological action of Lead Poisons._
-
-The preparations of lead seem to act upon the nervous system, destroying
-its energy, and thereby producing paralysis. Whether this is effected
-through the medium of the circulation, or whether they produce their
-effects without being absorbed, appears to us to be a question which has
-not hitherto received a satisfactory answer. It must, however, be
-admitted that they act upon the alimentary canal, by coming into contact
-with its nerves; and in some cases, where the dose of the _acetate_ has
-been large, it may have produced death by the local injury which it
-inflicted. _Dr. Lambe_ observes upon this subject, that “certain facts
-render it probable that lead does not operate entirely through the
-medium of the circulation, nor by nervous sympathy; but also topically,
-affecting the part to which it is applied more than the other parts of
-the body.” This latter position is clearly established by the beneficial
-effects occasioned by the topical application of lead to inflamed
-surfaces; nor can any doubt exist as to the fact of such applications
-having produced local paralysis. There is a paper in the third volume of
-the _Medical Transactions_ by _Dr. Reynolds_, in which the case of a
-gentleman is detailed, who brought on a temporary paralysis of the
-_sphincter ani_, by freely using _Goulard’s_ lotion for the cure of
-piles. Foreign writers have also maintained that saturnine applications
-have frequently occasioned impotence; for further information upon this
-subject the reader may refer to _Istitutione di Medicina Forens: di
-Tortosa_, _vol._ 1, _p._ 58; also _Fritze Compend: sopra i Malat.
-Vener._ _p._ 189; and _Monteggia Annotat. sopra i Mali Venerei_, _p._
-36. _Sir George Baker_ states that he has some reason to doubt, whether
-_litharge_, the common basis of our plasters, when used for the purpose
-of dressing issues, has not, in certain irritable constitutions,
-produced some of the ordinary effects of saturnine preparations taken
-internally. There have been instances of children thrown into
-convulsions, by _cerusse_, sprinkled on excoriated parts. _Zeller_
-quotes, on the authority of _Molingius_, a remarkable instance of the
-pernicious effects of _litharge_, externally applied.[389] _Sir George
-Baker_ met with a most violent and obstinate colic, which seemed to have
-been occasioned by some litharge, mixed in a cataplasm, and applied to
-the _vagina_, with a view to allay a troublesome itching; and he says
-that he was informed by _Dr. Petit_ that _Goulard’s poultice_ applied
-for some time to a patient’s knee, in St. George’s hospital, occasioned
-violent pain in the bowels, which did not cease until the poultice had
-been removed; nor are authorities deficient to prove, that the
-fashionable application of _cerusse_ to the skin has been followed by
-obstinate colics, pains, and tremors. We have been desirous of laying
-before our readers the above authorities, in proof of the constitutional
-effects which may be occasionally produced by the external application
-of lead, since the fact has been questioned, and is still considered by
-many as involved in doubt and uncertainty. _Dr. Lambe_ is inclined to
-believe, that “to the production of the saturnine colic, it is necessary
-that the metal should be applied _immediately_ to the stomach and
-intestines.” If this hypothesis be just, he excludes nervous sympathy,
-as well as absorption, as a proximate cause of saturnine colic; and,
-consequently, no dependence can be placed on the accounts given by the
-above pathologists with regard to the production of such an effect by
-lotions and cataplasms of lead.
-
-
-    _Of the chemical processes, by which the presence of lead may be
-                               detected._
-
-These will necessarily vary according to the different states of
-combination in which it may be supposed to exist; we shall, therefore,
-proceed to consider the modes of establishing its presence, 1, In
-solution in _water_; _wine_; _spirit_; and _oils_. 2. In a state of
-mixture with _various solids_. 3. Combined with _solid or liquid
-aliments_.
-
-1. _The lead exists in some unknown state of combination in solution in
-water._ We are greatly indebted to _Dr. Lambe_[390] for the able
-directions which he has afforded us for ascertaining the presence of
-minute portions of lead in water; and we recommend the practitioner, who
-may be engaged in such an investigation, to peruse his work with
-attention. The following are the reagents through which our analysis
-must be conducted.
-
-(_a_) _Sulphuretted hydrogen._ A solution of this gas in distilled water
-is a very delicate test for lead, throwing down a precipitate of a very
-dark brown colour, approaching to black. The competency, however, of
-this test to the discovery of very minute quantities of lead, in certain
-states of combination, has been questioned by _Dr. Lambe_; who was
-enabled to detect the presence of this metal, by other methods, in water
-that manifested no indication with _sulphuretted hydrogen_. He detected
-it, for instance, in the precipitate occasioned in such water by the
-carbonate of potass or soda. In operating on these waters, he noticed
-the following appearances.
-
-  1. _The precipitate, produced as above stated, when re-dissolved in
-    nitric acid, formed a dark cloud with sulphuretted hydrogen._
-
-  2. _Although the sulphuretted hydrogen formed no cloud, the
-    precipitate itself became darkened by it._
-
-  3. _The precipitate re-dissolved in nitric acid_, (as in 1) _formed,
-    with sulphuretted hydrogen, a white cloud._
-
-  4. _Sulphuretted hydrogen neither formed a cloud, nor darkened the
-    precipitate._
-
-  5. _In the cases 2, 3, 4, if the precipitate be heated to redness, in
-    contact with an alkaline carbonate; and after dissolving out the
-    carbonate, it be redissolved in nitric acid; then sulphuretted
-    hydrogen will form a dark cloud with the solution._ In these
-    experiments it is necessary that the acid used to redissolve the
-    precipitate be not in excess; if it should so happen, the excess
-    must be saturated, before the test is applied. It is better to use
-    so little, that some precipitate may remain undissolved. The nitric
-    acid, used in these experiments, should be perfectly pure; and the
-    sulphuretted hydrogen test should be recently prepared by saturating
-    distilled water with the gas.
-
-(_b_) _Sulphate of soda, or potass._ This test will produce a white
-precipitate in water, containing one hundred-thousandth of its weight of
-lead; and is considered by _Dr. Thomson_ as the most unequivocal reagent
-of that metal which we possess. “The precipitate is a fine dense powder,
-which speedily falls to the bottom, and is not re-dissolved by nitric
-acid; no other precipitate can be confounded with it, except _sulphate
-of baryta_, and there is no chance of the presence of baryta in solution
-in water.”[391]
-
-(_c_) _Muriate of soda._ One of the methods of analysis proposed by _Dr.
-Lambe_, consists in precipitating the lead by common salt; but as the
-_muriate of lead_ is partly soluble in water, this test cannot be
-applied to small portions of suspected water. The precipitate must,
-therefore, be collected from two or three gallons, and heated to redness
-with twice its weight of carbonate of soda. The alkaline carbonate is
-then to be dissolved out, and nitric acid added, in order to saturate
-any superfluity; the _sulphuretted hydrogen_ test will then produce its
-indication.
-
-(_d_) _Reduction of the metal._ This is undoubtedly the most
-satisfactory of all the tests; and, except the trouble of collecting a
-large quantity of precipitate, is not embarrassed with any difficulty.
-The precipitate may be mixed with its own weight of alkaline carbonate,
-and exposed either with, or without, the addition of a small proportion
-of charcoal, to a heat sufficient to melt the alkali. On breaking the
-crucible, a small globule of lead will be found reduced at the bottom.
-The precipitate from about fifty gallons of water yielded _Dr. Lambe_
-about two grains of lead.
-
-2. _The lead is dissolved in wine._ For the detection of this dangerous
-fraud, the reagent invented by _Dr. Hahnemann_ affords a ready and
-convenient test. It consists of water saturated with sulphuretted
-hydrogen gas, and acidulated with muriatic acid;[392] this latter
-ingredient is added for the purpose of preventing the precipitation of
-any iron, which the wine might accidentally contain. This liquor will,
-if added in the proportion of one part to two of wine, produce with the
-smallest quantity of lead, a dark coloured, or black precipitate; which,
-if collected, dried, and fused before the blow-pipe on a piece of
-charcoal, will yield a globule of metallic lead. Or we may modify the
-experiment by passing a current of sulphuretted hydrogen gas through the
-wine, having previously acidulated it with muriatic acid, to prevent the
-precipitation of the iron.
-
-A farther proof of the presence of lead in wines is the occurrence of a
-precipitate, on adding a solution of the sulphate of soda.
-
-The most satisfactory proof, however, is derived by distilling off the
-alcohol, and calcining the residuum with charcoal, in order to obtain
-the metallic lead.
-
-The quantity of lead which has been detected in sophisticated wine, may
-be estimated at forty grains of the metal in every fifty gallons,[393]
-but this will of course be liable to vary with the degree of acidity it
-was intended to correct.
-
-3. _The lead is dissolved in oils._ In this case the lead may be
-detected by shaking, in a stopped phial, one part of the suspected oil,
-with two or three parts of water, impregnated with _sulphuretted
-hydrogen_. This test will announce the presence of the deleterious
-metal, by occasioning a dark brown, or black colour.
-
-4. _The lead is mixed with alimentary matter._ _M. Orfila_ has furnished
-us with the following directions for assaying the matter vomited, or
-that which may be found in the digestive canal, after death. “After
-having expressed the fluid portion through a piece of fine linen, it
-must be assayed by the _tests_, which have been already enumerated as
-being capable of detecting the salts of lead; and if the precipitates
-obtained are of a nature to induce a belief, that the fluid contains
-some preparation of this kind, it must be evaporated to dryness, and
-calcined with charcoal in a crucible; when, at the expiration of three
-quarters of an hour, metallic lead will be obtained. If all the
-experiments made on the fluid portion of the matter vomited, for the
-discovery of this poison, should be fruitless, the whole of the solid
-portions, previously dried, should then be calcined with potass and
-charcoal, by which means metallic lead will be obtained.”
-
-
-                           VEGETABLE POISONS.
-
-The poisons of which we are about to offer the physiological and
-chemical history, although more numerous than those which belong to the
-mineral kingdom, are, notwithstanding, of far less importance in a
-forensic point of view. With the exception of opium, and some few
-others, they must be considered as objects of accidental, rather than of
-criminal poisoning; and even with respect to the former narcotic, it may
-be said to afford more frequently the means of destruction to the
-suicide, than to the assassin.
-
-The sensible qualities of smell, taste, and sometimes colour, which so
-eminently characterise deleterious plants, must necessarily render them
-ill calculated to favour that secresy, which constitutes the
-indispensable companion of crime; while their bulk, and the
-pharmaceutical preparation which they require, are alike inconsistent
-with the hope of concealment.
-
-Thus we receive, as it were, from Nature, that protection which art can
-no longer supply; and the commission of crime is either prevented or
-discovered, in cases where the powers of chemistry would fail in its
-detection.
-
-The objects which constitute the vegetable kingdom differ from every
-species of mineral matter, not only in their peculiar organized
-structure, but in the chemical arrangement of their elements; those of
-inorganic matter are generally combined in very simple proportions, as
-one and one, or one and two, &c. whereas in organized bodies, their
-proportions are much more complicated; and _Dr. Ure_ observes,[394] that
-such substances derive the peculiar delicacy of their chemical
-equilibrium, and the consequent facility with which it may be subverted
-and new modelled, to the multitude of atoms grouped together in a
-compound; hence too, as _Mr. Children_[395] has observed, is one reason
-of our utter inability to reproduce even the simplest body of this
-class, when once its elements have been separated; it is not in the
-diversity of these elements, but in the manner in which they are
-grouped, that this peculiarity consists, for, continues the accomplished
-chemist last mentioned, “vegetable substances seldom contain, as
-essential, more than three principles—_oxygen_, _hydrogen_, and
-_carbon_, and sometimes _azote_. With four simple elements then, a brief
-alphabet for so comprehensive a history! has a bountiful Omnipotence
-composed the beautiful volume of the living world, where, turn to what
-page we may, fresh loveliness meets the eye, fresh cause of admiration
-and delight.”
-
-The analysis of vegetable bodies resolves itself into two parts, each of
-which constitutes an equal object of interest to the forensic physician;
-who, it will be shewn, may occasionally derive important information
-from both. The first relates to the discovery of the _proximate_
-principles of a vegetable substance. The second, to that of its
-_ultimate_ elements. By the _proximate_, or, as they are sometimes
-termed, the _immediate_ principles, we mean those compound substances
-which exist in the living plant in a state identical with that, under
-which chemical processes exhibit them, and are chiefly separable by the
-action of different solvents. The number of these principles is
-considerable, as _gum_, _starch_, _sugar_, _gluten_, _extractiue_,
-_tannin_, _oils_, _acid_, _&c. &c._ By the _ultimate_ elements, we
-understand those, of which the _proximate_ are composed, as _oxygen_,
-_hydrogen_, _carbon_, and _azote_. In submitting a plant to destructive
-analysis, for the purpose of obtaining its ultimate elements, we shall
-derive compounds, which formed no part of the vegetable structure, and
-which result from a new arrangement of the elements composing it;
-_acetic_ and _carbonic acids_, for example, are obtained by the
-destructive distillation of several vegetable substances, in which
-neither of these acids existed ready formed, but only their
-elements.[396] It may easily be imagined to what numerous fallacies such
-a law of composition must have given origin, in the earlier periods of
-chemical inquiry; and it is equally evident, that the utmost refinement
-of chemical science, and the most rigorous methods of analysis, will be
-required to enable us to deduce any satisfactory conclusion with respect
-to the quality of a plant, from these data. Such perfection, indeed, has
-not hitherto been attained, but the period is probably not far distant,
-when our most sanguine anticipations upon this point may be realised. We
-have only to trace the history of this branch of chemistry for the last
-century, to become satisfied of its gradual and important progress
-towards such an epoch, and of the improvements of which this department
-of vegetable analysis is farther susceptible; let us, for the sake of
-illustration, only compare the rude results obtained by the academicians
-of Paris, at about the commencement of the seventeenth century, with
-those of _MM. Gay-Lussac_ and _Thenard_[397], or with those, very lately
-instituted in this country by _Dr. Ure_,[398] and we shall perceive that
-while the former of these experimentalists, by the aid of heat, were
-unable to form the slightest distinction between the most inert, and the
-most poisonous species of plants, the latter, by means of the same
-agent, aided by the modern doctrine of equivalent ratios, has succeeded
-in establishing the proportions in which the elements of each vegetable
-body combines; and with such accuracy, as to discriminate between
-substances, which bear the greatest analogy to each other; as between
-the varieties of sugar, and those of oil; and even between common flax,
-and the same substance prepared according to the improved process of
-_Mr. Lee_. This statement is sufficient to show the capability of
-ultimate analysis, on certain occasions, to identify vegetable bodies;
-but we are, at present, scarcely advanced far enough in such an
-investigation, to make it subservient to the detection of vegetable
-poisons. Nor has our knowledge with regard to proximate analysis, been
-less successfully advanced. The late researches of the French and German
-chemists have demonstrated the existence of several new alkaline bodies
-in the class of vegetable poisons, to which some of these plants appear
-to be exclusively indebted for their activity, as the _poppy_,
-_hellebore_, _colchicum_, _&c._; and whose characters are so distinct
-and striking, as to enable the chemist to recognise their presence by
-appropriate re-agents. In other cases, the virulence of a plant would
-appear to depend upon the combination of several[399] proximate
-principles; while in some few instances there exist in the same
-individual vegetable, two distinct elements of activity, as illustrated
-by the interesting history of tobacco.
-
-In cases of vegetable poisoning it will occasionally occur, that some
-remains of the plant may be collected; and seeds, portions of the fungi,
-and leaves, may be found in the contents of the stomach; whence a
-knowledge of botany becomes indispensable. This branch of science is,
-moreover, important to the toxicologist, as enabling him to pursue the
-study of plants with greater precision; for experience has shewn that
-there is a wonderful analogy between the structure of those plants which
-resemble each other in medicinal operation. Thus those which, from their
-dismal and dusky appearance, have been arranged under the title of
-_Luridæ_, are in general highly poisonous; they also possess a very
-peculiar and disagreeable smell, so that Nature has, upon this occasion,
-kindly given us notice of approaching danger, by means of our senses.
-
-Of equal importance with the knowledge of the generic and specific
-characters, is that of their sensible qualities, and the changes which
-these latter undergo by pharmaceutical preparation.
-
-
-                Cl. III. ACRID, or RUBEFACIENT POISONS.
-
-Most of the subjects of this class constitute articles of Materia
-Medica; so that ignorance on the one hand, and accident on the other,
-may render them the unexpected source of mischief. With respect to the
-physiological action of these bodies, the reader has only to refer to
-our classification at page 207, to perceive that it will not admit of
-generalization; for each division, it will be observed, contains
-individuals which belong to the class of acrid poisons.
-
-As the history of most of these articles is to be found in works on
-Materia Medica, we shall not enter so fully into their properties, as we
-might otherwise have considered necessary.
-
-
-                          CAMBOGE or GAMBOGE.
-
-This beautiful gum-resin is obtained by making incisions in the leaves
-and young sprouts of the _Stalagmitis Cambogioides_[400] (Polygamia
-Monæcia—_Nat. ord._ Tricoccæ. _Wild_:) It is first collected, in the
-kingdoms of Siam and Ceylon, in cocoa-nut shells, and is thence
-transferred into large earthen jars, where it remains until it is nearly
-dried to a cake, when it is formed into rolls, and wrapped up in leaves.
-It is imported into Europe[401] in cases and boxes. Its deep yellow
-colour, which is so materially brightened by being wetted, and its
-shining fracture, are characters sufficiently striking to enable the
-practitioner to identify it; and when we add to these the history of its
-habitudes with different menstrua, the chemist will have no difficulty
-in detecting its presence, viz. when triturated with water, two-thirds
-of its substance are speedily dissolved, and a turbid solution results;
-alcohol dissolves nine-tenths, and forms a yellow transparent tincture,
-which is rendered turbid by the addition of water; sulphuric ether
-dissolves six-tenths of the substance; it is also soluble in alkaline
-solutions, and the resulting compound is not rendered turbid by water,
-but is instantly decomposed by acids, and the precipitate so produced is
-of an extremely brilliant yellow colour, and soluble in an excess of
-acid.
-
-Its action upon the animal œconomy is that of a powerfully drastic
-purge. We are, however, not acquainted with any case in which death
-followed its administration. From the experiments made upon animals, it
-would appear to produce its effects by a local action on the textures,
-with which it comes in contact, and it will accordingly be found in the
-third class of our physiological classification, (page 207.)
-
-
-                         WHITE HELLEBORE.[402]
-
-      _Veratrum Album._ (Polygamia—Monæcia—_Nat. Ord._ Coronariæ.
-                        _Linn._—Junci. _Juss._)
-
-This is undoubtedly the true hellebore of the ancients. It is a native
-of the mountainous parts of Greece, Italy, Switzerland, and Russia.
-Those specimens which are cultivated in our gardens flower in July. The
-root is the only part employed in medicine, but every part of the plant
-is extremely acrid and poisonous. Upon the animal œconomy it acts as a
-violent cathartic and emetic; producing bloody stools, excessive
-vomitings, great anxiety, vertigo, tremors, sinking of the pulse,
-syncope, cold sweats, convulsions, and death. There are many cases on
-record, where such effects have followed the ingestion of this plant.
-_Helmont_ reports that a royal prince died in the course of three hours
-after taking a scruple of this poison, which induced convulsions; and
-_Vicat_[403] relates the case of a tailor, his wife, children, and
-workmen, who having taken soup, in which, through mistake, the root of
-white hellebore had been introduced instead of pepper, were seized with
-a universal coldness, and such extreme debility, as to become nearly
-insensible. At the expiration of two hours, the eldest child, who was
-not four years of age, began to vomit copiously, but with considerable
-straining; the rest were shortly after in the same condition. _Vicat_,
-who was called in at this critical period, ordered them to take a
-considerable quantity of warm water and oil; shortly after which he
-administered an infusion of mallow sweetened with honey; by which means,
-we are informed, they were relieved, and ultimately restored. According
-to the testimony of various physiologists, as well as from the
-experiments of _Orfila_, it appears that this plant, if externally
-applied, will produce the same effects. _Etmuller_ says, that the
-external application of the root to the abdomen will produce vomiting;
-and _Schroeder_ observed the same phenomenon to take place in a case
-where it was used as a suppository; the juice of the plant has been also
-applied to the purpose of poisoning arrows. It must, therefore, act by
-being absorbed into the circulating current, thereby destroying the
-energy of the nervous system. It accordingly finds a place in the second
-division of our classification. Late experiments upon this substance
-have shewn that its activity depends upon a peculiar alkaline principle,
-to which the name of _veratria_[404] has been given; and that it exists
-in native combination with an excess of gallic acid, (_super-gallate of
-veratria_).
-
-When taken internally, as a poison, the most effectual antidote is said
-to be a very strong infusion of nut-galls.
-
-
-                    BLACK HELLEBORE. _Melampodium._
-
-   _Christmas-rose._ (Polyandria Polygynia. _Nat. Ord._ Multisiliquæ,
-                     _Linn._ Ranunculaceæ, _Juss._)
-
-This plant, which has derived its name from the dark colour of the root,
-is a native of Austria, the Apennines, and Italy; it has, however,
-obtained a place in our gardens,[405] and from the circumstance of its
-flowering from December till March, it has acquired the name of the
-christmas rose. The fibres of the roots are the parts employed in
-medicine; their odour is fœtid, and their taste bitter and acrid. Its
-action upon the animal œconomy is similar to that of the preceding
-species. _Morgagni_ relates the history of a person who took half a
-drachm of black hellebore, and expired eight hours afterwards. _M.
-Orfila_ states that inflammation of the rectum is a constant occurrence,
-where the animals who have taken this root, have survived its
-administration for a few hours.
-
-
-        FŒTID HELLEBORE. _Helleborus Fœtidus._ _Helleboraster._
-
-This plant is a native of England, growing in shady places, on a chalky
-soil, and flowering in March and April. Like the former species of
-hellebore, it is capable of producing fatal effects. A case is related
-in the _London Chronicle_, 1768, no. 1760, of a child who died in
-consequence of taking the root of this plant in the pulp of an apple.
-
-
-              ELATERIUM. _Wild_, or _squirting Cucumber_.
-
- _Momordica Elaterium_ (Monæcia Monadelphia. _Nat. Ord._ Cucurbitaceæ.)
-
-This plant is a perennial native of the south of Europe, flowering in
-June and July; it is cultivated in England, but does not survive the
-severity of our winters. The fruit (_poma_) has the appearance of a
-small oval cucumber, of a greyish colour, and covered with prickles.
-When fully ripe it quits the peduncal, and casts out the seed and juice,
-with great force, and to a considerable distance, through the hole in
-the base where the foot-stalk is inserted, whence the name of
-_squirting_ cucumber. The author has instituted numerous experiments
-upon this plant, the results of which will be found fully detailed,
-under its history, in the fifth edition of his Pharmacologia.
-
-The plant appears, from the testimony of _Dioscorides_, and other
-writers, to have been employed by the ancient physicians with much
-confidence and success as a cathartic; all the parts of the plant were
-considered as purgative, although not in an equal degree; thus
-_Geoffroy_, “_radicum vis cathartica major est quam foliorum, minor vero
-quam fructuum_.” This question, however, has been very lately set at
-rest, by the valuable experiments of _Dr. Clutterbuck_,[406] which prove
-that the active principle of this plant resides more particularly in the
-juice which is lodged in the centre of the fruit. The forensic
-physician, however, will scarcely be liable to meet with a case of
-poisoning by the fruit of this plant. It is from that preparation of the
-juice, which is admitted into our Pharmacopœia, under the title of
-_Extract of Elaterium_, that we may expect to meet with mischief.
-
-This substance subsides spontaneously from the juice of the fruit; and
-occurs in commerce in little thin cakes, or broken pieces, bearing the
-impression of the muslin upon which it is dried; its colour is greenish,
-its taste bitter, and somewhat acrid; and when tolerably pure it is
-light, pulverulent, and inflammable. Notwithstanding its extreme
-activity, it does not, according to our experiments,[407] contain more
-than a tenth part of active matter, which is a vegetable proximate
-principle, _sui generis_, and to which we have given the name of ELATIN.
-By treating the Elaterium with alcohol, this principle may be obtained;
-it imparts to the spirit a most brilliant, and beautiful grass green
-colour—but see our experiments upon this subject. The action of
-elaterium is that of a most violent drastic cathartic, especially
-affecting the rectum. It destroys life by its local action, and
-consequently finds a place in the third division of our classification.
-
-
-               COLOCYNTH. _Coloquintida_; _Bitter Apple_.
-
-This is the fruit of the _Cucumis Colocynthis_ (Monœcia Monodelphia,
-_Nat. Ord._ Cucurbitaceæ) an annual of Turkey and Nubia. It is of the
-size of an orange, of a yellowish-white colour, devoid of smell, round,
-dry, light, spongy, and smooth on the outside, when ripe; it is
-trilocular, each cell containing many ovate, compressed, whitish seeds,
-enveloped by a white spongy pulp. It is imported into this country,
-after having been peeled, and dried in a stove. Its taste is extremely
-bitter and acrimonious. It acts upon the human body as a powerfully
-drastic purgative. _Fordyce_,[408] relates the case of a woman who was
-subject to colics for the space of thirty years, in consequence of
-having taken an infusion of this fruit in beer. _Tulpius_[409] has also
-furnished us with an account of the tremendous effects produced by an
-overdose of the same article; and _Orfila_ has shewn, with his usual
-accuracy, that it acts not only locally upon the _primæ viæ_, but by
-being absorbed, and carried into the circulation.
-
-
- EUPHORBIUM. _Euphorbia Officinarum_ (Dodecandria Trigynia. _Nat. Ord._
-                    Tricoccæ Lin. Euphorbiæ _Juss._)
-
-This gum resin is imported from Barbary, in drops, or irregular tears;
-its fracture is vitreous; it is inodorous, but yields a very acrid,
-burning impression on the tongue. Its acrid constituent resides
-exclusively in that portion which is soluble in alcohol. This poison has
-been sometimes administered imprudently as a purgative when it has
-produced vomiting, and bloody stools. _Lamotte_ speaks of a clyster
-prepared with it, which proved fatal. It acts as a caustic upon the
-textures with which it comes in contact, and thus destroys life by a
-local action; indeed its nature is so acrid that when applied to the
-hair, or to warts, it causes them to fall off. _Scopoli_ mentions the
-case of a person who, having the eye-lids closed, allowed them to be
-rubbed with the juice of this plant; in consequence of which
-inflammation followed, and the sight was lost. In pulverizing the
-gum-resin, the parmaceutist should take the precaution of previously
-moistening it with vinegar, or the powder will rise, excoriate his face,
-and excite violent inflammation of the eyes. There are many species[410]
-of _Euphorbium_, or _spurge_, which are highly poisonous; and, being
-indigenous, they have frequently proved the cause of mischief; during
-the last summer the author was consulted on the occasion of a family of
-children having been seized with a violent inflammation of the eyes, and
-eruption on the face, when the phenomenon was very satisfactorily traced
-to the action of the _Euphorbia peplus_, which was growing very
-luxuriantly in the garden where the children had been playing.
-
-
-                                SAVINE.
-
-     _Juniperus Sabina._ (Diæcia Monadelphia—_Nat. Ord._ Coniferæ.)
-
-This shrub is a native of the south of Europe and the Levant; but has
-been long cultivated in our gardens. The leaves and tops of the plant
-have a strong, heavy, disagreeable odour, and a bitter, hot taste, with
-a considerable degree of pungency; qualities which depend upon the
-presence of an essential oil. Upon the animal system it acts as a very
-powerful stimulant, and has been received into the list of the materia
-medica, as an active emmenagogue; while it has long enjoyed, amongst the
-vulgar, the reputation of being capable of producing abortion.[411] Upon
-this point we have only to observe, that it does not exert any specific
-action on the uterus; but as a violent medicine, acting upon the general
-system, it might, in common with other stimulants, produce so much
-disturbance as to be followed by abortion. The experiments of _Orfila_
-have shewn that savine exerts a local action, but that its effects
-depend principally on its absorption, through which medium it acts on
-the nervous system, the rectum, and the stomach.
-
-
-                         ACONITE. _Monkshood._
-
-   _Aconitum Napellus_ (Polyandria Trigynia—_Nat. Ord._ Multisiliquæ,
-                     _Linn._ Ranunculaceæ, _Juss._)
-
-There are several species of aconite, all of which are poisonous. The
-_monkshood_ is a well known plant, met with in our gardens, and when
-swallowed in any quantity will produce the symptoms, characteristic of
-vegetable poisons. All the parts of aconite, in the fresh state, when
-chewed, produce a sense of heat, and shortly afterwards a sensation of
-numbness in the lips and gums, which does not subside for several hours.
-
-In ancient authors, we frequently meet with _aconite_ as a poison, but
-it has been fairly questioned whether any particular plant was
-designated by the term[412]; like that of _cicuta_, it seems to have
-been a word expressive of poisons generally. The most powerful form in
-which this vegetable poison exists is in that of extract, or inspissated
-juice[413], and, if prepared according to the improved process of _Mr.
-Barry_,[414] it will prove highly dangerous in small doses. _M. Orfila_
-relates several fatal accidents from the ingestion of this plant; his
-experiments have also shewn that it will produce its effects by an
-external application. We agree, however, with _Mr. Brodie_ in
-considering that it acts, without being absorbed, on the brain, through
-the medium of the nerves; and we have accordingly placed it in the first
-division of our classification.
-
-The plants already enumerated are sufficient to illustrate the symptoms
-and physiological action of the acrid poisons of the vegetable kingdom.
-We shall, therefore, conclude the history of this class with some
-account of the _nitrate of potass_, which has been ranked both by
-_Fodéré_ and _Orfila_ under this division of their classification.
-
-
-                      NITRE. _Nitrate of Potass._
-
-The sensible qualities of this salt are too well known to require any
-description. It generally occurs crystallized in six-sided prisms,
-terminated by dihedral summits. It is composed of one proportional of
-nitric acid, and one proportional of potass. It dissolves in seven parts
-of water at 60°, and in its own weight at 212° _Fah._ Its solution is
-attended with a great reduction of temperature. It is permanent in the
-air, melts when exposed to a moderate heat; and, when cast into moulds,
-constitutes what is known in commerce by the name of _sal prunelle_.
-When mixed with inflammable matter it undergoes, in a strong heat, a
-rapid species of combustion, which, in chemical language, is termed
-_deflagration_. Concentrated sulphuric acid, when poured upon this salt
-in powder, decomposes it at the ordinary temperature, and disengages
-vapours of nitric acid, which are white, and not very abundant.
-
-
-                   _Symptoms of poisoning by Nitre._
-
-This salt, when taken in a large dose, acts violently on the stomach and
-bowels, and occasions syncope and death. There are several cases
-recorded of its having been taken by mistake for _Glauber’s salt_.
-
-On these occasions, the patients have been seized with violent vomiting
-and purging of blood, attended with severe pains in the bowels, and a
-sense of burning heat, referred to the chest and stomach; cold
-extremities, fluttering pulse, laborious breathing, syncope, and death.
-The above effects have been produced by an ounce and a half of nitre;
-although, as _Dr. Gordon Smith_ has observed, the same quantity of this
-salt has been inadvertently swallowed _without_ the production of such
-tremendous consequences.
-
-From the experiments of _Orfila_, it appears that if this salt be
-inserted into a wound, it occasions a fatal gangrene. Its action is
-undoubtedly the effect of its acrid nature, destroying the vitality of
-the textures with which it comes in contact. It is not absorbed.
-
-
-              _Organic lesions discovered by dissection._
-
-In those recorded cases of death from the ingestion of nitre, the
-stomach has been found red, scattered over with blackish spots, and its
-mucous membrane disorganized.
-
-
-            _Chemical processes for the detection of Nitre._
-
-The property which this salt possesses of deflagrating with combustible
-bodies, affords a ready indication of its presence. The process also,
-which we have described under the history of nitric acid, (p. 312) as
-the one suggested by _Dr. Wollaston_, and adopted by _Dr. Marcet_ in his
-examination of sea water, furnishes an elegant mode of ascertaining the
-presence of a nitric salt.
-
-
-                       Cl. IV. NARCOTIC POISONS.
-
-These constitute a class of vegetable poisons, less extensive, perhaps,
-but of far greater importance and interest, than the one we have already
-considered. It would not be easy to enumerate the various purposes to
-which the active imagination of man has applied the tribe of narcotic
-plants. Medicines, poisons, intoxication, and madness, lie concealed
-beneath their juices. They have, in their turn, arrested the pangs of
-disease, and inflicted death upon the unsuspecting object of hatred and
-revenge; they have animated the courage of the warrior, inspired the
-enthusiasm of the poet, soothed the sorrows of the wretched, and
-furnished the debauchee with a daily source of sensual gratification;
-effects which, although apparently incompatible with each other, may be
-commanded by the same substance, in a different dose. It would be
-foreign to the plan of this work to enter into a physiological inquiry
-into the _modus operandi_ of these extraordinary agents; and the author
-relinquishes the labour with less regret, as he has already, in another
-work,[415] very fully considered the several theories which have been
-advanced for its explanation.
-
-
-                      OPIUM, and its PREPARATIONS.
-
-This well known drug is the inspissated juice of the _Papaver
-Somniferum_ (Polyandria Monogynia. _Nat. Ord._ Rhoedææ, _Linn._
-Papaveraceæ _Juss._) obtained by making incisions in the half ripe
-capsules, at sun-set, when the night dews favour the exudation of the
-juice, which is collected in the morning by old women and children, who
-scrape it from off the wounds with a small iron scoop, and deposit the
-whole in an earthen pot, where it is worked by wooden spatulas in the
-sun-shine, until it attain a considerable degree of spissitude. It is
-then formed by the hand into cakes, which are laid in earthen basins to
-be further exsiccated.[416] Two kinds are found in commerce,
-distinguished by the names of _Turkey_, and _East Indian_ opium. The
-latter kind is regarded as being inferior to the former.
-
-_Turkey_ opium occurs in flat pieces, of a solid compact texture,
-possessing considerable tenacity; its specific gravity is 1·336, so
-that, when compared with concrete juices of other plants, it is heavy,
-being exceeded only in this respect by opoponax and gum arabic. It is of
-a reddish-brown, or fawn-colour, and has a peculiar, heavy, and narcotic
-odour; its taste is acrid, bitter, and hot. By long exposure to the air,
-it becomes hard, and breaks with a glimmering fracture, owing to the
-presence of a few saline particles. It is plastic, and when worked with
-the fingers is adherent to them. When brought near a lighted candle it
-inflames, and burns with a brilliant light, but its odour at that time
-is not narcotic. It is partially soluble in water, alcohol, æther, wine,
-vinegar, and lemon-juice. When triturated with hot water, five parts in
-twelve are dissolved, six suspended, and one part remains perfectly
-insoluble, and resembles the gluten of wheat, but is of a dark colour.
-The alcoholic is more highly charged with its narcotic principle than
-the aqueous solution; but spirit, rather below proof, is its best
-menstruum.
-
-Few vegetable substances have been more frequently, or more ably
-submitted to analysis; and the history of the successive steps by which
-our knowledge respecting its composition has advanced, must encourage us
-in hoping that we shall shortly be enabled to identify, by chemical
-tests, the presence of opium, with as little difficulty and as great
-precision as we are already capable of recognising a metallic poison.
-
-According to the latest chemical views respecting the composition of
-this body, it may be stated to consist of the following principles, viz.
-resin, gum, bitter extractive, sulphate of lime, gluten, and the three
-lately discovered bodies, _narcotine_, _morphia_, and _meconic acid_.
-
-In the year 1803, _Derosne_ first obtained from opium a crystalline
-substance, which he found to dissolve in acids, but he does not appear
-to have instituted many experiments, for the elucidation of its nature
-and properties. In 1804 _Seguin_ discovered another crystalline body,
-and although he described many of its properties, what appears very
-extraordinary, he never even hinted at its alkaline nature.
-_Sertuerner_, at Eimbeck in Hanover, had at the same time as _Derosne_
-and _Seguin_, obtained these crystalline bodies, but it was not until
-the year 1817, that he first proclaimed the existence of a vegetable
-alkali, and attributed to it the narcotic powers which distinguish the
-operation of opium; to this body, he gave the name of _Morphia_, and it
-would appear to be the same as the essential salt of _Seguin_. The salt
-of _Derosne_ was also at first mistaken for the same principle, but the
-experiments of _Robiquet_ have pointed out its distinctive properties,
-and it has received the name of _Narcotine_.
-
-_Morphia_, upon which the soporific powers of opium depend, appears to
-exist in native combination with a peculiar acid, to which the name of
-_meconic_ acid has been bestowed. The following are the essential
-characters of this alkaline body, when procured in a state of
-purity.[417]
-
-It crystallizes in fine, transparent, truncated pyramids, the bases of
-which are either squares or rectangles, occasionally united base to
-base, and thereby forming octohedra. It is sparingly soluble in boiling
-water, but dissolves abundantly in heated alcohol, giving rise to an
-intensely bitter solution; in æther it is far less soluble. It has also
-the characters of an alkali; affecting test papers tinged with tumeric
-or violets, uniting with acids and forming neutral salts, and
-decomposing the compounds of acids with metallic oxides. It unites with
-sulphur by means of heat, but the combination is no sooner formed than
-it is decomposed. It fuses at a moderate temperature, when it resembles
-melted sulphur, and like that substance crystallizes on cooling; it is
-decomposed by distillation, yielding carbonate of ammonia, oil, and a
-black resinous residue, with a peculiar smell; when heated in contact
-with air, it inflames rapidly, and like vegetable matter, it leaves a
-carbonaceous residue. When analyzed by means of the deutoxide of copper,
-it yields carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, the atomic proportions of which
-have not yet been ascertained. The nitric acid of commerce, when dropped
-on _morphia_, communicates to it a beautiful red colour. _Sertuerner_
-has given us an account of the effect of the alcoholic solution of
-_morphia_ on himself, and three of his pupils; he found that repeated
-small doses of half a grain produced at first decided excitation; then
-weakness, numbness, and tendency to fainting; after swallowing vinegar
-while in this condition, violent vomiting was excited; in one delicate
-individual, profound sleep intervened, and on the following day he
-suffered from nausea, vomiting, head-ache, anorexia, constipation, and
-heaviness.[418] This case is sufficient to shew, that although _morphia_
-possesses the characteristic powers of opium, its strength is by no
-means commensurate with its supposed state of concentration. When
-uncombined, it exerts little or no action, in consequence of its
-insolubility in water, and in the fluids of the stomach. When, however,
-it is combined with an acid, particularly the acetic, or the _meconic_,
-with the latter of which we have before stated that it exists in opium,
-it displays its properties in a very eminent degree. It is also very
-soluble in oil; and, according to the experiments of _M. Majendie_, the
-compound acts with great intensity.
-
-The _meconic acid_, when separated from the residuum of the magnesian
-salt, as described in the process for the preparation of morphia (_note
-p._ 386) does not appear to possess any medicinal activity. Its
-distinguishing _chemical_ character is, that it produces an intensely
-red colour in solutions of iron, oxidized _ad maximum_; and a deep blue,
-with solutions of the salts of gold. _Narcotine_ is the salt originally
-obtained by _Derosne_, and is supposed by _MM. Majendie_ and _Robiquet_
-to be the peculiar principle which produces the excitement experienced
-by those who take small doses of opium. It may be entirely removed by
-macerating the extract of opium in sulphuric æther.
-
-
-                   _Symptoms of poisoning by Opium._
-
-In considerable doses, the primary action of this substance, as a
-powerful and diffusible stimulant, is not apparent; for the powers of
-life are immediately depressed, drowsiness and stupor succeed, and these
-are followed by delirium, stertorous breathing, cold sweats,
-convulsions, and apoplectic death.
-
-The quantity of opium necessary for the production of such effects must
-be regarded as _relative_. In no two cases can we ensure a similar
-result, by the administration of the same dose. But, of all the
-circumstances capable of modifying the power of this drug, habit is the
-most remarkable; in illustration of which we have only to adduce the
-history of the opium eater, or laudanum drinker; a species of debauchee
-by no means uncommon, as every London chemist can testify, for he
-frequently experiences considerable doubt and difficulty in
-distinguishing persons, to whom habit has rendered large doses of opium
-necessary, from such as purchase it with a view to suicide.[419] The
-lowest fatal dose, to those unaccustomed to it, seems to be about four
-grains; but the Turk will take three drachms in the morning, and repeat
-the same dose at night, without any other effects than that of
-cheerfulness and exhilaration. This temporary impunity, however, is
-dearly purchased by years of suffering and sorrow. The effects of opium,
-says _Russel_, on those who have been addicted to it, are at first
-obstinate costiveness, succeeded by diarrhœa and flatulence, with loss
-of appetite, and a sottish appearance; their memories soon fail, they
-become prematurely old, and then sink into the grave objects of scorn
-and pity.[420]
-
-Where a person has, from accident, or design, swallowed a large dose of
-pure opium, or laudanum, the symptoms produced are so characteristic and
-striking, that the practitioner, who may be summoned to render
-assistance, will have no difficulty in ascertaining their cause.
-
-Insensibility, with a scarcely perceptible respiration, although in some
-cases it is attended with an apopletic stertor; the countenance is livid
-and cadaverous; the skin cold; and the muscles of the limbs and trunk in
-a state of extreme relaxation. The pupils are insensible to the
-impression of light, and the pulse is almost imperceptible. In some
-stages, the patient, by being strongly shaken, may be roused for a few
-moments from the lethargy; there is generally a narcotic odour
-distinguishable in the breath. Vomiting may also take place upon the
-first impression of the laudanum upon the stomach; although after its
-action has been displayed upon the brain, it will be difficult to excite
-emesis by the most powerful means; the reason of which may be very
-satisfactorily deduced from the ingenious experiments of _M. Majendie_
-on the mechanism of vomiting; by which he proves, that without the
-influence of the brain, the muscles, whose actions constitute an
-essential part of the operation, are incapable of performing their duty,
-and that vomiting therefore cannot take place. This is a very important
-doctrine, inasmuch as it suggests to the pathologist several expedients,
-by which he may be enabled to occasion vomiting, by recalling the
-excitability of the brain. The period which will elapse, between the
-ingestion of the poison, and the death of the sufferer, may be stated to
-be from six to twenty-four hours; but it will in each case be liable to
-vary, not only from the quantity of opium swallowed, but from the habit
-and peculiar circumstances of the individual submitted to its operation.
-
-
-                    _Physiological action of Opium._
-
-It is still a question for the decision of future physiologists, whether
-the narcotic principle of opium destroys the functions of the nervous
-system by a local impression upon the stomach,[421] or by being
-absorbed,[422] and brought into contact with the brain in the course of
-the circulation. We are inclined to adopt this latter opinion, and have
-therefore placed _opium_ in the second division of our classification;
-at the same time, we think that it may occasionally produce an effect
-upon the nervous extremities of the stomach, and we have accordingly
-placed an _asterisk_ against the word, by which we denote this double
-mode of operation. But, by whatever medium it may act, it is evident
-that it occasions death by destroying the functions of the brain; in
-consequence of which the muscles of respiration, no longer supplied with
-nervous energy, cease to contract, and the animal dies in a state of
-suffocation.[423]
-
-
-           _Of the treatment in cases of poisoning by Opium._
-
-The first object is the evacuation of the stomach by vomiting; for which
-purpose, the patient should be made to swallow from fifteen grains to a
-scruple of _sulphate of zinc_; or, from five to ten grains of _sulphate
-of copper_ dissolved in water; and the vomiting should be kept up for a
-considerable time, and urged by irritation of the fauces. Where the act
-of vomiting cannot be established, in consequence of the paralysed state
-of the nervous system, cold affusion, applied by means of a shower bath,
-has been said to restore the energy of the brain, and thus to render the
-patient susceptible of the stimulus of an emetic.[424] Venesection has
-also, under the same circumstances, been greatly extolled; and, as
-vascular congestion in the brain is one of the effects of this poison,
-it is reasonable to conclude that, by unloading the vessels of this
-organ, we may restore its lost sensibility. _Tissot_ has strongly
-recommended the practice,[425] and the experiments of _Orfila_ have
-shewn that it never aggravated the symptoms of poisoning by opium, nor
-accelerated the moment of death; but on the contrary, that in some
-instances he found that it restored the animals which would have died,
-if it had not been put in practice. Where the operation is performed,
-the blood should be drawn from the jugular vein, in preference to any
-other. Should these means prove insufficient to provoke vomiting, _M.
-Orfila_ asks, whether one or two grains of _tartarized antimony_,
-dissolved in one or two ounces of water, might not be injected into the
-veins? It was formerly proposed by _Boerhaave_ to empty the stomach of
-its poisonous contents, by the introduction of a syringe; an operation
-which, it is said, has been lately performed with success.[426] Vinegar
-and vegetable acids were long considered as _antidotes_ to opium; but
-the experiments of _M. Orfila_ have clearly established that, as long as
-any portion of the opium remains in the stomach, these potations, so far
-from relieving, aggravate the symptoms of poisoning by this narcotic, in
-consequence of the power which they possess of dissolving it. Where,
-however, the opium has been expelled by vomiting, these acid drinks
-possess the property of _diminishing the consecutive symptoms_, and of
-thus realising the expectations which _Virgil_[427] has so poetically
-raised,
-
-                         ----“_quo non præsentius ullum
-             Auxilium venit, ac membris agit atra venena_.”
-
-The powers of the habit should, at the same time, be supported by
-brandy, strong coffee, and cordials. The sufferer should be kept awake;
-and, if possible, in a continued gentle motion. _Dr. Currie_[428] has
-recommended the affusion of warm water at 106°, or 108°, for removing
-the stupor.
-
-A case is recorded by _Dr. Marcet_, in the first volume of the
-Medico-chirurgical Transactions, where six ounces of laudanum were taken
-by a young man, and remained for five hours in the stomach before any
-remedies were applied for its removal; a strong dose of sulphate of
-copper, however, provoked vomiting, and by judicious treatment he
-eventually recovered.
-
-
-              _Organic lesions discovered on dissection._
-
-It has been very truly remarked that although the instances in which
-opium has proved fatal to human life have been very numerous, yet that
-the accounts which we have received of the appearances of the body _post
-mortem_, are by no means so satisfactory as we could desire. _M. Orfila_
-asserts that no alteration can be discovered on dissection, in the
-digestive canal of persons who have swallowed any narcotic poison; and
-that if facts contrary to this assertion be met with in various authors,
-it is because there have been administered irritating substances capable
-of producing inflammation.[429] The lungs, however, frequently exhibit
-morbid phenomena; their colour is sometimes violet, and frequently a
-deeper red than in the natural state. Their texture is also more dense,
-and less crepitating; and they are marked by livid spots. The blood
-contained in the ventricles of the heart, and in the veins, is said to
-be found in a liquid state; but _Orfila_ advances a diametrically
-opposite opinion, and asserts that it is frequently coagulated. The
-brain and its membranes often exhibit a state of vascular congestion; in
-the case recorded by _Mr. Stanley_, in the sixth volume of the
-_Transactions of the College of Physicians_, the cellular tissue of the
-pia mater was found to contain water.[430]
-
-
-                      _Of the detection of Opium._
-
-There is no mode of identifying opium, whether in a liquid or solid
-form, so satisfactory as that which is at once afforded by its powerful
-and highly characteristic odour. In fatal instances, we shall always
-meet with it in the contents of the alimentary canal, and in such
-quantities as will leave no doubt as to its nature. The chemist may also
-proceed to a farther examination, by obtaining _morphia_ from its
-solution, by a process which we have already described under the
-chemical history of opium.
-
-
-                   BLACK HENBANE. _Hyoscyamus Niger._
-
-   (Pentandria Monogynia. _Nat. Ord._ Luridæ _Linn._ Solaneæ _Juss._)
-
-Henbane is an indigenous annual, frequent on waste grounds, and at the
-sides of roads, particularly on a calcareous soil, flowering in July.
-The whole of the plant is poisonous when eaten; and in the recent state
-the odour of the leaves occasions stupor and delirium. The root of this
-plant when in full vegetation is very powerful; and there are several
-cases on record, where it has been eaten in mistake for parsnips,[431]
-which it strongly resembles in its sweet and agreeable flavour. Its
-operation is very analogous to that of opium; producing sickness,
-stupor, delirium, and coma, with dilation of the pupils.
-
-The pulse, at first hard, gradually becomes weak and tremulous; petechiæ
-frequently make their appearance, and death ensues. Late experiments
-have shewn that a peculiar alkaline body constitutes the active
-principle of this plant, and it has accordingly received, from its
-discoverers _MM. Meissner_ and _Brandes_, the name of _Hyoscyama_.
-
-_Boerhaave_ experienced a trembling and drunkenness, in consequence of
-having prepared a plaister, into whose composition _henbane_ entered as
-an ingredient; and the experiments of _M. Orfila_ have shewn that it
-acts nearly in the same manner, whether applied upon the cellular
-texture, introduced into the stomach, or injected into the veins. Hence
-it follows that the active principle of this plant is carried into the
-circulation, and exerts a remarkable action on the brain and nervous
-system, producing an extraordinary state of delirium, which is succeeded
-by stupefaction. The physician will never probably be called upon to
-investigate a case of wilful poisoning by this narcotic; and should he
-be summoned to attend a person who, through mistake or accident, had
-swallowed it, we can hardly anticipate any peculiar mystery which
-requires elucidation.
-
-There are several other species of henbane, as _hyos. alb. aureus_,
-_physaloides_, all of which are poisonous, although not in the same
-degree as the _hyoscyamus niger_, whose history we have just considered.
-
-
-                   PRUSSIC ACID. _Hydro-cyanic Acid._
-
-
-  The LAUREL (_Prunus lauro-cerasus_) and its distilled water. BITTER
-                   ALMONDS, and their essential oil.
-
-Hydro-cyanic acid exists in a great variety of native combinations in
-the vegetable kingdom, and imparts to them peculiar qualities, which
-have been long known. It is, however, only within a few years, that this
-singular body has been obtained in its separate and independent
-form[432]; indeed it was not until the publication of the celebrated
-memoir of _Gay-Lussac_ upon this subject, in the year 1815, that its
-chemical composition was fully understood. In this memoir, it was
-clearly shewn to consist of a peculiar, gaseous, and highly inflammable
-compound of carbon and nitrogen, to which the name of _cyanogene_ has
-been assigned, and hydrogen; the latter body acting as the acidifying
-principle; whence the term _hydro-cyanic acid_ is very happily contrived
-to express its composition.
-
-When obtained in its most concentrated form, by the process of _M. Gay
-Lussac_,[433] it has the following characteristic properties, viz. At
-ordinary temperatures, it is liquid, colourless, and transparent;
-possessing an extremely powerful odour, very analogous to that of the
-blossom of the peach, or bitter almond tree; its taste is, at first,
-bland and sweetish, but afterwards pungent, bitter, and peculiar. Its
-extreme volatility is such, that when a drop of it is exposed to the
-air, on the end of a glass rod, it is rapidly crystallized. The same
-phenomenon takes place, if a drop be suffered to fall on a sheet of
-paper. Its specific gravity is ·7055; but, when in a concrete form it is
-only ·9, while that of its vapour is ·947. If inhaled, it produces
-almost immediate pain in the head, with deafness, unless very largely
-diluted with air or water.[434] It is decomposed by a high temperature;
-and by the action even of light it is, in the course of a very short
-time, resolved into carbonic acid, ammonia, and carburetted hydrogen, a
-carbonaceous matter remaining behind.[435] When brought near a body in a
-state of combustion, it instantly inflames and burns with a blue light.
-In water it is sparingly soluble; alcohol dissolves it copiously.
-
-The “_medicinal Prussic acid_,” as it has been called, as being the
-preparation lately introduced into medicine,[436] differs only from that
-we have just described, in its degree of concentration. It is, in fact,
-the Prussic acid of _Scheele_, and may be considered as equivalent to
-the preparation of _Gay-Lussac_ diluted with six times its volume, or
-eight times and a half its weight, of distilled water.
-
-The _hydro-cyanic acid_ has been discovered, in a state of perfect
-formation, in a variety of vegetables, whose peculiar odour at once
-announces its presence; such are bitter almonds; the kernels of
-apricots, cherries, particularly the _Cerasa Juliana_, and several
-plums; the leaves of laurel; and peach blossoms; and the bark of the
-_prunus padus_, or bird-cherry tree. The only mineral substance, in
-which hydro-cyanic has yet been detected is the _Fer Azuré_ of
-Hauy.[437] Animal substances, although they do not contain it ready
-formed, yet, when treated with an alkali at a high temperature, they
-yield it in great abundance, in consequence of the combination of its
-elements.
-
-
-               _Action of hydro-cyanic Acid as a Poison._
-
-The experiments which have been instituted with a view to ascertain the
-exact effects of this substance upon animal life, very clearly prove
-that the acid of _Gay-Lussac_ is one of the most active poisons in
-nature; and that the various vegetable bodies, into whose composition it
-enters, exert an energy, corresponding with the quantity of this
-constituent, and the degree of concentration, in which it exists. The
-experiments of _M. Orfila_ were made with Prussic acid, prepared
-according to the process of _Scheele_, and consequently containing a
-great proportion of water, as we have already explained; and yet the
-effects which followed its administration were extremely energetic. From
-the _Annales de Chimie_, for October 1814, we learn that a professor of
-chemistry, having inadvertently left on his table a phial filled with a
-solution of Prussic acid in alcohol, a female servant, who had been
-seduced by its agreeable smell, drank a small glass-full of it, and fell
-dead at the end of a few minutes, as if struck by apoplexy.
-
-The following case is quoted by _Dr. Granville_, from _Hufeland_. _D.
-L._ a robust and healthy man, aged 36 years, while about to be seized as
-a thief by the police officers, snatched a small sealed phial from his
-pocket, broke off the neck of it, and swallowed the greatest part of its
-contents. A strong smell of bitter almonds soon spread around, which
-almost stupefied all present. The culprit staggered a few steps; then,
-without a groan, fell on his knees, and sunk lifeless down to the
-ground. Medical assistance being called in, not the slightest trace of
-pulse or breathing could be found. A few minutes afterwards, a single
-and violent expiration occurred, which was again repeated in about two
-minutes. The extremities were perfectly cold, the breast and abdomen
-still warm, the eyes half open and shining, clear, lively, full, almost
-projecting, and as brilliant as those of the most ardent youth under
-violent emotion. The face was neither distorted nor convulsed, but bore
-the image of quiet sleep. The corpse exaled a strong smell of bitter
-almonds, and the remaining liquid, being analysed, was found to be a
-concentrated solution of Prussic acid in alcohol. Cases also stand
-recorded where, from imprudent exposure to the vapours of the Prussic
-acid, persons have exhibited all the appearances of being poisoned. Some
-writers assert that _Scheele_ himself, who died suddenly, while engaged
-in some inquiries into the nature and formation of this acid, was
-affected by its deleterious qualities. _Orfila_ relates that
-_Scharinger_, Professor at Vienna, prepared some pure concentrated
-Prussic acid, and having diffused a certain quantity of it upon his
-naked arm, he died a short time afterwards. The professor, however, did
-not die in consequence of this accident; it appears, upon inquiry, that
-he was seized with apoplexy while sitting in a coffee house in the
-evening.
-
-The distilled water of the _cherry laurel_[438] has been proved, by
-numerous awful examples, to be a most energetic poison; and from the
-fatal effects to which the officinal preparation of it gave rise, it was
-early expunged from the Pharmacopœia of the London College. In the
-_Philosophical Transactions_ for the year 1731, we shall find the
-history of its effects upon a woman of the name of _Boyce_, who, with a
-view to disprove an allegation, that one _Mary Whaley_ had died in
-consequence of drinking a small quantity of laurel water, swallowed
-three spoonsful, and, afterwards, two more of the same liquid; after
-which she died in a very short time, without making the least complaint,
-and without any convulsion.
-
-_Foderé_ informs us that during the period he was pursuing his studies
-at Turin in 1784, the chambermaid and man servant of a noble family of
-that town, for the purpose of regaling themselves, stole from their
-master a bottle of distilled laurel water; fearful of being surprised,
-they hastily swallowed several mouthsful of it; but they soon paid the
-price of their dishonesty, having almost instantly expired in
-convulsions. Works on Toxicology also abound with the relation of
-experiments, made by numerous physiologists on different animals, with
-this deleterious liquid. Amongst the experimentalists we may enumerate
-the names of _Madden_, _Mortimer_, _Browne_, _Langrish_, _Nicholls_,
-_Stenzelius_, _Heberden_, _Watson_, _Vater_, _Rattrai_, the _Abbé
-Rozier_, _Duhamel_, _Fontana_, and _Orfila_. In this country we have had
-several fatal cases of poisoning by laurel water. In the year 1782, _Dr.
-Price_, of Guildford, having professed to have converted mercury into
-gold, offered to repeat his experiments before a competent tribunal, but
-the unfortunate philosopher put a period to his existence before the day
-appointed for his exhibition, by a draught of laurel water; a mode of
-death which had been, no doubt, suggested by the celebrated trial of
-_Donellan_, for the murder of _Sir Theodosius Boughton_, that had taken
-place in the preceding year, and left a strong impression upon the
-public mind; and whose details, it has been justly observed, are not
-more important from the elucidation of the effects of this poison, than
-from the strange display of professional testimony to which it gave
-origin, (see _Appendix_, page 243.) There are those who still profess to
-believe that the prisoner was unjustly convicted upon that occasion;
-_Dr. Male_ states, without the least reserve, that it was neither proved
-that the deceased was poisoned, nor that any poison had existed.[439] We
-feel no difficulty in declaring that we hold a directly opposite
-opinion; and we consider that many of the weaker points of professional
-evidence delivered on the trial, have received powerful support and
-elucidation from the experiments and observations of later physicians.
-
-Nor are the leaves of this plant wholly free from danger; it is true
-that they have, for many years, been in general use among cooks, to
-communicate an almond or kernel-like flavour to custards, puddings,
-creams, _blanc-mange_, and other delicacies of the table; but the custom
-has not always been harmless; a fact with which it behoves the forensic
-physician to be acquainted. In some parts of the continent milk is
-boiled with one or two leaves of the cherry-laurel in it, and
-_Ingenhouz_ states that he saw people much affected by it. In the
-_Literary Chronicle_ (no. xxii, p. 348, 1819) we find the following
-illustrative case: “Several children at a boarding-school, in the
-vicinity of Richmond, having partaken of some custard flavoured with the
-leaves of the cherry-laurel, four of them were taken severely ill in
-consequence. Two of them, a girl of six, and a boy of five years of age,
-fell into a profound sleep, out of which they could not be roused for
-ten hours, the other two complained of severe pains in the epigastric
-region. By proper medical treatment, they all recovered, after an
-illness of three days.”
-
-The essential oil of _bitter almonds_ is equally poisonous; and the
-water distilled from them is highly dangerous if incautiously taken.
-_Duvignau_ and _Parent_ instituted some experiments upon themselves to
-ascertain this fact; they commenced by taking six drops of the water
-distilled three times, in an appropriate vehicle, without producing any
-other than a transient impression. On taking _eighteen_ drops, however,
-vertigo was experienced, and a disposition to sleep, accompanied with a
-tingling of the ears and dimness of sight. When the dose was increased
-to _twenty-two_ drops, alarming symptoms followed, such as convulsions,
-and vomiting; which, although the experimenters succeeded in allaying by
-antispasmodics, cured them completely of any ulterior wish to ascertain
-how far this substance might be deleterious. A drachm of the distilled
-water of bitter almonds has killed a moderate sized dog. The _essential
-oil_ is proportionally more active; _Mr. Brodie_[440] found that one
-drop, when applied to the tongue of a cat, killed it in five minutes; no
-sooner did the poison come in contact with the organ than the animal was
-seized with convulsions. When two drops of the same oil were injected
-with half an ounce of water into the rectum of a cat, it was not seized
-for two minutes, but it died, as in the former experiment, after the
-expiration of five minutes. While engaged in this inquiry, _Mr. Brodie_
-dipped the blunt end of a probe into the essential oil, and applied it
-to his tongue, with the intention of tasting it, and not having the
-least suspicion that so small a quantity could produce any of its
-specific effects on the nervous system; but scarcely had he applied it,
-when he experienced a very remarkable and unpleasant sensation, which he
-referred chiefly to the epigastric region, but the exact nature of which
-he could not describe, because he knew nothing similar to it. At the
-same time there was a sense of weakness in his limbs, as if he had not
-the command of his muscles; and he thought that he should have fallen.
-The fascinating liqueur noyau, _créme de noyau_, is indebted for its
-flavour to the essential oil of the bitter almond, or peach; and is
-undoubtedly deleterious if taken in excess. In the _Journal des Debats_,
-for 1814, we find that the late _Duke Charles de Lorraine_ had nearly
-lost his life from swallowing some drops of _eau de noyau_ too strongly
-impregnated with the essential oil of peach kernels.
-
-The bitter almond itself, in consequence of the manner in which its
-deleterious principle is modified by the natural state of combination in
-which it exists with sweet oil and albumen, does not produce an effect
-corresponding with the proportion of essential oil which it yields. The
-experiments of _Orfila_, however, prove that the almond, in doses of a
-drachm, is destructive to cats; and there can be no doubt but that it
-would be equally deleterious to the human species; but the quantity
-required for the production of such an effect must ever prevent the
-bitter almond from becoming either the accidental or criminal instrument
-of death.
-
-
-                _Physiological action of Prussic acid._
-
-The numerous experiments, which have been made with this poison, have
-clearly established that its action is upon the nervous system, whose
-energies it would seem to extinguish without any ostensible injury to
-respiration and circulation; for in all those animals which were killed
-by it, in the experiments of _Orfila_, _Brodie_, and others, the heart
-was found acting regularly, and circulating dark coloured blood, and in
-some cases this phenomenon was visible for many minutes after the animal
-was in other respects apparently dead. _Orfila_ considers that he has
-fully demonstrated that these effects depend on the absorption of the
-poison, and its transmission to the brain through the medium of the
-circulation. We have accordingly placed Prussic acid in the second
-division of our classification. The essential oil of bitter almonds
-would, according to the experiments of _Mr. Brodie_, appear to act
-through the medium of the nerves, and it has accordingly been referred
-to our first division. This is undoubtedly an anomaly, which it is not
-easy to reconcile; the experiments, however, which led _Mr. Brodie_ to
-the conclusion appear to us to warrant such a deduction; the
-instantaneousness with which the poisonous effects were produced, and
-the fact of its acting more speedily when applied to the tongue, than
-when injected into the intestines, although the latter presents a better
-absorbing surface, seem to oppose the idea of the oil requiring to be
-absorbed, before it can display its energies. _M. Vogel_, of Munich, has
-lately discovered some facts respecting the composition of this oil,
-which may perhaps hereafter lead to the true explanation of this
-apparent anomaly; this distinguished chemist succeeded in separating the
-Prussic acid from the volatile oil with which it is combined, by
-agitating the whole in a concentrated solution of potass, and distilling
-to dryness; the oil volatilized together with the water, while the
-residuum in the retort was found to contain _cyanide of potassium_. The
-oil, thus separated from the Prussic acid, is without odour, and heavier
-than water; its taste is extremely acrid and burning; in order to
-discover whether it was still poisonous, _M. Vogel_ put a drop of it on
-the tongue of a sparrow, when it died in a few seconds, after a very
-violent convulsion; he also poisoned a dog, two months old, with four
-drops of it; whence he concludes that the volatile oil, divested of its
-hydro-cyanic acid is still a poison, although less energetic than that
-which has not undergone such a change. Do there exist then two
-independent principles of activity in the _bitter almond_? If such a
-fact were established it would not be solitary, for we shall hereafter
-shew that the energies of _tobacco_ are dependant upon an analogous
-arrangement; and that our ignorance of the fact, at first, occasioned
-apparent anomalies, as embarrassing as those which at present involve
-the physiological history of the oil of almonds.
-
-
-                              _Antidotes._
-
-_Orfila_, in his celebrated Toxicology, informs us that vinegar, or the
-vegetable acids; coffee; a solution of chlorine in water; camphor;
-emollient drinks; and bleeding, have been successively, but not
-successfully recommended.[441] With respect to the first of these
-pretended _antidotes_, it deserves notice, that instead of palliating
-the symptoms, it actually quickens, and gives more energy to the action
-of the poison. Coffee, as far as it may stimulate, might be employed
-with advantage; but its powers are not sufficient to meet the exigency
-of the case. Bleeding seems decidedly a fatal measure. The authors of
-the paper on Prussic acid, inserted in the _American Recorder_, consider
-at length the claims of every substance which has been proposed as an
-antidote to it; and they conclude by saying that, we are entirely
-ignorant of a counter-agent of this poison. There is every reason, says
-_Dr. Granville_, to believe that the Prussic acid taken in large
-quantities, and in its concentrated state, is partially, if not wholly
-absorbed ere it _reaches the stomach_;—else how happens it that scarcely
-a minute after its exhibition, I have, in common with others, been
-unable to detect its presence within that organ. If so, then all
-chemical attempts must be nugatory, no decomposition, or fresh
-combinations can be produced to render it harmless; nor will an emetic,
-although so much recommended, be of much more service in freeing the
-system of its presence. But although chemical remedies are thus shewn to
-be of no avail, we may derive from the class of vital agents some
-powerful antidotes; all medicines taken from the class of diffusible
-stimuli will be useful in supporting the powers of the system against
-the sedative influence of the poison. Hot brandy and water, with
-ammonia, camphor, and other similar stimulants, are the resources to
-which we should fly upon such occasions.
-
-
-              _Organic lesions discovered on Dissection._
-
-The recorded dissections of persons, who have been poisoned by Prussic
-acid, are too few and vague to furnish any satisfactory generalization.
-In the case related by _M. Foderé_, of two servants who died after a
-draught of laurel-water, the dead bodies were carried to the University
-at Turin, and examined, when the stomach was found slightly inflamed,
-but the other parts were in a sound state. We feel much hesitation in
-giving credit to this report, the death was too immediate to allow the
-access of inflammation; we are rather disposed to consider the
-appearances of the stomach to have arisen from that species of
-sanguineous congestion, which we have before alluded to, as sometimes
-occurring in cases of sudden death. In other cases the coats of the
-stomach are said to have been black and relaxed; the vessels of the
-brain injected; the lungs have also been described as presenting
-unnatural congestions, and purple spots; and the smell of Prussic acid
-seemed as if it pervaded the whole system, and was embodied, as it were,
-with the very substance of the muscles. In other cases, again, not the
-slightest trace of any morbid appearance could be discovered. Some
-authors have stated that in cases of death by this poison the cornea of
-the eye does not collapse, but retains its fulness, and even its lustre,
-for a considerable period.
-
-
- _Chemical processes by which the presence of hydro-cyanic acid may be
-                             ascertained._
-
-The strong odour yielded by the body on dissection, will furnish a
-satisfactory proof of the presence of this poison. Instances may occur,
-when the practitioner will be called before a tribunal to answer, from
-his professional knowledge, whether a particular case of death can have
-happened from the action of the hydro-cyanic acid, or any of the
-compounds in which it may enter as an ingredient; it therefore becomes
-an object of great importance to inquire whether any farther tests might
-be made subservient to our purpose. _Dr. Granville_, who has directed a
-great share of his attention to the history of this poison, has given
-some directions upon this point, which appear to us to be useful and
-judicious; we shall, therefore, present them to our readers. “After
-collecting the blood contained in the ventricles of the heart, a portion
-of the contents of the stomach, and of the superior intestines, together
-with a certain quantity of any fluid which may chance to be present
-within the cavity of the head, chest, or abdomen; and having agitated
-the mixture for some time in distilled water, and filtered the liquid,
-taking care to keep the whole at a low temperature, proceed to the
-following experiments.
-
-  A. To a small quantity of the liquid add a few drops of a solution of
-    caustic potass in alcohol.
-
-  B. To this, a few drops of a solution of sulphate of iron must be
-    added, when a cloudy and reddish precipitate, of the colour of burnt
-    _Terra-Sienna_ will fall down.
-
-  C. Some sulphuric acid is now to be introduced into the tube, when the
-    colour of the precipitate will instantly change to that of a
-    bluish-green, which by a permanent contact with the atmosphere,
-    becomes gradually of a beautiful blue, assuming at the same time a
-    pulverulent aspect.
-
-                                     OR
-
-  A. Treat the filtered liquid with carbonate of potass.
-
-  B. Add a solution of sulphate of iron with a small quantity of alum: a
-    precipitate, as in the former method, will fall down, which if
-    treated by free sulphuric acid, will also become blue and
-    pulverulent. During this latter part of the experiment, there is a
-    disengagement of carbonic acid.
-
-Evidence may be pushed still farther, and the existence of the Prussic
-acid proved in a most positive manner by decomposing the precipitate,
-above described, and which is a true Prussian blue, so as to separate
-the acid. For this purpose, heat the precipitate with an equal quantity
-of tartaric acid, in a glass retort, at the temperature of 150°, when
-the hydro-cyanic vapours will soon exhale from the mixture, and may be
-received in water.”[442]
-
-
-                    Cl. V. NARCOTICO-ACRID POISONS.
-
-We have already stated our objections to this division, and our apology
-for adopting it. _See page_ 205.
-
-
-                DEADLY NIGHTSHADE. _Atropa Belladonna._
-
- (Pentandria Monogynia. _Nat. Ord._ Luridæ _Linn._ Solanaceæ. _Juss._)
-
-This plant is an indigenous perennial, found in many parts of Great
-Britain, particularly in shady places where the soil is calcareous, in
-large ditches, and on the edge of hilly woods; flowering in June, and
-ripening its berries in September. Every part of the plant is poisonous;
-and numerous instances have occurred where children, and the ignorant,
-or those suffering from hunger, allured by the beautiful and tempting
-appearance of the berries, have fallen victims to their deadly power.
-The root of this plant partakes also of the same qualities as the leaves
-and berries, but is perhaps less virulent.
-
-             “Or have we eaten of the _insane root_,
-             That takes the reasoner prisoner.”—_Macbeth._
-
-The inspissated juice (_Extractum Belladonnæ Pharm. Lond._) is also
-extremely poisonous, when properly prepared; but, as usually met with in
-commerce, it is of very variable strength; when prepared according to
-the improved process of _Mr. Barry_, its activity is so considerable
-that a dose of two grains is followed by unpleasant effects. (_See an
-account of its effects in the Pharmacologia_, _vol._ 2, _p._ 199.) _M.
-Brandes_ has lately ascertained that the active principle of this plant
-is a peculiar alkaline body, to which he has assigned the name of
-_atropia_.
-
-
-                 _Symptoms of poisoning by Belladonna._
-
-Shortly after the ingestion of the berries, leaves, or root, of this
-plant, the patient complains of extreme dryness of the lips, tongue,
-palate, and throat; the deglutition becomes difficult, and the pupil of
-the eye immoveably dilated; nausea, rarely followed by vomiting;
-symptoms of intoxication succeed, accompanied with fits of laughter,
-dreadful ravings, violent gestures of the body, and continual motion of
-the hands and fingers; sometimes the patient sinks into a state of
-fatuity, but rarely of stupor; redness and tumefaction of the face, a
-low and feeble pulse, paralysis of the intestines, livid spots on
-different parts of the body, profuse sweats, convulsions, and death. In
-the cases where recovery has taken place, there has been an insensible
-restoration to health and reason, without any recollection of the
-preceding state.
-
-
-                 _Physiological action of Belladonna._
-
-The results of the experiments of _Orfila_ authorise us to arrange the
-nightshade under the second division of our classification; for it is
-evidently absorbed, carried into the circulation, and is thus enabled to
-act upon the nervous system, and particularly on the brain. At the same
-time it exerts a local action upon the stomach, although less violent
-than that occasioned by the acrid poisons. It, moreover, appears on some
-occasions to act directly through the medium of the nerves, like those
-substances which constitute our first class; or else how shall we
-explain the fact of the pupil of the eye becoming permanently dilated,
-by the contact of the belladonna with the tunica conjunctiva? It would,
-therefore, appear that this plant unites within itself all the three
-great modes of action, upon which we have attempted to found our
-physiological arrangement of poisons, as expressed by the tabular
-classification at page 207.
-
-
-              _Organic lesions discovered on dissection._
-
-The bodies of those who have perished by belladonna, are extremely prone
-to decomposition; they soon putrefy, swell remarkably, and are covered
-with livid spots; blood flows from the mouth, nose, and eyes, and the
-stench is insufferable. The stomach and intestines will sometimes
-display extensive marks of inflammation, extending in some cases to the
-mesentery and liver; and several cases are recorded in which the stomach
-appeared ulcerated. The lungs are usually found livid, gorged with
-venous blood, and studded with black spots; the heart has been also
-observed to be livid.
-
-
-            _Modes of detecting the presence of Belladonna._
-
-Where the berries of this plant have been swallowed, we shall generally
-detect them in the matter vomited; or, in the event of death, in the
-stomach, on dissection, for they would appear to be very indigestible;
-in a case of poisoning by this plant, recorded in the history of the
-French Academy for the year 1706,[443] the stomach was found to contain
-some berries of the belladonna crushed, and some seeds. Where the
-quantity of the plant is sufficient, we may proceed to identify it, by
-obtaining _atrophia_[444] from it. For this purpose, the leaves, or the
-crushed berries, or any other part of the suspected plant, must be
-boiled in distilled water; the decoction must then be pressed out, and
-filtered; after the albumen has been thrown down by a little sulphuric
-acid, potass must be added as long as any precipitate is produced; when
-the precipitate is to be washed in pure water, re-dissolved in muriatic
-acid, and re-precipitated by ammonia. This last result will be
-_atropia_. It is white, and collects in acicular crystals, insipid,
-little soluble in cold water, or even in alcohol, but very soluble in
-this latter fluid at a boiling temperature, from which, however, it is
-deposited on cooling.
-
-
-             STRAMONIUM. _Thorn-Apple._ _James-town Weed._
-
-   _Datura Stramonium_ (Pentandria Monogynia. _Nat. Ord._ Solanaceæ,
-                       _Linn._ Solaneæ, _Juss._)
-
-The thorn apple is an annual plant, a native of America, which gradually
-diffused itself, from the south to the north, and is now naturalized to
-this country, and is to be found very commonly about London growing on
-dunghills, and by road sides. It flowers in July and August. Every part
-of this plant is a strong narcotic poison, producing vertigo, and most
-of those symptoms which we have described as the effects of belladonna,
-although the former plant appears to excite the brain more violently.
-_Dr. Barton_ mentions the case of two British soldiers, who ate it by
-mistake, for the _chenopodium album_; one became furious, and ran about
-like a madman; and the other died, with the symptoms of genuine tetanus.
-In the fifth volume of the _Edinburgh Medical and Philosophical
-Commentaries_, two cases are related by _Dr. Fowler_; and others are to
-be found in the writings of _Haller_, _Krause_, _Sproegel_, _Gmelin_,
-and _Orfila_, illustrative of the effects of this plant upon the human
-species. There is reason to believe that this plant has been long known,
-and that it has been very generally used by uncivilized nations, on
-account of the narcotic effects which it occasions.
-
-
-                     TOBACCO. _Nicotiana Tabacum._
-
-  (Pentandria Monogynia. _Nat. Ord._ Luridæ, _Lin._ Solaneæ, _Juss._)
-
-Tobacco is an annual plant, a native of America, from whence it was
-imported into Europe. We learn from _Humboldt_ that it has been
-cultivated from time immemorial by the native people of the Oroonoko;
-and was smoked all over America at the time of the Spanish conquest.
-_Hermandez de Toledo_ sent it into Spain and Portugal in 1559, when
-_Jean Nicot_[445] was Ambassador at the court of Lisbon, from Francis
-II, and he transmitted, or carried either the seed, or the plant to
-_Catherine de Medicis_, as one of the wonders of the new world, and
-which, it was supposed, possessed virtues of a very extraordinary
-nature. This seems to be the first authentic record of the introduction
-of this plant into Europe. In 1589 the Cardinal _Santa Croce_, returning
-from his nunciature in Spain and Portugal to Italy, carried thither with
-him tobacco; and we may form some notion of the enthusiasm with which
-its introduction was hailed, from a perusal of the poetry which the
-subject inspired. It is said that the smoking tobacco was first
-introduced by _Sir Walter Raleigh_ on his return from America; and the
-avidity with which the custom was immediately adopted is shewn by the
-philippic written against it by King James, entitled the “_Counterblaste
-to Tobacco_.”
-
-As an object of Medical Jurisprudence, its claims to our attention are
-numerous and important; not only as having occasionally been the means
-of destroying human life, but as furnishing, in its most romantic
-history, a striking illustration of the triumph of popular opinion over
-a series of legislative enactments[446] which had no other origin than
-that of ignorance and prejudice.
-
-Tobacco was at one period of our history raised to a considerable extent
-in Yorkshire; but the cultivation of it for the purposes of trade have
-been long prohibited; and this country, as well as the greater part of
-Europe, is chiefly supplied from Virginia, where the plant is cultivated
-in the greatest abundance. The recent leaves do not possess any
-considerable odour, nor have they much flavour; when dried, however,
-their odour becomes strong, narcotic, and somewhat fœtid; their taste
-bitter, and extremely acrid. We have stated, upon another occasion,[447]
-that tobacco would appear to contain two independent elements of
-activity, an essential oil, and a proximate principle, of an acrid
-nature, to which _Vauquelin_ has bestowed the name of _Nicotin_. The
-essential oil is an extremely virulent poison. _Mr. Barrow_, speaking of
-the use which the Hottentots make of it for destroying snakes, says, “A
-Hottentot applied some of it from the short end of his wooden
-tobacco-pipe to the mouth of a snake, while darting out his tongue. The
-effect was as instantaneous as an electric shock; with a convulsive
-motion that was momentary, the snake half untwisted itself, and never
-stirred more; and the muscles were so contracted, that the whole animal
-felt hard and rigid, as if dried in the sun.” The author has ventured a
-conjecture in his _Pharmacologia_,[448] with respect to this virulent
-oil, which he takes this opportunity of repeating, that “_the juice of
-cursed hebenon_,” by which, according to _Shakspeare_, the King of
-Denmark was poisoned, was no other than the essential oil of tobacco.
-
-                     ----“Sleeping within mine orchard,
-               My custom always of the afternoon,
-               Upon my secure hour thy uncle stole,
-               With juice of _cursed hebenon_ in a vial,
-               And in the porches of mine ears, did pour
-               The leperous _distilment_.”
-
-In the first place, the learned commentator _Dr. Gray_ observes, that
-the word here used (_hebenon_) was more probably designated by a
-_metathesis_, either of the poet or transcriber, for _henebon_, i. e.
-henbane. Now it appears from _Gerarde_ that _tabaco_ was commonly called
-“_henbane of Peru_” (Hyoscyamus Peruvianus); and when we consider how
-high the prejudice of the court ran against this herb, as so strikingly
-evinced by the ‘_Counterblaste_’ of King James, it seems very likely
-that _Shakspeare_, who was fond of playing the courtier, should have
-selected it, as an agent of extraordinary malignity, upon such an
-occasion. No preparation of the _hyoscyamus_ with which we are
-acquainted, would produce death by an application to the ear; whereas
-the essential oil of tobacco might, without doubt, occasion a fatal
-result. The term _distilment_ has also called forth a remark from
-_Steevens_, which is calculated to add a little farther weight[449] to
-our conjecture; “surely” says he, “this expression signifies, that the
-preparation was the result of a _distillation_.”
-
-
-                  _Symptoms of poisoning by Tobacco._
-
-The leaves of tobacco, whether whole, or reduced to powder, as they are
-daily met with in commerce, or in the form of infusion in water or wine,
-or in the state of smoke, are endued with poisonous properties of
-extreme energy. Their administration is shortly followed by vertigo;
-severe nausea; vomiting; a general tremor of the body, which is rarely
-the result of any other poison; cold sweats; syncope; and death. The
-author remembers witnessing a lamentable exemplification of the action
-of tobacco upon a person labouring under a strangulated hernia. The
-patient had been under the care of a medical practitioner in the
-vicinity of London, who after repeated and fruitless efforts to return
-the intestine, injected an infusion of tobacco into the rectum, and sent
-him in a carriage to the Westminster hospital, for the purpose of
-undergoing the operation; but the unfortunate man expired very shortly
-after his arrival, in consequence of the effects of the tobacco clyster.
-The external application of tobacco, in the form of cataplasm, or
-infusion, will occasion all the effects above related. A woman applied
-to the heads of three children afflicted with _tinea capitis_, a
-liniment consisting of powdered tobacco and butter, soon after which
-they experienced vertigo, violent vomiting, and fainting.[450]
-
-It was formerly a practice to inject the smoke of tobacco into the anus,
-by means of a bellows of a peculiar construction, in cases of suspended
-animation, with a view to _stimulate_ the rectum, and thereby to revive
-the vital powers; we have already commented upon this most dangerous and
-mistaken notion, (_see page_ 88.)
-
-In the process of _smoking_ tobacco, the oil is separated, and being
-rendered empyreumatic by heat, it is thus applied to the fauces in its
-most active form; whence vertigo, nausea, and all its characteristic
-symptoms speedily arise upon that occasion; although the system becomes
-easily habituated to the action of this narcotic, and we continually see
-a large portion of the community using it daily, in various ways, and in
-great quantities, as a luxury, without experiencing any other bad effect
-than that which arises from their inability to relinquish the habit.
-
-The well known errhine, _snuff_, is prepared from the dried leaves of
-tobacco, and possesses all the powers of the plant. The celebrated
-_Santeuil_ experienced vomiting and horrible pains, amidst which he
-expired, in consequence of having drank a glass of wine, into which some
-Spanish snuff had been introduced.[451]
-
-
-                   _Physiological action of Tobacco._
-
-The deleterious effects of this plant appear to depend on an especial
-action upon the nervous system; but farther experiments are required to
-establish through what medium its powers are conveyed to the sensorium.
-_Orfila_ concludes that the active part of the plant is absorbed, and
-carried into the circulation. _Mr. Brodie’s_ experiments, however, would
-lead to the conclusion that it operates through the medium of the
-nerves; and, what is extremely singular, they shew that the _essential
-oil_ operates very differently from the _infusion_ of tobacco; for that
-while the former appears to act exclusively on the brain, leaving the
-power of the circulation unimpaired, the latter acts on the heart at
-once, suspending its action even before the animal ceases to respire,
-and kills by producing syncope. This apparent anomaly at first led _Mr.
-Brodie_, as he has since informed the author, to suspect the accuracy of
-his experiments; but their careful repetition rendered this impossible.
-We suggested to him, whether a probable explanation might not be found
-in the late chemical results respecting the composition of tobacco,
-which seemed to shew that this plant possesses two active elements.[452]
-
-
-                        HEMLOCK. _Cicuta._[453]
-
-  _Conium[454] Maculatum_ (Pentandria Digynia. _Nat. Ord._ Umbellatæ.)
-
-Hemlock is a biennial, umbelliferous, indigenous plant, growing very
-commonly about the sides of fields, under hedges, and in moist shady
-places. It is at once distinguished from other umbelliferous plants,
-with which it may be confounded, by its _large_ and _spotted_ stem, the
-dark and _shining colour of its lower leaves_, and their _disagreeable
-smell_; which, when fresh and bruised is said to bear a strong
-resemblance to that of the urine of a cat. Many[455] cases of persons
-who have been poisoned by this plant are to be found in the writings of
-different toxicologists. The extract, if properly prepared, is a very
-energetic substance, and gives rise, in large doses, to all the symptoms
-which we have so often described as the result of narcotic poisons. In
-those fatal cases, where the bodies have been examined, _post mortem_,
-inflammation of the stomach, and sanguineous congestion in the brain,
-have been the most prominent phenomena. It would appear that the active
-element of this plant is absorbed and carried into the circulation,
-through which medium it exerts its action on the nervous system, and
-more particularly on the brain. At the same time it seems to excite a
-local irritation, capable of producing an inflammation more or less
-violent. The best antidote is vinegar, after the stomach has been
-evacuated, and the cerebral excitement reduced by bleeding and purging.
-
-The _Cicuta Virosa_, or _water hemlock_, with which the _conium
-maculatum_ has been often confounded, is still more virulent; it is
-however to be distinguished from the latter, by having its hollow roots
-always immersed in water, while those of the _conium_ never are. _M.
-Orfila_ has related several cases of poisoning by the _water hemlock_.
-
-
-                              NUX VOMICA.
-
- This is the seed of the _Strychnus Nux Vomica_ (Pentandria Monogynia,
-                     _Nat. Ord._ Apocyneæ, _Juss._)
-
-The tree[456] which produces these seeds grows in Ceylon, upon the coast
-of Coromandel, and in Malabar. The nux vomica is round and flat, about
-an inch broad, and nearly a quarter of an inch thick, with a prominence
-in the middle on both sides, of a grey colour, covered with a kind of
-woolly matter, but internally hard and tough. The kernel discovers to
-the taste a considerable bitterness, but makes little or no impression
-on the organs of smell. There is a popular belief that this substance is
-poisonous to all animals, except man. Instances, however, are not
-wanting to illustrate its deleterious effects upon the human species. It
-proves fatal to dogs in a very short period; it has also poisoned hares,
-foxes, wolves, cats, rabbits, and even some birds. _Loureiro_ relates
-that a horse died in four hours after taking a drachm of the seed in an
-half roasted state. Its effects, however, on different animals, and even
-on those of the same species, are somewhat uncertain, and not always in
-the proportion to the quantity given. With some animals it produces its
-effects almost instantaneously: with others, not until after the lapse
-of several hours, when laborious respiration, followed by torpor,
-tremblings, coma, and convulsions usually precede the fatal spasms, or
-_Tetanus_, which so especially distinguishes the operation of this
-poison. _Hoffman_ reports the case of a young girl of ten years of age,
-who, labouring under an obstinate quartan fever, took, at two doses,
-fifteen grains of nux vomica, and died very shortly afterwards. _MM.
-Pelletier_ and _Caventou_ have discovered in these seeds, a peculiar
-proximate principle, to which their virulence is owing; it was
-originally named _Vauqueline_, in honour of the celebrated French
-philosopher, but in deference to the opinion of the French Academy of
-Sciences, the discoverers have substituted the name _Strychnia_,[457]
-because “a name dearly loved, ought not to be applied to a noxious
-principle!”
-
-_Strychnia_ is highly alkaline, and crystallizes in very small
-four-sided prisms, terminated by four-sided pyramids; its taste is
-insupportably bitter, leaving a slight metallic flavour, and is so
-powerful as even to be perceptible when a grain is dissolved in eighty
-pounds of water;[458] it has no smell. So extreme is its activity upon
-the animal system, that in doses of half a grain it occasions serious
-effects, and in larger ones, convulsions and death. It is, perhaps, the
-most powerful, and, next to _hydro-cyanic acid_, the most rapid of
-poisons. _M. Majendie_ has killed a dog with one-eighth of a grain; and
-the editor of the _Edinburgh Medical and Surgical Journal_ has seen one
-die in two minutes after the injection of one-sixth of a grain into the
-cavity of the pleura.
-
-Nux vomica is supposed by _Orfila_ to exert a specific action on the
-spinal marrow, thereby producing tetanus, immobility of the thorax, and
-consequently asphyxia, of which the animal dies. That this effect is
-produced by the absorption of the poison, and its passage into the
-circulation, is clearly established by the interesting and important
-experiments of _M. Majendie_.[459]
-
-
-                           COCCULUS INDICUS.
-
-This is the fruit of a shrub (_Menispermum Cocculus_) which grows
-naturally in the sand, in the midst of the rocks, on the coast of
-Malabar, in the island of Ceylon, and in other parts of the East Indies.
-The berries are imported into this country in a dry and shrivelled
-state. In India they are employed for killing fish, which they
-intoxicate and poison, when thrown into fish ponds. _M. Goupil_, a
-physician of Nemours, communicated to the Society of Medicine some
-interesting facts on the subject of this poison;[460] and he has shewn
-that it is not only destructive to fishes, but also to different
-carnivorous quadrupeds, and, very probably, to man. He also states that
-the poisonous principle of this substance is not sensibly changed by the
-gastric juices, and the vital action of the organs of digestion; but, on
-the contrary, that it passes into the absorbent system with all its
-properties unimpaired; and that the flesh of those fishes which have
-eaten it, irritates the stomach and bowels of the animals to which it is
-given, nearly in the same manner as the _Cocculus Indicus_ itself. All
-the fishes who eat it do not die in an equal space of time. _Roach_,
-_pollard_, _breme_, _perch_, _tench_, and _barbel_, are affected in an
-order corresponding with that in which they are here arranged; the
-_roach_ is killed the easiest of all; the _barbel_ is the last to die,
-and is moreover said to be, of all fish, the one whose flesh the most
-frequently occasions accidents in those animals who eat it; probably,
-says _M. Goupil_, because these fish, taking a longer time to die, the
-poison is longer subjected to the action of the digestive juices, and a
-considerable quantity of it is consequently absorbed.[461]
-
-Late experiments[462] have shewn that the active principle of the
-_cocculus Indicus_ is an alkaline body, crystallizable, bitter, and
-extremely poisonous; to this principle, _M. Boullay_ has given the name
-of _picrotoxine_, and the experiments of _M. Orfila_ have confirmed the
-idea of its constituting the only active element of the seeds.
-
-
-                          POISONOUS MUSHROOMS.
-
-The common mushroom, or champignon, (_Agaricus Campestris_) has been
-long esteemed an article of epicurean delicacy; and is eaten in its
-fresh state either stewed or boiled; and as a preserve, in the form of
-pickle or powder. Its juice, moreover, furnishes the sauce so well known
-by the name of _ketchup_,[463] or _catsup_. _Mr. Miller_ informs us that
-the true eatable mushroom may be easily distinguished from the poisonous
-and unpleasant species by the following characters. “When young, it
-appears of a roundish form, smooth, like a button; which together with
-its stalk, is white, especially the fleshy part of the button; the gills
-within, when broken, are livid. As it grows larger, it expands its head
-by degrees into a flat form; the gills underneath are at first of a pale
-flesh-colour, but become blackish on standing.” There are besides a vast
-number of species which may be eaten with perfect impunity; the Agaricus
-_Procerus_, or tall mushroom, is sometimes exposed for sale in Covent
-Garden market, and is quite harmless; although, when preserved in
-pickle, it is very apt to run into the vinous fermentation. With equal
-safety the Agaricus _Pratensis_, or Scotch bonnet, as it has been
-called, may be eaten; it occurs in those patches which are well known by
-the popular name of _fairy rings_. The Agaricus _deliciosus_ is
-considered by _Withering_ to have been the mushroom which formed the
-vehicle of poison to _Claudius Cæsar_, as related at page 134 of this
-volume, and which has been celebrated by the satiric pen of _Juvenal_,
-and the epigrammatic muse of _Martial_; a species of mushroom, observes
-_Withering_ which is still highly esteemed in modern Italy, as it was in
-ancient Rome. _Schæfer_ and _Clusius_, however, consider the plant in
-question to have been the Agaricus _Xerampelinus_, a species which
-although esculent, has a strong, and by no means an agreeable flavour.
-The common champignon has never, as far as we can learn, produced any
-mischief, although a popular opinion prevails that soil, shade, and
-other local circumstances, may render it virulent. If any unpleasant
-symptoms were to follow its ingestion, we should be inclined to regard
-them as the result of the peculiar idiosyncrasy of the individual,
-rather than as the consequence of an _absolute_ poison; indeed a
-question has been raised how far such an explanation may not apply to
-all the cases of poisoning from this tribe of plants; for it has been
-observed that in many parts of Europe several of those species of
-mushroom are eaten with impunity, that are regarded by us as most
-virulent poisons; of this number we may reckon the Agaricus _Piperatus_,
-or _Pepper Agaric_, which is eaten in great quantity by the Russians,
-who fill large vessels with them in the autumn, seasoning or pickling
-them with salt, and then eating them in the ensuing lent.[464] There is,
-however, too much direct evidence in favour of the existence of an acrid
-poison in certain _Agarics_, to allow the supposition of their being
-_relative_[465] in their operation, as exemplified in the history of the
-_Agaricus Muscarius_, or _Bugagaric_, which is so called from its power
-in destroying these insects; and for which purpose the inhabitants of
-the north of Europe infuse it in milk, and set it in their windows. It
-constitutes the _Mouchomore_ of the Russians, Kamtschadales, and
-Koriars, who use it for the sake of intoxication; upon some occasions
-they eat it dry, but generally it is steeped in a liquor made with the
-_Epilobium Angustifolium_; upon drinking which, they are seized with
-convulsions in all their limbs, followed by raving delirium: an effect
-which renders it a desirable potation[466] to those who intend to
-accomplish any desperate act, or premeditated assassination. It is also
-stated that those who drink the urine of persons intoxicated by this
-agaric, experience the effects of the mushroom. _Withering_,[467] who
-has been very assiduous in the display of this species, acknowledges ten
-varieties, all of which are natives of Britain. The _Agaricus
-Semi-globalus_ of this botanist, and which is identical with the A.
-_Glutinosus_ of Curtis, is extremely poisonous, and has proved fatal in
-several instances in this country. There are a great many other species
-equally destructive, but notwithstanding the labour that has been
-bestowed upon this branch of natural knowledge, much remains to be
-explained. The ancients appear to have taken considerable pains in
-discriminating between esculent and poisonous fungi; among the moderns,
-_Clusius_ has furnished a mass of information. _Withering_ has described
-with great botanical minuteness and accuracy the different species and
-varieties of this extensive genus of the cryptogamia; but he has failed
-in pointing out the poisonous, from the esculent and harmless species.
-_Orfila_, in his late lessons on Poisons,[468] has bestowed considerable
-labour with a view to establish a practical distinction, and has
-enriched his work with highly illustrative engravings. Upon the present
-occasion, it is scarcely necessary to observe, that it would be foreign
-to the plan of this work to enter into such botanical details as the
-full elucidation of this subject would require; the research would, in
-itself, occupy a quarto volume; we must therefore rest satisfied with
-general observations. The following indications should excite a
-suspicion of mushrooms. A marshy and shady locality; an ugly or lurid
-physiognomy; a glairy or moist surface; a change of colour when cut, and
-a soft, porous, and moist texture; a virulent smell; a bright colour, or
-a combination of distinct colours. We ought also to reject as dangerous
-all those which have bulbous and soft stems, or which have fragments of
-skin glued to their surface.
-
-
-                 _Symptoms of poisoning by Mushrooms._
-
-Exhilaration of spirits, laughter, vertigo, sickness, griping pains,
-vomiting, and purging, suffusion of the eyes, stupor, cold sweats,
-syncope, convulsions, death. Numerous records of sickness and death
-might be adduced in illustration of this subject. The celebrated
-musician, _Schobert_, and, with the exception of one child, his whole
-family, together with a friend and a physician who dined with him, were
-all fatally poisoned by a dish of mushrooms, which he had himself
-gathered in the fields of Saint Gervais, a village in the environs of
-Paris. It is not known to what species the plants belonged. In the
-_Gazette de Santé_, for August 1812, we have the following narrative.
-“_M. Dufour_, a physician of Montargis, gathered in the neighbouring
-forest some mushrooms, which were stripped of their skin, and their
-stem, cut into pieces, and cooked in their juice with butter and fine
-herbs, under a camp oven. They were served up at table. The servant
-girl, aged twenty years, who had eaten the greatest quantity, very
-shortly complained of confusion of the head, giddiness, and a slight
-heaving of the stomach; her face was red and inflamed, the eyes starting
-and lively, the pulse full and undulating. The eldest daughter of _M.
-Dufour_ experienced the same symptoms without any nausea. A little
-child, eighteen months old, that had only eaten some bread dipped in the
-gravy, slept quietly for sixteen hours, contrary to his usual custom,
-and exhibited no other remarkable phenomenon. The other child, aged
-eleven years, complained of confusion of the head and intoxication; the
-parents did not experience any ill effects. Upon investigation it was
-discovered that two mushrooms of the _Agaricus Muscarius_, having been
-confounded with the proper one, had entered into the composition of the
-dish.”
-
-Amongst the cases which have occurred in this country, we may
-particularize that related by _Mr. E. Brande_, in the third volume of
-the _London Medical and Physical Journal_, p. 41, “J. S. gathered early
-in the morning of the third of October, in the Green Park, what he
-supposed to be small mushrooms; these he stewed with the common
-additions in a _tinned iron_[469] saucepan. The whole did not exceed a
-tea-saucer full, which he, and four of his children ate the first thing,
-about eight o’clock in the morning, as they frequently had done without
-any bad consequence; they afterwards took their usual breakfast of tea,
-&c., which was finished about nine, when _Edward_, one of the children
-(eight years old) who had eaten a large proportion of the fungi, was
-attacked with fits of immoderate laughter, nor could the threats of his
-father or mother restrain him. To this succeeded vertigo, or stupor; the
-pupils of his eyes were, at times, dilated to nearly the circumference
-of the cornea, and scarcely contracted at the approach of a strong
-light; his breathing was quick, his pulse very variable, at times
-imperceptible, at others too frequent and small to be counted, latterly
-very languid; his feet were cold, livid, and contracted; he sometimes
-pressed his hands on different parts of his abdomen, as if in pain, but
-when roused and interrogated respecting it, he answered yes, or no,
-evidently without any relation to what was asked. About the same time
-the father, aged forty, was attacked with vertigo, and complained that
-every thing appeared black, then wholly disappeared; to this succeeded
-loss of voluntary motion and stupor; in about ten minutes he gradually
-recovered, but complained of universal numbness and coldness, with great
-dejection, and a firm persuasion that he was dying; in a few minutes he
-relapsed, but recovered as before, and had several similar fits during
-three or four hours, each succeeding one being less violent, and with
-longer intermission than that preceding. _Harriet_, twelve years old,
-who had eaten but a very small quantity, was also attacked at the time
-with slight vertigo. _Charlotte_, a delicate little girl, ten years of
-age, who had eaten a considerable quantity, was suddenly attacked in the
-presence of _Dr. Burges_ and myself, with vertigo and loss of voluntary
-motion. _Martha_, aged eighteen, who had eaten a small proportion, was
-attacked with similar symptoms.” By judicious treatment they all
-recovered. Upon investigation _Mr. Sowerby_ determined the mushroom to
-have been a variety of the A. _glutinosus_ of Curtis (_Flora
-Londinensis_) the same with _Dr. Withering’s_ A. _semi-globatus_; and
-yet no notice of its deleterious properties is taken by either of these
-botanists.
-
-A less fortunate case of poisoning by _Fungi_ is related in the
-twentieth volume of the same journal by _Mr. Parrott_, surgeon of
-Mitcham, of which the following is a sketch. The subject of the history
-was a family of six persons, viz. _William Attwood_, ætat. 45; _Eliza_,
-his wife, 38; and their daughters, _Mary_, æt. 14; _Hannah_, 11;
-_Sarah_, 7; _Eliza_, 5. They all ate stewed champignons, at one o’clock,
-on Monday the 10th of October, which stew was made in an iron vessel,
-and consisted of the articles already mentioned with the addition of
-butter and flour, pepper, salt, and water only; and each of the parties
-(_Hannah_ excepted) was supposed to have eaten more than half a pint.
-Within ten minutes after they had eaten their meal, they felt their
-spirits exhilarated, and the eldest daughter said to her mother “_how
-funny you look_.” All the parties continued cheerful till about six
-o’clock, when having taken their tea, they were attacked with stupor,
-which was soon succeeded, by severe pains in the bowels, accompanied
-with violent vomiting, and copious purging, which continued till the
-following afternoon, when the parents became alarmed and sent for the
-surgeon. The treatment which was pursued appears to have been, in every
-respect, judicious, and _Mary_ had so far recovered on the following day
-(Wednesday) that she walked into the village about a quarter of a mile
-from home; in the evening, however, the symptoms returned; on Thursday
-evening she became convulsed, and died on Friday morning at two o’clock.
-_Eliza_ did not complain much of her sufferings, but became convulsed at
-the same time as her sister, and died half an hour after her. _Sarah_
-never complained of pain in the head, but was continually suffering
-under extreme pain in the bowels, which was aggravated by pressure, but
-no tension existed; she died on Saturday morning, in the same convulsed
-state as her sisters. A dog which had partaken of the stew died on the
-Wednesday night, apparently in great agony. The father recovered, the
-mother, who was two months advanced in pregnancy, miscarried, but
-ultimately became convalescent. _Mr. Wheeler_, of St. Bartholomew’s
-hospital, a gentleman who has been long known to the profession as an
-eminent botanist, no sooner heard of the event than he repaired to the
-spot where the mushrooms had been gathered, when he immediately
-recognised the _Agaricus semi-globatus_, which had nearly proved fatal
-in the instance related by _Mr. E. Brande_, and which, upon being shewn
-to the father, he instantly pronounced to be similar to those, of which
-the family had so unfortunately eaten.
-
-
-              _Organic Lesions discovered on Dissection._
-
-In the above case of the family of _Attwood_, the body of _Mary_ was
-examined, but no morbid appearance whatever could be discovered. In
-collecting the different phenomena exhibited in other recorded cases,
-they may be reduced to the following: “violet coloured spots over the
-integuments; abdomen extremely bulky; the _tunica conjunctiva_ of the
-eye as if it were injected; the pupil contracted; stomach and intestines
-inflamed, and scattered over with gangrenous spots; and, in some cases,
-they have exhibited very considerable contractions, so much so as almost
-to obliterate the canal. In no case have any remains of the mushroom
-been found. The lungs have been observed inflamed, and gorged with black
-blood.”
-
-There cannot, however, be any doubt but that the different species of
-poisonous agarics act very differently.
-
-
-                              _Antidotes._
-
-In all cases, the first object is to evacuate the offensive matter by
-emetics. After which, stimulants, especially _ammonia_, will be found
-highly serviceable.
-
-
-                                ALCOHOL.
-
-In treating of the action of this substance upon the human body, it may
-be considered as a slow, or quick poison; as one which, according to the
-circumstances of its administration, may either implant the seeds of
-disease and death, by an insidious, and scarcely perceptible operation,
-or extinguish the principle of animation in the space of a few hours.
-
-Its effects as an _accumulative_[470] poison are principally interesting
-to the physician in their relations to therapeutics, although their
-history may perhaps suggest some few points of interest to the founders
-of medical police.
-
-We shall, therefore, observe, with regard to the habitual use of
-fermented liquors, that the bodily evils which arise from the custom
-rather depend upon the quality, or, in other words, the state of
-combination in which the alcohol exists in such liquors, than on the
-absolute quantity of the libation, or the frequency with which it is
-repeated. Daily experience convinces us that the same quantity of
-alcohol applied to the stomach under the form of wine, and in a state of
-mixture with water, will produce very different effects upon the living
-body, as well with reference to the immediate symptoms, as to the remote
-consequences of the potation; it has, for instance, been clearly
-demonstrated that port, madeira, and sherry, contain from one-fourth to
-one-fifth their bulk of alcohol;[471] so that a person who takes a
-bottle of either of these wines, will thus take nearly half a pint of
-pure alcohol, which is equivalent to a pint of brandy! The remote
-consequences too of alcohol in these different states, are as striking
-and distinct as their immediate effects. It is well known that diseases
-of the liver are the most common, and the most formidable of those
-produced by the use of _ardent_ spirits; it is equally certain that no
-such disorders follow the intemperate use of wine that is perfectly
-_pure_; let it be remembered that the greater proportion of that which
-is drunk in this country contains uncombined brandy, purposely added to
-meet the demand of the British market; and _Dr. MacCulloch_ thinks that
-it is to the unwitting and concealed consumption of this uncombined
-spirit, that we ought to attribute the prevalence of those hepatic
-affections which are comparatively little known to our continental
-neighbours. But although wine, in a state of purity, may be thus fairly
-excluded from the general obloquy which attaches to spirituous
-potations, it must not be regarded as entirely free from imputation.
-“The effects of wine,” says _Rush_ “like those of tyranny in a well
-formed government, are first felt in the extremities; while spirits,
-like a bold invader, seize at once upon the vitals of the constitution.”
-And even with respect to ardent spirits, although they can only be
-regarded as diluted alcohol, still each species appears to possess a
-peculiarity of operation; owing, no doubt, to the modifying influence of
-the other elements of the liquid; thus _brandy_[472] is said to be
-cordial and stomachic; _rum_ more heating and sudorific; _gin_ and
-_whiskey_, diuretic; and _arrack_, styptic, heating, and narcotic. It
-seems also that a modified effect is produced by the addition of various
-other substances, such as sugar and acids; which latter bodies, besides
-their anti-narcotic powers, appear to act by favouring a more perfect
-combination and mutual penetration of the particles of spirit and water.
-The effects also which are produced by the habitual use of fermented
-liquors differ essentially according to the kind that is drunk; thus ale
-and porter, in consequence of the nutritive matter, and perhaps the
-invigorating bitter with which they are charged, and the comparatively
-small proportion of alcohol which they contain, dispose to plethora,
-which is sometimes terminated by apoplexy.[473]
-
-
-                  _Symptoms of Poisoning by Alcohol._
-
-The ordinary effects of an excessive dose of any spirituous liquor are
-too well known to require description; and generally pass off without
-the necessity of professional interference. In cases, however, where the
-draught has been very large, the person has suddenly fallen down in a
-state of complete insensibility, and has exhibited all the phenomena of
-apoplexy; or, in some instances, he has expired almost immediately. The
-insensibility of the patient may render it difficult for the
-practitioner to distinguish the immediate cause of the symptoms;
-although his history for the last few hours, and the spirituous odour of
-his breath, will generally announce the true nature of his situation.
-_Mr. Brodie_ observes that there is a striking analogy between the
-symptoms arising from the ingestion of spirits, and those produced by
-injuries of the brain; concussion of the brain, which may be considered
-the slightest degree of injury, occasions a state of mind resembling
-intoxication; pressure on the brain, which is a more severe injury than
-concussion, produces loss of motion, insensibility, dilation of the
-pupils, laborious and stertorous respiration, and death.
-
-
-                   _Physiological Action of Alcohol._
-
-We shall not enter into the history of the slow operation of repeated
-doses of spirit upon the human body; but limit our present inquiry to
-the _modus operandi_ of this agent, as a quick and destructive poison.
-
-Large draughts of liquids containing alcohol, would appear to destroy,
-at once, the functions of the brain, without occasioning that previous
-stage of excitement, which is produced by smaller quantities of
-spirit—whence coma and insensibility are the immediate consequences; and
-the nervous energy being no longer conveyed to the muscles of
-respiration, the breathing becomes laborious, and the patient dies, as
-he does in apoplexy, for want of those changes in the blood which are
-produced by the respiratory functions.[474] In the greater number,
-however, of fatal cases of inebriety, life has been destroyed by
-circumstances purely accidental; such as improvident exposure to cold,
-as explained at _page_ 59, or suffocation from an imperfect act of
-vomiting, during which a portion of the contents of the stomach are
-forced into the trachea, (_see page_ 58,[475].) It having then been
-clearly established that the brain is the organ principally affected by
-a large dose of alcohol, it remains to be explained in what manner, and
-through what medium such an effect is produced; upon this question we
-are inclined to concur with _Mr. Brodie_, and to consider that alcohol
-acts sympathetically on the brain by means of the nerves of the stomach;
-for it has been observed that animals which die under such
-circumstances, exhibit a decided inflammation of the stomach; and, in
-the next place, the effects produced by this agent are too instantaneous
-to admit the possibility of absorption, while repeated instances have
-shewn that vomiting will often restore the intoxicated individual to his
-senses. At the same time, we think it very probable that, upon some
-occasions, the alcohol passes into the current of the circulation, and
-is thus carried to remote organs. _Dr. Cooke_[476] has related a case,
-on the authority of _Sir A. Carlisle_, of a person who was brought dead
-into the Westminster hospital, in consequence of having drunk a quart of
-gin for a wager, at a draught; and that upon examination, a considerable
-quantity of a limpid fluid was found within the lateral ventricles of
-the brain, _distinctly impregnated with gin_. We well remember this
-case, for it occurred during the period that the author of the present
-work held the situation of physician to that hospital. See
-_Pharmacologia_, vol. 1, p. 138.
-
-
-            _Treatment of Persons in a State of Inebriety._
-
-In the first instance we should endeavour to evacuate the stomach; for
-which purpose a brisk emetic of sulphate of zinc, or tartarised antimony
-may be administered. Blood should also be taken from the jugular vein,
-or temporal artery; more especially if there appear a considerable
-determination of blood to the head. The head should be also washed with
-cold water, or some evaporating lotion.
-
-For reasons which we have already explained, the patient should be
-carefully preserved in a warm atmosphere; and his body should be placed
-in an easy reclining posture, and be disencumbered of all tight
-bandages. These precautions are of the utmost moment, for many of those
-cases of inebriety which stand recorded in our journals, have terminated
-fatally, for want of attention to them.
-
-
-                            ANIMAL POISONS.
-
-This extensive kingdom of Nature presents us with a variety of objects
-destructive to human life; their agency, however, is on many occasions
-involved in impenetrable obscurity, and we are not even able to discover
-whether their deleterious effects depend upon certain definite
-principles, or upon the combination of circumstances connected with the
-individuals upon whom they act; and which thus render many substances
-_relatively_ poisonous, that are innocuous to the general mass of
-mankind. With regard to the chemical laws by which animal compounds are
-governed, and the principles upon which their analysis may be conducted,
-the same observations will apply as those with which we introduced the
-consideration of vegetable poisons.
-
-
-                        Cl. IV. SEPTIC POISONS.
-
-
-                     THE BITES OF VENOMOUS ANIMALS.
-
-Of the whole class of serpents, which according to _Linnæus_ contains
-132 species, _Plenck_ assures us that only 24 are venomous. Of these,
-Europe has only 5, and England but 2; all of which are vipers, viz.
-_Coluber Aspis_; _C. Chersea_; _C. Prester_ (_black viper_, peculiar to
-England); _C. Illyricus_ (inhabits the mountains of Sclavonia); _C.
-Berus_, (the common viper of Germany, Spain, Italy, and England.)
-
-The venom of the viper is contained in a bag situated on both sides of
-the head, beneath the muscle of the superior jaw; it is secreted from
-the blood by a gland which lies just behind the orbit of the eye; from
-which a duct proceeds to the above-mentioned bag; in the upper jaw are
-situated two moveable teeth, very sharp towards the point, and hollowed
-nearly throughout their length. When the animal intends to bite, he
-presses the bag by means of the muscle, the venom comes out, arrives at
-the base of the tooth, passes through the sheath which envelopes it, and
-enters into its cavity by a hole which is found at this base; then it
-flows along the hollow of the tooth, and issues into the wound by the
-opening which is near its end, for the point itself is solid and sharp,
-in order that it may better penetrate the flesh of its victim. If these
-fangs be removed, or their structure destroyed, the viper is necessarily
-rendered harmless; whence _Galen_ has observed that the mountebanks used
-to stop these perforations of the teeth with some kind of paste,
-whenever they suffered the vipers to bite them before spectators.
-
-
-             _Symptoms occasioned by the Bite of a Viper._
-
-Acute pain in the wounded part, attended with almost immediate
-tumefaction; the part appears first red, and then livid; the local
-affection extends itself, and the surrounding skin becomes similarly
-affected. The pulse is small, frequent, and irregular; the respiration
-is disturbed; the patient complains of great debility, and faintness
-which often amounts to syncope; vomiting takes place; pain is felt in
-the umbilical region, and he becomes jaundiced; and, in fatal cases, the
-wound assumes a malignant character, and gangrene takes place.
-
-In this country the affection is rarely mortal,[477] although the
-circumstances of constitutional debility, unusual heat of season, and
-injudicious treatment, have in several instances led to a fatal issue.
-
-
-            _Physiological action of the Poison of Vipers._
-
-The result of numerous experiments justify us in referring this poison
-to the second division of our classification. The symptoms which it
-produces evidently depend on its absorption, and its passage into the
-circulation, when it exerts its peculiar action on the blood. It is
-somewhat singular that this poison should be perfectly inert when taken
-into the stomach; a fact, however, which appears to have been well known
-from the earliest periods; whence such wounds were commonly sucked[478]
-with impunity; and we learn that when _Cato_ marched the remains of
-_Pompey’s_ army through Africa, he very wisely informed the soldiers,
-who, although dying from thirst, feared to drink the waters which
-contained serpents, that no evil could arise from such indulgence.[479]
-
-             “Noxia Serpentum est admisto sanguine Pestis,
-             Morsu Virus habent, et Fatum Dente minantur,
-             Pocula Morte carent”----
-
-Among the insects of Britain some will be found to possess fluids highly
-stimulant, and sometimes, although rarely, occasioning death. These
-British insects, however, cannot be compared in virulence with the
-_Furia Infernalis_, _Pulex Penetrans_, the _Scorpion_, and the
-_Tarantula_; but their natural history is nevertheless interesting, and
-the instances of mischief arising from an application of their venom are
-not unimportant. Of the genus _Vespa_ we have three species, each of
-which possesses the property of producing violent and painful
-inflammation, sometimes followed by considerable danger, where the
-injury has been inflicted on parts of great sensibility, and in
-irritable habits, viz. Vespa _Crabro_, the _hornet_; V. _Vulgaris_,
-_common wasp_; C. _Coarctata_, _small wasp_. Instances are recorded of
-the wasp, having been introduced into the mouth with fruit, and produced
-by its sting on the _velum palati_ a sudden swelling which has so
-intercepted the respiration as to occasion suffocation.[480] Of the
-_Apis_ there are seven British species; the most remarkable of which are
-the Apis _Rufa_, or _small field bee_; A. _Mellifica_, _the common hive
-bee_; A. _Terrestris_, _humble bee_; and A. _Subterranea_, or _great
-humble bee_.
-
-The sting of a single bee cannot be regarded as attended with danger,
-except in certain constitutions; but there are many instances of men and
-animals having suffered most terribly, and even fatally, by an attack of
-a swarm of these insects.
-
-The supposed poison of the toad is a subject which we have already
-disposed of, under the literary history of poisons, _page_ 139.
-
-
-                       PUTRESCENT ANIMAL MATTER.
-
-A question has long since arisen, how far the ingestion of animal
-matter, in a state of putrefaction, is liable to affect the health? On
-the one hand it has been maintained that the custom of eating game,
-venison, and other species of animal food, in a state of incipient
-putrescence, has never been attended with any inconvenience; but
-appears, on the contrary, to afford a repast of easier digestion, than
-the flesh of recently killed animals. On the other hand, it has been
-asserted by _Foderé_,[481] and corroborated by the testimony of others,
-that corrupted meat, fish, and eggs, are undoubted poisons; if, through
-inadvertence, necessity, or extreme hunger, they are taken in any
-quantity. The same distinguished writer relates that, during the siege
-of Mantua, several persons who were shut up in the town were seized with
-gangrene of the extremities, and scurvy, in consequence of having been
-driven to the alternative of eating the half putrid flesh of horses. In
-_Crantz’s_ history of Greenland we read an account of the death of
-thirty-two persons, at a missionary station, called Kangek, shortly
-after a repast upon the putrid brains of a Walrus.
-
-It would appear that under circumstances not hitherto understood,
-certain parts of animal bodies become poisonous; and the _virus_ would
-not seem to be connected with any stage of putrefaction, nor with any
-previous disease in the animal. As far as our limited experience upon
-this subject will allow us to generalize, the brain and the viscera
-would appear to be particularly susceptible of such a change. Some
-curious and highly interesting observations have lately been published
-by _Dr. Kerner_, of Wurtemberg, respecting the probable existence of a
-species of animal poison not hitherto known. He informs us that the
-smoked sausages, which constitute so favourite a repast to the
-inhabitants of Wurtemberg, often cause fatal poisoning. The effects of
-the poison occasionally manifest themselves in the spring, generally in
-the month of April, in a degree more or less alarming. He states that
-out of _seventy-six_ persons, who became sick from having eaten such
-sausages, _thirty-seven_ died in a short time, and that several others
-remained ill for years. Upon these occasions it has been observed, that
-the most virulent sausages were made of liver. _M. Cadet_, of Paris,
-analysed all the meats, examined all the vessels in which they had been
-prepared; and inspected the matters vomited, or found in the stomach
-after death, without being able to trace the vestige of any known
-poison; nor was there the slightest evidence in these cases of
-malevolence or negligence. Similar accidents have occurred at different
-periods in Paris; upon which occasions, the police officers visited the
-pig dealers, and were perfectly assured that the animals had never been
-fed with unwholesome food; the use of poison for rats, with which these
-places abound, was interdicted, and every precaution taken. What then,
-asks _M. Cadet_, is this poison found in sausage meats—is it Prussic
-acid—is it a new matter? It is evidently not the effect of putrefaction,
-since it exists in meats perfectly well preserved. To the above queries
-of _M. Cadet_, the author of the present work begs to add one more—may
-not the skin enclosing the sausage meat be the part in which the poison
-resides? It is well known that the bodies of animals who die of various
-diseases, are capable of communicating fatal diseases to the human
-species; and experience has shewn that such animal poison is
-particularly energetic in those parts that are commonly called the
-_offals_, in which term are included the intestines; in the history of
-_fish-poison_, which will hereafter offer itself to our notice, we shall
-find numerous instances of dogs, cats, hogs, and birds, dying from
-eating these parts, while persons, who have partaken of the fish to
-which these _offals_ belonged, remained uninjured. But to account for
-the deleterious change of which these parts appear to be occasionally
-susceptible, it does not appear necessary to suppose that the animal
-died in a state of disease. _Captain Scoresby_, in his “Account of the
-Arctic regions,”[482] states that although the flesh of the bear is both
-agreeable and wholesome, the liver of that animal is poisonous; sailors
-who had inadvertently eaten it, were almost always sick afterwards, and
-some actually died; while in others the cuticle has peeled off their
-bodies. The ancients appear to have entertained a fear with regard to
-the wholesomeness of the viscera of certain animals, and of the fluids
-which they secrete. _Pliny_ says that the gall of a horse was accounted
-poison; and, therefore, at the sacrifices of horses in Rome, it was
-unlawful for the _Flamen_ (priest) to touch it. _Mr. Brodie_ has lately
-favoured the author with the communication of a fact, which goes far to
-support the theory we have offered with respect to the possible source
-of poison in sausages. He states that he has twice met with evidence of
-the acrid and poisonous nature of “_dog’s meat_,” as sold in the streets
-of London, which manifested itself by producing ulcerations, of a
-peculiar character, on the hands, and swelling in the axillæ, of the
-venders! May we venture to ask whether the prosecution of this inquiry
-might not possibly lead to some new and important conclusions respecting
-the origin of hydrophobia?
-
-Where animals have died from disease, their flesh has undoubtedly
-produced affections by external contact, as well as by its ingestion. At
-the Somerset assizes in 1819, a case was tried, whose merits wholly
-turned upon the question now under discussion. A cow, having died of
-some disease, was thrown into the river Yeo, and several cattle that
-afterwards drank of the water died of a similar complaint. An action was
-accordingly brought against the owner of the cow for damages. The
-defendant, however, obtained a verdict, apparently from the evidence of
-a medical person, who asserted that animal matter in a state of
-putrefaction will not communicate contagion. But we must here beg to
-observe that this is quite another and distinct question; the merits of
-which we have already considered.[483] The physiological question
-involved in the preceding case, is whether the carcase of an animal,
-whose fluids have been depraved by antecedent disease, is capable, or
-not, of producing morbid and fatal affections in the living animals with
-which it may come in contact? The facts collected by _MM. Enaux_ and
-_Chaussier_, in their work entitled “_Methode de traiter les Morsures
-des Animaux enragés_,” prove in a very satisfactory manner that the
-_Anthrax_, or _Malignant Pustule_, has for its cause a _septic virus_
-engendered in diseased animals, and transmitted to man.[484] The
-following are amongst the more striking examples cited from these
-authors by _Orfila_. “A shepherd bled one of his sheep, which had just
-died suddenly; he carried it home on his shoulders; but the blood
-penetrated his shirt, and was rubbed upon his loins. Two days after, a
-_malignant pustule_ appeared upon this spot.”
-
-“A boy employed in skinning an ox which had been killed at an inn at
-_Gatinais_, because it had been sick, put the knife into his mouth.
-Shortly after which the tongue swelled; he experienced a tightness of
-the chest; the whole body was covered with pustules, and he died on the
-fourth day, in a state of general gangrene. The inn-keeper, who was
-pricked in the middle of the hand by a bone of the same animal, suffered
-great pain; gangrene seized the arm, and he expired on the seventh day.
-The servant girl received on her right cheek a few drops of the blood of
-the same ox, which produced inflammation, followed by gangrene.”
-
-In this country, a case has occurred highly illustrative of the present
-subject. A pupil of the veterinary college accidentally inoculated
-himself, during his dissection, with the matter of a _glandered_ horse;
-the student soon experienced the usual symptoms of a septic poison;
-abscesses formed in various parts of his body, and he sank under the
-disease. Upon inoculating a healthy horse with some of the matter from
-the abscesses, the animal was attacked with the glanders.
-
-This subject necessarily leads us to the notice of those effects which
-are frequently produced in the anatomist, by a puncture made during
-dissection. From the history of those cases which stand recorded, it
-does not appear that the poisonous effects are either connected with the
-putrefactive state of the body under dissection, or with the peculiar
-disease of which it died; but rather with the depraved state of the
-operator’s health; for it has been repeatedly remarked that those
-students who enjoy high health universally escape the evil, however
-repeatedly they may have been exposed to its causes.
-
-
-                           POISONOUS FISHES.
-
-The number and validity of recorded cases establish the fact, beyond
-dispute, that certain fish, especially the muscle, (_Mytilus Edulis_)
-and others of the shell tribe, have occasionally proved fatal to those
-who have eaten them; but it has been doubted whether such effects have
-arisen from a specific poison, or from the peculiar state of the
-stomach,[485] or idiosyncrasy of constitution, in the persons affected.
-In other words, ought we to consider the fish, so circumstanced, as an
-_absolute_ or _relative_ poison? Each of these theories has met with its
-advocates, and many striking facts and illustrations have been adduced
-in their support. The weight of authority, however, as well as of
-argument, strongly inclines in favour of the existence of a specific
-virus, generated under circumstances which we are at present unable to
-appreciate. At the same time, it would be vain to deny, that certain
-fishes are more obnoxious to the stomach of one individual than to that
-of another; there are, for instance, those persons who are disordered
-whenever they eat a muscle; others who are incapable of taking an oyster
-without considerable disturbance of the digestive functions. This is
-obviously _Idiosyncrasy_, and must not be confounded with those cases
-where a number of persons have been simultaneously affected from a
-particular food, which, on all former occasions, had been eaten by the
-same individuals with perfect security. We must, therefore, at the very
-outset of our inquiry, admit the occasional action of these articles of
-diet as _relative_ poisons; although it is evident to demonstration,
-that an _absolute_ virus is generated in particular fishes, by the
-operation of causes hitherto unknown.
-
-As a subject, highly important in its relations to maritime œconomy, the
-history of fish-poison constitutes an interesting branch of naval
-hygiene; instructions, therefore, for its investigation, ought always to
-be given to the naturalists and chemists who may be appointed to attend
-voyages of discovery. The notice of the scientific men who accompanied
-_Peyrouse_ was officially directed to this important object; but the
-unhappy fate of that celebrated adventurer rendered the commission
-fruitless. The obscurity which attends this branch of toxicology has in
-many cases occasioned a corresponding degree of credulity; and sailors,
-as well as others, entertain an unfounded prejudice against various
-fish, that are not only innocuous, but even useful as articles of food.
-It would, however, appear that those which are harmless in one latitude
-may prove poisonous in another; it may be stated generally, that fish
-are more deleterious within the tropics, than in other seas. In torrid
-regions the softest kinds are the most susceptible of that change which
-renders them poisonous, and hence the policy of the Hebrew legislator
-becomes apparent; “_whatsoever has no fins nor scales in the waters,
-that shall be an abomination unto you._” Levit. c. xi, v. 12, and Deut.
-cxiv, v. 9, 10.
-
-The most complete history of this intricate subject, and of the
-dissertations to which it has given rise, is to be found in the
-_Edinburgh Medical and Surgical Journal_,[486] by _Dr. Chisholm_, who
-has brought together, and cited a great number of authorities, biblical
-and classical, foreign and domestic, for its illustration. An
-interesting paper is also published on the same subject in the _Medical
-Repository_,[487] by _Dr. Burrows_. To the above sources we must beg to
-refer the reader who is desirous of farther information than can be
-afforded him by the present work.
-
-
-                     _Symptoms of Fish-poisoning._
-
-Nausea; thirst; tormina of the bowels; vomiting; an eruption on the
-skin, resembling the nettle-rash; tumefaction of the face; head-ache;
-difficult respiration; distention of the abdomen; sometimes _cholera
-morbus_; vertigo; delirium; cold sweats; convulsions; death. Such is the
-train of symptoms, liable of course, to variation in the order of
-succession, which are produced by the ingestion of fish-poison, as
-occasionally existing in salmon, herrings, eels, mackarel, many of the
-testaceous and most of the crustaceous fish of this country; and in a
-great number of fish[488] inhabiting the tropical seas.
-
-The species of fish, from which deleterious effects have more commonly
-arisen in this country, are the _Mytilus Edulis_, or muscle. _Dr.
-Burrows_ has given us an account of two cases of death from eating these
-fish, which occurred at Gravesend, under the care of _Mr. Rogers_,
-surgeon of that place, upon whose authority the statement is drawn
-up.[489] The subjects of the history were two youths of the ages of nine
-and fourteen, who had each eaten about a dozen of small muscles, which
-they had picked from the side of a fishing smack, in a dead and tainted
-state. In the _Gazette de Santé_,[490] and in the works of
-_Fodéré_,[491] and _Behren_,[492] similar cases are recorded.
-_Vancouver_,[493] in his voyage to the coast of America, relates that
-several of his men were ill from eating some muscles which they had
-collected and roasted for breakfast; in an hour after which they
-complained of numbness of the face and extremities, sickness, and
-giddiness. Three were more affected than the others, and one of them
-died.
-
-
-                        _Origin of Fish-poison._
-
-If we admit that the symptoms which are occasionally produced by the
-ingestion of certain fish, depend upon the presence of poison, we have
-next to inquire into its nature and origin. _Dr. Burrows_ considers that
-all the opinions which have been advanced upon this subject may, for the
-greater perspicuity and facility of discussion, be arranged under seven
-heads, viz. does the poison exist—1. _In the skin?_—2. _In the stomach
-and intestinal canal?_—3. _In the liver or gall bladder?_—4. _In the
-entire substance of the fish?_—5. _In the food of fishes?_—6. _Is it a
-morbid change in the system of the fish?_—7. _Is it a poison, sui
-generis?_
-
-Upon these several questions _Dr. Burrows_ has offered some
-observations. There do not appear to be any facts which can induce us to
-consider that the poison resides only in the skin.
-
-Experience has shewn that the _virus_ is particularly energetic in the
-viscera, commonly called the _offals_; and yet there are no grounds for
-concluding that it exclusively belongs to these parts. _Captain Cook_,
-and _Messrs. Forster_ were poisoned by eating a piece of the liver only
-of a species of _tetrodon_; yet they who ate of its substance were also
-poisoned.
-
-An opinion has long prevailed that the poisonous principle is derived
-from the substances upon which the fish feeds; and that of muscles, in
-particular, from copper; this latter hypothesis has received the
-sanction of _Dr. Chisholm_. We however agree with _Dr. Burrows_ in
-considering that it has neither the support of observation or analogy.
-_Dr. Beune_ has supposed that the acrid principle is no other than the
-spawn of the _stella marina_, an insect which very commonly lodges in
-the muscle. It seems, however, more probable that it is a product of
-decomposition, but which requires the concurrence of certain
-circumstances for its developement.
-
-Before we conclude the history of septic poisons, there appears to be a
-species of death, particularly noticed by _Dr. Gordon Smith_,[494] which
-merits our attention, as having some relation to this class of
-agents—the fact of persons having been “_eaten to death by maggots_!”
-Such a death has been assigned to _Sylla_, by _Plutarch_; and to
-_Antiochus Epiphanes_, by _Josephus_, and the writer of the book of
-Maccabees. The fate of _Herod_ is ascertained by Scripture. In modern
-history we have similar instances in _Charles_ IX of France, and
-_Philip_ II of Spain.
-
-Numerous cases are recorded, in different medical works,[495] of the
-generation of maggots, _i. e._ the _larvæ_ of different species of fly,
-not only in external sores and excoriations, but in the internal
-cavities of the human body. _Dr. Lempriere_[496] has related the case of
-an officer’s lady, who had gone through an acute fever, but in whom
-these maggots were produced, which burrowed, and found their way by the
-nose through the _os cribriforme_, into the cavity of the cranium, and
-afterwards into the brain itself, to which she owed her death. But of
-all the cases of this kind, that related by _Dr. Gordon Smith_ is of the
-most revolting kind. “In the month of July 1809, a man was found near
-Finglas, in Ireland, lying under the wall of a lime-kiln, at an early
-hour in the evening, with his face on the ground, apparently dead. On
-turning him on his back to ascertain the real state of the case, it was
-discovered that he was yet alive, but under the most appalling
-circumstances. On removing his coat, the whole surface of his body
-appeared to be a moving mass of worms. His face was considerably injured
-as if from a fall, or bruises; his eyes were dissolved, and their
-cavities, as well as those of the ears, nose, and mouth, were filled
-with a white living mass, from which such innumerable quantities of
-maggots were continually pouring out, that the skull seemed to be filled
-with nothing else. After some time he recovered strength enough to walk,
-and regained recollection and voice sufficient to tell who he was, where
-he lived, and how he had been brought into that situation. It appeared
-that he was returning home upon a car the evening before; having drank
-to excess, he fell off, and remained in a state of insensibility until
-he was discovered. He could neither account for the wounds in his head,
-nor for his being so far from the road; but it appeared probable that he
-had received the contusion from the fall, and had insensibly crawled to
-the place where he lay. It was conjectured that the state of the
-atmosphere, as to humidity and temperature, had brought on a solution of
-the solids in the bruised parts, already disposed to putrescency, and
-now in close contact with the moist earth. In these, the eggs of
-innumerable insects being deposited, their generation proceeded with
-rapidity under circumstances so favourable. Every attention was paid to
-the unfortunate individual; he was removed to shelter, the parts were
-washed with spirits and vinegar, and the loathsome objects removed, as
-far as was possible. Cordials were poured down his throat, but he
-swallowed with difficulty; and in a very short time spasms took place
-which prevented him from swallowing altogether. The putrescence
-advanced; in a short time he became insensible; and about noon the
-following day he died, in a state of total _putrisolution_.”
-
-
-                            AERIAL POISONS.
-
-Under this division we include all those deleterious substances which
-can be administered through the medium of the atmosphere.
-
-Those gases, the respiration of which occasions death by the negative
-operation of excluding oxygen, are not ranked under the class of
-poisons, for the history of such bodies involves physiological views
-peculiar to themselves, and belongs more correctly to the subject of
-suffocation, under which head it has already met with full
-consideration, _vol._ 2, _p._ 48.
-
-_Aërial poisons_ are of very undefined extent, and their history is
-involved in considerable obscurity. Every poison, capable of
-volatilization, may be admitted into the division; and even those
-substances which are generally regarded as fixed, may be mechanically
-suspended in the air, and thus produce their effects on the living
-system, through the medium of the lungs, stomach, or nerves. In the
-present state of our knowledge, we have, perhaps, only an imperfect idea
-of the distinction between a fixed and a volatile body. A very
-interesting paper on this subject was read before the Royal Academy of
-Berlin, by _Professor Hermbstaed_,[497] in which he observes that,
-generally speaking, we might consider all bodies as volatile, as it is
-most probable that, could we produce a sufficient degree of heat, no
-substance could resist it. The professor also states that many bodies,
-hitherto considered as fixed, are actually volatilized at the
-temperature of boiling water; such he found to be _lime_, _baryta_,
-_strontia_, and _potass_. We apprehend, however, that the professor has,
-in these instances, mistaken a phenomenon for _volatility_, which it is
-highly important to distinguish from it, viz. _the elevation of a
-certain portion of a fixed body, by the carrying power of a vapour_;
-thus, fixed oil may, in a minute proportion, be carried up with the
-steam of water. Certain bodies, however, which have been long considered
-as perfectly fixed at the ordinary temperature of the atmosphere, have
-been lately discovered to undergo a slow and almost imperceptible
-evaporation under such circumstances; and the discovery has led to a
-very satisfactory solution of several problems which were previously
-unintelligible. We shall adduce a striking exemplification of this
-truth, under the consideration of mercurial vapours.
-
-The substances, included under the head of _Aërial poisons_, may be
-conveniently arranged in two orders, viz.
-
-  I. Those, whose particles exist mechanically suspended in the
-    atmosphere.
-
-  II. Those, which are presented to us in a _vaporous_ or _gaseous_
-    form.
-
-Of the first division the various arts will furnish ample illustration,
-as for instance the occupations of the colour-maker, plasterer,
-cotton-spinner, dry-grinder,[498] stone-cutter, hatter, furrier, miller,
-&c. &c. In all of which a subtle matter is given off, which becoming
-mechanically suspended in the air, penetrates the structure of the
-pulmonary organs, and excites disease, and even death.[499] In
-illustration of the second division, we have the trades of
-water-gilders, acid manufacturers, night-men, bleachers, and various
-others, many of which have been already noticed under the medical and
-chemical consideration of nuisances, _vol._ I, _p._ 330.
-
-In the present chapter we cannot attempt an enumeration of every
-substance which may act as an aërial poison; we shall confine our
-attention to the history of a few bodies which are calculated to afford
-general elucidation, and are likely to become objects of forensic
-interest.
-
-
-                           MERCURIAL VAPOURS.
-
-It is not the least interesting fact in the history of aërial poisons,
-that substances, which are found to be extremely slow in their action,
-or even quite inert, when administered in their solid or liquid state,
-exert a very rapid and energetic operation when they are presented to
-the human body in the attenuated form of vapour. This fact is well
-illustrated by the subtlety and activity of metallic mercury _in the
-state of vapour_; a substance which, according to the highest
-authorities, is quite inactive when introduced in its grosser form into
-the stomach. It is thus that the workmen employed in gilding, silvering
-looking-glasses, constructing barometers, &c. experience such dreadful
-effects; that such effects arise from the _metal_ in a state of vapour,
-and not, as some have supposed, from the _oxide_,[500] is a fact capable
-of demonstration, for the artists at Birmingham affix an apparatus in
-their chimneys as a system of economy, in order to collect the mercury,
-which is always found in its _metallic_ state.[501] From the late
-interesting experiments of _Mr. Faraday_,[502] it appears that _mercury_
-rises in vapour at the ordinary temperature of the atmosphere; the
-knowledge of which fact will afford a very satisfactory explanation of
-several phenomena, which were previously unintelligible. _Dr.
-Hermbstaed_, in the memoir, above mentioned, “on the volatility of
-substances hitherto considered as fixed bodies,” relates the following
-curious fact with regard to the volatility of mercury. “At the Royal
-Manufactory of looking-glasses in Berlin, during a severe winter, the
-artificers who worked in a room, which had originally served for the
-process of _silvering_ the glasses, lighted a fire, and thus heated the
-apartment to between 86° and 96° _Fah._ In a few days the whole of them
-were, to their great surprise, affected by a strong salivation, as there
-was no trace of mercury in, or near the room. They consulted on the
-subject, and suspecting the real cause of the event, had the flooring of
-the room taken up, when about 40 lbs of the metal were found spread
-about in different parts, where it had fallen at various times during
-the operation of silvering, which had been executed in that room
-before.” With such facts before us, we shall no longer be unable to
-explain the effects which were produced on board his majesty’s ship
-_Triumph_, off Cadiz, in April 1809, by the bursting of leathern bags
-containing quicksilver, and the consequent dispersion of not less than
-three tons of the metal through the vessel. The interest excited by this
-case has been very great, and as the facts, involved in its history, are
-of high medical importance, we were induced to apply for permission to
-search the journals of the ship; and, through the kindness of _Dr.
-Burnett_, one of his majesty’s commissioners for victualling the navy,
-and the assistance of _Mr. Plowman_, who held the situation of surgeon
-to the _Triumph_, we have been enabled to obtain a correct and detailed
-history of the event. Previous to the circumstances we are about to
-describe, “the ship’s company had been tolerably healthy, when
-unfortunately a quantity of quicksilver was received on board, and
-diffused over the ship in consequence of the bursting of the leathern
-bags, in which it had been enclosed; when its effects were soon
-displayed upon the crew, by occasioning ptyalism, partial paralysis,
-affections of the bowels; so that in three weeks, no less than two
-hundred men were in a state of salivation. In consequence of which two
-transports were taken up as hospital ships, in which the slighter cases
-soon recovered; but as many fresh cases occurred daily, _Vice-Admiral
-Pickmore_ ordered a survey on the ship, and ship’s company, by the
-surgeons of the squadron, on the third of May, who reported the
-necessity of sending the ship into port, in order to clear her hold,
-change part of her provisions, into which the quicksilver had insinuated
-itself, and to purify her by means of ablution. This was accordingly
-done; but on stowing the hold afresh, every man so employed, as well as
-those engaged in the steward’s room, were attacked with ptyalism. Fresh
-cases happened daily, until they took their departure from Cadiz on the
-13th of June; after which but few occurred, which was attributed by the
-surgeon to the coldness of the weather, the fresh breezes from the
-north-east, from the men having been kept constantly on deck, and not
-allowed to sleep on the orlop, and from not suffering those affected
-with ptyalism to lie on the lower deck; as well as from the constant
-attention paid in the ventilation of the ship by means of wind-sails.
-But, notwithstanding all these precautions, the ship had not been more
-than ten days at sea, when many of the men became worse, and it was
-found necessary to send twenty-four seamen on board the _Goshawk_, and
-two transports. On the arrival of the _Triumph_ in Cawsand Bay, on the
-5th of July, there did not remain one case of ptyalism on their list.
-During this extraordinary visitation two men died from excessive
-ptyalism, one of them at Cadiz, having previously lost his teeth, and
-both cheeks at the time of his decease being in a state of sphacelation;
-the other, who died at Gibraltar, had lost the whole of his teeth,
-two-thirds of his tongue, and, at the time of his death, the lower lip
-was in a state of gangrene. To the interesting facts above related, _Mr.
-Plowman_ adds, that the interior of the ship was covered with a black
-powder, and that the copper bolts displayed the mercurial influence. The
-mercurial vapours proved fatal to the living stock on board, for nearly
-all the poultry, sheep, pigs, mice,[503] goats, cats, a dog, and even a
-canary bird, died from its influence.”
-
-
-                       SULPHURETTED HYDROGEN GAS.
-
-This gas is transparent and colourless; it has the property of
-inflammability, and when set on fire in the open air, burns with a
-bluish flame, and deposits a certain portion of sulphur. It is
-distinguished by an excessively fœtid smell, which has been aptly
-compared to that of rotten eggs. Its habitudes with other gases are
-interesting and important; by admixture with _chlorine_, it immediately
-undergoes decomposition, yielding its hydrogen, so as to form
-_hydro-chloric acid_ (_muriatic acid_), and consequently depositing its
-sulphur; with _ammoniacal gas_ it combines, and forms an
-_hydro-sulphuret of ammonia_; when mingled with _sulphurous acid gas_,
-the hydrogen of the former combines with the oxygen of the latter, and
-the sulphur of both is precipitated; when passed over ignited charcoal
-it is converted into carburetted hydrogen gas, and sulphur is deposited.
-
-It is soluble in water, and the solution precipitates the different
-metals from their saline solutions, in the form of sulphurets; a
-property which at once distinguishes this gas from every other.
-
-It has been long considered a very energetic poison, and it would, at
-the same time, appear to be a very insidious one; for sensibility is
-quickly destroyed by it, without any previous suffering. We are
-acquainted with a chemist who was suddenly deprived of sense, as he
-stood over a pneumatic trough, in which he was collecting the gas. It
-would seem to act upon the nervous system through the medium of the
-blood, in which it is extremely soluble. It constitutes the particular
-gas of privies, and is the immediate cause of those accidents which we
-have already described in a former part of this work, _vol._ 1, _page_
-100; since the printing of which we have heard of the death of four
-persons from emptying a privy at Brompton. This gas will be sometimes
-developed during the imperfect combustion of wet coals[504]; and it was
-probably owing to its presence, or to that of _carburetted hydrogen_,
-that the accident arose which is recorded by _Mr. Sutleffe_ in the
-_Medical Repository_. “He was hastily summoned to a neighbouring family
-at bed-time, where he found a female domestic labouring under a shrill,
-laborious inspiration; she had taken up from a good kitchen fire, a
-panful of live coals, from which a sudden suffocating blast seized her.”
-
-
-                       CARBURETTED HYDROGEN GAS.
-
-This gas is developed by several chemical processes. We have just stated
-that if, during the burning of charcoal, moisture be present, it is
-evolved in abundance. It appears to be particularly fatal to animal
-life. _Dr. Beddoes_ made many experiments upon the subject, from which
-it would seem to destroy life by rendering the muscular fibre
-inirritable without producing any previous excitement. In order to
-decide this question, _Sir Humphry Davy_[505] ventured to take three
-inspirations of the gas produced from the decomposition of water by
-charcoal. “The first inspiration produced a sort of numbness and loss of
-feeling in the chest, and about the pectoral muscles; after the second,”
-says he, “I lost all power of perceiving external things, and had no
-distinct sensation, except a terrible oppression on the chest; during
-the third expiration, this feeling disappeared; I seemed sinking into
-annihilation, and had just power enough to drop the mouth-piece from my
-unclosed lips. There is every reason to believe, that if I had taken
-four or five inspirations, instead of three, they would have destroyed
-life immediately, without producing any painful sensation.”
-
-
-                   CHLORINE—_Oxy-muriatic Acid Gas_.
-
-This gas, which is now considered as an elementary body, has received
-from _Sir Humphry Davy_ the name of _chlorine_, from the green colour
-which characterises it. Its odour is so penetrating and insupportable
-that it is impossible to respire it, even when considerably diluted with
-atmospheric air, and yet it will support combustion. It discharges
-vegetable colours, whence it forms the basis of various bleaching
-preparations. According to the experiments[506] of _M. Nysten_, this gas
-is not absorbed when respired pure, but appears to act only by
-irritating the bronchiæ locally; and so energetic is its action, that
-the animal dies before there is sufficient time for asphyxia to take
-place from the circulation of black blood. When it is respired in a
-dilute form, it produces a severe cough, and, according to _Fourcroy_,
-it occasions a phlegmonic inflammation of the bronchial membranes. The
-death of the ingenious and indefatigable _Pelletier_ was occasioned by
-his accidentally inhaling a proportion of this gas; a consumption was
-the consequence, which in a short time proved fatal. In the _London
-Medical and Physical Journal for November, 1821_, a case of a person is
-recorded who was poisoned by bleaching liquor.
-
-
-                          SULPHUROUS ACID GAS.
-
-The gas is generated by the combustion of sulphur. It is colourless; has
-a pungent smell, resembling that of burning sulphur, and is very soluble
-in water. It would appear to destroy life by a peculiar action on the
-blood.
-
-
-
-
-                OF HOMICIDE BY MISADVENTURE OR ACCIDENT.
-
-
-If a physician gives a person a potion without any intent of doing him
-any bodily hurt, but with an intent to cure or prevent a disease, and
-contrary to the expectation of the physician it kills him, this is no
-(culpable) homicide, and the like of a chirurgeon; _1 Hale_, _P. C._
-429; _4 Bl. Comm._ 197. But query if he were not a regular physician or
-surgeon? on this there appears to be some difference of opinion; it was
-anciently holden that if one, that is not of the mystery of a physician
-or surgeon, take upon him the cure of a man, and he dieth of the potion
-or medicine, this is covert felony. _Si un que nest physition ou surgeon
-emprent sur luy un cure, que murrust in sa main, que cest felonie_;
-_Stanford’s Pleas of the Crown_, _cap._ 9; _Fitzherbert_, _tit. coron._
-_p._ 311; _Briton_, _fol._ 14; _Lombard_, _Eiren. tit. Felonie_ saith
-thus; that _Thorpe_, _43 Ed. 3_, 33, saith he knew one to be indicted
-accordingly. _Dalton_, _p._ 470, queries this case, as it is difficult
-to determine the actual cause of death, and there appeareth no will to
-do harm, but rather to do good, and “the _34 Hen. 8_, _c._ 8, leaveth so
-great a liberty of such practice to unskilful persons, that it will be
-hard now to make it felony.” Now the statute of _Henry the eighth_
-applies only to the cure of certain diseases or sores, particularly
-specified, and others like to the same, by external applications, and to
-drinks for the stone, strangury, or agues, provided (if the preamble may
-be relied on) “the said persons have not taken any thing for their pains
-or cunning, but have ministered the same to the poor people only, for
-neighbourhood, and God’s sake, and of pity, and charity;” in such sense
-the act is reasonable even to this day, much more then, when from the
-scarcity of regular practitioners, the charitable in the country were
-frequently called upon to administer on emergencies, where no medical
-aid could be procured; but surely this act can never have been intended
-to warrant the administration of dangerous medicines, arsenic, corrosive
-sublimate, or cantharides, such indeed as may be fairly classed as
-absolute poisons, except when in skilful hands, nor the performance of
-surgical operations. _Dalton_ indeed adds “But if a smith or other
-person (having skill only in dressing or curing the diseases of horses
-or other cattle) shall take upon him the cutting, or letting blood, or
-such like cure of a man, who dieth thereof, this seemeth to be felony;
-for the rule is, _quod quisque norit, in hoc se (non) exerceat_.” And if
-it were otherwise, great evils might arise; for persons intending to
-commit murders, need only cover their design by a pretence of
-administering medicine;[507] thus in _Vaux’s_ case, the professed
-purpose of administering the cantharides, was not illegal, yet the
-prisoner was found guilty of murder. In _Donellan’s_ case, what would a
-plea have availed, that the chemical principle of laurel water was, in
-the prisoner’s opinion, a cure for consumption, with which _Sir
-Theodosius Boughton_ was threatened, and that it had been administered
-to cure, and not to kill him; or on the death of _Mr. Scawen_,[508] that
-his mistress had infused or dissolved corrosive sublimate in all his
-drinks and medicines, to cure him of an ulcer, with which he was
-afflicted; and that she had done it secretly, because he had an avowed
-aversion to mercurial medicines. Yet such pleas would continually be
-made, if the doctrine of allowing all persons however ignorant and
-unqualified to tamper with medicines, should be admitted. On the other
-hand there is very considerable weight of authority; _Sir. Wm.
-Blackstone_ follows _Sir Mathew Hale_ in his opinion, that this
-doctrine, that if any die under the hand of an unlicenced physician it
-is felony, is apocryphal, and fitted to gratify and flatter doctors and
-licentiates in physic; though it may have its use to make people
-cautious, and wary, how they take upon themselves too much in this
-dangerous employment; _1 Hales_, _P. C._ 429, 430; _4 Bl. Com._ _c._ 14,
-_p._ 197; it is difficult to imagine how caution is to be enforced by
-taking away the liability to punishment. Mr. Serjeant _Hawkins_ takes a
-different ground; “Also it hath been anciently holden, that if a person,
-not duly authorised to be a physician or surgeon, undertake a cure and
-the patient die under his hand, he is guilty of felony;” but inasmuch as
-the books wherein this opinion is holden (_Stamford_, _P. C._ 16;
-_Pulton_, 22; _Crom._ 27; _43 Ed. 3_, 33; _Fitz H. Cor._ 163; _Britt._
-_c._ 5; and _4 Inst._ 251) were written before the statutes of _23 Hen.
-8_, which first excluded such felonious killing, as may be called wilful
-murder of malice prepense, from the benefit of clergy, it may be well
-questioned whether such killing shall be said to be of malice prepense
-within the intent of that statute; however it is certainly highly rash
-and presumptuous for unskilful persons to undertake matters of this
-nature; “_and indeed the law cannot be too severe in this case_, in
-order to deter ignorant people from endeavouring _to get a livelihood_
-by such practice, which cannot be followed without the manifest hazard
-of the lives of those who have to do with them;” _1 Hawk. P. C._ 131.
-This doctrine does not by any means go as far as _Sir Mathew Hale_; for
-as the supposed alteration of the law is referred to the operation of
-the statute, which takes away the benefit of clergy from murders, that
-is to say from felonious killing with malice prepense, it does not apply
-to manslaughter, to which the benefit of clergy was still allowed. But
-there yet remains a question, whether in the case of a person illegally
-taking upon himself the administration of dangerous medicines, for
-profit, (and it must be observed that the greater number of nostrums
-are, from the powerful nature of their ingredients, highly dangerous)
-does not subject himself to a charge of murder if any die under his
-hands; for “if a man does such an act, of which the probable consequence
-may be, and eventually is, death, such killing may be murder, although
-no stroke is struck;” _4 Bl. Com._ 197. What then if a man for profit
-administer dangerous preparations of mercury to persons necessarily
-exposed to change of temperature, and inclemency of weather; nay,
-delusively hold out to them, that no mercury is employed, by which they
-are induced to neglect the most ordinary precautions; if death ensue is
-not this equally murder, _in foro conscientiæ_, as killing with the
-sword? Malice may be implied in law, as well as apparent; it may be
-general, as well as particular; and whenever a man has evinced, whether
-from avarice, cruelty, or wantonness, such disregard for the lives and
-safeties of mankind, as warrants the imputation of general malice, it is
-not necessary that individual malice be proved towards the party who has
-become his victim.[509] _1 Easts. P. C._ 231. “So too if a man hath a
-beast that is used to do mischief, and he knowing it, suffers it to go
-abroad, and it kills a man, even this is manslaughter in the owner: but
-if he had purposely _turned it loose_, though barely to frighten people,
-and make what is called sport, it is with us (as in the Jewish law) as
-much murder as if he had incited a bear or dog to worry them;” _4 Bl.
-Com._ 197. And _Hale_ says, _1 P. C._ 431, I have heard that the owner
-was hanged for it. Is there much difference, whether the mischief be
-done by a dangerous beast, or a poisonous drug? to us it appears that
-the man who vends or administers the one, is as guilty as he who is
-convicted of turning out the other. If _A_ give purging comfits to _B_
-to make sport and not to hurt him, and _B_ dies thereof, it is a killing
-by _A_, but not murder, but manslaughter; 1, _II. P. C._ 431; _Dalt._
-_cap._ 93. Here _A_ is not supposed cognisant of the dangerous nature of
-the comfits.
-
-With every deference therefore to the very high authorities, which have
-supported a contrary opinion, we cannot but conclude, that the unlawful
-administration of medicine for profit, by which death ensues, may
-constitute wilful murder in some cases, manslaughter in most, and a high
-misdemeanor in all, according to the quantity of general malice,
-ignorance, and presumption, evidenced in each case; under what class
-each individual instance may fall, is a proper subject for a jury. If
-the law be defective on this point it cannot be too soon amended, and we
-must express our sanguine hope, that the consideration of revenue, as
-arising from the stamp duties on patent medicines, will not be allowed
-to influence the legislature in a matter vitally important to the public
-health, and to the lives of his majesty’s subjects, more especially as
-the evil principally operates on the class, whose personal vigour
-constitutes the strength and sinews of the country. And yet in candour
-we must admit the difficulties and embarrassments with which the subject
-is beset: the multiplication of restraints in a free country is very
-naturally regarded with extreme jealousy, and however anxiously we may
-desire to crush those harpies of society, who scatter poison and death
-around, under the pretence of affording relief, yet the object must not
-be purchased by the infringement of civil liberty.
-
-Doctor _Goodall_, in his historical account of the college’s proceedings
-against empiricks, published in 1684, mentions many cases in which death
-has ensued from unlawful administration of medicine; in some of these
-cases, the college punished the offenders according to their
-jurisdiction; some by fine and imprisonment, for mala praxis; others
-they sued at law, for the penalty of five pounds per month for
-unlicensed practice. But in those instances which appeared to require
-greater severity of punishment, they consigned the accused to the
-ordinary course of justice. See _Humphrey Beven’s_ case, _Goodall’s
-Pro._ 425—_John Hope’s_ case, for giving two apples of coloquintida to a
-man as a purge, of which he died. _Ibid._ 441.
-
-
-
-
-                            END OF VOL. II.
-
-
-   London: Printed by William Phillips, George Yard, Lombard Street.
-
-
-
-
-                               Footnotes
-
-
-Footnote 1:
-
-  “But there is a particular kind of manslaughter proper to be
-  considered here, from which the benefit of the clergy is taken away by
-  _Ja._ 1, _c._ 8.” “Where any person shall stab or thrust any person or
-  persons that hath not then first striken the party which shall so stab
-  or thrust, so as the person or persons so stabbed or thrust, shall
-  thereof die within the space of six months then next following,
-  although it cannot be proved that the same was done of malice
-  forethought.” See 1 _Hawk. P. C._ This statute was passed in
-  consequence of the numerous murders committed by the Scots, who with
-  their dirks stabbed before an ordinary weapon could be drawn.
-
-  For an extraordinary case on this statute, and much learning on the
-  subject, see the trial of _William Chetwynd_ for the murder of _Thomas
-  Rickets_. 18 _How St. Tri. p._ 290.
-
-Footnote 2:
-
-  Od. Lib. v. lin. 757.
-
-Footnote 3:
-
-  Tractat. de Peste Lib. iv. Hist. 85.
-
-Footnote 4:
-
-  In returning, the ship was cast away on the island of Zante, when this
-  unfortunate philosopher perished from hunger.
-
-Footnote 5:
-
-  _Bruhier, John_, a physician at Paris, in the middle of the
-  seventeenth century; he was author of many works, but his principal
-  celebrity rested on his warnings against burying persons, supposed to
-  be dead, too early. “Dissertation sur l’Incertitude des signes de la
-  Mort et l’abus des enterremens, et embaumemens precipites.” Paris,
-  1742. He was at the pains of collecting histories of persons who had
-  revived after being supposed to be dead, some of whom had been buried.
-  Bodies ought not to be interred, he says, until putrefaction has
-  commenced. “Memoire sur la necessité d’un Reglement general au sujet
-  des enterremens.” 1745. No one should be buried until the fourth day
-  from their dying. “Addition aux Memoires,” &c. in which he adds to the
-  number of examples of persons who had been buried alive, or had
-  revived after being interred. These works have passed through numerous
-  editions, and have been translated into several other European
-  languages.
-
-Footnote 6:
-
-  Horrible as it may appear, it was a custom in Persia, at the time that
-  _Herodotus_ wrote, of _burying alive_; and this historian was informed
-  that _Amestris_, the wife of _Xerxes_, when she was far advanced in
-  age, commanded fourteen Persian children of illustrious birth to be
-  interred alive, in honour of the Deity whom they supposed to exist
-  under the earth.—_Polyhymnia_, c. xiv.
-
-Footnote 7:
-
-  “A Dissertation on the _Disorder of Death_, or that state of the frame
-  under the signs of Death, called Suspended Animation,” by the Rev.
-  _Walter Whiter_, Rector of Hardingham. Norwich, 1819. 8vo.
-
-Footnote 8:
-
-  _Plin._ Nat. Hist. Lib. vii, c. 52; see also _Valer. Maxim._ Lib. 1,
-  c. 8. For extraordinary histories of persons roused from the tomb, see
-  _Diemerbroeck_, Lib, ii; _Joannes Mathæus_, Quæst. Med.; _Hildanus_
-  Cent. 2. Obs. 95, 96; _Phillip Salmuth_ Cent. 2, Obs. 86, 87, 95.
-  _Maximilian Misson_ relates in his voyages many curious cases of this
-  kind. “_Nouveau_ Voyage d’Italie.” But the works of _Bruhier_, before
-  mentioned, contain the greatest collection of such anecdotes.
-
-Footnote 9:
-
-  Thus in the Greek, the most philosophically constructed language with
-  which we are acquainted, the _alpha_ and _omega_, the first and last
-  acts of life, are conveyed in the verb αω _spiro_ compounded of those
-  letters. In Latin we also find _spiro_ and _spiritus_.
-
-Footnote 10:
-
-  Lettres sur la certitude des signes de la mort.
-
-Footnote 11:
-
-  Recherches Physiologiques sur la Vie et la Mort.
-
-Footnote 12:
-
-  Phil. Trans. 1811.
-
-Footnote 13:
-
-  Phil. Trans. 1667, vol. ii, p. 539.
-
-Footnote 14:
-
-  _Hunter_ on the Blood, p. 54.
-
-Footnote 15:
-
-  Medical Reports, p. 75.
-
-Footnote 16:
-
-  Zoonomia, vol. 1, p. 40.
-
-Footnote 17:
-
-  An Essay on Respiration by _J. Bostock_, M. D.
-
-Footnote 18:
-
-  A question has arisen, says _Mr. Brodie_, (_Manuscript Notes_) whether
-  the whole of the brain is essential to the function of respiration, or
-  whether the power of calling the respiratory muscles into action may
-  not reside in some particular part of that organ? It has been stated
-  by _Le Gallois_ that if you expose the cavity of the cranium, and
-  remove the upper part of the brain, the muscles of respiration
-  continue to act as usual; if, however, the dissection be continued, as
-  soon as that portion of the _Medulla Oblongata_ is removed which
-  corresponds to the _Corpora Olivaria_, their action is immediately
-  suspended. The theory which such an experiment naturally establishes
-  has received no inconsiderable support from the history of a fœtus,
-  published by _Mr. Lawrence_ in the Medico Chirurgical Transactions: in
-  this monster the _Cerebrum_ and _Cerebellum_ were entirely absent, but
-  the _Medulla Spinalis_ was continued for about an inch above the
-  _Foramen Magnum_ of the occiput, so as to form an imperfect _Medulla
-  Oblongata_, and to give origin to several nerves. Death did not take
-  place immediately after birth, as in other instances of cerebral
-  deficiency, but the child breathed for four days after it had been
-  expelled from the uterus.
-
-Footnote 19:
-
-  _Lower_, as early as the year 1667, shewed that if the nerves which go
-  to the diaphragm in a dog be divided, he breathes “like a
-  broken-winded horse.” _Phil. Trans._ vol. ii, p. 544.
-
-Footnote 20:
-
-  While this work was in progress we have read an account of a person
-  who, being in a state of debility, died suddenly from the shock of a
-  shower bath at Brighton. In this case Syncope was probably occasioned
-  in the same manner as by a blow on the head.
-
-Footnote 21:
-
-  _Trance._ Although this term is extremely familiar, it does not appear
-  that any precise meaning is attached to it; the popular notion is that
-  the body may for a time be abandoned by the soul, and remain for a
-  certain period in a deep sleep, during which the exercise of the vital
-  functions is so obscure, that the individual is reduced to a state of
-  close simulation of death.
-
-Footnote 22:
-
-  A great question has arisen upon this subject, whether rupture of the
-  heart ever takes place in the sound state of that organ? And it has
-  been answered by several pathologists in the affirmative. Fischer’s
-  case from the JOURNAL DER PRACTISCHEN HEILKUNDE, may be seen in the
-  MEDICAL REPOSITORY, Vol. 11, p. 427, and Vol. 12, p. 164. HARVEY found
-  in a male subject a rupture in the aortic ventricle, capable of
-  admitting a finger, and remarked that the parietes of the cavity
-  possessed their natural strength and thickness (Exercitat III. De
-  Circulo Sanguinis, T. p. 1. 281.) BOHN also gives a case of a man who
-  had died suddenly, when a fissure was discovered in the _Ostium
-  Aortæ_. PORTAL has informed us, that in a rupture of the basis of the
-  heart, which he examined, the structure of the organ was as firm and
-  compact as in the natural state, and that in another case the parietes
-  of the heart displayed their natural solidity. (Memoires de l’Academie
-  des Sciences, a Paris, 1784, p. 51.) SOEMERING considers it as having
-  been very correctly remarked by Portal, that the Aortic ventricle
-  commonly bursts without any previous weakening of the substance of the
-  heart. (See Soemering’s German Translation of Baillie’s Morbid
-  Anatomy, with Additions.) DR. WHYTT has likewise seen the heart burst
-  from protracted grief, and therefore does not regard the term, “BROKEN
-  HEART,” in the light of a mere metaphor. On the contrary, BOERHAAVE
-  has recorded two cases, and believes that the rupture was occasioned
-  by the morbid accumulation of fat; KREYSIG suspects that in most of
-  these cases of ruptured heart an insidious inflammation had been
-  established, and he considers that the quantity of adipose substance
-  in which ruptured hearts are so commonly found enveloped, furnishes an
-  evidence of this inflammatory state (Sopra i Malattée del cuore.) We
-  are decidedly of opinion that such ruptures take place in consequence
-  of a morbid state of the heart capable of diminishing the cohesive
-  power of its fibres. See a Treatise on the Diseases of the Chest by
-  _R. T. H. Laennec, M. D._ translated by _J. Forbes, M. D._ London,
-  1821.
-
-Footnote 23:
-
-  Recueil Periodique de la Societé de Medicine de Paris. T. LXI. p. 87
-
-Footnote 24:
-
-  Medico-Chirurg. Trans. vol. 1, p. 157. Analogous cases to those
-  related by _Mr. Chevalier_ will be found in _Bonetus_ Sepulchr. Anat.
-  vol. 1, p. 383; and _Morgagni_ Epist. 48, Art. 44; see also a
-  communication by _Dr. Ozanam_ in the Recueil Periodique de la Societé
-  de Medicine de Paris, tom. 61, p. 87.
-
-Footnote 25:
-
-  A young animal may not so soon perish as an older one; and a strong
-  and healthy individual may survive during a longer period than a
-  creature that is in a state of debility. By filling the lungs with air
-  a person may also be enabled to dispense with the act of respiration
-  for a longer period; _Mr. Kite_ made a very deep inspiration of 300
-  cubic inches, and was thus enabled to retain this quantity for 72
-  seconds, without a fresh inspiration; and divers in the pearl
-  fisheries, inspire deeply before they descend. It has been, moreover,
-  established by numerous experiments that the demand for oxygen in the
-  lungs is materially influenced by the nature of the ingesta received
-  into the stomach; _Mr. Spalding_, the celebrated diver, observed, that
-  whenever he used a diet of animal food, or drank spirituous liquors,
-  he consumed in a much shorter time the oxygen of the atmospheric air
-  in his diving-bell; and therefore he had learned from experience to
-  confine himself to a vegetable diet, and water, when following his
-  avocation. And the priest, or conjurer (_Pillal Karras_, in the
-  Malabar language) who attends the divers in the pearl fisheries of the
-  east, enjoins, as a religious duty, an abstinence from all food,
-  before he plunges into the ocean.
-
-  Muscular exertions, as in the act of struggling, will without doubt
-  contribute to the expenditure of oxygen, and increase the demand for
-  it, and therefore in its absence such movement must accelerate death
-  by suffocation; this physiological fact will be hereafter more fully
-  elucidated.
-
-Footnote 26:
-
-  We anticipate the objections that will be urged against the truth of
-  this assertion. It will be asked how it can be reconciled with the
-  accounts of persons who have recovered after an asphyxia of a much
-  longer duration? It may be inquired how the statement can be
-  reconciled with the ordinary histories of divers, who have become so
-  expert in the art which they profess, as to be capable of remaining
-  beneath the water for twenty minutes, or even for a longer period: we
-  are bound to consider such statements as no better than extravagant
-  fables; not more authentic, says _Mr. Brodie_ (Manuscript Notes), but
-  certainly less poetical and elegant, than those of the nymphs and
-  mermaids, whose ordinary residence is in grottos beneath the waves of
-  the sea; or than those Arabian fictions which have amused and
-  astonished our youthful imaginations with the description of the
-  Princes who govern the submarine nations, and pass their lives in
-  palaces of crystal at the bottom of the ocean—but of this we shall
-  speak more fully hereafter.
-
-Footnote 27:
-
-  Although the term ASPHYXIA merely signifies the absence of the pulse,
-  yet the name is erroneously applied to every apparent loss of
-  vitality.
-
-Footnote 28:
-
-  DE HAEN thought that death was produced in drowning by the water
-  flowing into the lungs, and thus stopping the passage of the blood in
-  the arteries. This belief gave origin to the very erroneous and
-  mischievous practice, which still continues amongst the more ignorant,
-  of suspending drowned persons by the heels, or of rolling them over
-  barrels.
-
-Footnote 29:
-
-  _Mr. Coleman_ examined the lungs of a cat which had been drowned, by
-  placing a ligature on the trachea, removing the lungs from the thorax,
-  and then making an opening in the trachea under water, so as to
-  collect the air which issued from the orifice; the whole quantity of
-  air thus obtained, amounted only to half a drachm; yet the same lungs
-  when inflated, required as much as two ounces of air, by measure, for
-  their distention. Nor would the presence of water appear to be
-  immediately fatal, when introduced into the lungs; Dr. _Goodwyn_
-  poured two ounces of water into the lungs of a cat, through an opening
-  made between the cartilages of the trachea; the animal had an
-  immediate difficulty of breathing, and a feeble pulse, but lived
-  several hours afterwards without much apparent inconvenience; it was
-  at length strangled, and the water was found in the lungs. From which
-  it would appear, that the admission of a certain portion of water,
-  does not tend to hasten death. The author of this note was present at
-  an experiment made by Mr. _Brodie_, in which he drowned a guinea pig,
-  whose trachea had been previously perforated; so that in this case, no
-  spasm of the glottis could arrest the ingress of the water into the
-  pulmonary air cells; but this produced no modification of the usual
-  symptoms; nor did it prevent the resuscitation of the animal, which
-  was afterwards effected by the appropriate methods.
-
-Footnote 30:
-
-  An animal also dies sooner by drowning, than by simple strangulation;
-  Mr. _Brodie_ considers that the abstraction of heat in the former case
-  is quite sufficient to account for this difference.
-
-Footnote 31:
-
-  _Foderè_, 90.
-
-Footnote 32:
-
-  _Walther_, de Morbis Peritonai, et Apoplexia. 3 _Foderè_, p. 106.
-
-Footnote 33:
-
-  See the Reports of the Edinburgh colleges, in the case of Sir _James
-  Standsfield_, as printed in the Appendix, p. 225, also Extracts from
-  Medical Evidence in the case of _Spencer Cowper_, Esq. for the murder
-  of _Sarah Stout_, ibid. p. 230. 3 _Foderè_, p. 93. 100. 108. The case
-  of _Servin_, ib. 125. of _Paulet_, ib. 126.
-
-Footnote 34:
-
-  Medicine Légale, vol. iii. p. 85.
-
-Footnote 35:
-
-  During such a state of the body there would be but a feeble call for
-  oxygen; it is muscular action which so rapidly expends this important
-  principle.
-
-Footnote 36:
-
-  In an experiment with a drowned cat, Mr. _Brodie_ found less than a
-  drachm of water in the bronchial vessels. Other physiologists have
-  ascertained the same fact by drowning animals in different coloured
-  fluids.
-
-Footnote 37:
-
-  See a very curious paper upon this subject by Mr. _Robertson_, in the
-  Philosophical Transactions, 1757, vol. 1. p. 30; from which it appears
-  that the author made ten experiments, in which, with the exception of
-  one person, he found all the men _specifically lighter_ than water,
-  and hence he concludes that drowning might be avoided, if the person
-  who falls into the water were not deprived of his presence of mind.
-
-Footnote 38:
-
-  _Franklin’s_ Art of Swimming.
-
-Footnote 39:
-
-  Vide _Valent. Pand. Med. Leg._ 297. “De reperto sub aqua Cadavere,”
-  and 299 “De Submersorum morte sine pota aquæ.”
-
-Footnote 40:
-
-  We say, “_generally_” because the comparative size of bone, on the one
-  hand, or the quantity of fat on the other, will make a very
-  considerable difference in the specific gravity of different parts of
-  the human body.
-
-Footnote 41:
-
-  See _Southey’s_ Life of Nelson; and the New Monthly Magazine for
-  January, 1821.
-
-Footnote 42:
-
-  This was the opinion of _Boerhaave_ and _Morgagni_. _M. Portal_ also
-  coincides with them, and observes that the examination of the bodies
-  of executed criminals formerly carried to him at the _Jardin des
-  Plantes_ for his lectures, has confirmed him in this idea.
-
-Footnote 43:
-
-  See 3 _Foderè_, 130.
-
-Footnote 44:
-
-  See several cases cited by _Foderè_, T. 3. p. 134.
-
-Footnote 45:
-
-  Memoires de l’Academie Royale, &c. 1704.
-
-Footnote 46:
-
-  State Trials, vol. xii.
-
-Footnote 47:
-
-  In consequence of plants, in the absence of the sun, giving off
-  nitrogen and carbonic acid gases, the custom of sleeping with flowers
-  in the bed chamber is deleterious, and may even, under certain
-  circumstances prove fatal; a melancholy proof of this occurred in
-  October, 1814, at Leighton-Buzzard, in Bedfordshire. “_Mr. Sherbrook_
-  having frequently had his pinery robbed, the gardener determined to
-  sit up and watch. He accordingly posted himself with a loaded fowling
-  piece, in the green-house, where it is supposed he fell asleep, and in
-  the morning was found dead upon the ground, with all the appearance of
-  suffocation, evidently occasioned by the discharge of _Mephitic_ gas
-  from the plants during the night.” _Observer_ of 16th, and _Times_ of
-  17th October, 1814; see also _Currie’s_ “Observations on Apparent
-  Death,” &c. p. 181.
-
-Footnote 48:
-
-  _Rozier_ and _Sir Humphrey Davy_ conclude from their experiments that
-  carbonic acid kills by exciting a spasmodic action, in which the
-  epiglottis is closed, and the entrance of this fluid into the lungs
-  altogether prevented. _Dr. Babington_ appears to entertain a different
-  opinion, (see “a case of exposure to the vapour of burning charcoal,”
-  Medico-Chirurg. Trans. vol. 1, p. 83,) and asks how we shall explain
-  the fact, that the loss of irritability in the muscles of animals
-  which have been destroyed by immersion in noxious airs, is
-  comparatively greater than in such as are hanged or drowned, unless we
-  suppose that the carbonic acid exerts a deleterious influence on the
-  nervous and muscular systems? The farther consideration of this
-  subject will be more properly entertained under the head of poisons.
-
-Footnote 49:
-
-  Comparative anatomy would furnish us with a variety of beautiful
-  arguments, if it were necessary, to support these views. The bird
-  whose muscular exertion is so great during its flight, is provided
-  with a more than ordinary extent of pulmonary apparatus; and amongst
-  insects we find that many of the _coleopterous_ species disclose
-  avenues of air, in the act of flying, which, in their quiet state, are
-  closed by the cases of their wings, thus procuring for themselves a
-  larger supply of oxygen, at a period when from their exertions they
-  most require it. Flat fish who, having no swimming bladder, remain at
-  the bottom, and possess but little velocity, have gills that are quite
-  concealed, while those who encounter a rude and boisterous stream, as
-  trout, perch, or salmon, have them widely expanded. For further
-  observations upon this subject, the author begs to refer to his paper
-  in the 10th vol. of the Linnean Transactions, entitled “On the
-  Physiology of the Egg,” by _J. A. Paris, M. D._ &c.
-
-Footnote 50:
-
-  This was the _peine fort & dure_ of our ancient law, which was
-  inflicted on prisoners who stood mute out of malice, or who feigned
-  themselves mad, or challenged peremptorily more than the number of
-  Jurors allowed by law, thus refusing their legal trial. “The manner of
-  inflicting this punishment may be best found from the Books of Entries
-  and other law books, all of which generally agree, that the prisoner
-  shall be remanded to the place from whence he came, and put into some
-  low dark room, and there laid on his back without any manner of
-  covering, except for the privy parts, and that as many weights be laid
-  upon him as he can bear and more, and that he shall have no manner of
-  sustenance but the worst bread and water, and that he shall not eat
-  the same day in which he drinks, nor drink the same day on which he
-  eats, and that he shall so continue till he die.” Some authorities say
-  till he answers. See 2 _Hawk. P. C._ 330. _c._ 30. § 16. 4 _Bl. Com._
-  _p._ 319. _Jac._ Law Dict. tit. Mute. The memory of this barbarous
-  punishment remains “as a monument of the savage rapacity with which
-  the lordly tyrants of feudal antiquity hunted after escheats and
-  forfeitures,” for when the criminal died mute, the lord in some cases
-  lost his escheat; (see 4 _Bl. Com._ 323). But its execution is no
-  longer permitted by our laws. By Stat. 12 _Geo._ 3. c. 20, sentence
-  may be passed on those who stand mute as if they had been found or
-  pleaded guilty.
-
-Footnote 51:
-
-  This, however, can but rarely occur; and it seems to have been wisely
-  ordained by Nature, that the stomach should lose the power of
-  rejecting its contents, whenever the brain loses its sensibility. See
-  _Paris’s_ Pharmacologia, edit. 5, vol. 1, p. 150.
-
-Footnote 52:
-
-  Manuscript Notes.
-
-Footnote 53:
-
-  _Dr. Badenoch_ has very satisfactorily shewn that the _Coup de Soleil_
-  kills by producing apoplexy.
-
-Footnote 54:
-
-  This does not hold universally, for _Beccaria_ mentions the case of a
-  man whose body became exceedingly stiff, very shortly after having
-  been struck dead by lightning;—and in one of Mr. _Brodie’s_
-  experiments, the muscles of a Guinea pig killed by electricity became
-  stiff.
-
-Footnote 55:
-
-  Manuscript Notes.
-
-Footnote 56:
-
-  _Mayer_ directed his attention very particularly to the appearances
-  which were thus produced, and had drawings made of them. It would
-  appear that they most commonly passed in the direction of the spine.
-
-  In the First Volume of the Philosophical Transactions, there is an
-  account of the dissection of a man killed by lightning, but it
-  contains nothing remarkable.
-
-Footnote 57:
-
-  See also an account of a thunder-storm, by Mr. _Brydone_, in the 77th
-  vol. of Phil. Trans.
-
-Footnote 58:
-
-  _Morgagni_ de Sedibus et Causis Morb. Epist. 68. No. 6 and 7.
-
-Footnote 59:
-
-  _Hippocrat._ Aphor. 13. Sect. 2.
-
-Footnote 60:
-
-  Osservaz: intorno agli Anim. viventi, etc. No. 3 et 4.
-
-Footnote 61:
-
-  This event occurred during the period of the author’s studies at
-  Cambridge; and he can therefore offer his testimony to the truth of
-  the statement; he visited the woman soon after her disinterment.
-
-Footnote 62:
-
-  See Vol. i. p. 369.
-
-Footnote 63:
-
-  Starving to death was a punishment inflicted by the people of Aragon,
-  some years ago; and it is reported by _Tavernier_, that the chief
-  ladies in the kingdom of Tonquin, are at this day starved to death for
-  adultery. The severity of the Roman law on an unchaste Vestal has
-  often exercised the pencil of the artist. An account of its execution
-  on _Rhea_, marked as it always was by circumstances of peculiar horror
-  and solemnity, is to be found in _Plutarch’s_ Life of _Numa_; the
-  offender, conducted by a mute procession across the Forum to the place
-  of her interment near the Colline gate, was made to descend a ladder
-  into the sepulchre, and left there with a lamp, a loaf of bread, and a
-  cruse of water, the opening being immediately closed with earth and
-  stones.
-
-Footnote 64:
-
-  Corsican Gazette, and London Med. & Phys. Jour. March, 1822.
-
-Footnote 65:
-
-  The siege of Jerusalem by the Romans will at once occur to the reader;
-  and of which _Josephus_ has left us so tragic a history: amongst other
-  atrocities, an unhappy woman, reduced to the last extremity by
-  pinching hunger, sacrifices the feelings of a mother to the voracious
-  calls of appetite, butchers her child, and feeds upon the body!
-
-Footnote 66:
-
-  See “Naufrage de la Frégate la Méduse, faisant partie de l’Expedition
-  du Sénégal en 1816,” par _F. B. Savigny_, ex Chirurgien de la Marine,
-  et _Alexandre Corréard_, Ingénieur-Geographe. Paris, 1817.—A very
-  interesting account of this narrative may be found in the Quarterly
-  Review, for October, 1817.
-
-Footnote 67:
-
-  That which we call duration is in fact a feeling of succession, and is
-  computed by the number of ideas that pass through the mind; whenever
-  an event occurs which powerfully excites the attention of an observer,
-  he watches the most minute change, whence he believes that the time
-  which elapses before the whole event is completed, appears to be
-  unusually prolonged. When the infidel sultan of Egypt refused to
-  believe that Mahomet could have ascended into the seven heavens, and
-  have held some thousand conferences with the Almighty in the space of
-  a few minutes, the learned mussulman, who was consulted on the
-  occasion, endeavoured to turn his Majesty to a more strict faith, by
-  demonstrating to him that a short period of time became converted into
-  a long one, when a great multitude of important events were crouded
-  into it.
-
-Footnote 68:
-
-  In a tract entitled “Observations on Animal Life and Apparent Death,
-  by _John Franks_, surgeon, 8vo. London, 1790,” the author says that
-  “when the late _Mr. Justamond_ (Surgeon to the Middlesex hospital)
-  lived on the terrace, Palace yard, Westminster, a boy who had been
-  drowned in the Thames was brought to him; he made an opening into the
-  wind-pipe, in order to inflate the lungs; but the discharge of blood
-  which ensued was such as gave him no chance of succeeding in the
-  recovery; for he could not prevent the blood from pouring down into
-  the lungs.” Although, says _Dr. Currie_, nothing is said in this case
-  about the pulse, yet from the blood flowing so copiously, there is
-  reason to believe that the heart had begun to act; and therefore to
-  conclude, that life was in fact _destroyed_ by this operation, which
-  _might_ have been saved without it. See “Observations on Apparent
-  Death from Drowning, Hanging, Suffocation by noxious vapours, &c.” by
-  _James Currie_, M.D. London, 1815.
-
-Footnote 69:
-
-  The first body galvanised in this country was that of the malefactor
-  _George Foster_, who was executed in January 1803, before Newgate, for
-  the murder of his wife and infant daughter, by drowning them in the
-  Paddington Canal; the experiment was conducted under the direction of
-  _Aldini_, the nephew of _Galvani_.
-
-Footnote 70:
-
-  _Medico-Chirurg. Trans._ vol. 1, p. 26.
-
-Footnote 71:
-
-  Elements of Juridical or Forensic Medicine.
-
-Footnote 72:
-
-  Newgate Calendar.
-
-Footnote 73:
-
-  See _Maclaurin’s Crim. Ca._ _p. 71._ where this circumstance is
-  alluded to.
-
-Footnote 74:
-
-  By the Scottish law, in part founded on that of the Romans, a person
-  against whom the judgment of the Court has been executed, can suffer
-  no more in future, but is thenceforward totally exculpated; and it is
-  likewise held, that the marriage is dissolved by the execution of the
-  convicted party. _Margaret Dickson_ then, having been convicted and
-  executed, as above mentioned, the king’s advocate could prosecute her
-  no farther, but he filed a bill in the high court of Judiciary against
-  the sheriff, for omitting to fulfil the law. The husband of this
-  revived convict, however, married her publicly a few days after her
-  resuscitation; and she strenuously denied the crime for which she had
-  suffered.
-
-Footnote 75:
-
-  The Lord Chief Justice of the King’s Bench is the principal Coroner in
-  the kingdom, and may, if he pleases, exercise the jurisdiction of a
-  coroner in any part of the Realm. 4 _Rep._ 57.
-
-Footnote 76:
-
-  Except in case of persons dying in jail, the Coroner must not hold
-  unnecessary inquests on the bodies of those who have died in the
-  ordinary course of nature. “And the Court of King’s Bench, on two
-  several occasions within my own memory, blamed the Coroners of Norfolk
-  and Anglesea, for holding repeated and unnecessary inquests, for the
-  sake of enhancing their fees, on bodies and parts of bodies which were
-  cast up by the sea shore, without the smallest probability or
-  suspicion of the deaths happening in any other manner than by the
-  unfortunate perils of the sea.” 1 _East. P.C._ 382. See _ib._ the case
-  of _Rex v. Harrison_, for extorting money for _not_ holding an
-  inquest.
-
-Footnote 77:
-
-  For this purpose the Coroner issues a precept to the constable of such
-  townships to return a competent number of jurors, viz. not less than
-  twelve. 2 _Hale, P.C._ 59. 62. 1 _East. P.C._ 380.
-
-Footnote 78:
-
-  But this power should be used with discretion. On a late occasion, the
-  Judge severely reprobated the conduct of a magistrate, who had
-  committed a poor lad to await the assizes, in company of notorious
-  thieves and other desperate characters, because he had been the
-  innocent witness of a felony, and was too poor to find recognizance.
-
-Footnote 79:
-
-  Thus in the case of Sir _Edmondsbury Godfrey_, much blood might have
-  been spared, and much political controversy avoided, if it had been
-  possible to determine whether the murder had taken place in the field
-  where the body was found, or at Somerset House, as charged by
-  witnesses who afterwards confessed their perjury.
-
-Footnote 80:
-
-  “It is true that the statute does in terms only require the coroner to
-  put in writing _the effect_ of the evidence. But this must not be
-  taken to give him a latitude, such as hath been but too often taken by
-  persons of this description to the great perversion of truth and
-  justice, of putting down, not the words of the witnesses, but his own
-  conception of their tendency. It is doubtless the meaning of the act,
-  that the examination of the witnesses should be taken down with the
-  greatest possible accuracy as to all material points of the inquiry:
-  otherwise one great benefit of the act, which is to enable the Court
-  to compare the examination with the evidence, must be defeated. _The
-  effect_ mentioned therein, means the true and genuine sense of the
-  evidence, as delivered in detail, not indeed in letters, syllables, or
-  even words; though these should not be needlessly departed from; but
-  the fair and obvious meaning of the words spoken, and not the final
-  result of the evidence. Complaints have in my own memory been made by
-  judges on the circuits of the culpable neglect of coroners in this
-  respect, and threats of exemplary punishment holden out to them, to
-  prevent a repetition of the same abuse in future.” 1 _East. P.C._ 384.
-
-Footnote 81:
-
-  It must be on the actual view of the body, the coroner and his party
-  seeing it together. 2 _Hale_ 60. 1 _East._ 380. _King v. Ferrand._ 2
-  _Barn. & Ald._ 260.
-
-  It was evidently the original intention of the Legislature, that the
-  coroner should view the body on the spot where it was found; that he
-  and his jury might judge as well by inspection of the body, as by an
-  examination of surrounding objects, whether the deceased had died by
-  violence. And Sir _William Blackstone_ says, “He must also sit at the
-  _very_ place where the death happened,” 1 _Com._ 348. and this should
-  certainly be done in all possible cases, for the state of surrounding
-  objects most frequently will testify more strongly than any other
-  evidence. Modern fastidiousness has introduced the custom of removing
-  the body to some public-house, even where the death had happened in an
-  ordinary dwelling; this if not illegal, is at least improper.
-
-Footnote 82:
-
-  See also the proceedings on the Oldham inquest, and the subsequent
-  judgment in the Court of King’s Bench. _A.D._ 1818, 1819. The _King
-  against Ferrand_, 2 _Barn & Ald._ 260.
-
-Footnote 83:
-
-  This was publicly disputed on a late occasion; it is well to question
-  all extra-judicial dicta, which may be delivered during the heat of
-  political controversy.
-
-Footnote 84:
-
-  The evidence must be on oath; _vide ante_ _p._ 167.
-
-Footnote 85:
-
-  In _Scorey’s_ case, _Leach C. L._ 50. the coroner refused to take the
-  evidence of a man who had accompanied the accused in search of
-  deer-stealers, and only admitted the man who was with the deceased.
-  The coroner, on the testimony of this man, told the jury, that the
-  crime was murder, but they refused to find any other verdict than
-  _Accidental death_; which verdict the coroner recorded, and then by
-  his warrant sent _Scorey_ to the county goal for murder.
-
-  _Scorey_ being now brought up by Habeas Corpus—The Court, on full
-  affidavit of the fact, admitted him to bail, and granted a rule
-  against the coroner to shew cause why an information should not be
-  filed against him.
-
-Footnote 86:
-
-  There are many cases in which there is no substance which can be made
-  the subject of deodand; as in death by poison or by explosions in
-  mines, either from inflammable gas, or the powder used in blasting.
-  The first of these cases calls for immediate remedy; as the instances
-  of fatal substitution of poison for medicine occur continually,
-  notwithstanding the repeated warnings published on the subject. Nor
-  are accidents in mines less worthy of attention; ordinary precaution
-  might have prevented many which have lately taken place. The Safety
-  lamp of Sir _H. Davy_ is so firmly established in reputation, that no
-  doubts can be entertained of its efficacy; some late inventions also
-  have secured the miner from the numerous disasters to which he is
-  liable in the dangerous operation of blasting. When the conductors of
-  mines neglect these ordinary and well-known precautions, they become
-  morally responsible for any mischief which may consequently occur; we
-  have only to lament that they are not legally answerable for their
-  criminal neglect.
-
-Footnote 87:
-
-  With respect to a second inquest, the law is thus laid down (3 _Barn.
-  & Ald._ 266.) So also he (the coroner) may dig up the body, if the
-  first Inquisition be quashed. _Str._ 533. But it must be by order of
-  the Court of King’s Bench, on motion, _Str._ 167. And the judges will
-  exercise their discretion, according to the _time_ and circumstances,
-  whether he shall or shall not do it. _Salk._ 377. _Str._ 22. 533. 2
-  _Mod._ 16.
-
-Footnote 88:
-
-  It is not for us in this place to argue the question whether excessive
-  severity of punishment does or does not defeat its punishment; as more
-  injury is done by inducing that illegal mercy which is here complained
-  of, than benefit is derived by terror of the unexecuted sentence of
-  the law: the subject is in abler hands; we shall, therefore, content
-  ourselves with suggesting, that coroners should be far more strict in
-  their examination of the bodies of persons supposed to be _felo de
-  se_; nay, that anatomical inspection of the great cavities should be
-  absolutely required in all cases. We will not maintain with a French
-  author on Medical Jurisprudence, that the signs of insanity can often
-  be discovered on dissection; though we can imagine some cases, as
-  where there has been an excessive determination of blood to the brain,
-  in which this inspection may be satisfactory; (See vol. 1, p. 327).
-  _Fourcroy_ and _Durande_ have also found, on dissecting persons who
-  had committed suicide, hardness of the liver, and gall stones; and
-  _Foderé_ observes that, in failure of other evidence, such appearances
-  deserve to carry some weight. But benefit would still result from the
-  practice; first from the general horror in which dissection is held,
-  for if the dread of an ignominious burial, however remote the chance
-  of its infliction, can be supposed to discourage this offence, under
-  the existing law, the certainty of personal mutilation would operate
-  in the proposed alteration. It is related, that when suicide had
-  become so frequent among the Roman ladies, as to threaten ill effects
-  to the commonwealth, the Senate decreed that the bodies of all who
-  died by their own hands should be exposed naked in the public ways.
-
-  The effect of the decree was an immediate cessation of the crime;
-  possibly the same result might be produced by the dread of dissection.
-
-Footnote 89:
-
-  Al sessions al Newgate post natalem dom. 1604, 2 _Jac._ Le case fuit
-  que en home et se feme ayant longe temps vive incontinent ensemble, le
-  homme ayant consume son substance et cressant en necessity, dit al
-  feme que il fuit weary de son vie, et qu’il voiloit luy m occider, a
-  que la feme dit que donques el voiloit auci moryer ove luy: per que le
-  home praya la feme que el voiluit vaar et acheter ratisbane, et ils
-  voilont ceo beber ensemble, le quel el fist, et el ceo mist en le
-  drink, et ils bibe ceo, mes la feme apres prist sallet oyle, per que
-  el vomit et fuit recover, mes le home morust: et le question fuit si
-  ceo fuit murther en la feme. _Montague_ recorder cause l’especial
-  matter d’estre trove: _quære_ le resolucion. _F. Moore_, 754.
-
-Footnote 90:
-
-  Vide ante, tit. Coroner’s Inquest.
-
-Footnote 91:
-
-  Decency and public policy require that burials should not be delayed,
-  and it may not be amiss here to observe that the old notion of
-  arresting a body for debt, is now utterly exploded, as contrary not
-  only to the civil and canon law, (see _Wood’s Civ. Law_, 148; 2
-  _Domat_ 628: _Lindw._ 278,) but to reason and the law of the land.
-  Vide ante, Vol. 1. p. 100.
-
-Footnote 92:
-
-  It is said that to act upon the mind by terror, continual griefs or
-  vexations, though with the intent to kill, is not murder, unless there
-  be some personal violence, 1 _East. P. C._, _p._ 225: but query this,
-  the proof of the crime may be difficult, but its perpetration is far
-  from impossible. To act on the mind of a pregnant woman by extreme
-  terrors, and so produce abortion and death of malice prepense, would
-  certainly be murder in its most atrocious form; it might require some
-  ingenuity in framing the indictment; but our law is fertile in
-  fictions on less worthy occasions, and ought not to allow its just
-  vengeance to be avoided. In cases of murder by starvation there may be
-  no actual violence, yet the law reaches this offence; sometimes indeed
-  imprisonment forms a part of the crime, but this may not always be the
-  case; for if the deceased were confined to his bed by disease, so that
-  he could not seek his own food, and those who were bound to supply him
-  maliciously neglected their duty, it would be murder by omission
-  without any personal violence committed. _See_ _Self’s_ case, 1 _East.
-  P. C._ 226: 1 _Leach, C.C._ 163, and authorities there. So in an
-  indictment for starving a servant, _Lawrence_, J. intimated, that he
-  thought the indictment insufficient, in not alleging _that Elizabeth
-  Williams was a girl of tender years, and under the dominion and
-  controul of the defendant_. _Rex v. Eliz. Ridley_, 2 _Camp. R._ 650.
-  See also _Regina v. Gould. Salk._ 381.
-
-Footnote 93:
-
-  “Such also was the case of the parish officers who shifted a child
-  from parish to parish, till it died for want of care and sustinence.”
-  1 _East. P. C._ 226, and authorities there. Unfortunately this species
-  of crime is not of very rare occurrence; numerous instances might be
-  cited where the death of a pauper has been caused by the barbarous
-  custom of removing the poor, without the slightest regard to their
-  age, disease, or infirmity.
-
-Footnote 94:
-
-  As we are not aware of the existence of any poisonous filth so noxious
-  as to destroy by its mere stench, we shall not enlarge on this head;
-  we have indeed heard of an attempt to kill by the smoke of burning
-  Euphorbium, but without believing in its power. _Vide ante tit.
-  Nuisance, et post, Aerial poisons._
-
-Footnote 95:
-
-  In this case it is not necessary that there should be any signs or
-  even suspicion of violence; the bare fact that they died in gaol is
-  enough.
-
-Footnote 96:
-
-  One half of the jury should be of the prisoners, 1 _East P. C._ 383,
-  for they are most likely to know if any unnecessary hardship had been
-  inflicted on the deceased.
-
-Footnote 97:
-
-  The learned Reporter does not appear to have adverted to the
-  distinction between epidemic and contagious distempers. See vol. 1, p.
-  105.
-
-Footnote 98:
-
-  It is to be feared that grand juries will discontinue their salutary
-  custom of visiting the prisons, in consequence of a recent decision
-  that they have no right to demand admission. As the propriety of their
-  inspection is generally granted, we may venture to hint a wish that
-  some enactment may pass on this subject, and that the temporary
-  political objection, arising out of the seclusion of state prisoners,
-  may not be permitted to operate as a general and permanent obstacle.
-  It is to the zeal of individuals in tracing abuses, rather than to
-  legislative enactment for their prevention, that we look for the still
-  necessary improvements of our prison discipline; for no government,
-  however vigilant, can guard against the secret misconduct of its
-  obscurer agents; all it can do, is to encourage enquiry, whenever the
-  first hint of delinquency or even of suspicion is communicated. The
-  subject is now under legislative consideration, and we may therefore
-  hope that a due system may be adopted, one which shall equally steer
-  clear of the wasteful expenditure of the Millbank Penitentiary, and
-  the enormities imputed to Ilchester: that prisons may be made places
-  of confinement, coercion, and punishment; but not of torture,
-  contagion, and despair.
-
-  The improvement in morals, order, and cleanliness introduced into some
-  prisons by the exertions of a benevolent individual (_Mrs. Fry_)
-  deserves our notice; her attention indeed has been mainly directed to
-  the mental and religious instruction of female prisoners, but this
-  mental improvement is not without its effect on their bodily health;
-  order, temperance, and cleanliness, will always produce a physical as
-  well as moral improvement on the minds and persons of the lower
-  orders.
-
-Footnote 99:
-
-  A similar calamity occurred in Dublin in 1776, when the sheriff,
-  several counsellors, and others, fell victims to this disease. Gents.
-  Mag. The death of the late Judge _Osborne_ also is attributed to an
-  ill-ventilated court.
-
-Footnote 100:
-
-  The law does not appear to have made any sufficient provision for the
-  (not improbable) contingency of a highly infectious disorder breaking
-  out in any prison, yet it is evidently unjust that a prisoner for a
-  debt of _one shilling!_ or any other sum, should be exposed to the
-  hazard of his life by remaining in contact with the infected, (see
-  _Buxton’s_ Inquiry.) Formerly the writ of _Habeas Corpus_ was granted
-  on such occasions, but abuses having arisen it was ultimately referred
-  to the judges to consider the legality of this application of the
-  writ, who decided against it; adding, however, that in case of great
-  infection some house in some good town might be assigned for the
-  warden of the Fleet, and the like for the marshal of the King’s Bench,
-  where they might keep their prisoners _sub arcta et salva custodia_.
-  _Hutt._ 129. But query, how far this course would be applicable to
-  other prisons?
-
-Footnote 101:
-
-  The learned _Jacob Bryant_ lost his life from mortification in his
-  leg, originating in the slight circumstance of a rasure against a
-  chair, in the act of reaching a book from a shelf.
-
-Footnote 102:
-
-  See “An account of a case of recovery, after an extraordinary
-  accident, by which the shaft of a chaise had been forced through the
-  thorax.” by William Maiden; London, 1812.
-
-Footnote 103:
-
-  Memoires de l’Acad. Royale. 1705.
-
-Footnote 104:
-
-  Med. Polit. P. 1. C. 1.
-
-Footnote 105:
-
-  _Hebenstreit_ observes that if a man is wounded by two different
-  persons, one of whom stabs in the side, the other in the belly, it
-  becomes necessary after death to ascertain of which wound the deceased
-  died, in order that the actual murderer may be punished. By the law of
-  England this question can never arise.
-
-Footnote 106:
-
-  The bites of venomous animals will be considered under the head of
-  Poisons.
-
-Footnote 107:
-
-  This trial is the more remarkable as forming one of the numerous
-  persecutions to which the prisoner claimant of the Annesley Peerage
-  was subjected by the rancour of his opponent; for the other
-  proceedings _see State Trials_.
-
-Footnote 108:
-
-  Poisoning, in war, is even considered by the law of nations as more
-  odious than assassination, of this _Grotius_ (lib. iii. c. 4.) has
-  enlarged. It was a maxim of the Roman senate, that war was to be
-  carried on by arms, and not by poison (_Aul. Gell. Nat. Altico._ lib.
-  iii. c. 8.). Even _Tiberius_ rejected the proposal made by the Prince
-  of the Catti, that if poison was sent to him, he would destroy
-  _Arminius_; he received for answer, that the Roman people chastised
-  their enemies by open force, without having recourse to wicked
-  practices and secret machinations (_Val. Max._ 1. iv. c. 5.)
-
-Footnote 109:
-
-  See also 4 _Co. R._ case of _Vaux_, who was executed for poisoning
-  with Cantharides. “Persuadebat eundem Nichol’ recipere et bibere
-  quemdam potum mixtum cum quodam veneno vocat cantharides, affirmans et
-  verificans eidem Nichol’ quod præd’ potus sic mixtus cum præd’ veneno
-  vocat’ canth’ non fuit intoxicatus (Anglice poisoned) sed quod per
-  reception’ inde præd’ Nich’ exit’ de corpore dictæ Margaretæ tunc
-  uxoris suæ procuraret et haberet.” It is to be hoped that the age of
-  Philtres and love powders is passed.
-
-Footnote 110:
-
-  At Warwick Assizes, 18 _Eliz._ _John Saunders_ and _Alexander Archer_
-  were indicted for the wilful murder of _Eleanor Saunders_, an infant
-  of 3 years of age, daughter of the first prisoner. _Saunders_ wishing
-  to get rid of his wife consulted _Archer_, by whose advice he gave her
-  (being ill) a roasted apple, with which he had mixed _arsenic_ and
-  _roseacre_. She ate a small part of it, and in his presence gave the
-  remainder to the infant, for which _Saunders_ reprehended her, saying
-  apples were not good for such children, but he permitted the child to
-  swallow the poison, lest he should be suspected. He was condemned and
-  executed, but a point was reserved as to the guilt of his accomplice
-  _Archer_, for which, see _Plowden’s Rep._ 474.
-
-Footnote 111:
-
-  The study of poisoning appears to have been of considerable antiquity.
-  _Ulysses_ sought poison for his weapons from _Ilus_, “φαρμακον
-  ανδροφονον” Od. 1. 1. v. 261; but the conscientious pharmacopolist
-  refused to furnish his dangerous preparations to the wily chief.
-
-Footnote 112:
-
-  Taciti Annal: Lib: iv. c. 8.
-
-Footnote 113:
-
-  Hist: Plant. Lib: ix. c. 16, p. 189.
-
-Footnote 114:
-
-  Lib: viii, c. 18.
-
-Footnote 115:
-
-  For the ingenious mode in which this poison was administered, see
-  _Tacitus_. The prince having called for a cup of wine, it was
-  purposely presented too hot; he desired cold water to be added to it,
-  and the opportunity was then taken to infuse the poison. By this
-  stratagem the taster (“calida gelidæque minister.” _Juv. Sat._ v. _v._
-  63.) escaped its effects, in which he must otherwise have participated
-  with _Britannicus_.
-
-Footnote 116:
-
-  The reader will find a very interesting account of this diabolical
-  woman in _Labat’s Travels through Italy_, and also in _Beckman’s
-  History of Inventions_.
-
-Footnote 117:
-
-  _Hoffman_ Medicin. Rational.
-
-Footnote 118:
-
-  This story, if we mistake not, suggested to the successful author of
-  Kenilworth, the tragic death of his Alchymist.
-
-Footnote 119:
-
-  The belief in the possibility of poisoning by the vestments is very
-  ancient, as is shewn by the fabled death of Hercules.
-
-                           ----“Capit inscius heros:
-               Induiturque humeris Lernææ virus Echidnæ.
-               -----------------------------------------
-               -----------------------------------------
-               Incaluit vis illa mali; resolutaque flammis;
-               Herculeos abiit late diffusa per artus.”
-
-                                       _Ovid. Metam. Lib._ ix. _v._ 157.
-
-Footnote 120:
-
-  Quæst. Med. Leg.
-
-Footnote 121:
-
-  _Sir Edward Coke in the trial of Sir John Hollis._
-
-Footnote 122:
-
-  _Bacon’s_ works, vol. ii. p. 614.
-
-Footnote 123:
-
-  “επιφερεν οιδηματα σωματος, μετα ωχροτητος επιτεταμενης. δυσπνοειν και
-  δυσωδια οδωδεναι το στομα, και λυγμος αυτοις επεται, ενιοτε δε και
-  σπερματος απροαιρετος εκκρισις.”
-
-Footnote 124:
-
-  1. κωφος η αφθογγος; 2. φωνητικος.
-
-Footnote 125:
-
-  Instit. Mater. Medic. p. 176.
-
-Footnote 126:
-
-  _Manuale di Tossicologia_, p. 79. 245.
-
-Footnote 127:
-
-  See also _Istituzioni di Med. For. di G. Tortosa_, vol. 2. p. 67, and
-  authorities there cited.
-
-Footnote 128:
-
-  This fact may be illustrated by ancient as well as modern records;
-  from the poisoned tunic of the Centaur Nessus, to the treacherous
-  powders of the diabolical _Mary Bateman_.
-
-Footnote 129:
-
-  THEOPHRAST. _Hist. Plant._ lx. c. 16. STRABO mentions the action of
-  the _Lauro-cerasus_, as a poison, and observes that it occasions a
-  death like that of Epilepsy.
-
-Footnote 130:
-
-  All these substances were found in the casket of _Saint Croix_.
-
-Footnote 131:
-
-  _Gerarde_, in his Herbal, considers the _Cymbalaria_ to be the
-  Pennywort of which he describes two varieties, viz. the
-  Wall-pennywort, and the Water-pennywort; and he blames the “ignorant
-  apothecaries,” for using the latter instead of the former, as
-  extremely dangerous and destructive to life. Modern botanists consider
-  it as an _Antirrhinum_,—A. Cymbalaria. Lin. i. e. Ivy-leaved
-  Toad-flax. We are not aware of any part of this genus being poisonous.
-  The _A. Linaria_, common Toad-flax, appears to be the only one to
-  which any medicinal virtues have been ascribed. _Linnæus_, however,
-  says (Flor. Suec.) that this plant is used as a poison to flies.
-
-Footnote 132:
-
-  Man. de Toxicol.
-
-Footnote 133:
-
-  Hist. General de Venen. mineral.
-
-Footnote 134:
-
-  BOERHAAVE gives us the following definition. “_Venenum dico omne illud
-  quod ingestum vel applicatum corpori, talem in corpore humano
-  mutationem excitat, quæ per ipsam eam mutationem non superatur.
-  Medicamentum præterea in eo differt, quod ipsa, quam facit mutatio, in
-  sanitatem tendat, venenum vero corpus mutat, ut ex sano ægrum fiat,
-  aut cadaver._” (Prælect. Acad. T. vi, p. 283.) HOFFMANN has furnished
-  us with a definition less exceptionable than the foregoing, but still
-  inferior to that of _Gmelin_. “_Alit natura res, quæ exigua mole et
-  summa partium tenuitate, brevi tempore, concentum atque ordinem motuum
-  vitalium pervertunt, vel plane destruunt; et hæ vocari solent
-  Venena._” (M.R.S.T. II. p. 88.)
-
-Footnote 135:
-
-  We have adopted this term, as one that has been in previous use,
-  although we are by no means satisfied that a more expressive word
-  might not be found.
-
-Footnote 136:
-
-  This case is detailed in his ‘Pharmacologia,’ under the article _Cupri
-  Sulphas_.
-
-Footnote 137:
-
-  See an interesting paper by Dr. _Marcet_, in the 12th volume of the
-  Medico-Chirurgical Transactions, entitled, “_Account of a man who
-  lived ten years after having swallowed a number of clasp knives._”
-
-Footnote 138:
-
-  In the reign of LOUIS XIV, _Henrietta_, Duchess of Orleans, is said to
-  have been poisoned by diamond-dust mixed with powdered sugar. The same
-  substance is enumerated among other extraordinary poisons, as having
-  been administered in the case of _Sir Thomas Overbury_.
-
-Footnote 139:
-
-  Old women in the country recommend the same remedy for the destruction
-  of worms; probably the medicine and the poison may be equally
-  effective.
-
-Footnote 140:
-
-  Saggi Scientif. e letter dell’ Accademia di Padova. T. III. p. 11, p.
-  1.
-
-Footnote 141:
-
-  Chylologia.
-
-Footnote 142:
-
-  De Venenis.
-
-Footnote 143:
-
-  Comment. super Homicid. p. 177.
-
-Footnote 144:
-
-  Ratio Medendi. Part VI, p. 60.
-
-Footnote 145:
-
-  Hist. General de Venenis Mineral.
-
-Footnote 146:
-
-  Med. Leg. Tom. II. p. 170.
-
-Footnote 147:
-
-  Tom. II. p. 346.
-
-Footnote 148:
-
-  Man. de Toxicol.
-
-Footnote 149:
-
-  Fragmenta Chirurg. et Med. p. 66.
-
-Footnote 150:
-
-  Pharmacologia, Edit. v. vol. I. p. 324.
-
-Footnote 151:
-
-  See Medical Facts and Observations, Vol. v.
-
-Footnote 152:
-
-  See M. _Pouqueville’s_ “Voyage de Morée,” also Mr. _Thornton’s_
-  Travels; and Notes to Lord _Byron’s_ Childe Harold’s Pilgrimage.
-
-Footnote 153:
-
-  M. R. S. T. iv. Part iii, p. 278.
-
-Footnote 154:
-
-  For the purpose of propitiating the favour of heaven, the alchymist
-  stamped the figure of the cross upon the vessel, in which he expected
-  to obtain the long sought prize that was to convert the baser metals
-  into gold, whence the term _Crucible_ derived its origin. And when the
-  experiments of chemistry began to be considered as the true tests of
-  philosophical truth, the expression of “_Experimentum crucis_” was
-  adopted to signify the highest degree of proof of which a subject is
-  susceptible.
-
-Footnote 155:
-
-  _Sydenham_ considered the occurrence of cholera, as a disease in
-  England, to be confined to the month of August, at which time, says
-  he, it appears as certainly as swallows in the early spring, or
-  cuckows at the approach of summer; but he himself observed it to
-  appear sometimes towards the end of summer, when the season was
-  unusually warm; and that the violence of the disease was in proportion
-  to the degree of heat. _Note. Mrs. Downing_ died in November, and
-  _Miss Burns_, whose case is so frequently alluded to in this work, in
-  March.
-
-Footnote 156:
-
-  Youths and adults are more generally affected than children and old
-  persons.
-
-Footnote 157:
-
-  _Sydenham_ describing the violent symptoms of cholera concludes by
-  observing, “and such like symptoms as frighten the by-standers, and
-  kill the patient in 24 hours.” Syd. Sect. iv, c. 2. It must be
-  remembered that _Sydenham_ is here describing an extreme case. The
-  unfortunate _Mrs. Downing_ (see Appendix, p. 277) died in fourteen
-  hours!
-
-Footnote 158:
-
-  See the case of _Mr. Robert Turner_, poisoned by _Eliz. Fenning_, as
-  related by _Mr. Marshall_.
-
-Footnote 159:
-
-  See _Baillie’s_ Morbid Anatomy.
-
-Footnote 160:
-
-  Opera Omnia Ch. iv, p. 34.
-
-Footnote 161:
-
-  De Causis et Signis. Lib. 1, c. 7.
-
-Footnote 162:
-
-  De Abdit. rerum Causis. Lib. ii, c. 15.
-
-Footnote 163:
-
-  De Sedibus, &c. Epist. 59, n. 16.
-
-Footnote 164:
-
-  Anthropolog: Forens. p. 523.
-
-Footnote 165:
-
-  De Signis Veneni dati Diagnosticis, n. 8.
-
-Footnote 166:
-
-  M. R. S. T. iv, p. 3, c. 8.
-
-Footnote 167:
-
-  Med. Forens. p. 169.
-
-Footnote 168:
-
-  Cours de Med. Leg. p. 248.
-
-Footnote 169:
-
-  Nouveau Ellem. de Therapeutiq. T. 1, p. 408.
-
-Footnote 170:
-
-  Med. Leg. T. 2, p. 225
-
-Footnote 171:
-
-  Med. Leg. T. ii, p. 260.
-
-Footnote 172:
-
-  Œuvres de Medecine, T. 1, p. 69.
-
-Footnote 173:
-
-  De Cholica Pictonum, p. 37.
-
-Footnote 174:
-
-  See also _Sloane MSS._ Brit. Mus. 330: 9135. “_Venenum potest generari
-  in corpore._”
-
-Footnote 175:
-
-  Observations on Apparent Death from Drowning, &c. by _James Currie_,
-  M.D. p. 156.
-
-Footnote 176:
-
-  We are informed by _Tortosa_ (Istituzioni di Med. For. vol. ii, p. 62)
-  that a work has been published by a celebrated physician of Verona,
-  Rotario, in which the author attempts to establish a diagnosis by
-  which these symptoms may be distinguished. (Opere Med. p. 116.) We
-  have not been so fortunate as to obtain a sight of this work.
-
-Footnote 177:
-
-  Those who are desirous of becoming farther acquainted with the history
-  of this opinion may consult the “_Recherches et Considerations
-  Medicales, sur l’acide Hydro-cyanique, son radical, ses composés, et
-  ses antidotes_,” par _J. Coullon_, D. M. 1 vol. 8vo. 1819. _Dr.
-  Granville_ has also in his Treatise on Hydrocyanic acid (edit. 2d
-  1820) alluded to this opinion, and to the different authors who have
-  supported it, p. 24. The reader will also find a case by _Fourcroy_,
-  (Annales de Chimie, tom. 1, p. 66) of a woman, of about thirty years
-  of age, who in consequence of protracted grief, laboured under a
-  nervous and melancholic affection; she became extremely emaciated, and
-  her livid paleness, and universal langour seemed to indicate a
-  depressed state of vitality, and a decomposition of the animal fluids;
-  after a few days she was seized with faintings and convulsions, which
-  were followed by the discharge of drops of blood from the edge of the
-  eye-lids, the nostrils, and the ears. The linen with which the blood
-  was wiped was marked with spots of a beautiful blue. Fourcroy examined
-  this matter, and concluded that the blood contained Prussiate of iron.
-
-Footnote 178:
-
-  Anthropolog. Forens. p. 526.
-
-Footnote 179:
-
-  Edinburgh Medical Essays.
-
-Footnote 180:
-
-  Phil. Trans. A. D. 1772, “_On the Digestion of the Stomach after
-  Death_,” by _John Hunter_, F. R. S. and Surgeon to St. George’s
-  Hospital.
-
-Footnote 181:
-
-  This phenomenon is frequently exhibited, in a very satisfactory
-  manner, by inferior animals who die suddenly. _Mr. Hunter_ noticed it
-  particularly in fish.
-
-Footnote 182:
-
-  We allude to a highly interesting paper, to which we shall have
-  frequent occasion to refer in the progress of the present inquiry,
-  entitled “_Observations on the Digestion of the Stomach after Death_,”
-  by _Allan Burns_, Lecturer on Anatomy and Surgery in Glasgow.
-  Edinburgh Med. and Surg. Journ. for April, 1810.
-
-Footnote 183:
-
-  _Hunter’s_ Observations on Digestion, p. 185.
-
-Footnote 184:
-
-  _Adams’s_ Observations on Morbid Poisons, edit. 2, p. 30, where he
-  says “but for this purpose, _Mr. Hunter_ saw that the animal must be
-  in health immediately before death, otherwise neither the quantity nor
-  quality of the secretion would be equal to the purpose; he was
-  confirmed in this by the instances in which he saw the stomach
-  digested; both were men who had died from a violent death; both had
-  been previously in sufficient health to eat a hearty meal. The fair
-  inference from these was, that when men die of disease, the appetite
-  usually ceases, and probably the secretion of the gastric juice also.”
-
-Footnote 185:
-
-  _Burns_, loco citato.
-
-Footnote 186:
-
-  “It will generally be found that, where the coats of the stomach are
-  softened by the gastric juice, the vessels are unable to resist the
-  force of the syringe in injecting the body. In such subjects,
-  therefore, we find the cavity of the stomach filled with wax, and we
-  likewise see masses of it collected between the coats of the viscus.”
-
-Footnote 187:
-
-  Mark this circumstance, for we shall have occasion to revert to it,
-  when we come to consider _the part_ of the stomach which undergoes
-  solution from the action of the gastric juice.
-
-Footnote 188:
-
-  A case of extensive solution of the Stomach by the Gastric fluids,
-  after Death. By _John Haviland_, M. D. Regius Professor of Physic in
-  the University of Cambridge. Transactions of the Cambridge
-  Philosophical Society, vol. 1, part ii, p. 287.
-
-Footnote 189:
-
-  He had taken, at intervals, a small quantity of port wine and water.
-
-Footnote 190:
-
-  Medico-Chirurgical Transactions, vol. iv.
-
-Footnote 191:
-
-  1. “The trial of _Charles Angus, Esq._ for the murder of _Margaret
-  Burns_, taken in short hand by _William Jones_, jun. 8vo.” Liverpool,
-  pp. 1808, 288. Also
-
-  2. “A vindication of the opinions delivered in evidence by the medical
-  witnesses for the crown, on a late trial at Lancaster for murder,
-  8vo.” 1803.
-
-  3. “Remarks on a late publication, entitled “A Vindication of the
-  Opinions delivered in Evidence by the Medical witnesses for the Crown,
-  on a late trial at Lancaster.” By _James Carson, M.D._”
-
-  4. “An Exposure of some of the false statements contained in _Dr.
-  Carson’s_ pamphlet, entitled “Remarks, &c.” in a letter to that
-  gentleman, by _James Dawson_, Surgeon.”
-
-  The suspicion against the prisoner, _Charles Angus_, was, that he had
-  endeavoured to procure a premature delivery, or abortion, by means of
-  an instrument resembling a long trochar, and that he had administered,
-  or been privy to the administration of certain drugs, which had
-  occasioned such effects upon the stomach of the deceased, as in the
-  end produced her death. The prisoner was a retired merchant, with two
-  or three children, with whom the deceased had lived as housekeeper and
-  governess. It appeared in evidence that improper familiarities had
-  been noticed between them, and that Miss _Burns_ had, for some time,
-  appeared out of health, and that her abdomen was much increased in
-  size at the period when she was attacked with the symptoms which
-  preceded her death, and which, as we learn from the witnesses on the
-  trial, presented the following history.
-
-  The deceased was seen by the servants of the family at about six
-  o’clock, on Wednesday morning, the 23d of March, 1808, at which time
-  she was in her usual state of health; but replied to one of them, who
-  remarked her having risen earlier than usual, that she could not
-  sleep. She was next seen by the servants at a quarter before nine,
-  sitting at breakfast with _Mr. Angus_, but apparently very ill; after
-  breakfast she was lying on a sofa complaining of a pain in her bowels,
-  but she was not then sick. On moving about afterwards, she held by the
-  chair, as if from pain, and about an hour and a half after breakfast,
-  she ordered some water gruel, of which she drank nearly three quarts
-  in the course of the day, being very thirsty, and in considerable
-  pain, and so sick as to reject the gruel almost as soon as it was
-  taken. The matter vomited was described by the house-maid as being, at
-  first, very black, but becoming, towards the last, of a green colour;
-  the kitchen maid, however, described it as being in the first instance
-  of a green colour, with yellow pieces in it resembling the inside of
-  an orange, or the yolk of an egg, and as turning blacker after it
-  ceased to be green. While thus retching, _Miss Burns_ observed to the
-  house-maid, “Oh, Betty, what bile comes off my stomach! I wish I had
-  taken an emetic long since.” On the servants going to bed that night,
-  she seemed very poorly, but did not complain to them.
-
-  On Thursday morning, at six o’clock, she was lying, as she had been
-  left the night before, on the sofa, with pillows under her head; she
-  complained that she was very thirsty; said she was tired of gruel, and
-  had some water posset, and a little warm beer. She also complained
-  that she was badly hurt to make water; but was relieved by sitting on
-  a sliced onion, with some boiling water poured over it. Her vomiting
-  was now of a blacker colour, and she continued sick and vomiting all
-  day, till towards evening, when the sickness went off, and she
-  appeared better, and could stir more about.
-
-  On Friday morning, at four o’clock, the house-maid went into the room,
-  and thought her much worse, as she breathed quicker than before. She
-  was seen again at six in much the same state, and lying in the same
-  posture on the sofa; she asked for some warm beer, which settled on
-  her stomach, and she also took about a pint of gruel; she said that
-  the pain had left her. Her vomiting had ceased, but was succeeded by a
-  “_lax_,” which continued all the morning. A little before ten, the
-  house-maid was sent out for some Madeira, _Miss Burns_ having
-  expressed a wish for some. Between the hours of ten and eleven, the
-  kitchen maid was in the room, and received orders about dinner; and
-  _Miss Burns_ said she would have some barley water. On the return of
-  the house-maid, about eleven, she went straight into the parlour,
-  where _Miss Burns_ was found lying dead in the corner, by the door,
-  with her face against the wall, “_cowered of a lump_,” her elbows upon
-  her knees, and one foot “_crudled_” under her; _Mr. Angus_, who had
-  nursed her throughout, sitting in an arm chair, apparently so fast
-  asleep that he was not roused without difficulty. During the whole
-  course of her illness, she did not go to bed, but remained in the
-  parlour, generally lying on a sofa. She refused to have medical
-  assistance; but _Mr. Angus_ said that he had given her seven drops of
-  laudanum on one night, and ten on another, and that on the morning of
-  her death he had given her some castor oil, in spirit, but that it
-  came up immediately.
-
-
-                        REPORT OF THE DISSECTION.
-
-  On Sunday the 27th of March, 1808, at noon, _Dr. Rutter_ was desired
-  by the Coroner of Liverpool to take with him an experienced surgeon to
-  the house of _Mr. Charles Angus_, and there to examine the body of a
-  young lady who had died suddenly.
-
-  The examination was made at two o’clock the same day, by _Mr. Hay_, a
-  surgeon in Liverpool, with his apprentice, in company with _Dr.
-  Rutter_ and _Dr. Gerard_; and the following report on the subject was
-  presented to the coroner in writing.
-
-  “On our arrival at the house, we were introduced into a parlour, where
-  we found _Mr. Angus_, with some other persons to us unknown; and we
-  delivered to him the note from the coroner as the authority under
-  which we acted. Upon perusing it, he expressed perfect willingness
-  that the examination should be made. We were then introduced into the
-  room up stairs, were the body of the deceased was laid. After having
-  removed the body, a small stain of blood was observed on the sheet of
-  the bed on which it had laid; and the pillow was stained with a fluid
-  which had issued from the head. The body being laid on a table, a
-  large quantity of a thin yellowish fluid poured out from the nostrils,
-  and was collected in vessels. No marks of external violence were
-  discovered on the body; nor was there any appearance of commencing
-  putrefaction. The nails of the fingers were of a bluish colour; and
-  the veins on the external surface of the _abdomen_ or belly appeared
-  to be much enlarged. At this period we were joined by _Mr. Christian_,
-  surgeon. On opening the _abdomen_, a considerable quantity of fluid
-  was found to have been effused into that cavity, similar in colour and
-  smell to that which issued from the nostrils, but more turbid. Marks
-  of inflammation were found on the external or peritoneal coat of
-  different portions of the small intestines; but the large intestines
-  were free from it. The external coat of a part of the smaller
-  curvature of the stomach was also inflamed; and a similar appearance
-  of inflammation was observed on a small portion of the anterior edge
-  of the liver, directly over the smaller curvature of the stomach. On
-  raising up the stomach, an opening through its coats was found in the
-  anterior and inferior part of its great curvature; and from this
-  opening a considerable quantity of a thick fluid of a dark olive
-  colour issued; of which fluid some ounces were collected and
-  preserved. The natural structure of the coats of the stomach for a
-  considerable space around this opening was destroyed; and they were so
-  soft, pulpy, and tender, that they tore with the slightest touch.
-  Around this part of the coats of the stomach, there were no traces of
-  inflammation whatever. The stomach was then taken out of the body; and
-  its inner surface was carefully washed; and the contents washed out
-  were preserved. A quantity, about three ounces, of a fluid resembling
-  that in the stomach, but not quite so thick, was also taken out of one
-  of the small intestines, and preserved.
-
-  “On examining the womb, it was found to be very considerably enlarged,
-  and, on its inner surface, the part to which the _Placenta_, or
-  after-birth, had adhered, was very plainly discernible. This part was
-  nearly circular, and occupied a space of about four inches in
-  diameter. The mouth of the womb was greatly dilated. In a word, the
-  appearances of the womb were such as might have been expected a few
-  hours after the birth of a child nearly full grown.
-
-  “The fluid taken out of the stomach and intestines, and cavity of the
-  _Abdomen_, as well as that collected from the nostrils, was taken
-  away: and, afterwards, in the course of the same day, examined, and
-  subjected to various trials, with a view to discover the presence of
-  such mineral substances as were likely to produce appearances or
-  effects similar to those which were found in the stomach of the
-  deceased. In this examination, we thought it right to request the
-  assistance of _Dr. Bostock_. The contents of the stomach were, as has
-  already been mentioned, of a dirty olive colour, thick, and of an acid
-  smell. A considerable number of large globules of a dark coloured,
-  dense, oily fluid, floated upon them; but no particular smell that we
-  could discover. We could not discover, in the contents of the stomach,
-  by the smell, the presence of any known vegetable substance, capable
-  of producing deleterious effects when introduced into it. The fluid
-  contained in the stomach deposited no sediment; nor was any but a
-  mucous sediment found in the water with which the inner surface of the
-  stomach was washed. Upon subjecting the contents of the stomach, in
-  the state in which we found them, to such tests as are deemed
-  sufficient to detect the presence of any active preparation of Mercury
-  or Arsenic, we could not detect either of these substances. The
-  contents of the stomach were then filtered, and subjected to the same
-  trials, but with the same result. These trials were made at _Dr.
-  Bostock’s_, in the presence of _Dr. Gerard_ and _Dr. Rutter_.”
-
-  The substance of this report was afterwards delivered, in evidence, on
-  the trial; and the following additional circumstances stated.
-
-  “The preternatural opening in the stomach was larger than a crown
-  piece; but _Mr. Hay_ thinks he may have increased it in drawing down
-  the stomach, as it was nearly in the centre of the disorganized
-  portion, where the coats were thin, soft, and semi-transparent. The
-  stomach was nearly full of the fluid described, but not distended. The
-  intestines also contained a great deal of a similar fluid; and the
-  internal villous coat of the duodenum was slightly inflamed, while its
-  external coat was also more inflamed than that of the other
-  intestines.”
-
-  In consequence of the suspicious circumstances attending the death of
-  _Miss Burns_, _Charles Angus_ was indicted for her murder; but, after
-  a trial which occupied the court from eight o’clock on Friday morning,
-  until three on Saturday, the 2d of September, 1808, the prisoner was
-  acquitted.
-
-  The medical defence, conducted by _Dr. Carson_, and which savoured
-  more of the ingenuity of the forensic pleader, than the justice of the
-  honest inquirer after truth, rested upon the following grounds, viz.
-  1. The appearances of the stomach upon dissection are to be reconciled
-  upon the supposition of the dissolution of its coats having taken
-  place, _after death_, in consequence of the action of the gastric
-  fluid. 2. The symptoms which preceded death were not such as accompany
-  corrosive poisoning. 3. No poisonous substance was detected in the
-  body. 4. The appearance of the uterus does not justify the conclusion
-  that a delivery had recently taken place; such a dilated state of the
-  organ, had it lately parted with a placenta, must have occasioned
-  death by hemorrhage, or it must have been found gorged with coagulated
-  blood. 5. The appearances may be reconciled by supposing that an
-  expulsion of hydatids had taken place.
-
-  We must not omit to state, that in consequence of the intense interest
-  excited by this trial, the ovaria were subsequently examined, when a
-  _corpus luteum_ was discovered.
-
-  We cannot conclude this account without expressing a regret that
-  several important sources of information should have been neglected.
-  The omitting to inspect the appendages of the uterus, to examine the
-  œsophagus, the chest, and the head, and to analyse the membranes of
-  the stomach, are instances of inattention, for which it is not easy to
-  find an excuse. May they furnish a salutary lesson for future
-  anatomists.
-
-Footnote 192:
-
-  Med. Leg. vol. ii, p. 315.
-
-Footnote 193:
-
-  This appearance is particularly mentioned by _Juvenal_ as an effect of
-  poison.
-
-   “Per famam et populum _nigros_ efferre maritos.”—_Sat._ i, _v._ 72.
-
-  The reader will remember, that we have already stated our opinion,
-  that the poisons of the ancients were of a vegetable origin.
-
-Footnote 194:
-
-  Dissertatio Inauguralis de effectibus Arsenici in varios Organismos,
-  nec non de Indicus quibusdam Veneficii ab Arsenicoillati. Quam præside
-  _C. F. Kielmayer_ publicé defendet, Jan. 1808, Auctor _Georg_: _Fred_:
-  _Jäeger_, Stuttgardianus. A very full analysis of this Essay was
-  published by Dr. _Siegwart_ in _Gehlen’s_ Chemical and Physical
-  Journal; and which afterwards found its way into the Edinburgh Medical
-  and Surgical Journal, no. xxv, Jan. 1811.
-
-Footnote 195:
-
-  Edinburgh Med. and Surg. Journal, no. XX.
-
-Footnote 196:
-
-  Epist. lix, 3.
-
-Footnote 197:
-
-  _Patrick Ogilvy_ and _Catharine Nairne_ were indicted for incest, and
-  the murder, by Arsenic, of _Thomas Ogilvy_, brother of the said
-  _Patrick_, and husband of the said _Nairne_. This celebrated Scotch
-  trial commenced at Edinburgh, on Monday the 12th of August at seven in
-  the morning, and the court continued setting until about two on
-  Tuesday morning, when the Jury being inclosed, it adjourned until
-  Wednesday at four o’clock in the afternoon. They were both found
-  guilty. After several respites _Ogilvy_ was executed. _Nairne_ escaped
-  from prison, and was never afterwards heard of.
-
-Footnote 198:
-
-  Camp: Elys:
-
-Footnote 199:
-
-  Edinb. Med. and Surg. Journ. no. xvii.
-
-Footnote 200:
-
-  Ibid. no. xxvi.
-
-Footnote 201:
-
-  Ibid. no. lxxi, for April, 1822.
-
-Footnote 202:
-
-  _Mr. Marshall_, in his account of the symptoms of _Mr. Robert Turner_,
-  who was poisoned by _Eliza Fenning_, states, “On examination I
-  discovered a very remarkable irregularity of surface, occasioned by
-  the spasmodic contractions of the muscles of the abdomen, and even of
-  the viscera; this unevenness extended from the epigastric region to
-  the pubes, and to the right and left hypochondrium.”
-
-Footnote 203:
-
-  Nothing can be more strikingly illustrative of the characteristic
-  appearances which distinguish the effects of violence during life,
-  from those which result from putrefaction as described at page 181.
-
-Footnote 204:
-
-  The author refers the reader to the first volume of his
-  _Pharmacologia_, page 124, _note_. In addition to what he has there
-  observed it may be stated, that many fallacies have arisen in
-  pharmacology, from deducing conclusions respecting the effects of
-  remedies upon inferior animals. One example will suffice.—Several
-  substances have gained the reputation of Styptics, from the effects
-  which have followed their application to the wounded and bleeding
-  vessels in the extremities of the horse and ass; whereas the fact is
-  that the blood-vessels of these animals possess a power of contraction
-  which does not exist in those of man, and to which the cessation of
-  the hemorrhage, fallaciously attributed to the styptic, is to be
-  wholly attributed.
-
-Footnote 205:
-
-  See Appendix, page 272.
-
-Footnote 206:
-
-  Toxocologie Générale considérée, sous les Rapports de la Physiologie,
-  de la Pathologie, et de la Medicine légale. Paris, 1815. This work has
-  been faithfully translated into English by _John Walker_, in two
-  volumes. London, 1817.
-
-Footnote 207:
-
-  De Sed. et Caus. Morb. per Anat. indag. Epist. 59, 18.
-
-Footnote 208:
-
-  See the interesting trial of _Michael Whiting_, for administering
-  poison to _George_ and _Joseph Langman_, of Downham, in the Isle of
-  Ely, at the Assizes holden at Ely on Wednesday, March 4th, 1822,
-  before _Edward Christian, Esq._ Chief Justice of the Isle. The
-  prisoner was convicted and executed.
-
-Footnote 209:
-
-  M. R. S. T. iv, P. iii, p. 278.
-
-Footnote 210:
-
-  “Nous adoptons la division suivante, en six classes, de tous les
-  poisons connus, et de toutes les manières possibles par lesquelles
-  les substances vénéneuses peuvent nuire au corps humain:
-  POISONS SEPTIQUES—Poisons STUPEFIANS, ou NARCOTIQUES—Poisons
-  NARCOTICO-ACRES—Poisons ACRES, ou RUBEFIANS—Poisons CORROSIFS, ou
-  ESCAROTIQUES—Poisons ASTRINGENS.”
-
-Footnote 211:
-
-  _Belloc_ surmises that where acrid poisons have been administered,
-  narcotics may have been taken to relieve pain; and thus that a sort of
-  combination of the symptoms of both classes may be produced.
-
-Footnote 212:
-
-  PHARMACOLOGIA. Edit. 5th, vol. i, page 225, c. _Antidotes_.
-
-Footnote 213:
-
-  Journal de Physiologie Experimentale, (1er numero Janvier 1821.)
-
-Footnote 214:
-
-  The adoption of this term led to a very extraordinary error in
-  medicine—the application of Arsenic in the form of vapour, together
-  with the fumes of frankincense, myrrh, and other gums, in a paroxysm
-  of Asthma! This frightful practice arose from confounding the gum
-  Juniper, or Vernix of the Arabians, which by their medical writers was
-  prescribed in fumigations, under the name of Sandarach, for the
-  Σανδαρακη of the Greeks.
-
-Footnote 215:
-
-  _Orfila._ Toxicolog. General.
-
-Footnote 216:
-
-  Pharmacologia, edit. v, vol. 2, art. _Arsenici Oxydum_.
-
-Footnote 217:
-
-  A very large quantity is annually prepared from the sublimate which
-  collects in the chimneys and flues of the smelting works and burning
-  houses in Cornwall. We have examined samples prepared according to the
-  improved process of Dr. _Edwards_, and found them to be perfectly free
-  from foreign admixture: a fact of much greater importance than the
-  reader may at first imagine. Those who require farther information
-  upon this subject may consult a paper in the first volume of the
-  _Transactions of the Royal Geological Society of Cornwall_, by J. H.
-  VIVIAN, Esq. entitled “_Observations on the processes for making the
-  different preparations of Arsenic, which are practised in Saxony_.”
-
-Footnote 218:
-
-  _Bergman_ ii, 286. We are, however, upon the authority of _Mr. Richard
-  Phillips_, inclined to consider this statement of its specific gravity
-  incorrect. He found that when transparent it did not exceed 3·715,
-  and, when opaque, 3·260.
-
-Footnote 219:
-
-  Vol. ii, p. 86.
-
-Footnote 220:
-
-  The chemist may satisfy himself of this fact by heating some arsenious
-  acid on a piece of platina foil, and then alternately raising and
-  depressing it into the blue flame of the spirit, when corresponding
-  changes in odour will take place in the fumes.
-
-Footnote 221:
-
-  See page 184, Note.
-
-Footnote 222:
-
-  See _Mr. Marshall’s_ Remarks, &c.
-
-Footnote 223:
-
-  See the case reported by _Dr. Yelloly_, in the 5th volume of the
-  Edinburgh Med. and Surg. Journal.
-
-Footnote 224:
-
-  Epist. 168.
-
-Footnote 225:
-
-  De Pest. Hist. 99. Annot.
-
-Footnote 226:
-
-  De Peste Lond. p. 239.
-
-Footnote 227:
-
-  Recueil Periodique de la Societé de Med. de Paris, tom. vi. p. 22.
-
-Footnote 228:
-
-  Nouveaux Elemens de Med. operat. par _J. P. Roux_.
-
-Footnote 229:
-
-  Nouvelles Experiences sur les Contre-Poisons de l’Arsenic. Par
-  _Casimir Renault_. A. Paris. A. 9, pp. 119.
-
-Footnote 230:
-
-  A belief in this mode of poisoning appears to be of very ancient
-  origin. CALPURNIUS BESTIA was said by _Pliny_ (Hist. Nat. Lib. 27.
-  Cap. 2.) to have been particularly skilled in such a process, and to
-  have murdered many of his wives when asleep, by bathing the parts of
-  generation with the juice of Aconite; and Dr. _Gordon Smith_, in his
-  work on Forensic Medicine, relates, on the authority of _Schenckius_,
-  the tragical death of _Ladislas_, or _Lancelot_, surnamed the
-  Victorious and the Liberal, who succeeded to the contested throne of
-  Naples in 1386, and died at the age of thirty-eight in great pain, in
-  consequence of having been poisoned by the daughter of a physician, of
-  whom he was passionately fond, _per concubitum_. Sir _Thomas Brown_,
-  in his _Vulgar Errors_, alludes to an ancient story of an “Indian king
-  that sent unto _Alexander_ a fair woman, _fed with Aconites_, and
-  other poisons, with the intent that she either by converse or
-  _copulation_ might destroy him.”
-
-Footnote 231:
-
-  See page 137.
-
-Footnote 232:
-
-  _Philosophical Transactions._ 1811.
-
-Footnote 233:
-
-  M. _Orfila_ observes that there are many cases of poisoning by
-  arsenious acid introduced into the stomach, in which we are unable to
-  discover the slightest appearance of erosion or inflammation in the
-  alimentary canal; such cases are recorded by _Chaussier_, _Etmuller_,
-  _Marc_, _Sallin_, and _Renault_.
-
-Footnote 234:
-
-  We well remember performing some experiments at Cambridge, many years
-  ago, upon mildew, which as far as they went corroborate this assertion
-  of _Jaegar_, for its propagation was not prevented by arsenic. See
-  also “The effects of Arsenical fumes,” vol. I, p. 332.
-
-Footnote 235:
-
-  See Edinburgh Med. and Surg. Journ. for January 1, 1811.
-
-Footnote 236:
-
-  Elements of Juridical Medicine, p. 76.
-
-Footnote 237:
-
-  Prestwich on Poisons.
-
-Footnote 238:
-
-  Pharmacologia, Edit. 5. vol. ii. p. 89.
-
-Footnote 239:
-
-  Medical Transactions, vol. vi, p. 414.
-
-Footnote 240:
-
-  See Appendix, page 277.
-
-Footnote 241:
-
-  This substance may be said to consist of Charcoal, in a state of
-  extremely minute division, and the sub-carbonate of Potass. It is
-  prepared by deflagrating, in a crucible, two parts of Super-tartrate
-  of Potass with one part of Nitrate of Potass.
-
-Footnote 242:
-
-  In order to close the end of the tube, where a blow-pipe is not to be
-  procured, (which, says _Dr. Bostock_, we may suppose upon these
-  occasions will often be the case) the end is to be placed in a common
-  fire until it is completely softened, and a pair of small tongs being
-  at the same time made red hot, the tube is to be withdrawn from the
-  fire, and the heated end pinched by the tongs, and at the same time
-  bent up at an acute angle, so as to be brought parallel to the body of
-  the tube. The tube is then to be heated a second time, and being again
-  firmly pinched by the hot tongs, the end will be found to be
-  completely impervious.
-
-Footnote 243:
-
-  _Dr. Bostock_ states that the best proportions for this coating are,
-  one part of common pipe clay, to three parts of fine sand; which are
-  to be well kneeded together, and reduced to such a state of tenacity,
-  that the lute will readily adhere to the tube, and its different parts
-  unite without forming a visible seam. “_Observations on the different
-  methods recommended for detecting minute portions of Arsenic, by J.
-  Bostock, M.D._” Read before the Liverpool Medical Society, and
-  published in the Edinburgh Med. and Surg. Journ. April, 1809.
-
-Footnote 244:
-
-  See the paper above quoted.
-
-Footnote 245:
-
-  _Black’s_ Lectures, v. ii, p. 430.
-
-Footnote 246:
-
-  _Foderé_ recommends this process, _Traité de Med. Leg._ t. iv, p. 153;
-  and Dr. Jaeger, in his Thesis, before quoted, observes that he has
-  been enabled to recognise the tenth of a grain of arsenious acid,
-  although mixed with sugar, by its odour, when thrown upon burning
-  coals! We must be allowed to question this fact; Dr. Jaeger, no doubt,
-  believed that he recognised the alliaceous odour, but it must have
-  been the sole effect of the imagination. Dr. Bostock states that such
-  a test is not to be depended upon; for, unless the arsenic be in
-  considerable quantity, the odour is not sufficiently perceptible; and
-  if it be mixed with either an animal or a vegetable substance, the
-  smoke and smell arising from these bodies, when heated, will
-  altogether prevent our recognising the peculiar odour of the arsenic.
-  When a quantity of arsenic is mixed with an equal weight of flour, and
-  placed upon iron at a low red heat, so as not to cause the flour to
-  inflame, the suffocating smoke that arises from the latter can be
-  alone perceived; nor is it possible to discover that any thing has
-  been mixed with it. _Edinb. Med. Journ._ _l. c._ This last objection
-  of Dr. Bostock is true in fact, although it admits of a different
-  explanation, for at a low temperature the arsenious acid will be
-  volatilized _without decomposition_; in which case no alliaceous odour
-  can be developed.
-
-Footnote 247:
-
-  The paper was read before the Liverpool Medical Society.
-
-Footnote 248:
-
-  London Dispensatory. Edit. 3, p. 176.
-
-Footnote 249:
-
-  See a letter from _Mr. Hume_ on the subject, to the Editors of the
-  Medical and Physical Journal. July, 1810.
-
-Footnote 250:
-
-  On the detection of very minute quantities of Arsenic and Mercury. By
-  _James Smithson_, Esq. F.R.S. _Annals of Philosophy_, August, 1822.
-
-Footnote 251:
-
-  If any trifling opacity occur in a simple solution of arsenic, when
-  assayed by the nitrate of silver, it may be considered as the effects
-  of some casual impurity; this may be farther demonstrated by bringing
-  over the surface of the arsenical liquid, a piece of blotting paper,
-  or a stopper moistened with a solution of ammonia, when there will
-  instantly form a copious yellow precipitate of arsenite of silver. If
-  this experiment be performed by spreading the mixed solutions of
-  arsenious acid and nitrate of silver over a surface of glass, laid
-  upon white paper, the result will be most striking and beautiful, for
-  on slowly bringing the ammoniacal test over it, the yellow cloud will
-  gradually diffuse itself over the surface.
-
-Footnote 252:
-
-  Pharmacologia. Edit. 5, vol. ii, p. 96.
-
-Footnote 253:
-
-  London Medical and Physical Journal, January, 1818.
-
-Footnote 254:
-
-  The following is the formula for its preparation. Dissolve ten grains
-  of _lunar caustic_, in ten times its weight of distilled water; to
-  this add, _guttatim_, liquid ammonia, until a precipitate is formed;
-  continue cautiously to add the ammonia, repeatedly agitating the
-  mixture until the precipitate is nearly redissolved. The object of
-  allowing a small portion to remain undissolved is, to guard against an
-  excess of ammonia. Wherever the test is used, the liquid to which it
-  is added ought to be quite cold.
-
-Footnote 255:
-
-  This is very important, for an excess of ammonia redissolves the
-  yellow precipitate, and therefore defeats the object of the test. The
-  fixed alkalies, in excess, have not such a property.
-
-Footnote 256:
-
-  The great impression made upon the public mind in Cornwall by the
-  above trial, produced a disposition to regard every sudden death with
-  more than usual jealousy. In consequence, therefore, of a report
-  having arisen that a young woman had died after an illness of
-  forty-eight hours, and been hastily buried at Madron, near Penzance,
-  the magistrates of that district issued their warrant for the
-  disinterment of the body, and requested the author’s attendance at the
-  examination. The dissection was accordingly conducted in the church,
-  when it appeared that the immediate cause of death had been an
-  inflammation of the intestines; the stomach was found to contain a
-  considerable portion of liquid, which was carefully collected and
-  examined; no solid matter could be discovered in it, nor were any
-  particles found to be adhering to the coats of the stomach. The fluid
-  appeared to consist principally of the remains of a quantity of
-  pennyroyal tea, which had been the last thing administered to the
-  deceased. This was divided into several distinct portions, and placed
-  in separate wine glasses, and submitted, in the presence of the High
-  Sheriff, and some other gentlemen whose curiosity had been excited by
-  the late trial of _Donnall_, to a series of experiments, amongst which
-  the following may be particularized, as bearing upon the present
-  question, and as affording an important elucidation of it.
-
-  A few drops of a solution of _sub-carbonate of potass_ were added to
-  the liquid, in one of the glasses, when its colour, which was
-  originally of a light hazel, was instantly deepened into a reddish
-  yellow; the sulphate of copper was then applied, when a precipitate
-  fell down, which every one present simultaneously pronounced to be of
-  a “_vivid grass green_” hue; but, on pouring off the supernatant
-  liquid, and transferring the precipitate upon a sheet of white paper,
-  it assumed the blue colour which is so characteristic of the
-  _carbonate of copper_. The explanation of the phenomenon, and the
-  fallacy to which it gave rise, became obvious; the yellow colour
-  imparted to the liquid by the alkali, was the effect of the latter
-  body upon the vegetable extractive matter of the infusion. The other
-  portions were then strictly examined, but no indications of arsenic or
-  any other metallic poison were discovered.
-
-Footnote 257:
-
-  This explanation applies equally to the objection lately advanced by
-  _Dr. Porter_, of the University of South Carolina, who, in his
-  observations on the tests of arsenic, remarks, that an appearance
-  similar to “_Scheele’s Green_,” is produced by the carbonate of
-  potass, when added to a solution of the sulphate of copper in coffee,
-  but without arsenic, more striking than if even a weak solution of
-  arsenic were used. _Silliman’s Journal_, iii. 865.
-
-  FODERE reports a case, in which an erroneous conclusion respecting the
-  presence of arsenic was drawn, evidently owing to the same source of
-  fallacy. The Society of Medicine at Marseilles, in consequence of a
-  girl having been poisoned by a quack medicine, appointed a scientific
-  person to examine the composition of the _Nostrum_; this person,
-  strongly prepossessed with the opinion that it contained arsenic,
-  applied the _copper test_ above described, and having obtained by
-  means of it, a _green precipitate_, reported, without any further
-  inquiry, that the medicine in question was an arsenical solution.
-  _Foderé_, however, suspected the correctness of the conclusion, in
-  consequence of the residue not yielding by combustion, any alliaceous
-  odour; a new analysis was therefore made, which proved the nostrum to
-  be nothing more than a very strong alcoholic tincture of colocynth.
-  _Médecine Légale, tom. iv. p._ 137.
-
-Footnote 258:
-
-  It is hardly necessary to observe that neither the carbonate of
-  ammonia or of potass, or sulphuric or muriatic acid, produce any
-  effect whatever in a pure solution of white arsenic.
-
-Footnote 259:
-
-  Corrosive sublimate, however, produces both these effects, from causes
-  which we have fully explained under the consideration of that poison.
-
-Footnote 260:
-
-  _Toxicologie Générale_, supra citat.
-
-Footnote 261:
-
-  See _Leçons de Médecine Légale_, a Paris, 1821. “Experiences chimiques
-  propres à decouvrir les poisons minéraux qui ont été mêlés avec du
-  thé, du café, du vin, ete.” _Trente-unieme Leçon._ _p._ 415.
-
-Footnote 262:
-
-  Chirurg. Med. p. 185.
-
-Footnote 263:
-
-  The _arsenite of potass_, which has been long known under the name of
-  the “_arsenical salt of Macquer_” has been used in medicine, and the
-  Dublin Pharmacopœia contains a process for the preparation of
-  “_arsenias kali_.”
-
-Footnote 264:
-
-  Nouvelles Experiences, &c., op. sup. cit.
-
-Footnote 265:
-
-  Opera Omnia de Venenis, 1761.
-
-Footnote 266:
-
-  Υδραργυρος of the Greeks from its fluidity and colour. Quicksilver.
-  _Quick_, in the old Saxon tongue signified living: an epithet derived
-  from its mobility.
-
-Footnote 267:
-
-  _Cavendish._
-
-Footnote 268:
-
-  _Hassenfratz_ Ann. de Chim. xxviii, 12.
-
-Footnote 269:
-
-  Hence it was called by the alchymists the _Dragon_.
-
-Footnote 270:
-
-  _Mead_ on Poisons, edit. 4, p. 196.
-
-Footnote 271:
-
-  Second edition, p. 89.
-
-Footnote 272:
-
-  For the report of the above satisfactory case we are indebted to _Dr.
-  Gordon Smith_, who has related it in his work on Forensic Medicine, p.
-  114.
-
-Footnote 273:
-
-  Edit. 5, vol. 1, p. 260.
-
-Footnote 274:
-
-  “Further experiments and observations on the action of Poisons on the
-  animal system.” Phil. Trans. 1812.
-
-Footnote 275:
-
-  For a history of the different quack medicines which contain mercury,
-  see Pharmacologia, vol. ii, p. 239.
-
-Footnote 276:
-
-  Opera Medica. Epist. i, p. 200.
-
-Footnote 277:
-
-  Contre-poisons de l’Arsenic, du sublimé corrosif, &c.
-
-Footnote 278:
-
-  Proposed by _M. Duval_, “Dissertation sur la Toxicologie.”
-
-Footnote 279:
-
-  _M. Chausarel._ “Observations sur diverses substances Vénéneuses,” p.
-  47.
-
-Footnote 280:
-
-  We find in an ancient epigram of Ausonius, that a woman gave to her
-  husband some metallic mercury, with the design of increasing the
-  energy of a certain poison, which she administered to him. But instead
-  of producing this effect, the mercury, on the contrary, entirely
-  re-established the health of the person poisoned. The celebrated
-  _Goethe_ upon asking the Professor _Doebereiner_ of Jena, his opinion
-  upon the above case, received in reply, that the poison must have been
-  corrosive sublimate, since, of all the known poisons, it was the only
-  one whose power was weakened by mercury.
-
-  This story induced _Orfila_ to ascertain the truth by experiment, and
-  he has shewn THAT METALLIC MERCURY IS NOT AN ANTIDOTE TO CORROSIVE
-  SUBLIMATE.
-
-Footnote 281:
-
-  _Mr. Hart._ “What did you do with the flour and pork?
-
-  _C. Carter._ I made it into four dumplings, two with pork, and two
-  without, and tied the two largest, with pork in them, up in bags.
-
-  ---- With what did you mix the flour?
-
-  ---- With milk.
-
-  ---- When you were making these dumplings, did you observe any thing?
-
-  ---- They made different to any thing which I had ever made before.
-
-  ---- Explain that difference?
-
-  ---- They broke and crumbled all into little bits. I had to knock them
-  in a stant like when we make butter. They would not hold together.
-
-  ---- Had you more or less difficulty than usual?
-
-  ---- More trouble than I ever had before.”
-
-                                               _Extract from the trial._
-
-Footnote 282:
-
-  We have been informed that, by this simple and beautiful test, Mr.
-  Archdeacon _Wollaston_ identified the presence of corrosive sublimate
-  in the dumplings by which _Michael Whiting_ attempted to poison his
-  brothers-in-law, at Ely, as stated in the preceding page, as well as
-  at 197. Although in the report of the trial in our possession, the
-  professor does not appear to have furnished the court with any account
-  of the process by which he discovered the poison.
-
-Footnote 283:
-
-  Trial of Mary _Bateman_ for the wilful murder of _Rebecca Perigo_, at
-  the York Assizes, 1809. As we have on several occasions alluded to
-  this trial, it may perhaps be satisfactory to give a short sketch of
-  the case in this place.
-
-  This diabolical woman, under the pretext of possessing the art of
-  witchcraft, committed numerous frauds, and worked with so much success
-  upon the credulity of her victims, as to obtain considerable sums of
-  money, and reduce them to the extremes of poverty; while, in order to
-  conceal the frauds, she consigned whole families to the grave by her
-  poisons. Her detection was brought about by the robbery of a family of
-  the name of _Perigo_, from whom she obtained the sum of seventy
-  pounds, besides cloathes and furniture, under the pretence of engaging
-  a Miss _Blythe_ to relieve _Perigo’s_ wife from the effects of an
-  “evil wish,” under which she was supposed to labour; when the
-  appointed time arrived for the restoration of the property, and the
-  promised cure of the wife, _Mary Bateman_ sent a powder (_Arsenic_)
-  which she directed them to add to their pudding, and advised them,
-  should they be ill after eating it, to take a spoonful of prepared
-  honey with which she supplied them. The wife ate the pudding, and soon
-  afterwards died; the husband, however, very narrowly escaped: for this
-  murder she was tried and convicted; and thus was a system of robbery
-  and murder, scarcely equalled in the annals of crime, happily exposed
-  and ended.
-
-Footnote 284:
-
-  In the Philosophical Magazine for December, 1821, a communication is
-  to be found from a Mr. _Murray_, which would have been too ridiculous
-  to require notice, had it not involved a question connected with the
-  habitudes of corrosive sublimate and iron, which might possibly
-  occasion error. After stating that certain metallic solutions may be
-  decomposed through the agency of magnetism, he says, a solution of
-  corrosive sublimate may be thus made to yield metallic mercury, by
-  introducing into it a bar of magnetised iron! He had not the wit to
-  inquire whether unmagnetised iron might not prove equally powerful as
-  a decomposing agent.
-
-Footnote 285:
-
-  _Orfila_, l. c.
-
-Footnote 286:
-
-  _Orfila_, l. c.
-
-Footnote 287:
-
-  Edinburgh Med. & Surg. Journal, v.
-
-Footnote 288:
-
-  Ann. de Chimie et Phys. iv. 334.
-
-Footnote 289:
-
-  Tartarized Antimony, administered as an emetic, may decompose the salt
-  in the stomach.
-
-Footnote 290:
-
-  Consultation Medico-legale sur une Accusation de l’empoisonnement par
-  le _Muriate de Mercure sur-oxydé_. p. 146.
-
-Footnote 291:
-
-  L. C.
-
-Footnote 292:
-
-  The above passage is quoted from _Waller’s_ translation of _Orfila’s_
-  Treatise on Poisons, vol. i, p. 73.
-
-Footnote 293:
-
-  Comment: Med. in Processus Criminales.
-
-Footnote 294:
-
-  Principles of Forensic Medicine, p. 113.
-
-Footnote 295:
-
-  _Accum_ on culinary poisons, or “Death in the Pot.” As this is the
-  last occasion which we shall have to mention the above work, we may
-  observe by the way, that this _ad captandum_ title is not original
-  with _Mr. Accum_, for there is a dissertation by _Mauchart_, entitled
-  “MORS IN OLLA.”
-
-Footnote 296:
-
-  Many of the preparations lately presented by _Dr. Baillie_ to the
-  College of Physicians have become black, in consequence of the
-  vermilion, with which they are injected, having been adulterated with
-  red lead.
-
-Footnote 297:
-
-  Upon this subject, the reader may consult the Historical Introduction
-  to the Pharmacologia, page 87.
-
-Footnote 298:
-
-  Annal. de Chem. xxxii. 255.
-
-Footnote 299:
-
-  We have upon this, as well as on similar occasions, preferred adopting
-  the name by which the substance is known in common parlance, to that
-  which might more strictly accord with our scientific views of its
-  composition.
-
-Footnote 300:
-
-  Pharmacologia, Edit. v. vol. 2. p. 65.
-
-Footnote 301:
-
-  F. Hoffmanni Op. om. T. 1. par. ii. c. v. p. 219.
-
-Footnote 302:
-
-  This subject is treated very copiously in the first volume of the
-  Pharmacologia, page 152. To this work the author must refer the
-  reader, for the limits of the present volume will not allow more than
-  a mere enunciation of the fact.
-
-Footnote 303:
-
-  Elements of Juridical Medicine, edit. 2, p. 96.
-
-Footnote 304:
-
-  “Further experiments and observations on the Action of Poisons on the
-  Animal system, by _B. C. Brodie, Esq._ F. R. S. Communicated to the
-  Society for the improvement of Animal Chemistry, and by them to the
-  Royal Society.” _Phil. Trans._ for 1812, vol. 102, p. 205.
-
-Footnote 305:
-
-  To those who are curious upon this subject, we recommend the perusal
-  of an interesting essay, entitled “Observations on the Tin trade of
-  the Ancients in Cornwall, and on the Ictis of Diodorus Siculus,” by
-  Sir _Christopher Hawkins_, Bart. F.R.S. &c.
-
-Footnote 306:
-
-  See page 144 of this volume; and article _Cupri Sulphas_ in
-  Pharmacologia, vol. 2, p. 167, _note_.
-
-Footnote 307:
-
-  We have long considered that the process of salting meat is something
-  more than the mere saturation of the animal fibre with muriate of
-  soda; some unknown combinations and decompositions take place, which
-  future experiment will probably discover.
-
-Footnote 308:
-
-  Water may thus be preserved in copper cisterns, without contracting
-  any metallic impregnation, even should the surface of the cistern be
-  coated with the oxide and carbonate of copper.
-
-Footnote 309:
-
-  _Dr. Johnson_, in his Essay on Poison, relates the history of three
-  men being poisoned, after excruciating sufferings, in consequence of
-  eating food cooked in an unclean copper vessel, on board the Cyclops
-  frigate; and, besides these, thirty-three men became ill from the same
-  cause.
-
-Footnote 310:
-
-  See the Ladies Library, vol. ii, p. 203; Modern Cookery, or the
-  English Housewife, edit, 2, p. 94; and the English Housekeeper, p.
-  352, 354.
-
-Footnote 311:
-
-  This practice is of ancient origin, thus _Pliny_ “Stannum, illinitum
-  æneis vasis, saporem gratiorem facit, et compescit æruginis virus.”
-  Lib. xxxiv, cap. 17.
-
-Footnote 312:
-
-  _Orfila_, l. c.
-
-Footnote 313:
-
-  Recherches Chimiques sur l’Etain par _Bayen et Charlard_, 1781.
-
-Footnote 314:
-
-  Annales de Chimie.
-
-Footnote 315:
-
-  See _Thomson’s_ System of Chemistry.
-
-Footnote 316:
-
-  Plinii Lib. xxxiv. cap. 2, 10.
-
-Footnote 317:
-
-  We extract the notice of this case from Dr. _Gordon Smith’s_ work, not
-  having a copy of Metzger’s Principles of Judiciary Medicine at hand.
-
-Footnote 318:
-
-  _Orfila_, l. c.
-
-Footnote 319:
-
-  Pharmacologia, vol. ii. art. _Argenti Nitras_.
-
-Footnote 320:
-
-  _Boerhaave_ relates the instance of a student in pharmacy having
-  swallowed some lunar caustic, in consequence of which the most serious
-  symptoms resulted, such as excruciating pains, gangrene, and sphacelus
-  of the primæ viæ. _Metzger_ also mentions a case, where a piece of
-  lunar caustic was accidentally dropped into the throat of a person
-  while applying it to an ulcer, but that the patient was saved by
-  drinking copious draughts of milk.
-
-Footnote 321:
-
-  In the neutralization of acid poisons in the stomach, it is a great
-  object to avoid _carbonated_ alkalies and earths, on account of the
-  large volume of carbonic acid, thus given off, proving highly
-  distressing.
-
-Footnote 322:
-
-  Pharmacologia, vol. ii, art. _Acid Nitric_.
-
-Footnote 323:
-
-  Traité de l’Empoisonment par l’Acide Nitrique; par _A. E. Tartra_,
-  Médecin. à Paris 1802.
-
-Footnote 324:
-
-  Some experiments and researches on the saline contents of sea-water,
-  undertaken with a view to correct and improve its chemical analysis.
-  By _A. Marcet_, M.D. F.R.S. in the Phil. Trans. for the year 1822.
-  part 2.
-
-Footnote 325:
-
-  It is known in commerce by this name, since it is prepared on a large
-  scale, by distilling sugar with nitric acid. It derives the term
-  _oxalic_ acid, from the plant which so abundantly contains it, viz.
-  _oxalis acetosella_, or wood sorrel.
-
-Footnote 326:
-
-  ESSENTIAL SALT OF LEMONS. “The preparation sold under this name, for
-  the purpose of removing iron moulds from linen, consists of cream of
-  tartar, and super-oxalate of potass, or _salt of sorrel_, in equal
-  proportions.” _Pharmacologia._
-
-Footnote 327:
-
-  The parents of this child suppose that the violence of the screaming
-  ruptured the vesicles by which the breathing was impeded, and thus
-  proved an unexpected means of cure.
-
-Footnote 328:
-
-  See “An account of the case of a man who died of the effects of the
-  fire at Eddystone Light-house,” by Mr. _Edward Spry_, Surgeon, at
-  Plymouth. PHIL. TRANS. vol. xlix, part 2, p. 477, A. D. 1756.
-
-Footnote 329:
-
-  There are some exceptions to this law; for instance, the tincture of
-  litmus, and litmus paper, are always rendered more intensely blue, by
-  the addition of alkalies. There are also other bodies, besides
-  alkalies, which change the yellow colour of turmeric to a brown. Upon
-  this subject see an interesting paper in the 26th number of the
-  Journal of Science and the Arts, p. 315, by _Mr. Faraday_, entitled
-  “On the changing of vegetable colours as an alkaline property, and on
-  some bodies possessing it.” By this communication we are informed that
-  even the strong acids redden turmeric paper, and that a very weak
-  nitric acid gives it a tint exactly like that produced by an alkali.
-  Different metallic salts are characterised by similar effects.
-
-Footnote 330:
-
-  A new alkali has been lately discovered in a mineral called
-  _Petalite_, by _M. Arfwedson_, a young Sweedish chemist, but as the
-  extreme rarity of the substance will prevent its ever becoming an
-  object of forensic interest, we shall pass it over without further
-  notice. Some new alkaline principles have also been developed by the
-  French and German chemists, in the analysis of certain vegetables, but
-  as these bodies have a physiological action, which is wholly
-  independent of their alkalinity, they will be more properly noticed
-  under the history of the vegetables which contain them.
-
-Footnote 331:
-
-  Should the solution contain a small portion of lime, as may occasionly
-  happen, the cloud will be very slight, and cannot give origin to any
-  important fallacy.
-
-Footnote 332:
-
-  _Orfila_, vol. i, p. 404.
-
-Footnote 333:
-
-  Essay on Poisons, page 143.
-
-Footnote 334:
-
-  _Orfila_, Lib. Cit.
-
-Footnote 335:
-
-  _Brodie_, Phil. trans. 1812.
-
-Footnote 336:
-
-  This is an important characteristic, since all the metallic poisons
-  yield an abundant precipitate, either black, yellow, or red, on the
-  addition of one or other of the alkaline hydro-sulphurets.
-
-Footnote 337:
-
-  “GENERA CRUSTACEORUM ET INSECTORUM,” tom. 2, p. 220. The London
-  College in their present pharmacopœia refer this insect to the genus
-  LYTTA, an error which will be corrected in the future edition.
-
-Footnote 338:
-
-  System of Chemistry, edit. 5, vol. iv. p. 436. See also Ann. de Chim.
-  lxxvi. p. 308.
-
-Footnote 339:
-
-  Page 129, _note_.
-
-Footnote 340:
-
-  _Homberg_, Mem. Par, 1692.
-
-Footnote 341:
-
-  Ann. de Chim. xxvii, 87.
-
-Footnote 342:
-
-  The earliest account we have of this substance having been used in
-  medicine is to be found in the seventh volume of _Haller’s_ collection
-  of Theses, relating to the history and cure of diseases. The original
-  dissertation is entitled “_De Phosphori loco Medicamenti adsumpti
-  virtute medica, aliquot casibus singularibus confirmata,” Auctore J.
-  Gabi, Mentz_.
-
-Footnote 343:
-
-  Memoirs of the Society of Emulation at Paris.
-
-Footnote 344:
-
-  See _Nicholson’s_ Journal iii, 85.
-
-Footnote 345:
-
-  For July, 1813.
-
-Footnote 346:
-
-  Numb. xxxi, 22.
-
-Footnote 347:
-
-  System of Chemistry, 4th edit. 1, 274-277.
-
-Footnote 348:
-
-  De Architectura, lib. viii, c. 7.
-
-Footnote 349:
-
-  Researches into the Properties of Spring water, with Medical cautions
-  against the use of Lead, by _W. Lambe_, M.D. &c.
-
-Footnote 350:
-
-  A case is recorded, wherein a legal controversy took place, in order
-  to settle the disputes between the proprietors of an estate and a
-  plumber, originating from a similar cause—the plumber being accused of
-  having furnished a faulty reservoir; whereas the case was proved to be
-  owing to the chemical action of the water on the lead. _Dr. Lambe_
-  states an instance where the proprietor of a well, ordered his plumber
-  to make the lead of a pump of double the thickness of the metal
-  usually employed for pumps, to save the charge of repairs; because he
-  had observed that the water was so hard, as he called it, that it
-  corroded the lead very soon.
-
-Footnote 351:
-
-  _Van Swieten_ ad _Boerhaave_ Aphorism. 1060 Comment.
-
-Footnote 352:
-
-  Libro supra citato, p. 24.
-
-Footnote 353:
-
-  _Duncan’s_ Med. Comment. Dec. 2, 1794.
-
-Footnote 354:
-
-  See the papers by Sir George _Baker_, in the first volume of the
-  Medical Transactions of the College of Physicians, viz. “_An Inquiry
-  concerning the Cause of the Endemial Colic of Devonshire_,” p. 175.
-
-  “_An Examination of several means by which the_ POISON OF LEAD _may be
-  supposed frequently to gain admittance into the human body,
-  unobserved, and unsuspected_,” p. 257.
-
-  “_An attempt towards an historical account of that species of
-  Spasmodic Colic, distinguished by the name of the Colic of_ POITOU,”
-  p. 139.
-
-Footnote 355:
-
-  See a work by Dr. _William Musgrave_, which contains the earliest
-  account of the Devonshire colic, entitled “_Dissertatio de Arthritide
-  symptomatica_,” 1703; and also Dr. _Huxham’s_ work on the “_Morbus
-  Colicus Damnoniorum_.”
-
-Footnote 356:
-
-  Annales de Chimie, vol. 1, p. 76.
-
-Footnote 357:
-
-  See _Fourcroy_, Memoire sur la nature du Vin lithargyré, in the
-  “Histoire de l’Academie Royale,” for 1817.
-
-Footnote 358:
-
-  Sir _George Baker_ considered that the dry belly ache, which is common
-  to the drinkers of _new_ rum, in the West Indies, ought to be wholly
-  referred to its contamination with lead.
-
-Footnote 359:
-
-  The art of glazing earthenware with lead is of modern invention; that
-  part of the old earthenware, preserved in the British museum, which is
-  supposed to have been of Roman manufacture, is not glazed. The
-  vessels, which are called Etruscan, and which are supposed to be of
-  greater antiquity than the Roman, have indeed a paint or polish on
-  their surfaces; but that does not appear to resemble our modern
-  saturnine vitrification.
-
-Footnote 360:
-
-  The workmen who are employed at the glazing tub are subject to colics
-  and paralysis.
-
-Footnote 361:
-
-  The frequency with which the inhabitants of Madrid, and of a great
-  part of New Castille in Spain, were harrassed with colic, as recorded
-  by _M. Thierry_, received a satisfactory explanation from the fact of
-  glazed earthenware having been universally used in that country for
-  culinary vessels.
-
-  _Sir G. Baker_ in a paper entitled “_Further Observations on the
-  Poisons of Lead_,” Med. Trans. vol. 2, p. 419, mentions the practice
-  of drinking cyder out of glazed earthen vessels as dangerous. Dr.
-  _Watson_, junior, saw several instances of the Devonshire colic,
-  during the time of harvest, apparently from this cause. And a similar
-  instance fell under the notice of Dr. _Charleston_, where six persons
-  became, at one time, paralytic, by drinking cyder, brought to them
-  while at harvest work, in a new earthen pitcher, the inside of which
-  was glazed. That the glazing was dissolved by the liquor appeared not
-  only by the effects which it produced, but from its having given, as
-  these persons informed Dr. _Charleston_, that astringent sweetish
-  taste to the liquor, by which the solutions of this metal are so
-  peculiarly distinguished.
-
-Footnote 362:
-
-  As it is very desirable to exclude the use of _lead_ altogether, the
-  Society for the promotion of Arts, Manufactures, and Commerce, has
-  offered a premium for a substitute for this metallic glaze. For an
-  account of several new glazes, as substitutes for _lead_, see
-  _Parkes’s Chemical Essays_, vol. iii, p. 193-576.
-
-Footnote 363:
-
-  _Darwin’s_ Zoonomia, vol. 3, cl. 1, 2, 4, 8.
-
-Footnote 364:
-
-  Chemical Essays, vol. v, p. 193.
-
-Footnote 365:
-
-  Philosophical Magazine, 1819, no. 257, p. 229.
-
-Footnote 366:
-
-  The use of the arsenic is to render the lead more brittle, and to
-  dispose it to run into spherical drops.
-
-Footnote 367:
-
-  _Francis Citois_, the historian of this celebrated epidemic, published
-  his “_Diatriba de novo et populari apud Pictones, dolore colico
-  bilioso_,” A.D. 1617. In which he states that the “_dolor colicus
-  Pictonicus_” was a new epidemic in the province of Poitou, about the
-  year 1572; and after having prevailed in that province about 60 or 70
-  years, it became milder, less untractable, and by degrees was
-  translated to other parts of France. The supposition, however, says
-  Sir _George Baker_, that the colic of Poitou was a new disease, about
-  the time when Citois lived, is not true; the disease was even
-  mentioned by our countryman _John of Gaddesden_, who appears to have
-  written his _Rosa Anglica_ early in the fourteenth century. If we
-  consult authors posterior to _Citois_, we find this species of colic
-  mentioned in almost every practical book. We have an account in
-  _Sennertus_ of its having prevailed epidemically, all over Silesia, in
-  the year 1621. _Baglivi_ even affirms that “nihil facilius colicæ
-  supervenit, quam paralysis.” None of these authors, however, appear to
-  have entertained the slightest suspicion of the true source of the
-  malady.
-
-Footnote 368:
-
-  EPHEMERIDES GERMANICÆ, Ann. 4.—Observ. 60 by _Cockelius_.—Obs. 92 by
-  _Brunnerus_.—Obs. 100 by _Wicarius_.
-
-Footnote 369:
-
-  Chemical Essays, vol. 3, page 369, edit. 3.
-
-Footnote 370:
-
-  Exam. Chy. de Differ. Subs. par M. Sage, p. 157.
-
-Footnote 371:
-
-  Medical Transactions of the College of Physicians, vol. ii, p. 86.
-
-Footnote 372:
-
-  The art of making wines, from fruits, flowers, and herbs; all the
-  native growth of Great Britain, by _William Graham_, late of Ware in
-  Hertfordshire.
-
-Footnote 373:
-
-  See “_Some experiments made upon Rum, in order to ascertain the cause
-  of the colic, frequent among the Soldiers in the island of Jamaica, in
-  the years 1781, and 1782_”; by JOHN HUNTER, M.D. In the Medical
-  Transactions, vol. 3, p. 227.
-
-Footnote 374:
-
-  Annales de Chimie, tom. lvii, p. 84. Memoire de _M. Proust_.
-
-Footnote 375:
-
-  _Cerusse_ was in great request among the Roman ladies as a cosmetic.
-
-Footnote 376:
-
-  The manufacture of this colour was long kept secret; but its
-  consumption has lately been greatly lessened by the introduction of
-  the artificial CHROMATE OF LEAD, which is a yellow of much greater
-  brilliancy than the muriate of that metal.
-
-Footnote 377:
-
-  See Repository of Arts, vol. viii, no. 47, p. 262.
-
-Footnote 378:
-
-  Med. Trans. vol. 2, p. 445.
-
-Footnote 379:
-
-  See a paper in the Medical Transactions, vol. 2, p. 68, “Of the Colica
-  Pictonum,” by _R. Warren_, M.D. &c.
-
-Footnote 380:
-
-  _Paulus Ægineta_ is the first writer who has described a species of
-  Colic terminating in Paralysis. (Lib. iii, c. 18, 43.)
-
-Footnote 381:
-
-  Poitou, this late province in France was divided at the revolution
-  into the three departments of Vendée, Vienne, and the Two Sevres.
-
-Footnote 382:
-
-  Pictones—_Cæs._ People of France, whose chief city is Pictavium, now
-  called Poictiers.
-
-Footnote 383:
-
-  _Percival’s_ Essays, vol. 1, p. 458.
-
-Footnote 384:
-
-  See our remarks upon this subject at page 142. See also _Teichmeyer_,
-  Inst. Med. For. p. 164.
-
-Footnote 385:
-
-  Upon the subject of slow poisons we have already expressed the
-  latitude of our belief, see page 143.
-
-Footnote 386:
-
-  Medical Transactions, vol. 2, p. 420.
-
-Footnote 387:
-
-  Transactions of Medical Society of London.
-
-Footnote 388:
-
-  Med. Legale, iv, § 921.
-
-Footnote 389:
-
-  “De Lithargyrio quoque mihi narravit, matronam quandam nobilem
-  pulverem ejus in rubore faciei, postquam hic ipsi tanquam singulare et
-  certissimum arcanum deprædicatus fuisset, in petia ligatum, axillis
-  bis vel ter die aspersisse cum præsentaneo effectu; verum exinde
-  subsecuta fuisse dyspnæam, lipothymiam, dolores vagos in abdomine,
-  vomituritionem, et nauseam.”
-
-Footnote 390:
-
-  See his “Researches into the Properties of Spring water.” 8vo. London.
-  _Johnson._ 1803.
-
-Footnote 391:
-
-  Observations on the Water with which Tunbridge is supplied for
-  domestic purposes.
-
-Footnote 392:
-
-  The following is the method of preparing the test. Expose equal parts
-  of sulphur and powdered oyster shells to a white heat for fifteen
-  minutes; and, when cold, add an equal quantity of cream of tartar;
-  these are to be put into a strong bottle with common water to boil for
-  an hour; and the solution is afterwards to be decanted into ounce
-  phials, adding twenty drops of muriatic acid to each.
-
-Footnote 393:
-
-  _Lambe_, op. sup. cit. page 175.
-
-Footnote 394:
-
-  On the ultimate Analysis of Vegetable and Animal Substances, by
-  _Andrew Ure_, M.D.F.R.S. Phil. Trans. for 1822, part. 2.
-
-Footnote 395:
-
-  Essay on Chemical Analysis, by _J. G. Children, Esq._
-
-Footnote 396:
-
-  Where a compound is merely separated it is called an EDUCT; but where
-  it arises from a new combination of the elements it is distinguished
-  by the term PRODUCT.
-
-Footnote 397:
-
-  Recherches Physico-Chimiques.
-
-Footnote 398:
-
-  On the ultimate Analysis of Vegetable and Animal Substances, by
-  _Andrew Ure_, M.D.F.R.S. Phil. Trans, for 1822, part 2.
-
-Footnote 399:
-
-  The author has already in the fifth edition of his Pharmacologia,
-  entered so fully into the philosophy of medicinal combination, that he
-  can scarcely feel regret at the limits of the present work not
-  allowing him to dwell upon the subject.
-
-Footnote 400:
-
-  The Cambogia _Gutta_ Lin. (Polyandria Monogynia) and several species
-  of Hypericum; Chelidonium, &c. also yield a similar juice.
-
-Footnote 401:
-
-  The Dutch appear to have first introduced it into Europe about the
-  middle of the seventeenth century.
-
-Footnote 402:
-
-  Ελλεβορος λευκος of Dioscorides.
-
-Footnote 403:
-
-  Histoire des Plantes Vénéneuses de la Suisse.
-
-Footnote 404:
-
-  The same alkali has been discovered in the seeds of the _Veratrum
-  Sabadilla_, and in the root of the _Colchicum Autumnale_.
-
-Footnote 405:
-
-  It was first cultivated by _Gerarde_ in 1596.
-
-Footnote 406:
-
-  See London Medical Repository, vol. xii, no. 67.
-
-Footnote 407:
-
-  Pharmacologia, vol. ii, art. _Extract. Elaterii_, p. 204.
-
-Footnote 408:
-
-  Fragmenta Chirurg. et Med. p. 66.
-
-Footnote 409:
-
-  Obs. Lib. iv, c. xxvi, p. 208.
-
-Footnote 410:
-
-  The juice of every species of _spurge_ is so acrid, that it corrodes
-  and ulcerates the body wherever it is applied. Warts or corns,
-  annointed with the juice presently disappear; hence this tribe of
-  plants has derived the popular name of _wart weed_.
-
-Footnote 411:
-
-  One of the supposed proofs of the guilt of _Charles Angus_ in the case
-  of _Margaret Burns_, as stated at page 177, rested upon the fact, that
-  on searching the prisoner’s bed room, three bottles were found in the
-  wardrobe, viz. one marked “_poison water_;” a second “_Jacob’s
-  water_;” and a third “_Savine oil_.”
-
-Footnote 412:
-
-  The roman poets constantly use it in the plural number, which
-  evidently shews that it was meant to denote other kinds of poisons, or
-  poisons in general; thus JUVENAL in the first satire, v. 156.
-
-             “Qui dedit ergo tribus patruis ACONITA, vehetur
-             Pensilibus plumis,——”
-
-  So again _Ovid_ in the first book of Metamorph, v. 47.
-
-               “Lurida terribiles miscent ACONITA novercæ.”
-
-Footnote 413:
-
-  _Theophrastus_ tells us that a poison may be prepared from _aconite_
-  so as to occasion death within any definite period; see page 183 in
-  the present volume.
-
-Footnote 414:
-
-  See an account of this process of preparing extracts _in vacuo_, in
-  Medico-Chirurg. Trans. vol. x, p. 240; and for a history of their
-  superior powers, the author begs to refer the reader to an account of
-  the articles in his Pharmacologia.
-
-Footnote 415:
-
-  Pharmacologia, vol. 1, p. 136.
-
-Footnote 416:
-
-  Med. Observ. and Inquiries, vol. v. p. 317.
-
-Footnote 417:
-
-  It may be obtained from opium by the following process, invented by
-  ROBIQUET. Three hundred parts of pure opium are to be macerated during
-  five days, in one thousand parts of common water; to the filtered
-  solution, fifteen parts of perfectly pure magnesia (carefully avoiding
-  the _carbonate_) are to be added; boil this mixture (A) for ten
-  minutes, and separate the sediment (B) by a filter, washing it with
-  cold water until the water passes off clear; after which, treat it
-  alternately with hot and cold alcohol (12, 22. Bé) as long as the
-  menstruum takes up any colouring matter; the residue is then to be
-  treated with boiling alcohol (22, 32, Bé) on cooling, the solution
-  will deposit the _Morphia_ in crystals.
-
-  _Rationale of the process._ A soluble _meconiate of magnesia_ is, in
-  the first place, formed; (A) while the sediment (B) consists of
-  _morphia_, in the state of mixture, with the excess of magnesia; the
-  boiling alcohol, with which this residuum is treated, exerts no action
-  upon the magnesia, but dissolves the _morphia_, and, on cooling,
-  surrenders it in a crystalline state.
-
-Footnote 418:
-
-  Ann. de Chim. et de Phys. tom. v.
-
-Footnote 419:
-
-  “Confessions of an English opium-eater.” London, 1822.
-
-Footnote 420:
-
-  History of Aleppo.
-
-Footnote 421:
-
-  _Orfila_ states that animals, on which the section of the _par vagum_
-  of both sides has been performed, die at the end of two or three
-  hours; after having experienced intoxication, somnolency, and
-  convulsions. _Bulletin de la Soc. Philomatique, Mai 1808_, _t._ 1,
-  _p._ 143.
-
-Footnote 422:
-
-  _Toriosa_ (_Istituzioni di Med. For._) has remarked that opium may act
-  mortally without losing much of its weight in the stomach. We are very
-  sceptical upon this point.
-
-Footnote 423:
-
-  The reader is requested to refer to our chapter “On the Physiological
-  causes and phenomena of sudden death,” p. 22.
-
-Footnote 424:
-
-  See “Cases illustrating the decided efficacy of cold affusion in the
-  treatment of poisoning by opium, by _S. Wray_.” _London Medical and
-  Physical Journal_, for September 1822.
-
-  “A case of poisoning by opium, in which the cold affusion was
-  successfully employed; with observations on the medical management of
-  similar occurrences, by _J. Copland_, M. D.” _Ibid._
-
-  “On the most efficacious means of remedying the effects of opium, when
-  taken in poisonous doses, by _J. H. Sprague_.” _Ibid._
-
-Footnote 425:
-
-  Avis au _peuple_, tom. ii, § 535, p. 280, 7th edit.
-
-Footnote 426:
-
-  “On the common syringe, with a flexible tube, as applicable to the
-  removal of opium, and other poisons, from the stomach, by _F. Bush_.”
-  _London Med. and Phys. Journ._ for September, 1822.
-
-  “New means of extracting opium, &c. from the stomach, by _E. Jukes,
-  Esq_.” _Ibid._ for November, 1822.
-
-Footnote 427:
-
-  See Pharmacologia, vol. 1, p. 234.
-
-Footnote 428:
-
-  Reports on Water, 1, 80.
-
-Footnote 429:
-
-  A very high degree of vascularity is often found in the stomach and
-  alimentary canal of those who have been suddenly deprived of life. The
-  reader may consult _Dr. Yelloly’s_ paper in the _Medico-chirurgical
-  Transactions_, vol. iv, respecting the appearances found in the
-  stomachs of several executed criminals.
-
-  A case of poisoning by opium is given in the foreign department of the
-  London Medical Repository, for November 1820; in which two drachms of
-  solid opium had been swallowed, and on dissection a general congestion
-  of blood was found in the internal organs.
-
-Footnote 430:
-
-  The stomach in this case was observed to be red, but the colour was
-  traced to the tincture of cardamoms, which the deceased had taken.
-
-Footnote 431:
-
-  Philosophical Transactions, vol. xl, p. 446.
-
-Footnote 432:
-
-  It was discovered by _Scheele_, but _Gay-Lussac_ first succeeded in
-  depriving it of a very great quantity of the water with which it was
-  combined, when prepared according to the process of its discoverer.
-  See _Annales de Chimie_, tom. lxxvii, p. 123.
-
-Footnote 433:
-
-  By the decomposition of muriatic acid, and the cyanuret of mercury.
-
-Footnote 434:
-
-  _Dr. Majendie_ has informed us that, in consequence of some
-  carelessness, he breathed a portion of the vapour, while preparing the
-  acid for the purpose of experiment; and that he suffered very violent
-  pains in the chest, accompanied by feelings of oppression, which
-  endured for several hours.
-
-Footnote 435:
-
-  “En conservant cet acide dans des vases bien fermés, même sans quil
-  ait le contact de l’air, il se decompose quelquefois en moins d’une
-  heure.” _Gay-Lussac._
-
-Footnote 436:
-
-  See “An Historical and Practical Treatise on the Internal use of
-  hydro-cyanic (Prussic) acid, by _A. B. Granville_, M.D.” Second edit.
-  London, 1820.
-
-Footnote 437:
-
-  See, however, an account of “A new substance found accompanying Welsh
-  Culm, by _J. A. Paris_, M.D.” in the first volume of the Transactions
-  of the Royal Geological Society of Cornwall.
-
-Footnote 438:
-
-  The poisonous properties of this plant are alluded to by _Strabo_, who
-  says that the _Lauro-cerasus_ produces a mode of death, similar to
-  that of epilepsy.
-
-Footnote 439:
-
-  The merits of this case are to be found very fully discussed in a
-  pamphlet, entitled “Considerations on the criminal proceedings of this
-  country; on the danger of convictions on circumstantial evidence, and
-  on the case of _Mr. Donellan_.” By a barrister of the Inner Temple,
-  London, 1781.
-
-Footnote 440:
-
-  “Experiments and Observations on the different modes in which Death is
-  produced by certain vegetable poisons.” Phil. Trans. vol. 101, for the
-  year 1811.
-
-Footnote 441:
-
-  To those who may wish to gain further information upon this subject,
-  we beg to recommend the perusal of _Dr. Granville’s_ work above
-  quoted.
-
-Footnote 442:
-
-  Treatise on Prussic acid, sup. citat. p. 96.
-
-Footnote 443:
-
-  Journal General de Médecine, 1. xxiv, p 224.
-
-Footnote 444:
-
-  Annals of Philosophy, vol. i, p. 2, _new series_.
-
-Footnote 445:
-
-  From this person the plant received its generic name, _Nicotiana_; the
-  specific appellation being taken from _Tabac_, the name of an
-  instrument used by the natives of America in smoking the herb.
-
-Footnote 446:
-
-  In 1624 Pope Urban the VIII, published a decree of excommunication
-  against all who took snuff in the church. Ten years after this,
-  smoking tobacco was forbidden in Russia, under the pain of having the
-  nose cut off. In 1653 the Council of the Canton of Appenzel cited
-  smokers before them, whom they punished; and they ordered all
-  inn-keepers to inform against such as were found smoking in their
-  houses. The police regulations of Berne, made in 1661, were divided
-  according to the ten commandments, in which the prohibition of smoking
-  stood immediately beneath the command against adultery. This
-  prohibition was renewed in 1675, and the tribunal instituted to put it
-  into execution—viz. “CHAMBRE AU TABAC,” continued to the middle of the
-  eighteenth century. Pope Innocent the XII, in 1590 excommunicated all
-  those who were found taking snuff, or using tobacco, in any manner, in
-  the church of St. Peter at Rome; even so late as 1719 the Senate of
-  Strasburgh prohibited the cultivation of tobacco, from an apprehension
-  that it would diminish the growth of corn. Amurath the IV published an
-  edict which made the smoking tobacco a capital offence; this was
-  founded on an opinion that it rendered the people infertile.
-
-Footnote 447:
-
-  Pharmacologia, vol. 1, 228, and vol. 2, art. Tabaci Folia.
-
-Footnote 448:
-
-  Vol. ii, p. 404.
-
-Footnote 449:
-
-  We are, however, by no means disposed to assign greater weight to this
-  expression that it can fairly sustain; it may perhaps refer to the
-  operation of dropping the poison into the ear, and not to the poison
-  itself—thus _Juvenal_, “_stillavit_ in aurem.”
-
-Footnote 450:
-
-  Ephemerides des Curieux de la Nature, Dec. ii, An. i, p. 46.
-
-Footnote 451:
-
-  _Orfila_, Toxicol.
-
-Footnote 452:
-
-  Pharmacologia, vol. 1, p. 228.
-
-Footnote 453:
-
-  Pliny informs us that the word _cicuta_ amongst the ancients, was not
-  indicative of any particular species of plant, but of vegetable
-  poisons in general. We have already made the same remark with respect
-  to Aconite.
-
-Footnote 454:
-
-  Κωνειον of Dioscorides.
-
-Footnote 455:
-
-  In the London Medical and Physical Journal, vol. 14, p. 425, we shall
-  find a case wherein the hemlock was eaten through mistake for common
-  parsley. Similar accidents are also recorded in _Miller’s_ Dictionary.
-
-Footnote 456:
-
-  It is figured in the Hortus Malabaricus under the name of _Canirum_.
-
-Footnote 457:
-
-  Annales de Chimie, t. 8 to 10.
-
-Footnote 458:
-
-  Ibid. t. x, 153.
-
-Footnote 459:
-
-  Journal de Physiologie Experimentale, 1^{er} numeroJanvier 1821, in a
-  paper entitled “_Memoire sur le Méchanisme de l’Absorption_.”
-
-Footnote 460:
-
-  We avail ourselves of this report, as given by _Orfila_ in his System
-  of Toxicology.
-
-Footnote 461:
-
-  Bulletin de la Société de Med. Nov. 1807.
-
-Footnote 462:
-
-  Analyse Chimique de la Coque du Levant. Paris, 1812.
-
-Footnote 463:
-
-  We have already stated that this sauce has been occasionally rendered
-  poisonous by the presence of copper, p. 290.
-
-Footnote 464:
-
-  _Haller_, Helvet. hist.
-
-Footnote 465:
-
-  We have explained, at page 150, the sense in which we wish these terms
-  to be received.
-
-Footnote 466:
-
-  Krascheminckow, Histoire Naturel du Kamtschatka, p. 209.
-
-Footnote 467:
-
-  Systematic arrangement of British Plants, vol. iv, p. 181.
-
-Footnote 468:
-
-  Leçons, faisant partie du Cours de Medecine Legale de _M. Orfila_.
-  Paris, 1821.
-
-Footnote 469:
-
-  This fact is particularized, as some persons have supposed the
-  symptoms which have arisen from the ingestion of these fungi, may have
-  been the effect of copper derived from the cooking utensils.
-
-Footnote 470:
-
-  Let it be remembered that this term is to be received conventionally;
-  we merely intend it to express certain phenomena, without any
-  reference to their cause.
-
-Footnote 471:
-
-  _Mr. Brande._ Phil. Trans. 1811 and 1813.
-
-Footnote 472:
-
-  “I apprehend that the peculiar flavour of _cogniac_ depends upon the
-  presence of an æthereal spirit, formed by the action of tartaric, or
-  perhaps acetic acid upon alcohol. It is on this account that nitric
-  æther, when added to malt spirits gives them the flavour of brandy.”
-  Pharmacologia, vol. 2, p. 396.
-
-Footnote 473:
-
-  Pharmacologia, vol. 2, p. 397.
-
-Footnote 474:
-
-  See our chapter on “_the Physiological causes and Phenomena of Sudden
-  Death_,” page 16.
-
-  In the course of the present work we have frequently recommended the
-  artificial inflation of the lungs, in cases where life is liable to be
-  extinguished by suffocation, (_page_ 78); but we have not yet hinted
-  at the possibility of employing such a resource with success in cases
-  of narcotic poisoning, wherein the death may be physiologically
-  considered as analogous to that occasioned by suffocation. _Mr.
-  Brodie_ was the first philosopher who ventured to propose such an
-  expedient, and in an experiment carefully performed on an animal under
-  such circumstances its life was preserved.
-
-  The success of the process will depend upon our being able to keep up
-  an artificial breathing, until the effects of the narcotic have passed
-  away, and the energy of the brain is restored. As during this interval
-  the generation of animal heat appears to be in a great measure
-  suspended, it will be necessary to maintain a sufficient temperature
-  by art.
-
-Footnote 475:
-
-  We have just received from _Mr. Alcock_ a history of the particular
-  circumstances of the interesting case alluded to at page 58 of the
-  present volume, and we shall give insertion to it in our chapter on
-  Anatomical Dissection.
-
-Footnote 476:
-
-  Treatise on Nervous Diseases, vol. 1, p. 221.
-
-Footnote 477:
-
-  Case of a woman bitten by a viper, _Med. and Phy. Journ._ vol. ii, p.
-  481.
-
-Footnote 478:
-
-  Celsus Medicin. lib. 5, c. 27.
-
-Footnote 479:
-
-  Lucan Pharsal, c. 9.
-
-Footnote 480:
-
-  See our remarks on the effects produced by the accidental ingestion of
-  boiling water, page 317, and which will apply to the circumstances of
-  the present case.
-
-Footnote 481:
-
-  Med. Legale, t. iv, 835.
-
-Footnote 482:
-
-  Vol. 1, p. 519.
-
-Footnote 483:
-
-  See volume 1 of the present work, p. 95.
-
-Footnote 484:
-
-  See _Orfila_, vol. 2.
-
-Footnote 485:
-
-  See _Dr. Stone_ on the Diseases of the Stomach, p. 80. We also beg to
-  direct the attention of the medical reader to a paper entitled “On the
-  effects of certain articles of food, especially oysters, on women
-  after child-birth, by _John Clarke_, M. D.” Med. Trans. vol. v, p.
-  109.
-
-Footnote 486:
-
-  For October, 1808, vol. iv, p. 393.
-
-Footnote 487:
-
-  For June, 1815, vol. 3, p. 445.
-
-Footnote 488:
-
-  _Dr. Burrows_ has given us a list of them in the paper above alluded
-  to; the most poisonous of which is the yellow-bill’d sprat, (_Clupea
-  Thryssa_.) Indeed, says this author, it has rarely occurred that
-  _immediate_ death has ensued between the tropics from the virus of any
-  other fish. _M. Orfila_ observes that the action of this fish is so
-  rapid, that it has been often seen at _St. Eustatia_ that persons have
-  expired while still eating it.
-
-Footnote 489:
-
-  Med. Rep. vol. 3, p. 445.
-
-Footnote 490:
-
-  Gazette de Santé, Ire Mars, 1812, p. 51.—Ibid. 21 Mars, 1813.—Ibid. 1,
-  Octob. 1812.
-
-Footnote 491:
-
-  Tom. iv, p. 85.
-
-Footnote 492:
-
-  _Behren’s_ Dissert. de Affect. a comest Mytil.
-
-Footnote 493:
-
-  Voyage of Discovery, vol. 2, p. 286, 287.
-
-Footnote 494:
-
-  The Principles of Forensic Medicine, _page_ 191.
-
-Footnote 495:
-
-  See Edinburgh Med. and Surg. Journal, for Jan. 1811, p. 41.—_Bateman_
-  on Cutaneous Diseases, art. _Prurigo_.
-
-Footnote 496:
-
-  Observ. on the Diseases of the Army in Jamaica, vol. ii, p. 182.
-
-Footnote 497:
-
-  Giornale di Fisica, &c. Secondo Bimestre, 1817.
-
-Footnote 498:
-
-  There is no trade more immediately destructive of health than dry
-  grinding steel; the workmen are usually attacked by what is called the
-  grinder’s asthma at twenty-five or thirty years of age, and few of
-  them live to forty. The Society of Arts have long offered a reward for
-  the invention of some mode of securing the workmen from this dreadful
-  calamity, and in 1822 awarded their gold medal to _Mr. J. H. Abraham_,
-  of Sheffield, for his Magnetic Guard for Needle-pointers, (see
-  Transactions for 1822.) The contrivance is likely to answer its
-  intended purpose, provided the obstinacy and prejudice of the workmen
-  can be overcome by the perseverance of the master manufacturers, who
-  are morally bound to adopt every probable means of securing the health
-  of those employed under them, even though their servants should
-  themselves neglect it.
-
-Footnote 499:
-
-  _Diemerbroeck_, lib. ii, p. 443.
-
-Footnote 500:
-
-  The oxide of mercury is not volatile.
-
-Footnote 501:
-
-  Where mercury is sublimed, it will usually assume the appearance of a
-  black powder, in consequence of the extreme state of division it has
-  undergone. This appearance has no doubt deceived the superficial
-  observer, and given origin to many erroneous statements.
-
-Footnote 502:
-
-  “A small portion of mercury was put through a funnel into a clean dry
-  bottle, capable of holding about six ounces, and formed a stratum at
-  the bottom not one-eighth of an inch in thickness; particular care was
-  taken that none of the mercury should adhere to the upper part of the
-  inside of the bottle. A small piece of leaf-gold was then attached to
-  the under part of the stopper of the bottle, so that when the stopper
-  was put into its place, the leaf-gold was enclosed in the bottle. It
-  was then set aside in a safe place, which happened to be both dark and
-  cool, and left for between six weeks and two months. At the end of
-  that time it was examined, and the leaf-gold was found whitened by a
-  quantity of mercury, though every part of the bottle and mercury
-  remained, apparently, just as before. This experiment has been
-  repeated several times, and always with success. The utmost care was
-  taken that mercury should not get to the gold, except by passing
-  through the atmosphere of the bottle. I think therefore it proves that
-  at common temperatures, and even when the air is present, mercury is
-  always surrounded by an atmosphere of the same substance.”—_On the
-  vapour of mercury at common temperatures, by M. Faraday, Chemical
-  Assistant at the Royal Institution._ Journal of Science and the Arts,
-  vol. 10, p. 354.
-
-Footnote 503:
-
-  _Mr. Plowman_ has since stated, in conversation, that he has seen five
-  or six mice, in one day, come into the ward-room, leap up a
-  considerable height, and fall down dead on the deck. He also stated
-  that the food for the use of the canary bird was kept in well closed
-  bottles, so that it was impossible for it to have contracted any
-  metallic impregnation.
-
-Footnote 504:
-
-  The gases given off by burning coal, will vary very much according to
-  the activity of the combustion, and the degree of moisture present; so
-  that we may expect to receive sulphuretted hydrogen, sulphurous acid,
-  carbonic oxide, carbonic acid, and carburetted hydrogen.
-
-Footnote 505:
-
-  Researches Chemical and Philosophical, chiefly concerning nitrous
-  oxide, &c. London, 1800.
-
-Footnote 506:
-
-  Recherches de Physiologie et de chimie, p. 144, an. 1811.
-
-Footnote 507:
-
-  See the case in _Valentini_, _P. M. L._ p. 538, of a woman wilfully
-  killed by continual and excessive doses of sulphuric acid,
-  administered to her under pretence of medicine.
-
-Footnote 508:
-
-  See the trial of _Jane Butterfield_ for the murder of _Wm. Scawen_,
-  Esq. published from the short hand writer’s notes, London 1775. _Miss
-  Butterfield_ was acquitted, the case is therefore put
-  supposititiously.
-
-Footnote 509:
-
-  Such was the case of the ignorant man who went out at night with the
-  intention of shooting a ghost, which was supposed to haunt the village
-  of Hammersmith; he actually shot a bricklayer’s labourer who was
-  returning from his work; this was held to be murder, and the prisoner
-  was convicted; he was not indeed a fit subject for execution, and was
-  therefore pardoned; but this should not be extended into a doctrine,
-  that gross ignorance, producing death, is always a pardonable offence.
-
-
-
-
-                           Transcriber’s Note
-
-
-This book uses inconsistent spelling and hyphenation, which were
-retained in the ebook version. Ditto marks and dashes used to represent
-repeated text have been replaced with the text that they represent. Some
-corrections have been made to the text, including correcting the errata
-noted in Volume 1 of this work, normalizing punctuation. Diacritics were
-left off Greek words since they were used inconsistently and when they
-were used they were often incorrect. Further corrections are noted
-below:
-
- p. 6: proved the means of resucitating -> proved the means of
-    resuscitating
- Anchor position for Footnote 8 assumed
- p. 14: whereas the _cadeverous_ stiffness -> whereas the _cadaverous_
-    stiffness
- p. 24: in cases of supended animation -> in cases of suspended animation
- p. 30: in such cases it become a question -> in such cases it becomes a
-    question
- Footnote 21: _Tranee._ Although this term -> _Trance._ Although this
-    term
- p. 28: killed at the seige of Osen -> killed at the siege of Osen
- p. 37: there is asecond period of danger -> there is a second period of
-    danger
- p. 41: until a sufficient quanity of air -> until a sufficient quantity
-    of air
- p. 46: 3. BY MANUAL STRAGULATION. -> 3. BY MANUAL STRANGULATION
- p. 58: no doubt but that persous -> no doubt but that persons
- p. 75: cases were life is suddenly arrested -> cases where life is
-    suddenly arrested
- p. 85: are founded n error -> are founded in error
- p. 87: animal will be enable to perform -> animal will be enabled to
-    perform
- Anchor position for Footnote 72 assumed
- p. 110: it is scarely necessary; -> it is scarcely necessary;
- p. 116: 1. _Absolutely mortal._ 2. _Dangerous._ 8. _Accidentally
-    mortal._ -> _Absolutely mortal._ 2. _Dangerous._ 3. _Accidentally
-    mortal._
- p. 120: footnote marker removed for which no footnote was printed:
-    destroy the patient, by hemorrhage.
- Anchor position for Footnote 152 assumed
- p. 154: our idea of it importance -> our idea of its importance
- p. 162: with numerous alledged difficulties -> with numerous alleged
-    difficulties
- Footnote 187: the stomach which undergeos solution -> the stomach which
-    undergoes solution
- p. 171: satisfactorily corrobrate the truth -> satisfactorily
-    corroborate the truth
- p. 174: the red and inflammed appearance -> the red and inflamed
-    appearance
- Footnote 191: being very thirsy, and in considerable pain -> being very
-    thirsty, and in considerable pain
- Footnote 191: wlth yellow pieces in it -> with yellow pieces in it
- Footnote 191: that they torn with the slightest -> that they tore with
-    the slightest
- p. 191: was of an unusally red colour -> was of an unusually red colour
- p. 193: which are undoubtedly worthy consideration -> which are
-    undoubtedly worthy of consideration
- p. 195: from which he his led to conclude -> from which he is led to
-    conclude
- p. 200: some few and unimportannt exceptions -> some few and unimportant
-    exceptions
- p. 200: Cl. V, _Narotico-Acrid poisons_ -> Cl. V, _Narcotico-Acrid
-    poisons_
- p. 210: The greek work Αρσενικον -> The greek word Αρσενικον
-               σανδαραχη -> σανδαρακη
-               αρρενιχον -> αρρενικον
- Footnote 214: Σανδαραχη -> Σανδαρακη
- p. 211: will assume a _tretrahedral_ form -> will assume a _tetrahedral_
-    form
- p. 217: the head has also been observd -> the head has also been
-    observed
- Footnote 230: at the age of thirth-eight -> at the age of thirty-eight
- p. 227: confined to the stomach and ntestines -> confined to the stomach
-    and intestines
- Footnote 245: _Black’c_ Lectures, v. ii, p. 430. -> _Black’s_ Lectures,
-    v. ii, p. 430.
- p. 240: application in the Philosophial Magazine -> application in the
-    Philosophical Magazine
- p. 248: no solid matter could be dicovered in it -> no solid matter
-    could be discovered in it
- p. 253: difficulties and embarassments, occasioned by -> difficulties
-    and embarrassments, occasioned by
- p. 273: containing sublimate, accidently or by design -> containing
-    sublimate, accidentally or by design
- Footnote 296: having been adulterated with red red -> having been
-    adulterated with red lead
- p. 297: but their are quite insoluble -> but they are quite insoluble
- Footnote 359: supposed to have been of Roman manafacture -> supposed to
-    have been of Roman manufacture
- p. 373: thereby destroying the energ of the nervous system -> thereby
-    destroying the energy of the nervous system
- Footnote 426: New means of extractiug opium -> New means of extracting
-    opium
- p. 395 with dilalation of the pupils -> with dilation of the pupils
- Footnote 431: Philosophical Taansactions, vol. xl, p. 446 ->
-    Philosophical Transactions, vol. xl, p. 446
- p. 400: footnote marker after _Foderé_ removed since there was no
-    corresponding footnote
- p. 403: taking six dops of the water -> taking six drops of the water
- p. 406: but not succesfully recommended -> but not successfully
-    recommended
- p. 414: most of those symytoms which we have described -> most of those
-    symptoms which we have described
- p. 430: he answed yes, or no -> he answered yes, or no
- p. 430: longer intermission than that preceeding -> longer intermission
-    than that preceding
- Footnote 469: which have arisen form the ingestion -> which have arisen
-    from the ingestion
- Footnote 474: in cases were life is liable to be -> in cases where life
-    is liable to be
- Anchor position of Footnote 482 assumed
- p. 449: or idosyncrasy of constitution -> or idiosyncrasy of
-    constitution
-
-
-
-
-
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