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diff --git a/old/63788-0.txt b/old/63788-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index ef7a76b..0000000 --- a/old/63788-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,7315 +0,0 @@ -Project Gutenberg's Plants Poisonous to Live Stock, by Harold C. Long - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: Plants Poisonous to Live Stock - -Author: Harold C. Long - -Release Date: November 17, 2020 [EBook #63788] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PLANTS POISONOUS TO LIVE STOCK *** - - - - -Produced by Richard Tonsing, Chris Curnow, and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - - - - - CAMBRIDGE AGRICULTURAL MONOGRAPHS - - - PLANTS POISONOUS TO - LIVE STOCK - - - - - CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS - C. F. CLAY, MANAGER - London: FETTER LANE, E.C. - Edinburgh: 100 PRINCES STREET - -[Illustration] - - London: H. K. LEWIS AND CO. LTD., 136, GOWER STREET, W.C. - London: WILLIAM WESLEY AND SON, 28, ESSEX STREET, STRAND - New York: G. P. PUTNAM’S SONS - Bombay, Calcutta and Madras: MACMILLAN AND CO., LTD. - Toronto: J. M. DENT AND SONS, LTD. - Tokyo: THE MARUZEN-KABUSHIKI-KAISHA - - - _All rights reserved_ - -[Illustration: _a_ Reddish-brown to reddish-purple “Java” Beans -(_Phaseolus lunatus_); _b_ “Red Rangoon” Beans (_P. lunatus_); _c_ -“Large White” Beans (_P. lunatus_); _d_ Castor Oil Beans (_Ricinus -communis_); _e_ “Indian Peas” (_Lathyrus sativus_), from Bombay; _f_ -Ergot (_Claviceps purpurea_), from Spain. All natural size.] - - - - - PLANTS POISONOUS TO LIVE STOCK - - - BY - - HAROLD C. LONG, B.Sc. (Edin.) - - of the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries - - Author of _Common Weeds of the Farm and Garden_ - - - Cambridge: - at the University Press - 1917 - - - - - PREFACE - - -As in the case of a previous volume, _Common Weeds of the Farm and -Garden_, the preparation of this handbook was undertaken because of the -great lack of readily available and reliable information on the subject -in English scientific literature. Many of the facts were known to a few -interested persons, but many others were so scattered here and there in -technical reports and journals that they were scarcely known even to -expert chemists and botanists. The bringing of this information together -in some sort of order has involved considerable labour extending over -several years, but if the volume be found helpful to those for whose use -it has been prepared I shall feel more than gratified. - -That the subject is of importance is fully realised by farmers and -veterinary surgeons alike, for the annual loss of stock due to poisonous -plants, though not ascertainable, is undoubtedly considerable. It was -felt that notes on mechanical injury caused by plants and on the -influence of plants on milk might usefully be included, as in some -degree related to poisoning; this has therefore been done. On the other -hand, a number of cultivated plants (_e.g._ _Rhus_, _Wistaria_) which -are poisonous have not been included because exotic and hardly likely to -be eaten by stock. Fungi generally also find no place in the volume, as -they are sufficiently extensive to deserve a volume to themselves, and -are far less readily identified than flowering plants. - -The dividing line between plants which are actually poisonous and those -which are only suspected is far from clear, but a division was -considered desirable for the convenience of the reader, and an endeavour -has been made to give a sound but brief statement as to the present -information on plants poisonous to live stock in the United Kingdom, -with symptoms, toxic principles, and a list of the more important -references to the bibliography in relation to each plant included in -Chapters II to VI (the numbers corresponding with the numbers in the -Bibliography). - -Regarding symptoms it is to be regretted that in many cases they appear -to be the result of injections of the toxic extracts, and not -observations made after natural poisoning by ingestion of the plants. -Further, there may frequently be doubt as to the identification of the -plant suspected of causing poisoning; indeed, in some cases it is -possible that the identification rests on the veterinary surgeon or the -stockman _thinking_ a certain plant is the cause. The most complete and -systematic account of European poisonous plants is that of Cornevin -(1887), and references to poisonous plants in the ordinary literature -are heavily indebted to him. In so far as the toxic principles of the -plants are concerned, however, his book is in many instances no longer -reliable. - -The chemical formulae, quoted for the use of students and research -workers, have been checked by consulting works by the following authors, -the reference to the bibliography being given in brackets: Henry (128), -Dunstan (76), Allen (4), Haas and Hill (114), Thorpe (240), Van Rijn -(252), Kobert (161), Esser (81), and Beilstein (16). - -Apart from the literature consulted I desire to acknowledge my great -indebtedness to the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries for kind -permission to make use of official records; to Mr F. W. Garnett, -M.R.C.V.S., for kindly reading the proofs from the veterinary -standpoint; to very many Experiment Stations, State Departments of -Agriculture, and other authorities in Australasia, America and the -Continent of Europe, for assistance given and literature sent; to Sir -David Prain and members of the staff at Kew for much friendly advice, -and aid in consulting the Kew library; to Sir James Dobbie for -permission to spend some time at the Government Laboratories to consult -certain volumes; to Mr T. H. Middleton, C.B., Dr. E. J. Russell, -Professor W. Somerville, Sir Stewart Stockman, Professor T. B. Wood, and -others, for information and many helpful suggestions; to my friend Mr W. -A. Whatmough, B.Sc. (Lond.), for many suggestions and kindly reading the -proofs; and to my colleague Mr W. R. Black for invaluable help in -preparing notes, checking data and reading proofs. To all these, and -many others who are not mentioned by name, I tender my sincere thanks. - -For any shortcomings I crave the indulgence of my readers, only -requesting that they be friendly enough to spare a moment to call my -attention thereto. - - H. C. LONG. - - SURBITON, - _October_, 1916. - - - - - CONTENTS - - - CHAP. PAGE - I. INTRODUCTION 1 - - What is a Poisonous Plant? Harm done by Poisonous - Plants. Circumstances in which Poisoning occurs. - Effect of Soil, Climate and Cultivation on the - Toxic Properties of Plants. Variation in the - Poisonous Parts of Plants. Eradication of - Poisonous Plants. Treatment of Poisoned Animals. - Tests with Suspected Plants. Legal Aspect of Plant - Poisoning. The Toxic Principles of Plants. - - II. RANUNCULACEÆ. PAPAVERACEÆ. CRUCIFERÆ. - CARYOPHYLLACEÆ. HYPERICINEÆ. GERANIACEÆ 9 - - III. CELASTRACEÆ. RHAMNACEÆ. PAPILIONACEÆ. ROSACEÆ. - CUCURBITACEÆ. UMBELLIFERÆ 24 - - IV. ARALIACEÆ. CAPRIFOLIACEÆ. COMPOSITÆ. ERICACEÆ. - PRIMULACEÆ. OLEACEÆ. CONVOLVULACEÆ. SOLANACEÆ 43 - - V. SCROPHULARINEÆ. POLYGONACEÆ. THYMELACEÆ. - EUPHORBIACEÆ. AMENTACEÆ. CONIFERÆ. AROIDEÆ 61 - - VI. DIOSCORIDEÆ. LILIACEÆ. GRAMINEÆ. EQUISETACEÆ. - FILICES. FUNGI 78 - - VII. PLANTS SUSPECTED OF BEING POISONOUS 92 - - VIII. THE EFFECTS OF PLANTS ON MILK. PLANTS WHICH CAUSE - MECHANICAL INJURY 99 - - IX. CLASSIFICATION OF POISONS 103 - - BIBLIOGRAPHY 106 - - INDEX 114 - - - Photograph of three varieties of _Phaseolus_ - beans, of Castor Oil Beans, Indian Peas, and - Ergot _Frontispiece_ - - - - - CHAPTER I - INTRODUCTION. - - -=What is a Poisonous Plant?= As will be shown later, so-called -“poisonous” plants differ widely in “degree of harmfulness,” and it is -highly probable that under ordinary conditions many of the plants -commonly reputed to be poisonous are really almost or quite harmless. It -is possible, however, that a plant usually unsuspected may on occasion -prove noxious—for example, _Nepeta Glechoma_ (p. 96), included as -suspected of poisoning horses. For these reasons, no line of demarcation -can be drawn to separate actually poisonous plants from those which are -suspected or are almost certainly quite harmless; and a large number of -species is included in Chapter VII as suspected, many of them, however, -being almost certainly more or less poisonous in certain circumstances. -In many cases it is practically impossible to come to any conclusion as -to the degree of toxicity of a plant, owing to the want of exact -information. Many plants are quite harmless except when affected by -fungi, moulds, etc. - -A really poisonous plant may be defined as one a small quantity of which -when eaten induces some form of indisposition with irritant, narcotic, -or nervous symptoms, with serious or even fatal consequences either -immediately or by reason of cumulative action of the toxic property. - -=Harm done by Poisonous Plants.= A perusal of the following pages will -afford convincing proof that the question of the general “wholesomeness” -of wild plants is worthy of serious consideration by all who are -interested in the practice of agriculture. Still more important is a -satisfactory knowledge of the extent to which plants are actually -_poisonous_—that is, sufficiently injurious when eaten in small or large -quantities to induce more or less severe indisposition, illness or -death, with the consequent losses which such bring in their train—loss -of milk and meat production in the case of cattle, of meat and wool -production in sheep, of power in the horse, of expenditure in attendance -and veterinary treatment generally, and possibly total loss by death of -the animals concerned. - -The losses due to Poisonous Plants in Great Britain happily afford no -comparison whatever with the immense losses sustained in some other -countries, such as the cases of lupine poisoning mentioned at p. 29, but -deaths are sufficiently numerous to make it certain that financial -losses are in the aggregate very heavy. In this connection it may -suffice to refer to the many cases of yew poisoning, the losses due to -Umbellifers (pp. 36–42), and the instance reported in the _Staffordshire -Weekly Sentinel_ in relation to meadow saffron and water hemlock (p. -80). Further, it appears to be extremely likely that many losses due to -unascertained causes are really due to plant poisoning. For this reason -veterinary surgeons will be well advised always to consider this -possibility and, if need be, to obtain the services of a trained -botanist to survey the farm or field involved, with the object of -deciding whether poisonous plants are present. - -=Circumstances in which Poisoning occurs.= It may be assumed that many -plants are to a considerable extent protected from animals by the fact -that they have an unpleasant odour, are acrid or bitter to the taste, or -are actually toxic in character, just as others assume such protective -devices as spines. In a state of nature animals appear to avoid -instinctively such plants as are toxic or “unwholesome,” and to be less -readily poisoned than are domesticated animals living under artificial -conditions. Indeed, it has been remarked that farm stock reared in a -locality where certain poisonous plants abound are much less likely to -be injured by these plants than animals imported from a district where -they do not occur. - -The individuality of stock is also a factor which may be responsible for -poisoning, some animals having what may be described as a depraved -appetite for unusual and unappetising food plants. It would appear that -animals are often tempted to eat dark-green plants of luxuriant growth -which are soft and succulent. This is especially true when the plants -are young and tender, particularly as regards sheep, which, however, -usually avoid tall, old rank-growing and coarse herbage—unless -absolutely pressed by hunger. Cattle, however, are not so particular, -and will commonly eat large coarse-growing plants. - -Sheep have been observed to be particularly variable in their choice of -food plants, not only individually in the flock, but from day to day. -Chesnut and Wilcox remark[1] that “there seems to be no way of -accounting for the appetite or taste of stock. This statement is perhaps -especially true of sheep. We have often observed sheep eating greedily -on one day plants which they could scarcely be persuaded to eat on the -following day on the same range.” In the case of one flock of sheep on a -foothill range at an altitude of 4,600 ft. “a few of the sheep were -observed eating large quantities of wild sunflower (_Balsamorhiza -sagittata_), a few ate freely of false lupine (_Thermopsis -rhombifolia_), some confined their attention largely to the wild -geranium, while others ate false esparcet (_Astragalus bisulcatus_) -almost exclusively. Two sheep were seen eating the leaves of lupine, and -about fifty ate a greater or less quantity of _Zygadenus venenosus_, -while the majority of sheep in the band fed exclusively upon the native -grasses on the range.” - -Footnote 1: - - “The Stock-Poisoning Plants of Montana,” V. K. Chesnut and E. V. - Wilcox. _Bul. No. 26. U.S. Dept. Agric., Div. Bot._, 1901. - -Horses also have been known to acquire in America a depraved appetite -for horsetail and loco-weed. - -The different species of live stock are often quite differently affected -by poisonous plants, some being very susceptible to a given plant while -others may be little or not at all susceptible. One species (_e.g._ the -pig) may readily vomit the poison of a plant which is emetic, while -another (_e.g._ the horse) may be unable to do so and hence be the more -seriously injured. The variability of the different classes of live -stock in this respect is frequently brought out in Chapters II to VI. -Poisonous effects may also vary with the individuality and age of -animals of the same species. - -At certain periods of the year—_e.g._ in early spring, and during dry -summers,—there may be a scarcity of green herbage, and this may induce -animals to eat any green plants which are especially early, including -poisonous ones, which they would otherwise refuse. - -In some cases poisonous plants which do not lose their toxic properties -on drying (_e.g._ meadow saffron) may be included in hay, and hence find -their way to stock in such a form that they may not be distinguished. It -has been found, however, that some poisonous plants or parts of them are -refused by stock when mixed with good herbage in hay. Care should be -exercised that poisonous plants are not included with hay or green -fodder, and in cases of poisoning all forage should be examined. - -Animals may also be poisoned by certain toxic seeds (_e.g._ corn cockle) -fed to them with cereal grains, in feeding stuffs generally, or in the -refuse seeds from the sources mentioned. Here again judgment is -necessary, and it is probably advisable on all counts to burn the weed -seeds and similar refuse from the sources mentioned. Poisonous seeds may -occur in low quality feeding stuffs, and poisonous seeds of foreign -origin are occasionally sold for food purposes owing to the mistaken -idea that they are a valuable addition to the ration (_e.g._ the -poisonous “Java” beans). In any case in which an animal is believed to -have been poisoned purchased feeding stuffs should always be considered -as a possible source of injury and be submitted to examination. - -Clippings and trimmings from gardens and shrubberies have proved a more -or less common cause of live stock poisoning, such material being too -often carelessly thrown out for animals to pick over. In such -circumstances it may quite easily happen that the animals get yew, -daphne, privet, rhododendron, azalea, solanums, and other plants of a -poisonous character. For this reason it is better to destroy such -trimmings, etc., by burning them, or by adding them to the compost heap -as the case may be. - -A further source of poisoning must be noted here—fleshy and parasitic -fungi (toadstools, rust fungi), moulds and similar organisms. Many -toadstools are directly poisonous when eaten, but the microscopic -organisms are probably in themselves harmless, though taken with food -which they are responsible for injuring (bad hay, cakes, etc.), the -poisoning being due to the changed and damaged feeding stuffs, or -possibly to poisonous principles directly elaborated by the microscopic -fungi. Fungi and related organisms cannot be dealt with in this volume, -but it may at least be said that the use of mouldy hay and similarly -affected feeding stuffs is attended with some danger, which is not yet -very clearly defined. - -=Effect of Soil, Climate and Cultivation on the Toxic Properties of -Plants.= In general, wild poisonous plants are richer in either -alkaloids or glucosides than the same species when cultivated, though -there are exceptions. In many cases it is found that plants vary -considerably in toxicity, or the percentage content of the poisonous -principle, according to soil, light, moisture, etc. Solanaceous plants -in particular vary in this way, and one or two instances may be given as -examples. _Solanum nigrum_ varies so much that it has been regarded as -harmless in one country and quite poisonous in another (p. 52). - -Experiments conducted at the Arlington Experimental Farm, Virginia, -showed that in 24 first-year plants of _Atropa Belladonna_ grown in 1910 -the alkaloid contents of the leaves varied from 0·334 to 0·700 per -cent., and averaged 0·547 per cent. In 1911 the alkaloid contents -(usually the average of five pickings) of the leaves of 59 plants varied -from 0·306 to 0·766 per cent., and averaged 0·532 per cent. In 1912 the -alkaloid contents (commonly the average of 5 pickings) of the leaves of -57 plants varied from 0·352 to 0·768 per cent., and averaged 0·545 per -cent. In individual plants at a single picking the highest alkaloid -content in 1911 was 0·925 and the lowest 0·200, and in 1912 the highest -was 0·882 and the lowest 0·292. (_Jour. Agric. Res._, I. 2, Nov., 1913.) - -The variation in the percentage of poisonous principle was well shown in -several papers read at the International Congress of Applied Chemistry -held at Washington and New York in 1912 (see _Chemist and Druggist_ -reports). For example, Carr stated that at the Wellcome Materia Medica -Farm, Dartford, Kent, the effect of manuring on medicinal plants has -been tested for some years, and the effect of the more common -fertilisers on _Atropa Belladonna_ was shown by the following table:— - - ────────────────────────────────────┬────────────────────────────────── - │Percentage of Alkaloid in Dry Stem - │ and Leaf - ──────────────┬───────────┬─────────┼──────┬──────┬──────┬──────┬────── - │ │ │ 1906 │ 1907 │ 1910 │ 1911 │ 1912 - Fertiliser │ Time of │Per acre │ 3rd │ 4th │ 1st │ 2nd │ 3rd - │Application│ │year’s│year’s│year’s│year’s│year’s - │ │ │plants│plants│plants│plants│plants - ──────────────┼───────────┼─────────┼──────┼──────┼──────┼──────┼────── - Main crop │ │ │ 0·54 │ 0·34 │ 0·61 │ 0·59 │ 0·68 - Farmyard │ March │50 loads │ 0·54 │ 0·34 │ 0·61 │ 0·53 │ 0·71 - manure │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - Nitrate │ March & │ 2 cwt. │ 0·52 │ 0·23 │ 0·54 │ 0·46 │ 0·64 - │ April │ │ │ │ │ │ - Calcium │ Do. │ 1 cwt. │ │ │ 0·69 │ 0·49 │ 0·75 - cyanamide │ │ │ │ │ │ │ - Basic slag │ Do. │ 2 cwt. │ 0·61 │ │ 0·65 │ 0·56 │ 0·84 - Superphosphate│ Do. │ 5 cwt. │ 0·46 │ │ 0·81 │ 0·49 │ 0·76 - Potash │ Do. │ 5 cwt. │ 0·61 │ 0·40 │ 0·75 │ 0·53 │ 0·69 - ──────────────┴───────────┴─────────┴──────┴──────┴──────┴──────┴────── - -In considering these results it must be remembered that the soil is -naturally suited to the plant, and the percentage of alkaloid obtained -without added fertilisers is already high. The low figures obtained in -1907 were probably due to the seasonal conditions. Atmospheric -conditions have a modifying influence. - -It was also shown that the Belladonna root of commerce varies greatly in -alkaloid strength. “In a number of analyses made of commercial roots, -variations from 0·27 to 0·69 per cent. have occurred. The average of -twenty-one analyses of German and Austrian commercial roots was 0·40 per -cent. Other observers have recorded similar results. Chevalier (_Compt. -Rend._, 1910, 150, 344) gives the following figures for Continental -roots: French, 0·300 to 0·450 per cent.; Austrian, 0·251 to 0·372 per -cent.; Italian, 0·107 to 0·187 per cent. Henderson has shown the average -of thirty samples of foreign root to be 0·3 per cent. It is interesting -to observe that the average of nine samples of root grown at Darenth is -0·54 per cent. In order to determine whether this variation was due to -collecting at different times of the year, roots from the same plot, -derived from second year’s plants, which were sown at the same time, -were dug up at intervals and dried. The following is a record of the -analysis of these samples:— - - March, 1911 0·56 per cent. - May, 1911 0·59 „ „ - June, 1911 0·53 „ „ - August, 1911 0·50 „ „ - December, 1911 0·59 „ „ - -“The amount of variation throughout the year is thus seen to be very -small.” - -Dunstan (_Bul. Imp. Inst., 1905_) has shown that _Hyoscyamus muticus_ -grown in India yielded 0·3 to 0·4 per cent. of hyoscyamine, but that the -same species grown in Egypt produced 0·6 to 1·2 per cent. - -According to Esser no coniine is found in _Conium maculatum_ growing in -the far north. The same authority says that the root of _Hyoscyamus -niger_ is quite free from toxic properties in winter. - -=Variation in the Poisonous Parts of Plants.= As will be shown in -succeeding chapters, many plants (_e.g._ meadow saffron) are poisonous -in all their parts, though the amount of the toxic substance may differ -according as to whether the seeds, leaves, stem or roots are severally -considered. In other cases one part of the plant alone is toxic (_e.g._ -the seeds, as in corn cockle). Further, some species vary in the -percentage of the toxic substance in the leaves before and after -flowering. Frequently the root is the most toxic portion of the plant. -This point may be usefully recollected in relation to poisoning of live -stock, which are in general affected by the foliage or ripe seeds. - -=Eradication of Poisonous Plants.= Wherever poisonous plants are found, -particularly in quantity, where they are liable to be eaten by live -stock, an attempt should be made to eradicate them. They may be simply -dealt with as weeds as may be necessary according to the species -concerned. When any difficulty is experienced in regard either to -determination of the species or to methods of eradication the advice of -the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries (Whitehall Place, London, S.W.) -should be requested. Stock should at once be removed from a suspected -pasture, which should be immediately and thoroughly examined by a -competent botanist. Harmful plants should be eradicated and their place -filled by better herbage. - -=Treatment of Poisoned Animals.= This volume makes no pretensions to -deal with the veterinary treatment of cases of plant poisoning. Whenever -poisoning is suspected the services of a veterinary surgeon should be -sought without delay; the text books at his disposal will aid him in the -treatment of any case which presents unusual difficulties. The symptoms -indicated in the following pages, together with the possible discovery -of a suspected plant, may be utilised in diagnosis. - -=Tests with Suspected Plants.= The action of plants on animals may be -ascertained (1) by observing the effects in cases in which it has been -established that the plants have been eaten, or (2) by direct -experimental feeding of animals with the plant. In the first case the -results may be accurate and satisfactory if observations have been made -from the outset. - -As regards (2) the results may or may not be satisfactory according as -the plan pursued is sound or otherwise. For example, it cannot be -considered altogether reasonable and satisfactory to extract the -principles present in the plant, inject them into the blood stream, and -conclude from any ill effects that the animal may exhibit that the plant -is poisonous, since the substance extracted may be poisonous under such -conditions but little or not at all harmful when the plant is eaten in -the small quantities commonly taken by animals. Again, it cannot be held -satisfactory to feed an animal on a heavy and exclusive diet of the -suspected plant for a considerable period. The real test would, in -general, consist in a feeding trial in which the suspected plant -occupied a place in the ration in reasonable quantity—such a quantity as -might well be taken in natural circumstances, in view of its relative -abundance in regard to other food available; and if considered likely -that the plant would be eaten daily it may be fed regularly for some -days. Should such a test prove negative it may generally be held that -the plant is not poisonous, or only so in exceptional circumstances. - -=Legal Aspect of Plant Poisoning.= There is clearly some legal liability -in regard to poisonous plants which may, by hanging over a boundary, -cause injury to a neighbour’s stock. The only cases known to the author -are in relation to the yew. In the case of _Crowhurst v. Amersham Burial -Board_ (48 L. J., Ex. 109; 4 Ex. D., 5) a Burial Board was held liable -for the loss of a horse poisoned by eating leaves of a yew tree planted -in the cemetery owned by the Board, the tree having grown through and -over their fence and projected on to the meadow occupied by the -plaintiff. In _Ponting_ v. _Noakes_ (63 L. J. B. 549; (1894) 2 Q.B., -281) the defendant was not held liable for the death of a horse which -ate off the branches of a yew tree, because the tree did not extend up -to or over the plaintiff’s boundary, though it overhung a ditch, the -edge of which was the boundary, and was hence accessible to the -plaintiff’s stock. - -=The Toxic Principles of Plants.= The poisonous substances in plants may -be grouped either (1) according to their physiological effects on -certain organs; (2) according to the principal outward and perceptible -symptoms caused; or (3) in accordance with their chemical relationships. - -In regard to (1) the poisons may be nerve, heart, blood-poisons, etc. -(2) The poisons may be acrid, narcotic, or both. _Acrid poisons_ are -those which cause irritation or inflammation of the digestive tract -(_Euphorbia_, _Ranunculus_, _Daphne_, _etc._); _narcotic poisons_ affect -only or chiefly the brain (_Agrostemma_, _Papaver_, _Atropa_) or chiefly -the spinal cord (_Claviceps purpurea_, _Lolium temulentum_); -_acrid-narcotic poisons_ induce to a greater or less extent the symptoms -of both the foregoing groups (_Taxus_, _Colchicum_, _Cicuta_, _Solanum_, -_etc._). - -(3) As the accounts of the individual plants will show, the toxic -principles of many plants are not yet well understood, either as regards -chemical constitution or symptoms caused. Many poisons may be driven off -by heat (boiling, drying), and some plants may thus be rendered -harmless. - -Most of the toxic principles of our native poisonous plants are -Alkaloids or Glucosides. The former all contain nitrogen, differ -considerably in molecular constitution, and are usually combined with -widely distributed organic acids. In the pure state they are colourless -and usually stable, crystalline or amorphous solids, or readily volatile -liquids; they usually have a burning taste. In general the same base is -confined to species of the same order—_e.g._ Solanine to the -_Solanaceæ_. The alkaloids include the most powerful poisons. - -The term “Glucoside” indicates a group of substances which by the action -of an acid or enzyme are split up into a sugar (grape sugar, galactose -or rhamnose) and other substances (alcohol, aldehydes, acids). They have -a bitter taste and are generally readily soluble in water. Related to -the glucosides are also the Saponins, remarkable for the fact that they -induce an exceedingly frothy condition in water; the prussic acid -yielding compounds or cyanogenetic glucosides (_e.g._ Amygdalin and -Phaseolunatin) also belong to this group. Other substances will be -mentioned in the succeeding chapters. - - - - - CHAPTER II - RANUNCULACEÆ. - - -=Traveller’s Joy= (_Clematis Vitalba_ L.). The extent to which this -species is poisonous is not clear, though all parts are stated to be -poisonous, acrid and narcotic, while the juice tends to blister the -skin. It is remarked by Cornevin that it is less poisonous in spring, -when the ass and goat browse on it to a considerable extent without -serious trouble, than later, when it cannot be eaten without danger. - -_Toxic Principle._ Traveller’s Joy appears to contain strongly poisonous -substances which have not been closely investigated. Greshoff found a -_Saponin_ in the leaves[2]. The poison is dissipated by heat. - -Footnote 2: - - Kobert states that various species of _Clematis_, _Ranunculus_, - _Anemone_, and also _Caltha palustris_ and _Trollius europæus_, - contain _Anemonal_ or _Pulsatilla-camphor_, which causes strong local - irritation, burning and swelling in the mouth, vomiting, intestinal - inflammation, etc. - -_Symptoms._ When eaten in quantity the young shoots are diuretic, -violently purgative, causing dysentery, and in rare cases death. Applied -to the exterior it is irritating and even vesicatory. (Cornevin.) - - REFERENCES. - - 63, 81, 101, 130, 161, 233. - -=Anemone= (_Anemone_ sp.). Both our native species of Anemone appear to -be more or less poisonous in character: the Wood Anemone or Wind Flower -(_A. nemorosa_ L.), and also the Pasque Flower (_A. Pulsatilla_ L.). -These plants, the former of which grows in woods and damp shady spots in -fields, and the latter on chalk downs and limestone pastures, may on -occasion be taken by stock in early spring, when green herbage is not -too plentiful, but deaths appear to be rare, even if they have occurred. -All parts of the plants contain a toxic principle, which is volatile and -destroyed by drying. - -_Toxic Principle._ The toxic substance is stated to be _Anemone-camphor_ -(oil of Anemone) which imparts a bitter taste to the plants, and itself -gives rise in the plant to _Anemonic acid_ and _Anemonin_ -(C_{10}H_{8}O_{4}), a very poisonous, narcotic substance, stated to be -neither a glucoside, nor an alkaloid, but a ring ketone with the -properties of an acid anhydride. - -_Symptoms._—The symptoms recorded by Cornevin in the poisoning of -animals by the fresh plants are nausea, coughing, vomiting (if -possible), stupefaction, muscular tremors, and violent colic, -accompanied at times by hæmaturia and always by diarrhœa and dysentery. -There are pronounced respiratory and heart troubles. - -Pott confirms the symptoms of hæmaturia, diarrhœa, and inflammation of -the stomach and intestines in the case of _A. Pulsatilla_ when fed in -the green condition. According to Esser, the plant poison affects the -spinal cord and the brain, the symptoms being similar to those produced -by _Aconitum Napellus_. - - REFERENCES. - - 16, 63, 81, 191, 197, 198, 213, 233, 240. - -=Buttercups= (_Ranunculus_ sp.). A number of species of _Ranunculus_ are -acrid, irritant or severely poisonous, as the case may be. There are -variations in the poisonous character according to the season, and some -parts of the plant are more toxic than others. At the time the young -shoots develop in the spring but little of the poisonous principle is -present, and some (_e.g._ _R. Ficaria_) are not then poisonous, but a -larger quantity of the poisonous principle forms later, and some species -are especially dangerous at the time of flowering, after which the -toxicity decreases with the maturity and state of dryness of the plant. -The flowers are the most poisonous, and then the leaves and stem. It -does not seem to have been demonstrated that the seeds of any species -are dangerous, though Henslow states that the fruits of some species, -when green, appear to be most intensely acrid. - -Some species of _Ranunculus_ are especially harmful (_R. sceleratus_, -_R. Flammula_, and _R. bulbosus_), while others are less so (_R. -lingua_, _R. Ficaria_, _R. acris_). The toxic principle is volatile, and -buttercups are easily rendered innocuous by drying or boiling—so much so -that when dried in hay they may be regarded as a nourishing food for -stock, and are readily eaten. Indeed, _R. repens_ is scarcely, if at -all, injurious even when green, though a case of fatal poisoning to -sheep said to be due to this species was reported in the _Veterinarian_ -in 1844. Fresh _R. aquatilis_ is held to be quite harmless, and has been -used as a fodder. “Along the banks of the Hampshire Avon, and other -places in the same neighbourhood, it is used by the peasantry as fodder. -They collect it in boats and give it to their cows and horses, allowing -the former about twenty to thirty pounds a day. One man is said to have -kept five cows and a horse, with little other food but what they could -pick up on the heath, using no hay but when the river was frozen. Hogs -eat it and will live upon it alone until put up to fatten.” (Johnson and -Sowerby—_Useful Plants of Great Britain_.) - -_R. sceleratus_ L., or Celery-leaved Buttercup, is probably the most -toxic species, and it is stated that in man a single flower may cause -poisonous symptoms resembling those due to _Anemone_ and _Colchicum_. It -is considered especially dangerous to cattle, and has caused many -losses: among its French names are _Mort aux Vaches_, and _Herbe -sardonique_. Poor people have been known to eat the young shoots when -boiled, heat dispelling the poison. - -_R. Flammula_ L., the Lesser Spearwort, has repeatedly proved fatal to -horses and cattle. - -_R. bulbosus_ L., the Bulbous Buttercup, is somewhat variable in -toxicity, and is least dangerous after the flowers have dropped their -corolla, and the bulb-like rootstock is most harmful in autumn and -winter. The flowers are the most dangerous part. - -_R. Ficaria_ L., Lesser Celandine, varies in toxicity with locality and -season, being most harmful at the flowering period. It is stated that -wood-pigeons eat the roots with avidity, and that the young shoots have -been eaten as a salad in Germany, as they are not toxic. An English -veterinary surgeon (Flower) recorded that three heifers were poisoned by -it (_Vide_ Cornevin). - -_R. acris_ L., Acrid Buttercup or Tall Crowfoot, is a frequent cause of -poisoning in cattle, and Cornevin says it is perhaps the species which -causes the most accidents. - -_Toxic Principle._ The buttercups contain an acrid and bitter juice, the -chemical properties and composition of which are not well known, but it -is believed that the substance is identical with the _Anemonin_ of the -_Anemone_ sp. (_q.v._). Beckurts isolated _Anemonin_ and _Anemonic acid_ -from _R. acer_. Pott, however, states that the poisonous species contain -the two alkaloids _Aconitine_ and _Delphinine_. - -_Symptoms._ The buttercups are acrid, burning and narcotic, causing -irritation of the mucous membrane, with inflammation of the intestinal -tract. - -Cornevin shows that _R. sceleratus_ induces gastro-enteritis, colic, -diarrhœa with excretion of black foul-smelling fæces, vomiting when -possible, falling-off in milk yield in cows, nervous symptoms, reduction -in pulse, and stertorous respiration, dilation of the pupils, enfeebled -condition, difficult mastication, spasmodic movements of the ears, lips, -etc.,—followed in serious cases by convulsions, sinking of the eye in -its socket, possibly stoppage, and death in 6 to 12 hours after -convulsions first appeared. - -In the _horse_ symptoms substantially similar to the above have been -recorded (Lander). - -In _cows_, Pott records hæmaturia, and reddish or bitter milk. - -_Sheep_ after eating _R. repens_ have been noticed to fall suddenly in -the field; their eyes rolled, and some animals showed dizziness, and -died with the head inclined over the left flank (Lander). - - REFERENCES. - - 47, 63, 81, 112, 130, 140, 145, 170, 203, 204, 205, 213, 233, 235. - -=Marsh Marigold= or =King-Cup= (_Caltha palustris_ L.). Like the species -of _Ranunculus_, the Marsh Marigold is to some extent poisonous in -character, and both animals and man have suffered. Cattle have died from -eating it, and Müller records the poisoning of many horses, one of which -died. In general, animals refuse it, but may possibly eat it when -pressed with hunger in times of scarcity of green herbage. Cornevin -states that it has little or no acrid properties when very young, but -that it is toxic by the time of flowering—acridity increasing with age. - -_Toxic Principle._ The toxic character of the Marsh Marigold has not -been fully investigated, though the presence of an alkaloid has been -determined, and A. B. Smith states that the toxic properties are due to -the alkaloid _Jervine_ (C_{26}H_{37}O_{3}N2H_{2}O) and the glucoside -_Helleborin_ (C_{36}H_{42}O_{6}). On drying—_e.g._ in hay—the plant -becomes harmless, as in the case of most species of _Ranunculus_. - -_Symptoms._ Cornevin records that _cattle_ have died from inflammation -of the digestive tract, and gives the symptoms as those of _Ranunculus_ -poisoning. There seem to be digestive troubles, diarrhœa, and loss of -milk production, even (according to Rusby) when fed with hay. In the -_horse_, there is colic, bloating, and inflammation of the bladder, -while the urine is dark red. According to Cornevin, the symptoms are -similar to those produced by _Ranunculus_ sp. Pammel quotes Friedberger -and Fröhner as stating that the plant causes hæmaturia. Five persons who -ate it as a herb were “seized with violent sickness and pain in the -abdomen, followed by diarrhœa and general œdematous swelling over the -whole body,” but they recovered (Johnson and Sowerby). - - REFERENCES. - - 63, 81, 140, 190, 203, 213, 233. - -=Hellebores= (_Helleborus_ sp.). Two poisonous species of hellebore may -on occasion be taken by live stock, though rarely—Stinking Hellebore -(_H. fœtidus_ L.) and Green Hellebore (_H. viridis_ L.). The much -esteemed Christmas Rose (_H. niger_) is also toxic, but unlikely to be -eaten by stock. In no case should trimmings of these plants from -shrubberies, etc., be thrown to stock—cows have died from eating such -trimmings. The two species first mentioned are equally toxic, all parts -are poisonous, and drying does not render them innocuous. Cornevin -records that animals have been killed by _H. fœtidus_, and says that 9½ -oz. of the fresh root or 2½ oz. of the dried root are poisonous doses to -the horse, while 120 to 150 grains are fatal to sheep. It was recorded -in 1847 (_Veterinarian_) by Mayer that a horse was fatally poisoned -through eating five half-pints of the chopped-up leaves of this species -in two days in a bran mash. In regard to this species also Johnson and -Sowerby write: “The Bear’s-Foot has been used as a vermifuge ever since -the days of Hippocrates, notwithstanding its dangerous qualities. Every -part of the plant is a violent cathartic, but far too uncertain in the -degree of its action to be safely administered.” - -_Toxic Principle._ Both species contain the poisonous glucosides -_Helleborin_ (C_{36}H_{42}O_{6}), a highly narcotic and powerful poison; -_Helleborein_ (C_{26}H_{44}O_{15}); and the alkaloid _Jervine_ -(C_{26}H_{37}O_{3}N2H_{2}O). - -_Symptoms._ The Hellebores are cathartic, narcotic, and drastically -purgative. Stupor is followed by death with spasms in the case of _H. -viridis_ (Pammel). In general there is in the horse and ox bloody -purgation, salivation, attempts to vomit, and excessive urination, -according to Lander, who cites Mayer as noting violent straining and the -discharge of frothy mucus, but no effort to vomit, the heart action -resembling that observed in Digitalis poisoning, showing periodic -intervals of arrest in systole. - -Müller gives the symptoms in cattle and sheep after eating the leaves as -loss of appetite, nausea, and even vomiting, salivation, grinding of -teeth, wind, colic, bloody diarrhœa, decrepitude, giddiness, loss of -sensation, convulsions, and not seldom death. - -Affected cows are stated to give bitter milk which has purgative effects -(Pott). - -The poisoning of two cows by _H. viridis_ came under the notice of -Cornevin. There was observed loss of appetite, diarrhœa, tenesmus, -violent attempts to evacuate, which after 5 or 6 days resulted only in -the expulsion of glareous blackish matter; to the end the pulse was slow -and intermittent. The heart beats were weak, and after 5 or 6 beats -there was a stop equal in duration to at least a beat and a half. A -remarkable fact was the very gradual loss of condition, while the milk -secretion was maintained until the last day. In one case death occurred -after 12 days and in the other after 28 days. - - REFERENCES. - - 63, 81, 130, 140, 170, 190, 203, 205, 213, 233, 254. - -=Larkspur= (_Delphinium Ajacis_ Reich.). In the United States of America -certain species of Larkspur are exceedingly harmful to live stock, and -it has been said that “with the exception of the Loco weeds there is -probably no poisonous plant on the cattle ranges of the West that has -caused such heavy losses to stockmen as has larkspur” (_Far. Bul. 53, U. -S. Dept. Agric._). _D. Ajacis_ is the only British species, occurring in -cornfields in Cambridgeshire, Sussex and elsewhere, and, like the -Continental species _D. Consolida_, must be regarded as poisonous and -fatal to cattle, while horses and sheep may also suffer. Sheep and -goats, however, appear to resist the poison unless taken in considerable -quantity. Wilcox fatally poisoned a yearling lamb within an hour of -administering per os the extract from less than 1 oz. of the dried -leaves of an American species. The seeds are the most dangerous part of -the Larkspur, and should never be ground up with wheat should the two -plants grow together. The seeds of _D. Staphisagria_ are used in -medicine. - -_Toxic Principle._ The species _D. Ajacis_ has been little studied, but -_D. Consolida_ and _D. Staphisagria_ contain the alkaloids _Delphinine_ -(C_{31}H_{49}O_{7}N), very poisonous and having a bitter taste; -_Delphisine_ (C_{31}H_{49}O_{7}N), which is extremely poisonous; -_Delphinoidine_ (C_{42}H_{68}N_{2}O_{7}), which is poisonous; and -_Staphisagrine_. - -_Symptoms._ The seeds are stated to be emetic and purgative, and _D. -Consolida_ is stated by Pott to be an acute narcotic poison to horses -and cattle. In general the symptoms appear to resemble those produced by -_Aconitum_ (p. 15). There is salivation, vomiting, colic, convulsions, -and general paralysis (Müller). - - REFERENCES. - - 16, 63, 93, 128, 130, 190, 203, 204, 205, 213, 233. - -=Monkshood= (_Aconitum Napellus_ L.). The extremely poisonous character -of this plant has been recognised since ancient times, and it is -mentioned by Pliny, Dioscorides, etc. It is not common in the wild state -in Britain—chiefly occurring in some Welsh and one or two West of -England counties—and is not very liable to cause poisoning of live stock -in Britain. Cases of poisoning of horses, cattle, sheep and pigs have -been recorded on the Continent, however (Cornevin), and cows died in -Victoria. Linnæus says that it is fatal to cows and goats when they eat -it fresh, but that when dried it does no harm to horses. Medical works -record many cases of human poisoning, particularly in cases where the -root has been mistaken for horse radish—from which, however, it markedly -differs. The leaves at first taste insipid and then sharply burning; the -root when fresh smells like the radish and has a slightly sweetish -taste, which is succeeded by characteristic tingling of the tongue and a -sensation of numbness in the mouth. - -_Toxic Principle._ Monkshood is very poisonous, and though all parts are -toxic the root is the most dangerous, and next the seeds and leaves. The -plant seems to vary in toxicity with age and climate, being but slightly -active when very young, most active just before flowering, and at the -minimum of activity when the seeds ripen. The cultivated form is stated -to be much less poisonous than the wild one. Drying removes a part of -the toxic substance, and boiling removes most of it. The plant contains -the toxic alkaloid _Aconitine_ (C_{34}H_{45}NO_{11}), and also Aconine -(C_{25}H_{39}NO_{9}). The root contains 0·17 to 0·28 per cent. of -_Aconitine_, but the leaves and flowers less. - -_Symptoms._ The chief symptoms are those of depression, and are -manifested through the nervous system and the circulatory and -respiratory organs. Tetanic symptoms are also present. There is loss of -appetite, salivation, inflammation of the mucous membrane of the mouth -and jaws, grinding of teeth, nausea and vomiting, great restlessness and -colic; the animal groans and walks with an uncertain gait owing to -bodily weakness, giddiness and paralysis of hind feet or of all limbs; -there is also a notable slackening in the pulse, breathing becomes -difficult, consciousness is lost and the pupils are dilated. Death -ensues in most cases within a few hours, and after convulsions. - -Kaufmann (quoted by Cornevin) observed in the _horse_ champing of the -jaws, salivation, fibrillous contraction of the muscles of the -olecranon, then of the buttocks, then of the whole body. The intestinal -pains were shown by the blows of the animal’s hind feet under and at the -back of the belly. There was also observed an intense and painful -contraction of the muscles in the inferior cervical region, the hyoid -and the abdomen; an increased sensibility; repeated evacuations; at -first congestion, then great paleness of the mucous membranes; -diminution in the volume of the arteries; faint whinnyings at the moment -of the contraction of the muscles of the neck, shoulders and stomach; -muscular rigidity of the posterior limbs; uncertain gait; laboured -breathing; and finally paralysis of motion, respiration and senses. - -Lander in giving similar symptoms for the horse notices also choking -movements of the œsophagus, eructation of frothy matter, dilatation of -pupils and low temperature. - -Kaufmann gives the poisonous doses of powdered root for the horse and -dog as 13 to 14 oz. and ⅙ oz. respectively. - - REFERENCES. - - 4, 16, 63, 78, 81, 128, 130, 153, 161, 170, 203, 205, 213, 233. - - - PAPAVERACEÆ. - -=Poppies= (_Papaver_ sp.). Poisoning by the two common poppies (_P. -Rhoeas_ L. and _P. dubium_ L.) is not common, but Cornevin says that the -former is poisonous in all its parts, and sufficiently so to cause -accidents every year. Animals may be affected by eating the plant when -mixed with green fodder, or by ingesting the seeds and capsules with -waste material after the winnowing and grading of cereals. Stock, -however, will most likely reject the plants, owing to their unpleasant -odour and taste, but cattle have been poisoned by eating unripe heads of -_P. Rhoeas_ when the plant was mixed with clover and sainfoin. _P. -dubium_ has caused poisoning of horses, cattle and pigs. - -_Toxic Principle._ Both species contain the alkaloids _Morphine_ -(C_{17}H_{19}NO_{3}) and _Rheadine_ (C_{21}H_{21}NO_{6}), which are -present in the milky juice of the plant. The latter, which was isolated -by Hesse, is believed to have no narcotic effects. The toxic principle -is not destroyed by heating, and the plant is therefore poisonous both -in the green state and when dried in hay. - -_Symptoms._ It is remarked by Cornevin that cattle poisoned by _P. -Rhoeas_ at first exhibit symptoms of excitement, shown by continual -movement, by pawing of the soil or litter, increased respiration and -more rapid pulse; this is followed by stoppage of the digestive -functions, sometimes a little swelling of the eyelids, and coma, one -affected animal appearing to sleep while standing, remaining motionless, -and if forced to move walking in an unsteady manner. Finally, the animal -falls, and if a fatal result is likely (which is unusual) it remains -stretched on the ground; respiration becomes slower, the temperature -falls, and after a few convulsive movements death occurs owing to -asphyxia. - -Müller notes excitement, wildness of look, dilatation of pupil, -convulsions; then coma, loss of sensation and symptoms of depression -replace those of excitement. There is salivation, bloating, -constipation, and in many cases also bloody diarrhoea. Death, however, -is rare. - -Pott gives stupidity, retention of urine, colic, with sickness and -diarrhœa, convulsions, and epileptic symptoms, the animals falling over -and rolling. - - REFERENCES. - - 4, 16, 63, 128, 190, 205, 213, 262. - -=Greater Celandine= (_Chelidonium majus_ L.). This common plant exhales -an unpleasant odour, and when bruised or broken shows the presence of a -yellowish acrid juice, which becomes red immediately on exposure to the -air. It is an old medicinal drug plant, but is dangerous, being emetic -and purgative, with a strongly irritating effect on the digestive tract. -Animals are but rarely likely to take it, and no record of the death of -domesticated animals has been found. - -_Toxic Principle._ Among the substances contained in the Greater -Celandine may be mentioned the bitter alkaloid _Chelidonine_ -(C_{20}H_{19}NO_{5} + H_{2}O), which, especially occurring in the root, -does not appear to be poisonous, or is of feeble activity; the alkaloid -_Chelerythrine_ (C_{21}H_{17}NO_{4}), which is poisonous; and -_Protopine_ (C_{20}H_{19}NO_{5}). It is stated by Cornevin that the -toxic substance is not removed on drying, but Pott (1907) remarks that -the dried plant is harmless to animals, the poisonous alkaloid being -volatile and disappearing on drying. - -_Symptoms._ The action of this plant is acrid, irritant and narcotic, -emetic and purgative. Esser remarks that when Chelerythrine is -introduced on the nasal mucous membrane it causes violent sneezing, and -taken internally causes vomiting. Müller says that poisoning of -domesticated animals is not recorded, but that according to old accounts -500 grammes (about 1 lb.) of the fresh plant eaten by the horse will at -most cause slight diabetes. - - REFERENCES. - - 16, 63, 81, 128, 141, 190, 203, 205, 213. - - - CRUCIFERÆ. - -=Charlock= (_Brassica Sinapistrum_ Boiss.), also known as _B. Sinapis_ -Visiani and _Sinapis arvensis_ L., may be regarded as harmless in the -young state, but liable to cause injury after flowering, when the seeds -have formed, when it may occasion serious accidents if eaten by live -stock. A case in which rape cake containing the seeds of charlock caused -poisoning was recorded in 1875 (_Jour. Roy. Agric. Soc._). The seeds -only are dangerous. - -_Toxic Principle._ The seeds contain minute quantities of volatile _Oil -of Mustard_ or _Allyl-isothiocyanate_ (C_{3}H_{5}NCS), the alkaloid -_Sinapine_ (C_{16}H_{23}NO_{5}), and the alkaloidal glucoside -_Sinalbin_. - -_Symptoms._ Ingestion of the seeds may cause inflammation of the stomach -and intestines (with loss of appetite, wind, colic, and diarrhœa); -inflammation of kidneys (difficult, excessive or bloody urination); and -nervous symptoms, with great exhaustion, uncertain gait, paralysis of -limbs and in isolated cases convulsions (Müller). - -Pott also records increased salivation. - -In the _horse_ Cornevin records great depression, difficult and -accelerated respiration, yellowish mucus and convulsive cough. A -characteristic symptom is the emission of frothy liquid through the -nostrils (as much as 10 litres in one hour). Death often occurs from -asphyxia in a fit of coughing. - -In _cattle_, cake containing the seeds caused inflammation of the -intestines, exhausting diarrhœa, and unquenchable thirst. - -The cultivated Mustards may induce similar effects, and Lander records -the following symptoms as caused by _Brassica nigra_:—In the _horse_, -bronchial symptoms, marked by difficulty in breathing and the discharge -of great quantities of yellowish frothy matter from the nose; in -_cattle_, uneasiness, restlessness and intense colic, with frantic -rushing about and mania, ending in exhaustion, falling, struggles and -collapse; in a recent case there were dullness, coldness, some tympany, -laboured respiration, staggering and falling, and in fatal cases, -immobility and a semi-comatose condition. - - REFERENCES. - - 4, 16, 63, 76, 127, 170, 190, 205, 213, 219. - -=Wild Radish= (_Raphanus Raphanistrum_ L.). As in the case of charlock, -the seeds of wild radish are very acrid, and susceptible of introducing -intestinal troubles if eaten by animals when mixed with cereals. - -=Garlic Mustard= (_Alliaria officinalis_ Andrz.) and =Treacle Mustard= -(_Erysimum cheiranthoides_ L.). The seeds are stated to have properties -similar to _Brassica Sinapistrum_ (p. 18) owing to a pungent oil; and -when eaten in quantity to induce poisoning, inflammation of the -digestive tract and of the kidneys, as well as nervous symptoms -(Müller). - - - CARYOPHYLLACEÆ. - -=Soapwort= (_Saponaria officinalis_ L.). This plant is more or less -poisonous, but is rarely, if ever, eaten by stock, and no recorded case -of the poisoning of stock has been met with. - -_Toxic Principle._ The whole plant, especially the root, contains the -poisonous glucosidal _Saponin_ (C_{18}H_{28}O_{10})_{4}, a peculiar -substance which causes intense frothing when stirred in water. - -_Symptoms._ No symptoms of animal poisoning by the plant are recorded, -but the action of Saponin in the blood stream is to induce dissolution -of the red cells, with stupefaction and paralysis, as in the killing of -fish by poisoning. It also causes vomiting and purging. Taken by the -mouth it causes inflammation of the alimentary tract, the contents of -which are fœtid and mixed with blood. - - REFERENCES. - - 16, 63, 76, 81, 203, 235. - -=Corn Cockle= (_Agrostemma Githago_ L.). This well-known plant of -cornfields must be regarded as poisonous, though experiments and reports -as to its effects on the different classes of live stock vary widely. -Though a poisonous principle is found in nearly all parts of the plant, -the plant in the green state appears to be innocuous, and is in any case -rarely likely to be eaten fresh by stock, which probably refuse it on -account of its hairy character. The seeds, however, are by no means -harmless. They are rather large, and somewhat troublesome to separate -from cereal grains. When ground up with wheat they both discolour the -flour and impart a grey tint and disagreeable odour to bread made from -it. Further, flour containing a considerable quantity of cockle must, -owing to the poisonous character of the latter, be held to be unfit for -consumption. Fatal results have followed the use of bread containing -Corn Cockle. The toxic principle therefore is not destroyed by heating, -even in an oven in baking. - -As regards domestic animals, Corn Cockle seeds have frequently been -mixed with feeding stuffs and have caused many deaths. Cornevin’s -experiments in feeding calves, pigs and fowls led to fatal results. He -was able to say that the amounts of cockle flour necessary to cause -death were:— - - Calf 0·25 lb.│per 100 lb. live weight. - Pig 0·10 „ │ „ - Dog 0·90 „ │ „ - Fowl 0·25 „ │ „ - -Among other cases, Kornauth and Arche found that in their feeding trials -pigs were not killed, but albuminoid metabolism was diminished and fat -production increased. In 1893 pigs died in Germany with symptoms of -acute poisoning, when fed on tailings containing six per cent. of -cockle. In 1903–4 experiments showed that with the cow, sheep, pig and -goat, cockle is not poisonous when fed in amounts usually found in -feeding stuffs. Millspaugh gives a case in which two calves died on -being fed with two lots of 14½ oz. each of wheat flour containing 30 per -cent. and 45 per cent. of cockle seeds. About 1892 Nevinny concluded -that six grammes of cockle seed consumed in 1200 grammes of bread were -beyond doubt poisonous in effect, and that the sale of grain or flour -containing it should be forbidden. Kobert held that the sale of feeding -stuffs containing cockle should be forbidden by law. An extensive study -of this question was made by Pesch, who concluded that “Under certain -conditions Corn Cockle is injurious to domestic animals. The amount of -the poisonous substance in the seed is variable, depending probably upon -the season and the soil. Animals become accustomed to it, so that -amounts of seed which at first cause sickness, later have no injurious -effect. The susceptibility of animals to the poison varies both with the -species and the individual. Young animals are more readily affected than -older ones. It is believed that rodents and sheep are not susceptible, -and, as far as is known, grown cattle are only slightly or not at all -affected by the poison. Calves, swine, horses, and especially dogs, are -more or less susceptible. Concerning birds and fowls there is some -doubt.” - -Though animals are reputed to become tolerant of the poison if the -cockle is only taken in small regular doses, yet there appears to be a -chronic form of poisoning due to this cause and termed _Githagism_, -while there is an acute poisoning due to the ingestion of large -quantities of the seeds which may cause death in 24 hours or less. - -It is clear that the evidence is quite sufficient to warrant the -statement that the ingestion of more than a very small quantity of -cockle seed is dangerous, and the consumption of even small quantities -should be avoided. Thus care should be taken to remove the seeds from -cereal grains. - -_Toxic Principle._ The dangerous substance contained in cockle seeds -is the glucoside variously known as _Githagin_, _Saponin_, -_Agrostemmin_, _Sapotoxin_, _Agrostemma-Sapotoxin_, or _Smilacin_ -(C_{17}H_{26}O_{10})_{2}. This principle appears to occur chiefly in -the seeds, which contain up to 6·56 per cent., but it has been found -in small quantities in other parts of the plant. It is very freely -soluble in water, in which it froths like soap when shaken up, and it -has a sharp taste and no odour. - -_Symptoms._ A sufficient quantity of the toxic substance may cause -nervous debility and dysentery—according to Chesnut “intense irritation -of the digestive tract, vomiting, headache, nausea, vertigo, diarrhœa, -hot skin, sharp pains in the spine, difficult locomotion, and depressed -breathing. Coma is sometimes present and may be followed by death. In -animals chronic diarrhœa and gradual depression.” - -The chronic form, which occurs when small doses are repeated over a long -period (practically the only form found in human beings, but never in -animals, except perhaps in the pig) is characterized by gradual wasting -away, loss of breath, loss of strength, chronic diarrhœa, and nerve -troubles, death taking place in marasmus and decline. The active -principle acts as an irritant on the digestive tract, causing colic, -diarrhœa and enterorrhagia. - -Cornevin describes the symptoms in the acute form of the poisoning in -the case of horses, cattle, pigs and dogs. - -In the _horse_, if a small quantity only is taken, there is yawning, -heavy colic, stamping and evacuation of rather soft fæces. If larger -quantities are taken, the symptoms, which commence in about an hour, are -salivation, frequent yawning and turning of the head, colic, pale mucus, -hurried and weak pulse, rise in temperature and accelerated respiration. -Some time later there are muscular tremors succeeded by pronounced -rigidity, and the fæces are diarrhœic and fœtid. The animal lies down, -and getting up is painful; it falls into a kind of coma, stretches -itself to the utmost, and death takes place without convulsions. - -In _cattle_, the symptoms observed one hour after eating are -restlessness, salivation, and grinding of the teeth. Excitement and -colic are followed sometimes by coughing, this state lasting from five -to eight hours. There is then a period of coma, characterized by -permanent decubitus, repeated fœtid diarrhœa, hurried and plaintive -respiration, accelerated and gradually weakening pulse, a gradual loss -of motor and sensory powers, and a progressive decline in temperature. -Death occurs in twenty-four hours. - -In the case of _pigs_, the animal grunts, lies down and remains thus -with its snout embedded in the straw. There is vomiting, more or less -violent colic and diarrhœa, the evacuation consisting of bad-smelling, -spumous fæcal matter. At times there are clonic contractions. Young pigs -are most susceptible. - -Pott cites cases in which abortion was a feature of the poisoning, both -in cows and pigs. The results of numerous experiments which he quotes -(among others some carried out for the Prussian Ministry of Agriculture) -are very contradictory, a small quantity causing death in some animals, -while others of the same species were left unharmed by large quantities. -He ascribes this to the very variable proportions of the poison present -in the seeds. - - REFERENCES. - - 4, 16, 28, 46, 52, 53, 63, 76, 81, 82, 144, 161, 172, 184, 190, 203, - 205, 213, 249. - - - HYPERICINEÆ. - -=St. John’s Wort= (_Hypericum perforatum_ L.). There appears to be no -record of poisoning of live stock by this plant in Britain, but Cornevin -records that it injured breeding mares fed on lucerne containing it in -large proportion. Drying in converting into hay did not render it -innocuous. It is only poisonous if eaten in considerable quantity, and -in general animals are not likely to eat much of it voluntarily, owing -to its resinous odour when crushed, and a bitter and slightly saline -taste. - -_Toxic Principle._ The poisonous properties of St. John’s Wort have not -been fully investigated, but it is stated to contain an oil and an acrid -bitter resin. Ewart says that it “contains an oil whose medicinal value -was formerly highly esteemed; but this oil, and the woody nature of the -plant, render it somewhat injurious in fodder.” Summers says (_Journ. -Agric. S. Australia_, Sept. 1911, p. 144) that “it is reported to be -decidedly injurious, causing horses who eat it to break out in sores, -while milk cows have a tendency to dry off owing to its effect on the -system.” - -_Symptoms._ In mares, dullness, sinking of head, loss of appetite, -slackening of pulse and respiration, dilatation of pupils, defective -sight, and lips purple (Müller). - - REFERENCES. - - 63, 82, 117, 190, 203. - - - GERANIACEÆ. - -=Wood Sorrel= (_Oxalis Acetosella_ L.). Though rarely likely to be eaten -by stock this plant must be mentioned here, as it is considered -dangerous on account of its high content of oxalates, which may cause -serious illness and diarrhœa, and in the case of sheep even be fatal. -Pott says that the milk of cows eating it is with difficulty converted -into butter. - - REFERENCE. - - 213. - - - - - CHAPTER III - CELASTRACEÆ. - - -=Spindle Tree= (_Euonymus europæus_ L.). According to Cornevin the -spindle tree is poisonous in all its parts, especially the fruits, which -are emetic and strongly purgative. Sheep and goats have been injured -from eating the leaves, and children have suffered from eating the -fruits. - -_Toxic Principle._ This plant does not appear to have been closely -studied from the toxicological point of view; contrary to the statements -generally made in the literature Van Rijn remarks that this species does -not contain the doubtfully classed _Euonymin_. - -_Symptoms._ Ingestion of the plant induces symptoms and lesions such as -are due to violent vegetable purgatives. - - REFERENCES. - - 63, 81, 205, 252. - - - RHAMNACEÆ. - -=Buckthorn= (_Rhamnus Catharticus_ L.) and (_R. Frangula_ L.). The -berries of both species are toxic and purgative, but both are uncommon -and rarely eaten by stock. - -_Toxic Principle._ The berries and bark contain the glucosides -_Frangulin_ (C_{21}H_{20}O_{9}) and _Rhamnetin_ (C_{16}H_{12}O_{7}). - -_Symptoms._ The berries are purgative, and there is some danger from -large quantities, which may induce superpurgation. The leaves are -astringent and may arrest milk secretion (Cornevin). Müller states that -the inflammation of the stomach and intestines may terminate fatally. - - REFERENCES. - - 4, 63, 76, 190, 203. - - - PAPILIONACEÆ. - -=Laburnum= (_Cytisus Laburnum_ L.). The well-known and much admired -Laburnum must be regarded as one of the most poisonous species of -British plants. By numerous experimental researches Cornevin proved that -all parts of the plant are poisonous—root, wood, bark, leaves, flowers, -and seeds, especially the seeds. In his experiments the horse, ass, -sheep, goat, dog, cat, fowl, duck and pigeon, were utilized, seeds being -given. He found that 80 centigrammes per kilogramme live weight would be -necessary to kill a horse (say 1 lb. for an animal of 1200 lb. live -weight), 60 centigrammes per kilogramme live weight to kill an ass (say -6 oz. for an ass weighing 600 lb.); and 6 grammes in the case of a fowl -(say 0·4 oz. for a fowl weighing 4½ lb.). The sheep and goat he was not -able to kill, as they refused the food after a certain point; the dog -and cat he was not able to kill because they so readily vomited; and the -duck and pigeon vomited with extreme facility. - -Many cases of the poisoning of children have occurred through the -ingestion of the flowers and seeds. In 1908 a case was recorded by the -Board of Agriculture and Fisheries, in which two horses were alleged to -have been poisoned in North Wales by laburnum seeds, a very small -quantity of which was found in their stomachs after death. - -Müller states that in Dalmatia goats which had eaten _Cytisus Weldeni_, -though themselves uninjured, produced milk which was poisonous to man. - -_Toxic Principle._ All parts contain the toxic alkaloid _Cytisine_ -(C_{11}H_{14}N_{2}O), said by Moer and Partheil to be identical with -Ulexine; it is found in the seeds to the extent of 1·5 per cent. -Cornevin states that the root, wood and bark are nearly constant in -toxicity, but that the leaves and pods present remarkable seasonal -variations owing to the migration of the poison into the seeds. The -toxic property is not destroyed by drying of the plant. - -_Symptoms._ Laburnum poisoning is of the acrid, narcotic type, with, in -man, nervous symptoms, abdominal pain, vomiting, purging, tetanic spasms -and convulsions. - -Cornevin’s observations show that the symptoms occur in three -consecutive stages,—(1) excitement, (2) coma and incoordination of -movement, and (3) convulsions. The order of the appearance, their -duration, and the association of each with the others depend upon the -susceptibility of the animal and the quantity ingested. Thus the -symptoms of excitement may be present alone if only a small quantity is -eaten; the duration of the symptoms in this case is never considerable, -and the normal is gradually regained. In general, however, the symptoms -are associated in pairs; thus when an average quantity is fed there is -excitement and coma but _no_ convulsions; when large quantities are fed -the first stage is suppressed or is so short as to be almost -imperceptible, the coma and convulsions being present simultaneously. As -regards temperature, there is, in stage (1) a rise, in stage (2) a drop, -and in stage (3) a rise again near death. In stages (2) and (3) there is -a slackening of respiration, the arterial tension is raised, there is an -increase in the number of pulsations and a modification of the rhythm. -In stage (3) near death there is a lowering of the arterial tension, and -the pulsations become gradually less perceptible, but with a uniform -rhythm; there is a slackening in respiration, and by the time this -finally ceases the heart beats have become imperceptible. - -When _horses_, _asses_ or _mules_ have eaten a small quantity of the -seeds or leaves, there is simply yawning and uncertain gait, these -symptoms lasting for two hours, and the normal being regained after -urination. Considerable (but not fatal) quantities cause unsuccessful -attempts at vomiting, sometimes opisthotonos in asses, sweating, -muscular tremors, and then a deep coma which may last 15 hours. Fatal -quantities cause yawning, sexual excitement, accelerated and noisy -respiration, wheezing, muscular tremors followed by contractions which -commence in the posterior limbs and spread to the anterior limbs, facial -contractions, staggering and copious sweating. A rapid fall in -temperature follows, but there is a slight rise during the period of -convulsions; the pulse is at first quicker and stronger, but the number -of beats rapidly comes back to the normal, to rise again shortly before -death; the rhythm of the pulse is at first regular (in groups of 2, 3 or -4) but becomes irregular again just before death. The animal at length -falls, and cannot get up, the nostrils are distended, the mouth is wide -open, respiration becomes gradually slower, and death takes place in -great agony. - -In cases of poisoning of horses and asses noticed by Pott animals that -could not vomit died very quickly. The symptoms were excitement, nausea, -coma, slower breathing, convulsions, paralysis of the motor nerves, and -finally cessation of the action of lungs and heart. - -_Ruminants_ are much less susceptible than horses. Cornevin’s attempts -at poisoning failed through their refusal of the plant. Müller observed -in a case of cattle poisoning, bloating, paralysis of the limbs -(especially fore limbs), sleepiness, dilatation of pupils, and later -salivation, nausea, coma and occasional convulsive movements of the -muscles of the extremities. These symptoms persisted through several -days and then disappeared. - - REFERENCES. - - 4, 16, 63, 64, 81, 128, 144, 161, 190, 205, 213. - -=Broom= (_Cytisus Scoparius_ Link.). This very plentiful and widely -distributed plant is undoubtedly to some extent poisonous, though -perhaps only feebly so in the quantities likely to be eaten by domestic -animals. Blyth records 400 cases of poisoning from it, however. Very -hungry animals might eat too much of it, and hence show symptoms of -poisoning. - -_Toxic Principle._ The plant contains the alkaloid _Cytisine_ -(C_{11}H_{14}N_{2}O); also the volatile alkaloid _Sparteine_ -(C_{15}H_{26}N_{2}), a single drop of which, according to Blyth, killed -a rabbit, which showed symptoms similar to those of nicotine poisoning. - -_Symptoms._ Taken in sufficient quantity broom induces narcotic -poisoning, with symptoms resembling those caused by Coniine, with -central nervous paralysis. - -Cornevin gives the symptoms as similar to those due to _C. Laburnum_. - - REFERENCES. - - 4, 16, 82, 128, 203. - -=Indian Peas= (_Lathyrus sativus_ L.). A type of poisoning that deserves -attention here is that known as _Lathyrism_, since it is due to the -consumption of peas of the genus _Lathyrus_, the most dangerous being -the “Indian Pea,” _L. sativus_. The peas of this plant (see -Frontispiece) are small and dark-coloured, and are imported largely from -India and other countries under the general name of Mutter peas, a name -which they share with the ordinary pea _Pisum sativum_. In addition to -the seeds of this species the seeds of two South European and North -African species—_L. Cicera_ and _L. Clymenum_—have commonly caused -poisoning both in man and in animals, not infrequently leading to fatal -results. Horses, cattle, sheep and pigs have been affected—horses -particularly so—and many cases have been recorded in the veterinary -journals since 1885. Very heavy losses have occasionally resulted from -the use of the raw peas as a food for stock. For example, in 1884 -Messrs. Leather of Liverpool had 35 out of 74 cart horses ill through -eating Indian peas at the rate of 3 to 4 lb. per head per day. Of the 35 -no less than 19 died, and 2 were slaughtered, while 14 recovered. In the -famous Bristol Tramways case (1894) 123 out of 800 horses became ill -owing to being fed on the peas of _L. sativus_, and many died. There are -few records of harm to cattle, sheep and pigs, and Watt quotes Don to -the effect that pigeons lose their power of flight by feeding on the -peas. Very large quantities of the peas are used for feeding purposes, -and the fact that the losses are not larger is probably because the peas -only comprise a small proportion of the ration or are cooked before use. - -After boiling or roasting the peas appear to be less harmful, as they -are eaten in India when cooked, or ground into flour and converted into -bread—though Cornevin states that drying and cooking does not destroy -the toxicity, while boiling for some time showed that at any rate part -of the toxic substance passed into the water, which became toxic and -caused death, the boiled seeds losing the greater part of their -poisonous property and not causing accidents when the water was -rejected. MacDougall states that as far as experimental evidence was -available (1894) it seemed to show that boiling the seeds before use -renders them innocuous. - -Lathyrism usually only supervenes when the use of the peas for food is -prolonged, and the peas are taken in considerable quantity, but it is -possible that there is wide variation in the toxicity of different -samples, owing to differences in soil, climate, and other factors. In -man, Lathyrism is stated to be common in Spain, Italy, Russia and India, -owing to continued use of bread from flour of the three species of -_Lathyrus_ mentioned above. It is said especially to affect males. - -_Toxic Principle._ Nothing certain as to the poisonous properties is -known, attempts to isolate the toxic substance having failed (Kobert), -though Smith gives it as prussic acid, apparently indicating a -cyanogenetic glucoside. This, however, can hardly be so, as the poison -is cumulative, and may not show its effects for weeks or months, or, in -man, even years—according to the quantity of peas eaten. - -_Symptoms._ Lathyrism is only produced when the ration consists largely -of the pea for a considerable period (see above); in the horse fed -exclusively on the pea, the tenth day; but when one or two quarts are -given daily, only towards about the 80th day. Moreover, the malady may -declare itself as long as fifty days after the cessation of the pea -feeding (Lander). - -In general Lathyrism is marked by paralysis of the lower extremities in -man and the hind limbs in animals, owing to the degeneration of the -muscle fibres, and possibly to affection of the nerves. In _horses_ -there is paralysis of the hind limbs, dyspnœa and roaring—with paralysis -of the recurrent laryngeal nerve, and transverse myelitis. The horse -thus shows weakness of the hind quarters, staggering in the effort to -stand, difficulty in breathing, abnormally fast and irregular pulse, -open mouth, distended nostrils. Tracheotomy often gives almost immediate -relief. - -Lander mentions in cart horses grinding of teeth, and convulsive -movements of the eyes, recalling epilepsy. In one outbreak there was -thick wind, staggering gait, weakness of hind quarters, and general -signs of intoxication; and sudden violent attacks of laryngeal paralysis -and dyspnœa during which there was palpitation, frothing, tongue -protruded, eyes staring, bluish tint of buccal membranes, and -palpitation. Paroxysms sometimes proved fatal. - -An attack among 125 _lambs_ is mentioned by Cornevin. The lambs could -not stand on their fore legs and were obliged to go down on their knees. -On setting them up again, they were only able to keep up while -motionless or moving slowly. There was loss of sensibility in the front -members. In spite of this the eye was alert, they were attentive to -everything that went on around them, and were easily frightened. - -In _pigs_ paralysis of posterior members has been observed. - -In _cattle_ there was staggering, blindness, and stiffness of the lower -joints. In _sheep_ and _pigs_ there was also paralysis of the hind -limbs. - - REFERENCES. - - 63, 82, 137, 170, 179, 190, 203, 205. - -=Yellow Vetchling= (_Lathyrus Aphaca_ L.). To what extent this vetchling -is poisonous to stock is not clearly known, but it is cultivated in -India as a fodder for cattle. The seeds, however, are not altogether -safe when ripe, and MacDougall says “The seeds and pods have been known -to be used in soup in their young state and without harm resulting, but -the ripe seeds are narcotic and cause sickness and headache.” - -=Lupines= (_Lupinus_ sp.). Different species of _Lupinus_ have been -found to cause poisoning of live stock, more particularly sheep, which, -when fed largely on lupines, develop a chronic type of poisoning known -as _Lupinosis_, or poisoning may be acute and rapid in its effects, as -in the United States. Records of large numbers of sheep being affected -at a time date from 1872, in various parts of the German empire. In -Europe by far the most harmful species is the Yellow Lupine (_L. -luteus_), which has been the cause of heavy losses of sheep, though -horses, cattle and goats may also be affected. The Blue Lupine (_L. -angustifolius_) and White Lupine (_L. albus_) may also be toxic. _L. -luteus_ has caused lupinosis in Germany since 1860, and Cornevin states -that in 1880 no less than 14,138 out of 240,000 sheep fed upon it (or -5·89 per cent.) died. Of 44 horses affected 11 died. - -It must not be thought that all crops of lupine are poisonous, as -lupines are extensively grown on the Continent for fodder purposes and -are usually harmless. Even where Lupinosis occurs, considerable -quantities of the lupine must be ingested to cause poisoning. The -toxicity appears to vary according to soil and certain indefinite -conditions, and sometimes even a kilogramme (2·2 lb.) of the plant would -suffice to kill a sheep. Poisonous symptoms may sometimes be observed -after a single meal. Desiccation does not render the plant innocuous, -the seeds and hay being poisonous. - -In the United States species of _Lupinus_ have caused great loss. In -1898 no fewer than 1,150 of a flock of 2,500 sheep died from eating one -species; one sheep farmer lost 700 sheep from the same cause; and 1,900 -out of 3,000 sheep died from Lupine poisoning in Montana in 1900. Lupine -hay is found to be less harmful to horses and cattle, and Chesnut and -Wilcox suggest that this is possibly because as a rule they avoid the -pods, while sheep eat them. Lupines in America are very rapid in their -action on sheep, which may often die in one-half to three-quarters of an -hour after eating a quantity of the pods. Further, there is evidence -that sheep may gradually become immune to the poison by eating Lupines -regularly, since sheep fed regularly on hay nearly half lupine were -unaffected, but others eating the same hay for the first time died in -considerable numbers. The lupines are certainly far the most dangerous -when they bear ripe seeds—cut and made into hay before the pods form -they are much less dangerous. - -In regard to _L. luteus_ Lander says: “According to the German -authorities a daily ration of 1 pound of the whole plant, ⅗ pound of -empty pods, or 1⅕ pound of seeds, will produce poisoning.” - -Various means have been tried to render Lupines harmless, and success is -stated to follow heating with steam under a pressure of 2 to 2½ -atmospheres. - -_Toxic Principle._ A very full account of Lupine poisoning is given by -Pott, and from this a brief summary may be made. Siewert and Wildt -(1879) found two substances very like the alkaloids of _Conium -maculatum_—one like Coniine and the other like Conhydrine, the former -only being proved to be very poisonous. Baumert states that in _L. -luteus_ there are only two bitter alkaloids, _Lupinine_ (C_{10}H_{19}ON) -and _Lupinidine_ = _Sparteine_ (C_{15}H_{26}N_{2}). Many investigators -(_e.g._ Kühn at Halle) held that lupinosis was not identified with the -presence of lupine alkaloids. Then, in 1883, Arnold and Schneidemühl -caused the disease (lupinosis) in sheep with lupines freed from all -alkaloids, and they isolated from the seeds a substance they named -_Lupinotoxin_, which they found to be poisonous. The nature of the -poison cannot yet be said to be fully understood. The Lupine does not -always appear to be poisonous—only under certain conditions which are -not too well defined. One farmer had Lupines on the same soil for twelve -years without ill effects when fed to sheep, and then of 450 sheep 120 -were severely ill, and 80 died; they had had unthrashed Lupine, not -quite ripe, to the extent of one-fourth of the ration. It is held to be -definitely established that the presence of this poison is due in turn -to the presence of a saprophytic fungus; when the fungus is absent or -only present in small quantity the lupine is not at all or only slightly -poisonous. - -_Symptoms._ The disease is either acute or chronic according to the -amount of poison ingested. Most writers describe the disease in sheep, -but symptoms given vary somewhat. - -In the acute form sheep become ill suddenly. There is loss of appetite, -dyspnœa, intense fever, hæmaturia, circulatory and digestive troubles, -grinding of teeth and trembling, which may pass into spasmodic -contractions. Vertigo is sometimes present. Jaundice then appears and is -evidenced by the yellow colour of the mucous membranes. Tumefaction of -the eyelids, lips and ears is common, but not invariably present. -Micturition is frequent, but not abundant, and the urine contains -albumen; the excrements are few and dry. There is collapse, and loss of -condition progresses rapidly, death occurring on the fourth to the sixth -day after the commencement of the illness. - -In the chronic form the interstitial hepatitis predominates. Tumefaction -of the head may also appear as in the acute form. Digestive troubles -indicate chronic gastro-enteritis. This condition lasts for from 15 to -20 days, during which the cephalic œdemæ are eliminated by gangrene and -the animals remain listless and without appetite. The illness in sheep -is grave, and affected animals are rarely completely cured. The -mortality in other species does not seem to be less than in sheep. -(Cornevin.) - -In describing the acute form of lupinosis Pammel adds that the initial -temperature may be as high as 104° to 106° F., but that it is -intermittent and gradually falls just before death. The pulse may reach -130 per minute and the respirations 100. A bloody froth may issue from -the nostrils. Animals apparently prefer the recumbent position, extend -the head on the ground, and seem entirely oblivious to all surroundings. -At first there is constipation, but later diarrhœa may set in and the -excreta be tinged with blood. In the chronic form the symptoms are not -so violent. Jaundice may be entirely absent, and emaciation and anæmia -may be the chief signs. - -Chesnut and Wilcox record a case in which two sheep were each given 150 -medium-sized pods of a native lupine, and seemed to like them. In 45 -minutes, however, they became frenzied and died an hour later. They give -the symptoms as practically the same as those caused by European species -of _Lupinus_; acute cerebral congestion, with great mental excitement, -the sheep rushing about and butting into things; following is a stage -characterized by irregularity of movement, violent spasms, and falling -fits; in most cases collapse and death occur within half-an-hour to an -hour and a half; the pulse is strong and regular; the convulsions -resemble to some extent those caused by strychnine; the excretion of the -kidneys is much increased and sometimes bloody. In post-mortem -examination the kidneys are found affected, the lungs slightly -congested, the cerebral membranes in all cases congested, and in violent -cases small blood vessels are ruptured in different parts of the body. - - REFERENCES. - - 4, 16, 20, 21, 42, 57, 63, 69, 82, 93, 128, 161, 166, 170, 190, 203, - 213. - -=“Java” Beans= (_Phaseolus lunatus_). Though not native to Great -Britain, the so-called Java Beans have been imported in considerable -quantities for stock feeding, and in the past nine years have caused the -death of a large number of animals. For example, in March, 1906, the -Board of Agriculture and Fisheries published an account of the poisoning -of animals by these beans at eight centres; at six of the centres 133 -cattle were involved and 43 died. The beans are of varying origin, and -pass under the name of Java beans, Rangoon beans, Burma beans, Lima -beans, and Paigya beans. They are considerably different in colour -according to origin, the _Java_ beans being pale brown to almost black; -_Rangoon_, _Burma_ or _Paigya_ beans smaller, plumper, and lighter in -colour (“red Rangoon beans” are pinkish with small purple splotches, and -“white Rangoon beans” are pale cream); and _Lima_ beans are much larger -than the last-named and pale cream or white in colour (see -Frontispiece). - -It has long been known that beans of certain forms of _Phaseolus -lunatus_ are poisonous, and the fact is noted by Church (_Food Grains of -India_, 1886), and by Watt (_Dictionary of the Economic Products of -India_, 1889–96). The coloured forms, and particularly the wild forms, -are the most dangerous, the white types being in general safe for stock -feeding. Some forms have a general similarity to butter beans and -haricots, and have hence been favourably regarded by farmers, but it is -a sound plan to purchase under a guarantee beans with such names as -those given. - -_Toxic Principle._ It was shown in 1903 (_Proc. Roy. Soc._, Vol. 72) -that the seeds of _P. lunatus_, uncultivated in Mauritius, contained a -cyanogenetic glucoside, _Phaseolunatin_ (C_{10}H_{17}O_{6}N). This -glucoside, under favourable conditions, such as are present when the -beans are moist, masticated and ingested at the temperature of the -animal body, gives rise to prussic acid, which is the direct cause of -poisoning. The seeds of the wild forms yield, like bitter almond seeds, -considerable quantities of prussic acid, while the cultivated forms -resemble sweet almonds in yielding only traces of the acid, or none at -all. Determinations of the yield of prussic acid by various -investigators show percentages of from 0·027 to 0·137 in _Java_ beans, -and 0·004 to 0·02 in _Burma_ beans. The largest proportion therefore -occurs in the coloured beans, while the white forms contain much less or -none at all, and may be generally regarded as safe for stock. - -_Symptoms._—The symptoms given by Damman and Behrens (_Veterinary -Journal_, 1906) were vertigo, tympany, and falling, with death in most -cases. Mosselmann (_Vet. Jour._, 1908) observed the symptoms due to the -ingestion of a small quantity of the beans by six head of cattle. They -were: great excitement, salivation, swelling, slight diarrhœa, quick -pulse and respiration, muscular spasms, and paralysis of the hind -quarters in one instance; all recovered rapidly. - - REFERENCES. - - 5, 38, 76, 77, 107, 109, 125, 129, 144, 255. - -=Castor Oil Plant= (_Ricinus communis_ L.). The beans (see Frontispiece) -of this exotic are toxic, and poisoning is only likely to occur if they -are sold in error as a feeding stuff, or from the use for feeding -purposes of the press-cake after the extraction of the well-known castor -oil, a purgative commonly used medicinally, of which the beans contain -about 50 per cent. According to Cornevin four seeds suffice to cause -accidents in man, eight lead to very grave results, and beyond that -number death may ensue. Pigs and poultry have been poisoned by the -seeds, and M. Audibert (near Beaucaire) reported the death of 80 sheep -from eating the press-cake, which is stated to have more pronounced -properties than the oil. It has been found as an impurity in linseed -cake and maize meal. (_Jour. Roy. Agric. Soc._, 1892.) - -_Toxic Principle._ The toxic properties of the bean are due to _Ricin_, -a toxin which is similar to bacterial toxins, and the activity of which -is destroyed by heating to 100° C. The beans also contain the alkaloid -_Ricinine_ (C_{8}H_{8}O_{2}N_{2}), the toxic properties of which are -regarded as doubtful. (See Deane and Finnemore, _Yearbook of Pharmacy_, -1905, p. 473.) - -_Symptoms._ These usually appear some days after the ingestion of the -beans or press-cake. There is generally purging. Broad observed in an -affected horse loss of appetite, shivering, cold extremities, dejection, -abdominal pain, constipation, temperature 103° F., pulse 70, and death -in about three days. - - REFERENCES. - - 4, 16, 66, 73, 128, 205. - - - ROSACEÆ. - -=Cherry Laurel= (_Prunus laurocerasus_ L.). This exceedingly common -ornamental shrub has caused the poisoning of numerous cattle and sheep -on the Continent, but is apparently less harmful in Great Britain—and in -any case animals are not much given to eating the foliage of this shrub, -the strong smell of the leaves when bruised affording a warning of its -unwholesome character. Gerlach recorded the intoxication of 25 sheep. -Bibbey also records the poisoning of 15 sheep by laurel, some of them -dying (_Farmer and Stockbreeder_, Jan. 29, 1912). On the other hand, -Henslow wrote of his cows that they “completely ruined a long laurel -hedge adjoining the field in which they lived; but this abnormal food -did no harm either to themselves or the milk they produced.” - -_Toxic Principle._ So long ago as 1803 Schrader showed that the cherry -laurel contains a substance yielding prussic acid. The leaves contain -the cyanogenetic glucoside _Prulaurasin_ (C_{14}H_{17}O_{6}N), and an -enzyme-emulsin which, by its action on the cyanogenetic glucoside, -induces the formation of prussic acid, which is the actual cause of -poisoning. The percentage of the glucoside appears to be greatest about -July and August. By a microchemical examination Peche has clearly -localised hydrocyanic acid compounds in the leaf parenchyma. - -_Symptoms._ In poisoning by Cherry Laurel there is bloating, inability -to rise, loss of sensation, difficult breathing, convulsions and -dilatation of pupils, and the results may be fatal if unattended to, -prussic acid being formed. - -In the case of poisoning of ewes Aggio observed (_Veterinary Journal_, -1907) loss of appetite, vomiting, and inability to rise, followed by -several deaths. In 1871 Adsetts described (_Veterinarian_, 1871) -symptoms of poisoning in the horse: indistinct and feeble pulse; -congested mucous membranes, difficult respiration, uneasiness, -prostration, coldness of the extremities, loss of appetite, -constipation, diminished urination, and acute pain, eventuating in death -in three days. In sheep Bibbey observed salivation, grinding of teeth, -brain symptoms, paralysis in the back, coma, and death. - - REFERENCES. - - 4, 16, 73, 76, 81, 128, 129, 130, 132, 170, 205, 232, 254, 255. - - - CUCURBITACEÆ. - -=Bryony= (_Bryonia dioica_ L.). This widely distributed hedge climber, -which produces large quantities of scarlet berries, is a highly irritant -plant, with an unpleasant odour and a nauseous juice. The large fleshy -tuberous rootstocks have caused the poisoning of whole families who have -eaten them in mistake for turnips and parsnips. The berries may tempt -children, and cases of poisoning have occurred. Cornevin estimated that -15 berries would cause the death of a child and 40 that of an adult. No -deaths of domestic animals have been observed in searching the -literature, but animals may possibly eat it along the hedgerows at times -when grass is scarce. Pigs might possibly eat sufficient of the -rootstock, or poultry of the berries, to cause poisoning. - -_Toxic Principle._ The plant contains the bitter and poisonous glucoside -_Bryonin_ (C_{34}H_{48}O_{9}). - -_Symptoms._ The symptoms are those resulting from inflammation of the -stomach and intestines, together with convulsions. According to Cornevin -consumption of the plant promotes sweating, and causes a livid hue, -nausea, diuresis and abundant painless, watery defæcation, to which are -added in cases of poisoning nervous symptoms of stupor and tetanic -convulsions. There may be superpurgation or a suppression of defæcation. - -Lander states that 2 lb. of fresh or 6 to 8 oz. of dried root given to -_horses_ did not cause purging, but there was abdominal pain, loss of -appetite, accelerated breathing, fever, dullness and copious urination. - -Cases may end fatally. - - REFERENCES. - - 73, 76, 81, 141, 170, 233. - - - UMBELLIFERÆ. - -=Cowbane= or =Water Hemlock= (_Cicuta virosa_ L.). This plant is -undoubtedly exceedingly poisonous, and fatal cases have occurred in both -man and farm live stock. It has been mistaken by man for parsley, celery -or parsnip, with fatal results, many persons having succumbed to it. The -rootstock is attractive to children on account of its sweetish taste. -Pott says that either fresh or dry it is poisonous to all animals when -only a small quantity is eaten, and often causes rapid death. Sheep and -goats appear to be less readily affected than other domestic animals, -and cattle to be most sensitive. The loss of eleven animals in Brittany -was noted in the _Veterinarian_ in 1877, and a number of cattle died in -Ireland (_Veterinary News_, 1911), death in both cases being due to -Cowbane. It is clearly dangerous to grazing animals which have easy -access to it, especially if ordinary herbage is scarce. Hedrick (Canada) -is quoted as stating that a piece of the root about the size of a walnut -is sufficient to kill a cow in about fifteen minutes; and Müller says -that the quantity of dried plant sufficient to kill a horse appears to -be about 1 lb. According to Kanngiesser the mortality in human poisoning -due to this plant amounts to 45 per cent. of the cases. - -_Toxic Principle._ The poisonous character of Cowbane has not been fully -investigated, and the toxic principles are given as the alkaloid -_Cicutine, with Oil of Cicuta_, and _Cicutoxine_. The last is a bitter -resinous substance classed by Cushny in the picrotoxin group; it occurs -in the dry root to the extent of 3·5 per cent. The toxicity is stated to -vary with season and climate; the rootstock is most poisonous in spring. - -_Symptoms._ In man the yellow poisonous juice in the rhizome induces -epileptic convulsions, followed by death. The cicutoxine gives acrid -narcotic symptoms quickly followed by fatal results. The symptoms -usually appear within two hours, and death ensues in half-an-hour to -several hours. The symptoms which appear in an hour or so are given as -loss of appetite, salivation, vomiting (in swine), nausea, colic (in -horse), bloating (in cattle), diarrhœa, irregular pulse and heart, -dilatation of pupils, rolling of eyeballs, vertigo, reeling in circles, -twisting of neck, falling down, automatic movement of limbs, opening and -shutting of mouth, and death, usually with convulsions, in from half an -hour to an hour after first manifestation of symptoms. - -For _cattle_, Lander gives hurried respiration, collection of froth at -the mouth and nostrils, and tympanites. The limbs are extended and -alternately stiffened and relaxed. - -In his description of the symptoms Esser states that swallowing is -difficult, the tongue is stiffened, there is salivation, and death takes -place after loss of consciousness and convulsions. - - REFERENCES. - - 31, 73, 81, 123, 141, 151, 170, 190, 203, 205, 213, 233, 238. - -=Water Parsnip= (_Sium latifolium_ L.). The leaves and especially the -root of this species are regarded as poisonous, and the plant is -described as “poisonous” by Strasburger. - -According to Müller the symptoms resemble those produced by -_Chaerophyllum_ (p. 40). After eating the roots _cows_ showed symptoms -of excitement, leading, in some instances, very quickly to death. The -milk, according to Cornevin, is of a disagreeable flavour. - -The related _S. angustifolium_ has also been mentioned as objectionable. -As regards the toxic principle these plants have not been closely -studied, and it is not possible to give detailed symptoms. - - REFERENCES. - - 73, 81, 190, 235. - -=Water Dropwort= (_Oenanthe crocata_ L.). This weed of marshes, ditches, -and similar wet spots, has been a frequent cause of loss of stock. Cases -of fatal human poisoning have also occurred, owing to the leaves having -been mistaken for celery and the rootstock for parsnips. Several cases -of the poisoning of cattle have been recorded in the veterinary -journals, and sheep and cattle died on a farm near Bristol (_Jour. Roy. -Agric. Soc._, 1898). Horses have also been poisoned. Johnson and Sowerby -(1861) record the poisoning of 17 convicts near Woolwich, the leaves and -roots being eaten in mistake for celery and parsnips respectively. Nine -suffered from convulsions and became insensible; one died in five -minutes, a second in a quarter of an hour, a third in an hour, and a -fourth a few minutes later, while two more died during the next few -days. - -Cornevin says that this plant causes the poisoning of animals every -year—they eat it willingly, showing an enfeebled instinct owing to -domestication. The plant is poisonous in all its parts, the root being -the most toxic, and drying does not destroy the toxic property. Cornevin -gives the following quantities of the fresh root as necessary to poison -various animals:— - - Horse 0·100 per cent. of the live weight. - Ox 0·125 „ „ „ - Sheep 0·200 „ „ „ - Pig 0·150 „ „ „ - Rabbit 2·000 „ „ „ - -Holmes described _Oenanthe crocata_ as the most dangerous and virulently -poisonous of all our native plants (_Pharm. Jour._, 1902). - -Other species of _Oenanthe_ are also poisonous in a less degree—_e.g._ -_O. fistulosa_ L., and _O. Phellandrium_ Lamk. - -_Toxic Principle._ Poehl (1895) obtained from the root of this species -an amorphous neutral product which he designated _Oenanthotoxin_. The -latest investigation is that by Tutin, who examined entire dried plants -collected in early spring, and the experiments confirmed the conclusion -arrived at by Poehl, that the toxic principle is a neutral resin. A -dark-coloured, viscid resin, insoluble in water, and equal to 3 per -cent. of the weight of the plant, was extracted, and it is stated that -the neutral portions of the petroleum and ether extracts of this resin -represent the toxic principle of the plant. As there is no evidence of -the homogeneity of this product, and it is probably complex in -character, it was given no name or formula. The fact that it has -poisonous properties was ascertained by administering the various -products to guinea pigs _per os_. - -_Symptoms._ In poisoning by _O. crocata_ the symptoms generally appear -very quickly, and in serious cases death may follow in from one hour to -a few hours. In Tutin’s experiments on guinea pigs the extracts referred -to above rendered the animal hypersensitive in two to four hours, while -marked convulsions, with trismus soon appeared; the heart-beat became -very noticeably slow and the convulsions persisted until death ensued. -There is great restlessness, difficult breathing, convulsions, loss of -sensation, blindness and stupefaction (Müller); Lander says the symptoms -recall hemlock poisoning, with the addition of green fœtid diarrhœa. - -In _cattle_, one hour after eating, there is depression and accelerated -respiration; the conjunctivæ are injected, the eye turns in its orbit, -the pulse is weak but rapid, and there is foaming. Later, there is -colic, and spasmodic contractions of limbs and jaws. If the quantity -ingested is sufficient to cause death, the animal falls, but still moves -its limbs. There is bellowing, contraction of pupils, insensibility, and -death in convulsions—or, if not fatal, cattle may remain paralysed. - -In the _horse_, the appearance of the symptoms and the course of the -illness are much more rapid and the nervous symptoms are accentuated. - -If the _pig_ has consumed only a small quantity it soon gets rid of the -poison by vomiting; but if the quantity is considerable there is no -vomiting and death is as rapid as with cyanide poisoning (Cornevin). - - REFERENCES. - - 10, 14, 73, 81, 141, 146, 170, 190, 205, 209, 213, 235, 246. - -=Fool’s Parsley= (_Aethusa Cynapium_, L.). Much has been written about -the toxic properties of this weed of cultivated fields, principally -because, owing to the fact that the foliage has often been mistaken or -misused for parsley and the roots for radishes (!), it has been the -cause of human poisoning, though it seems to be one of the least active -of the poisonous Umbellifers. Its poisonous character is undoubted, but -it is unlikely to cause the poisoning of stock, which seem to refuse it. -Some authors regard it as strongly poisonous, but others as more or less -harmless. Johnson and Sowerby cite a case in which a child of five years -old died within an hour after eating the root, and a second death (in -Germany) within twenty-four hours from the use of the leaves in soup. - -The most complete account of this plant is that by Power and Tutin, -issued from the Wellcome Chemical Research Laboratories in 1905. Many -authors since 1807 are cited as writing of its poisonous properties, and -of cases of poisoning, two of which terminated fatally. Miller (1807) -says that “most cattle eat it, but it is said to be noxious to geese.” -Bentley and Trimen write that “in all recorded experiments with it on -animals, it has had poisonous effects.” Dr. John Harley (1876 and 1880), -after experiments on a child and adults, concluded that the plant was -absolutely free from the noxious properties attributed to it. In 1904, -however, a case of severe poisoning by it was recorded (_Brit. Med. -Jour._, July 16, 1904, p. 124). - -_Toxic Principle._ This has for many years been stated to be the -alkaloid _Cynapine_. For their investigation Messrs. Power and Tutin -collected the plant round London in July and August, with the fruits -still green, and after thorough chemical examination found 0·015 per -cent. of an _essential oil_ of rather unpleasant odour; 0·8 per cent. of -_resinous substances_; and an exceedingly small amount of a _volatile -alkaloid_ having the peculiar characteristic odour of _Coniine_. The -amount of hydrochloride of the alkaloid obtained showed that if the base -were Coniine it would correspond to only 0·00023 per cent. of Coniine in -the plant. In a degree this confirms the statement by Walz (1859) that -the fruit “contains a volatile base, very similar in odour and chemical -behaviour to Coniine, and probably identical with it.” The investigators -suggest that the alkaloid is Coniine, and the small amount would justify -the opinion, but there may be variation in toxic property according to -stage of development and climate. The authors conclude that “it cannot -be considered improbable that under favourable conditions of growth, the -proportion of alkaloid may be increased to such an extent as to impart -to the plant the poisonous properties ascribed to it.” - -_Symptoms._ In a child which died, there were abdominal pain, a feeling -of sickness, and a tendency to lockjaw, and death supervened within an -hour; and in a German case, vomiting, diarrhœa, lockjaw, and death in 24 -hours. (Johnson and Sowerby.) The plant causes convulsions and stupor, -with nausea and vomiting (Henslow). - -The symptoms observed in _cows_ are loss of appetite, salivation, fever, -uncertain gait, and paralysis of hind limbs (Müller). - -Pott refers to a case which occurred in Guernsey among _horses_. Animals -with white muzzles and feet had diarrhœa, while other horses remained -healthy. All white places on the body were badly inflamed. Pammel states -that the plant causes stupor, paralysis and convulsions in domestic -animals. - - REFERENCES. - - 45, 73, 81, 121, 130, 141, 190, 203, 213, 214. - -=Chervils= (_Chaerophyllum_ sp.). No investigation of these plants -appears to have been undertaken, but _C. sylvestre_ L., though eaten by -some animals, including the ass and the rabbit, is stated by a German -observer (_vide_ Cornevin) to have caused the death of pigs. Müller -states that according to the literature both cows and pigs have been -poisoned, even fatally, by _C. temulum_ L. The plants have a strong -odour and acrid taste. - -_Toxic Principle._ This, if any, appears to be unknown, though Müller -(1897) says that _C. temulum_ contains in all its parts the little known -_Chaerophyllin_ (? alk.). - -_Symptoms._ The pigs referred to above as having died were said to show -paralysis, dilated pupils, and enteritis, and to refuse food. Postmortem -examination showed acute gastro-intestinal inflammation. In the case of -cows there are similar symptoms. - - REFERENCES. - - 73, 190. - -=Hemlock= (_Conium maculatum_ L.). This plant, famous from ancient times -as extremely poisonous, has a fœtid, disagreeable odour—a mousy -smell—especially noticeable when the plant is bruised. It has caused -human poisoning in three ways: the seeds have been eaten in error for -anise, the leaves for parsley, and the roots for parsnips. - -Animals rarely appear to eat this plant, but cases have been recorded. -It is stated that in the United States many domestic animals have been -killed by it; and Ewart says that it is responsible for poisoning a -number of cows in Victoria. Goats are believed to be largely immune to -the poison, or are less harmed than other animals, and sheep are stated -to eat the plant with impunity, though cases of poisoning are recorded. -Johnson and Sowerby state that horses have occasionally swallowed -considerable quantities without apparent effect, while Cornevin remarks -that to cause death a horse would need to eat 4 to 5½ lb. of the fresh -plant, or a cow 8¾ to 11 lb. - -Hemlock is probably most dangerous to live stock in the spring, when -green herbage is least plentiful and the young shoots of hemlock are -fresh and short. Chesnut says that the root is nearly harmless in March, -April and May, but dangerous later, especially in the first year of -growth; but Esser states that it is only poisonous in the spring. The -foliage is more poisonous before flowering than after, when the -poisonous principle passes to the fruits, which are more poisonous -before ripening (three quarters ripe) than afterwards. Pott remarks that -after eating hemlock cows give milk with a bad taste. - -_Toxic Principle._ Early in summer the toxic principle appears to be -chiefly contained in the foliage, but later in the fruit, particularly -when still green. Among the substances contained in hemlock are the -toxic alkaloid _Coniine_ (C_{8}H_{17}N), the poisonous _Coniceine_ -(C_{8}H_{15}N), _Conhydrine_ (C_{8}H_{17}NO), the alkaloid -_Methylconiine_ (C_{9}H_{19}N), _Pseudoconhydrine_ (C_{8}H_{17}ON). -Coniine may be described as an oily, colourless, quite volatile liquid, -quickly turning brown on exposure to the air, and giving a mousy odour -to the whole plant. The amount of Coniine in the fresh leaves is given -(Pammel) as 0·095 per cent., but in the ripe seeds 0·7 per cent. English -fruits contain much more of the total alkaloids than imported fruits. -Owing to the volatile character of the poisons hemlock largely loses its -toxicity when dried in hay, and is therefore the less likely to prove -injurious to domestic animals. - -_Symptoms._ Hemlock is a dangerous narcotic plant. Even the smallest -quantities may cause inflammation of the digestive organs, paralysis and -death. The general symptoms are salivation, bloating, dilatation of -pupils, rolling of eyes; laboured respiration, diminished frequency of -breathing, irregular heart action; loss of sensation, convulsions, -uncertain gait, falling, and at the end complete paralysis. Death occurs -after a few hours. The poison acts on the motor nerve endings, causing -paralysis, dyspnœa resulting from paralysis of the pectoral nerves, and -acceleration of the heart from that of the inhibitory fibres of the -pneumogastric. - -Small quantities cause in the _horse_ a little prostration, yawning, -acceleration of pulse, dilatation of pupils and sometimes muscular -spasms of the neck and shoulders. Large quantities cause nausea, -unsuccessful attempts to vomit, gritting of teeth, accelerated -respiration and dyspnœa, and muscular tremors commencing in posterior -members and spreading to anterior members and spine. There is next -difficulty of locomotion, sweating (but not continual), falling, -paraplegia, then paralysis, loss of feeling, lowering of temperature, -rapid pulse, increasingly difficult respiration, and death from stoppage -of respiration. - -With _cattle_ there is ptyalism, cessation of digestion, bloating, -constipation, weakness and stupor. Pregnant cows have been observed to -abort; the milk of cows has an unpleasant flavour. There are bloody -evacuations in some instances in the case of the ox. In cows Chesnut -says that there was “loss of appetite, salivation, bloating, much bodily -pain, loss of muscular power, and rapid, feeble pulse.” - -In _sheep_ the abdomen is tucked up, the animal has a dazed appearance, -there is dilatation of pupils, unsteady gait, the hind limbs being -dragged, coldness, and death after a few convulsive movements. - -In the _pig_ there is prostration and inability to move, coldness, slow -breathing, livid mucous membranes, imperceptible pulse, paralysis, -particularly of the posterior members, and no convulsions. - - REFERENCES. - - 4, 16, 52, 53, 73, 81, 82, 91, 128, 141, 161, 203, 205, 213, 238. - - - - - CHAPTER IV - ARALIACEÆ. - - -=Ivy= (_Hedera Helix_ L.). The berries of the Ivy are said to be largely -eaten by certain birds (_e.g._ blackbirds, thrushes, wood-pigeons), but -have poisoned children. The plant has long been said to be poisonous, -but no definite case of poisoning of live stock has been discovered; -possibly farm live stock would need to eat a considerable quantity for -serious effects to be induced. Indeed, when keep is short, it is quite -common in some districts to see Ivy strewed on the fields for cattle and -sheep to eat, and it is very frequently given to sick animals by country -people (Garnett). - -_Toxic Principle._ This has not been closely studied, but ivy contains a -bitter principle which is strongly cathartic, emetic and purgative. Ivy -contains a poisonous glucoside _Hederin_ (C_{64}H_{104}O_{19}) and a -resin (_Gummi hederæ_). - -_Symptoms._ As suggested above, it is doubtful whether animals have been -poisoned by Ivy. Symptoms given appear to refer to children, and consist -in sickness, diarrhœa, nervous symptoms, excitement at first, then -convulsions and paralysis (Müller). Sickness and purgation (Esser). - -Cornevin states that the symptoms are complex, emeto-purgative effects -being present, with nervous symptoms resembling those of intoxication, -viz. excitement, then coma, convulsions, uncertain gait, and stertorous -respiration. - - REFERENCES. - - 73, 76, 81, 130, 208, 240. - - - CAPRIFOLIACEÆ. - -=Common Elder= (_Sambucus nigra_ L.) and =Dwarf Elder= (_S. Ebulus_ L.). -These two plants are usually avoided by stock, no doubt in view of their -odour, more particularly in the case of the latter species. The bark, -leaves and berries of both species were noticed by Cornevin as having -pronounced purgative properties, and the berries of _S. Ebulus_ as -having poisoned turkeys. Esser remarks that the use of _S. Ebulus_ by -country folk as a purgative has caused fatal poisoning. The leaves of -_S. nigra_ have caused severe irritant poisoning in a child. - -_Toxic Principle._ Some doubt exists as to the poisonous principle -of the Elders, the leaves of which contain _Sambunigrin_ -(C_{14}H_{17}O_{6}N), a cyanogenetic glucoside; the alkaloid -_Sambucine_; and a purgative principle. According to Cornevin drying -reduces the toxicity but does not destroy it. - -_Symptoms._ The symptoms are not very definite, but small quantities -cause purgation, while large quantities induce depression and violent -emetic and cathartic effects, with diarrhœa, abundant diuresis and -acceleration of pulse. The leaves of _S. Ebulus_ have caused vomiting, -obstinate constipation and enteritis in a boy, and in the case of -another boy the flowers caused vertigo and headache. - - REFERENCES. - - 4, 73, 81, 203, 233. - - - COMPOSITÆ. - -=Tansy= (_Tanacetum vulgare_ L.). Live stock are most unlikely to eat -this plant, as it is bitter and acrid. Cattle appear to have been -poisoned by it in Germany, Kobert’s opinion being that death had -resulted from tansy. There have also been many serious cases of human -poisoning. - -_Toxic Principle._ Tansy contains the bitter, volatile and poisonous -_Oil of Tansy_. - -_Symptoms._ Tansy Oil has been employed as an abortifacient, and -produces convulsions, violent spasms, frequent and feeble pulse, and -paralysis of the heart and lungs, inducing a condition similar to that -observed in rabies. - -Pammel cites cases of the action of the oil from the plant on _dogs_. -According to Pott the tansy imparts a bitter taste to the milk of cows -which eat it. - - REFERENCES. - - 161, 203, 204, 213. - -=Ragwort= (_Senecio Jacobœa_ L.). No suspicion appears to have been -focussed on Ragwort in Britain, but it must be recorded here as the -cause in Canada of the Pictou cattle disease, or hepatic cirrhosis, a -somewhat fatal disease which has caused much loss during the last few -years. In New Zealand also the same disease has been experienced, and -has caused considerable mortality among sheep. In one case sheep were -closely pastured on about 4000 acres with the object of eradicating the -too prevalent weed, but after a year losses ensued. Gilruth concluded -that if the weed does not monopolise the ground, sheep may, with few -exceptions, eat it daily without suffering ill effects. Cattle and -horses avoided it when possible. - -It may be remarked that in Britain feeding the young shoots off with -sheep, which seem to like the plant, is regarded as the best plan of -reducing Ragwort in grass land. So far there seems to be no record of -injury from this cause. - -In South Africa cirrhosis of the liver in cattle (locally termed Molteno -cattle sickness) has been traced to _S. latifolius_, 8 to 10 lb. of -which in daily feeds of 2 to 6 oz. caused death in about six weeks. -Another species, _S. Burchellii_, is similarly poisonous, ½ lb. daily -for four days having killed an ox on the fifth day; at Molteno half the -quantity proved fatal. Both species are fatal to cattle and horses. - -_Toxic Principle._ As regards _S. Jacobœa_ nothing appears to be known -as to any toxic principles, though an alkaloid has been isolated by Watt -(1911), but not fully described. The South African _S. latifolius_, -however, was examined at the Imperial Institute, and two new crystalline -alkaloids were isolated—_Senecifoline_ (C_{18}H_{27}O_{8}N) and -_Senecifolidine_ (C_{18}H_{25}O_{7}N)—1·20 per cent. being present in -the plant before flowering and 0·49 per cent. after flowering. - -_Symptoms._ As they may to some extent serve as a guide in relation to -possible Ragwort poisoning in Britain the symptoms observed from -poisoning by the South African species may be given: Severe and strained -purging: fæces yellowish to dark brown; cows cease to give milk; -abdominal pain, groaning; animal may go mad and charge anyone -approaching, or lie with outstretched head, drooping ears, staring coat, -and dull glaring eyes; death usual within three days from commencement -of purging. The post-mortem shows an inflamed fourth stomach; hardened -condition of the liver, often dull grey with spots in the interior; -expanded gall bladder, with dull yellow viscid bile. - - REFERENCES. - - 43, 128, 195, 260. - -=Wild Lettuce= (_Lactuca_ sp.). Just how far the two species _L. -scariola_ L. and _L. virosa_ L. are really poisonous is not clearly -known, and it is probable that to be seriously harmful to farm live -stock they would need to be ingested in considerable quantity, and this -they never seem to be. They are certainly not actively poisonous, though -Bailey and Gordon say that “we have been informed that this European -plant—now a national pest—is sometimes eaten by cattle, on whom it has -been observed to have had an injurious effect.” - -_Toxic Principle._ Authorities differ as to the substances to which the -toxic property, if any, is to be attributed. According to Ludwig the -milky juice, known as _Lactucarium_, includes _Lactucone_, _Lactucin_, -and _Lactucic Acid_, the second of these being the narcotic substance. -Nearly half the weight of _Lactucarium_ (a form of dried juice) consists -of the tasteless inodorous _Lactucone_ or _Lactucerin_ (C_{14}H_{22}O), -and the bitter taste is due to _Lactupicrine_, Lactucin and Lactucic -Acid. In the leaves of _L. virosa_, Dymond found traces of _Hyoscyamine_ -or a similar substance (_Jour. Chem. Soc._, 1892, Vol. 61, p. 90). - -_Symptoms._ Intoxication is produced similar to that caused by poppy -heads; the narcotic effects are dominant (Cornevin). - - REFERENCES. - - 11, 73, 81, 130, 213, 240. - - - ERICACEÆ. - -=Rhododendron= (_Rhododendron_ sp.). The literature points to there -being no doubt as to the poisonous character of a number of species of -_Rhododendron_, and indeed most species are suspected. Animals do not -appear to eat Rhododendrons very extensively, but both English and -Belgian veterinary surgeons have published records of poisoning of sheep -and goats by _R. ponticum_. Suspected cases were recorded in the -_Journal of the Board of Agriculture_ (1907 and 1914); three cases of -cattle poisoning in the _Veterinary Record_ (1900, 1906, and 1907); one -of calves in the _Veterinarian_ (1859); and three of sheep-poisoning—one -in the _Veterinary Journal_ (1906), and two in the _Veterinarian_ -(1865); but these cases were not all fatal. The death of 19 out of 21 -cross-bred Scotch lambs due to eating _R. ponticum_ was reported by C. -T. Baines in the _Journal of the Land Agents Society_ (Aug. 1914, p. -373). The plant was eaten after a heavy fall of snow. Chesnut includes -_R. maximum_ as one of the thirty most poisonous plants of the United -States. According to Cornevin, _R. ferrugineum_ causes frequent -poisoning of animals which graze on the plateaux where it -grows—especially sheep and goats, the latter providing the most victims, -as they willingly browse the young shoots and leaves. _R. californicum_ -is said to be poisonous to sheep in Oregon. _R. Chrysanthum_, the leaves -of which have been used in Russia and Germany for rheumatism, has caused -poisoning in man. _R. punctatum_ and _R. hirsutum_ appear to be not less -poisonous. - -Both leaves and flowers are narcotic, and even the honey in the flowers -is regarded with suspicion. The following quotations are not without -interest:— - -“In these regions (Tungu) many of my goats and kids had died foaming at -the mouth and grinding their teeth, and I have discovered the cause to -arise from their eating the leaves of _Rhododendron cinnabarinum_ (“Kema -Kechoong,” Lepcha; Kema signifying Rhododendron); this species alone is -said to be poisonous, and when used as a fuel it causes the face to -swell and the eyes to inflame, of which I observed several instances.” -(Hooker, _Himalayan Journals_, ii. p. 150). - -“_Rhododendron arboreum_ becomes plentiful at 5000 to 6000 feet (East -Nepal), forming a large tree on dry clayey slopes.... In the contracted -parts of the valley the mountains often dip to the riverbed in -precipices of gneiss under the ledges of which wild bees build pendulous -nests looking like huge bats suspended by their wings; they are two or -three feet long and as broad at the top whence they taper downwards; the -honey is much sought for except in spring, when it is said to be -poisoned by Rhododendron flowers just as that eaten by the soldiers in -the retreat of the Ten Thousand was by the flowers of _R. ponticum_.” -(_l.c._ i. p. 200). - -_Toxic Principle._ The leaves and flowers contain a bitter poisonous -glucoside, _Andromedotoxin_ (C_{31}H_{50}O_{10}), which has been -regarded as more poisonous than Aconitine. Other glucosides found in -Rhododendrons are _Ericolin_ (C_{34}H_{56}O_{21}), _Arbutin_ -(C_{12}H_{16}O_{7}), and _Rhododendrin_ (C_{16}H_{22}O_{7}), but it is -not clearly shown whether these are poisonous when ingested; Kobert, -however, includes the two former among cerebro-spinal poisons. - -_Symptoms._ In the case of goats Cornevin records intense pain, -diarrhœa, discomfort, gritting of teeth, salivation, and frequently -vomiting; while there is reduced lactation, trembling, spasms, vertigo, -loss of power, and death. Lander notes similar symptoms in cattle and -sheep. - -According to Eve (_Veterinary Record_, 1907), a reddish colour was -observed in the milk of a cow poisoned by Rhododendron. - - REFERENCES. - - 4, 16, 53, 63, 73, 76, 81, 144, 161, 170, 203, 205, 211, 212, 213, 231, - 252, 264. - -=Azalea= (_Azalea_ sp.). A suspected case of poisoning was recorded in -the _Journal of the Board of Agriculture_ in 1907. No British record of -poisoning has been found. Various species of Azalea (_A. pontica_, _A. -indica_, _A. arborescens_, _A. nudiflora_, etc.) are stated to be very -poisonous to all animals which browse on them in the East. Cuttings -should never be thrown down where they can be eaten by stock. - -_Toxic Principle._ Little work has been done on these plants, but they -are believed to contain _Ericolin_, _Arbutin_, and _Andromedotoxin_ as -in the case of rhododendrons (p. 47). - -_Symptoms._ Azaleas appear to be narcotic, and to produce symptoms -resembling those caused by _Lolium temulentum_ (Cornevin). - - REFERENCES. - - 73, 144, 190, 205. - - - PRIMULACEÆ. - -=Scarlet Pimpernel= (_Anagallis arvensis_ L.). Unless it occurs in very -considerable quantity this little plant is unlikely to be eaten to an -extent sufficient to cause definite poisonous symptoms, as it is a -cornfield weed. It may be taken, however, if animals are allowed to run -over stubble. Sheep are said to refuse it in general, but have died from -eating it (see below). - -There seems to be no doubt that if eaten in sufficient quantity it has a -poisonous action, having an irritant action on the digestive tract—the -intestines—as well as producing narcotic effects. Strasburger notes it -as “slightly poisonous”; Bailey says “a dog is stated to have been -destroyed by making it swallow three drachms of the extract,” while -according to Hyams the fluid extract in 4 drachm doses is fatal to dogs -(the size of the dog is not mentioned!); at the Veterinary School at -Lyons horses were intentionally killed by administering a decoction of -the plant; in America Chesnut notes it as suspected of killing a horse; -Ewart says it “has been reported to render the chaff from oat crops -infested by the weed unpalatable to stock”; and Gilruth states that a -year or two ago it was responsible for the death of a large number of -sheep in Victoria, apparently acting as a narcotic poison (_Amer. Vet. -Rev._, July, 1913, p. 383.). On the Pacific coast the plant is known as -“Poison Weed.” Grognier and Orfila are stated to have put its poisonous -properties beyond doubt. - -_Toxic Principle._ The plant contains the glucoside _Cyclamin_ -(C_{20}H_{34}O_{10}), and a saponin-like substance (Pammel). Van Rijn -says it contains two glucosides. - -_Symptoms._ The plant has an irritating effect on the intestines and a -stupefying effect on the nervous system. Cornevin states that it is -never taken by the larger domestic animals in quantity sufficient to -cause poisoning. - - REFERENCES. - - 10, 73, 82, 190, 203, 235, 252. - - - OLEACEÆ. - -=Privet= (_Ligustrum vulgare_ L.). The facts as to the poisonous -character of Privet are by no means clear, but Taylor records a case in -which three children who ate the berries were attacked by violent -purging, and a boy and girl died. Turner observed a case in which horses -died after eating Privet. - -_Toxic Principle._ The Privet is stated to contain the poisonous -glucosides _Ligustrin_ and _Ligustron_, not mentioned by Van Rijn, -who says it contains _Syringin_ (C_{17}H_{24}O_{9}), while Pammel -(1911) adds the bitter glucosidal principle _Syringopicrin_ -(C_{26}H_{24}O_{17}). - -_Symptoms._ In horses Turner observed loss of power in the hind limbs, -with a pulse of 50, temperature 102° F., slightly injected mucous -membranes, and dilated pupils, with death in 36 to 48 hours. The berries -are stated by Müller to cause sickness and diarrhœa. - - REFERENCES. - - 130, 190, 203, 233, 252. - - - CONVOLVULACEÆ. - -=Bindweeds= (_Convolvulus sepium_ L. and _C. arvensis_ L.). The creeping -rootstocks and foliage, as well as the seeds, are held to be more or -less poisonous if eaten in quantity, and as long ago as 1872 Olver -recorded (_Veterinarian_, 1872) that pigs which ate freely of -_Convolvulus_ died. These species, when eaten in considerable quantity, -appear to be cathartic and purgative, causing symptoms resembling those -due to jalap. - - REFERENCES. - - 82, 141, 190, 203, 254. - - - SOLANACEÆ. - -=Thorn Apple= (_Datura Stramonium_ L.). This species is an escape from -cultivation, but on occasion occurs plentifully in gardens, and if -allowed to seed may escape to arable fields and find its way to stock, -though it does not appear to have done so in Britain. Several species of -_Datura_ are recognized as virulent poisons in North America, where they -are known as Jimson Weeds. All parts are poisonous, especially the -seeds, which have a somewhat sweetish taste, and have frequently caused -accidents to children who have eaten them. Cases are recorded in the -United States in which cattle have been poisoned by eating the leaves of -young plants in hay. Live stock, however, usually avoid the plant, which -has an unpleasant odour and taste, while the seeds are enclosed in -thorny capsules. Walsh states that the seeds are very fatal to young -ostriches. Drying does not destroy the toxicity. - -_Toxic Principle._ The Thorn Apple is usually stated to contain the -highly poisonous narcotic alkaloid _Daturine_, but this appears to be a -mixture of the two alkaloids _Hyoscyamine_ (C_{17}H_{23}O_{3}N) and -_Atropine_ (C_{17}H_{23}O_{3}N), which, together with the alkaloid -_Scopolamine_, or _Hyoscine_ (C_{17}H_{21}O_{4}N), have been found in -the plant, the principal constituent being Hyoscyamine. In some analyses -as much as 0·33 per cent. of Atropine has been found in the seeds, and -0·2 per cent. in the leaves (Pammel). The three alkaloids occur together -to the extent of 0·48 to 3·33 per cent. in the leaves, 0·43 per cent. in -the flowers, and 0·1 per cent. in the root, Hyoscyamine predominating -(Esser). An investigation conducted at the Imperial Institute (_Bul. -Imp. Inst._, 1911) showed the amount of alkaloids in European specimens -to be:— - - Seeds 0·21 to 0·48 per cent. - Leaves up to 0·4 „ - Stems average 0·22 „ - Roots average 0·17 „ - -_Symptoms._ The general effect of _Datura_ poisoning appears to resemble -that of _Atropa Belladonna_, but is by some considered more rapidly -effective. There is paralysis, dilatation of the pupils, suspension of -secretion and of the inhibitory fibres of the vagus, leading to rapid -action of the heart (Lander). Poisoning may terminate fatally. Pammel -quotes Winslow as stating that two grains of Atropine produce mild toxic -symptoms in the horse; cattle are as susceptible as horses, though -herbivora are not so easily influenced as carnivora. Chesnut gives the -following symptoms: “Headache, vertigo, nausea, extreme thirst, dry, -burning skin, and general nervous confusion, with dilated pupils, loss -of sight and of voluntary motion, and sometimes mania, convulsions, and -death.” Walsh gives the toxic symptoms in ostriches as staggering gait, -spasmodic jerking of the neck, stupor, and death in a comatose state. - - REFERENCES. - - 4, 10, 16, 39, 52, 53, 73, 81, 92, 128, 141, 170, 203, 213, 260. - -=Henbane= (_Hyoscyamus niger_ L.). The poisonous character of Henbane is -well known, but the plant is by no means common (except in Ireland), -though found in parts of England, Scotland, and Wales. Poisoning of live -stock may occasionally occur, but the disagreeable odour is likely to -prevent all but abnormal or very hungry animals from touching it. The -seeds are eaten by birds, apparently without injury, but poisoned -chickens which ate the ripe seeds in Montana. Cornevin records that cows -have been poisoned by eating the plant when given mixed with other -herbage. There are numbers of cases of children having been poisoned by -eating the seeds. The root has also caused accidents by being taken for -other herbs, and the young shoots and leaves have been used in error as -a vegetable. A case was reported in the press in 1910 in which 25 men -and women visitors at a Davos pension suffered from the effects of -eating the root of Henbane given in error for horse-radish, or mixed -with it. All suffered from strange hallucinations, but with prompt and -careful treatment all had recovered in twelve hours. Kanngiesser says -that poisoning by this plant very seldom terminates fatally. - -Welsby records a case in which animals were poisoned in a field in which -Henbane was grown for medicinal use some years before (_Veterinary -Record_, 1903). According to Rodet and Baillet (_vide_ Cornevin) small -quantities of the seeds are in some countries mixed with the food of -fattening stock; if true that fattening is promoted, it is probably due -to the inducement to quiet and repose caused by the narcotic properties -of the seeds. - -_Toxic Principle._ Poisoning by Henbane is due to the alkaloids -_Hyoscyamine_ (C_{17}H_{23}NO_{3}) and the closely related _Hyoscine_, -or _Scopolamine_ (C_{17}H_{21}O_{4}N). The glucoside _Hyoscypicrin_ is -also found in Henbane. The poisonous property is not eradicated by -drying or boiling. The leaves of Henbane grown in Europe contain from -0·04 to 0·08 per cent. of total alkaloid, and the seeds 0·06 to 0·10 per -cent. (_Bul. Imp. Inst._, 1911). - -_Symptoms._ Henbane is an anodyne, and hypnotic. The symptoms resemble -those caused by _Atropa Belladonna_ (p. 58). The important differences -(Cornevin) are that there is here abundant salivation and no dryness of -the mouth as in _Atropa_. There is dilatation of the pupils; and -mydriasis, which is dissipated more slowly than in Belladonna poisoning. - -Further differences in the action of the two poisons are given by -Winslow (_via_ Pammel): The tetanic stage succeeding spinal paralysis -observed in Atropine poisoning does not ensue with Hyoscine. The latter -alkaloid slightly depresses and slows the heart and does not paralyse -the vagus terminations, nor depress the motor and sensory nerves or -muscles. The circulation is but slightly influenced, and vasomotor -depression only occurs in the later stage of lethal poisoning. Death -occurs from paralysis of the respiratory centres. Poisoning in animals -is exhibited by loss of muscular power, slowing and failure of -respiration, stupor, and asphyxia. The pulse may be infrequent, the -pupils are dilated, and the skin is moist rather than dry. - -The following symptoms in animals are given by Welsby: Nervo-muscular -exaltation, eyelids and irides much dilated, eyes amaurotic and very -bright, pulse full, temperature normal, respiration difficult and -hurried, profuse salivation, muscles of neck and extremities in a state -of tetanic rigidity, considerable abdominal distension, stercoraceous -and renal emunctories entirely suspended, death. - -In a _cow_ there was observed, two hours after eating, dilatation of -pupils, the conjunctivæ were injected, and the carotids beat violently. -There were general convulsions, loud respiration, salivation, and -purgation. According to Pott the milk of affected cows is of an -unpleasant taste. - - REFERENCES. - - 4, 16, 39, 57, 68, 73, 81, 128, 141, 151, 157, 161, 190, 203, 205, 213, - 257. - -=Garden Nightshade= (_Solanum nigrum_ L.). This species is described as -“one of the widest spread weeds over every part of the globe, except the -extreme north and south; varying so much in warmer regions as to have -been described under more than forty names” (Bentham and Hooker). In the -same way there can be no doubt that, though it must always be regarded -as poisonous, this plant varies considerably in toxicity according to -soil, climate, and general condition of growth. For this reason the -plant may sometimes be eaten in considerable quantities without ill -effects, while in other cases it will undoubtedly prove poisonous. - -Children have been poisoned by the berries, but may on occasion eat them -with no other ill effect than a stomach ache, or, if eaten in excess, -sickness and purging. The berries “have even been used instead of -raisins for plum puddings with no effects out of the ordinary” (Ewart). -The plant has also been used in Queensland and elsewhere as a substitute -for spinach. In several cases the plant has proved fatal. Gohier gave 3 -kilogrammes (6½ lb.) of the green plant to a horse and observed no -serious symptoms. Cases of poisoning are recorded for calves, sheep, -goats and pigs (Chesnut and Wilcox). According to Lehmann, Schraber and -Haller, the berries are poisonous to ducks and chickens. Over thirty -years ago the death of a number of cattle in Victoria was recorded as -being due to poisoning by this weed. - -Though cases of poisoning of stock are rare, partly perhaps because the -plant is a weed of arable land and partly because animals are likely to -avoid it unless starved, _Solanum nigrum_ must be regarded as a -poisonous plant, any examples of which may prove toxic. The downy and -more prostrate form has been considered the most poisonous. - -The “Wonderberry,” said to be a hybrid between _Solanum guineense_ and -_S. villosum_, which are probably varieties of _S. nigrum_, cannot in -England be distinguished from the last named, the fruits of which appear -to be edible in some countries and poisonous in others. Greshoff found -that fruits of the “Wonderberry” contained more Solanine than the wild -English _S. nigrum_ or the Canadian form known as the “Huckleberry,” and -hence they should not be eaten. - -_Toxic Principle._ The Garden Nightshade, in particular the berries, -contains the alkaloidal glucoside _Solanine_, of which the formula is -considered doubtful. Solanine is readily converted into sugar and the -poisonous _Solanidine_. It was isolated from the berries in 1821, and -though decidedly active in sufficient quantity is not a violent poison. -A small quantity of _Solanine_ is present in the stem and berries, but -these are probably less poisonous than green potatoes (p. 54). - -_Symptoms._ The symptoms of poisoning are apparently much the same in -man and animals: “Stupefaction; staggering; loss of speech, feeling, and -consciousness; cramps and sometimes convulsions. The pupil is generally -dilated.” - - REFERENCES. - - 4, 10, 11, 16, 17, 52, 53, 57, 73, 81, 82, 128, 141, 161, 203, 235, 240. - -=Bittersweet= (_Solanum Dulcamara_ L.). Some doubt exists in regard to -the toxic character of this common denizen of the hedge-row, some -persons regarding the berries as harmless and others as poisonous. -Possibly the plant varies in toxicity. Floyer states that 30 berries -killed a dog. Though stock rarely touch the plant there seems to be no -doubt that it is poisonous, stem, leaves, and berries containing the -toxic alkaloid found in _S. nigrum_ and the potato (_q.v._), and it is -especially possible that poisoning may follow the ingestion of the -berries. Johnson and Sowerby (1861) say that the leaves are narcotic, -causing nausea and giddiness, and that the fruit is equally harmful, -though no fatal cases then seemed to be recorded. Gillam records (_Vet. -Record_, 1906) a case of poisoning of sheep. An anonymous writer in the -_Mark Lane Express_ (July 24, 1911) states emphatically that this plant -is very poisonous, and that he has known 14 per cent. of the sheep on a -farm to be killed by it in a year, while his veterinary surgeon had had -40 cases that season, some proving fatal. - -_Toxic Principle._ Like _S. nigrum_, the stems, leaves, and berries of -Bittersweet contain _Solanine_. The berries are stated by Esser to -contain 0·3 to 0·7 per cent. of Solanine. The stems also contain the -glucoside _Dulcamarin_ (C_{22}H_{34}O_{10}), which imparts a bitter -taste to the plant, but which has not been fully studied. - -_Symptoms._ In the case recorded by Gillam (see above) the symptoms -observed in sheep were small intermittent pulse, temperature 104° F., -quickened respiration, staggering gait, dilated pupil, and greenish -diarrhœa. The symptoms appear to be the same in the case of cattle -(_Farmer and Stockbreeder_, July 10, 1911). - - REFERENCES. - - 4, 16, 40, 50, 52, 73, 81, 141, 147, 203, 213, 257. - -=The Potato= (_Solanum tuberosum_ L.). Though potato haulm is more or -less commonly utilised on the Continent as a green fodder, and has been -so used in England, yet there are good grounds for the general belief -that it is not a suitable food for stock. The tubers may in general be -eaten with impunity, but, under certain conditions, cannot be regarded -as blameless, since they have caused serious injury. There are certainly -records of injury to man from eating Potatoes, and accidents with -animals have occurred more commonly. “Greened” tubers, and tubers with -young shoots appear to be the chief cause of accidents, and, as regards -live stock, usually when fed raw. - -Cornevin knew of no case of poisoning in man, and considered that this -was probably because man (1) eats only the part poorest in the toxic -principle (see below), (2) does not eat the skin, (3) always cooks the -tubers, and (4) rarely subsists only on potatoes for a considerable -time. He found accidents among _animals_, however, not rare. In fact, -eliminating cases possibly due to changes caused by weather, cryptogams, -and ferments, he found poisonings every year unquestionably due to -Solanine, chiefly among cattle. Cows will eat the haulm without trouble -in times of scarcity of green fodder, but to the detriment of their -health if such feeding is prolonged. - -Macfadyen showed some time since that old sprouted Potatoes, even after -boiling, are poisonous to horses. In 1896 eleven horses died from eating -in most instances small quantities of spoiled and somewhat sprouted -Potatoes, and two test-horses fed on the Potatoes died. In this case, -however, it was conjectured that the poison was probably some organic -substance generated by the bacteria or fungi growing on the Potatoes. - -Chesnut and Wilcox (1901) recorded the death of six pigs due to eating -sprouted uncooked Potatoes; after cooking the potatoes did not cause -poisoning. With sufficient boiling most of the poison appears to remain -behind in the water and might be thrown away. - -Cases of poisoning of stock by Potatoes appear to have occurred more or -less frequently in Germany. Two such cases were noted in the _Berliner -Tierärztliche Wochenschrift_ in 1909, in one of which 64 cows developed -symptoms of poisoning after being fed on a large quantity of raw tubers, -while in the other instance two cows became ill after eating Potato -parings—which, as shown below, contain more Solanine than the “flesh.” - -In the case of two children who died, F. W. Stoddart, Public Analyst of -Bristol, after a post-mortem in one case, gave a very guarded opinion -that death was probably due to Solanine poisoning, due to eating raw -Potato peel, but was not confident. A most interesting case of severe -but not fatal poisoning is described in _The Lancet_ (1899). No less -than 56 soldiers in Berlin were badly affected, until the supply of -Potatoes was stopped, but the men recovered. - -Pammel (1911) states that some persons cannot eat Potatoes because -poisonous to them, but such persons must be extremely rare, and -hypersensitive to minimum quantities of Solanine, which is almost if not -quite absent in the “flesh” of Potatoes. - -_Toxic Principle._ The Potato plant, like the other species of _Solanum_ -mentioned above, contains _Solanine_, which occurs not only in the -haulm, but in the flowers and fruits, and in the peel of the tubers. -_Solanidine_ also occurs ready-formed in the young sprouts of potatoes -to the extent of 1·5 per cent. (Allen). In the case of the soldiers -poisoned in Berlin analysis demonstrated the presence of Solanine to the -extent of 0·038 per cent. in boiled tubers and 0·024 per cent. in raw -tubers, and on an average every man who fell ill had 0·3 gramme of the -alkaloid, a sufficient quantity to produce toxic results. Esser (1910) -states that in midsummer the haulm contains 0·0925 per cent. of Solanine -but late in summer only 0·0374 per cent. In the tubers the alkaloid -occurs in the inner layers of the peel to the extent of 0·0124 per -cent., red or pink varieties containing rather more than yellow sorts. -The same authority says that damp soils tend to a higher percentage of -Solanine than dry soils[3], and that nitrogenous manuring as compared -with potash tends to an increase of Solanine. In fresh spring shoots 1·5 -per cent. of the alkaloid has been found, and the percentage is -especially high in tubers which have been “greened” by long exposure to -light. As already stated it is the greened tubers which appear to be the -chief cause of accidents. Tubers with young shoots are richer in -poisonous alkaloids than those which have not yet been sprouted; such -tubers when fed raw to stock may on occasion induce poisoning, unless -fed only in small quantities. - -Footnote 3: - - On the other hand, potatoes grown in a dry sandy soil are stated to - contain more Solanine than those grown in other soils. - -Writing in 1887 Cornevin remarked that Solanine, though neither very -active nor very abundant in Potatoes, nevertheless causes accidents, as -it is cumulative, or, to be more exact, is eliminated slowly. - -_Symptoms._ In poisoning by potato _haulm_, Cornevin records -constipation, loss of appetite, rise in temperature, accelerated -circulation, normal respiration, salivation, tumefaction of eyelids, -eyes watery, conjunctivæ injected, and hair erect. The skin is covered -with scabs which exude matter, the skin being cracked. These scabs are -found especially on the scrotum of male cattle and the udder of female -cattle, but also in the caudal region and round the anus. An examination -of the mouth shows places on the upper jaw which are devoid of mucus and -are purulent at the centre, the mucus round the edges being swollen. The -posterior members are similarly but not so badly affected. Movement of -these members seems to cause the animal much pain. Defecation is -frequent, the fæces being liquid and dark in colour. The animals are -recumbent for a considerable time with the posterior members stretched -out. In the worst cases there is pronounced emaciation. - -According to Friedberger and Fröhner (_vide_ Pammel) animals affected by -potato tops show symptoms resembling those of foot-and-mouth disease. - -According to Pott the _berries_ cause colic and foul smelling diarrhœa -in _cattle_. A German veterinary surgeon after feeding the green plant -observed symptoms of delirium, paralysis, and flatulence. In other cases -trembling and uncertain gait, with paralysis of the spinal cord, have -been observed in _cows_. - -In poisoning by _tubers_ there is depression, loss of appetite, -cessation of lactation, gritting of teeth, profound prostration, with a -remarkable somnolence, but no dilatation of the pupils. The animals -remain recumbent, with closed eyes, and refuse to get up. Respiration is -somewhat retarded, and the pulse is small and accelerated. There are -digestive disturbances, tympanitis, diarrhœa succeeds constipation, and -there is vomiting (where possible). The poisoning is usually fatal. - -Where a large quantity of sprouted Potatoes has been fed the prostration -becomes paraplegia, with loss of sensibility, stupefaction, and death. -Where there is prolonged ingestion of a large quantity of unsprouted -tubers there is prostration, intestinal irritation, rapid emaciation and -death in marasmus after an illness of from one to three weeks -(Cornevin). - -Pott states that potatoes diseased with wet rot, when fed raw, cause -digestive troubles, bloating, diarrhœa, abortion, and decrease in milk -yield, with fatal results in some cases. Potatoes diseased with dry rot -cause constipation in sucking pigs, and a “fishy” butter from cow’s -milk. - -Lander notices two cases of poisoning of _horses_ by tubers. In the -first case the symptoms were a small and weak pulse, normal temperature -and loss of coordination in movements; complete loss of appetite, -excessive thirst, but inability to drink; mydriasis, stertorous -breathing, suspension of peristalsis, and slight tremors over the crural -muscles. In the second case there was a rapid and feeble pulse, -temperature 103° F., intense congestion of the mucous membranes, and -very fœtid diarrhœa, terminating fatally. - -In poisoning of _horses_ after receiving large quantities of raw -Potatoes, Pott records boil-like swellings on the skin, loss of hair, -diarrhœa, inflammation of the stomach and intestines, skin irritation, -and swollen fetlocks and hocks. - -In reference to the horses mentioned above (p. 55) it is stated that an -affected animal seems dull, and dies within twelve hours after being -first observed, without evincing any sign of pain. The first symptoms in -ten cases were weakness and loss of power over the limbs. - -In _cows_ the symptoms (Müller) are loss of appetite, bloating, -diarrhœa, staggering, dilatation of pupils, convulsions, loss of -sensation and paralysis. In many cases, however, these symptoms do not -appear, but instead there are outbreaks on the skin of the hind legs -similar to those in foot-and-mouth disease. Pott mentions abortion as a -symptom. After the ingestion of green Potato parings by dairy cows he -remarks catarrh of the stomach and intestines, and bad milk and cheese; -consumption of diseased Potato parings resulted in the flow of hard -mucus from the mouth, the legs being badly swollen, and covered with -scabs, and the mouth and body covered with boils. Symptoms of paralysis -were noticed after feeding dirty Potato parings to four cows and four -bulls, and one cow died. - -In the case of the cows already referred to (p. 55) as poisoned in -Germany, it was remarked as a noticeable feature in both instances that -there was the appearance of eczema on the hind limbs, causing lameness. - -A case in which _pigs_ were fed on uncooked, sprouted Potatoes is -noticed by Chesnut and Wilcox; there was slowly progressing paralysis, -which became complete after about 24 hours, increased salivation, and a -regurgitation of the stomach contents. According to Pott death may -result in pigs. The symptoms given by Lander for poisoning in pigs are -loss of appetite, dullness, exhaustion, imperceptible pulse, watery -diarrhœa, low temperature and comatose condition. - -In the case of the poisoned soldiers the symptoms were those of acute -gastro-enteritis; rise in temperature to 103° F.; headache, colic, -diarrhœa, general debility; in some cases vomiting, in others nausea -only; several men fainted, and one had convulsions; the majority were -drowsy and apathetic; but all recovered. - - REFERENCES. - - 4, 16, 19, 57, 73, 81, 128, 130, 141, 170, 190, 196, 203, 204, 205, 213. - -=Deadly Nightshade= (_Atropa Belladonna_ L.). This plant has long been -known to be exceedingly poisonous, all parts containing a toxic -principle. Both man and domestic animals may be poisoned, though the -latter are very unlikely to touch the plant. As regards man, children -are most likely to be affected, owing to the attractive character of the -large bright black berries. Domestic animals appear to be rarely -poisoned and are less affected than man, and in any case the -susceptibility of various species—and even individuals of the same -species—is very variable. Human beings are most susceptible, followed by -the cat and dog; the horse is much less so; and the pig, goat, sheep, -and rabbit are little susceptible to poisoning, even on eating the -root—the most poisonous part (Cornevin). Gohier and others have given -over 2 lb. of the green plant to horses without ill effects, and this -repeated on three days did not cause marked pathological troubles. -Hertwig considered large ruminants to be more sensible than horses to -the action of Belladonna. It appears to be agreed that small ruminants -are very slightly susceptible to this plant. Birds are considered almost -insensitive, while rabbits may be fed for weeks on the leaves without -poisoning, as also sheep, goats, and pigs. Horses and cattle are more -sensitive but nevertheless resistant. The poison is no doubt quickly -removed by the kidneys, since ordinary injection of Belladonna causes -the usual symptoms. It is stated that the flesh of rabbits and birds -which have eaten the plant and have been slaughtered apparently healthy -is poisonous to man. - -One berry can induce symptoms of human poisoning, and a child died after -eating only three berries. Mortality in human cases of poisoning by -Belladonna is given by Kanngiesser as 10 per cent. - -_Toxic Principle._ Deadly Nightshade is the source of drugs widely used -in medicine, and its properties as regards man have been extensively -studied. The principal substance present is the alkaloid _Hyoscyamine_ -(C_{17}H_{23}O_{3}N), readily converted into _Atropine_ -(C_{17}H_{23}O_{3}N); _Scopolamine_ or _Hyoscine_ (C_{17}H_{21}O_{4}N), -and in smaller quantity _Apoatropine_, and _Belladonine_ are also -present. - -All parts of the plant contain the toxic alkaloids, but in unequal -degree. The total quantity of the alkaloids is largest in the roots (0·4 -to 1 per cent.), which in the fresh state contain no Atropine, but only -Hyoscyamine; the leaves and fruits contain less of the alkaloids, and -cultivated plants have been found to be poorer (0·26 per cent.) than -wild (0·4 per cent). The root has been found to be five times as toxic -as the berries. Drying does not destroy the poisonous properties. - -_Symptoms._ In quantities which are not fatal the symptoms are nausea, -dilatation of pupils, muscular weakness, stumbling, falling, and rising -only to fall again. These are followed by vertigo, frenzy, and coma -(more rarely). There is a slight slackening in respiration, and an -increase in the rapidity of the heart’s action. Dysury and constipation -are observed. - -In fatal quantities the symptoms are more intense and make their -appearance more rapidly. The nausea is accompanied by vomiting, and -there is almost complete loss of sight. Sensitiveness is at first -increased but later diminishes and gradually disappears; complete -incoordination of movements; increase in the heart’s action but a -gradually weakening pulse; stertorous, painful respiration; decrease in -temperature. There is repeated urination at the commencement of the -poisoning, and then dysury. At the approach of death there are muscular -trembling and clonic contractions. This phase of convulsions is short -but very clear in some cases: other cases do not leave the deep coma in -which they are plunged (Cornevin). - -In regard to _cattle_, the following symptoms are given by Müller: -Injury to sight, dilatation of pupils, constipation, later bloody -evacuations, pain in hind limbs, rapid pulse, difficult breathing, -restlessness, frenzy and finally paralysis. - - REFERENCES. - - 4, 16, 61, 73, 81, 128, 138, 143, 151, 157, 161, 190, 205. - - - - - CHAPTER V - SCROPHULARINEÆ - - -=Foxglove= (_Digitalis purpurea_ L.). The Foxglove has been recognized -as poisonous for centuries, and one of its trivial names is Dead Men’s -Bells—a name suggestive of the consequences of taking it. It is the -source of the well-known drug; and cases of human poisoning have been -very common, though by no means always fatal—indeed, Esser says “seldom -resulting in death.” Animals are not known to touch this plant, but it -may possibly be included in rough meadow hay, though only one case, in -which two cows and a horse became ill after eating hay containing dry -foxgloves, has come to notice (_Veterinary Record_, 1906). Cornevin, -however, experimented on animals, and found the following amounts of -fresh leaves capable of causing death in the animals specified:— - - Horse 120–140 grammes (4 to 5 oz.) - Ox 160–180 „ (5·5 to 6·5 oz.) - Sheep 25– 30 „ (0·88 to 1 oz.) - Pig 15– 20 „ (0·5 to 0·7 oz.) - -The weight of dried leaves would be only one-fourth of these figures. - -All parts of the foxglove are poisonous, but especially the seeds, and -the leaves are more active before than after the flowering period. -Cultivated varieties are stated to be less toxic than the wild species. -The effects of poisoning may terminate fatally in a few hours, or if -small quantities are taken regularly the poison may be cumulative and -induce chronic poisoning. - -_Toxic Principle._ The foxglove contains several poisonous glucosides, -investigated by Kiliani, Schmiedeberg, Cloette, Bourquelot, Herzig, and -others. The following substances are toxic: _Digitalin_ -(C_{35}H_{56}O_{14} or C_{36}H_{58}O_{14}) in the seeds and leaves; -_Digitonin_ (C_{54}H_{92}O_{28} or C_{55}H_{94}O_{28}) in the seeds; -_Digitalein_, only in small quantity; _Digitoxin_ (C_{34}H_{54}O_{11}) -in the leaves; and _Digitin_. The toxic property of the foxglove is not -lost on drying or boiling. - -_Symptoms._ Digitalis is an active heart poison, and causes nausea, -pressure in the region of the stomach, with diminished pulse, darkening -of the field of vision, dizziness, buzzing in the ears, and usually -dilated pupils. - -According to Pammel the symptoms in animals are dullness, lassitude, -loss of appetite, nausea, flatulence, diarrhœa; infrequent, full pulse -(reduced 6–10 beats in the horse); and contracted pupils. In fatal cases -these symptoms are followed by severe colic and tympanites; rapid, -feeble, dicrotic, irregular or intermittent pulse (120–140 in horses), -while the heart may be heard and felt beating wildly and strongly, and a -systolic blowing murmur can frequently be detected. This is due to -mitral or tricuspid regurgitation caused by irregular contraction of the -columnæ carnæ. The pulse is imperceptible because of the failure of the -heart to fill the vessels. The extremities are cold, the eye is -protruding, and salivation occurs. Bloody diarrhœa is very often present -and the urine may be suppressed. The breathing finally becomes difficult -and death ensues within a few hours, or as late as several days. - -The following account of the symptoms of poisoning in various animals is -collected by Lander:— - -Horses. On the first day sleepiness, swollen eyelids, dilated pupils, -injected conjunctivæ, considerable swelling in submaxillary space; -respiration normal, temperature 103·5° F.; pulse full, between 65 and -75, very intermittent, being occasionally normal; the second heart sound -frequently obliterated. On the next day laboured breathing, head -immensely swollen, tongue greatly enlarged and protruding, pulse 80 and -most erratic, temperature very slightly up, great restlessness. -Respiration became more difficult and stertorous, tongue and buccal -membranes livid, jugular standing out. - -A mare experimentally poisoned showed on the _third day_ dullness and -loss of appetite; _fourth day_ nauseated; nose, mouth, and ears cold; -abdomen blown, with colicky pain, and occasional pawing; pupil somewhat -contracted, pulse firm at axilla and heart, but not perceptible at jaw; -at 4.30 p.m. she was down, much pained, and attempting to roll; pulse -82, but unequal; _fifth day_, pulse, imperceptible at jaw, about 120; -respiration 25, and very much laboured: lips retracted and saliva -dripping from the mouth; enormous abdominal tympanites, and much pain; -rapid sinking: died _sixth day_. - -Cows. Fed erratically, breathed hard, lay down after feeding. Pulse -almost imperceptible, contracted pupil, and excessive urination. - -Pigs. Languid and sleepy: refused to eat or drink, attempting to vomit -and repeatedly passing small quantities of fæces. Urination was scanty -and strained. - -In a case of poisoning among horses to which Müller refers the animals -had an exhausted appearance, there was loss of appetite, increasing -thirst, often also colic, and later diarrhœa, urination often in great -quantity, and staggering. Some of the animals died after a few days in -convulsions. - - REFERENCES. - - 4, 16, 73, 76, 79, 81, 161, 170, 187, 190, 203, 204, 205, 213, 229, 252, - 257. - -=Lousewort= (_Pedicularis_, sp.). Two species of lousewort are involved, -_P. palustris_ L. and _P. sylvatica_ L., and though both are regarded as -poisonous the extent to which they are so is not well known. They have -an unpleasant smell and sharp taste, and are in general refused by all -classes of stock. _P. sylvatica_ may be eaten when young (Cornevin). -Lindley says that both plants are acrid, but are eaten by goats. _P. -palustris_ is regarded by Pott as an acutely poisonous plant, especially -for sheep. A decoction of these plants was formerly used against lice, -and hence the trivial name. - -_Toxic Principle._ Very little appears to be known about the poisonous -principle, but, like _Rhinanthus_ and _Melampyrum_, they have been found -to contain the glucoside _Rhinanthin_ (see p. 96). - -_Symptoms._ The plants are held to be emetic and purgative; to cause -inflammation of the digestive tract, and to cause anæmia in cattle. -Brugmann stated (_vide_ Cornevin) that if, pressed by hunger, animals -eat _P. palustris_, the first consequence is hæmaturia. Müller also -notes hæmaturia. - - REFERENCES. - - 73, 76, 81, 190, 203, 213. - - - POLYGONACEÆ. - -=Docks= (_Rumex_ sp.). In general it is probable that but little harm is -done by species of _Rumex_, but owing to the fact that Common Sorrel -(_R. Acetosa_ L.) and Sheep’s Sorrel (_R. Acetosella_ L.) contain acid -oxalates they may on occasion prove injurious. Instances have been -recorded in which children have suffered from eating the leaves of the -former species in considerable quantity, and both species have been -accused by veterinary surgeons of poisoning horses and sheep, some sheep -even dying. Pammel states that the Curled Dock (_R. crispus_ L.) induces -nausea, watery brown fæces, copious urination, dry spasmodic cough, and -perspiration; but no record of the death of animals has been found. - -In regard to _R. Acetosella_ it is stated that in the _horse_ a -condition may be produced resembling drunkenness, with vacillating gait, -salivation, muscular tremors, dilatation of pupils, relaxation of -sphincters, and a feeble, slow, and intermittent pulse: then convulsive -contraction of lips, retraction of the eyeball, accelerated and -stertorous breathing, extreme dilatation of the nostrils, tetanic -contraction of the muscles of the neck, back, and limbs, abundant -sweating and falling. In bad cases after a period of extreme exhaustion, -these symptoms are repeated, and death occurs in convulsions (Cornevin). - -The acid oxalates seem especially harmful to _sheep_, causing loss of -appetite, exhaustion, small and scarcely perceptible pulse, rapid -breathing, and constipation, and in many cases severe diarrhœa, -uncertain gait, and sometimes death (Müller). - -The milk of affected cows is with difficulty made into butter (Pott). - - REFERENCES. - - 73, 141, 190, 203, 233. - -=Polygonum= sp. Several species of _Polygonum_ are said to have -poisonous properties. The chief among them is Buckwheat (_P. -Fagopyrum_), the grain of which is widely grown as a food for both man -and live stock. This plant, particularly the flowers, has given rise to -a well-known rash in man, cattle, sheep, and pigs, with congestion and -tumefaction—especially of the head and ears. There is also nervous -disturbance, with agitation and hallucination—sheep, for example, may -butt against objects. The affection of the nervous centres may lead to -fatal results, which have followed in cattle, sheep, and pigs. Little is -known of this so-called _Fagopyrism_, but after analytical and -spectroscopical researches on the colouring matter of the tegument Kurt -concluded that it is due to the chlorophyll. - -Persicaria (_P. Persicaria_ L.) and Water-pepper (_P. hydropiper_ L.) -are also stated to be harmful, though the former has been considered a -nutritious plant and has been given to horses and cattle as a green -food. - -Both species, however, are said to cause a rash, and to contain -injurious narcotic substances. Persicaria is stated by Müller to have -caused inflammation of the bladder and the digestive tract in pigs, and -Water-pepper to have caused hæmaturia; fatal results have followed. Pott -records similar symptoms. In regard to Persicaria it should be noted -that it varies considerably in general form, and may possibly vary also -in acridity. Bentham and Hooker state of _P. hydropiper_ that “the whole -plant is more or less acrid or biting to the taste.” - - REFERENCES. - - 17, 19, 73, 190, 204, 213. - - - THYMELACEÆ. - -=Mezereon= (_Daphne Mezereum_ L.) and =Spurge Laurel= (_D. Laureola_ -L.). Both of these species are acrid and poisonous, and cases of the -death of horses due to the spurge laurel are recorded by Lander. In -general, however, animals will not eat the plants, and indeed, in one of -the cases mentioned by Lander the dried leaves were administered for -worms. Should they touch these plants most animals would probably refuse -them on account of their bitter taste. The berries are tempting to -children, and Pratt says “Death has resulted from eating but a few of -these berries (_D. Mezereum_); and Dr. Christison relates a case of a -child, in Edinburgh, who died from eating them, while another is -recorded by Linnæus of a young lady to whom twelve of the berries were -given as a medicine in intermittent fever, and who soon died in -consequence of their corrosive poison. Four berries produced thirst, -sense of heat in the mouth and throat, and also fever, in a man who ate -them; and they are proved to be poisonous to dogs and foxes.” Blyth -states that 30 grammes (1 oz.) of the powdered bark is a lethal dose for -a horse, but smaller doses of the fresh leaves may be deadly (Pammel). - -_Toxic Principle._ All parts of these plants are acrid and poisonous, -especially the bark and berries. They contain the bitter, astringent, -and poisonous glucoside _Daphnin_ (C_{30}H_{34}O_{19}—or C_{15}H_{16}0_9 -according to Van Rijn), an acrid resin (Mezerein), and a _vesicating -fatty oil_. (Pott remarks that Daphnin is believed to be harmless, but -that Mezerein has poisonous effects.) Drying does not destroy the -poisonous property. - -_Symptoms._ The Daphnes are severely purgative, cause burning in the -mouth and throat, and in severe cases have narcotic effects and give -rise to convulsions. - -Lander gives the symptoms as intense colic, constipation, followed by -dysentery and copious evacuations of fæces streaked with mucus, blood, -and intestinal epithelium. Drowsiness between the spasms. - -According to Müller there is inflammation of the stomach and intestines -(with colic, vomiting, severe diarrhœa, passing of blood), inflammation -of the kidneys (with strangury, bloody urination), and in many cases -nervous symptoms (weakness, giddiness, and convulsions). - -In a case observed by Lander, in the horse, there was abdominal pain, -staggering gait, anxious countenance, laboured breathing, pulse 80, -temperature 103·2° F., bowels normal. On the following day there was -excessive purgation, pulse 120, temperature 104·2° F., and death -occurred at mid-day. - - REFERENCES. - - 73, 76, 81, 130, 141, 170, 190, 203, 213, 216, 240. - - - EUPHORBIACEÆ. - -=Spurges= (_Euphorbia_ sp.). Many species of Spurge must be regarded as -acrid, purgative, and poisonous. Live stock are not likely to touch -them, owing to the acrid effect of the milky juice on the mouth. - -The Caper Spurge (_E. Lathyris_ L.) contains an acrid, emetic, and -highly purgative milky juice, and the fruits have commonly been employed -by country folk as a purge, and also as a pickle, though they are -dangerous and should not be so used. Pratt records a case in which five -women ate the pickled fruits with boiled mutton, and all suffered severe -pain and burning in the stomach, and showed other symptoms attendant on -irritant poisoning—and though all recovered the illness was severe. Used -in this manner, indeed, they have given rise to serious cases of human -poisoning. Only very young animals are said to eat it, but cattle in the -United States are said to be “quite resistant to its influence, but they -are sometimes overcome.” According to Chesnut goats eat this plant -extensively, and it is said that their milk then possesses all the -venomous properties. - -Petty Spurge (_E. Peplus_ L.) is somewhat similar to the Caper Spurge in -poisonous properties, and fatal poisoning has occurred through a boy -eating it. - -Sun Spurge (_E. Helioscopia_ L.) is similarly poisonous to the preceding -species. It has caused fatal poisoning to a boy who ate it. In Germany -cows were poisoned through pasturing in stubble in which the plant was -growing, but there were no deaths. - -_Toxic Principles._ The milky juice of these spurges contains highly -acrid poisonous substances, which have not been individually and fully -investigated. Drying may reduce the toxicity but does not eliminate it. - -_Symptoms._ As regards _E. Lathyris_ Chesnut says that on the skin the -juice causes redness, itching, pimples, and sometimes gangrene. The -seeds when eaten inflame the mouth and stomach, cause vomiting and -intense diarrhœa, and if the illness is serious, nervous disorders, -unconsciousness, collapse, and death. - -The _Euphorbias_ have an acrid effect on the mouth, and severe poisoning -may follow their use as aperients—burning mouth, swelling tongue, -stomach pains, cold skin, vertigo, fainting or syncope, and even death -in two or three days (Esser). - -Similar symptoms are given by Cornevin, who states that the Euphorbias -have an irritating effect on the mucous membrane, especially at the back -of the mouth. In from three quarters of an hour to two hours after -eating the plant, or even longer, there is painful vomiting, followed by -diarrhœic evacuations, with a lowering of the temperature. If the -quantity ingested has been sufficient there appear also nervous -symptoms, vertigo, delirium, muscular tremors, and respiratory and -circulatory troubles which disappear after abundant sweating if the -poisoning is not fatal. If it is fatal the symptoms of superpurgation -and enteritis predominate, but are accompanied by nervous symptoms and -circulatory disorders. - -Müller gives in addition loss of appetite, piteous whining (in goats), -groaning, colic and tympanites; and Pott, bloating, fever, palpitation -of the heart, and loss of consciousness. Cows gave a reddish or -sharp-tasting milk. Milk of affected goats caused diarrhœa human beings. - - REFERENCES. - - 19, 52, 53, 73, 81, 82, 130, 141, 190, 213, 216. - -=Dog’s Mercury= (_Mercurialis perennis_ L.) and =Annual Mercury= (_M. -annua_ L.). These two species may be taken together as they have similar -poisonous properties, and closely resemble one another, though the -former is a perennial and the latter an annual. The plants have a -somewhat unpleasant odour, and live stock are not likely to take them -unless pressed for readily available green food. The loss of one cow and -severe illness of four others was recorded by Blackhurst in the -_Veterinary Journal_ in 1896; Güssow mentioned the loss of cows in the -_Farmer and Stock Breeder Yearbook_, 1907; the loss of horses fed on -herbage cut from a hedge and containing _M. perennis_ was recorded in -the _Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society_ in 1898; the loss of -sheep was recorded by Henslow. As regards man, Ray records a case in -which a family of five persons suffered severely from eating _M. annua_ -fried with bacon. Fishermen ate it with soup and all were seriously ill -an hour later, with symptoms of irritant narcotic poisoning; two -children died the next day. Cornevin saw _M. annua_ used, after boiling, -as a food for pigs, without ill consequences, in the east of France. -This is believed to be due to the poison being volatile and destroyed by -heat or boiling; hence in hay the plant is harmless, though Pott says -that even in hay stock avoid it. - -_Toxic Principle._ The poisonous properties are said to be due to -_Mercurialine, Oil of Euphorbia_, a volatile toxic alkaloid. Esser -states that the stem and leaves of _M. annua_ contain _Trimethylamine_, -which may perhaps be a decomposition product of _Choline_, a poisonous -base. - -_Symptoms._ Both plants are emetic and dangerously purgative, causing -irritant and narcotic symptoms. Veterinary observation has shown that -the poison is cumulative, and that it is usually after the weed has -formed part of the food for 7, 8, or 10 days that symptoms first appear. -In the case recorded by Blackhurst (see above) the cows suffered from -inflammation of the digestive tract, with severe purging and loss of -blood. The secretion of milk entirely stopped. One cow died, but three -recovered in about four days. The fifth was not convalescent for three -weeks and then had a permanently curved and injured neck, the muscles -being subsequently found rich in fibrous tissue, and the last three -joints partially anchylosed. Rabbits were tested by feeding two on the -leaves, two on the stems and roots, and two on the ground seeds mixed -with oatmeal; the first two were unaffected, but the other four died in -a few hours, showing drowsiness and suffering, while the post-mortem -showed gastritis. - -The digestive and urinary tracts are affected. There is indigestion with -slight bloating, then colic of varying intensity, and at first diarrhœa -which may give place later to constipation; hæmaturia; micturition is -frequent, painful, and the urine is blackish and bloody; dullness, -weakness, loss of appetite and refusal of food; the heart beats very -strongly, the pulse is rapid, and the mucous membrane of the eye is -reddish-yellow in colour. There is no modification of respiration -(Cornevin). - -According to Müller, however, the symptoms at _first_ include -constipation and _later_ severe and bloody diarrhœa. - -In cattle Pott states that _M. annua_ causes inflammation of the stomach -and intestines, bloody urine, paralysis of bladder, fœtid diarrhœa, -abortion, and bluish coloured milk deficient in fat. Müller states that -there is occasionally blood in the milk. According to Lander there is in -cows excessive bloody purgation, cessation of lactation, temperature -105° F., pulse 90, and increased respiration. The illness is protracted -over several weeks, the animals being comatose after the first symptoms. - - REFERENCES. - - 73, 81, 112, 130, 146, 170, 190, 205, 213, 255. - -=Box= (_Buxus sempervirens_ L.). Farm live-stock may occasionally have -the opportunity of browsing on box, or clippings may be thrown to them -with other green herbage from gardens. Care should be taken that -clippings are otherwise disposed of. All parts of the plant are bitter -and have been proved to be poisonous. The bitter taste tends to prevent -animals eating sufficient of the plant to cause serious injury. Pigs -have died a day after eating the leaves. Horses also were killed by -eating 750 grammes (1·6 lb.) of the foliage. - -_Toxic Principles._ Fauré found in the bark and leaves of box the toxic -alkaloid _Buxine_, but it was believed that there were other toxic -substances, since analysis showed the leaves to be less rich in Buxine -than the bark, while they are three times as active. Other substances -occurring in box are _Parabuxine_, _Buxinidine_, and _Parabuxinidine_. - -_Symptoms._ Small amounts have an emetic and purgative action; with -average amounts, there are, in addition, nervous symptoms, lameness, -muscular tremors, vertigo, then a period of coma. Large amounts cause -death with intense abdominal pains, dysenteric flux, tenesmus, -convulsions, respiratory and circulatory troubles. - -Pigs are chiefly affected after eating the leaves, exhibiting great -thirst, uncertain gait and delirium, while death occurs within -twenty-four hours. - -Pott gives the general symptoms as sickness, diarrhœa, giddiness, -stupefaction, convulsive movements, and colic. - - REFERENCES. - - 4, 16, 73, 128, 190, 205, 213, 235. - - - AMENTACEÆ. - -=The Oak= (_Quercus_ sp.). Injury to stock from the Oak has been due in -the first place to the leaves, and in the second to the acorns. In -regard to the leaves no injury appears to have been recorded in Britain, -but Cornevin devotes attention only to poisoning by the leaves, which in -special circumstances have caused serious accidents to animals which -have eaten them. In France, cattle taken to the forests for grazing -purposes browse on the young shoots and leaves of the oak, and after -some days there arises a trouble long known as _Mal de Brou_ or _Maladie -des Bois_, which may end fatally, sometimes even in 24 hours (see -_Symptoms_ below). A case was also reported from Nebraska in 1903, ten -head of cattle having apparently died from eating oak leaves, the -trimmings from trees. The stomachs were full of the leaves, and the -intestines had the appearance of being burned in places. There was no -evidence of impaction. When the cut branches were removed no more cattle -were lost. - -Serious losses have been caused through the ingestion of acorns by young -cattle not over about two years old, the years 1808, 1870, 1884, and -1900 being especially noteworthy in this respect. Cattle over three -years old have seldom been affected, while sheep and pigs, if not immune -to “acorn poisoning,” are but slightly affected. Müller, however, states -that horses, cattle, sheep, and goats are affected; 9 quarts (10 litres) -taken in four days were sufficient to cause poisoning in the case of a -bullock. It is believed by some observers that half-ripe acorns—_e.g._ -acorns which may drop owing to drought—are more injurious than -thoroughly ripened acorns. - -Some authorities appear to be of the opinion that “acorn poisoning” is -not actually poisoning, but a serious form of indigestion. If this be so -the symptoms must be regarded as exceedingly severe. There is no doubt -that “acorn poisoning” is not well understood, but a great deal has been -observed and written on the subject, and there is clear evidence that -acorns may reasonably be held to be poisonous. It must be pointed out, -however, that the poisoning does not usually follow on the consumption -of acorns in small quantities, but is commonly due to full meals of -acorns taken in periods when there is a dearth of herbage. By proper -preparation and storage acorns have been converted into a most useful -food for horses, cattle and sheep (_Jour. Bd. Agric._, Sept. 1914 and -Feb. 1916, and Leaflet No. 291 of the Bd. Agric., _The Food Value of -Acorns, Horse-Chestnuts and Beech Mast_). In Germany it has been found -that acorns fed to fowls caused diminished egg-laying, which finally -ceased, while the yolks of eggs laid were discoloured a dirty brown -(_Jour. Bd. Agric._, Dec. 1915, p. 902). - -_Toxic Principle._ The facts as to acorn poisoning and oak-leaf -poisoning are not clearly known, and the actual toxic substance is -similarly not certainly known. It is probable, however, that it consists -of _Tannin_, or substances which give rise to Tannin. - -_Symptoms._ In relation to _Maladie des Bois_ due to leaves, Cornevin -gives the symptoms as loss of appetite; less (and more difficult) -rumination; constipation, which increases; lying down, animals looking -at their flank as in colic, followed by rising and attempts to urinate, -with passing of rosy-coloured liquid in jets; loss of milk production, -which may drop to nothing; fever, trembling, enfeebled condition. - -Three or four days after the commencement of illness rumination is -completely suspended; there is stamping of the feet, colic, retracted -stomach, pulse hard, heart agitated, accelerated respiration, violent -muscular shocks, and frequent urination. The urine is always dark in -colour, but varies from clear red to dark black, nut-brown being usual. -Cases are only serious when a fœtid, frothy, and abundant dysentery -succeeds constipation, in which case there is rapid emaciation and -death. - -Usually the course of the illness is not rapid; but occasionally there -is immediate and bloody urination with violent colic and sometimes -intestinal hæmorrhage, death occurring in 24 hours. - -In poisoning by _acorns_ there is progressive wasting, entire loss of -appetite, diarrhœa, discharge of an excessive quantity of pale urine, -sore places inside the mouth, discharge from the nostrils, and also from -the eyes, which are always sunken, giving the animal a peculiar haggard -expression. There is no fever; on the contrary, the temperature is -commonly below normal, though in some cases stated to be above normal. - -Müller remarks on the severe constipation, followed by dysenteric -diarrhœa, caused by acorns, especially when eaten in the half-ripe -condition, horses, cattle, sheep, and goats being affected. - -The experimental poisoning of a young steer and a young sheep by fully -ripe acorns was described in 1871 (_Jour. R.A.S.E._, 1871). In the steer -the symptoms were a semi-conscious condition, weak pulse, pallid -membranes, cold surface of body, torpid bowels, slow breathing, -twitchings of muscles, and a disposition to maintain a recumbent -position. Inflammation was entirely absent. The symptoms increased in -severity day by day; there ensued a copious flow of colourless urine; a -mucopurulent discharge from the eyes and nostrils. No impairment of -health followed the feeding of acorns to the sheep. - -Thorburn (_Veterinary Journal_, Feb., 1902) mentions loss of appetite, -grunting, disinclination to move, prostration, icy coldness of -extremities, very rapid emaciation (this sometimes was particularly -noticeable), pulse very small and weak (in some cases almost -imperceptible), temperature high (105° to 107° F.,) and constipation -succeeded by watery diarrhœa. - -Brookes and Yeomans described (_Veterinary Journal_, 1912) an instance -in which 30 animals were affected and 9 died. The chief symptoms were a -dull and depressed appearance, entire absence of appetite and -rumination, a weak feeble pulse, subnormal temperature and -disinclination to move. Three cases showed a mucous and blood-tinged -discharge from the nostrils and anus, and these all died, one eight days -after being seen and the other two the day afterwards. Obstinate -stoppage was noticeable in all cases, and the fæces were inky black, -stinking and very thick. Yeomans observed similar symptoms of acute -digestive disturbance; later the eyes had a sunken appearance, diarrhœa -set in, the fæces being dark coloured, offensive and bloodstained. The -temperature was at first normal and later subnormal, and in fatal cases -death took place in from 3 to 7 days. - - REFERENCES. - - 4, 13, 20, 26, 29, 70, 73, 130, 144, 190, 240, 255. - - - CONIFERÆ. - -The only Conifer which commonly causes poisoning of live-stock is the -Yew, but injury might more frequently occur were it not for the fact -that Conifers generally are unpleasant to the taste, and are hence -avoided by stock. Many species, however, contain _Tannin_, _Resins_ and -_Gums_, _Volatile Oils_, and an acrid substance which may cause -inflammation of the digestive and urinary tracts, while Tanret found in -the young shoots of _Picea_ the bitter glucoside _Picein_ -(C_{14}H_{18}O_{7}H_{2}O); Kawalier and Thal found the intensely bitter -glucoside _Pinipicrin_ (C_{22}H_{36}O_{11}) in _Pinus sylvestris_, -_Thuja occidentalis_ and _Juniperus Sabina_; and Kubel isolated -_Coniferin_ or _Abietin_ (C_{16}H_{22}O_{8}), a slightly bitter -glucoside found in _Abies excelsa_, _A. pectinata_, _Pinus strobus_, -_Larix europæa_ and other conifers. It is not clear, however, whether -these substances are at all poisonous. It is quite possible that if -eaten in quantity the foliage of some Conifers may induce poisonous -symptoms and even death in the animals concerned. It is noteworthy, -however, that according to Pott the needles of _Picea excelsa_, _Abies -pectinata_, _Larix europæa_, and _Pinus_ sp. are, in the mountainous -districts of Steiermark, Kärnten, and Tyrol, extensively fed to cattle -and sheep, usually as a supplementary food, either fresh or dried and -ground up—chiefly perhaps as an appetiser, and in small quantities as a -dietetic; _Juniperus_ sp. are similarly utilised in some districts. It -is not known to what extent the foliage may be fed without harmful -consequences, but Pott states that large quantities can cause hæmaturia -and similar effects, and hence only small quantities should be used, and -even so may impart a bad flavour to the milk of cows. All green needles -frequently cause digestive troubles. - -A case has recently (January, 1916) been reported to the author in which -a Douglas Fir was cut down and a small branch about 4 ft. long was flung -over into a field. Two sheep nipped off the bark and nearly died, but -both vomited and recovered. The farmer reporting this experience recalls -that over 30 years ago, after a gale, a lot of trees were blown down in -a small plantation, and in severe weather the sheep ate the bark to such -an extent that 80 of them aborted, while of the ewes which did not eat -the bark none aborted, so that it would appear that the bark of Scotch -Fir and Spruce was to blame for the loss. - -The foliage of the Yew (_see_ below) is well known to be dangerously -poisonous to stock, and has caused many losses. - -In regard to _Cupressus_ the only cases of poisoning which have been -traced are recorded in _The Journal of the Board of Agriculture_ -(October, 1905). These cases were reported as follows:— - -“Two instances have recently come before the Board in which the death of -cattle has been attributed to the poisonous effects of _Cupressus -macrocarpa_ and _C. nootkatensis_. In one case four bullocks died, and -on the internal organs being forwarded by the owner to the Royal -Veterinary College, Professor McFadyean reported that from the inflamed -condition of the fourth stomach and from the description of the symptoms -he had little doubt that the cause of death was irritant poison. Some -pieces of _Cupressus macrocarpa_ were found in their stomachs, and in -default of any other explanation it was suggested that this plant might -have some poisonous properties. - -“In another case three heifers are stated to have suffered from irritant -poison; one of them died, but the other two recovered on removal to -another field. The veterinary surgeon in this case also attributed the -death to a Cupressus (_C. nootkatensis_) growing by the side of the -field. - -“The Board have no information as to the poisonous properties of these -two species, nor can any record be found of any similar case which would -tend to confirm the suspicion that they are poisonous to cattle.” - - REFERENCES. - - 4, 16, 76, 144, 213, 252. - -=Yew= (_Taxus baccata_ L.). As stated above, the Yew is the only British -conifer that is likely to prove seriously poisonous to live stock. It -has unfortunately caused the death of many horses and cattle, while -asses, mules, deer, pigs, rabbits, and pheasants have also been -poisoned. Many cases of fatal human poisoning have also occurred. For -example, the poisoning of a horse, and of cattle, horses, and deer were -mentioned respectively in 1885 and 1893 (_Jour. Roy. Agric. Soc._). -“Through eating the poisonous leaves of a Yew tree, four cross-bred -cattle were found dead in a shrubbery at Elmswell, near Driffield” -(_Daily Mail_, 13th Dec., 1913). Many cases of poisoning and death of -animals due to eating the foliage direct from the trees have been -recorded in the veterinary journals—e.g. the death of 15 cattle in _The -Veterinary News_, 7th Dec., 1912. Tegetmeier recorded the death of -pheasants due to Yew leaves and seeds (_The Field_, 11th Nov., 1893). On -the other hand many cases have been recorded in which fatal results have -not followed the ingestion of the leaves, and it appears that the lower -branches of Yew trees in parks are constantly cropped by cattle without -ill effects. (_Trans. Chem. Soc._, 1902; _Jour. Bd. Agric._, 1903). - -The bark, leaves, and seeds are all poisonous, the leaves usually being -the parts eaten. Henslow states that of 32 cases of Yew poisoning 9 were -due to the berries and the remainder to the leaves, while 20 of the 32 -cases were fatal. In 1879 R. Modlen published a circumstantial account -of children poisoned at Oxford by the fruits, and demonstrated that the -arillus or scarlet mucilaginous cup surrounding the ripe seed is not -poisonous, but that the seeds are so. Apart from idiosyncrasy of -appetite stock are perhaps more likely to eat the dark green foliage of -the Yew in winter or during scarcity of green fodder than at other -times. The old leaves or shoots are the most poisonous parts. - -By experiments with autumn and winter leaves Cornevin found that the -following quantities would be necessary to kill various animals:— - - Horse 0·2 lb. per 100 lb. live weight. - Ass and Mule 0·16 lb. „ „ - Cow and Sheep 1·0 lb. „ „ - Goat 1·2 lb. „ „ - Pig 0·3 lb. „ „ - Rabbit 2·0 lb. „ „ - -Other authorities, however, quote much lower quantities as necessary to -kill the horse and ox, and Pott says that in the case of horses 150 to -180 grammes (0·33 to 0·4 lb.) is sufficient to cause death in -one-quarter to one-half an hour, without previous symptoms. Eaten by an -animal on a full stomach a small quantity of Yew may cause little or no -dangerous results. - -_Toxic Principle._ The researches of Marmé pointed to the alkaloid -_Taxine_ (C_{37}H_{52}NO_{10}) as the toxic substance. Later -investigations of Thorpe and Stubbs confirmed this view, and it is -generally agreed that this substance is the toxic principle, though -doubts as to its being the only poison have been expressed. Taxine has a -bitter taste, is a heart depressant, and may cause death from -suffocation. The yew also contains a considerable quantity of _Formic -Acid_, and the acrid, irritant volatile _Oil of Yew_. - -Thorpe and Stubbs (_Trans. Chem. Soc._, 1902) found in the fresh leaves -of the common Yew from 0·1 to 0·18 per cent. of Taxine. In an -investigation of the Irish Yew (_T. baccata_ var. _fastigiata_) Moss -found Taxine present as follows:— - - Leaves from female tree, fresh 0·596 per cent. - Leaves from female tree, fresh 0·623 „ - Seeds from fruit of same tree 0·079 „ - Another female tree—leaves 0·323 „ - Another female tree—seeds 0·082 „ - -In the leaves of the male common Yew Moss found 0·082 per cent. of -Taxine, or less than one-half the quantity found by Thorpe and Stubbs. - -_Symptoms._ The Yew is irritant and narcotic, and the poison is not -cumulative, but on the other hand rapidly effective, so that animals may -die apparently suddenly, no previous symptoms having been observed. - -When small quantities only have been taken the closest attention is -necessary to discern the symptoms, which simply consist in a little -excitement with a slight rise in temperature. - -With larger (but not fatal) quantities the first symptom, excitement, is -more pronounced and is followed by nausea, and (where possible) -vomiting. There is a pronounced slackening of respiration and -circulation, the pulse being small, slow, and difficult to perceive, and -the movement of the flanks very slow; sensibility is diminished. There -is a fall in temperature, the skin and extremities being cold. The head -is lowered, the eyes are closed and there is decubitus. In some cases -pregnant animals have aborted. In the _horse_ there are muscular tremors -and frequent urination. In _cattle_ and _sheep_ rumination is suspended -and there is more or less pronounced tympanites, with eructation, -nausea, and sometimes vomiting. _Pigs_ bury the head in the litter and -sleep, their sleep being interrupted from time to time by nausea and -groaning; or the animals rise, stagger about, and lie down again. - -With fatal quantities the foregoing symptoms may be followed by coma, -with death in two hours or more after the poisoning, but more generally -and usually in horses, asses, and mules (but also in cattle) there is no -period of coma, the excitement is less pronounced and often unobserved, -and death appears very sudden. The animals stop, shake their heads, -respiration is modified, there is falling, and death (sometimes with -convulsions) results from cessation of the heart’s action (Cornevin). - -The symptoms given by Müller are roaring, torpidity, stupefaction, -laboured breathing, convulsions and death in from ten minutes to an hour -in the worst cases; or where the course of poisoning is slower, there is -salivation, nausea, vomiting, bloating, retardation of pulse and -respiration, great giddiness and stupefaction, diabetes and hæmaturia. - -The rapidity of the poisoning is confirmed by cases noted in the -veterinary journals. Lander shows that the effects often only appear in -cattle when chewing the cud; whilst quietly chewing, they drop as if -shot. In some examples the animal died while eating the plant, or was -found to have fallen and died suddenly and without evidence of a -struggle. The animal in some cases will stop suddenly whilst working, -start blowing and trembling, stagger, fall on its haunches, then on its -side, and die quietly. Death occurs in about five minutes with symptoms -resembling apoplexy. A colt died after 16 or 17 hours; the plant was -taken on a full stomach, but paralysis of the alimentary system with -stoppage of digestion immediately ensued. - -In the case of pheasants there was acute inflammation of the small -intestines (Tegetmeier). - - REFERENCES. - - 4, 16, 49, 73, 81, 84, 100, 128, 130, 141, 144, 161, - 170, 189, 190, 205, 213, 239, 240, 256. - - - AROIDEÆ. - -=Cuckoo Pint= (_Arum maculatum_ L.). The well-known Cuckoo Pint, or -Lords and Ladies, is to be regarded as highly poisonous, and children -have died from eating the berries. Animals have exceptionally eaten the -plant, but no record of death has been found, as it does not appear to -be taken in sufficient quantity. Cornevin records that pigs have eaten -the roots, and suffered in consequence, though the results were not -fatal. All parts of the plant are poisonous, though the virulence is -lost on drying. The plant is acrid, and emits a disagreeable smell when -bruised. In Gerarde’s _Herball_ the following passage occurs: “The most -pure and white starch is made from the rootes of the Cuckowpint; but -most hurtfull for the hands of the laundresse that hath the handling of -it, for it choppeth, blistereth, and maketh the hands rough and rugged, -and withall smarting.” In Dorset the tuber-like corms have been -macerated in water, dried and powdered, and eaten under the name -Portland Sago or Portland Arrowroot, the poisonous property being -dissipated. - -_Toxic Principle._ The Cuckoo Pint does not seem to have received much -attention in this connection, but the poisonous principle is believed to -be a _Saponin_. - -_Symptoms._ The juice acts as an irritant when in contact with the -mucous membrane. When a _pig_ has eaten several roots rich in sap, the -mouth and tongue redden and tumefy, there is salivation, and swallowing -is difficult on account of the inflammation at the back of the mouth. -Introduced in small quantity into the digestive tract it acts as an -irritant and purgative, and sometimes causes vomiting. Severe intestinal -pains, excitement, some muscular contraction of the limbs, rocking of -the head, and superpurgation with tenesmus are also symptoms which have -been observed. The intestinal pains continue for some days and the -appetite is small. Cornevin states that animals never take a sufficient -quantity to cause _fatal_ poisoning, but according to Lander, if a -dangerous quantity is taken, convulsions, exhaustion, and death from -shock may possibly follow the foregoing symptoms. - -A case in which a _horse_ was poisoned through a wound being washed with -a decoction of arum leaves is cited by Müller. There was much local -swelling, trembling, and rapid breathing, and the heart beat strongly; -the animal died on the third day. - - REFERENCES. - - 73, 81, 130, 141, 170, 190. - - - - - CHAPTER VI - DIOSCORIDEÆ. - - -=Black Bryony= (_Tamus communis_ L.). The stem and foliage of Black -Bryony are apparently harmless, being browsed by sheep and goats with -impunity, but the scarlet fruits are decidedly poisonous and the starchy -root is acrid and purgative. - -_Toxic Principle._ This is probably the glucoside _Bryonin_, which -occurs in _Bryonia dioica_ (p. 35). - -_Symptoms._ Cornevin, in citing experiments on animals, states that -small quantities of the fruits cause uneasiness, somnolence, and -difficult locomotion. Larger quantities cause vomiting, intestinal -pains, and paralysis of hind quarters. Death is rapid. Müller, however, -remarks that paralysis of the hind quarters and convulsions may result -from small quantities, large quantities causing in addition inflammation -of the stomach and intestines. - - REFERENCES. - - 73, 190. - - - LILIACEÆ. - -=Herb Paris= (_Paris quadrifolia_ L.). Owing to its habitat—damp -woods—it is unlikely that stock will eat this plant, but it may be -possible where fields border open woods in which it grows. No records of -stock poisoning have been met with, but cases of poisoning in man are -recorded, one due to eating a considerable number (30 to 40) of the -berries, and symptoms of poisoning in a child four years of age who had -eaten a few berries. In smaller quantities they are very poisonous to -poultry. All parts are stated to be poisonous, especially the berries. -Fatal poisonings are nil, or very rare if recorded. - -_Toxic Principle._ Walz isolated the glucoside _Paridin_; and Esser -states that the toxic property is due to a Saponin,—the bitter irritant -glucoside _Paristyphnin_ (C_{38}H_{64}O_{18}), which is convertible into -Paridin (C_{16}H_{28}O_{7} + 2H_{2}O) and sugar. - -_Symptoms._ The plant is emetic, purgative, intensely acrid, and -narcotic. Poisoning up to the present only appears to have been recorded -in fowls, the symptoms being intense local inflammation, narcotic -effects, vomiting, colic, diarrhœa, stupefaction, convulsions, and -paralysis (Müller). - - REFERENCES. - - 4, 16, 73, 76, 81, 130, 141, 190. - -=Lily-of-the-Valley= (_Convallaria majalis_, L.). This beautiful plant -is only likely to induce poisoning of domestic animals at very rare -intervals, as it occurs wild in only a few woods from Moray southwards, -being, however, abundant in some districts. All parts are stated to be -poisonous, especially the flowers. It has an acrid, bitter taste. Few -cases of poisoning are recorded. Sheep and goats are believed to eat the -leaves with impunity. The extract is so poisonous that four drops -injected into the blood stream sufficed to kill a dog in ten minutes -(Cornevin). The leaves have been known to kill geese and fowls. - -_Toxic Principle._ All parts of the plant contain the bitter poisonous -glucoside _Convallamarin_ (C_{23}H_{44}O_{12}), the glucoside _Paridin_ -(C_{16}H_{28}O_{7} + 2H_{2}O), and the glucoside _Convallarin_ -(C_{34}H_{62}O_{11})—the first a dangerous purgative, and the last a -cardiac poison resembling Digitalis. Convallamarin is a very poisonous -crystalline substance, with at first a bitter and afterwards a sweetish -taste. - -_Symptoms._ The action of this plant on the animal organism is not yet -clearly known, but it is stated to have marked emetic and purgative -action. Taken in moderate quantities a period of retardation of the -heart and lung action is followed by a period in which the heart action -is intermittent, and there are stoppages in respiration, and vomiting. -Taken in large quantities, the first of these periods is extremely -short, the pulse soon becomes rapid and small, respiration is quickened, -and the heart action ceases (Cornevin). - -Pott observes that the leaves cause stupefaction, convulsions, and death -after a few hours in the case of _geese_. He cites a case in which ten -_fowls_ ate the leaves and nine died. - - REFERENCES. - - 52, 73, 76, 81, 190, 203, 205, 213. - -=Meadow Saffron= (_Colchicum autumnale_ L.). The Meadow Saffron, Autumn -Crocus, or Naked Ladies, as it is variously named, occurs in meadows in -many districts in England and Wales. All parts are poisonous, both in -the green state and when dried, as it possibly may be, in hay. It has -caused extensive losses of live stock, and the greatest care should be -taken to eradicate it from grass land. The leaves and seed-vessels are -produced in spring, and the flowers from August to October—and it is at -these two periods that cases of poisoning by this plant are most -frequent, though, as stated, it may be included in hay. Many horses, -cattle, and pigs have been killed by Meadow Saffron, though cattle -commonly avoid it. Sheep and goats are believed to be very slightly -affected. Children and fowls died at Schorren (Canton Berne) from eating -the seeds, and there have been many cases of human poisoning due both to -eating the seeds and the bulbs. In Staffordshire, Mr J. C. Rushton -reported some years ago[4] that in one year a farmer lost seventeen -milking cows; in 1908 he lost seven calves; and in 1909 he lost a number -of sheep and cows. It was then discovered that the field in which the -animals grazed contained “any quantity of Meadow Saffron and Water -Hemlock,” and this was the cause of the losses. Horses and cattle are -more commonly poisoned than other domesticated animals. Johnson and -Sowerby record the case of a woman who ate the corms in mistake for -onions at Covent Garden, and died; and state that deer and cattle have -been killed by the leaves. Kanngiesser notes that this species is the -most toxic of German plants, and that in cases of human poisoning the -mortality is 90 per cent., children being chiefly affected. Cornevin’s -experiments showed that 8 to 10 grammes of green leaves per kilogramme -of live weight—say 3 to 5 lb. for an average cow—was sufficient to kill -ruminants; while 30 centigrammes of corms per kilogramme of live weight -sufficed to kill pigs—say 4½ oz. for a pig of 200 lb. live weight. -Barret and Remlinger (_Veterinary Journal_, 1912, p. 306) record the -sudden illness of 31 out of 51 cattle, and 5 of them died. - -Footnote 4: - - _Staffordshire Weekly Sentinel_, Aug. 21st, 1909. - -The toxic principle is cumulative, that is, small quantities of the -plant eaten regularly may result in poisoning, owing to the poison being -slowly eliminated by the kidneys. Indeed, cases have been recorded in -which the poison has been secreted and eliminated in the milk of cows -and so has caused poisoning of both calves and infants. - -_Toxic Principle._ Meadow Saffron contains in all parts the acrid, -poisonous alkaloid _Colchicine_ (C_{22}H_{25}NO_{6}) stated by Esser to -occur to the extent of 0·2 per cent. in the corms, 0·4 to 0·6 per cent. -in the seed coats, but only traces in the leaves. Hertel obtained 0·38 -to 0·41 per cent. of alkaloid from the _seeds_, Farr and Wright from -0·46 to 0·95 per cent., and Carr and Reynolds 0·12 to 0·57 per cent.; -the U.S. Pharmacopœia, 1905, required a Colchicine content of 0·45 per -cent. in the _seeds_, and 0·35 per cent. in the _corms_ (Allen). - -_Symptoms._ After small, but not fatal doses there is loss of appetite, -suppression of rumination, salivation, light colic, diarrhœa and voiding -of small quantities of urine. Blood has been observed in the milk of -affected cows. Larger and fatal quantities cause total loss of appetite -and sensation, stupefaction, loss of consciousness, dilatation of -pupils, unsteady gait, and even paralysis of limbs, sweating, severe -colic, and bloody diarrhœa, strangury and bloody urination; rapid, -small, and finally imperceptible pulse, laboured breathing; and death in -from one to three days. Where recovery takes place it is very slow (12 -to 14 days according to Cornevin). - -Cornevin draws attention to the fact that, as the symptoms do not occur -until several hours after ingestion, by which time the poison must be -partly distributed, the poison is very dangerous and difficult to -combat, attempts at vomiting or evacuation, whether spontaneous or -caused therapeutically, having little chance of ridding the organism of -the poison. Cornevin’s account of the symptoms shows that at first there -is abundant salivation, with constriction of the throat, and dysphagia; -then nausea with vomiting; colic; abundant, repeated and diarrhœic -evacuations, which at the end become dysenteric with painful tenesmus; -abundant urination; short, accelerated and difficult respiration, with -incoordination in the thoracic and abdominal movements. The circulatory -functions are modified only in fatal cases, when the pulse is small and -intermittent towards the end. There is finally a notable drop in -temperature, shown by the coldness of the skin. Death occurs in from 16 -hours to 6 days after ingestion. During the last few hours the animals -are stretched at full length and are incapable of getting up. There may -be prolapsus of the rectum; the eye is deeply sunk; sensibility is -deadened and death is due to stoppage of respiration. - -In the _horse_, there are spasmodic movements of the hind-quarters and -excessive excitement of the urinary genital organs. In _cattle_ there is -cessation of rumination, grinding of teeth, dryness of muzzle, ptyalism, -groaning, painful colic, dysentery, deeply sunken and watery eyes, anus -wide open, and evacuation of very fœtid, blackish, glareous matter round -the excrement. In _cows_ there may be suppression of milk, and abortion. -In the _pig_ there is abundant salivation and vomiting, and the animal -keeps its snout buried in the litter. There is also extremely fœtid -diarrhœa, with dysentery. - - REFERENCES. - - 4, 16, 27, 73, 81, 128, 130, 141, 148, 151, - 190, 192, 203, 217, 255. - - - GRAMINEÆ. - -=Darnel= (_Lolium temulentum_ L.). The grass known as Darnel, of the -same genus as rye-grass, has been recognized for centuries as a harmful -species, and it is considered by some authorities that it is really the -tares of Scripture which the enemy sowed among the wheat. Its effect on -eyesight was known to the ancients[5], and its objectionable character -was noted by Shakespeare:— - -Footnote 5: - - E.g. Ovid says “Let the fields be clear of darnel that weakens the - eyes.” In Plautus’ comedy, _The Braggart Soldier_, one servant says to - another, “’Tis a wonder that you are in the habit of feeding on darnel - with wheat at so low a price.” “Why so?” “Because you are so dim of - sight.” [_Agric. Jour. Union of S. Africa_, Jan. 1914, p. 82.] - - “Want ye corn for bread? - I think the Duke of Burgundy will fast - Before he’ll buy again at such a rate: - ’Twas full of darnel: Do you like the taste?” - —I _Henry_ VI, Act III, Sc. 2. - -Its effect when mixed with flour was also referred to by Gerarde (1597): -“The new bread wherein Darnell is, eaten hot, causeth drunkenness; in -like manner doth beere or ale wherein the seede is fallen, or put into -the mault.” - -Before the seeding stage is reached Darnel seems to be quite suitable as -a food for stock, only the seed or grain being poisonous, and this not -invariably so. The chief danger perhaps is that the grain may not be -thoroughly removed from cereal grains, and may thus find its way into -bread or cereal stock foods. Though it has caused many cases of human -poisoning, fatal results seem to be rare: Dr. Taylor could record no -fatal case up to 1859. Darnel mixed with barley caused the poisoning of -pigs (_Veterinarian_, 1842). Johnson and Sowerby (1861) state that -Darnel has in several cases proved fatal to horses and sheep. The same -authorities quote a case in which 80 inmates of Sheffield Workhouse were -attacked by violent vomiting and purging from the use of oatmeal -containing Darnel. At the Veterinary School at Lyons a horse was killed -by giving it 2 kilogrammes (4·4 lb.) of Darnel. Cornevin concluded that -the amounts of Darnel necessary to kill certain animals would be as -follows:— - - Horse 0·7 lb. per 100 lb. live weight. - Ruminants 1·5 to 1·8 lb. per 100 lb. live weight. - Poultry 1·5 to 1·8 lb. „ „ - Dog 1·8 lb. „ „ - -He found pigs very little affected. As regards man 30 grammes (1 oz.) of -the flour appear to be about the most that can be taken without showing -dangerous symptoms. - -The presence of Darnel flour in flour of the cereal grains may be -determined by an examination of the starch granules, which are given by -Cornevin as only 5 to 8µ; in diameter (compared with 25 to 4µ for rye), -simple in general, but sometimes in groups of 2 to even 5, polyhedral or -partly rounded, with a nucleus or fusiform nucleal cavity, and readily -coloured blue with iodine; they resemble those of maize but are only -about one-eighth the size. - -_Toxic Principle._ The grains only are harmful, and contain the narcotic -alkaloid _Temuline_ (C_{7}H_{12}N_{2}O), which Hofmeister showed to be a -strong nerve poison, and which is said to occur to the extent of 0·08 -per cent. in the seeds. Other authorities impute the toxic property to -_Loliine_, while Smith states that the toxic principle is _Picrotoxin_. -In relation to the grain fungal hyphæ have usually been found, though -not invariably, 20 to 30 per cent. of the plants sometimes being free -from it. The fungus (_Endoconidium temulentum_) is propagated -vegetatively by means of mycelium. It appears to live symbiotically in -the maturing grain, and perhaps to a slight extent renders possible the -assimilation of nitrogen from the atmosphere; but Freeman observed that -though generally stimulating to the Darnel, it is occasionally injurious -to it. Esser sums it up by saying that according to most authorities who -have investigated Darnel the fungus alone contains the toxic -substance—the Temuline—and hence the grains in which the fungus does not -occur should be harmless. The fungus is found in Darnel grain in all -countries—Chile, Brazil, S. Africa, Persia, Spain, France, Sweden, -Germany, etc. So far as can be ascertained there have been no feeding -experiments to determine the difference in toxic character between -fungus-infested and fungus-free grains. The dangerous properties are -said to be most pronounced in wet seasons. - -_Symptoms._ In France Darnel is called _Ivraie_, because, when brewed -with barley, it acts as a narcotic intoxicant. - -Darnel poisoning induces giddiness, drowsiness, uncertain gait, and -stupefaction (Müller), and, in the older animals, vomiting, convulsions, -loss of sensation and death (Pott). - -The symptoms in the _horse_ are dilatation of pupils, vertigo, uncertain -gait, and trembling. The animal falls, the body is cold and the -extremities are stiff, respiration is laboured, the pulse is slow and -small, and there are convulsive movements of the head and limbs. There -is rapid enfeeblement, and death may occur within thirty hours. - -In _pigs_, foaming, convulsions and paralysis have been observed; the -stomach and intestines were inflamed and the lungs congested. - - REFERENCES. - - 4, 16, 73, 81, 106, 128, 130, 141, 190, 203, 204, - 205, 213, 233, 235, 254. - - - EQUISETACEÆ. - -=Horsetails= (_Equisetum_ sp.). A very great deal has been written on -the subject of Equisetosis or _Equisetum_ poisoning, and even at the -present day opinion is divided as to which species are poisonous and to -what extent. From the time of Linnæus there has been uncertainty as to -the species, which has generally been given as _E. arvense_. Two German -papers, by Weber and Lohmann respectively, published by the German -Agricultural Society in 1903 and 1904, have done much to remove doubt on -the matter, but cannot be said to have settled the question absolutely. -These two papers seem to have been overlooked by some recent writers on -the subject, but Lohmann’s appears to be the most authoritative paper -yet written. Both are referred to below. - -It seems to be definitely proved that certain species of _Equisetum_ -really are poisonous, hesitating statements notwithstanding. Chesnut and -Wilcox state that there are cases of poisoning of both horses and sheep -by _E. arvense_ in the United States, though they are not common, and -the opinion is expressed that “the plant, if deleterious, is evidently -so only on account of its harsh scouring action in the mouth and -intestinal tract.” On the other hand Rich and Jones record poisoning of -horses by _E. arvense_ in hay, but while adding that horses seem to -develop a depraved appetite for the weed, they state that they have no -evidence that horses grazing upon _the green plant_ are poisoned. -Güssow’s experience has been that cattle do not suffer any inconvenience -at all from this species, or only very slight disturbance of the -digestive organs, but that horses are conspicuously subject to fatal -poisoning by it. Examination of hay on which a considerable number of -poisoned horses were fed revealed in every case the presence of _E. -arvense_. When the food was changed, horses, if not too seriously -affected, made rapid recovery. (Treatment suggested is to change to -easily digested food, give a sharp purgative, and follow by small doses -of nux vomica three times a day.) Pammel says that in recent years a -disease of horses in Vermont has been attributed to hay and fodder -containing the weed; that it is proved by experiment that when ingested -in sufficient quantity _E. arvense_ is capable of causing fatal -poisoning in horses, and is at times the cause of extensive losses; and -that young horses are most susceptible, while grain-fed horses are less -susceptible than others. He adds that sheep are supposed to be slightly -affected, but cattle eat hay in which it occurs in large proportion with -impunity. - -Coming to the two German reports, it is stated by Weber (1903) that _E. -palustre_ contains a specific poison for cattle and other ruminants, but -sheep and goats are able, owing to their fine muzzles, to separate it in -fodder, and hence suffer less. Horses and pigs, he says, seem to suffer -very little. Young animals and stock, from districts where the species -does not occur, suffer more than those from places where it occurs—the -latter appearing to learn early to avoid it. - -Lohmann conducted feeding experiments with guinea-pigs with _E. -arvense_, _E. palustre_, _E. pratense_, _E. sylvaticum_, _E. maximum_, -and _E. heleocharis_ (not British). He also fed _E. arvense_ and _E. -palustre_ to horses, cattle, sheep, pigs, and geese in considerable -quantities for many days on end; and made experiments with aconitic acid -on guinea-pigs and horses. The feeding experiments with guinea-pigs -showed that of the species named only _E. palustre_ and to a less extent -_E. sylvaticum_ are poisonous plants (to guinea-pigs). With the large -domestic animals the experiments showed _E. arvense_ to be a harmless -plant, and _E. palustre_ to be really injurious to cattle but avoided by -other stock. Lohmann considers that the many statements in the -literature agree in part with this result, and that the divergent -observations may be traced to various causes, among which perhaps an -abnormal chemical composition of the weed fed plays a principal part. - -In this connection, however, the American results must be carefully -borne in mind, and _E. arvense_ must not too hastily be regarded as -blameless. - -_Toxic Principle._ It was for some years believed that the apparent -toxic symptoms induced by Horsetails were due to Silica or to Aconitic -acid—the latter a substance found by Matz and Ludwig. The conclusion -come to by Weber, however, was that the poisoning by _E. palustre_ is of -an organic character, not due to silica. The young shoots, which contain -little silica, were found in general to be much more poisonous than the -old plants, which contain much silica. It was long since found by -Wiggers that dried plants of _E. palustre_ contained 8·88 per cent. of -silica, but all species contain this substance in greater or less -degree, and it varies considerably in amount, even in the same species. -The feeding experiments conducted by Lohmann, with certain species of -_Equisetum_, and the observed symptoms of illness after the consumption -of some of them, particularly _E. palustre_, serve to show that the ill -effects are neither to be attributed to greater or less digestibility, -nor to the silica present. Neither are the aconitic acid and other -organic substances, in part found in previous investigations, -responsible for the poisoning. However, an active compound named -_Equisetine_, a substance belonging to the alkaloid group, was isolated; -this occurs usually, perhaps only, in _E. palustre_, at any rate in -sufficient quantity to be dangerous to animals. Lohmann then, following -up the investigations of Paucerzynski, Matz, Meyer, Weber and others, -ascertained definitely that _E. palustre_ contains an alkaloidal nerve -poison, to which the name _Equisetine_ was given, and the experiments -were held to decide that this is the poisonous substance in this -species. (As stated above, _E. arvense_ was held to be harmless.) - -_Symptoms._ At first, excitement and anxiety, followed by uncertainty of -movement, reeling and staggering; paralysis of hind limbs at least, -falling, possibly general paralysis, insensibility to external -irritants, unconsciousness, and coma. Pulse accelerated, appetite at -first normal, but in course of time great disturbance of nutrition; -sugar in the urine. Course sometimes very acute, death occurring in a -few hours, but sometimes protracted (two to eight days), and at times -even chronic (one to several weeks). - -In _cattle_, after excessive eating, continuous diarrhœa is -characteristic, with paralysis; while, if the food be persisted with, -cachexia and hydræmia combined with weakness bordering on paralysis make -their appearance (Friedberger and Fröhner, _via_ Pammel). In addition to -cachexia, Pott also mentions colic, stoppage, bloody urination, -abortion, and loss of teeth. - -Young animals appear to succumb sooner than older ones, while grain-fed -animals are more resistant than others. Referring to _E. arvense_ Pammel -says it produces paralysis of the rear extremities, and when death -occurs spasms are noted. In relation to the poisoning of _horses_ by the -same species in hay Rich and Jones note unthriftiness, the animal -appearing thin and the muscles wasted. In from two to five weeks, -according to the age of the horse and the manner of feeding, the animal -begins to lose control of the muscles, and there is swaying and -staggering, though the eye is bright and the appetite good. If the plant -is regularly ingested the horse loses the power of standing, becomes -nervous, struggles to rise, the legs become more or less rigid, and at -times all the muscles of the body seem convulsed. Even in this condition -one well-nursed patient lived two weeks. The horses are generally -willing to eat, although unable to rise, but become sore and tired from -struggling, finally dying from exhaustion. Life is much prolonged by -turning from side to side three or four times in twenty-four hours, thus -preventing congestion. The pulse is slow till near the end, when it is -rapid and weak; the temperature is below normal at first, but when the -animal is down there is fever; the extremities are usually cold; and the -lining membrane of the mouth, nose, and eye becomes pale. - -Of _Equisetum_ sp. Stebler and Schroeter say that they induce diarrhœa -in cattle, which become poor, and in cows the milk yield is checked or -ceases. Weber also refers to the effect on milk yield of _E. palustre_, -which he says causes the milk of affected cows to become watery, poor in -fat, and gives rise to a greasy, unappetising butter, while the yield -may soon quite fail. - - REFERENCES. - - 2, 20, 57, 111, 176, 203, 204, 213, 220, 221, 222, 237, 260, 261. - - - FILICES. - -=Bracken= (_Pteris aquilina_ L.). The Bracken, Brake Fern, or “Fern” is -of very considerable importance to farmers for four reasons: (1) It is a -most pernicious weed; (2) it forms an excellent litter for stock and -treads down into good manure; (3) it is said to have been successfully -converted into silage; but (4) it has been accused of poisoning cattle. - -In regard to possible poisonous properties, it must be said that the -facts are at present somewhat uncertain, but a number of authorities -clearly regard the Bracken as poisonous. (_a_) Müller (1897) records the -poisoning of horses which ate it for some weeks with chaff—and some -died. (_b_) Chesnut and Wilcox (1901) say that cases of poisoning of -horses and cattle have been reported from England and a few localities -in the United States. (_c_) Pott states that when eaten in quantity by -cattle Bracken causes hæmaturia, and in horses nervous symptoms (brain -trouble), sometimes with fatal effects. (_d_) Pammel also remarks on the -believed poisonous character of this plant. (_e_) In view of its -suspected poisonous character feeding experiments were conducted by the -Board of Agriculture and Fisheries with a large quantity of Bracken, but -the results were negative, yielding no experimental proof of the plant -being poisonous. One animal—a heifer—consumed 60 lb. of Bracken between -Aug. 14 and Aug. 20, and after two meals containing about 30 lb. of -Bracken showed only symptoms of indigestion. After the 60 lb. there were -no symptoms of illness. It has been thought possible that the so-called -Bracken poisoning is due to _Potentilla Tormentilla_ (_q.v._). - -In 1893 Storrar dealt with the question and expressed the view that any -disorder due to Bracken was probably not a toxic effect but a digestive -trouble simply (_Jour. Comp. Path._, 1893). - -_Toxic Principle._ Continental authorities say that Bracken contains the -poisonous _Pteritannic acid_, which is identical with the _Filicic acid_ -of the Male Fern (_Aspidium filix-mas_). - -_Symptoms._ In the cases of horses which died Müller gives the symptoms -as timidity, slower movement or action, loss of balance, dilated pupils, -reddening followed by yellowing of the conjunctivæ, and slowing of the -pulse. - -Pammel notes Bracken as an astringent and anthelmintic, and also says it -causes enteritis, spasms, and paralysis. - - REFERENCES. - - 10, 25, 57, 190, 203, 204, 213. - - - FUNGI[6]. - -=Ergot= (_Claviceps purpurea_). This fungus, parasitic on rye and a -number of grasses, has long been known to induce distinct poisonous -effects on man and domestic animals when ingested in sufficient -quantity. - -Footnote 6: - - Poisonous parasitic fungi generally are not dealt with in this volume, - but ergot is included because it is widely distributed and perhaps the - best known, while its effects have been fully studied. - -Ergot must be regarded as a cause of abortion in cows, though somewhat -divergent views have been expressed as to the facts, some authorities -considering the belief well founded, while others consider that there is -little ground for it. It is quite clear, however, that when taken in -sufficient quantity Ergot induces serious poisoning of domestic animals. -Horses have died in two or three days from eating ergoted hay and wild -rye. Extensive outbreaks of ergotism have occurred in the United States, -and serious losses have been recorded in the Central and Western States. -Ewart remarks that “a comparatively small number of fresh Ergot grains -suffice to injure or kill a horse, cow, or sheep.” The effects of the -poisoning of animals will be found under _Symptoms_ below. - -_Toxic Principle._ Ergot of rye is used in medicine. It contains 0·20 to -0·25 per cent. of _Ergotinine_. In the British Pharmaceutical Codex, -1911, the grains (sclerotia) of Ergot (see Frontispiece) are described -as longitudinally furrowed, 1 to 4 cm. long, slender, curved, tapering -to both ends; they break with a short fracture, and are somewhat -triangular in transverse section; they have a characteristic and -disagreeable odour and taste, are dark violet to black in colour, and -whitish within. Ergot contains the physiologically active alkaloid -_Ergotoxine_ or _Hydroergotinine_ (C_{35}H_{41}O_{6}N_{5}), also known -as _amorphous Ergotinine_, and, when formerly obtained in an impure -state, as _Cornutine_ and _Ecboline_. It is the hydrate of the -crystalline base Ergotinine (C_{35}H_{39}O_{5}N_{5}). There are also -other physiologically active constituents derived from amino-acids. - -_Symptoms._ In man Ergot has induced two types of epidemic ergotism, -caused by the prolonged use of ergoted rye bread. The two forms are -rarely or never found together. One is a gangrenous form characterized -by agonizing pain in the extremities, followed by dry gangrene of the -peripheral parts of the body. The second type of ergotism is much more -rare—a nervous epidemic characterized by paroxysmal epileptiform -convulsions. - -Owing to the fact that at the outset ergotism causes irritation in the -hands and feet it is termed “Kribbelkrankheit” in Germany. - -The three substances noted above as isolated by Kobert are stated to -cause poisoning—the first producing inflammation of the serous and -mucous membranes, disintegration of the red blood cells, and widespread -ecchymoses; the second excites the central nervous system and causes -general convulsions; and the last induces gangrene. - -In one case a horse ate ergoted hay: next day the left hind leg was -stiff, and moist with cold sweat; on the second day it was badly swollen -and gangrene of all the tissues became apparent, and after the skin of -the leg and a considerable part of the muscular tissue had sloughed off -the animal died on the third day. In other cases horses showed symptoms -twenty-four hours after eating ergoted hay: fatigue, indisposition to -work, cold sweat, particularly on the neck, paralysis of the tongue and -muscles concerned in swallowing, and then generalized paralysis, very -slow and deep respiration, subnormal temperature, normal pulse at first -and then weaker till scarcely distinguishable, death in six or eight -hours (Chesnut and Wilcox). - -According to Pammel ergotism manifests itself among animals chiefly in -the chronic form, the poison being acquired in small amounts and -accumulation taking place slowly. Two distinct forms of the disease are -recognized, the spasmodic and gangrenous. “Symptoms referable to the -digestive tract, such as nausea, vomiting, colic, diarrhœa, or -constipation occur in both forms. Pregnant animals very frequently -abort.” - -“In the spasmodic type of the disease, symptoms due to overstimulation -of the central nervous system appear. These are tonic contraction of the -flexor tendons of the limbs, anæsthesia of the extremities, muscular -trembling, general tetanic spasms, convulsions and delirium. Death -usually occurs from secondary causes.” - -“Gangrenous ergotism is characterised by coldness and anæsthesia of the -extremities, followed ultimately by dry gangrene of these parts. The -effects of this dry gangrene are often very serious and amount to -sloughing of the feet, tips of the ears, tip of the tail, shedding of -the hair, teeth, etc. Death takes place from exhaustion. - -“Acute poisoning is characterized by vomiting (in dogs), profuse -salivation, dilatation of the pupils, rapid breathing and frequent -pulse. The animal cries out, has convulsive twitchings, staggering gait, -paraplegia, intense thirst and coma, terminating in death.” - -In an extensive outbreak of ergotism in the United States in 1884 Law -and Salmon reported as a prominent symptom ulceration of the mucous -membrane of the tongue and mouth cavity, this and lesions on the -extremities giving the appearance of foot-and-mouth disease. Affected -animals showed weakness, dullness, and paralytic conditions of certain -groups of muscles. When in pregnant animals the uterus is acted upon, -labour pains occur, and the fœtus is expelled. The straining in those -cases is often very painful and may be so severe that prolapsus of the -uterus or even the rectum is the result. When Ergot produces gangrene, -it usually affects the extremities, like the lower parts of the legs, -the ears, tail or teats in cattle, and the comb, wattles, toes, wings or -tongue of poultry. It is preceded by redness, coldness, and painful -swelling of the parts affected. After a while sensibility of the dying -region is lost and the line of demarcation between it and the living -tissue becomes manifest. The dead portion commonly dies and is cast off. -In some cases the gangrene is accompanied by symptoms of a septic -nature. - -“The possible result of the poisoning depends largely on the amount of -Ergot taken and on the severity of the symptoms produced thereby. When -small amounts are taken and only a slight dullness or digestive -disturbance results the outlook may be quite favourable. Even Ergot -abortion with rather severe symptoms usually is followed by recovery, -but in the gangrenous cases, fatal terminations are common. The animals -which through this cause have lost one or more parts are not only -crippled, but septic or embolic complications may lead to a fatal -termination. Paralytic cases do not permit of a favourable prognosis, -especially if muscle groups containing important functions are -involved.” (_N. Dakota Exp. Sta. Rept._) - - REFERENCES. - - 1, 4, 13, 16, 35, 57, 81, 82, 128, 154, 161, 203, 242, 251. - - - - - CHAPTER VII - PLANTS SUSPECTED OF BEING POISONOUS. - - -A very large number of plants have at various times been suspected of -possessing poisonous properties and causing harm to live stock. Of these -it is quite probable that many are in practice entirely harmless, but -some must be included as possibly deleterious, complaints having been -made which vary in gravity from a slight irritation to causing death. - -=Purging Flax= (_Linum catharticum_ L.). It is perhaps doubtful whether -this plant is really poisonous unless taken in considerable quantity by -animals—as it is quite unlikely to be. It may, however, be included -here, as it is stated to contain a glucoside which is purgative and -which on fermentation yields prussic acid. - -=Furze= or =Gorse= (_Ulex europæus_ L.). In view of the fact that -Gerrard isolated from the seeds of Gorse the alkaloid _Ulexine_, which -is identical with _Cytisine_ (p. 27) and that the alkaloid is also -contained in less quantity in the bark of young shoots, this plant has -been suspected of possessing toxic properties. Experiments (179)[7] with -the alkaloid definitely showed it to be a nerve and muscle poison, 3 -milligrammes having killed a chloroformed cat with convulsions in three -minutes, though the animal could be kept alive as long as artificial -respiration was kept up. As, however, Gorse has long been used very -widely and in considerable quantities as a fodder the percentage content -of the alkaloid must in general be exceedingly small, and no harmful -effects need be feared from the consumption of the cut and bruised -plant. Possibly the seeds might prove injurious if eaten in quantity. - -Footnote 7: - - Reference to Bibliography. - -=Melilot= (_Melilotus_ sp.) may at times cause injury. Ewart (82) -writes: “All the species contain Cumarin, a volatile odoriferous -principle, which in excess produces a disinclination to locomotion, -paralysis and ultimately fatal symptoms. No harm is to be apprehended if -the amount present does not exceed 10 per cent. of the herbage.” - -=Silver Weed= (_Potentilla Anserina_ L.). This well-known and elegant -little weed is scarcely likely to be eaten to any extent by farm stock, -though it may possibly be taken occasionally on roadsides. It has not -been proved to be poisonous, but Pott states that it has a strongly -constipating effect (213). - -=Tormentil= (_Potentilla Tormentilla_ L.). In relation to supposed -bracken poisoning (see p. 87) in regard to which experiments were -conducted by the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries, Tormentil occurred -in several instances with the bracken in localities where this plant was -reported to cause poisoning. Two feeding experiments in which the weed -was fed to heifers gave negative results. In a further case, however, 4 -or 5 lb. were collected from a field where sick animals were grazing, -and fed to a heifer; it appeared to be the cause of rise of temperature -(to 106° F.), diarrhœa, and the passing of a considerable quantity of -blood in the fæces for three days, after which the animal improved. It -was, however, slaughtered, and lesions were found similar to those found -in animals dying in the field from so-called bracken poisoning. Though -the plant was suspected, results generally were not held to prove that -it was the cause of poisoning (25). According to Van Rijn the root of -Tormentil contains a considerable quantity of _Chinovic acid_ -(C_{32}H_{48}O_{6}?). - -=Wall-Pepper= (_Sedum acre_ L.) is regarded as emetic and purgative, but -to lose the harmful properties on drying. - -=Sundews= (_Drosera_ sp.) are reputed to be poisonous to sheep, but no -evidence has been found. - -=White-Rot= or =Marsh Penny-Wort= (_Hydrocotyle vulgaris_ L.) is stated -to have caused inflammation of the digestive tract, and hæmaturia; and -to contain a toxic substance _Vellarin_ (213). - -=Wild Parsnip= (_Pastinaca sativa_ L.). This plant has often been -supposed to be poisonous, but Pammel shows that in Iowa the plant is -quite harmless, as it appears to be in Britain. - -=Devil’s-Bit= (_Scabiosa succisa_ L.) is stated by Moir to have caused -injury to cattle in one instance (_Vet. Record_, 1899), causing -salivation, gritting of the teeth, twitching of facial muscles, and -slightly protruded, abraded, swollen and sensitive tongue. An experiment -on cattle showed the plant to induce violent inflammation of the mouth -and tongue. - -=All-Heal= (_Valeriana officinalis_ L.) is not likely to be eaten by -stock in sufficient quantity to cause poisonous symptoms, though it is -stated to contain the poisonous _Valerianic acid_ and _Oil of Valerian_. -According to Chevalier (_vide_ Henry) this plant contains an alkaloid -not yet fully characterised. - -=Canadian Erigeron= (_Erigeron canadensis_ L.), sporadic in England, is -suspected in America. It contains an oil, chiefly a _terpene_ -(C_{10}H_{16}). It has an acrid taste, causes smarting of the eyes, -soreness of throat, aching of extremities, and colic; and irritation to -people handling it (203). - -=Mayweeds= (_Anthemis_ sp.). It is not at all clear whether these plants -are more than irritant in character, and they are so very common and -widely distributed that there would probably be more evidence if they -were poisonous. _A. Cotula_ is regarded as suspected by Smith and -Halsted, while Ewart says that it is obnoxious to stock on account of -its unpleasant flavour, and if eaten by them in time of scarcity is apt -to give their flesh, milk, or butter an unpleasant flavour. Güssow -states that this species blisters the mouth and nostrils of animals. In -his investigations at Kew, Greshoff found that the seeds of _A. Cotula_ -and _A. arvensis_ contain much hydrocyanic acid. (He further found that -the cyanogenetic glucoside from _A. aetnensis_ Schouw. and _A. chia_ L. -belongs to the amygdalin type, giving off hydrocyanic acid and -benzaldehyde on hydrolysis. “The strong odour of benzaldehyde may even -be observed on grinding the seeds with water. Species of _Anthemis_ -contained from 0·15 down to 0·03 per cent. of hydrocyanic acid.”) - -=Cat’s-Ear= (_Hypochæris radicata_ L.). No record of poisoning of Cat’s -Ear has been found, but it may be mentioned here, since Ewart says of -it: “It contains a bitter, milky sap, which makes it unpalatable though -not entirely poisonous.... An exclusive diet of this weed could not help -but injure stock eventually.” - -=Dodders= (_Cuscuta_ sp.), when parasitic on clovers and fed as fodder -or hay, have been suspected of causing digestive troubles in horses and -cattle in the United States. Müller records a case of poisoning of young -pigs by _C. europæa_, with inflammation of the intestines and nervous -symptoms. Barbey determined the presence of the glucoside _Cuscutin_ in -_C. Epithymum_. - -=Viper’s Bugloss= (_Echium vulgare_ L.) is suspected of being poisonous; -according to Friedberger and Fröhner it causes slavering (see also -_Cynoglossum_). - -=Hound’s Tongue= (_Cynoglossum officinale_ L.). To what extent this -plant is actually poisonous is not clear, but with some other members of -the order (_Echium vulgare_, _Anchusa officinalis_), it contains the two -alkaloids _Consolidine_ and _Cynoglossine_—the former of which paralyses -the central nervous system and the latter the peripheral nerves. -(Greimer, 1900: _vide_ Henry). - -According to Hooker, Hound’s Tongue is narcotic and astringent, and -Smith includes it as a simple vegetable irritant, causing nausea and -purging. No records of actual poisoning of animals have been found. - -=Broom-rape= (_Orobanche minor_ Sutt.) has been suspected, and according -to Boitel is liable to cause violent colic when it occurs in -considerable proportion in clover and is ingested with it (73). On the -other hand, in a case noted by Stapledon, in which Broom-rape (_O. -minor_) had completely overrun the aftermath on a farm near Fishguard, -two-year-old cattle devoured the plant with apparent relish and cleared -off most of it in a few days after being turned in. The farmer stated -that he saw no trace of colic or other ill effects. (_Jour. Bd. Agric._, -September, 1916.) - -=Great Mullein= (_Verbascum Thapsus_ L.). Though it does not appear to -be touched by farm live-stock the Great Mullein must be mentioned here. -The leaves and flowers have been used medicinally as an emollient and -pectoral, while the seeds possess narcotic properties and serve to -stupefy fish (73). Pammel states that the plant causes irritation, but -is probably not very poisonous to stock. - -=Toadflax= (_Linaria vulgaris_ Mill.). Cornevin describes Toadflax as -acrid and poisonous, but says that stock reject it, and he could record -no accidents to animals. In his full and excellent account of this weed, -Kraus says it is regarded as poisonous, or suspected of being so, but -that according to most accounts it is not harmful to cattle (168). -Leunis regards it as suspicious on account of its acridity. Some German -authorities say it is willingly eaten by cattle, but it is generally -believed to be avoided, and owing to its disagreeable odour and acrid -taste this view is probably correct. The plant has not been exhaustively -studied, and while Smith gives the toxic principle as _Oil of -Snapdragon_ and the resin _Gratiolin_, it may be observed that Toadflax -contains the glucoside _Linarin_ (C_{64}H_{56}O_{40}). - -=Figworts= (_Scrophularia nodosa_ L. and _S. aquatica_ L.). These plants -are not likely to be eaten by animals, but Cornevin states that the -former is strongly emetic and purgative, and that in excess it may cause -superpurgation ending in death. Müller says that the two species have -respectively caused poisonous symptoms in a cow and a sheep; in the case -of the cow there were loss of appetite and symptoms of paralysis. From -_S. nodosa_ Walz extracted a bitter, crystalline substance, -_Scrophularine_. - -=Yellow Rattle= (_Rhinanthus Crista-galli_ L.). When grass land is put -under the plough Yellow Rattle present may re-appear in a cereal crop as -a semi-parasite, and its seeds may later be ground up with the grain, -imparting a reddish or violet-brown colour and an unpleasant taste to -the flour and even bread made from it. It is strongly suspected of being -poisonous, like _Pedicularis_ and _Melampyrum_, but it is by no means -clear how far it may prove harmful to stock. It is believed by some -people to impart a bad taste to the butter made from the milk of cows -grazing on infested pastures. Lehmann ate without harm 35 grammes (about -1¼ oz.) of the seeds made into a cake and cooked; and during four days -he gave a rabbit 1238 grammes (2·7 lb.) of the fresh plant with -half-ripe seeds, without apparent injury (73). - -In some poor pastures it occurs in excessive quantity, and would appear -to be only very slightly poisonous, or would have attracted wider -attention. It is possibly only poisonous after being eaten for a -prolonged period, as in the case of _Lolium temulentum_, and _Lathyrus -sativus_. The seeds contain the bitter-sweet glucoside _Rhinanthin_ -(C_{29}H_{52}O_{20}), which is suspected of having poisonous properties. - -=Cow-Wheat= (_Melampyrum arvense_ L.). It seems clear that Cow-Wheat is -at least not poisonous unless eaten in very considerable -quantities—amounts in fact which in practice are most unlikely to be -eaten. The seeds may occur in cereal grains, and hence be ground up into -meal. As they are said to contain a glucoside analogous to _Rhinanthin_, -have a bitter taste and peculiar odour, and impart a violet coloration -to flour, their presence in cornfields is most undesirable. According to -Pammel this plant induces sleepiness and colic. - -=Ground Ivy= (_Nepeta Glechoma_ Benth.) is, according to Schaffner, -poisonous to horses. It contains a volatile oil and bitter principle, as -also does Catmint (_N. Cataria_). In a case which came before the Board -of Agriculture and Fisheries in 1906 three horses became ill with -symptoms of poisoning, and the only weed found in the lucerne they were -getting was Ground Ivy, and this was suspected but not proved to be the -cause. In a further case, reported in 1909, eleven horses were believed -to have been poisoned by this weed, and in one of the dead horses -scarcely any food but Ground Ivy was found, and to it the veterinary -surgeon in attendance attributed death. During preceding years several -horses had died in the locality (Ely), owing, it was believed, to -poisoning by the same weed. The losses, however, were not _proved_ to be -due to this plant. - -In the _Veterinary Journal_ (October, 1914, p. 515) poisoning of horses -by this weed was noted (after Ferenczhazsy in the _Recueil de Médecine -Vétérinaire_). The author observed nine cases of intoxication due to the -weed, though it is stated that it “has occasioned no trouble in cattle -and sheep that consumed it.” The symptoms in horses were “anxious look, -dyspnœa, salivation, sweating, dilatation of the pupils, cyanosis, signs -of pulmonary œdema.” Two horses died. In 1913 similar cases were -observed by other owners, and terminated fatally. - -Hooker states that _N. Glechoma_ is “bitter and aromatic, formerly used -for beer, occasionally for tea.” - -=Orache= (_Atriplex_ sp.). So far as known these plants are not -poisonous, but it may be stated that Greshoff found the seeds of five -species, and the leaves of two species, to contain a _Saponin_. - -=Nettles= (_Urtica_ sp.). Nettles are not generally regarded as -poisonous otherwise than as causing painful nettle rash on the bare -skin, but _Urtica dioica_ L. is stated to have caused the death of dogs -(_Berliner Tierärztliche Wochenschrift_, 1909). - -=Yellow Flag= (_Iris Pseud-acorus_ L.). The wild Flag was noted by -Linnæus as dangerous to cattle, but no case of actual poisoning has been -found in the literature. The plant is stated to have marked emetic and -purgative properties, and Cornevin remarks that in Belgium intense -gastro-enteritis is attributed to it. It contains the glucoside _Iridin_ -(C_{24}H_{26}O_{13}). - -=Narcissus= sp. Various Narcissi (_e.g._ _N. pseudo-narcissus_, _N. -poeticus_, and others) have been regarded as irritant to the hands. -They would rarely if ever be eaten by live-stock in Britain, but it -is stated that on the Continent many poisonings of cattle, goats, -and pigs have been recorded, not infrequently ending in death after -two or three days. The Narcissi are strongly narcotic, emetic, and -purgative, and cause dilated pupils. Pott states that they cause -inflammation of the digestive tract, and convulsions, sometimes with -fatal results; and according to Pammel _N. poeticus_ induces intense -gastro-enteritis. _N. pseudo-narcissus_ contains the alkaloid -_Narcissine_ (C_{16}H_{17}O_{4}N), which with cats causes nausea and -purgation (Henry). - -=Common Fritillary= (_Fritillaria Meleagris_ L.). The Fritillary or -Snake’s Head occurs only in a few places in England, and truly wild -perhaps only rarely in southern and eastern counties—not in Scotland or -Ireland. No definite case of poisoning has been found in the literature, -but the plant is stated to be poisonous. It contains the bitter alkaloid -_Imperialine_ (C_{35}H_{60}NO_{4}), which is a heart poison. - -=Bog Asphodel= (_Narthecium ossifragum_ Huds.) has by some been regarded -as a poisonous plant, and Müller says that the poisoning of cows has -been recorded, and also that a cat died after drinking the milk of an -affected cow. The toxic property is believed to be the glucoside -_Narthecin_. - -=Molinia caerulea=, _Moench_. A short account by Pott shows that when -forming the principal part of moorland pasture grasses, and hence -extensively eaten, this grass causes brittleness of the bones of stock, -and in sheep chlorosis and wool eating. It also induces hæmaturia, but -if free from parasitic fungi (_e.g._ _Claviceps microcephala_) and not -covered with microscopic, sharp crystals, is quite harmless if only -eaten as a secondary or incidental fodder. This grass seems to be very -poor in lime (Immendorf, 1898), and Schulze and Castoro found the -internodes of the stem to contain a considerable quantity of a pentosan -(Xylan). It is poor in nutritive constituents. The harm done is due -perhaps in part to this fact, and in part to more or less accidental or -occasional constituents (as 0·046 per cent. of lead oxide in a case of -the var. _altissima_ near some lead works). Plants said to be -occasionally similarly harmful are _Juncus_ sp., _Nepeta Glechoma_, and -_Hieracium Pilosella_. - - - - - CHAPTER VIII - THE EFFECTS OF PLANTS ON MILK. - - -A number of poisonous plants have a considerable influence on the milk -yield of animals which eat them, reducing it in volume or in fat -content, or imparting to it an unpleasant flavour which renders it unfit -for human consumption, and even affecting the butter made from it. Other -plants not actually poisonous also affect milk by “tainting” it, and -must therefore be considered harmful otherwise than as mere weeds. Still -others affect milk by causing it to be stained with blood, and in some -cases the toxic principle of the plant concerned is even stated to have -rendered the milk poisonous. It will be useful to give here a brief -account of milk-affecting plants, though it is probable that there may -be others which are not mentioned. - -The plants best known in this connection are the Garlics (_Allium -oleraceum_ L., _A. ursinum_ L., _A. vineale_ L., and others), which -impart to milk a strong “oniony” flavour. These plants also seriously -affect the flesh of animals which eat them, even rendering it unfit for -consumption. A case came before the author several years ago in which a -considerable number of sheep had eaten a quantity of _Allium ursinum_, -which was growing in a field in which they had been grazing for some -days. The meat was so strongly tainted that, as the owner (a butcher) -stated, it was quite unfit for sale. The only thing to be done was to -pasture the sheep elsewhere for a time. - -Pott notes that species of _Ranunculus_ give rise to reddish or bitter -milk (_Mölkereizeitung_, 1897), while _Caltha palustris_ causes loss of -milk production in cows. - -_Ranunculus repens_ imparts a strong unpleasant flavour to the milk of -cows that have eaten it, and the butter made from such milk is -distinctly bitter in taste (Güssow). - -_Ranunculus sceleratus_ causes a falling-off in milk-yield. (Cornevin.) - -_Alliaria officinalis_ Andrz, imparts an oniony flavour to milk. - -_Achillea Millefolium_ L. is stated to impart its bitter taste and -strong odour to dairy products when eaten by cows. It contains an -alkaloid, _Achilleine_ (C_{20}H_{38}O_{15}N_{2}) having a peculiar odour -and bitter taste. - -_Chrysanthemum Leucanthemum_ has also been suspected of imparting a bad -flavour to butter. - -According to Pott the milk of cows eating _Oxalis Acetosella_ is with -difficulty converted into butter. - -The poisonous principle of _Colchicum autumnale_ is stated to find its -way into the milk of animals consuming it, and Müller states that the -milk of goats which have eaten it has caused the poisoning of infants. - -Müller states that a cat died after drinking the milk of a cow suffering -from poisoning by _Narthecium ossifragum_. - -_Mercurialis annua_ is said to cause milk to be thin, “blue,” and poor -in fat; while in a case already mentioned (p. 68) _M. perennis_ entirely -stopped the secretion of milk. - -According to Chesnut, goats may eat quantities of _Euphorbia Lathyris_, -and it is said that their milk then possesses the poisonous properties -of the plants. Ingestion of other Euphorbias appears to have the same -effect. - -Cornevin remarks that _Melampyrum arvense_ is considered to influence -cows to produce more milk. - -According to some authorities species of _Equisetum_ check milk -production or cause it to cease, and _E. palustre_ is stated by Weber to -cause the milk of affected cows to become watery, poor in fat, and give -rise to a greasy and unappetising butter, while the yield may soon quite -fail. - -The ingestion of the foliage of the oak (_Quercus_ sp.) is stated by -Cornevin to induce _Maladie des Bois_, with reduction or entire loss of -milk production (see p. 69). Acorns have also affected milk production, -and a case is recorded (_The Dairy_, 1913) in which it is stated that -cheese made from the milk of cows which had fed on acorns developed a -sharp acid flavour when about four weeks old, though the texture was -good. It is not clear, however, how it was proved to be due to the -acorns. - -In one case recorded a reddish tinge was observed in the milk of a cow -suffering from Rhododendron poisoning (p. 46), and in general reduced -milk production appears to occur. - -In addition to the foregoing, there is good authority for saying that -the following plants may impart a disagreeable flavour to milk, and in -many cases the butter made from it:— - - _Anthemis arvensis_L. (Corn Chamomile). - _Anthemis Cotula_L. (Stinking Mayweed). - _Artemisia Absinthium_ L. (Wormwood). - _Conium maculatum_ L. (Hemlock). - _Hyoscyamus niger_ L. (Henbane). - _Matricaria Chamomilla_ L. (Wild Chamomile). - _Pinguicula vulgaris_ L. (Butterwort). - _Senebiera didyma_ Pers. (Lesser Wartcress). - _Sium angustifolium_ L. (Lesser Sium). - _Sium latifolium_ L. (Water Parsnip). - _Tanacetum vulgare_ L. (Tansy). - _Thlaspi arvense_ L. (Penny Cress). - - (See also Index “Milk, plants affecting,” p. 117.) - - - PLANTS WHICH CAUSE MECHANICAL INJURY. - -There are a number of plants which, while not necessarily physiological -poisons, may induce injuries of a severe character when taken by -animals, and by causing festering may bring about septic poisoning. For -example the sharp pointed fruits of _Stipa pinnata_ and _Nardus stricta_ -may cause injury to the skin and mouth, piercing the palate and causing -inflammation, and when eaten may even perforate the wall of the -intestine and cause death; and the awned glumes of species of _Bromus_ -or the spikelets of Hordeum may injure the gums, causing inflammation, -ulceration, sores, the formation of pus, and loss of teeth. The _Bromus_ -and _Hordeum_, also, together with over-matured “heads” of _Trifolium -incarnatum_, may give rise to Phytobezoars or balls in the stomach of -horses and cattle (60, 119). The sharp pointed fruits of _Erodium -cicutarium_ may cause local irritation by working into the wool of -sheep. _Aira caespitosa_ may also cause injury to the mouth of stock. - -A case is recorded in New South Wales in which cattle and horses ate -Shepherd’s Purse (_Capsella Bursa-pastoris_). The cattle were -unaffected, but the horses scoured, though most of them soon recovered -when removed from the cultivated paddock containing the weed. Two young -horses, however, showed signs of colic, became bloated, and died. It was -then found that they contained balls of fibrous material (one weighed 1 -lb. 9½ oz.) which consisted to the extent of nearly 50 per cent. of -fibres from Shepherd’s Purse, and death was due to simple mechanical -obstruction of the bowel (155). - -Chickweed (_Stellaria media_) has been found to cause digestive disorder -in lambs and sheep when eaten in large quantities (48), and has caused -the death of many a lamb. It would appear to be due entirely to the -formation of large lumps of the weed in the stomach, and subsequent -fermentation (_Farmer and Stockbreeder_, Mar. 16, 1908). - -According to Cornevin, Black Bindweed (_P. Convolvulus_ L.) may prove -injurious, owing to the occurrence of the hard, trigonous, and pointed -“seeds” in cereal grains. Galtier published facts which show that oats -which contain too many of the “seeds” may, by prolonged use, occasion a -more or less serious enteritis, which is sometimes fatal, particularly -when the grain is fed to greedy horses which scarcely grind their food -(73). The fruits or “seeds” of Knot-weed (_Polygonum Aviculare_ L.) may -similarly prove injurious, and probably the seeds of other plants. - - - - - CHAPTER IX - CLASSIFICATION OF POISONS. - - -The classification of poisonous plants according to their effects is a -somewhat difficult process, since more than one prominent symptom may be -produced by the same plant. Two classifications, however, may be given -as examples, the first that of Blyth, and the second that of A. B. -Smith. These must be regarded as essentially applicable to human beings, -though serving more or less as a guide in case of poisoning of farm -live-stock. - - - Blyth’s Classification (after Pammel). - - =A.—Poisons causing death immediately or in a few minutes=: Prussic - acid, cyanides, oxalic acid, and occasionally strychnine. - - =B.—Irritant Poisons=, with symptoms chiefly pain, vomiting, and - purging: Ergot, digitalis, colchicum, yew, laburnum. - - =C.—Irritant and Narcotic Poisons=, with symptoms of an irritant - nature, with more or less cerebral indications: Oxalic acid or - oxalates. - - =D.—Poisons more especially affecting the Nervous System=: - - 1. NARCOTICS.—Symptoms: insensibility, which may be preceded by more - or less cerebral excitement. Opium. - - 2. DELIRIANTS.—Delirium, for the most part, a prominent symptom: - Belladonna, hyoscyamus, stramonium, and other _Solanaceæ_, Lolium - temulentum, Oenanthe crocata, poisonous fungi. - - 3. CONVULSIVES.—Almost every poison has been known to produce - convulsive effects, but the only true convulsive poisons are the - alkaloids of the strychnine class. - - 4. COMPLEX NERVOUS PHENOMENA.—Aconite, digitalis. - - - A. Bernhard Smith’s Classification. - -=A.—Poisons acting on the Brain.= - - 1. NARCOTICS.—_Symptoms_: Giddiness; dimness of sight; contracted - pupils; headache; noises in the ears; confusion of ideas, and - drowsiness, passing into insensibility. - - _British Plants included_: Papaver somniferum. - -2. DELIRIANTS.—_Symptoms_: Spectral illusions; delirium; dilated pupils; -thirst and dryness of the mouth; incoordination. Occasionally, though -rarely, there are paralysis and tetanoid spasms. - -_British Plants included_: Datura Stramonium, Hyoscyamus niger, Solanum -Dulcamara, Solanum nigrum, Atropa Belladonna, Lolium temulentum. - -3. INEBRIANTS.—_Symptoms_: Excitement of cerebral functions and of the -circulation; loss of power of coordination and of muscular movements, -with double vision; leading to profound sleep and deep coma. - -_British Plants included_: Pinus pinaster, Pinus larix, Artemisia -maritima, Artemisia Absinthium. - -=B.=—=Poisons acting on the Spinal Cord.= - -CONVULSIVES.—_Symptoms_: Clonic (intermittent) spasms, extending from -above downwards. Opisthotonos very violent; but trismus (lockjaw) rare. -Swallowing spasmodic. Death, usually, in less than three hours, or rapid -recovery. - -_British Plants included_: none. - -=C.=—=Poisons acting on the Heart.= - -1. DEPRESSANTS.—_Symptoms_: Vertigo; vomiting; abdominal pain; confused -vision; convulsions; occasional delirium; paralysis; syncope; sometimes -asphyxia. - -_British Plants included_: Conium maculatum, Cytisus Scoparius. - -2. ASTHENICS.—_Symptoms_: Numbness, and tingling in the mouth; abdominal -pain; vertigo; vomiting; purging; tremor; occasional delirium; -paralysis; dyspnœa, ending in syncope. - -_British Plants included_: Prunus laurocerasus, (Phaseolus -lunatus—imported cattle food), Lathyrus aphaca, Rumex Acetosa, Aconitum -Napellus, Actaea spicata, Delphinium consolida, Digitalis purpurea, -Convallaria majalis, Colchicum autumnale. - -=D.=—=Vegetable Irritants.= - -1. PURGATIVES.—_Symptoms_: Abdominal pain; vomiting and purging; cramps; -strangury and tenesmus, followed by collapse, and sometimes accompanied -by drowsiness, and slight nervous symptoms. - -_British Plants included_: Sambucus nigra, Sambucus Ebulus, Helleborus -viridis, Helleborus fœtidus, Caltha palustris, Linum catharticum. - -2. ABORTIVES.—_Symptoms_: Nausea; vomiting; stupor; polyuria; sometimes -tenesmus. Abortion may or may not occur; coma. - -_British Plants included_: Juniperus Sabina (cultiv. in Britain), -Claviceps purpurea; Ruta graveolens (cultiv. in Britain). - -3. IRRITANTS WITH NERVOUS SYMPTOMS.—_Symptoms_: Abdominal pain; vomiting -and purging; dilated pupils; headache; tetanic spasms; occasional -convulsions; sometimes rapid coma. - -_British Plants included_: Oenanthe crocata, Oenanthe Phellandrium, -Oenanthe fluviatilis, Cicuta virosa, Aethusa Cynapium, Sium -angustifolium, Taxus baccata, Cytisus Laburnum, Paris quadrifolia, -Mercurialis perennis. - -4. SIMPLE IRRITANTS.—_Symptoms_: Burning pain in the throat and stomach; -thirst; nausea; vomiting; tenesmus; purging; dysuria; dyspnœa and cough -occasionally. Death through shock; convulsions; exhaustion; or -starvation due to injury to throat or stomach. - -_British Plants included_: Arum maculatum, Daphne Laureola, Daphne -Mezereum, Narcissus moschatus, Narcissus poeticus, Scilla bifolia, -Galanthus nivalis, Hyacinthus nonscriptus, Fritillaria meleagris, -Clematis Vitalba, Anemone nemorosa, Anemone appenina, Ranunculus -aquatilis, R. Flammula, R. Ficaria, R. auricomus, R. sceleratus, R. -acris, R. bulbosus, Aquilegia vulgaris, Bryonia dioica, Ligustrum -vulgare, Asarum europæum, Saponaria officinalis, Valeriana officinalis, -Agrostemma Githago, Doronicum Pardalianches, Impatiens noli-me-tangere, -Erysimum cheiranthoides, Cynoglossum officinale, Arctostaphylos -Uva-ursi, Tamus communis, Euonymus europæus, Rhamnus catharticus, -Glaucium luteum, Roemeria hybrida, Papaver Rhoeas, Chelidonium majus, -Sedum acre, Sedum album, Drosera rotundifolia, Linaria vulgaris, Iris -Pseud-acorus, Iris foetidissima, Buxus sempervirens, Crocus sativus, -Euphorbia Peplis, E. pilosa, E. Helioscopia, E. platyphylla, E. hiberna, -E. portlandica, E. Paralias, E. Peplus, E. exigua, E. Lathyris, E. -amygdaloides, Urtica dioica, U. urens, U. pilulifera, Viscum album, -Lepidium latifolium. - -5. 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CHEM., 1905, No. 44. - - (See also various references in the text.) - - - - - INDEX - - - _Abies excelsa_, 72 - — _pectinata_, 72 - - Abietin, 72 - - _Achillea Millefolium_, 100 - - Achilleine, 100 - - Aconine, 15 - - Aconitic acid, 86 - - Aconitine, 11, 15 - - _Aconitum Napellus_, 10, 14, 15, 103, 104 - - Acorns, 70–72, 100 - - _Actaea spicata_, 104 - - _Aethusa Cynapium_, 39, 104 - - _Agrostemma Githago_, 3, 6, 8, 19, 105 - - Agrostemma-Sapotoxin, 21 - - Agrostemmin, 21 - - _Aira caespitosa_, 101 - - All-Heal, 93, 105 - - _Alliaria officinalis_, 19, 100 - - _Allium_ sp., 99 - - Allyl-isothiocyanate, 18 - - Amentaceæ, 69 - - Amygdalin, 8, 94 - - _Anagallis arvensis_, 48 - - _Anchusa officinalis_, 94 - - Andromedotoxin, 47, 48 - - Anemonal, 9 - - _Anemone_ sp., 9, 11 - — _appenina_, 105 - — _nemorosa_, 9, 105 - — _pulsatilla_, 9 - — Wood, 9 - - Anemone-camphor (oil of anemone), 9 - - Anemonic acid, 10, 11 - - Anemonin, 10, 11 - - Annual Mercury, 67 - - _Anthemis aetnensis_, 94 - — _arvensis_, 94, 101 - — _chia_, 94, - — _Cotula_, 94, 101 - - Apoatropine, 59 - - _Aquilegia vulgaris_, 105 - - Araliaceæ, 43 - - Arbutin, 47, 48 - - _Arctostaphylos Uva-ursi_, 105 - - Aroideæ, 76 - - _Artemisia Absinthium_, 101, 104 - — _maritima_, 104 - - _Arum maculatum_, 76, 77, 105 - - _Asarum europæum_, 105 - - Asphodel, Bog, 97, 101 - - _Aspidium filix-mas_, 88 - - _Astragalus bisulcatus_, 3 - - _Atriplex_ sp., 97 - - _Atropa Belladonna_, 4, 5, 8, 50, 52, 58, 103, 104 - - Atropine, 50, 59 - - Autumn Crocus, 2, 3, 79–82, 100, 104 - - _Azalea_ sp., 4, 48 - — _arborescens_, 48 - — _indica_, 48 - — _nudiflora_, 48 - — _pontica_, 48 - - - _Balsamorhiza sagittata_, 3 - - Beans, 4, 32, 33, 104 - - Belladonine, 59 - - Belladonna, _see_ Deadly Nightshade - - Bibliography, 107 - - Bindweeds, 49, 102 - - Bittersweet, 54, 104 - - Black Bindweed, 49, 102 - — Bryony, 35, 78, 105 - - Bog Asphodel, 97, 101 - - Box, 69, 105 - - Bracken, 87, 93 - - Brake-fern, 87, 93 - - _Brassica nigra_, 18 - — _Sinapistrum_, 18, 19 - - _Bromus_, 101 - - Broom, 27, 104 - - Broom-rape, 95 - - Bryogenin, 35 - - _Bryonia dioica_, 35, 78, 105 - - Bryonin, 35, 78 - - Bryony, 35, 78, 105 - - Buckthorn, 24, 105 - - Buckwheat, 64 - - Burma beans, 32 - - Buttercups, 8, 10–12, 99, 105 - — Acrid, 10, 105 - — Bulbous, 10, 11, 105 - — Celery-leaved, 10, 11, 99, 105 - - Butterwort, 101 - - Buxine, 69 - - Buxinidine, 69 - - _Buxus sempervirens_, 69, 105 - - - _Caltha palustris_, 9, 12, 99, 104 - - Canadian Erigeron, 93 - - Caper Spurge, 66, 67, 100, 105 - - Caprifoliaceæ, 43 - - _Capsella Bursa-pastoris_, 101 - - Caryophyllaceæ, 19 - - Castor Oil Plant, 33 - - Catmint, 96 - - Cats-Ear, 94 - - Celandine, Greater, 17, 105 - — Lesser, 10, 11, 105 - - Celastraceæ, 24 - - Celery-leaved Buttercup, 10, 11, 99, 105 - - Chaerophyllin, 40 - - _Chaerophyllum_ sp., 37, 40 - — _sylvestre_, 40 - — _temulum_, 40 - - Chamomile, Corn and Wild, 101 - - Charlock, 18 - - Chelerythrine, 17 - - Chelidonine, 17 - - _Chelidonium majus_, 17, 105 - - Cherry Laurel, 34 - - Chervils, 40 - - Chickweed, 101 - - Chinovic acid, 93 - - Choline, 68 - - Christmas Rose, 13 - - _Chrysanthemum Leucanthemum_, 100 - - _Cicuta virosa_, 2, 8, 36, 104 - - Cicutine, 36 - - Cicutoxine, 36 - - Classification of Poisons, 103 - - _Claviceps microcephala_, 98 - — _purpurea_, 8, 88–91, 103, 104 - - _Clematis Vitalba_, 9, 105 - - Cockle, Corn, 3, 6, 8, 19, 105 - - Colchicine, 80 - - _Colchicum_ sp., 8, 11, 103 - — _autumnale_, 2, 3, 79–82, 100, 104 - - Compositæ, 44 - - Conhydrine, 30, 41 - - Coniceine, 41 - - Coniferæ, 72 - - Coniferin, 72 - - Coniine, 30, 39, 41 - - _Conium maculatum_, 6, 30, 41, 101, 104 - - Consolidine, 94 - - Convallamarin, 79 - - _Convallaria majalis_, 79, 104 - - Convallarin, 79 - - Convolvulaceæ, 49 - - _Convolvulus_ sp., 49, 102 - — _arvensis_, 49 - — _sepium_, 49 - - Corn Chamomile, 101 - - Corn Cockle, 3, 6, 8, 19, 105 - - Cornutine, 89 - - Cowbane, 2, 8, 36, 104 - - Cow-Wheat, 96, 100 - - Cress, Penny, 101 - - Crocus, Autumn, 2, 3, 79–82, 100, 104 - - _Crocus sativus_, 105 - - Crowfoot, Tall, 10, 11, 105 - - Cruciferæ, 18 - - Cuckoo Pint, 76, 77, 105 - - Cucurbitaceæ, 35 - - Cumarin, 92 - - _Cupressus macrocarpa_, 73 - — _nootkatensis_, 73 - - _Cuscuta_ sp., 94 - — _Epithymum_, 94 - — _europæa_, 94 - - Cuscutin, 94 - - Cyclamin, 49 - - Cynapine, 39 - - Cynoglossine, 94 - - _Cynoglossum officinale_, 94, 105 - - Cytisine, 25, 27, 92 - - _Cytisus Laburnum_, 25, 27, 104 - — _Scoparius_, 27, 104 - — _Weldeni_, 25 - - - _Daphne_ sp., 4, 8 - — _Laureola_, 65, 105 - — _Mezereum_, 65, 105 - - Daphnin, 65 - - Darnel, 8, 48, 82–84, 96, 103, 104 - - _Datura Stramonium_, 50, 103, 104 - - Daturine, 50 - - Deadly Nightshade, 4, 5, 8, 50, 52, 58, 103, 104 - - Delphinine, 11, 14 - - _Delphinium Ajacis_, 14 - — _Consolida_, 14, 104 - — _Staphisagria_, 14 - - Delphinoidine, 14 - - Delphisine, 14 - - Devil’s-Bit, 93 - - Digitalein, 61 - - Digitalin, 61 - - _Digitalis purpurea_, 61, 103, 104 - - _Digitin_, 61 - - _Digitonin_, 61 - - _Digitoxin_, 61 - - _Dioscorideæ_, 78 - - Docks, 63, 64 - - Dodders, 94 - - Dog’s Mercury, 67, 68, 100, 104 - - _Doronicum Pardalianches_, 105 - - Dropwort, Water, 37, 103, 104 - - _Drosera_ sp., 93 - — _rotundifolia_, 105 - - Dulcamarin, 54 - - Dwarf Elder, 43, 104 - - - Ecboline, 89 - - _Echium vulgare_, 94 - - Elder, Common, 43, 104 - — Dwarf, 43, 104 - - _Endoconidium temulentum_, 83 - - Equisetaceæ, 84 - - Equisetine, 86 - - _Equisetum_ sp., 3, 84–87, 100 - — _arvense_, 84, 85, 86, 87 - — _heleocharis_, 85 - — _maximum_, 83 - — _palustre_, 85, 100 - — _pratense_, 85 - — _sylvaticum_, 85 - - Ergot, 8, 88–91, 103, 104 - - Ergotinine, 89 - - Ergotism, 89 - - Ergotoxine, 89 - - Ericaceæ, 46 - - Ericolin, 47, 48 - - Erigeron, Canadian, 93 - - _Erigeron canadensis_, 93 - - _Erodium cicutarium_, 101 - - _Erysimum cheiranthoides_, 19, 105 - - Esparcet, False, 3 - - Euonymin, 24 - - _Euonymus europæus_, 24, 105 - - _Euphorbia_ sp., 8, 66, 67 - — _amygdaloides_, 105 - — _exigua_, 105 - — _Helioscopia_, 66, 105 - — _hiberna_, 105 - — _Lathyris_, 66, 67, 100, 105 - — _Paralias_, 105 - — _Peplis_, 105 - — _Peplus_, 66, 105 - — _pilosa_, 105 - — _platyphylla_, 105 - — _portlandica_, 105 - - Euphorbiaceæ, 66 - - - Fagopyrism, 64 - - Ferns, 87, 88 - - Figworts, 95 - - Filices, 87 - - Filicic acid, 88 - - Flag, Yellow, 97, 105 - - Flax, Purging, 92, 104 - - Fool’s Parsley, 39, 104 - - Formic acid, 75 - - Foxglove, 61, 103, 104 - - Frangulin, 24 - - _Fritillaria Meleagris_, 97, 105 - - Fritillary, Common, 97, 105 - - Fungi, 88 - - Furze, 92 - - - _Galanthus nivalis_, 105 - - Garden Nightshade, 4, 52, 54, 104 - - Garlic Mustard, 19, 100 - - Garlics, 99 - - Geraniaceæ, 23 - - Geranium, Wild, 3 - - Githagin, 21 - - Githagism, 20 - - _Glaucium luteum_, 105 - - Gorse, 92 - - Gramineæ, 82 - - Gratiolin, 95 - - Great Mullein, 95 - - Ground Ivy, 96 - - Gummi hederæ, 43 - - - _Hedera Helix_, 43 - - Hederin, 43 - - Hellebore, Green, 13, 14, 104 - — Stinking, 13, 104 - - Helleborein, 13 - - Helleborin, 12, 13 - - _Helleborus_ sp., 13 - — _fœtidus_, 13, 104 - — _niger_, 13 - — _viridis_, 13, 14, 104 - - Hemlock (_see also_ Water Hemlock), 6, 30, 41, 101, 104 - - Henbane, 6, 51, 101, 104 - - Herb Paris, 78, 104 - - _Hieracium Pilosella_, 98 - - _Hordeum_, 101 - - Horsetails, 3, 84–87, 100 - - Hound’s Tongue, 94, 105 - - Huckleberry, 53 - - _Hyacinthus nonscriptus_, 105 - - _Hydrocotyle vulgaris_, 93 - - Hydroergotinine, 89 - - Hyoscine, 50, 51, 59 - - Hyoscyamine, 6, 46, 50, 51, 59 - - _Hyoscyamus_ sp., 103 - — _muticus_, 6 - — _niger_, 6, 51, 101, 104 - - Hyoscypicrin, 51 - - Hypericineæ, 22 - - _Hypericum perforatum_, 22 - - _Hypochæris radicata_, 94 - - - _Impatiens noli-me-tangere_, 105 - - Imperialine, 97 - - Iridin, 97 - - _Iris foetidissima_, 105 - — _Pseud-acorus_, 97, 105 - - Ivraie, 83 - - Ivy, 43 - — Ground, 96 - - - Java beans, 4, 32, 104 - - Jervine, 12, 13 - - Jimson Weed, 50 - - _Juncus_ sp., 98 - - _Juniperus Sabina_, 72, 104 - - - King-cup, 12 99, 104 - - Knot-weed, 102 - - Kribbelkrankheit, 89 - - - Laburnum, 25, 27, 103 - - _Lactuca scariola_, 45 - — _virosa_, 45, 46 - - Lactucarium, 46 - - Lactucerin, 46 - - Lactucic, acid 46 - - Lactucin, 46 - - Lactucone, 46 - - Lactupicrine, 46 - - _Larix europæa_, 72 - - Larkspur, 14, 104 - - Lathyrism, 27, 28 - - _Lathyrus Aphaca_, 29, 104 - — _Cicera_, 27 - — _Clymenum_, 27 - — _sativus_, 27, 96 - - Laurel, Cherry, 34, 104 - - Laurel, Spurge, 65, 105 - - _Lepidium latifolium_, 105 - - Lettuce, Wild, 45 - - Ligustrin, 49 - - Ligustron, 49 - - _Ligustrum vulgare_, 4, 49, 105 - - Liliaceæ, 78 - - Lily-of-the-Valley, 79, 104 - - Lima beans, 32 - - _Linaria vulgaris_, 95, 105 - - Linarin, 95 - - _Linum carthaticum_, 92, 104 - - Loco-weed, 3 - - Loliine, 83 - - _Lolium temulentum_, 8, 48, 82–84, 96, 103, 104 - - Lords and Ladies, 76, 77, 105 - - Lousewort, 63, 95 - - Lupines, 29 - — Blue, 29 - — False, 3 - — White, 30 - — Yellow, 29 - - Lupinidine, 27, 31 - - Lupinine, 31 - - Lupinosis, 29–32 - - Lupinotoxin, 31 - - _Lupinus_ sp., 29–32 - — _albus_, 30 - — _angustifolius_, 29 - —— _luteus_, 29, 30 - - - Mal de Brou, 70 - - Maladie des Bois, 70, 100 - - Male Fern, 88 - - Marsh Marigold, 12, 99, 104 - - Marsh Penny-Wort, 93 - - _Matricaria Chamomilla_, 101 - - Mayweeds, 94, 101 - - Meadow Saffron, 2, 3, 79–82, 100, 104 - - Mechanical injury, plants causing, 101 - - _Melampyrum_ sp., 63, 95, 96 - — _arvense_, 96, 100 - - Melilot, 92 - - _Melilotus_ sp., 92 - - Mercurialine, 68 - - _Mercurialis annua_, 67, 68, 100 - —— _perennis_, 67, 68, 100, 104 - - Mercury, Dog’s and Annual, 67, 68, 100, 104 - - Methylconiine, 41 - - Mezerein, 65 - - Mezereon, 65, 105 - - Milk, plants affecting, 99, 100, 101 - — _Achillea Millefolium_, 100 - — Acorns, 100 - — _Alliaria officinalis_, 100 - — _Allium_ sp., 99 - — _Anthemis_ sp., 94, 101 - — _Artemisia Absinthium_, 101 - — _Caltha palustris_, 99 - — _Chrysanthemum Leucanthemum_, 100 - — _Colchicum autumnale_, 80, 81, 100 - — _Conium maculatum_, 42, 101 - — _Cytisus Weldeni_, 25 - — _Equisetum palustre_, 87, 100 - — _Euphorbia_ sp., 67 - — — _Lathyris_, 100 - — _Helleborus_ sp., 13, 14 - — _Hyoscyamus niger_, 52, 101 - — _Hypericum perforatum_, 22 - — _Matricaria Chamomilla_, 101 - — _Melampyrum arvense_, 100 - — _Mercurialis annua_, 68, 100 - — — _perennis_, 68, 100 - — _Narthecium ossifragum_, 97 100 - — _Oxalis Acetosella_, 23, 100 - — _Pinguicula vulgaris_, 101 - — _Quercus_ sp., 71, 100 - — _Ranunculus_ sp., 99 - — _Rhododendron_, 47, 100 - — _Rumex_ sp., 64 - — _Senebiera didyma_, 101 - — _Senecio latifolius_, 45 - — _Sium angustifolium_, 101 - — — _latifolium_, 37, 101 - — _Solanum tuberosum_, 57 - — _Tanacetum vulgare_, 44, 101 - — _Thlaspi arvense_, 101 - - _Molinia caerulea_, 98 - - Monkshood, 10, 14, 15, 103, 104 - - Morphine, 16 - - Mullein, Great, 95 - - Mustard, Garlic, 19, 100 - — Treacle, 19 - - - Naked Ladies, 2, 3, 79–82, 100, 104 - - Narcissine, 97 - - _Narcissus_ sp., 97 - — _moschatus_, 105 - — _poeticus_, 97, 105 - — _pseudo-narcissus_, 97 - - _Nardus stricta_, 101 - - Narthecin, 97 - - _Narthecium ossifragum_, 97, 100 - - _Nepeta Cataria_, 96 - — _Glechoma_, 1, 96, 98 - - Nettles, 97, 105 - - Nightshade, _see_ Deadly Nightshade _and_ - Garden Nightshade - - - Oak, 69–72, 100 - - _Oenanthe crocata_, 37, 103, 104 - — _fistulosa_, 38 - — _fluviatilis_, 104 - — _Phellandrium_, 38, 104 - - Oenanthotoxin, 38 - - Oil of Cicuta, 36 - — Euphorbia, 68 - — Mustard, 18 - — Snapdragon, 95 - — Tansy, 44 - — Valerian, 93 - — Yew, 75 - - Oleaceæ, 49 - - Orache, 97 - - _Orobanche minor_, 95 - - _Oxalis Acetosella_, 23, 100 - - - Paigya beans, 32 - - _Papaver_ sp., 8, 16 - — _dubium_, 16 - — _Rhoeas_, 16, 105 - — _somniferum_, 103 - - Papaveraceæ, 16 - - Papilionaceæ, 25 - - Parabuxine, 69 - - Parabuxinidine, 69 - - Paridin, 78, 79 - - _Paris quadrifolia_, 78, 104 - - Paristyphnin, 78 - - Parsnip, Water, 37, 101 - — Wild, 93 - - Pasque Flower, 9 - - _Pastinaca sativa_, 93 - - Peas, Indian, 27, 96 - — Mutter, 27 - - _Pedicularis_ sp., 63, 95 - — _palustris_, 63 - — _sylvatica_, 63 - - Penny Cress, 101 - - Penny-Wort, Marsh, 93 - - Persicaria, 64 - - Petty Spurge, 66, 105 - - Phaseolunatin, 8, 33 - - _Phaseolus lunatus_, 4, 32, 104 - - _Picea_ sp., 72 - - Picein, 72 - - Picrotoxin, 36, 83 - - Pimpernel, Scarlet, 48 - - _Pinguicula vulgaris_, 101 - - Pinipicrin, 72 - - _Pinus larix_, 104 - — _pinaster_, 104 - — _strobus_, 72 - — _sylvestris_, 72 - - _Pisum sativum_, 27 - - Poison Weed, 48 - - Polygonaceæ, 63 - - _Polygonum Aviculare_, 102 - — _Convolvulus_, 102 - — _Fagopyrum_, 64 - — _hydropiper_, 64, 65 - — _Persicaria_, 64, 65 - - Poppies, 8, 16, 103, 105 - - Potato, 54–58 - - _Potentilla Anserina_, 92 - — _tormentilla_, 88, 93 - - Primulaceæ, 48 - - Privet, 4, 49, 105 - - Protopine, 17 - - Prulaurasin, 34 - - _Prunus laurocerasus_, 34, 104 - - Pseudoconhydrine, 41 - - _Pteris aquilina_, 87, 93 - - Pteritannic acid, 88 - - Pulsatilla-camphor, 9 - - Purging Flax 92, 104 - - - _Quercus_ sp., 69–72, 100 - - - Radish, Wild, 18 - - Ragwort, 44 - - Rangoon beans, 32 - - Ranunculaceæ, 9 - - _Ranunculus_ sp., 8, 9, 10, 12, 99 - — _acer_, 11 - — _acris_, 10, 11, 105 - — _aquatilis_, 10, 105 - — _auricomus_, 105 - — _bulbosus_, 10, 11, 105 - — _Ficaria_, 10, 11, 105 - — _Flammula_, 10, 11, 105 - — _lingua_, 10 - — _repens_, 10, 12, 99 - — _sceleratus_, 10, 11, 99, 105 - - _Raphanus Raphanistrum_, 18 - - Rhamnaceæ, 24 - - Rhamnetin, 24 - - _Rhamnus Catharticus_, 24, 105 - — _Frangula_, 24 - - Rheadine, 16 - - Rhinanthin, 63, 96 - - _Rhinanthus_ sp., 63 - — _Crista-galli_, 95 - - Rhododendrin, 47 - - _Rhododendron_ sp., 4, 46, 100 - — _arboreum_, 47 - — _californicum_, 46 - — _Chrysanthum_, 46 - — _cinnabarinum_, 47 - — _ferrugineum_, 46 - — _hirsutum_, 47 - — _maximum_, 46 - — _ponticum_, 46, 47 - — _punctatum_, 47 - - Ricin, 34 - - Ricinine, 34 - - _Ricinus communis_, 33 - - _Roemeria hybrida_, 105 - - Rosaceæ, 34 - - _Rumex Acetosa_, 63, 104 - — _Acetosella_, 63 - — _crispus_, 64 - - _Ruta graveolens_, 104 - - - St John’s Wort, 22 - - _Sambuca Ebulus_, 43, 104 - — _nigra_, 43, 104 - - Sambucine, 44 - - Sambunigrin, 44 - - _Saponaria officinalis_, 19, 105 - - Saponins, 8, 9, 19, 21, 77, 78, 97 - - Sapotoxin, 21 - - _Scabiosa succisa_, 93 93 - - Scarlet Pimpernel, 48 - - _Scilla bifolia_, 105 - - Scopolamine, 50, 51, 59 - - _Scrophularia aquatica_, 95 - — _nodosa_, 95 - - Scrophularine, 95 - - Scrophularineæ, 61 - - _Sedum acre_, 93, 105 - —_album_, 105 - - _Senebiera didyma_, 101 - - Senecifolidine, 45 - - Senecifoline, 45 - - _Senecio Burchellii_, 45 - —_Jacobœa_, 44 - —_latifolius_, 45 - - Sheep’s Sorrel, 63 - - Shepherd’s Purse, 101 - - Silica, 86 - - Silver Weed, 92 - - Sinalbin, 18 - - Sinapine, 18 - - _Sinapis alba_, 105 - —_arvensis_, see _Brassica sinapistrum_ - —_nigra_, 105 - - _Sium angustifolium_, 37, 101, 104 - —_latifolium_, 37, 101 - - Sium, Lesser, 101 - - Smilacin, 21 - - Snake’s Head, 97 - - Soapwort, 19, 105 - - Solanaceæ, 4, 8, 50, 103 - - Solanidine, 53, 56 - - Solanine, 8, 53, 54, 55, 56 - - _Solanum Dulcamara_, 54, 104 - —_guineense_, 53 - —_nigrum_, 4, 52, 54, 104 - —_tuberosum_, 54–58 - —_villosum_, 53 - - Sorrel, Common, 63, 104 - —Sheep’s, 63 - —Wood, 23, 100 - - Sparteine, 27, 31 - - Spearwort, Lesser, 10, 11, 105 - - Spindle Tree, 24, 105 - - Spurge Laurel, 65, 105 - - Spurges, 66, 67, 100, 105 - - Staphisagrine, 14 - - _Stellaria media_, 101 - - Stinking Mayweed, 101 - - _Stipa pinnata_, 101 - - Sundews, 93 - - Sunflower, Wild, 3 - - Sun Spurge, 66, 105 - - Syringin, 49 - - Syringopicrin, 49 - - - _Tamus communis_, 35, 78, 105 - - _Tanacetum vulgare_, 44, 101 - - Tannin, 70 - - Tansy, 44, 101 - - Taxine, 75 - - _Taxus baccata_, 2, 4, 7, 8, 72, 73–76, 103, 104 - - Temuline, 83 - - Terpene, 93 - - _Thermopsis rhombifolia_, 3 - - _Thlaspi arvense_, 101 - - Thorn Apple, 50, 103, 104 - - _Thuja occidentalis_, 72 - - Thymelaceæ, 65 - - Toadflax, 95, 105 - - Tormentil, 88, 93 - - Traveller’s Joy, 9, 105 - - Treacle Mustard, 19 - - _Trifolium incarnatum_, 101 - - Trimethylamine, 68 - - _Trollius europœus_, 9 - - - _Ulex europœus_, 92 - - Ulexine, 25, 92 - - Umbelliferæ, 2, 36 - - _Urtica_ sp., 97 - —_dioica_, 97, 105 - —_pilulifera_, 105 - —_urens_, 105 - - - _Valeriana officinalis_, 93, 105 - - Valerianic acid, 93 - - Vellarin, 93 - - _Verbascum Thapsus_, 95 - - Vetchling, Yellow, 29, 104 - - Viper’s Bugloss, 94 - - _Viscum album_, 105 - - - Wall-Pepper, 93, 105 - - Wartcress, Lesser, 101 - - Water Dropwort, 37, 103, 104 - —Hemlock, 2, 8, 36, 104 - —Parsnip, 37, 101 - —Pepper, 64, 65 - - White-Rot, 93 - - Wild Chamomile, 101 - —Geranium, 3 - —Lettuce, 45 - —Parsnip, 93 - —Radish, 18 - —Sunflower, 3 - - Wind Flower, 9, 105 - - Wonderberry, 53 - - Wood Anemone, 9, 105 - —Sorrel, 23, 100 - - Wormwood, 101 - - - Xylan, 98 - - - Yellow Flag, 97 - —Rattle, 95 - —Vetchling, 29, 104 - - Yew, 2, 4, 7, 8, 72, 73–76, 103, 104 - - - _Zygadenus venenosus_, 3 - - - CAMBRIDGE: PRINTED BY J. 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