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You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: Schools of Hellas - An Essay on the Practice and Theory of Ancient Greek - Education from 600 to 300 B. C. - -Author: Kenneth John Freeman - -Editor: Montague John Rendall - -Release Date: November 5, 2020 [EBook #63644] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCHOOLS OF HELLAS *** - - - - -Produced by Carol Brown, Turgut Dincer and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - -</pre> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<h1 class="h1head">SCHOOLS OF HELLAS</h1> - -<h3 class="h2head">AN ESSAY ON THE PRACTICE AND THEORY<br /> -OF ANCIENT GREEK EDUCATION</h3> -</div><!--end chapter--> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/logo.jpg" - alt="Illustration: Printer’s Logo" - title="Illustration: Printer’s Logo" - /> -</div><!--end illustration--> - -<!--Blank Page--> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px"> - <a name="frontis" id="frontis"></a> - <img src="images/frontis.jpg" - width="500" height="503" - alt="Illustration: In a Riding-School" - /> - <p class="caption">IN A RIDING-SCHOOL<br /> - From a Kulix by Euphronios, now in the Louvre.<br />Hartwig’s <cite lang="de" xml:lang="de">Meisterschalen</cite>, Plate 53.</p> -</div><!--end illustration--> - -</div><!--end chapter--> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h3 class="h2head">Schools of Hellas</h3> - -<p class="center larger">AN ESSAY ON THE PRACTICE AND THEORY -OF ANCIENT GREEK EDUCATION</p> - -<p class="center smaller">FROM</p> - -<p class="center larger">600 TO 300 B.C.</p> - -<p class="p4 center smaller">BY</p> - -<h2 class="h2head no-break">KENNETH J. FREEMAN</h2> - -<p class="center smaller">SCHOLAR OF TRINITY COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE; BROWNE UNIVERSITY SCHOLAR; -CRAVEN UNIVERSITY SCHOLAR; SENIOR CHANCELLOR’S MEDALLIST, ETC.</p> - -<p class="p4 center smaller">EDITED BY</p> - -<h2 class="h2head no-break">M. J. RENDALL</h2> - -<p class="center smaller">SECOND MASTER OF WINCHESTER COLLEGE</p> - -<p class="p2 center">WITH A PREFACE BY A. W. VERRALL, <span class="sc"><abbr title="Doctor of Letters">Litt.Doc.</abbr></span></p> - -<p class="p4 center small"><span class="decoration">ILLUSTRATED</span></p> - -<p class="p4 center"><span class="black">London</span><br /> -MACMILLAN AND <abbr title="Company">CO.</abbr>, <span class="sc">Limited</span><br /> -<span class="small">NEW YORK: THE MACMILLAN COMPANY</span><br /> -1907</p> - -<p class="p2 center smaller"><span class="decoration">All rights reserved</span></p> -</div><!--end chapter--> -<!--Blank Page--> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p class="p4 center larger"><ins title="PHILOKALOIS">ΦΙΛΟΚΑΛΟΙΣ</ins></p> - -<p class="center larger">ΚΑΙ</p> - -<p class="center larger"><ins title="PHILOSOPHOIS">ΦΙΛΟΣΟΦΟΙΣ</ins></p> -</div><!--end chapter--> - -<!--Blank Page--> -<div class="chapter"> -<a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii"></a><span class="pageno">vii</span> -<h3 class="h3head">PREFACE</h3> - -<p class="p2"><span class="sc">The</span> Dissertation here published was written by the late -Mr. K. J. Freeman, in the course of the year following -his graduation at Cambridge as a Bachelor of Arts, with -a view to his candidature for a Fellowship of Trinity -College, for which purpose the rules of the College -require the production of some original work. In the -summer of 1906, three months before the autumn -election of that year, his brilliant and promising career -was arrested by death.</p> - -<p>We have been encouraged to publish the work, as it -was left, by several judgments of great weight; nor -does it, in my opinion, require anything in the nature -of an apology. It is of course, under the circumstances, -incomplete, and it is in some respects immature. But, -within the limits, the execution is adequate for practical -purposes; and the actual achievement has a substantive -value independent of any personal consideration. No -English book, perhaps no extant book, covers the same -ground, or brings together so conveniently the materials -for studying the subject of ancient Greek education—education -as treated in practice and theory during the -most fertile and characteristic age of Hellas. It would -be regrettable that this useful, though preliminary, -labour should be lost and suppressed, only because it -was decreed that the author should not build upon his -own foundation.</p> - -<p>Novelty of view he disclaimed; but he claimed, -<a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii"></a><span class="pageno">viii</span> -with evident truth, that the work is not second-hand, -but based upon wide and direct study of the sources, -which are made accessible by copious references.</p> - -<p>The subject is in one respect specially appropriate to -a youthful hand. Perhaps at no time is a man more -likely to have fresh and living impressions about -education than when he has himself just ceased to be -a pupil, when he has just completed the subordinate -stages of a long and strenuous self-culture. It will be -seen, in more than one place, that the author is not -content with the purely historical aspect of his theme, -but suggests criticisms and even practical applications. -It may be thought that these remarks upon a matter of -pressing and growing importance are by no means the -less deserving of consideration because the writer, when -he speaks of the schoolboy and the undergraduate, is -unquestionably an authentic witness.</p> - -<p>But, as I have already said, the work will commend -itself sufficiently to those interested in the topic, if only -as a conspectus of facts, presented with orderly arrangement -and in a simple and perspicuous style.</p> - -<p>It is not my part here to express personal feelings. -But I cannot dismiss this, the first and only fruit of -the classical studies of Kenneth Freeman, without a -word of profound sorrow for the premature loss of a -most honourable heart and vigorous mind. He was one -whom a teacher may freely praise, without suspicion of -partiality; for, whatever he was, he was no mere product -of lessons, as this, his first essay, will sufficiently -show. It is not what he would have made it; but it -is his own, and it is worthy of him.</p> - -<p class="r1">A. W. VERRALL.</p> - -<p class="indent1"><span class="sc">Trinity College, Cambridge</span>,</p> -<p class="pneg indent3"><span class="time">January</span> 1907.</p> -</div><!--end chapter--> - -<div class="chapter"><a name="Page_ix" id="Page_ix"></a><span class="pageno">ix</span> - -<h3 class="p4 h3head">EDITOR’S STATEMENT</h3> - -<p><span class="sc">It</span> has fallen to my lot to edit this essay, the first, and -last, work of Kenneth John Freeman, a brilliant young -Scholar of Winchester College and Trinity College, -Cambridge, whose short life closed in the summer of -1906.</p> - -<p>He was born in London on June 19, 1882, and -died at Winchester on July 15, 1906,—a brief span of -twenty-four years, the greater part of which was spent -in the strenuous pursuit of truth and beauty, both in -literature and in the book of Nature, but above all -among the Classics.</p> - -<p>Scholarly traditions and interests he inherited in -no small measure: he was the son of Mr. G. Broke -Freeman, a member of the Chancery Bar, and a Classical -graduate of Trinity College, Cambridge, and the grandson -of Philip Freeman, Archdeacon of Exeter, himself -a Scholar of the same great Foundation, Craven -University Scholar and Senior Classic in 1839. He -was also a great-grandson of the Rev. Henry Hervey -Baber, for many years Principal Librarian of the British -Museum, and Editor of the <span class="decoration" lang="la" xml:lang="la">editio princeps</span> of the <cite>Codex -Alexandrinus</cite>. From them he inherited a passion for -Classical study, a keen sense of form, and a determined -pursuit of knowledge, which nothing could daunt, not -<a name="Page_x" id="Page_x"></a><span class="pageno">x</span> -even the recurrent shadow of a long and distressing -illness.</p> - -<p>Through his mother, a daughter of Dr. Horace -Dobell, of Harley Street, London, he was also a great-nephew -of the poet Sydney Dobell; and thus he -may well have derived that poetic feeling which distinguished -a number of verses found among his papers, -since printed for private circulation.</p> - -<p>His School and University career was uniformly -successful. At Winchester he won prizes in many -subjects and several tongues, and carried off the -Goddard Scholarship, the intellectual blue ribbon, at -the age of sixteen.</p> - -<p>At Cambridge he was Browne University Scholar -in 1903, and in the first “division” of the Classical -Tripos in 1904, in which year he also won the Craven -Scholarship. The senior Chancellor’s medal fell to -him in the following year.</p> - -<p>There is no need to enumerate his other distinctions, -but the epigram with which he won the Browne Medal -in 1903 is so beautiful in itself and so true an epitome of -the boy and the man, that I am tempted to quote it here:</p> - -<div class="poem-container"> - <div class="poem"> - <div class="i0"><ins title="xeine, kalon to zên katagôgion estin hapasin,">ξεῖνε, καλὸν τὸ ζῆν καταγώγιόν ἐστιν ἅπασιν</ins></div> - <div class="i2"><ins title="nêpytious gar homôs nyktiplaneis te philei,">νηπυτίους γὰρ ὅμως νυκτιπλανεῖς τε φιλεῖ,</ins> </div> - <div class="i0"><ins title="dôra charizomenon philias kai terpnon erôta">δῶρα χαριζόμενον φιλίας καὶ τερπνὸν ἔρωτα</ins></div> - <div class="i2"><ins title="kai ponon euandron phrontida t’ ouranian;">καὶ πόνον εὔανδρον φροντίδα τ’ οὐρανίαν·</ins></div> - <div class="i0"><ins title="trychomenous d’ êdê koima ton akêraton hypnon">τρυχομένους δ’ ἤδη κοιμᾷ τὸν ἀκήρατον ὕπνον</ins></div> - <div class="i2"><ins title="pempei d’ hôste lathein oikad’ elêlythotas.">πέμπει δ’ ὥστε λαθεῖν οἰκάδ’ ἐληλυθότας.</ins></div> -</div><!--end poem--> -</div><!--end container--> - -<p>He was always an optimist, who regarded life as a -“fair Inn,” which provided much good cheer. Shyness -and ill-health limited sadly the range of his friends, but -not his capacity and desire for “friendship.” “Manly -toil,” both physical and intellectual, was dear to his -<a name="Page_xi" id="Page_xi"></a><span class="pageno">xi</span> -soul: thus, though no great athlete, he was an ardent -Volunteer both at School and College, and declared -that, had he not chosen the teacher’s profession, he -would have wished to be a soldier: he writes of Sparta -and Xenophon with evident sympathy. Also he fought -and won many an intellectual battle against great -odds; to quote one instance, he wrote the papers for -his Craven Scholarship while convalescent in his old -nursery. His poems, to complete the parallel, may -justly be described as the “aspiring thoughts” of a -singularly pure and reverent heart.</p> - -<p>It is a simple, uneventful record: six happy years as -a Winchester Scholar; three as a Scholar of Trinity -College, Cambridge; one year of travel and study, -mainly devoted to the subject of Education, which -always had a special attraction for him; and lastly, -one year, the happiest of his life, when he returned to -teach at his old school.</p> - -<p>All appeared bright and promising; he was doing the -work he desired at the school of his choice, health and -vigour seemed fully restored, and a strenuous life as a -Winchester Master lay before him, when an acute attack -of the old trouble, borne with perfect patience, cut him -off in the prime of his promise.</p> - -<p>Then, to quote his own translation of his epigram:</p> - -<div class="poem-container"> - <div class="poem"> - <div class="i0">When I was aweary, last and best</div> - <div class="i0">They gave me dreamless rest;</div> - <div class="i0">And sent me on my way that I might come</div> - <div class="i0">Unknown, unknowing, Home.</div> - </div><!--end poem--> -</div><!--end container--> - -<p>The work itself was never finished for the press; -indeed, some chapters, dealing with Sokrates, Plato, and -Aristotle, did not appear sufficiently complete to justify -publication: these, therefore, we have withheld. But -<a name="Page_xii" id="Page_xii"></a><span class="pageno">xii</span> -this book is in substance what he left it, and he was -fully aware that the omitted chapters were in need of -further revision.</p> - -<p>In any case, it would have been a labour of -love to me to edit this dissertation; but the labour -has been lightened at every turn by the ungrudging -help and friendship of many Scholars. Dr. Verrall, -besides contributing a Preface, has contributed much -advice in general and in detail; Dr. Sandys has revised -the proofs and given me the benefit of his comprehensive -knowledge of the subject; Dr. Henry Jackson -went through some of the later chapters and discussed -points of general interest. The original Essay or the -proofs have in addition been revised, from different -points of view, by Mr. Edmund D. A. Morshead, -late Fellow of New College, Oxford, and Mr. F. M. -Cornford, Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge. -Mr. G. S. Freeman (brother of the author) is responsible -for the Index; while Mr. W. R. H. Merriman -has spent much pains upon verifying the numerous -quotations. In a few cases Dr. F. G. Kenyon’s erudition -came to the rescue. To all these my best thanks are -due. Mr. A. Hamilton Smith of the British Museum -was most helpful in identifying the vases from which -the illustrations are derived. The author, who was a -considerable draughtsman, had drawn scenes from -Greek vases with his own hand; but of course our -illustrations are derived from published reproductions, -with two exceptions. The two British Museum vase-scenes -(Illustrations <abbr title="Three">III.</abbr> and <abbr title="Four">IV.</abbr>) were specially drawn -for this book: they have never been carefully reproduced -before. I must thank the Syndics of the Pitt -Press at Cambridge for their kind permission to reproduce -their print of Douris’ Educational Vase from -<a name="Page_xiii" id="Page_xiii"></a><span class="pageno">xiii</span> -Dr. Sandys’ <cite>History of Classical Scholarship</cite>. The -design which appears on the cover of this volume is -also adapted from this vase.</p> - -<p>It remains to add a few sentences from a Statement -which the author himself drew up:</p> - -<p>“I have,” he says, “confined my attention very -largely for several years to original texts and eschewed -the aid of commentaries.” This will be patent to the -reader.</p> - -<p>“As to accepted interpretations, I have, purposely -and on principle, neither read nor heard much of them, -since I wished, in pursuance of the bidding of Plato -himself, not to receive unquestioningly the authority of -those whom to hear is to believe, but to develop views -and interpretations of my own. For I have always -believed that education suffers immensely from the -study of books about books, in preference to the study -of the books themselves. M. Paul Girard’s book in -French (<cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">L’Éducation Athénienne</cite>) and Grasberger’s in -German (<cite lang="de" xml:lang="de">Erziehung und Unterricht im klassischen -Alterthum</cite>), the latter of which I have only read in -part, have set me on the track of authorities whom I -should otherwise have missed, but I believe that my -acknowledgments in the text and in the notes fully -cover my direct obligations to them in other respects, -although my indirect obligations to M. Girard’s stimulating -book, which are great, remain unexpressed.</p> - -<p>“An apology is, perhaps, needed for the peculiar, and -not wholly consistent, spelling of the Greek words. I -had meant to employ the Latinised spelling. But when -I came to write Lyceum, Academy, and pedagogue, my -heart failed me. For I did not wish to suggest modern -music-halls, modern art, and, worst of all, modern -‘pedagogy.’ In adopting the ancient spelling I had -<a name="Page_xiv" id="Page_xiv"></a><span class="pageno">xiv</span> -Browning on my side. But again, when I wrote Thoukudides, -my heart sank, for I could hardly recognise an -old friend in such a guise. So I decided, perhaps -weakly, to steer a middle course, and preserve the -Latinised forms in the case of the more familiar words. -Thus I put Plato, not Platon, but Menon and -Phaidon.” We have adhered to this principle in the -main; we need hardly say that Lakedaimon is the -transliteration of a Greek word: Lacedaemonian is -an English adjective. So a citizen of Troizen is a -Troezenian, and of Boiotia a Boeotian. “I have,” the -author concludes, “preferred <em>Hellas</em> and <em>Hellene</em> to -<em>Greece</em> and <em>Greek</em>. For a rose by any other name does -not always smell as sweet.”</p> - -<p class="r1">M. J. RENDALL.</p> - -<p class="indent1"><span class="sc">Winchester College</span>,</p> -<p class="pneg indent3"><span class="time">March</span> 1907.</p> -</div><!--end chapter--> - -<div class="chapter"><a name="Page_xv" id="Page_xv"></a><span class="pageno">xv</span> - -<h3 class="p4 h3head">CONTENTS</h3> - -<table summary=""> -<colgroup> - <col span="1" style="width: 25em;" /> - <col span="1" style="width: 5em;" /> -</colgroup> -<tr><td class="right muchsmaller" colspan="2">PAGE</td></tr> - -<tr><td class="lefthang"><span class="sc">Bibliography</span></td> - <td class="right"><a href="#Page_xvii">xvii</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="lefthang"><span class="sc">Introduction</span></td> - <td class="right"><a href="#Page_1">1</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="center" colspan="2"><br />PART I</td></tr> - -<tr><td class="center" colspan="2">THE PRACTICE OF EDUCATION</td></tr> - -<tr><td class="center" colspan="2">CHAPTER I</td></tr> - -<tr><td class="lefthang"><span class="sc">Sparta and Crete</span></td> - <td class="right"><a href="#Page_11">11</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="center" colspan="2">CHAPTER II</td></tr> - -<tr><td class="lefthang"><span class="sc">Athens and the Rest of Hellas: General Introduction</span></td> - <td class="right"><a href="#Page_42">42</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="center" colspan="2">CHAPTER III</td></tr> - -<tr><td class="lefthang"><span class="sc">Athens, etc.: Primary Education</span></td> - <td class="right"><a href="#Page_79">79</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="center" colspan="2">CHAPTER IV</td></tr> - -<tr><td class="lefthang"><span class="sc">Athens, etc.: Physical Education</span></td> - <td class="right"><a href="#Page_118">118</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="center" colspan="2">CHAPTER V</td></tr> - -<tr><td class="lefthang"><span class="sc">Athens, etc.: Secondary Education—<abbr title="One">I.</abbr> The Sophists</span></td> - <td class="right"><a href="#Page_157">157</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="center" colspan="2">CHAPTER VI -<a name="Page_xvi" id="Page_xvi"></a><span class="pageno">xvi</span></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="lefthang"><span class="sc">Athens, etc.: Secondary Education—<abbr title="Two">II.</abbr> The Permanent - Schools</span></td> - <td class="right"><a href="#Page_179">179</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="center" colspan="2">CHAPTER VII</td></tr> - -<tr><td class="lefthang"><span class="sc">Athens, etc.: Tertiary Education—The Epheboi and the - University</span></td> - <td class="right"><a href="#Page_210">210</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="center" colspan="2"><br />PART II</td></tr> - -<tr><td class="center" colspan="2">THE THEORY OF EDUCATION</td></tr> - -<tr><td class="center" colspan="2">CHAPTER VIII</td></tr> - -<tr><td class="lefthang"><span class="sc">Religion and Education in Hellas</span></td> - <td class="right"><a href="#Page_227">227</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="center" colspan="2">CHAPTER IX</td></tr> - -<tr><td class="lefthang"><span class="sc">Art, Music, and Poetry</span></td> - <td class="right"><a href="#Page_237">237</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="center" colspan="2">CHAPTER X</td></tr> - -<tr><td class="lefthang"><span class="sc">Xenophon</span></td> - <td class="right"><a href="#Page_259">259</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="center" colspan="2"><br />PART III</td></tr> - -<tr><td class="center" colspan="2">CHAPTER XI</td></tr> - -<tr><td class="lefthang"><span class="sc">General Essay on the Whole Subject</span></td> - <td class="right"><a href="#Page_275">275</a></td></tr> -<tr><td><br /></td></tr> -<tr><td class="lefthang">INDEX</td> - <td class="right"><a href="#Page_293">293</a></td></tr> -</table> - -</div><!--end chapter--> - -<div class="chapter"><a name="Page_xvii" id="Page_xvii"></a><span class="pageno">xvii</span> - -<h3 class="p4 h3head">ILLUSTRATIONS</h3> - -<table summary=""> -<colgroup> - <col span="1" style="width: 4.5em;" /> - <col span="1" style="width: 25em;" /> - <col span="1" style="width: 5em;" /> -</colgroup> - -<tr><td class="right" colspan="3"><span class="sc muchsmaller">AFTER PAGE</span></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="right" colspan="2">Vase by Euphronios, Louvre (centre of <abbr title="Ten">X.</abbr> <span class="sc lowercase">A</span> and <abbr title="Ten">X.</abbr> <span class="sc lowercase">B</span>)—Mounted - Ephebos in Riding-School</td></tr> -<tr><td class="right" colspan="3"><a href="#frontis"><span class="decoration">Frontispiece</span></a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rightt"><abbr title="One">I.</abbr> <span class="sc lowercase">A.</span></td> - <td class="lefthang">Kulix by Douris, Berlin (<abbr title="number">No.</abbr> 2285)—The Flute-Lesson - and Writing-Lesson</td></tr> -<tr><td class="rightt"><abbr title="One">I.</abbr> <span class="sc lowercase">B.</span></td> - <td class="lefthang">Kulix by Douris, Berlin (<abbr title="number">No.</abbr> 2285)—The Lyre-Lesson - and Poetry-Lesson</td> - <td class="right"><a href="#i01a">52</a></td></tr> -<tr><td><br /></td></tr> -<tr><td class="rightt"><abbr title="Two">II.</abbr></td> - <td class="lefthang">Kulix by Hieron, now at Vienna—A Flute Lesson: - The Boy’s Turn</td> - <td class="right"><a href="#i02">70</a></td></tr> -<tr><td><br /></td></tr> -<tr><td class="rightt"><abbr title="Three">III.</abbr></td> - <td class="lefthang">Hudria in British Museum (E 171)—Music-School - Scenes</td> - <td class="right"><a href="#i03">104</a></td></tr> -<tr><td><br /></td></tr> -<tr><td class="rightt"><abbr title="Four">IV.</abbr></td> - <td class="lefthang">Hudria in British Museum (E 172)—In a Lyre-School</td> - <td class="right"><a href="#i04">108</a></td></tr> -<tr><td><br /></td></tr> -<tr><td class="rightt"><abbr title="Five">V.</abbr> <span class="sc lowercase">A.</span></td> - <td class="lefthang">Kulix attributed to Euphronios, at Munich—Scenes - in a Palaistra</td></tr> -<tr><td class="rightt"><abbr title="Five">V.</abbr> <span class="sc lowercase">B.</span></td> - <td class="lefthang">Kulix attributed to Euphronios, at Munich—Scenes - in a Palaistra</td> - <td class="right"><a href="#i05a">120</a></td></tr> -<tr><td><br /></td></tr> -<tr><td class="rightt"><abbr title="Six">VI.</abbr> <span class="sc lowercase">A.</span></td> - <td class="lefthang">Wrestlers, etc., in the Palaistra</td></tr> -<tr><td class="rightt"><abbr title="Six">VI.</abbr> <span class="sc lowercase">B.</span></td> - <td class="lefthang">Boxers, etc., in the Palaistra</td> - <td class="right"><a href="#i06a">128</a></td></tr> -<tr><td><br /></td></tr> -<tr><td class="rightt"><abbr title="Seven">VII.</abbr></td> - <td class="lefthang">The Stadion at Delphi</td> - <td class="right"><a href="#i07a">132</a></td></tr> -<tr><td><br /></td></tr> -<tr><td class="rightt"><abbr title="Eight">VIII.</abbr></td> - <td class="lefthang">Kulix signed by Euphronios, at Berlin—Scenes in - the Palaistra</td> - <td class="right"><a href="#i08">174</a></td></tr> -<tr><td><br /></td></tr> -<tr><td class="rightt"><abbr title="Nine">IX.</abbr></td> - <td class="lefthang">Vase attributed to Euphronios, at Munich—A Riding-Lesson: - Mounting</td> - <td class="right"><a href="#i09">214</a> -<a name="Page_xviii" id="Page_xviii"></a><span class="pageno">xviii</span></td></tr> -<tr><td><br /></td></tr> -<tr><td class="rightt"><abbr title="Ten">X.</abbr> <span class="sc lowercase">A.</span></td> - <td class="lefthang">Kulix by Euphronios, now in the Louvre—Scene in - a Riding-School</td></tr> -<tr><td class="rightt"><abbr title="Ten">X.</abbr> <span class="sc lowercase">B.</span></td> - <td class="lefthang">Kulix by Euphronios, now in the Louvre—Scene in - a Riding-School</td> - <td class="right"><a href="#i10a">258</a></td></tr> -</table> -</div><!--end chapter--> - -<div class="chapter"> -<a name="Page_xix" id="Page_xix"></a><span class="pageno">xix</span> - -<h3 class="p4 h3head">SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY</h3> - -<p class="hanging"><span class="sc">Dittenberger, W.</span> <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">De Ephebis Atticis Dissertatio.</span> Dieterich, -Göttingen, 1863.</p> - -<p class="hanging"><span class="sc">Dumont, A.</span> <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Essai sur l’Éphébie Attique.</span> 2 <abbr title="volumes">vols.</abbr> Didot, Paris, -1875-76.</p> - -<p class="hanging"><span class="sc">Girard, P.</span> <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">L’Éducation Athénienne au vᵉ et au ivᵉ siècle avant -J.-C.</span> Hachette, Paris, 1889.</p> - -<p class="hanging"><span class="sc">Grasberger, L.</span> <span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Erziehung und Unterricht im klassischen -Alterthum.</span> 3 <abbr title="volumes">vols.</abbr> Würzburg, 1864-81.</p> - -<p class="hanging"><span class="sc">Laurie, S. S.</span> Historical Survey of Pre-Christian Education. -2nd Edition. Longmans, London, 1900.</p> - -<p class="hanging"><span class="sc">Mahaffy, J. P.</span> Old Greek Education. Kegan Paul, 1883.</p> - -<p class="hanging"><span class="sc">Müller, K. O.</span> Dorians. Edition 1824. English translation; -Oxford, 1830.</p> - -<p class="hanging"><span class="sc">Nettleship, H.</span> In <cite>Hellenica.</cite> 2nd Edition. Longmans, 1898.</p> - -<p class="hanging"><span class="sc">Sidgwick, A.</span> Essay in <cite>Teachers’ Guild Quarterly</cite>, <abbr title="number">No.</abbr> 8.</p> - -<p class="hanging"><span class="sc">Ussing, J. L.</span> (Danish.) German translation. <span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Erziehung bei -den Griechen (und Römern).</span> Altona, 1870.</p> - -<p class="hanging"><span class="sc">Wilkins, A. S.</span> National Education in Greece (Hare Prize, -Cambridge). Isbister, London, 1873.</p> -</div><!--end chapter--> - -<!--blank page--> -<div class="chapter"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1"></a><span class="pageno">1</span> - -<h3 class="p4 h3head">INTRODUCTION</h3> - -<p>The meeting-place of two streams has always a curious -fascination for the traveller. There is a strange charm -in watching the two currents blend and lose their -individuality in a new whole. The discoloured, foam-flecked -torrent, swirling on remorselessly its pebbles -and minuter particles of granite from the mountains, -and the calm, translucent stream, bearing in invisible -solution the clays and sands of the plains through -which its slow coils have wound, melt into a single -river, mightier than either, which has received and -will carry onward the burdens of both and lay them -side by side in some far-off delta, where they will form -“the dust of continents to be.”</p> - -<p>To the student of history or of psychology the -meeting-place of two civilisations has a similar charm. -To watch the immemorial culture of the East, slow-moving -with the weight of years, dreamy with centuries -of deep meditation, accept and assimilate, as in a -moment of time, the science, the machinery, the restless -energy and practical activity of the West is a fascinating -employment; for the process is big with hope of some -glorious product from this union of the two. Those -who live while such a union is in progress cannot estimate -its value or its probable result; they are but -<a name="Page_2" id="Page_2"></a><span class="pageno">2</span> -conscious of the discomforts and confusion arising from -the ending of the old order that passes away, and can -hardly presage the glories of the new, to which it is -yielding place. It is in past history, not in the contemporary -world, that such combinations must be -studied.</p> - -<p>The chief historical instance of two distinct civilisations -blending into one is the Renaissance, that mighty -union of the spirit of ancient Hellas and her pupil -Rome with the spirit of medieval Europe, which has -hardly been perfected even now. But it is often forgotten -that there were at least two dress-rehearsals for -the great drama of the Renaissance, in the course of -which Hellenism learnt its own charm and adapted -itself to the task of educating the world. Alexander -carried the arts, the literature, and the spirit of Hellas -far into the heart of Asia; and, though his great experiment -of blending West with East was interrupted -by his early death and the consequent disruption of his -world-empire, yet, even so, something of his object was -effected in the Hellenistic culture of Alexandria, Syria, -and Asia Minor. Within a century of his death began -the second dress-rehearsal, this time in the West. -Conquered Hellas led her fierce conqueror captive, and -the strength of Rome bowed before the intellect and -imagination of the Hellene. Once more the great -man who designed to unite the two currents into one -stream without loss to either was cut off before his -plans could be carried out, and the murder of Julius -Cæsar caused incalculable damage to this earlier Renaissance, -for the education of Rome, the second -scholar of Hellas, was not too wisely conducted. Yet -the schooling produced Virgil and Horace and that -Greco-Roman civilisation in which the Teutonic nations -<a name="Page_3" id="Page_3"></a><span class="pageno">3</span> -of the North received their first lessons in culture. -After several premature attempts, medieval Europe -rediscovered ancient Hellas and her pupil Rome at -the time of the Renaissance. Since that time the influence -exerted by Hellenism upon modern civilisation -has been continuous and incalculable. How much of -that influence remains unassimilated, how far it is still -needed, may perhaps be realised best by passing straight -from the Elgin marbles or a play of Sophocles to a -modern crowd or to modern literature.</p> - -<p>Hellas has thus been the educator of the world to -an extent of which not even Perikles ever dreamed. -How then, it may naturally be asked, did the teacher -of the nations teach her own sons and daughters? If -so many peoples have been at school to learn the -lessons of Hellenism, what was the nature of the -schools of ancient Hellas? How did those wonderful -city-states, which produced in the course of a few -centuries a wealth of unsurpassed literature, philosophy -and art, whose history is immortalised by the names -of Thermopylae and Marathon, train their young -citizens to be at once patriots and art-critics, statesmen -and philosophers, money-makers and lovers of -literature? They must have known not a little about -education, those old Hellenes, it is natural to suppose. -Have the schools, like the arts and literature and -spirit, of Hellas any lesson for the modern world? -These are the questions which the present work will -attempt in some measure to answer.</p> - -<p>In some measure only; for the spirit of Hellas -cannot be caught at second hand: it consists in just -those subtler elements of refined taste and perfect -choice of expression which cannot but be lost in a -translation or a photograph. In like manner, the -<a name="Page_4" id="Page_4"></a><span class="pageno">4</span> -secret of Hellenic education cannot be reproduced by -any mere accumulation of bald facts and wiseacres’ -deductions. It is easy for the modern theorist to give -an exact account of his ideal school; he has only to -tabulate the subjects which are to be studied, the books -which are to be read, and the hours at which his -mechanical children are to be stuffed with the required -mass of facts. But the Hellenic schoolmaster held -that education dealt not with machines but with -children, not with facts but with character. His -object was to mould the taste of his pupils, to make -them “love what is beautiful and hate what is ugly.” -And because he wished them to love what is beautiful -in art and literature, in nature and in human life, he -sought to make his lessons attractive, in order that the -subjects learnt at school might not be regarded with -loathing in after life. Education had to be charming -to the young; its field was largely music and art and -the literature which appeals most to children, adventure -and heroism and tales of romance expressed in verse. -The music is all but gone, and of the art only a -few fragments remain; the primary schools of Hellas -have left to modern research only portions of their -literature. Their attractiveness must be judged from -the poems of Homer. But the charm of education -lies mainly in the methods of the teacher; and of these -posterity can know little. Scholars may piece together -the books which were read and the exercises which -were practised, but of the method in which they were -taught, of their order and arrangement and respective -quantities, nothing can be known. There is the raw -material, the human boy, and of the tools wherewith the -masters fashioned him, some relics are left; but of the -way in which the artist used those tools, of the true -<a name="Page_5" id="Page_5"></a><span class="pageno">5</span> -inwardness of his handicraft and skill, not all the diligence -of Teutonic research can recover a trace. The -young art-student will learn little of Michel Angelo or -Raphael, if he focusses his attention simply on the -materials and the tools which they employed: to -grasp their spirit he must go to the Sistine Chapel or -to the Dresden Gallery, and contemplate their masterpieces. -In like manner the student of Hellenic education -ought to consider not its materials and tools, but -rather its results and ideals. He must look with his -own eyes and imagination upon the Aegina pediment or -the “Hermes” of Praxiteles, if he wishes to comprehend -the objects of the Doric and Ionic schools. This he must -do for himself, since no book can do it for him. All -that this work can hope to do is to furnish some few -ideas about the tools wherewith the Hellenic schoolmasters -tried to fashion the boys at their disposal into -the masterpieces bodied forth in the “Hermes” and the -Aeginetan figures: the skilled fingers and the imaginative -brains which used the tools are for ever beyond the -reach of the scholar and the archæologist.</p> - -<p>The “Hermes,” with his physical perfection and his -plenitude of intellect, with the features of an artist and -the brow of a thinker, may be taken as the ideal of the -fully developed Athenian education of the early fourth -century <span class="sc">B.C.</span> The Aeginetan figures stand in the same -relation to the Spartan and Cretan schools; these heroic -figures have the bodily harmoniousness, the narrow if -deep thought, the hardness of the Dorian temper. -Perhaps it is not fanciful to see in the so-called -“Theseus” of the Parthenon an earlier ideal of -Athenian training, when it aimed at rather less of -dreamy contemplation, at a less sensuous and more -strenuous mode of life. If this be so, that glorious -<a name="Page_6" id="Page_6"></a><span class="pageno">6</span> -figure bodies forth the very ideal of Periclean and -Imperial Athens at her grandest moment, before the -ruin caused by the long war with Sparta.</p> - -<p>The stream of Hellenism ran in two currents. -Underlying the local diversity, which made every little -town ethically and artistically distinct from its neighbour, -was the fundamental difference between Dorian -and Ionian. Clearly marked in every aspect of life, -this difference was most marked in the schools. Sparta -and Crete on the one hand, and Athens, followed -closely by her Ionian and Aeolic allies and at a greater -distance by the rest of civilised Hellas, on the other, -develop totally different types of education. The -young Spartan is enrolled at a fixed age in a boarding-school: -everything he learns or does is under State-supervision. -Perfect grace and harmony of body is -his sole object: he is hardly taught his letters or -numbers. The young Athenian goes to school when -and where his parents like; learns, within certain wide -limits, what they please; ends his schooling when they -choose. He learns his letters and arithmetic, studies -literature and music, and, at a later date, painting, -besides his athletic exercises, at a day-school. When -he grows older, he may add rhetoric or philosophy or -science or any subject he pleases to this earlier course. -The State interferes only to protect his morals, and to -enforce upon him two years of military training between -the ages of eighteen and twenty.</p> - -<p>The superficial differences between the Athenian and -the Spartan type of school are so striking that at first -sight they appear to have no one principle in common. -It will therefore be necessary to keep the two types apart -at first and discuss their details separately. But the -Hellenic thinkers recognised certain deep-seated similarities -<a name="Page_7" id="Page_7"></a><span class="pageno">7</span> -beneath the superficial contradictions, and it -became the object of educational philosophy to blend -the two types into a perfect system. As soon as a -deeper study has been made of the theory of education -in Hellas, the distinctions of practice begin to vanish -away and the similarities of ideal and aim become more -and more apparent. When the survey of both practice -and theory, which is the object of this work, has been -completed, it should be possible to grasp and estimate -the common principles, which, amid much variety of -detail, governed the schools of Hellas.</p> - -</div><!--end chapter--> - -<div class="chapter"> -<!--blank page 8--> -<a name="Page_8" id="Page_8"></a><span class="pageno">8</span><br /> -<a name="Page_9" id="Page_9"></a><span class="pageno">9</span> - -<h3 class="p4 h3head">PART I</h3> - -<p class="p2 center muchlarger strong">THE PRACTICE OF EDUCATION</p> -</div> - -<div class="chapter"><!--blank page--><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10"></a><span class="pageno">10</span><br /> -<a name="Page_11" id="Page_11"></a><span class="pageno">11</span> - -<h3 class="p4 h3head">CHAPTER I</h3> - -<h4 class="h4head">EDUCATION AT SPARTA AND IN CRETE</h4> - -<p><span class="sc">According</span> to a current legend, which Herodotos, -owing to his Ionian patriotism, is eager to contradict, -Anacharsis the Scythian, on his return from his travels, -declared that the Spartans seemed to him to be the only -Hellenic people with whom it was possible to converse -sensibly, for they alone had time to be wise.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_1" id="fnanchor_1"></a><a href="#footnote_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></span> -The -full Spartan citizen certainly had abundant leisure. He -was absolutely free from the cares of money-making, -for he was supported by an hereditary allotment which -was cultivated for him by State-serfs. He had no -profession or trade to occupy him. His whole time -was spent in educating himself and his younger -countrymen in accordance with Spartan ideas, and -in practising the Spartan mode of life. The Spartans -divided their day between various gymnastic and -military exercises, hunting, public affairs, and “leschai” -or conversation-clubs, at which no talk of business -was permitted; the members discussed only what was -honourable and noble, or blamed what was cowardly -and base.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_2" id="fnanchor_2"></a><a href="#footnote_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a></span> -They were on the whole a grave and silent -people, but they had a terse wit of their own, and there -<a name="Page_12" id="Page_12"></a><span class="pageno">12</span> -was a statue of Laughter in their city. They were -always in a state of perfect training, like the “wiry -dogs” of Plato’s Republic. They were strong conservatives; -innovation was strictly forbidden. The -unfortunate who made a change in the rules of the -Ball-game was scourged. In the Skias or Council-chamber -still hung in Pausanias’ time the eleven-stringed -lyre which Timotheos had brought to Sparta, only to -have it broken;<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_3" id="fnanchor_3"></a><a href="#footnote_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a></span> -and the nine-stringed lyre of Phrunis -met the same fate. Having once accepted the seven-stringed -lyre from Terpander, the Spartans never permitted -it to be changed. They had also a talent for -minute organisation; both their army and their -children were greatly subdivided. Every one at Sparta -was a part of a beautifully organised machine, designed -almost exclusively for military purposes.</p> - -<p>In this strangely artificial State, it was essential -that the future citizens should be saturated with -the spirit of the place at an early age. There were -practically no written laws. Judges and rulers acted -on their own discretion.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_4" id="fnanchor_4"></a><a href="#footnote_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a></span> -This was only possible if a -particular stamp of character, a particular outlook -and attitude, were impressed upon every citizen. -Consequently, education was the most important thing -at Sparta. It was both regulated and enforced by the -State. It was exactly the same for all. The boys were -taken away from home and brought up in great -boarding-schools, so that the individualising tendencies -of family life and hereditary instincts might be stamped -out, and a general type of character, the Spartan type, -alone be left in all the boys. For boarding-schools -have admittedly this result, that they impose a recognisable -<a name="Page_13" id="Page_13"></a><span class="pageno">13</span> -stamp, a certain similarity of manner and attitude, -upon all the boys who pass through them.</p> - -<p>Therefore, as soon as a child was born at Sparta, it -was taken before the elders of the tribe to which its -parents belonged.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_5" id="fnanchor_5"></a><a href="#footnote_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a></span> -If they decided that it was likely -to prove sickly, it was exposed on Mount Taügetos, -there to die or be brought up by Helots or Perioikoi. -Sparta was no place for invalids. If the infant was -approved, it was taken back to its home, to be brought -up by its mother. Spartan women were famous for -their skill in bringing up children. Spartan nurses -were in great demand in Hellas. They were eagerly -sought after for boys of rank and wealth like Alkibiades. -The songs which they sang to their charges and the -rules which they enforced made the children “not -afraid of the dark” or terrified if they were left alone; -not addicted “to daintiness or naughty tempers or -screaming”; in fact, “little gentlemen” in every way.</p> - -<p>No doubt the discipline of the children was strict, -but then the parents lived just as strictly themselves. -There were no luxuries for any one at Sparta: the -houses and furniture were as plain as the food. But -there is a charming picture of Agesilaos riding on a -stick to amuse his children; and the Spartan mothers, -if stern towards cowardice, seem to have been keenly -interested in their children’s development; they were -by no means nonentities like Athenian ladies.</p> - -<p>The children slept at home till they were seven; -but at an early age were taken by their fathers to -the “Pheiditia” or clubs where the grown men spent -those hours during which they stayed indoors and took -their meals. About fifty men attended each of these -clubs. The children sat on the floor near their fathers. -<a name="Page_14" id="Page_14"></a><span class="pageno">14</span> -Each member contributed monthly a “medimnos” of -barley-meal, eight “choes” of wine, five “mnai” of -cheese, two and a half “mnai” of figs,<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_6" id="fnanchor_6"></a><a href="#footnote_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a></span> -and some very -cheap relish; if he sacrificed to a god, he gave part of -the victim to his “mess,” and if he was successful in -hunting (which was a frequent occupation), he brought -his spoils to the common table. There was also the -famous black broth, made by the hereditary guild of -State cooks, which only a life of Spartan training and -cold baths in the Eurotas could make appetising; yet -elderly Spartans preferred it to meat. Perhaps a -fragment of Alkman represents a high-day at one of -these clubs: “Seven couches and as many tables, brimming -full of poppy-flavoured loaves, and linseed and -sesamum, and in bowls honey and linseed for the -children.”<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_7" id="fnanchor_7"></a><a href="#footnote_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a></span></p> - -<p>A Spartan who became too poor to pay his contribution -to his club lost his rights as a citizen, and so could -not have his children educated in the State-system. -But as long as the allotments were not alienated, such -cases were not common. The contribution was <ins title="kata kephalên">κατὰ -κεφαλήν</ins>,<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_8" id="fnanchor_8"></a><a href="#footnote_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a></span> -that is, the fixed quantity of provisions had -to be supplied for every member of the family who -attended a club, <span class="decoration">i.e.</span> for every male, since the women -took their meals at home. There is no reason whatever -for supposing that the boys, either before or after -they went to the boarding-schools, were fed at the -expense of the State. It is expressly stated that the -number of foster-children, who accompanied their -benefactors’ sons to school, varied according to the -extent of their patron’s means.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_9" id="fnanchor_9"></a><a href="#footnote_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a></span> -Parents must therefore -<a name="Page_15" id="Page_15"></a><span class="pageno">15</span> -have paid something for their boys while they were -at school. The teaching involved no expenses; hence -it must have been the food for which they paid. -Thus, only those boys could attend the Spartan schools -whose parents could afford to pay the customary subscription -in kind for their own and their children’s food -at the common meals. Xenophon, the admirer of all -things Spartan, adopts the same system in his State, -since he makes the children of the poor drop out -automatically from the public schools. It must be -remembered that at Sparta families were always small, -and the population tended to decrease steadily; the -number of males for whom subscriptions had to be paid -by the head of the family can rarely have been large.</p> - -<p>Generally speaking, therefore, the Spartan schools -were only for the sons of “Peers” (<ins title="hómoioi">ὅμοιοι</ins>),<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_10" id="fnanchor_10"></a><a href="#footnote_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a></span> -that -is, those who paid the subscriptions. But a certain -number of other boys were admitted, provided that -their food was paid for. A rich Spartan might, if he -chose, select certain other boys to be educated with his -own son or sons, and pay their expenses meanwhile.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_11" id="fnanchor_11"></a><a href="#footnote_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a></span> -The number of these school-companions depended on -the number of contributions in kind which he was -capable of supplying. The school-companions could -thus attend the Spartan schools; but they did not -become citizens when they grew up, unless they revealed -so much merit that the Spartan State gave them the -franchise.</p> - -<p>From what classes were these school-companions -drawn? Sometimes they were foreigners, sons either -of distinguished guest-friends of leading Spartans, or -of refugee-settlers in Laconia. Thus Xenophon’s -<a name="Page_16" id="Page_16"></a><span class="pageno">16</span> -two sons were educated at Sparta. These foreign boys -were called <ins title="tróphimoi">τρόφιμοι</ins> or Foster-children. Xenophon -mentions “foreigners from among the <ins title="tróphimoi">τρόφιμοι</ins>.”<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_12" id="fnanchor_12"></a><a href="#footnote_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a></span> -If these Foster-children, when grown up, remained in -Sparta they possessed no civic rights. A passage in -Plato refers to the difficulty which was experienced -in getting these Foster-children to accept this humble -position.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_13" id="fnanchor_13"></a><a href="#footnote_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a></span> -It is interesting to note that Sparta thus -precedes Athens as an educational centre to which boys -from foreign cities came to receive their schooling.</p> - -<p>More often Spartan parents chose Helots to be -school-companions of their sons. Thus Plutarch -speaks of “two of the foster-brothers of Kleomenes, -whom they call Mothakes.”<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_14" id="fnanchor_14"></a><a href="#footnote_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a></span> -The name Mothax was -applied to these educated Helots. They seem to have -been notorious for the way in which they presumed -upon their position, if we may assume a connection -between Mothax and Mothon, a term which is used -for the patron deity of impudence in Aristophanes, and -elsewhere is the name of a vulgar dance.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_15" id="fnanchor_15"></a><a href="#footnote_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a></span> -They were -not enfranchised when their school-days were over, and -had to settle down to slavish duties, unless they showed -peculiar merit. But several of the most distinguished -Spartans, including Lusandros, were enfranchised -Mothakes.</p> - -<p>Xenophon, in a passage which has already been -quoted, mentions “gentlemen-volunteers of the -Perioikoi and certain foreigners of the so-called -Foster-children and bastards of the Spartiatai, very -goodly men and not without share in the honourable -things in the State.”<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_16" id="fnanchor_16"></a><a href="#footnote_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a></span> -If most of the authorities are -<a name="Page_17" id="Page_17"></a><span class="pageno">17</span> -right in regarding “the honourable things”<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_17" id="fnanchor_17"></a><a href="#footnote_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a></span> -as a -Spartan phrase for their educational system—and there -is good ground for this view—then this passage shows -that illegitimate sons, and perhaps eminent Perioikoi, -passed through the public schools at Sparta although, -however, neither were called Foster-children, a name -reserved for distinguished foreigners. The Helots -who shared the education were known as Mothakes, -and sometimes as <ins title="syntrophoi">σύντροφοι</ins>, school-companions; but -they do not seem to have been called <ins title="trophimoi">τρόφιμοι</ins>, -“Foster-children.”</p> - -<p>During the best period of Spartan history, none of -these extra pupils, <ins title="trophimoi">τρόφιμοι</ins>, Mothakes, illegitimate -children, and eminent Perioikoi, were enfranchised -unless they showed peculiar merit. At a later date, -perhaps, any one who passed through the schools became -a Spartan citizen. Plutarch makes this a part of -Lukourgos’ system; but that is improbable. Such a -custom would only arise in the days of Spartan decay -and depopulation. On the other hand, any Spartan -boys who flinched before the hardships of their national -education, lost their status, and were disfranchised, if -they did not persevere.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_18" id="fnanchor_18"></a><a href="#footnote_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a></span> -</p> - -<p>Till they were seven, the boys were taken to -their fathers’ clubs: the girls had all their meals with -their mothers at home, for the women did not have -dining-clubs. By seeing the hardships which their -fathers endured, and hearing their discussions on -political subjects and their terse humour, the boys were -already being trained in the Spartan mode of life; for -the clubs served as an elementary school. There, too, -they learnt to play with their contemporaries, and to -<a name="Page_18" id="Page_18"></a><span class="pageno">18</span> -exchange rough jests without flinching. To take a -jest without annoyance was part of the Spartan character; -but if the jester went too far for endurance, he -might be asked to stop.</p> - -<p>At seven the boys were taken away from home, and -organised in a most systematic way into “packs” and -“divisions.” These were the “ilai,” which probably -contained sixty-four boys, and the “agelai,” whose -numbers are unknown.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_19" id="fnanchor_19"></a><a href="#footnote_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a></span> -These packs fed together, -slept together on bundles of reeds for bedding, and -played together. The boys had to go barefoot always, -and wore only a single garment summer and winter -alike. They were all under the control of a -“Paidonomos” or “Superintendent of the boys,” -a citizen of rank, repute, and position, who might at -any moment call them together, and punish them -severely if they had been idle: he had attendants who -bore the ominous name of Floggers.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_20" id="fnanchor_20"></a><a href="#footnote_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a></span> -So, as Xenophon -grimly remarks, a spirit of discipline and obedience -prevailed at Sparta. In order that the boys might not -be left without control, even when the Paidonomos was -absent, any citizen who might be passing might order -them to do anything which he liked, and punish them -for any faults which they committed. The most -sensible and plucky boy in each pack was made a -Prefect over it, and called the Bouâgor, or “Herd-leader”; -the rest obeyed his orders and endured his -punishments.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_21" id="fnanchor_21"></a><a href="#footnote_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a></span></p> - -<p><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19"></a><span class="pageno">19</span> -The elder men stirred up quarrels among the boys -in order to see who was plucky. Over every school -was set one of the young men over twenty who had a -good reputation both for courage and for morality.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_22" id="fnanchor_22"></a><a href="#footnote_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a></span> -He was called the Eiren. He kept an eye on their -battles, and used them as servants at home for his -supper; he ordered the bigger boys to bring him -firewood, and the smaller to collect vegetables. The -only way by which such supplies could be obtained was -by stealing them from the gardens and the men’s -dining-clubs. Apparently, then, the boys dined with -him in his house;<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_23" id="fnanchor_23"></a><a href="#footnote_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a></span> -they were supplied with a scanty -meal by their parents to eat there, and were encouraged -to make up the deficiency by stealing. “When the -Eiren had finished supper, he ordered one of the boys -to sing, and to another he propounded some question -which needed a thoughtful answer, such as, ‘Who is -the best of the grown-ups?’ For such particular -questions are more stimulating than generalities like -‘What is virtue?’ or ‘What is a good citizen?’ -The answer had to be accompanied by a concise reason; -failure was punished by a bite on the hand. Elder -men watched, saying nothing at the time, but rebuking -the Eiren severely afterwards if he was too strict or -too lenient.”</p> - -<p>Thus we find at Sparta a prefect-system and fagging. -But the sense of responsibility produced in the elder boys -at English public schools and the practice which they -acquire in exercising authority were prevented at Sparta -by the perpetual presence of grown men, which made -Laconian schools more like French Lycées. There is -no class of professional schoolmasters; the Eiren, the -<a name="Page_20" id="Page_20"></a><span class="pageno">20</span> -Paidonomos, and any elder who chooses, give the instruction -freely and gratuitously. Education, being so -simple, cost nothing at Sparta.</p> - -<p>From Plutarch’s mention of stealing from the <em>men’s</em> -dining-clubs it may safely be inferred that boys of this -age dined apart. Whether it was always in the Eiren’s -house cannot be ascertained. After the age of sixteen -they must have come into the men’s syssitia; for -Xenophon implies that the visitor to Sparta could see -lads of that age at dinner and ask them questions: and -a visitor would certainly not have dined in a dining-room -meant only for boys. Whether the election of -members took place at that age, or whether they still -went to their fathers’ clubs, is unknown.</p> - -<p>The education was almost entirely physical. Plutarch, -it is true, says that they learnt “letters, because they -were useful.”<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_24" id="fnanchor_24"></a><a href="#footnote_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a></span> -This may have been a later introduction, -or perhaps the amount learnt was so little as to -justify Isokrates in saying that the Spartans “do not -even learn their letters, which are the means to a knowledge -of the past, as well as of contemporary events”;<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_25" id="fnanchor_25"></a><a href="#footnote_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a></span> - -he also thought it highly improbable that even “the -most intelligent of them would hear of his speeches, -unless they found some one to read them aloud.”<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_26" id="fnanchor_26"></a><a href="#footnote_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a></span> -They -had, indeed, little reason to learn to read. Their written -laws were very few, and these they learnt by heart, set -to a tune. They had nothing to do with commerce or -even with accounts; very few of them knew how to -count.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_27" id="fnanchor_27"></a><a href="#footnote_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a></span> -Hippias, the Sophist, found that all they cared -to listen to, were “genealogies of men and heroes, -foundations of cities, and archæology generally.” -Probably, like the Dorian philosopher Pythagoras, and -<a name="Page_21" id="Page_21"></a><span class="pageno">21</span> -like Plato, the admirer of all things Dorian, they held -that memory was all-important, and that the use of -writing weakened it.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_28" id="fnanchor_28"></a><a href="#footnote_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a></span> -Besides the State-laws set to -music there were songs which praised dead heroes and -derided cowards: the diction was plain and simple, the -subjects grave and moral; many of them were war-marches; -all were incentive to pluck and energy.</p> - -<p>Rhetoric was, of course, utterly forbidden: a young -man who learnt it abroad and brought it home was -punished by the Ephors.<span class="lock"><a href="#footnote_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a></span> -Spartans learned to be silent as -a rule; when they spoke, their remarks were short and -much to the point, for they thought it wrong to waste -a word.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_29" id="fnanchor_29"></a><a href="#footnote_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a></span> -This was definitely taught to the boys, as has -been shown above. “If you converse with quite an -ordinary Laconian,” says Plato,<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_30" id="fnanchor_30"></a><a href="#footnote_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a></span> - “at first he seems a -mere fool; then suddenly, at the critical point, he flings -forth a pithy saying, and his companions seem no better -than children compared with him.” This epigrammatic -wisdom Plato ironically ascribes to the fact that -Laconians really attend Sophists on the sly, and are -greater philosophers than any one knows. Many echoes -of their terse and grim humour have come down to -modern times: such as Leonidas’ remark to his troops -at Thermopylae, “Breakfast here: supper in Hades”; -and the Spartan’s description of Athens, “All things -noble there,” by which he meant that nothing, however -base, was counted ignoble.</p> - -<p>The Spartans must not be regarded as wholly averse -to literature. They knew Homer, and thought him the -best poet of his class, although the manner of life he -inculcated was Ionic, not Doric.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_31" id="fnanchor_31"></a><a href="#footnote_31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a></span> -Alkman spent his -<a name="Page_22" id="Page_22"></a><span class="pageno">22</span> -life at Sparta, and has left one splendid song for a -chorus of Laconian girls. Aristophanes could put a -fine chorus into the mouths of Laconians, though its -subject is noticeably warlike. For it was war-poems -that the Spartans liked. “They care naught for the -other poets,” says the Athenian orator, Lukourgos, -“but for Turtaios they care so exceedingly that they -made a law to summon every one to the king’s tent, -when they are on a campaign, to hear the poems of -Turtaios, considering that this would make them most -ready to die for their country.”<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_32" id="fnanchor_32"></a><a href="#footnote_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a></span> -</p> - -<p>After all, the objects of the Spartan education -were not intellectual acuteness and the accumulation of -knowledge, but discipline, endurance, and victory in -war. Discipline was taught by the perpetual presence -of authority, and by very severe punishments. Spartan -boys were practically never left to their own devices: -perhaps that is the secret of the moral failure of nearly -every Spartan who was given a position of authority -outside Lakedaimon; for responsibility requires practice. -Endurance was taught by their whole mode of life. -They went barefooted, with a single garment, played -and danced naked under the hot Laconian sun;<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_33" id="fnanchor_33"></a><a href="#footnote_33" class="fnanchor">[33]</a></span> -there -were no ointments or luxurious baths for their bodies, -only the Eurotas for a swim, and a bundle of reeds for -a bed. The food which the boys received was very -scanty: often they were turned out into the country in -the early morning to provide food for themselves for -the whole day by stealing.</p> - -<p>This organised stealing was a feature of Spartan -education. At an early age, as we have seen, the -<a name="Page_23" id="Page_23"></a><span class="pageno">23</span> -small boys were sent out to steal firewood and vegetables -for the Eiren who had charge of them. Later -they were driven out into the country, to forage for -themselves at the expense of the farms. There was a -definite age at which it was customary to begin stealing.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_34" id="fnanchor_34"></a><a href="#footnote_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a></span> -The articles which might be stolen were fixed by -law, and the legal limits might not be transgressed.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_35" id="fnanchor_35"></a><a href="#footnote_35" class="fnanchor">[35]</a></span> -It must be remembered that much property in -Laconia was held in common. Any one, for instance, -who was belated while hunting might take what food he -pleased from a country house, and even break open seals -to get at provisions. The Spartans also used one -another’s dogs and horses freely, without permission. -It is therefore absurd to say that the system taught the -boys to be dishonest. If the State agrees to declare certain -articles to be common property, it is no longer stealing -if one citizen removes them from the house of another: -he is no more dishonest than a man who picks blackberries -or buttercups in England. At one of the English -public schools, tooth-mugs used to be a recognised -article of plunder. The small fags were expected to -keep their particular dormitory supplied with them, at -the expense of others. They were punished by the -wronged dormitory if caught in the act of removing -them: but ingenuity in such thefts was regarded as -praiseworthy. There was a certain number of these -mugs belonging to the whole house; they were common -property, and could therefore be purloined without -dishonesty.</p> - -<p>Moreover, this system of legalised robbery had a -valuable educational object at Sparta. It was excellent -training in scouting, laying ambushes, and foraging, all -of which it is very important that a future soldier -<a name="Page_24" id="Page_24"></a><span class="pageno">24</span> -should learn. Xenophon, a soldier himself, notices this, -and in the <cite>Anabasis</cite>, when he needs a clever strategist, he -selects a Spartan because he has been educated in this -way. Since this was the object of the system, the boys, -if caught, were flogged, not for stealing, but for stealing -clumsily. Isokrates declares that skill in robbery was -the road to the highest offices at Sparta. “If any -one can show that this is not the branch of education -which the Lacedaemonians regard as the most important,” -he adds, “I admit that I have not spoken a -word of truth in my life.”<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_36" id="fnanchor_36"></a><a href="#footnote_36" class="fnanchor">[36]</a></span> -</p> - -<p>These foraging expeditions of the boys prepared -them for the similar, if more arduous, duties of “Secret -Service”<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_37" id="fnanchor_37"></a><a href="#footnote_37" class="fnanchor">[37]</a></span> -which awaited them between eighteen and -twenty. Young men of this age were sent in bands -to the different districts of Laconia for long periods, -during which they hid in the woods, slept on the ground, -attended to their own wants without a servant, and -wandered about the country by day and night.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_38" id="fnanchor_38"></a><a href="#footnote_38" class="fnanchor">[38]</a></span> -When -it appeared good to them or their chiefs they made -sudden attacks on the Helots, and slaughtered those -who seemed ambitious enough to be dangerous, the -Ephors declaring war on their serfs yearly in order that -there might be no blood-guiltiness attached to these -assassinations.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_39" id="fnanchor_39"></a><a href="#footnote_39" class="fnanchor">[39]</a></span> -There was a regular officer set over this -secret police, who no doubt directed where the particular -youths should go.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_40" id="fnanchor_40"></a><a href="#footnote_40" class="fnanchor">[40]</a></span> -At a critical moment of the Peloponnesian -War, 2000 of the bravest and most ambitious -Helots suddenly “disappeared,” probably by this means.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_41" id="fnanchor_41"></a><a href="#footnote_41" class="fnanchor">[41]</a></span> -But Plato recognised the educational value of such a -<a name="Page_25" id="Page_25"></a><span class="pageno">25</span> -system, if the murders were omitted. In his <cite>Laws</cite><span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_42" id="fnanchor_42"></a><a href="#footnote_42" class="fnanchor">[42]</a></span> - -he institutes a force of <ins title="kryptoi">κρυπτοί</ins>, 720 in number, who -patrol the whole country, taking the twelve districts in -turn, so as to gain a complete acquaintance with it. -They have all the farm-servants and beasts at their disposal, -for digging trenches, making fortifications, roads, -embankments, and reservoirs, for irrigation works and -the like. The similarity of name suggests similarity -of functions, but how much of this the <ins title="kryptoi">κρυπτοί</ins> at -Sparta did cannot be fixed. Probably their chief work -was to keep watch over the subject populations, -Perioikoi and Helots, who were otherwise left almost -entirely to their own devices.</p> - -<p>In their institutions of the foraging parties and -Secret Service, the Spartans show a clear appreciation of -boy-nature, as well as a keen eye for methods of military -training. Moderns are beginning to realise that the -average boy has so much of the primitive and natural -man in him that, unless he is permitted to “go wild” -and live the savage life at intervals, he is apt to become -riotous and lawless. Hence in recent days the institution -of camps for boys in England and “Seton Indians” -in America. The Spartans, alone of Hellenes, fully -recognised this peculiarity of boys, and met it with the -foraging expeditions and secret service. The Athenian -boy was not thus provided for until he became an -ephebos; hence the Athenian streets were full of -young Hooligans, while the aristocratic lads developed -more refined, if more vicious, methods of giving vent -to their instincts. In these country-expeditions alone -the Spartan boys had an opportunity of escaping from -<a name="Page_26" id="Page_26"></a><span class="pageno">26</span> -the presence of their elders and developing habits of -self-reliance and responsibility. Had Sparta made better -use of these opportunities, the fate of her Empire after -Aigospotamoi might have been different.</p> - -<p>A frequent occupation of all ages at Sparta was -hunting. This, too, they recognised to be an excellent -training for soldiers, since it involved courage -in meeting wild beasts, skill and ingenuity in tracking -them, and hardships of all sorts in the forests and on -the mountains. Laconia was full of game, and -Laconian hounds were famous. The successful huntsman -gave what he had killed to enrich the meals of -his dining-club, and so won much popularity.</p> - -<p>Spartan boys must also have learnt to ride, for they -had to go in procession on horseback at the festival of -Huakinthos.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_43" id="fnanchor_43"></a><a href="#footnote_43" class="fnanchor">[43]</a></span> -They were taught to swim, too, by -their daily plunge in the Eurotas. A great part of -their time was spent in gymnastics, under the close -inspection of their elders. Boxing and the pankration -were forbidden to the young Spartan, probably because -they developed a few particular muscles at the expense -of the others.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_44" id="fnanchor_44"></a><a href="#footnote_44" class="fnanchor">[44]</a></span> -For wrestling no scientific trainers -were allowed; the Spartan type depended solely on -strength and activity, not on technical skill; so a Spartan, -when beaten by a wrestler from another country, said -his opponent was not a better man, but only a cleverer -wrestler.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_45" id="fnanchor_45"></a><a href="#footnote_45" class="fnanchor">[45]</a></span> -Gladiators, such as those mentioned in -Plato’s <cite>Laches</cite> as teaching the use of arms, were not -permitted at Sparta; these, however, seem to have been -unpractical theorists, quite useless in battle, as General -Laches shows by a funny anecdote about one of -<a name="Page_27" id="Page_27"></a><span class="pageno">27</span> -them.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_46" id="fnanchor_46"></a><a href="#footnote_46" class="fnanchor">[46]</a></span> -No lounging spectators were permitted in -Spartan gymnasia; the rule was “strip or withdraw.”<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_47" id="fnanchor_47"></a><a href="#footnote_47" class="fnanchor">[47]</a></span> -The eldest man in each gymnasium had to see that -every one took sufficient exercise to work off his food -and prevent him from becoming puffy.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_48" id="fnanchor_48"></a><a href="#footnote_48" class="fnanchor">[48]</a></span> -The physical -condition of the boys was inspected every ten days by -the Ephors,<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_49" id="fnanchor_49"></a><a href="#footnote_49" class="fnanchor">[49]</a></span> -while the competitions of the epheboi -seem to have been controlled by a special board, the -Bidiaioi, who figure in inscriptions.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_50" id="fnanchor_50"></a><a href="#footnote_50" class="fnanchor">[50]</a></span> -Aristotle says -of the whole Spartan discipline that it made the boys -“beast-like,”<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_51" id="fnanchor_51"></a><a href="#footnote_51" class="fnanchor">[51]</a></span> -but admits that it did not produce the -one-sided athlete, so common in Hellas, who looked -solely to athletics, and was too much specialised to be -good for anything else. Xenophon<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_52" id="fnanchor_52"></a><a href="#footnote_52" class="fnanchor">[52]</a></span> -says that it would -be hard to find anywhere men with more healthy or -more serviceable bodies than the Spartiatai. The most -beautiful man in the Hellenic army at Plataea was a -Spartan.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_53" id="fnanchor_53"></a><a href="#footnote_53" class="fnanchor">[53]</a></span> -The Spartan boys’ manners were in some -ways surprisingly maidenlike. When they went along -the highway, they kept their hands under their coat, -and walked in silence, keeping their eyes fixed on the -ground before their feet. They spoke as rarely as a -statue and looked about them less than a bronze -figure: they were as modest as a girl. When they -came into the mess-room, you could rarely hear them -even answer a question.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_54" id="fnanchor_54"></a><a href="#footnote_54" class="fnanchor">[54]</a></span> -</p> - -<p>Fighting was encouraged at all ages; there were -organised battles, somewhat resembling football matches, -for the epheboi, in a shady playing-field surrounded by -<a name="Page_28" id="Page_28"></a><span class="pageno">28</span> -rows of plane trees and encircled by streams, access -to it being given by two bridges. After a night -spent in sacrifice, two teams of epheboi proceeded -to this field. When they came near it, they drew -lots, and the winners had the choice of bridges -by which to enter the ground, selecting no doubt in -accordance with the direction of sun and wind, as a -modern football captain, who has won the toss, selects -the end of the ground from which he will start playing. -The epheboi fought with their hands, kicked, bit, and -even tore out one another’s eyes, in the endeavour to -drive the opposing team back into the water.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_55" id="fnanchor_55"></a><a href="#footnote_55" class="fnanchor">[55]</a></span> -</p> - -<p>The grown men were also encouraged to fight -by the following device. The Ephors selected three -of them, who were called Hippagretai. Each of these -three selected one hundred companions, giving a public -explanation in each case why he chose one man -and rejected the others. So those who had been -rejected became foes to those who were selected, and -kept a close watch over them for the slightest breach -of the accepted code of honour. Each party was -always trying to increase its strength or perform some -signal service to the State, in order to strengthen its -own claims. The rivals also fought with their fists -whenever they met.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_56" id="fnanchor_56"></a><a href="#footnote_56" class="fnanchor">[56]</a></span> -</p> - -<p>This systematised pugnaciousness at Sparta presents -an interesting parallel to the German University duels -and to the fights which used to be almost daily -occurrences in the life of an English schoolboy. Most -of the older English public schools can still show the -special ground which was the recognised scene of these -battles.</p> - -<p>Floggings were exceedingly common at Sparta. -<a name="Page_29" id="Page_29"></a><span class="pageno">29</span> -Any elder man might flog any boy. It was not -etiquette for boys to complain to their parents in these -cases; if they did so, they received a second thrashing. -But the triumph of this system was the flogging of the -“epheboi” yearly at the altar of Artemis Orthia, in -substitute for human sacrifice. Entrance for the competition -was quite voluntary, but competitors seem -always to have been forthcoming even down to -Plutarch’s days. They began by practice of some sort -in the country.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_57" id="fnanchor_57"></a><a href="#footnote_57" class="fnanchor">[57]</a></span> -The altar was covered with blood; if -the floggers were too lenient to some “ephebos” owing -to his beauty or reputation, the statue, according to the -legend, performed a miracle in order to show its displeasure.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_58" id="fnanchor_58"></a><a href="#footnote_58" class="fnanchor">[58]</a></span> -The competitors were often killed on the -spot; but they never uttered a groan.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_59" id="fnanchor_59"></a><a href="#footnote_59" class="fnanchor">[59]</a></span> -The winner -was called the “altar-victor” (<ins title="bômonikês">βωμονίκης</ins>) and an -inscription still records such a victory.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_60" id="fnanchor_60"></a><a href="#footnote_60" class="fnanchor">[60]</a></span> -</p> - -<p>The girls at Sparta were also organised into agelai -or “packs.”<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_61" id="fnanchor_61"></a><a href="#footnote_61" class="fnanchor">[61]</a></span> -They took their meals at home, but -otherwise lived a thoroughly outdoor life. They had -to train their bodies no less than the boys, in order that -they might bear strong children, so they took part in -contests of strength as well as of speed.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_62" id="fnanchor_62"></a><a href="#footnote_62" class="fnanchor">[62]</a></span> -They shared -in the gymnasia and in the musical training. Among -their sports were wrestling, running, and swimming; -they were exposed to sun and dust and toil.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_63" id="fnanchor_63"></a><a href="#footnote_63" class="fnanchor">[63]</a></span> -They -learned to throw the diskos and the javelin;<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_64" id="fnanchor_64"></a><a href="#footnote_64" class="fnanchor">[64]</a></span> -they -wore only the short Doric “chiton” with split sides.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_65" id="fnanchor_65"></a><a href="#footnote_65" class="fnanchor">[65]</a></span> -<a name="Page_30" id="Page_30"></a><span class="pageno">30</span> -They went in procession at festivals like the boys; at -certain festivals they danced and sang in the presence of -the young men, praising the brave among them and -jeering at the cowards. At the Huakinthia the maidens -raced on horseback. Theokritos makes a band of 240 -maidens, “all playmates together, anoint themselves -like men and race beside the Eurotas.”<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_66" id="fnanchor_66"></a><a href="#footnote_66" class="fnanchor">[66]</a></span> -That passage -also gives wool-work to Laconian maidens (which is -probably untrue, being contradicted by Plato),<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_67" id="fnanchor_67"></a><a href="#footnote_67" class="fnanchor">[67]</a></span> -and -lyre-playing, which is contradicted by a Laconian in -Plutarch, who says that “such rubbish is not Laconian.” -The result of all this outdoor training was great -physical perfection: Lampito, the Spartan woman in -Aristophanes’ <cite>Lusistrata</cite>, is greatly admired by the -women from other cities for her beauty, her complexion, -and her bodily condition: “she looks as though she -could throttle a bull.” She ascribes it to her gymnastics -and vigorous dancing.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_68" id="fnanchor_68"></a><a href="#footnote_68" class="fnanchor">[68]</a></span> -The girls till they married -wore no veil, and mixed freely with the young men; -in fact, there was one dance where they met in modern -fashion; first the youth danced some military steps, -and then the maiden danced some of a suitable sort.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_69" id="fnanchor_69"></a><a href="#footnote_69" class="fnanchor">[69]</a></span> -Consequently love-matches were far more possible at -Sparta than elsewhere in Hellas. After marriage -the women had to wear veils, and remained at home; -gymnastics, dances, and races ceased.</p> - -<p>The Spartans were intensely fond of dancing, but it -must be remembered that they often called dancing -what moderns would call drill. For war was almost a -form of dance; they marched or charged into battle to -<a name="Page_31" id="Page_31"></a><span class="pageno">31</span> -the notes of the flute, crowned and wearing red cloaks. -The march tunes were in frequent use in Sparta, no -doubt at military exercises. Every day the epheboi -were drawn up in ranks, one behind the other, and -went through military evolutions and dancing figures -alternately, while a flutist played to them and beat time -with his foot.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_70" id="fnanchor_70"></a><a href="#footnote_70" class="fnanchor">[70]</a></span> -This is simply musical drill. The -great national festival of the Gumnopaidia was very -similar. Three great battalions, consisting respectively -of old men, young men, and boys, drawn up in rank -and file, exhibited various movements, chiefly of a -gymnastic sort, singing the songs of Thaletas and -Alkman and Dionusodotos the while and indulging in -impromptu jesting at one another’s expense, after the -fashion of a rustic revel-chorus in Attica. Sometimes -the battalions appeared one by one, and were “led out” -like an army, by the Ephors.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_71" id="fnanchor_71"></a><a href="#footnote_71" class="fnanchor">[71]</a></span> -On other occasions all -three were drawn up in crescent formation side by side, -with the boys in the middle. The festival must have -closely resembled the public parades of the gymnastic -clubs in Switzerland. There were posts of honour and -dishonour, as in battle, cowards usually receiving the -latter. But Agesilaos, the king, once received an -inferior station after his victory at Corinth, and turned -the insult by a jest, “Well thought of, chorus-leader: -that’s the way to give honour to the post.”<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_72" id="fnanchor_72"></a><a href="#footnote_72" class="fnanchor">[72]</a></span> -Then -there was the war-dance, imitating all the actions of -battle, a sort of manual and bayonet exercise, but -accompanied by much acting and by music. Every -Spartan boy began to learn this as soon as he was five.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_73" id="fnanchor_73"></a><a href="#footnote_73" class="fnanchor">[73]</a></span> -It was done in quick time, if we may judge by the -“Pyrrhic” or war-dance foot ( <sub>˘ ˘</sub> ). There was also -<a name="Page_32" id="Page_32"></a><span class="pageno">32</span> -a wrestling-dance,<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_74" id="fnanchor_74"></a><a href="#footnote_74" class="fnanchor">[74]</a></span> -and most gymnastics were done -to the accompaniment of the flute. In fact, chorus-dancing -was a regular part of the education of Spartans -and Cretans: the only experience of singing which -most of them possessed was acquired in this way.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_75" id="fnanchor_75"></a><a href="#footnote_75" class="fnanchor">[75]</a></span> -It is -true that elegiacs were sung as solos before the king’s -tent on campaigns, and at meals, when the victor got -a particularly good slice of meat; but probably this -accomplishment was confined to a few. Aristotle asserts -that the Laconians did not learn songs, but claimed -nevertheless to be able to distinguish good from bad.</p> - -<p class="center">* * * * *</p> - -<p>Such was the Spartan system of education. To an -Englishman their schools have a greater interest than -those of any other ancient State. Sparta produced the -only true boarding-schools of antiquity. The “packs” -of the Spartan boys, like the English public schools, -formed miniature States, to whose corporate interests -and honour each boy learned to make his own wishes -subservient. Spartan boys, too, like our own, had -the smaller traits of individuality rubbed off them by -the publicity and perpetual intercourse with others -involved in the boarding-school system, in order that -the racial characteristics might the more emerge in -them. They, too, learnt endurance by hardship, and -were early trained both to rule and to obey by means -of the institution of prefects and fagging. But here -the resemblance stops short. The Spartans, like most -other nations, were not prepared to pay the price at -which alone an education in responsibility can be -obtained, the price which lies in the possible ruin of -all the boys who are not strong enough to be a law -to themselves. They very rarely left the boys to -<a name="Page_33" id="Page_33"></a><span class="pageno">33</span> -themselves without grown men to look after them. -They were always interfering and supervising, instead -of leaving the prefects to exercise their authority. And -so, when Spartans were sent abroad to govern cities -or command armies, having had no practice in responsibility, -they failed shamefully and ignominiously. -But this is equally true of the Athenians and of other -Hellenes. The Spartans deserve all credit for their -experiments with the boarding-school system.</p> - -<p>But the system which they adopted had many -faults, besides that which has already been noticed. -There was no individual attention for the boys. -The hardships were excessive and brutalising. While -the boys’ bodies were developed and trained almost to -perfection, their minds were almost entirely neglected: -hence the stupidities of Spartan policy and the -lack of imagination which their statesmen showed. -It was impossible to over-eat or over-drink under the -Spartan system, so the young Spartan had no experience -in self-restraint.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_76" id="fnanchor_76"></a><a href="#footnote_76" class="fnanchor">[76]</a></span> -The gymnasia and dining-clubs -caused a great deal of quarrelling (which the Spartan -authorities welcomed), and of immorality (which was -very strictly forbidden); the Spartan gymnasia erred -less, however, in this latter respect than the Athenian. -In war the Spartans were only invincible so long as -they were the only trained troops in Hellas; the rise -of professional armies ruined them, for they could not -adapt themselves to new circumstances. They produced -no art and very little literature, if any. But their -whole State was as much a work of art as a Doric -temple, and of very much the same order, with its -symmetry and regularity, its sacrifice of detail to the -whole, its strength and restraint. It was also the -<a name="Page_34" id="Page_34"></a><span class="pageno">34</span> -inspiration of at least one great piece of literature, -Plato’s <cite>Republic</cite>.</p> - -<p>If courage was their sole object, as perhaps it was, -they succeeded in obtaining it. The coward was a -rare, and a most unhappy bird at Sparta. Mothers on -several occasions killed sons who returned home from -a campaign disgraced. “No one would mess with a -coward, or consort with him. When rival teams were -chosen for the game of ball, he was omitted. In dances -he received the post of dishonour. He was avoided in -the streets. No one would sit next to him. He could -not find a husband for his daughters or a wife for -himself,” and was punished for these offences. “He -was beaten if he imitated his betters in any way.”<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_77" id="fnanchor_77"></a><a href="#footnote_77" class="fnanchor">[77]</a></span> -If the Hellenes were a nation of children, as the old -Egyptian called them, the Spartans were at least a -manly sort of schoolboy. They deified the schoolboy -virtues, pluck and endurance. If we wish to see how -far their education, in its best days, enabled them to -prove true to their ideals, let us consider those 300 -at Thermopylae waiting, with jests on their lips, for -the onset of Oriental myriads, and remember that -finest of all epitaphs, of which English can give no -rendering, written upon their memorial in the pass in -honour of their obedience unto <span class="lock">death—</span></p> - -<div class="poem-container"> - <div class="poem"> - <div class="i0">Go tell the Spartans, thou that passest by,</div> - <div class="i0">That here, obedient to their laws, we lie.</div> - </div><!--end poem--> -</div><!--end container--> - -<p class="center">* * * * *</p> - -<p>The Cretan system of education was very similar -in many ways to the Spartan. In both localities the -teaching was given by any elder member of the -community who chose, not by a professional and paid -class of masters. But in Crete education cost the -<a name="Page_35" id="Page_35"></a><span class="pageno">35</span> -parent even less than at Sparta; for the boys were -fed largely at public cost.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_78" id="fnanchor_78"></a><a href="#footnote_78" class="fnanchor">[78]</a></span> -But so was every other -Cretan, male and female alike. Each community possessed -large public estates, cultivated by public serfs.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_79" id="fnanchor_79"></a><a href="#footnote_79" class="fnanchor">[79]</a></span> -The revenues thus accruing to the State were applied -to the expenses of government, which were small, and to -the food-supply of all citizens. Thus men, women, -and children were all fed mainly at public cost. It -may be noted, however, that there is no question of -providing the children of improvident parents with -meals at the expense of more provident citizens. Moreover, -the heads of families, who each possessed an -allotment, as at Sparta, had to contribute a tenth of the -produce of their estates.</p> - -<p>The women-folk took their meals at home,<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_80" id="fnanchor_80"></a><a href="#footnote_80" class="fnanchor">[80]</a></span> -although -the cost of their food was mainly defrayed by the -public revenues. The men took their meals in dining-clubs -(<ins title="andreia">ἀνδρεῖα</ins>). The whole population of each community -was divided into clubs of this sort, apparently -on the family basis, so that two or three families made -up a club between them, to which their children and -descendants would in turn belong. All the males of -the family attended these meals; small children, boys, -and young men as well as elders are all mentioned as -being present at the same dinners.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_81" id="fnanchor_81"></a><a href="#footnote_81" class="fnanchor">[81]</a></span> -The club is only -an enlarged family party. The small children sat on the -ground behind their fathers; they waited on themselves -and on their elders, but the general superintendence of -cooking and attendance was in the hands of a woman -with three or four public slaves and some underlings -in her control.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_82" id="fnanchor_82"></a><a href="#footnote_82" class="fnanchor">[82]</a></span> -As they grew older, the sons sat -<a name="Page_36" id="Page_36"></a><span class="pageno">36</span> -beside their fathers. Boys ordinarily received half -what their parents had; but orphans were allowed the -full quantity at their dead father’s club.</p> - -<p>Thus the Cretan club was an amalgamation of -several families into a sort of clan, whose male -members all dined together. All the boys of the -clan formed one boarding-school. They all slept -in one room, perhaps attached to the dining-hall; -there was always a dormitory attached to each of these -buildings for visitors from other cities, so it would -be natural to expect a dormitory for the children also. -The boys took their meals in the club dining-hall, in -the presence of their elders, by whose improving -conversations upon politics and morals they were -supposed to be educated. These elder members elected -one of their number to serve as <ins title="paidonomos">παιδονόμος</ins> or “Superintendent -of the boys” of their club.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_83" id="fnanchor_83"></a><a href="#footnote_83" class="fnanchor">[83]</a></span> -Under his -directions the boys learned letters “in moderation”: -they were constantly practised in gymnastics, in the -use of arms, especially the bow, which was a great -Cretan weapon, and in the war-dances, the Kuretic and -Pyrrhic, both indigenous in Crete. They learned the -laws of their country set to a sort of tune, in order -that their souls might be drawn by the music, and also, -that they might more easily remember them. In this -way, if they did anything which was forbidden, they -had not the excuse of ignorance.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_84" id="fnanchor_84"></a><a href="#footnote_84" class="fnanchor">[84]</a></span> -Besides this, they -were taught hymns to the gods, and praises of good -men. The favourite metre for these purposes was the -Cretic (– <sub>˘</sub> –), which was regarded as “severe” and -so suitable for teaching courage and restraint.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_85" id="fnanchor_85"></a><a href="#footnote_85" class="fnanchor">[85]</a></span> -The -<a name="Page_37" id="Page_37"></a><span class="pageno">37</span> -Pæan was their chief national form of song. Cretan -boys were also practised in that terse and somewhat -humorous style of speaking which we have already -seen at Sparta.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_86" id="fnanchor_86"></a><a href="#footnote_86" class="fnanchor">[86]</a></span> -</p> - -<p>Cretan boys were always fighting either single -combats or combined battles against the boys of -another club-school. They were taught endurance by -many hardships. They wore only a short coat in -summer and winter alike. They learnt to despise -heat and cold and mountain paths and the blows which -they received in gymnasia and in fighting.</p> - -<p>They remained in the club-schools till their -seventeenth year,<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_87" id="fnanchor_87"></a><a href="#footnote_87" class="fnanchor">[87]</a></span> -when they became epheboi and celebrated -their escape from the garb of childhood by a -special festival.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_88" id="fnanchor_88"></a><a href="#footnote_88" class="fnanchor">[88]</a></span> -Like their contemporaries at Athens, -the epheboi took a special oath of allegiance to the -State and hatred towards its enemies. A fragment -still survives of the oath taken by the epheboi of -Dreros, near Knossos.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_89" id="fnanchor_89"></a><a href="#footnote_89" class="fnanchor">[89]</a></span> -At seventeen the epheboi were -collected into “packs” (<ins title="agelai">ἀγέλαι</ins>) by private enterprise. -A rich and distinguished young ephebos would gather -round him as large a pack of his contemporaries as he -could; their numbers no doubt depended partly on his -wealth, and still more on his personal popularity. The -aristocratic element in this arrangement is very noticeable, -as in all the institutions of Crete as contrasted -with Sparta. The father of this young chief usually -acted as leader of the pack (<ins title="agelatês">ἀγελάτης</ins>); he possessed -full authority over them and could punish them as he -pleased. He led them out on hunting expeditions and -to the “Runs” (<ins title="dromoi">δρόμοι</ins>), that is, the gymnasia of the -<a name="Page_38" id="Page_38"></a><span class="pageno">38</span> -epheboi. Cretans who had not yet entered a pack of -epheboi were excluded from these runs (<ins title="apodromoi">ἀπόδρομοι</ins>); -when they entered, they were called “members of -packs” (<ins title="agelastoi">ἀγέλαστοι</ins>).<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_90" id="fnanchor_90"></a><a href="#footnote_90" class="fnanchor">[90]</a></span> -The pack-leader could collect -his followers where he pleased;<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_91" id="fnanchor_91"></a><a href="#footnote_91" class="fnanchor">[91]</a></span> -very possibly the -epheboi did not attend the club dinners ordinarily, but -fed or slept either at their patron’s house (whence the -need of a rich pack-leader) or in some special room. -They thus corresponded closely to the Spartan boys of -a younger age under their Eiren. Their food was -supplied, like that of all Cretans, largely out of the -public revenues. On certain fixed days “pack” joined -battle with “pack” to the sound of the lyre and flutes -and in regular time, as was the custom in war; fists, -clubs, and even weapons of iron might be used. It -was a regular institution, half dance, half field-day, with -fixed rules and imposed by law. These battles must -have closely resembled the contests of the Spartan -epheboi in the shady playing-fields. The life of the -boys was surrounded with a military atmosphere -throughout. They wore military dress and counted -their weapons their most valuable possessions. Young -Cretans remained in the packs till after marriage. -Then they returned to their homes and the clubs.</p> - -<p>Of the practical results of Cretan education nothing -can be said. From the day when Idomeneus sets sail -from Troy, Crete almost disappears from Hellenic -history. Too strong to be attacked by their neighbours, -too much weakened by intestine feuds to assume the -aggressive, the Cretans remained aloof from their -compatriots on the mainland and in the archipelago -till the close of the period of Hellenic independence. -<a name="Page_39" id="Page_39"></a><span class="pageno">39</span></p> -</div><!--end chapter--> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h4 class="h4head">APPENDIX A</h4> - -<p class="center">SPARTAN SYSSITIA</p> - -<p class="p2"><span class="sc">These</span> dining-clubs were organised like “diminutive states.”<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_92" id="fnanchor_92"></a><a href="#footnote_92" class="fnanchor">[92]</a></span> -It was enacted who was to recline in the most important -place, who in the second, and so on, and who was to sit on the -footstool, which was the place of dishonour, usually assigned -only to children. “Each man is given a portion to himself, -which he does not share with any one. They have as much -barley bread as they like, and there is an earthenware cup of -wine standing by each man, for him to put his lips to when he -feels disposed. The chief dish is always the same for all, -boiled pork. There is plenty of Spartan broth, and some olives, -cheese, and figs.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_93" id="fnanchor_93"></a><a href="#footnote_93" class="fnanchor">[93]</a></span></p> - -<p>“Each contributes to his mess about 18 gallons of barley -meal, 60 or 70 pints of wine, and a small quantity of figs and -cheese, and 10 Aeginetan obols for extras.” This contribution -no doubt covered expenses, for the quantity sent by an absentee -king, probably representing the average consumption of an -individual, falls well within this estimate (<abbr title="compare Herodotos six">cf. Herod. <abbr title="six">vi.</abbr> </abbr> 57). -After the regular meal<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_94" id="fnanchor_94"></a><a href="#footnote_94" class="fnanchor">[94]</a></span> -an <ins title="epaiklon">ἔπαικλον</ins> or extra meal might be -served. It would be provided by a member of the mess, -consisting either of the results of hunting or the produce -of his farm, for nothing might be bought. The ordinary -components of such a meal were pigeons, geese, fieldfares, -blackbirds, hares, lambs, and kids, and wheaten bread, a -welcome change from the usual barley loaves. The cooks -proclaimed the name of the giver, so that he might get the -credit. <ins title="epaikla">ἔπαικλα</ins> were often exacted as fines for offences from -rich members; the poor had to pay laurel leaves or reeds. -There was also a special sort of <ins title="epaiklon">ἔπαικλον</ins> designed for the -children, barley meal soaked in olive oil—a sort of porridge, in -<a name="Page_40" id="Page_40"></a><span class="pageno">40</span> -fact. According to Nicocles the Laconian, this was swallowed -in laurel leaves—which does not sound very inviting.</p> - -<p>There were also banquets independent of the messes. -These were called <ins title="kopides">κοπίδες</ins>.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_95" id="fnanchor_95"></a><a href="#footnote_95" class="fnanchor">[95]</a></span> -Tents were set up in the sacred -enclosure round the temple of the deity in whose honour the -feast was given. Heaps of brushwood covered with carpets -served for couches. The food consisted of slices of meat, -round buns, cheese, slices of sausage, and for dessert dried figs -and various beans.</p> - -<p>At the Tithenidia, or Nurses’ Feast, a <ins title="kopis">κοπίς</ins> was given at -the temple of Artemis Koruthalia by the stream Tiassos.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_96" id="fnanchor_96"></a><a href="#footnote_96" class="fnanchor">[96]</a></span> -The -nurses brought the boy-babies to it. The sacrifice was a -sucking pig, and baked loaves were served. The <ins title="kopides">κοπίδες</ins> were -evidently a feature of Spartan life: Epilukos makes his “laddie” -(<ins title="kôraliskos">κωράλισκος</ins>) remark, “I will go to the <ins title="kopis">κοπίς</ins> in Amuklai at -Appellas’ house, where will be buns and loaves and jolly good -broth”: which shows that the children’s parties at Sparta were -regarded as attractive.</p> - -<p>The Karneia, the great Spartan festival, was an imitation -of camp-life.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_97" id="fnanchor_97"></a><a href="#footnote_97" class="fnanchor">[97]</a></span> -The sacrificial meal was served in tents, each -containing nine men, and everything was done to the word of -command.</p> -</div><!--end chapter--> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h4 class="h4head">APPENDIX B</h4> - -<p class="center">CRETAN SYSSITIA</p> - -<p class="p2"><span class="sc">The</span> chief authorities for the attendance at these meals are the -two historians, Dosiades and Purgion, quoted in Athenaeus (143). -Dosiades states that an equal portion is set before each man -present, but to the younger members is given a half portion of -meat, and they do not touch any of the other things. Purgion -says: “To the sons, who sit on lower seats by their fathers’ -chairs, they give a half portion of what is supplied to the -men; orphans receive a full share.” The comparison of the -<a name="Page_41" id="Page_41"></a><span class="pageno">41</span> -two passages shows that the “younger members” mentioned -by Dosiades are what Purgion calls the orphans, and that -they are not yet full-grown men. Thus they must be either -the boys or the epheboi. It is not, however, at all likely -that the epheboi, who were of military age and engaged in -violent exercises, would be given only half rations, so these -younger members are the boys not yet included in the <ins title="agelai">ἀγέλαι</ins>. -Dosiades continues: “On each table is set a drinking vessel, -of weak wine. This all who sit at the common table share -equally. The children have a bowl to themselves,” that is, -the boys who sat beside their fathers but not at the table. -“After supper first they discuss the political situation, and -then recall feats in battle, and praise those who have distinguished -themselves, encouraging the youngers to heroism.” -The quotation shows that not merely the small children are -in question, but boys of an age to understand politics and war.</p> - -<p class="p2 footnote"> <a name="footnote_1" id="footnote_1"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_1"><span class="muchsmaller">[1]</span></a> -Herodotos, 4. 77.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_2" id="footnote_2"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_2"><span class="muchsmaller">[2]</span></a> -Plutarch, <cite>Lukourgos</cite>, 25. Kratinos (<abbr title="Athenaeus">Athen.</abbr> 138) ridicules these clubs and says -that the attraction of them was that sausages hung there on pegs to be nibbled.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_3" id="footnote_3"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_3"><span class="muchsmaller">[3]</span></a> -Pausanias, 3. 12. A similar event happened at Argos. Plutarch, <cite>On Music</cite>, 37.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_4" id="footnote_4"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_4"><span class="muchsmaller">[4]</span></a> -<abbr title="Aristotle">Aristot.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="Politics">Pol.</abbr></cite> <abbr title="two">ii.</abbr> 9, 10.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_5" id="footnote_5"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_5"><span class="muchsmaller">[5]</span></a> -Plutarch, <cite><abbr title="Lukourgos">Luk.</abbr></cite> 16.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_6" id="footnote_6"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_6"><span class="muchsmaller">[6]</span></a> -Say, 1½ bushels of meal, 5 gallons of wine, 5 lbs. of cheese, and 2½ lbs. of figs.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_7" id="footnote_7"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_7"><span class="muchsmaller">[7]</span></a> -Smyth, <cite>Melic Poets</cite>, “Alkman,” 26, if the emendation <ins title="paidessi">παίδεσσι</ins> be correct.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_8" id="footnote_8"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_8"><span class="muchsmaller">[8]</span></a> -<abbr title="Aristotle">Aristot.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="Politics">Pol.</abbr></cite> <abbr title="two">ii.</abbr> 9.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_9" id="footnote_9"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_9"><span class="muchsmaller">[9]</span></a> -Phularchos (<abbr title="Athenaeus">Athen.</abbr> <abbr title="six">vi.</abbr> 271).</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_10" id="footnote_10"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_10"><span class="muchsmaller">[10]</span></a> -<abbr title="Xenophon">Xen.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="Anabasis">Anab.</abbr> </cite> <abbr title="four">iv.</abbr> 6. 14; <abbr title="Aristotle">Aristot.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="Politics">Pol.</abbr></cite> <abbr title="two">ii.</abbr> 9. 31.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_11" id="footnote_11"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_11"><span class="muchsmaller">[11]</span></a> -Phularchos (<abbr title="Athenaeus">Athen.</abbr> <abbr title="six">vi.</abbr> 271 e).</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_12" id="footnote_12"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_12"><span class="muchsmaller">[12]</span></a> -<abbr title="Xenophon">Xen.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="Hellenica">Hellen.</abbr></cite> <abbr title="volume">v.</abbr> 3. 9.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_13" id="footnote_13"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_13"><span class="muchsmaller">[13]</span></a> -Plato, <cite><abbr title="Republic">Rep.</abbr></cite> 520 <span class="sc lowercase">D</span>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_14" id="footnote_14"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_14"><span class="muchsmaller">[14]</span></a> -<abbr title="Plutarch">Plut.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="Kleomenes">Kleom.</abbr></cite> 8.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_15" id="footnote_15"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_15"><span class="muchsmaller">[15]</span></a> -<abbr title="Aristophanes">Aristoph.</abbr> <cite>Knights</cite>, 635, 695 (with <abbr title="Scholia">Schol.</abbr> on 697, <ins title="phortikon orchêseôs eidos">φορτικὸν ὀρχήσεως εῖδος</ins>); -<abbr title="Euripides">Eurip.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="Bacchae">Bacch.</abbr></cite> 1060.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_16" id="footnote_16"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_16"><span class="muchsmaller">[16]</span></a> -<abbr title="Xenophon">Xen.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="Hellenica">Hellen.</abbr></cite> <abbr title="volume">v.</abbr> 3. 9.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_17" id="footnote_17"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_17"><span class="muchsmaller">[17]</span></a> -<abbr title="Xenophon">Xen.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="Contitution of the Lacedaemonians">Constit. of Lak.</abbr></cite> <abbr title="three">iii.</abbr> 3; <cite><abbr title="Hellenica">Hellen.</abbr></cite> <abbr title="volume">v.</abbr> 4. 32.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_18" id="footnote_18"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_18"><span class="muchsmaller">[18]</span></a> -<abbr title="Xenophon">Xen.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="Contitution of the Lacedaemonians">Constit. of Lak.</abbr></cite> <abbr title="three">iii.</abbr> 3.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_19" id="footnote_19"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_19"><span class="muchsmaller">[19]</span></a> -“Agelai” of young men are mentioned by inscriptions at Miletos and Smurna -[Böckh, 2892, 3326]; there may have been boarding-schools somewhat resembling -those of Sparta at these towns for young men.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_20" id="footnote_20"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_20"><span class="muchsmaller">[20]</span></a> -<ins title="mastigophoroi">μαστιγόφοροι</ins>. <abbr title="Xenophon">Xen.</abbr> - <cite><abbr title="Contitution of the Lacedaemonians">Constit. of Lak.</abbr></cite> - <abbr title="two">ii.</abbr> 2. Aristotle calls Paidonomoi an aristocratic -institution. They existed in Crete, and inscriptions mention them in Karia, -Teos, and many other places.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_21" id="footnote_21"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_21"><span class="muchsmaller">[21]</span></a> -<abbr title="Plutarch">Plut.</abbr> <cite>Lukourgos</cite>, 16. Hesychius declares that the Bouâgor was a boy, so the -word cannot mean the Eiren, who was over twenty.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_22" id="footnote_22"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_22"><span class="muchsmaller">[22]</span></a> -<abbr title="Plutarch">Plut.</abbr> <cite>Lukourgos</cite>, 17; <abbr title="Xenophon">Xen.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="Contitution of the Lacedaemonians">Constit. of Lak.</abbr></cite> <abbr title="two">ii.</abbr> 11.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_23" id="footnote_23"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_23"><span class="muchsmaller">[23]</span></a> -In which case the Eiren corresponds closely to the Cretan Agelates.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_24" id="footnote_24"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_24"><span class="muchsmaller">[24]</span></a> -<cite>Lukourgos</cite>, 16; <cite><abbr title="Laconica">Lac.</abbr> Institutions</cite>, 247.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_25" id="footnote_25"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_25"><span class="muchsmaller">[25]</span></a> -<abbr title="Isokrates">Isok.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="Panathenaikos">Panath.</abbr></cite> 276 <span class="sc lowercase">D</span>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_26" id="footnote_26"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_26"><span class="muchsmaller">[26]</span></a> -<cite><abbr title="Panathenaikos">Panath.</abbr></cite> 285 <span class="sc lowercase">C</span>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_27" id="footnote_27"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_27"><span class="muchsmaller">[27]</span></a> -Plato, <cite>Hippias <abbr title="Major">Maj.</abbr></cite> 285 <span class="sc lowercase">C</span>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_28" id="footnote_28"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_28"><span class="muchsmaller">[28]</span></a> -<abbr title="Sextus Empiricus … Mathematicos">Sext. Empir. <cite>Mathem.</cite></abbr> 2, § 21.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_29" id="footnote_29"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_29"><span class="muchsmaller">[29]</span></a> -<abbr title="Plutarch">Plut.</abbr> <cite>Lukourgos</cite>, 19-20.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_30" id="footnote_30"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_30"><span class="muchsmaller">[30]</span></a> -Plato, <cite><abbr title="Protagoras">Protag.</abbr></cite> 342 <span class="sc lowercase">E</span>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_31" id="footnote_31"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_31"><span class="muchsmaller">[31]</span></a> -Plato, <cite>Laws</cite>, 680 <span class="sc lowercase">D</span>. Crete repudiated Homer altogether.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_32" id="footnote_32"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_32"><span class="muchsmaller">[32]</span></a> -<abbr title="Lukourgos">Luk.</abbr> <cite>against Leokrates</cite>, 107. The Polemarchos was judge in these singing -competitions, and the winner received a bit of meat (Philochoros in <abbr title="Athenaeus">Athen.</abbr> 630 f.).</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_33" id="footnote_33"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_33"><span class="muchsmaller">[33]</span></a> -Plato, <cite>Laws</cite>, 633 <span class="sc lowercase">E</span>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_34" id="footnote_34"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_34"><span class="muchsmaller">[34]</span></a> -<abbr title="Plutarch">Plut.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="Apophthegmata">Apoph.</abbr></cite></p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_35" id="footnote_35"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_35"><span class="muchsmaller">[35]</span></a> -<abbr title="Xenophon">Xen.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="Anabasis">Anab.</abbr> </cite> <abbr title="four">iv.</abbr> 6. 14.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_36" id="footnote_36"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_36"><span class="muchsmaller">[36]</span></a> -<abbr title="Isokrates">Isok.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="Panathenaikos">Panath.</abbr></cite> 277.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_37" id="footnote_37"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_37"><span class="muchsmaller">[37]</span></a> -<ins title="krypteia, kryptê">κρυπτεία, κρυπτή</ins>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_38" id="footnote_38"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_38"><span class="muchsmaller">[38]</span></a> -Plato, <cite>Laws</cite>, 633 <span class="sc lowercase">C</span>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_39" id="footnote_39"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_39"><span class="muchsmaller">[39]</span></a> -<abbr title="Plutarch">Plut.</abbr> <cite>Lukourgos</cite>, 28. Isokrates merely mentions that the Ephors could kill as -many Helots as they liked (<cite><abbr title="Panathenaikos">Panath.</abbr></cite> 271 <span class="sc lowercase">B</span>).</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_40" id="footnote_40"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_40"><span class="muchsmaller">[40]</span></a> -<abbr title="Plutarch">Plut.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="Kleomenes">Kleom.</abbr></cite> 28.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_41" id="footnote_41"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_41"><span class="muchsmaller">[41]</span></a> -<abbr title="Thucidides">Thuc.</abbr> <abbr title="four">iv.</abbr> 80.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_42" id="footnote_42"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_42"><span class="muchsmaller">[42]</span></a> -Plato, <cite>Laws</cite>, 763 <span class="sc lowercase">B</span>. Some have supposed that <ins title="kryptoi">κρυπτοί</ins> is an interpolation. If -so, the resemblance must have been close enough to strike a commentator who knew -Lakedaimon, in spite of the fact that the ages in the two systems are different.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_43" id="footnote_43"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_43"><span class="muchsmaller">[43]</span></a> -Polukrates (in <abbr title="Athenaeus">Athen.</abbr> 139 e).</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_44" id="footnote_44"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_44"><span class="muchsmaller">[44]</span></a> -<abbr title="Aristotle">Aristot.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="Politics">Pol.</abbr></cite> <abbr title="eight">viii.</abbr> 4; <abbr title="Plutarch">Plut.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="Lukourgos">Luk.</abbr></cite> 19.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_45" id="footnote_45"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_45"><span class="muchsmaller">[45]</span></a> -<abbr title="Plutarch">Plut.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="Apophthegmata">Apoph.</abbr></cite> 233 <span class="sc lowercase">E</span>. Plato adopts the Spartan views about wrestling in the -<cite>Laws</cite>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_46" id="footnote_46"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_46"><span class="muchsmaller">[46]</span></a> -Plato, <cite>Laches</cite>, 183 <span class="sc lowercase">D</span>, <span class="sc lowercase">E</span>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_47" id="footnote_47"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_47"><span class="muchsmaller">[47]</span></a> -Plato, <cite><abbr title="Theaitetos">Theait.</abbr></cite> 162 <span class="sc lowercase">B</span> and 169 <span class="sc lowercase">B</span>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_48" id="footnote_48"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_48"><span class="muchsmaller">[48]</span></a> -<abbr title="Xenophon">Xen.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="Contitution of the Lacedaemonians">Constit. of Lak.</abbr></cite> <abbr title="volume">v.</abbr> 8.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_49" id="footnote_49"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_49"><span class="muchsmaller">[49]</span></a> -<abbr title="Athenaeus">Athen.</abbr> <abbr title="twelve">xii.</abbr> 550 d. Their dress and bedding was inspected at the same time.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_50" id="footnote_50"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_50"><span class="muchsmaller">[50]</span></a> - <abbr title="Pausanias">Pausan.</abbr> 11 2. <ins title="bideos">βίδεος</ins>, Böckh, 1241, 1242; <ins title="bidyos">βίδυος</ins>, 1254.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_51" id="footnote_51"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_51"><span class="muchsmaller">[51]</span></a> -<abbr title="Aristotle">Aristot.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="Politics">Pol.</abbr></cite> <abbr title="eight">viii.</abbr> 4. 1.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_52" id="footnote_52"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_52"><span class="muchsmaller">[52]</span></a> -<abbr title="Xenophon">Xen.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="Contitution of the Lacedaemonians">Constit. of Lak.</abbr></cite> <abbr title="five">v.</abbr> 9.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_53" id="footnote_53"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_53"><span class="muchsmaller">[53]</span></a> -<abbr title="Herodotos">Herod.</abbr> <abbr title="nine">ix.</abbr> 72.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_54" id="footnote_54"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_54"><span class="muchsmaller">[54]</span></a> -<abbr title="Xenophon">Xen.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="Contitution of the Lacedaemonians">Constit. of Lak.</abbr></cite> <abbr title="two">ii.</abbr> 4.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_55" id="footnote_55"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_55"><span class="muchsmaller">[55]</span></a> -<abbr title="Pausanias three">Paus.iii.</abbr> 14. 2.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_56" id="footnote_56"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_56"><span class="muchsmaller">[56]</span></a> -<abbr title="Xenophon">Xen.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="Contitution of the Lacedaemonians">Constit. of Lak.</abbr></cite> <abbr title="four">iv.</abbr></p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_57" id="footnote_57"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_57"><span class="muchsmaller">[57]</span></a> -Hesychius, <ins title="Phouaxir">Φούαξιρ</ins>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_58" id="footnote_58"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_58"><span class="muchsmaller">[58]</span></a> -<abbr title="Pausanias three">Paus. iii.</abbr> 16. 11.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_59" id="footnote_59"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_59"><span class="muchsmaller">[59]</span></a> -<abbr title="Plutarch">Plut.</abbr> <cite>Lukourgos</cite>, 18; Cicero, <cite> <abbr title="Tusculanae Disputationes">Tusc. Disp.</abbr></cite> <abbr title="five">v.</abbr> 27.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_60" id="footnote_60"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_60"><span class="muchsmaller">[60]</span></a> -Böckh, 1364.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_61" id="footnote_61"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_61"><span class="muchsmaller">[61]</span></a> -Pindar, <cite><abbr title="fragment">Frag.</abbr> Hyporch.</cite> 8 <ins title="Lakaina parthenôn agela">Λάκαινα παρθένων ἀγέλα</ins>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_62" id="footnote_62"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_62"><span class="muchsmaller">[62]</span></a> -<abbr title="Xenophon">Xen.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="Contitution of the Lacedaemonians">Constit. of Lak.</abbr></cite> <abbr title="one">i.</abbr> 4.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_63" id="footnote_63"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_63"><span class="muchsmaller">[63]</span></a> -Cicero, <cite> <abbr title="Tusculanae Disputationes">Tusc. Disp.</abbr></cite> <abbr title="two">ii.</abbr> 15.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_64" id="footnote_64"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_64"><span class="muchsmaller">[64]</span></a> -<abbr title="Plutarch">Plut.</abbr> <cite>Lukourgos</cite>, 14.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_65" id="footnote_65"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_65"><span class="muchsmaller">[65]</span></a> -Whence they were called <ins title="phainomêrides">φαινομήριδες</ins>. This chiton may be seen in the -conventional statues of Artemis.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_66" id="footnote_66"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_66"><span class="muchsmaller">[66]</span></a> -<abbr title="Theokritos">Theok.</abbr> <cite>Idyll</cite> 18. 23.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_67" id="footnote_67"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_67"><span class="muchsmaller">[67]</span></a> -<cite>Laws</cite>, 806 <span class="sc lowercase">A</span>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_68" id="footnote_68"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_68"><span class="muchsmaller">[68]</span></a> -<cite>Lusistrata</cite>, l. 80 onwards. In the play Lampito is married. Aristophanes has -either made a mistake or the gymnastics are meant to be in the past only.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_69" id="footnote_69"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_69"><span class="muchsmaller">[69]</span></a> -The <ins title="ormos">ὄρμος</ins> dance. Compare the dance at the end of the <cite>Lusistrata</cite>, where -“man stands by woman, and woman by man.”</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_70" id="footnote_70"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_70"><span class="muchsmaller">[70]</span></a> -Lucian, <cite>Dancing</cite>, 274.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_71" id="footnote_71"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_71"><span class="muchsmaller">[71]</span></a> -<abbr title="Xenophon">Xen.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="Hellenica">Hellen.</abbr></cite> <abbr title="six">vi.</abbr> 4. 16.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_72" id="footnote_72"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_72"><span class="muchsmaller">[72]</span></a> -<abbr title="Xenophon">Xen.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="Agesilaus">Ag.</abbr></cite> <abbr title="two">ii.</abbr> 17.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_73" id="footnote_73"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_73"><span class="muchsmaller">[73]</span></a> -<abbr title="Athenaeus">Athen.</abbr> 630 a.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_74" id="footnote_74"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_74"><span class="muchsmaller">[74]</span></a> -<abbr title="Athenaeus">Athen.</abbr> 678 b.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_75" id="footnote_75"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_75"><span class="muchsmaller">[75]</span></a> -Plato, <cite>Laws</cite>, 666 <span class="sc lowercase">D</span>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_76" id="footnote_76"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_76"><span class="muchsmaller">[76]</span></a> -<cite>Laws</cite>, 634-635.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_77" id="footnote_77"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_77"><span class="muchsmaller">[77]</span></a> -<abbr title="Xenophon">Xen.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="Contitution of the Lacedaemonians">Constit. of Lak.</abbr></cite> <abbr title="nine">ix.</abbr> 5.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_78" id="footnote_78"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_78"><span class="muchsmaller">[78]</span></a> -<abbr title="Aristotle">Aristot.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="Politics">Pol.</abbr></cite> <abbr title="two">ii.</abbr> 10. 8.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_79" id="footnote_79"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_79"><span class="muchsmaller">[79]</span></a> -Additional revenues for the same objects were derived from the taxes paid by -Perioikoi and serfs (<abbr title="Athenaeus">Athen.</abbr> 143 a, b).</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_80" id="footnote_80"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_80"><span class="muchsmaller">[80]</span></a> -Plato, <cite>Laws</cite>, 781 <span class="sc lowercase">A</span>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_81" id="footnote_81"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_81"><span class="muchsmaller">[81]</span></a> -Historians quoted by <abbr title="Athenaeus">Athen.</abbr> 143 e.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_82" id="footnote_82"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_82"><span class="muchsmaller">[82]</span></a> -<cite>Ibid.</cite></p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_83" id="footnote_83"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_83"><span class="muchsmaller">[83]</span></a> -Strabo, <abbr title="ten">x.</abbr> 4. 483 (on authority of Ephoros), and Herakleides Pont. <abbr title="three">iii.</abbr> (who -provide most of the details about Crete).</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_84" id="footnote_84"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_84"><span class="muchsmaller">[84]</span></a> -Aelian, <cite>True History</cite>, <abbr title="two">ii.</abbr> 39.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_85" id="footnote_85"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_85"><span class="muchsmaller">[85]</span></a> -Strabo, <abbr title="ten">x.</abbr> 4. 480.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_86" id="footnote_86"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_86"><span class="muchsmaller">[86]</span></a> -Sosikrates (in <abbr title="Athenaeus">Athen.</abbr> 261 e), speaking of Phaistos.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_87" id="footnote_87"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_87"><span class="muchsmaller">[87]</span></a> -Hesychius, <ins title="apagelos">ἀπάγελος</ins>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_88" id="footnote_88"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_88"><span class="muchsmaller">[88]</span></a> -<ins title="ekdysia">ἐκδύσια</ins>, Antoninus Liberalis, 18.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_89" id="footnote_89"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_89"><span class="muchsmaller">[89]</span></a> -Mahaffy, <abbr title="page">p.</abbr> 81; Grasberger, <abbr title="three">iii.</abbr> 61.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_90" id="footnote_90"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_90"><span class="muchsmaller">[90]</span></a> -Eustathius on <cite><abbr title="Iliad">Il.</abbr></cite> <abbr title="nine">ix.</abbr> 518.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_91" id="footnote_91"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_91"><span class="muchsmaller">[91]</span></a> -<abbr title="Herakleides of Pontos three">Herakl. Pont. iii.</abbr> 3.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_92" id="footnote_92"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_92"><span class="muchsmaller">[92]</span></a> -Persaeus <cite><abbr title="apud">ap.</abbr></cite> <abbr title="Athenaeus">Athen.</abbr> 140 f.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_93" id="footnote_93"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_93"><span class="muchsmaller">[93]</span></a> -Dicaearchus <cite><abbr title="apud">ap.</abbr></cite> <abbr title="Athenaeus">Athen.</abbr> 141 a.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_94" id="footnote_94"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_94"><span class="muchsmaller">[94]</span></a> -Sphaerus <cite><abbr title="apud">ap.</abbr></cite> <abbr title="Athenaeus">Athen.</abbr> 141 c, d.; and Molpis, <cite>ibid.</cite></p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_95" id="footnote_95"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_95"><span class="muchsmaller">[95]</span></a> -Polemon <cite><abbr title="apud">ap.</abbr></cite> <abbr title="Athenaeus">Athen.</abbr> 56 a, and 138-139.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_96" id="footnote_96"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_96"><span class="muchsmaller">[96]</span></a> -<abbr title="Compare">Cp.</abbr> the crèche temples in Plato’s <cite>Laws</cite>, 794 <span class="sc lowercase">A</span>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_97" id="footnote_97"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_97"><span class="muchsmaller">[97]</span></a> -Demetrius of Scepsis (<cite><abbr title="apud">ap.</abbr></cite> <abbr title="Athenaeus">Athen.</abbr> 141 e).</p> -</div><!--end chapter--> - -<div class="chapter"> -<a name="Page_42" id="Page_42"></a><span class="pageno">42</span> - -<h3 class="p4 h3head">CHAPTER II</h3> - -<h4 class="p2 h4head">ATHENS AND THE REST OF HELLAS:<br /> -GENERAL INTRODUCTION</h4> - -<p class="p2"><span class="sc">Laconia</span> and Crete were mainly agricultural countries -that had little concern with trade or manufactures. -Their citizens comprised a landed aristocracy, supported -by estates which were cultivated for them by a subject -population; there was no necessity, therefore, for them -to prepare their boys for any profession or trade, or -even to instruct them in the principles of agriculture. -The young Spartan or Cretan no more needed professional -or technical instruction of any sort than the richer -absentee Irish landlords of the present day. He could -give the whole of his school-time, without any sacrifice -of his financial prospects, to the training of his body -and of his character.</p> - -<p>But the rest of Hellas was for the most part the -scene of busy manufactures and extensive trade. It -would be natural to expect that great commercial -peoples, like the Athenians or the Ionians of Asia -Minor, would have set great store by the commercial -elements of education, and to assume that business -methods and utilitarian branches of study would have -occupied a large place in their schools. But this was -very far from being the case. To a Hellene education -<a name="Page_43" id="Page_43"></a><span class="pageno">43</span> -meant the training of character and taste, and the -symmetrical development of body, mind, and imagination. -He would not have included under so honourable -a name either any course of instruction in which the -pupils mastered their future trade or profession, or any -accumulation of knowledge undertaken with the object -of making money. Consequently technical training of -all sorts was excluded from Hellenic schools and passed -over in silence by Hellenic educationalists. Information -concerning it must be pieced together from stray facts -and casual allusions, and the whole idea of “utilitarian” -instruction, in the modern sense of the word, must be -carefully put aside during any consideration of Hellenic -schools.</p> - -<p>For the Hellenes as a nation regarded all forms of -handicraft as <em>bourgeois</em> (<ins title="banausos">βάναυσος</ins>) and contemptible. -Herodotos says that they derived this view from the -surrounding peoples, who all held it.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_98" id="fnanchor_98"></a><a href="#footnote_98" class="fnanchor">[98]</a></span> -To do anything -in order to extract money from some one else -was, in their opinion, vulgar and ungentlemanly. The -lyric poets and the Sophists were alike blamed for taking -fees. The cheapness and abundance of serf- or slave-labour -made it possible for a large proportion of the -free population to live in idleness, and devote their time -to the development of the body by physical exercises, -of the mind by perpetual discussions, and of the -imagination by art and music. Citizenship required -leisure, in the days before representative government -came into vogue. It was owing to this principle that -the Athenian received pay for a day’s attendance in the -Law Courts or the Assembly, for by this means the -poorest citizen obtained an artificial leisure for the performance -of his duties. Otherwise true citizenship was -<a name="Page_44" id="Page_44"></a><span class="pageno">44</span> -impossible. Plato regards a tradesman as unfit to be an -acting citizen.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_99" id="fnanchor_99"></a><a href="#footnote_99" class="fnanchor">[99]</a></span> -Aristotle rejects as unworthy of a free -man all trades which interfere with bodily development -or take time which ought to be devoted to mental improvement.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_100" id="fnanchor_100"></a><a href="#footnote_100" class="fnanchor">[100]</a></span> -Xenophon explains the reason of this -attitude. The discredit which attaches to the <em>bourgeois</em> -occupations is quite natural; for they ruin the physical -condition of those who practise them, compelling them -to sit down and live in the shade, and in some cases to -spend their day by the fire. The body thus becomes -effeminate, and the character is weakened at the same -time. Tradesmen, too, have less leisure for serving -their friends and the State. In some communities, -especially the most warlike, the citizens are not allowed -to practise sedentary trades.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_101" id="fnanchor_101"></a><a href="#footnote_101" class="fnanchor">[101]</a></span> -The owner of a factory -or a farm worked by slave-labour was exempt from -corrupting influences: it was only actual work which -was degrading.</p> - -<p>A large number, however, from among the poorer -classes were compelled to work with their own hands; -so these, as well as the slaves, required technical instruction. -Some indications survive as to the manner in -which this was imparted. Trades were mostly hereditary; -“the sons of the craftsmen learn their fathers’ -trade, so far as their fathers and their friends of the -same trade can teach it.”<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_102" id="fnanchor_102"></a><a href="#footnote_102" class="fnanchor">[102]</a></span> -But others might also learn. -Xenophon mentions such cases. “When you apprentice -a boy to a trade,” he says, “you draw up a statement -of what you mean him to be taught,”<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_103" id="fnanchor_103"></a><a href="#footnote_103" class="fnanchor">[103]</a></span> -and the fees were -not paid unless this agreement was carried out. The -<cite>Kleitophon</cite><span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_104" id="fnanchor_104"></a><a href="#footnote_104" class="fnanchor">[104]</a></span> -mentions as the two functions of the -<a name="Page_45" id="Page_45"></a><span class="pageno">45</span> -builder or the doctor the practising of their profession -and the teaching of pupils. The <cite>Republic</cite><span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_105" id="fnanchor_105"></a><a href="#footnote_105" class="fnanchor">[105]</a></span> -says: “If -owing to poverty a craftsman is unable to provide the -books and other requisites of his calling, his work will -suffer, and his sons and any others whom he may be -teaching will not learn their trade so well.” The -teaching of building is mentioned in the <cite>Gorgias</cite>.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_106" id="fnanchor_106"></a><a href="#footnote_106" class="fnanchor">[106]</a></span> -In the <cite>Republic</cite><span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_107" id="fnanchor_107"></a><a href="#footnote_107" class="fnanchor">[107]</a></span> -Plato states that the <ins title="paides">παῖδες</ins> of the -potters—a word which will include both sons and -apprentices—act as servants and look on for a long time -before they are allowed to try their hands themselves at -making pots. “To learn pot-making on a wine-jar” -was a proverb for beginning with the most difficult part -of a subject. The pupils of a doctor named Pittalos are -mentioned in the <cite>Acharnians</cite> of Aristophanes.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_108" id="fnanchor_108"></a><a href="#footnote_108" class="fnanchor">[108]</a></span> -The -comic poets of the early third century contain several -references to cookery-schools. Sosipater makes one -cook say that his pupils must learn astrology, architecture, -and strategy before they come to him, just as Plato -had exacted a preliminary knowledge of mathematics -from his disciples. Euphron gives ten months as the -minimum length of a course of cookery. Aristotle -mentions a man at Syracuse who taught slaves how to -wait at table, and perform their household duties: perhaps -the play of Pherekrates<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_109" id="fnanchor_109"></a><a href="#footnote_109" class="fnanchor">[109]</a></span> -entitled <cite>The Slave-Teacher</cite> -may have dealt with a similar case. From -these fragments a picture can be drawn of a regular -system of apprenticeship by which the knowledge of the -trades was handed down. Solon, wishing to encourage -Athenian manufactures, had enacted that if a father -did not have his son taught some trade, he could not -<a name="Page_46" id="Page_46"></a><span class="pageno">46</span> -legally demand to be supported in his old age.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_110" id="fnanchor_110"></a><a href="#footnote_110" class="fnanchor">[110]</a></span> -But -the general opinion of Hellas still maintained that -“technical instruction and all teaching which aimed only -at money-making was vulgar and did not deserve the -name of education. True education aimed solely at -virtue, making the child yearn to be a good citizen, -skilled to rule and to obey.”<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_111" id="fnanchor_111"></a><a href="#footnote_111" class="fnanchor">[111]</a></span> -For all the gold on the -earth and under it, according to Plato, could not pay -the price of virtue, or deserve to be given in exchange -for a man’s soul. Thus the Spartans and Cretans did -not stand alone, but had the support of all Hellas, in -banishing from their schools any idea of technical or -professional instruction.</p> - -<p class="center">* * * * *</p> - -<p>But in one notable point their idea of education -differed from that which was prevalent in most of the -Hellenic States. The regular course of education in -Athens and in most Hellenic States was for boys alone: -no girls need apply. The women lived in almost -Oriental seclusion;<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_112" id="fnanchor_112"></a><a href="#footnote_112" class="fnanchor">[112]</a></span> -the duty of an Athenian mother -was, according to Perikles,<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_113" id="fnanchor_113"></a><a href="#footnote_113" class="fnanchor">[113]</a></span> -to live so retired a life -that her name should never be mentioned among -the men either for praise or blame. Listen to the -description which an Athenian country gentleman -gives of his wife.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_114" id="fnanchor_114"></a><a href="#footnote_114" class="fnanchor">[114]</a></span> - “What was she likely to know -when I married her? Why, she was not yet fifteen -when I introduced her to my house, and she had -been brought up always under the strictest supervision; -as far as could be managed, she had not been -allowed to see anything, hear anything, or ask any -questions. Don’t you think that it was all that could -<a name="Page_47" id="Page_47"></a><span class="pageno">47</span> -be expected of her, if she knew how to take raw wool -and make it into a cloak, and had seen how wool-work -is served out to handmaidens?” Sokrates, however, to -whom this question is addressed, seems to think that -she might have learnt “from her father and mother the -duties which would belong to her in after life.” These, -however, in this case her husband had to teach her. -He explains to her that she must see that everything -has a place to itself and is always put there; she must -also give out the stores, teach the slaves their duties and -nurse them when they are ill, and tend the young -children. The summary of the explanation is that -Heaven has appointed a fair division of labour between -husband and wife: the wife manages everything indoors -and the husband everything out of doors. A stay-at-home -husband or a gad-about wife equally offend -against respectability. As a rule, apparently, the -women simply sat in the house, “like slaves,” as it -seemed to the ordinary athletic Hellene. Xenophon’s -model husband suggests that his wife should take exercise -by walking about the house to see how the supplies -were given out, to inspect the arrangements of the -cupboards, and to watch the washing and the wringing-out -of the clothes: this exercise will give her health and -an appetite. But Xenophon was an admirer of Spartan -customs and the athletic Spartan women: probably -these ideas would not have occurred to the ordinary -Athenian husband.</p> - -<p>Another picture may be quoted from Hellenic -literature to show the extent of education which an -ordinary woman received.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_115" id="fnanchor_115"></a><a href="#footnote_115" class="fnanchor">[115]</a></span> -A certain Aristarchos -comes to Sokrates in great distress. A number of -female relatives, quite destitute, have been thrown upon -<a name="Page_48" id="Page_48"></a><span class="pageno">48</span> -his hands owing to various circumstances, and he must -support them; but he has not the requisite means. -Sokrates naturally suggests that he should make them -work for their living. But they do not know how to, -says Aristarchos. However, by dint of questioning, -Sokrates elicits the fact that they can make men’s and -women’s garments, and also pastry and bread. These, -then, were apparently the accomplishments which an -ordinary girl in Hellas, brought up without any idea of -having to earn her own living, would acquire. Plato -also mentions weaving and cooking as the provinces in -which women excel,<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_116" id="fnanchor_116"></a><a href="#footnote_116" class="fnanchor">[116]</a></span> -and describes the women of Attika -as “living indoors, managing the household and superintending -the loom and wool-work generally.”<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_117" id="fnanchor_117"></a><a href="#footnote_117" class="fnanchor">[117]</a></span> -</p> - -<p>Thus the Athenian girl spent her time indoors, -learning to be a regular “Hausfrau,” skilled in weaving, -cooking, and household management. She had her -special maid to wait on her,<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_118" id="fnanchor_118"></a><a href="#footnote_118" class="fnanchor">[118]</a></span> -as her brothers had their -paidagogos. She would, as a rule, be married young, -and would naturally be very shy after such an upbringing; -the marriage was arranged between the -bridegroom and the parents, and, owing to the seclusion -of the women at Athens, love-matches were well-nigh -impossible. The match was mainly a question of the -dowry. Xenophon<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_119" id="fnanchor_119"></a><a href="#footnote_119" class="fnanchor">[119]</a></span> -gives a vivid picture of one of -these girl-wives gradually “growing accustomed to her -husband and becoming sufficiently tame to hold conversation -with him.” To keep their beauty under such -conditions they employed rouge and white, and high-heeled -shoes. Such mothers would be quite incapable -of giving any literary or musical education to their -children; hence the boys went away to school as soon -<a name="Page_49" id="Page_49"></a><span class="pageno">49</span> -as possible. Their school-life usually began when they -were about six years old, the exact age being left to the -parents’ choice.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_120" id="fnanchor_120"></a><a href="#footnote_120" class="fnanchor">[120]</a></span> -Before this, they learnt in the nursery -the various current fables and ballads, and the national -mythology.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_121" id="fnanchor_121"></a><a href="#footnote_121" class="fnanchor">[121]</a></span> - “As soon as the child understands what -is said, the nurse and the mother and the paidogogos, -yes, and the father himself, strive with one another in -improving its character, in every word and deed showing -it what is just and what is unjust, what is beautiful and -what is ugly, what is holy and what is unholy. It is -always ‘Do this’ and ‘Don’t do that.’ If a child is -disobedient, it is corrected with threats and blows.”<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_122" id="fnanchor_122"></a><a href="#footnote_122" class="fnanchor">[122]</a></span> -Besides this purely moral training there might, no -doubt, be a certain amount of technical or of literary -instruction at home,<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_123" id="fnanchor_123"></a><a href="#footnote_123" class="fnanchor">[123]</a></span> -and bits of poetry might be learnt. -Up to this age boys and girls lived together.</p> - -<p>The sons of rich parents apparently went to school -earliest: their poorer fellow-citizens went later.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_124" id="fnanchor_124"></a><a href="#footnote_124" class="fnanchor">[124]</a></span> -This -was natural. The poor could not keep their sons at -school for a long time, for they wanted their services in -the shop or on the farm, and the fees were a burden: -so they did not send them till they were old enough to -pick up instruction quickly. The rich, on the other -hand, to whom money was no object, sent their boys to -school at an early age, when they could do little more -than look on, while their elders worked. Aristotle -commends this custom, and imposes two years of such -“playing at school” upon the boys of his ideal State.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_125" id="fnanchor_125"></a><a href="#footnote_125" class="fnanchor">[125]</a></span></p> - -<p><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50"></a><span class="pageno">50</span> -The ordinary system of primary education at Athens -consisted of three parts, presided over respectively by -the “grammatistes,” “kitharistes,” and “paidotribes.”<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_126" id="fnanchor_126"></a><a href="#footnote_126" class="fnanchor">[126]</a></span> -The grammatistes taught reading, writing, and some -arithmetic, and made his pupils read and learn by heart -the great poets, Homer and Hesiod and others. The -kitharistes taught the boys how to play the seven-stringed -lyre and sing to it the works of the lyric -poets, which they would incidentally have to learn. -The paidotribes presided over their physical development -in a scientific way; he taught them wrestling, -boxing, the pankration, running, jumping, throwing the -diskos and javelin, and various other exercises; his -school-room was the palaistra. To this triple system -some boys added drawing and painting;<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_127" id="fnanchor_127"></a><a href="#footnote_127" class="fnanchor">[127]</a></span> -but this -subject seems to have been an extra till late in the -fourth century. Literature, music, and athletics composed -the ordinary course at Athens.</p> - -<p>Which of the three branches of education began -first? Probably they were all taught simultaneously. -The order in which they are usually mentioned does -not point to a fixed sequence. Letters were naturally -mentioned first, because all citizens alike learned this -subject. Gymnastics were put last, because, owing to -the public gymnasia, these exercises were carried on -long after the other schooling had ceased. Moreover, -most of the recognised exercises of the palaistra were -not taught to small boys; from the nature of the -exercises and from the pictures on the vases it may be -<a name="Page_51" id="Page_51"></a><span class="pageno">51</span> -deduced that the average boy did not learn them till -his twelfth year at the earliest. But physical training -of an easier sort of course commenced much earlier, -and boys seem to have attended a palaistra from their -sixth year onwards to receive it. Both Plato and -Aristotle demand that it should begin several years -before any intellectual instruction; and Plato, making -athletics such as shooting and riding begin at six, defers -letters till ten and lyre-playing till thirteen. Gymnastics -would naturally occupy a part of the day for a -healthy young Hellene during the whole time from -his sixth year till manhood. It is thus that the -<cite>Charmides</cite> mentions “quite tiny boys” as present in -the palaistra, as well as older lads and young men.</p> - -<p>Lyre-playing may have been deferred, as a harder -subject, till the boy had learned letters for several -years; but the seven-stringed lyre, with the simple -old Hellenic music, was probably not a very difficult -instrument to master. The chief factor which determined -the arrangement of subjects in an ordinary -family was no doubt the paidagogos. If there was -only one son, he could go to whatever school his -parents pleased; but if there were several, elders and -youngers had all to go to the same school at the same -time, for there was only one paidagogos to a whole -family as a rule, and he could never allow any of his -charges to go out of his sight.</p> - -<p>That the three subjects were usually taught simultaneously -may be inferred from a passage of Xenophon. -“In every part of Hellas except Sparta,” he says, “those -who claim to give their sons the best education, as soon -as ever the child understands what is said to him, at -once make one of their servants his paidagogos, and at -once send him off to school to learn letters and music -<a name="Page_52" id="Page_52"></a><span class="pageno">52</span> -and the exercises of the Palaistra.”<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_128" id="fnanchor_128"></a><a href="#footnote_128" class="fnanchor">[128]</a></span> -The emphasis -upon the word “at once” certainly implies that the -three subjects began simultaneously.</p> - -<p>On the vases letters and music are seen being taught -side by side in the same school; this was a convenient -and natural arrangement. Writing-tablets and rulers -are also seen suspended on the walls of music-schools -and palaistrai, and lyres on the walls of letter-schools<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_129" id="fnanchor_129"></a><a href="#footnote_129" class="fnanchor">[129]</a></span>; -which suggests that the boys went from one building to -another in the day, taking their property with them. -Plato states that three years apiece was a reasonable time -for learning letters and the lyre.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_130" id="fnanchor_130"></a><a href="#footnote_130" class="fnanchor">[130]</a></span> -The eight years -between six and fourteen, the ordinary time devoted at -Athens in the fourth century to the primary triple -course, would give space for these six years, with two -years to spare for elaboration. Gymnastics are meant -to go on during the whole period in Plato, and so do -not require a special allowance of time to themselves.</p> - -<p>This system of primary education at Athens may -reasonably be traced back to the beginning of the sixth -century. Solon is credited with a regulation which -made letters compulsory, and with certain moral enactments -dealing with existing schools and palaistrai. -The much-disputed popularisation of Homer at Athens -by Peisistratos was probably connected with the growth -of the Schools of Letters. Of the existence of music-schools -at this date there is evidence from a sixth-century -vase in the British Museum,<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_131" id="fnanchor_131"></a><a href="#footnote_131" class="fnanchor">[131]</a></span> -which represents -a youth amusing himself with a dog, behind a seated -man who is playing a lyre. This might not seem very -conclusive in itself; but now compare it with the two -“amphorai” of the fifth century,<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_132" id="fnanchor_132"></a><a href="#footnote_132" class="fnanchor">[132]</a></span> -which undoubtedly -<!--Blank Page--> -<!--Blank Page--> -<a name="Page_53" id="Page_53"></a><span class="pageno">53</span> -represent scenes in a music-school. The situation is -almost identical; each alike shows the boy playing with -the animal behind his master’s chair. Curiously enough, -all three vases come from Kameiros in Rhodes, although -they are of Athenian manufacture. Thus the music-school -may also be traced back well into the sixth -century, in company with the school of letters and the -palaistra; and the antiquity of the system of Primary -Education is thus established.</p> - -<div class="figcenter together" style="width: 500px"> -<p class="captionleft">PLATE <abbr title="One">I.</abbr> <span class="sc lowercase">A</span>.</p> - <a name="i01a" id="i01a"></a> - <img src="images/1a.jpg" - width="500" height="269" - alt="Illustration: The Flute Lesson" - /> - <p class="caption">THE FLUTE LESSON, THE WRITING LESSON (ABOVE A WRITING-ROLL, A FOLDED TABLET, A RULING SQUARE, ETC.)<br /> -From the Kulix of Douris, now at Berlin (<abbr title="number">No.</abbr> 2285).<br /> -<cite lang="it" xml:lang="it">Monumenti dell’ Instituto</cite>, <abbr title="nine">ix.</abbr> Plate 54.</p> -</div><!--end illustration--> - -<div class="figcenter together" style="width: 500px"> -<p class="captionleft">PLATE <abbr title="One">I.</abbr> <span class="sc lowercase">B</span>.</p> - <a name="i01b" id="i01b"></a> - <img src="images/1b.jpg" - width="500" height="276" - alt="Illustration: The Lyre Lesson" - /> - <p class="caption">THE LYRE LESSON, AND THE POETRY LESSON (ABOVE IS AN ORNAMENTAL MANUSCRIPT BASKET)<br /> -From a Kulix by Douris, now in Berlin (<abbr title="number">No.</abbr> 2285).<br /> -<cite lang="it" xml:lang="it">Monumenti dell’ Instituto</cite>, <abbr title="nine">ix.</abbr> Plate 54.</p> -</div><!--end illustration--> - -<p>In earlier days this primary course had no doubt -sometimes lasted till the boy was eighteen: but towards -the end of the fifth century a secondary stage of education -arose, occupying the years immediately preceding -eighteen. This secondary stage is recognised in the -pseudo-Platonic <cite>Axiochos</cite> and in the fragment of -Teles quoted by Stobaeus. More important evidence -is supplied by Plato. In the <cite>Republic</cite> he assigns -an elaborate system of mathematics to the age just -before <ins title="ephêbeia">ἐφηβεία</ins>, which he sets at seventeen or eighteen, -the natural age varying with the individual, while the -legal age remained fixed.</p> - -<p>When did this Secondary Education begin? Aristotle, -counting back from <ins title="ephêbeia">ἐφηβεία</ins>, assigns three years to it.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_133" id="fnanchor_133"></a><a href="#footnote_133" class="fnanchor">[133]</a></span> -He has just commended the arrangement of education, -not on hard and fast lines, but in accordance with the -natural growth of the individual: so he must mean his -<ins title="ephêbeia">ἐφηβεία</ins> to vary from seventeen to eighteen.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_134" id="fnanchor_134"></a><a href="#footnote_134" class="fnanchor">[134]</a></span> -Thus he -puts the beginning of secondary education at fourteen -or fifteen, the average age of <ins title="hêbê">ἥβη</ins> in Hellas, as in Rome. -From <ins title="hêbê">ἥβη</ins> till twenty-one the young Athenian was a -<ins title="meirakion">μειράκιον</ins>. Thus in point of age the <ins title="pais">παῖς</ins> of the -primary schools corresponds to the Roman “impubes,” -and the <ins title="meirakion">μειράκιον</ins> to the “adolescens”; but <ins title="meirakion">μειράκιον</ins> -<a name="Page_54" id="Page_54"></a><span class="pageno">54</span> -and <ins title="pais">παῖς</ins> are used very loosely, and the former word is -often replaced by <ins title="neaniskos">νεανίσκος</ins>. We shall, as a rule, call -the pupils of the primary schools boys, and those of the -secondary lads.</p> - -<p>Fourteen did not, however, represent an exact point -at which it was compulsory to leave the primary school. -Sons of the poor left earlier; rich or unoccupied -Athenians might remain later: Sokrates even attended -a lyre-school among the boys when he was middle-aged. -The primary schoolmasters started advanced -classes in astronomy and mathematics to suit elder -pupils.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_135" id="fnanchor_135"></a><a href="#footnote_135" class="fnanchor">[135]</a></span> -In the palaistrai there were separate classes -of boys and lads, who were only supposed to meet on -feast-days;<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_136" id="fnanchor_136"></a><a href="#footnote_136" class="fnanchor">[136]</a></span> -in the <cite>Charmides</cite>, however, grown men, -lads, boys, and quite tiny boys are all exercising -together.</p> - -<p>Many lads, especially in earlier times, did not attend -the schools at all, but gave their time to gymnastics and -whatever else they pleased.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_137" id="fnanchor_137"></a><a href="#footnote_137" class="fnanchor">[137]</a></span> -Xenophon relates this as -one of the demerits of the Athenian system.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_138" id="fnanchor_138"></a><a href="#footnote_138" class="fnanchor">[138]</a></span> -</p> - -<p>The mental attainments of a lad who is apparently -but little over fourteen are sketched in Plato’s <cite>Lusis</cite>. -The lad Lusis knows how to read and write, and how -to string and play the lyre. He recognises a quotation -from Homer, and has even come across the “prose -treatises of the very wise, who say that like must -always be friendly to like; these are the men who -reason and write about the Universe and Nature.”<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_139" id="fnanchor_139"></a><a href="#footnote_139" class="fnanchor">[139]</a></span> -</p> - -<p>This secondary education, beginning soon after -fourteen, was only for the rich: the poor could not -afford to keep their sons away from the farm or trade -<a name="Page_55" id="Page_55"></a><span class="pageno">55</span> -any longer. It might be scattered over the whole of -the next six or seven years; but there was a serious -interruption, which usually terminated it. At eighteen -the young Athenian became in the eye of the law an -ephebos and was called out to undergo two years of -military training. During this period of conscription -it was no doubt possible, especially in the laxer days of -the fourth century, to do some intellectual work; but -Plato is probably only accepting the usual custom when -he frees the epheboi of his State from all mental studies -and makes them give their whole energies to military -and gymnastic training. And when the ephebos returned -to civil life, he was a full citizen and was hardly -likely to return to school; he might attend an occasional -lecture or so, but that was all.</p> - -<p>Thus secondary education usually occupied the years -between fourteen and eighteen, although the latter limit -was in no way definitely fixed, and the same subjects -might be studied at any age. In earlier days no doubt -lads spent their time in continuing their musical -studies: primary education could be conducted in a -more leisurely fashion when there was still little to -be learnt, and the lyre may have been deferred till -this age, as Plato in similar circumstances defers -it in the <cite>Laws</cite>. But in the days of Perikles knowledge -began to increase and boys had more to learn. -So the lyre was crowded into the first period of education, -and a new series of secondary subjects arose. It -was these years which were usually devoted to the four -years’ course which was customary in the school of -Isokrates. Before this date the time was, as a rule, -spent in attending the lectures of the wandering -Sophists or in picking up a smattering of philosophy. -Among the subjects which thus formed a part of -<a name="Page_56" id="Page_56"></a><span class="pageno">56</span> -secondary education were mathematics of various -kinds, more advanced literary criticism, a certain -amount of natural history and science, a knowledge of -the laws and constitution of Athens, a small quantity -of philosophy, ethical, political, and metaphysical, and -above all, rhetoric. Plato in his <cite>Republic</cite>, developing -this Athenian system of secondary education, assigns -to the years immediately preceding eighteen the theory -of numbers, geometry, plane and solid, kinetics and -harmonics, and expressly excludes dialectic as more -suitable to a later age;<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_140" id="fnanchor_140"></a><a href="#footnote_140" class="fnanchor">[140]</a></span> -in the <cite>Laws</cite>, prescribing -for the whole population, not for a few selected intellects, -he orders practical arithmetic, geometry, and -enough astronomy to make the calendar intelligible. -The pseudo-Platonic <cite>Axiochos</cite><span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_141" id="fnanchor_141"></a><a href="#footnote_141" class="fnanchor">[141]</a></span> -ascribes to Prodikos -the statement that “when a child grows older, he -endures the tyranny of mathematicians, teachers of -tactics, and ‘critics.’” These last are the professors -of that curious criticism of poetry which is found, for -instance, in the <cite>Protagoras</cite> as a subject of the lectures -of that Sophist as well as of Hippias.</p> - -<p>At eighteen the young Athenian partially came of -age. He then had to submit to a two years’ course of -military training, of which the first year was spent in -Athens and the second in the frontier forts and in -camp. During this period he probably had little time -for intellectual occupations. But when the military -power of Athens collapsed under the Macedonian -dominion, the military duties of the epheboi became -voluntary, and their training was replaced by regular -courses of philosophy and literature. The military -system became a University, attended by a few young -<a name="Page_57" id="Page_57"></a><span class="pageno">57</span> -men of wealth and position and a good many foreigners. -As the forerunner of the first University, the two -years’ training of the epheboi may fitly receive the -name of Tertiary Education, in spite of the fact that till -the third century it involved only military instruction.</p> - -<p>Thus we have Athenian education divided into -three stages: Primary from six to fourteen, Secondary -from fourteen to eighteen, and Tertiary from eighteen -to twenty; while gymnastic training extended over the -whole period.</p> - -<p class="center">* * * * *</p> - -<p>Of these three stages the third alone was compulsory -and provided by the State. The second was entirely -voluntary, and only the richest and most leisured boys -applied themselves to it. Gymnastics of some sort -were rendered almost obligatory by the liability of every -citizen to military and naval service at a moment’s -notice; but they needed little encouragement. Of the -primary subjects, letters were probably compulsory by -law, and music was almost invariably taught. An old -law, ascribed to Solon,<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_142" id="fnanchor_142"></a><a href="#footnote_142" class="fnanchor">[142]</a></span> -enacted that every boy should -learn swimming and his letters; after which, the poorer -might turn their attention to trade or farming, while -the richer passed on to learn music, riding, gymnastics, -hunting, and philosophy. In the <cite>Kriton</cite> of Plato the -personified Laws of Athens, recounting to Sokrates the -many services which they had done him, mention that -they had “charged his father to educate him in Music -and Letters.”<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_143" id="fnanchor_143"></a><a href="#footnote_143" class="fnanchor">[143]</a></span> -But the Laws in Hellas include the -customs, as well as the constitution, of a State. It was -certainly customary for nearly every citizen at Athens to -<a name="Page_58" id="Page_58"></a><span class="pageno">58</span> -learn some music; but it was not compulsory. We -meet no Athenian in literature who is ignorant of his -letters; we meet several who know no music. In -Aristophanes, Demosthenes and Nikias are on the lookout -for the most vulgar and low-class man in Athens, -in order that he may oust Kleon from popular favour, -by outdoing him in vulgarity. They find a sausage-seller. -But even this man knows his letters, though -not very well.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_144" id="fnanchor_144"></a><a href="#footnote_144" class="fnanchor">[144]</a></span> -Of music, however, he is ignorant, -and he has never attended the lessons of a paidotribes,<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_145" id="fnanchor_145"></a><a href="#footnote_145" class="fnanchor">[145]</a></span> -though Kleon seems to expect him to have done so. -Kleon, who is represented as an utter boor, is yet said -to have attended a lyre-school.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_146" id="fnanchor_146"></a><a href="#footnote_146" class="fnanchor">[146]</a></span> -In the <cite>Theages</cite><span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_147" id="fnanchor_147"></a><a href="#footnote_147" class="fnanchor">[147]</a></span> -literature and lyre-playing and athletics are mentioned -as the ordinary education of a gentleman. In fiercely -democratic Athens every parent was eager to bring up -his sons as gentlemen, and no doubt sent them through -the whole course if he could possibly afford it. But the -State attitude towards education, as distinct from the -voluntary customs of the citizens, may be summarised -in the words of Sokrates to Alkibiades: “No one, so -to speak, cares a straw how you or any other Athenian -is brought up.”<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_148" id="fnanchor_148"></a><a href="#footnote_148" class="fnanchor">[148]</a></span> -</p> - -<p>The schoolmasters opened their schools as private -enterprises, fixing for themselves the fees and the subjects -taught. The parents chose what they thought -a suitable school, according to their means and the -subjects which they wished their sons to learn. Thus -Sokrates says to his eldest son, Lamprokles,<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_149" id="fnanchor_149"></a><a href="#footnote_149" class="fnanchor">[149]</a></span> - “When -<a name="Page_59" id="Page_59"></a><span class="pageno">59</span> -boys seem old enough to learn anything, their parents -teach them whatever they themselves know that is -likely to be useful to them; subjects which they think -others better qualified to teach they send them to -school to learn, spending money upon this object.” -This suggests that the poor may frequently have passed -on their own knowledge of letters to their sons without -the expense of a school. But all this was a private -transaction between parent and teacher. The State -interfered with the matter only so far as to impose -certain moral regulations on the schools and the -gymnasia, to fix the hours of opening and closing, and -so forth, and to suggest that every boy should be -taught his letters.</p> - -<p>The teaching of the elementary stages of Letters, -that is, the three R’s, was, as will be shown later on, -cheaply obtained, and was within the reach of the -poorest. Music and athletics would naturally be more -expensive, for they required much greater study and -talents upon the part of their teachers. The State -did take some steps to make these branches of education -cheaper, and so throw them open to a larger number.</p> - -<p>Gymnasia and palaistrai were built at public expense,<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_150" id="fnanchor_150"></a><a href="#footnote_150" class="fnanchor">[150]</a></span> -that any one might go and exercise himself without -charge. These buildings were also open to spectators, -so that any one could acquire at any rate a rudimentary -knowledge of boxing, wrestling, and the other branches -of athletics, by watching his more proficient fellow-citizens -practising them. The epheboi received instruction -in athletic exercises at the cost of the State. But -the children, so far as they received physical training -in schools, must have received it in private palaistrai; -their lessons are described as taking place “in the -<a name="Page_60" id="Page_60"></a><span class="pageno">60</span> -house of the paidotribes,” <ins title="en paidotribou">ἐν παιδοτρίβου</ins>—an idiom -which always implies ownership or special rights; and -the majority of palaistrai were private buildings, called -by their owners’ names. Thus we hear of the palaistrai -of Siburtios, of Taureas,<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_151" id="fnanchor_151"></a><a href="#footnote_151" class="fnanchor">[151]</a></span> -and so forth: Siburtios and -Taureas were no doubt the paidotribai who taught -there. In a later age, when the boys of different -palaistrai ran torch races against one another, the -palaistra of Timeas is victorious on two occasions, that -of Antigenes once.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_152" id="fnanchor_152"></a><a href="#footnote_152" class="fnanchor">[152]</a></span> -</p> - -<p>By the system of leitourgiai rich citizens were made -chargeable for the expenses of the epheboi of their tribe -who were training for the torch races. These races -seem to have been the only branch of athletics which -was thus endowed; however, they were numerous, even -in the smaller country districts, so that many epheboi -must have profited by this free training.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_153" id="fnanchor_153"></a><a href="#footnote_153" class="fnanchor">[153]</a></span> - “Leitourgiai” -also provided free instruction in chorus-dancing (which -included singing as well as dancing) for such boys as -were selected for competition. The rich “choregos” -appointed for the year had to produce a chorus of boys -belonging to his tribe for some festival, paying all the -expenses of teaching and training them himself.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_154" id="fnanchor_154"></a><a href="#footnote_154" class="fnanchor">[154]</a></span> -It -is to this free school that the Solonic law refers when -it mentions the “joint attendance of the boys and the -dithyrambic choruses”; for it goes on to state that -the ordinance with regard to this matter was that the -“choregos” should be over forty.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_155" id="fnanchor_155"></a><a href="#footnote_155" class="fnanchor">[155]</a></span> -In Demosthenes,<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_156" id="fnanchor_156"></a><a href="#footnote_156" class="fnanchor">[156]</a></span> -a certain Mantitheos, who had not been acknowledged -by his father at the usual time, “attended school among -<a name="Page_61" id="Page_61"></a><span class="pageno">61</span> -the boys of the Hippothontid tribe to learn chorus-dancing”: -had he been acknowledged, he would have -gone to the Acamantid, his father’s tribe. No doubt, -if the choregos was keen about gaining a victory, he -would give a trial to more than the fifty boys required -for a dithyrambic contest. In any case, provided that -all the tribes competed, this one contest (and there -were several in the course of a year) gave a free -education to 500 boys. Xenophon notices that it -was the “demos,” the poor majority, who mainly got -the advantage of free training under gumnasiarchoi -and choregoi:<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_157" id="fnanchor_157"></a><a href="#footnote_157" class="fnanchor">[157]</a></span> -the rich naturally preferred to send -their boys to more select schools.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_158" id="fnanchor_158"></a><a href="#footnote_158" class="fnanchor">[158]</a></span> -</p> - -<p>Thus the more elementary stages of letters alone -were compulsory at Athens, but music and gymnastics -were almost universally taught, and the cost of instruction -in these subjects was reduced in various ways by -State action: the greater part might be learned for -nothing. But parents needed little compulsion or -encouragement to get their children taught. So much -did the Hellenes regard education as a necessity for -their boys, that when the Athenians were driven from -their homes by Xerxes, and their women and children -crossed over to Troizen, the hospitable Troizenians -provided their guests with schoolmasters, so that not -even in such a crisis might the boys be forced to take -a holiday.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_159" id="fnanchor_159"></a><a href="#footnote_159" class="fnanchor">[159]</a></span> -And when Mitulene wished to punish her -<a name="Page_62" id="Page_62"></a><span class="pageno">62</span> -revolted allies in the most severe way possible, she -prevented them from teaching their children letters -and music.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_160" id="fnanchor_160"></a><a href="#footnote_160" class="fnanchor">[160]</a></span> -</p> - -<p>Of State action with regard to education in Hellas -elsewhere than in Sparta, Crete, and Athens, little is -known. But the Chalcidian cities in Sicily and Italy -are said to have provided literary education at public -expense and under public supervision.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_161" id="fnanchor_161"></a><a href="#footnote_161" class="fnanchor">[161]</a></span> -The law enacting -this is ascribed to the great lawgiver, Charondas, -and, although he is a somewhat shadowy figure,<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_162" id="fnanchor_162"></a><a href="#footnote_162" class="fnanchor">[162]</a></span> -there -must have been some foundation for the story, at -any rate at a later date. During the Macedonian -period kings and other rich men often bequeathed large -sums of money to their favourite cities, in order to -endow the educational system. We hear of this -happening in Teos and at Delphi: in these places -the parents, if they paid any fees at all, cannot have -paid much. But there is no authority for any such -endowments during the period which we are considering.</p> - -<p class="center">* * * * *</p> - -<p>But if education was neither enforced nor assisted -to any considerable degree by the State, it was certainly -encouraged by the prizes which were offered. Every -city, and probably most villages, had local competitions -annually, and in many cases more frequently -still, in which some of the “events” were reserved for -citizens, while others were open to all comers. There -were separate prizes for different ages; the ordinary -division was into boys and grown men, an intermediate -class of “the beardless” being sometimes added. But -in some Attic inscriptions the boys are divided into -<a name="Page_63" id="Page_63"></a><span class="pageno">63</span> -three groups, and in Chios the epheboi were so -distributed.</p> - -<p>These competitions were no doubt largely athletic. -But music was usually provided for as well, and in -many places there were literary competitions also. At -Athens the different <ins title="phratriai">φρατρίαι</ins> seem to have offered -prizes annually on the Koureotis day of the Apatouria -to the boys who recited best, the piece for recitation -being chosen by each competitor. Kritias took part in -the competition when ten years old.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_163" id="fnanchor_163"></a><a href="#footnote_163" class="fnanchor">[163]</a></span> -From Teos we -have a list of prizemen, belonging, it is true, to a later -date; but it may be quoted, to give some idea of what -the subjects might be.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_164" id="fnanchor_164"></a><a href="#footnote_164" class="fnanchor">[164]</a></span></p> - -<table summary="" class="small "> -<tr><td class="center"><span class="decoration">Senior Class</span> (<span class="decoration">by age</span>).</td></tr> -<tr><td class="left">For rhapsody, Zoïlos, son of Zoïlos.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="left">For reading, Zoïlos, son of Zoïlos.</td></tr> - -<tr><td class="center"><span class="decoration"><br />Middle Class.</span></td></tr> -<tr><td class="left">For rhapsody, Metrodoros, son of Attalos.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="left">For reading, Dionusikles, son of Metrodoros.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="left">For general knowledge, Athenaios, son of Apollodoros.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="left">For painting, Dionusios, son of Dionusios.</td></tr> - -<tr><td class="center"><span class="decoration"><br />Junior Class.</span></td></tr> -<tr><td class="left">For rhapsody, Herakles.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="left">For reading.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="left">For caligraphy.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="left">For torch race.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="left">For playing lyre with fingers.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="left">For playing lyre with plektron.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="left">For singing to lyre.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="left">For reciting tragic verse (tragedy).</td></tr> -<tr><td class="left">For reciting comedy.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="left">For reciting lyric verse.</td></tr> -</table> - -<p>From Chios we have the following<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_165" id="fnanchor_165"></a><a href="#footnote_165" class="fnanchor">[165]</a>:—</span></p> - -<p class="blockquote">When Hermesileos, Dinos, and Nikias were gumnasiarchoi, -the following boys and epheboi were victorious in the competitions -and offered libations to the Muses and Herakles from -the sums which were given to them in accordance with the -decree of the people, when Lusias was taster of the offerings:—</p> -<a name="Page_64" id="Page_64"></a><span class="pageno">64</span> - -<table summary="" class="small"> -<colgroup> - <col span="1" style="width: 10em;" /> - <col span="1" style="width: 10em;" /> -</colgroup> - -<tr><td class="left" colspan="2">For reading, Agathokles.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="left" colspan="2">For rhapsody, Miltiades.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="left" colspan="2">For playing lyre with fingers, Xenon.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="left" colspan="2">For playing lyre, Kleoites.</td></tr> - -<tr><td class="center" colspan="2"><span class="decoration">Long Distance Race</span> (varied from<br />2¼ miles to about ¾ mile).</td></tr> -<tr><td class="left">Boys</td> - <td class="left">Asklepiades.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="left">Junior epheboi</td> - <td class="left">Dionusios.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="left">Middle  ”</td> - <td class="left">Timokles.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="left">Senior   ”</td> - <td class="left">Moschion.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="left">Men   ”</td> - <td class="left">Aischrion.</td></tr> - -<tr><td class="center" colspan="2"><span class="decoration"><br />Stadion</span> (200 yards).</td></tr> -<tr><td class="left">Boys</td> - <td class="left"><span class="person">Athenikon</span>.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="left">Junior epheboi</td> - <td class="left">Hestiaios.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="left">Middle  ”</td> - <td class="left"><span class="person">Apollonios</span>.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="left">Senior   ”</td> - <td class="left">Artemon.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="left">Men   ”</td> - <td class="left">Metrodoros.</td></tr> - -<tr><td class="center" colspan="2"><span class="decoration"><br />Diaulos</span> (400 yards).</td></tr> - -<tr><td class="left">Boys</td> - <td class="left"><span class="person">Athenikon</span>.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="left">Junior epheboi</td> - <td class="left">Hubristos.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="left">Middle  ”</td> - <td class="left">Melantes.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="left">Senior   ”</td> - <td class="left"><span class="person">Apollonios</span>.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="left">Men   ”</td> - <td class="left">Menis.</td></tr> - -<tr><td></td> - <td class="lefthang">(Apollonios seems to have been so -good that, though a middle ephebos, -he competed in and won the -senior ephebos’ race here, unless -there were two boys of the same -name.)</td></tr> - -<tr><td class="center" colspan="2"><span class="decoration"><br />Wrestling.</span></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="left">Boys</td> - <td class="left"><span class="person">Athenikon</span>.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="left">Junior epheboi</td> - <td class="left">Demetrios.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="left">Middle  ”</td> - <td class="left">Moschos.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="left">Senior   ”</td> - <td class="left">Theodotos.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="left">Men   ”</td> - <td class="left">Apellas.</td></tr> - -<tr><td class="center" colspan="2"><span class="decoration"><br />Boxing.</span></td></tr> -<tr><td class="left">Boys</td> - <td class="left">Herakleides.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="center" colspan="2">(The rest is wanting.)</td></tr> - -<tr><td class="lefthang" colspan="2">(Notice the three victories of the boy Athenikon.)</td></tr> -</table> - -<p>At Thespiai in Boiotia<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_166" id="fnanchor_166"></a><a href="#footnote_166" class="fnanchor">[166]</a></span> -there were prizes for senior -and junior boys in the various races, and in boxing, -wrestling, pankration, and pentathlon, besides open -prizes for poetry and music of all kinds. Attic inscriptions -arrange the events thus<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_167" id="fnanchor_167"></a><a href="#footnote_167" class="fnanchor">[167]</a></span>:—</p> - -<table summary="" class="small together"> -<tr><td class="center" colspan="2"><span class="decoration">Stadion.</span></td></tr> -<tr><td class="left">Junior</td> - <td class="left">Boys.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="left">Middle</td> - <td class="left">Boys.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="left">Senior</td> - <td class="left">Boys.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="left">Boys</td> - <td class="left">Open.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="center" colspan="2">Men.</td></tr> -</table> - -<table summary="" class="small together"> -<tr><td class="center" colspan="2"><span class="decoration">Diaulos.</span></td></tr> -<tr><td class="left">Junior</td> - <td class="left">Boys.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="left">Middle</td> - <td class="left">Boys.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="left">Senior</td> - <td class="left">Boys.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="left">Boys </td> - <td class="left">Open.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="center" colspan="2">Men.</td></tr> -</table> - -<table summary="" class="small together"> -<tr><td class="center" colspan="2"><span class="decoration">Fighting in Heavy Arms.</span></td></tr> -<tr><td class="left">Junior</td> - <td class="left">Boys.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="left">Middle</td> - <td class="left">Boys.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="left">Senior</td> - <td class="left">Boys.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="left">Epheboi.</td></tr> -</table> - -<a name="Page_65" id="Page_65"></a><span class="pageno">65</span> -<p>The Olympian and Pythian festivals, however, had -only a single series of contests for <span class="lock">boys:—</span></p> - -<table summary="" class="small together"> -<tr><td></td> - <td class="center"><span class="decoration">Olympia.</span></td></tr> -<tr><td class="right">Boys.</td> - <td class="left">Stadion (<abbr title="Pindar Olympian 14">Pind. <cite>Ol.</cite> xiv.</abbr>).</td></tr> -<tr><td></td><td class="left">Boxing (<abbr title="Pindar Olympian 10, 11">Pind. <cite>Ol.</cite> x., xi.</abbr>).</td></tr> -<tr><td></td><td class="left">Wrestling (<abbr title="Pindar Olympian 8">Pind. <cite>Ol.</cite> viii.</abbr>).</td></tr> -<tr><td class="right">(only in 628 <span class="sc">B.C.</span>)</td> - <td class="left">Pentathlon.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="right">(not till 200 <span class="sc">B.C.</span>)</td> - <td class="left">Pankration.</td></tr> -</table> - -<table summary="" class="small together"> -<tr><td></td> - <td class="center"><span class="decoration">Pythia.</span></td></tr> -<tr><td class="right">Boys.</td> - <td class="left">Long Distance Race.</td></tr> -<tr><td></td><td class="left">Diaulos (400 yards) (<abbr title="Pindar Pythian 10">Pind. <cite>Puth.</cite> x.</abbr>).</td></tr> -<tr><td></td><td class="left">Stadion (200 yards) (<abbr title="Pindar Pythian 11">Pind. <cite>Puth.</cite> xi.</abbr>).</td></tr> -<tr><td></td><td class="left">Boxing.</td></tr> -<tr><td></td><td class="left">Wrestling (Bacchul. <abbr title="11">xi.</abbr>).</td></tr> -<tr><td></td><td class="left">Pankration (not till 346 <span class="sc">B.C.</span>).</td></tr> -</table> - -<p class="unindent">But at Nemea both -pentathlon<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_168" id="fnanchor_168"></a><a href="#footnote_168" class="fnanchor">[168]</a></span> -and pankration<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_169" id="fnanchor_169"></a><a href="#footnote_169" class="fnanchor">[169]</a></span> -for -boys had already been established by Pindar’s time, as -well as the more usual contests.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_170" id="fnanchor_170"></a><a href="#footnote_170" class="fnanchor">[170]</a></span> -</p> - -<p>How far individual schoolmasters, as distinct from -the State, gave prizes to their pupils, is little known; -an epigram in the <cite>Anthology</cite> supplies the only evidence, -by narrating that “Konnaros received eighty knucklebones -because he wrote beautifully, better than the -other boys.”<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_171" id="fnanchor_171"></a><a href="#footnote_171" class="fnanchor">[171]</a></span> -But probably as a general rule the task -of rewarding merit was left to the public contests.</p> - -<p class="center">* * * * *</p> - -<p>Thus the State did much to encourage, if it did -little to assist or enforce, education. With such -splendid rewards before them, boys were probably -quite eager to attend school, or at any rate the palaistra. -As soon as they were old enough to go to school,<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_172" id="fnanchor_172"></a><a href="#footnote_172" class="fnanchor">[172]</a></span> -they -<a name="Page_66" id="Page_66"></a><span class="pageno">66</span> -were entrusted to an elderly slave,<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_173" id="fnanchor_173"></a><a href="#footnote_173" class="fnanchor">[173]</a></span> -who had to follow -his master’s boys about wherever they went and never -let them go out of his sight.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_174" id="fnanchor_174"></a><a href="#footnote_174" class="fnanchor">[174]</a></span> -This was the paidagogos—a -mixture of nurse, footman, chaperon, and tutor—who -is so prominent a figure on the vases and in the -literature of classical Hellas. There was only one for -the family, so that all the boys had to go about together -and to attend the same schools and the same palaistrai -at the same time.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_175" id="fnanchor_175"></a><a href="#footnote_175" class="fnanchor">[175]</a></span> -He waited on them in the house, -carried their books or lyres to school, sat and watched -them in the schoolroom, and kept a strict eye upon -their manners and morality in the streets and the -gymnasia. Thus, for instance, in Plato, Lusis and -Menexenos have their paidagogoi in attendance at the -palaistra, who come and force them away from the -absorbing conversation of Sokrates, when it is time for -them to go home.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_176" id="fnanchor_176"></a><a href="#footnote_176" class="fnanchor">[176]</a></span> -On a vase these attendants may -be seen sitting on stools behind their charges, in the -schools of letters and music, with long and suggestive -canes in their hands.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_177" id="fnanchor_177"></a><a href="#footnote_177" class="fnanchor">[177]</a></span> -A careful parent would, of -course, see that a slave who was to occupy so responsible -a position was worthy of it: but great carelessness -seems often to have been shown in this matter. The -paidagogoi of Lusis and Menexenos, boys of rank and -position, had a bad accent, and on a festival day, it is -true, were slightly intoxicated.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_178" id="fnanchor_178"></a><a href="#footnote_178" class="fnanchor">[178]</a></span> -Plutarch notices that -<a name="Page_67" id="Page_67"></a><span class="pageno">67</span> -in his time parents often selected for this office slaves -who were of no use for any other purpose.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_179" id="fnanchor_179"></a><a href="#footnote_179" class="fnanchor">[179]</a></span> -Xenophon, -feeling the demerits of the Athenian custom, commends -the Spartans, who entrust the boys not to slaves, but -to public officials of the highest rank.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_180" id="fnanchor_180"></a><a href="#footnote_180" class="fnanchor">[180]</a></span> -But in well-regulated -households the paidagogos was often a most -worthy and valuable servant. Sikinnos, who attended -the children of Themistokles in this capacity, was -entrusted by his master with the famous message to -Xerxes, which brought on the battle of Salamis; he -was afterwards rewarded with his freedom, the citizenship -of Thespiai, and a substantial sum of money.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_181" id="fnanchor_181"></a><a href="#footnote_181" class="fnanchor">[181]</a></span> -The custom of employing these male-nurses dated back -to early times at Athens: for Solon made regulations -about them.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_182" id="fnanchor_182"></a><a href="#footnote_182" class="fnanchor">[182]</a></span> -</p> - -<p>Boys were entrusted to paidagogoi as soon as they -went to school at six. This tutelage might last till -the boy was eighteen<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_183" id="fnanchor_183"></a><a href="#footnote_183" class="fnanchor">[183]</a></span> -and came of age; but more -frequently it stopped earlier. Xenophon,<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_184" id="fnanchor_184"></a><a href="#footnote_184" class="fnanchor">[184]</a></span> -in his wish -to disparage everything not Spartan, declares that in -all other States the boys were set free from paidagogoi -and schoolmasters as soon as they became <ins title="meirakia">μειράκια</ins>, -<span class="decoration">i.e.</span> at about fourteen or fifteen. The conjunction of -schoolmasters suggests the explanation of the variations -in age. When an elder brother ceased to attend -school, and his younger brothers were still pursuing -their studies, there being only one paidagogos, he had -to be left unattended. But in cases where there was -only one son, or where the eldest of several stayed on -<a name="Page_68" id="Page_68"></a><span class="pageno">68</span> -at school until he came of age, he would have the -paidagogos to attend him until he was his own master.</p> - -<p>The life of such an attendant must have been an -anxious one in many cases. Plato compares his relations -towards his charges with the relations of an -invalid towards his health: “He has to follow the -disease wherever it leads, being unable to cure it, and -he spends his life in perpetual anxiety with no time for -anything else.”<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_185" id="fnanchor_185"></a><a href="#footnote_185" class="fnanchor">[185]</a></span> -With unruly boys of different ages, -and consequently of different tastes and desires, the -slave must have been often in a difficult position. -He had, however, the right of inflicting corporal -punishment.</p> - -<p>The chief object of the paidagogos was to safeguard -the morals of his charges. Boys were expected to be -as modest and quiet in their whole behaviour, and as -carefully chaperoned, as young girls. Parents told -the schoolmasters to bestow much more attention upon -the boy’s behaviour than upon his letters and music.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_186" id="fnanchor_186"></a><a href="#footnote_186" class="fnanchor">[186]</a></span> -This attitude was characteristic of Athens from -the first. The school laws of Solon, as quoted by -Aischines, deal wholly with morality. He gives the -following account of them<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_187" id="fnanchor_187"></a><a href="#footnote_187" class="fnanchor">[187]</a>:—</span></p> - -<p class="blockquote">“The old lawgivers stated expressly what sort of -life the free boy ought to lead and how he ought to -be brought up; they also dealt with the manners of -lads and men of other ages.” “In the case of the -schoolmasters, to whom we are compelled to entrust -our children, although their livelihood depends upon -their good character, and bad behaviour is ruinous to -them, yet the lawgiver obviously distrusts them. For -he expressly states, first, the hour at which the free -<a name="Page_69" id="Page_69"></a><span class="pageno">69</span> -boy ought to go to school; secondly, how many other -boys are to be present in the school; and then at what -hour he is to leave. He forbids the schoolmasters to -open their schools and the paidotribai their palaistrai -before sunrise, and orders them to close before sunset, -being very suspicious of the empty streets and of the -darkness. Then he dealt with the boys who attended -schools, as to who they should be and of what ages; -and with the official who is to oversee these matters. -He dealt too with the regulation of the paidagogoi, and -with the festival of the Muses in the schools and of -Hermes in the palaistrai. Finally, he laid down -regulations about the joint attendance of the boys and -the round of dithyrambic dances; for he directed that -the Choregos should be over forty.”</p> - -<p class="blockquote">“No one over the age of boyhood might enter -while the boys were in school, except the son, brother, -or son-in-law of the master: the penalty of infringing -this regulation was death. At the festival of Hermes -the person in charge of the gymnasium<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_188" id="fnanchor_188"></a><a href="#footnote_188" class="fnanchor">[188]</a></span> -was not to -allow any one over age to accompany the boys in any -way: unless he excluded such persons from the -gymnasium, he was to come under the law of corrupting -free boys.”</p> - -<p>It will be noticed that these regulations are entirely -concerned with morality: they safeguard an existing -system. They prescribe neither the methods nor the -subjects of education; for with such matters the -Athenian government did not interfere. But over -the question of morals it becomes unexpectedly -tyrannous, and makes the most minute regulations -worthy of the strictest bureaucracy. It interfered on -<a name="Page_70" id="Page_70"></a><span class="pageno">70</span> -this point in other ways also. The solemn council on -the Areiopagos had a special supervision over the -young, from Solon’s time onward; this was partially -taken away from it by Ephialtes and Perikles, but -the <cite>Axiochos</cite> shows that, though in abeyance, it continued -to exist; in the middle of the fourth century, -however, Isokrates laments that it had fallen into disuse.</p> - -<p>The <cite>Axiochos</cite> also states that the ten Sophronistai, -elected to guard the morals of the epheboi, exercised -control over lads also. These officials probably took -their rise in the days of Solon: the regulation that -they must be over forty harmonises with the other -enactments of those days; and, although they died out -at the end of the fourth century, they were revived under -the Roman Empire. Now it is most unlikely that -the archaistic legislators of imperial times would have -revived an office which had only existed during the -closing decades of the fourth century. Solon is known -to have appointed a magistracy specially to deal with -the children;<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_189" id="fnanchor_189"></a><a href="#footnote_189" class="fnanchor">[189]</a></span> -and, if these magistrates were not the -Sophronistai, all trace of his creation has been lost, -which is most unlikely to have happened. So the -Sophronistai probably date from early times. Their -duty was a general supervision of the morals of the -young; their chief function would be to prosecute, -on behalf of the State, parents and schoolmasters -who infringed Solon’s moral regulations. But such -prosecutions would usually be undertaken by private -individuals concerned in the case, and so this magistracy -tended to become a sinecure. It may even have ceased -to exist after the fall of the Areiopagos. But it -seems to have revived under the restored democracy -<!--Blank Page--> -<a name="Page_71" id="Page_71"></a><span class="pageno">71</span> -for a while (if the <cite>Axiochos</cite> belongs to Aischines the -Sokratic), to sink again in the middle of the century. -At the close of the century it revives once more with -the changes in the ephebic system, and finally perishes -when the epheboi became too few to need ten officers to -supervise their morals. An account of the Sophronistai -of this later period will be given in connection with the -epheboi.</p> - -<div class="figcenter together" style="width: 500px"> -<p class="captionleft">PLATE <abbr title="Two">II.</abbr></p> - <a name="i02" id="i02"></a> - <img src="images/2.jpg" - width="500" height="263" - alt="Illustration: Flute Lesson, Boy's Turn'" - /> - <p class="caption">THE FLUTE LESSON—THE BOY’S TURN<br /> -<cite lang="de" xml:lang="de">Wiener Vorlegeblätter</cite>, Series C, Plate 4.<br /> -From a Kulix by Hieron, now at Vienna.</p> -</div><!--end illustration--> - -<p>The strategoi<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_190" id="fnanchor_190"></a><a href="#footnote_190" class="fnanchor">[190]</a></span> -exercised a superintendence over the -epheboi during their two years’ training as recruits, as -would naturally be expected. Late in the fourth century -they appear also to have been connected with the local -schools in Attica; an inscription at Eleusis, which -Girard assigns to 320 <span class="sc">B.C.</span>, thanks the strategos -Derkulos for the diligence which he had shown in -supervising the education of the children there.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_191" id="fnanchor_191"></a><a href="#footnote_191" class="fnanchor">[191]</a></span> -Whether they exercised such functions in the days -when their military duties were more important, is -more than doubtful. But any Athenian magistrate -could interest himself in the schools, no doubt, and -intervene to check abuses.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_192" id="fnanchor_192"></a><a href="#footnote_192" class="fnanchor">[192]</a></span> -</p> - -<p class="center">* * * * *</p> - -<p>In the period of juvenile emancipation and increasing -luxury and indulgence for children which marked -the closing decades of the fifth century, it became -customary for conservative thinkers to look back with -longing, and no doubt idealising, eyes to the “good -old times.” The sixth and early fifth centuries came, -probably unjustly, to be regarded as the ideal age of -education, when children learned obedience and morality, -and were not pampered and depraved; when they were -<a name="Page_72" id="Page_72"></a><span class="pageno">72</span> -beautiful and healthy, not pale-faced, stunted, and over-educated.</p> - -<p>Listen to Aristophanes,<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_193" id="fnanchor_193"></a><a href="#footnote_193" class="fnanchor">[193]</a></span> -yearning for “the good old -style of education, in the days when Justice still prevailed -over Rhetoric, and good morals were still in fashion. -Then children were seen and not heard; then the boys -of each hamlet and ward walked in orderly procession -along the roads on their way to the lyre-school,—no -overcoats, though it snowed cats and dogs. Then, -while they stood up square—no lounging—the master -taught them a fine old patriotic song like ‘Pallas, -city-sacker dread,’<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_194" id="fnanchor_194"></a><a href="#footnote_194" class="fnanchor">[194]</a></span> -or ‘A cry that echoes afar,’<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_195" id="fnanchor_195"></a><a href="#footnote_195" class="fnanchor">[195]</a></span> -set -to a good old-fashioned tune. If any one tried any -vulgar trills and twiddles and odes where the metre -varies, such as Phrunis and Co. use nowadays, he got -a tremendous thrashing for disrespect to the Muses.” -While being taught by the paidotribes, too, they -behaved modestly, and did not spend their time ogling -their admirers. “At meals children were not allowed -to grab up the dainties or giggle or cross their feet.” -“This was the education which produced the heroes -of Marathon.… This taught the boys to avoid the -Agora, keep away from the Baths, be ashamed at what -is disgraceful, be courteous to elders, honour their -parents, and be an impersonation of Modesty—instead -of running after ballet-girls. They passed their days -in the gymnasia, keeping their bodies in good condition, -not mouthing quibbles in the Agora. Each spent his -time with some well-mannered lad of his own age, -running races in the Akademeia under the sacred olives, -amid a fragrance of smilax and leisure and white -poplar, rejoicing in the springtide when plane-tree and -<a name="Page_73" id="Page_73"></a><span class="pageno">73</span> -elm whisper together.” All the voices of generations -of boys, bound down to indoor studies when wood and -field and river are calling them, the complaint of ages -of fevered hurry and bustle, looking back with regret on -the days of “leisure” and “springtide,” seem to echo in -Aristophanes’ lament for the ways that were no more.</p> - -<p>“This education,” he goes on, “produced a good -chest, sound complexion, broad shoulders, small tongue; -the new style produces pale faces, small shoulders, -narrow chest, and long tongue, and makes the boy -confuse Honour with Dishonour: it fills the Baths, -empties the Palaistra.”</p> - -<p>The next witness to be called is Isokrates. He is -somewhat prejudiced by his dream of restoring the -Areiopagos to its old power, but he is an educational -expert and his evidence is supported by that of many -others. In the days when the Areiopagos had the -superintendence of morals, he says,<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_196" id="fnanchor_196"></a><a href="#footnote_196" class="fnanchor">[196]</a></span> -“the young did -not spend their time in the gambling dens, and with -flute-girls and company of that sort, as they do now, -but they remained true to the manner of life which was -laid down for them.… They avoided the Agora -so much, that, if ever they were compelled to pass -through it, they did so with obvious modesty and self-control. -To contradict or insult an elder was at that -time considered a worse offence than ill-treatment of -parents is considered now. To eat or drink in a tavern -was a thing that not even a self-respecting servant -would think of doing then; for they practised good -manners, not vulgarity.”</p> - -<p>Call Plato next.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_197" id="fnanchor_197"></a><a href="#footnote_197" class="fnanchor">[197]</a></span> -“In a democratic state the schoolmaster -is afraid of his pupils and flatters them, and the -pupils despise both schoolmaster and paidagogos. The -<a name="Page_74" id="Page_74"></a><span class="pageno">74</span> -young expect the same treatment as the old, and contradict -them and quarrel with them. In fact, seniors -have to flatter their juniors, in order not to be thought -morose old dotards.”</p> - -<p>The counts of the indictment are luxury, bad -manners, contempt for authority, disrespect to elders, -and a love for chatter in place of exercise. The old -regime had strictly forbidden luxury. Warm baths -had been regarded as unmanly, and were even coupled -with drunkenness by Hermippos.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_198" id="fnanchor_198"></a><a href="#footnote_198" class="fnanchor">[198]</a></span> -The boys had only -worn a single garment, the sleeveless chiton, a custom -which survived till late times in Sparta and Crete; but -at Athens they began to wear the <ins title="himation">ἱμάτιον</ins> or overcoat as -well. Xenophon, blaming parents “in the rest of -Hellas” (<span class="decoration">i.e.</span> elsewhere than in Sparta), says: “They -make their boy’s feet soft by giving him shoes, and -pamper his body with changes of clothes; they also -allow him as much food as his stomach can contain.”<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_199" id="fnanchor_199"></a><a href="#footnote_199" class="fnanchor">[199]</a></span> -Children began to be the tyrants, not the slaves, of -their households. They no longer rose from their -seats when an elder entered the room; they contradicted -their parents, chattered before company, gobbled -up the dainties at table, and committed various offences -against Hellenic tastes, such as crossing their legs. -They tyrannised over the paidagogoi and schoolmasters. -Alkibiades even smacked a literature-master. A similar -change came over the position of children in England -during the latter half of the nineteenth century. If -Maria Edgeworth could have met a modern child, she -would have uttered quite Aristophanic diatribes against -the decay of good manners.</p> - -<p>With this change went a more serious matter, a -change of tone. Whether the old days were as moral -<a name="Page_75" id="Page_75"></a><span class="pageno">75</span> -as the conservatives supposed, may be doubted; but -the atmosphere of Periclean and Socratic Athens, as -represented by all its literary lights, was certainly most -unsuitable for the young. Perhaps general morality -was no worse, but the immorality was no longer concealed -from the children. The old laws which had -excluded unsuitable company from the schools and -palaistrai were neglected, and these educational buildings -became the resort of all the fashionable loungers -of Athens.</p> - -<p>The preference given to conversation over exercise -was a feature of the age. In part, it was a preference -for intellectual as against purely physical education. -The free discussion with children of ethical subjects -probably ceased with the death of Sokrates; this can -hardly be regretted, if Plato’s evidence as to the nature -of Socratic dialogues is to be believed. From the -importance which Plato gives to gymnastics as a -corrective to exclusive <ins title="mousikê">μουσική</ins> even in the education of -his highly intellectual Philosopher-Kings, we may suspect -that the revolt against excessive athletics at Athens, of -which Euripides had been the leader, had gone too far, -and that a reaction was needed. Certainly the Athenians -do not distinguish themselves for pluck or energy in -the fourth century: in Platonic phrase, the temper -of their resolution had been melted away by their -exclusive devotion to intellectual and artistic pursuits.</p> - -<p>Let me close this subject, however, with a more -pleasing picture of that <ins title="aidôs">αἰδώς</ins> or modesty at which the -older education had aimed. It is taken from the midst -of that brilliant but corrupt Socratic Athens.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_200" id="fnanchor_200"></a><a href="#footnote_200" class="fnanchor">[200]</a></span> -Young -Autolukos had won the boys’ contest for the pankration -at the great Panathenaic festival. As a treat, -<a name="Page_76" id="Page_76"></a><span class="pageno">76</span> -Kallias, a friend of his father, had taken him to the -horse-races, and afterwards invited him out to dinner -with his father Lukon: such a dignity was rarely -accorded to an Athenian boy.</p> - -<p>The boy sits at table, while the grown men recline. -Some one asked him what he was most proud of—“Your -victory, I suppose?” He blushed and said, “No, I’m -not.” Every one was delighted to hear his voice, for -he had not said a word so far. “Of what then?” -some one asked. “Of my father,” replied the boy, -and cuddled up against him.</p> - -<p>These shy, blushing boys were a feature of the age. -The stricter parents, knowing the dangers which surrounded -their sons, tried to keep them entirely from -any knowledge or experience of the world.</p> - -<p class="center">* * * * *</p> - -<p>As far as can be discovered from the somewhat -fragmentary evidence, the Athenian type of education -was prevalent throughout the civilised Hellenic world, -with the exception of Crete and Lakedaimon, which -had systems of their own. Xenophon, in praising the -Spartan system and contrasting it with that which was -prevalent in neighbouring countries, ascribes to what he -calls “the rest of Hellas” educational customs and -arrangements exactly similar to those which are found -to have existed at Athens. His statement is borne -out by other evidence. Chios certainly had a School -of Letters before 494 <span class="sc">B.C.</span>; for a building of this -sort collapsed in that year, destroying all but one of -the 120 pupils.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_201" id="fnanchor_201"></a><a href="#footnote_201" class="fnanchor">[201]</a></span> -Boiotia, byword for stupidity, had -schools even in the smaller towns. A small place like -Mukalessos had more than one; for a detachment of -wild Thracian mercenaries in the pay of Athens fell -<a name="Page_77" id="Page_77"></a><span class="pageno">77</span> -upon the town at daybreak one morning during the -Peloponnesian War, and entering “the largest school -in the place,” killed all the boys.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_202" id="fnanchor_202"></a><a href="#footnote_202" class="fnanchor">[202]</a></span> -Arkadia had an -equally bad reputation; yet, according to Polubios,<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_203" id="fnanchor_203"></a><a href="#footnote_203" class="fnanchor">[203]</a></span> -in -every Arcadian town the boys were compelled by law -to learn to sing. Troizen must have had schools in -480, when she provided them for her Athenian guests. -Aelian vouches for schools in Lesbos,<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_204" id="fnanchor_204"></a><a href="#footnote_204" class="fnanchor">[204]</a></span> -Pausanias<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_205" id="fnanchor_205"></a><a href="#footnote_205" class="fnanchor">[205]</a></span> -for a -school of sixty boys in Astupalaia in 496 <span class="sc">B.C.</span> The -poet Sophocles dined with a master of letters whose -school was either in Eretria or Eruthrai.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_206" id="fnanchor_206"></a><a href="#footnote_206" class="fnanchor">[206]</a></span> -The -inscriptions show that before the third century there -were flourishing schools in most of the islands.</p> - -<p>Gymnastic education must have gone on in every -Hellenic city, for the athletic victors at the great games -come from every part. Musical training too was -required for the dancing and singing which were -universal throughout Hellas; but how far the lyre was -taught must remain doubtful. In Boiotia the flute -replaced the lyre in the schools. But it may be taken -for granted that letters, some sort of music, and gymnastics -were taught in every part of civilised Hellas, -with the possible exception that letters may not have -been taught at Sparta.</p> - -<p>Secondary Education, as long as it was supplied by -the Sophists, reached every village in the Hellenic -world; later, it had a tendency to be confined to the -large towns. The Tertiary system of military training -and special gymnastics for the epheboi would seem, from -the scanty evidence of the inscriptions, to have been -well-nigh universal.</p> - -<p>I will now proceed to give a more detailed account -<a name="Page_78" id="Page_78"></a><span class="pageno">78</span> -of the several branches of this widespread educational -system. As the evidence comes almost entirely from -Athens, my description will deal in the main with -Athenian education; but, as the same type prevailed -throughout the greater part of Hellas, the description -may be taken as applying to the other cities also.</p> - -<p class="p2 footnote"> <a name="footnote_98" id="footnote_98"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_98"><span class="muchsmaller">[98]</span></a> -<abbr title="Herodotos">Herod.</abbr> <abbr title="two">ii.</abbr> 167. Corinth was an exception.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_99" id="footnote_99"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_99"><span class="muchsmaller">[99]</span></a> -Plato, <cite>Laws</cite>, 846 <span class="sc lowercase">D</span>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_100" id="footnote_100"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_100"><span class="muchsmaller">[100]</span></a> -<abbr title="Aristotle">Arist.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="Politics">Pol.</abbr></cite> <abbr title="eight">viii.</abbr> 2. 4.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_101" id="footnote_101"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_101"><span class="muchsmaller">[101]</span></a> -<abbr title="Xenophon">Xen.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="Economics">Econ.</abbr></cite> <abbr title="four">iv.</abbr> 3. Sitting was regarded as a slavish attitude, since the free citizen -mostly stood or lay down. <abbr title="Xenophon">Xen.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="Economics">Econ.</abbr></cite> <abbr title="four">iv.</abbr> 3.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_102" id="footnote_102"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_102"><span class="muchsmaller">[102]</span></a> -Plato, <cite><abbr title="Protagoras">Protag.</abbr></cite> 328 <span class="sc lowercase">A</span>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_103" id="footnote_103"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_103"><span class="muchsmaller">[103]</span></a> -<abbr title="Xenophon">Xen.</abbr> <cite>Revenues</cite>, <abbr title="two">ii.</abbr> 2.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_104" id="footnote_104"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_104"><span class="muchsmaller">[104]</span></a> -Plato, <cite>Kleitophon</cite>, 409 <span class="sc lowercase">B</span>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_105" id="footnote_105"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_105"><span class="muchsmaller">[105]</span></a> -Plato, <cite><abbr title="Republic">Rep.</abbr></cite> 421 <span class="sc lowercase">E</span>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_106" id="footnote_106"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_106"><span class="muchsmaller">[106]</span></a> -Plato, <cite><abbr title="Gorgias">Gorg.</abbr></cite> 514 <span class="sc lowercase">B</span>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_107" id="footnote_107"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_107"><span class="muchsmaller">[107]</span></a> -Plato, <cite><abbr title="Republic">Rep.</abbr></cite> 467 <span class="sc lowercase">A</span>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_108" id="footnote_108"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_108"><span class="muchsmaller">[108]</span></a> -<abbr title="Aristophanes">Aristoph.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="Acharnians">Acharn.</abbr></cite> 1032.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_109" id="footnote_109"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_109"><span class="muchsmaller">[109]</span></a> -The fifth-century comic poet.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_110" id="footnote_110"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_110"><span class="muchsmaller">[110]</span></a> -Plutarch, <cite>Solon</cite>, 22.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_111" id="footnote_111"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_111"><span class="muchsmaller">[111]</span></a> -Plato, <cite>Laws</cite>, 643 <span class="sc lowercase">E</span>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_112" id="footnote_112"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_112"><span class="muchsmaller">[112]</span></a> -Except possibly in Chios and Lokris, and of course in Sparta.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_113" id="footnote_113"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_113"><span class="muchsmaller">[113]</span></a> -<abbr title="Thucidides">Thuc.</abbr> <abbr title="two">ii.</abbr> 45. 4.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_114" id="footnote_114"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_114"><span class="muchsmaller">[114]</span></a> -<abbr title="Xenophon">Xen.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="Economics">Econ.</abbr></cite> <abbr title="seven">vii.</abbr> 5.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_115" id="footnote_115"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_115"><span class="muchsmaller">[115]</span></a> -<abbr title="Xenophon">Xen.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="Memorabilia">Mem.</abbr></cite> <abbr title="two">ii.</abbr> 7.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_116" id="footnote_116"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_116"><span class="muchsmaller">[116]</span></a> -Plato, <cite><abbr title="Republic">Rep.</abbr></cite> 455 <span class="sc lowercase">C</span>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_117" id="footnote_117"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_117"><span class="muchsmaller">[117]</span></a> -Plato, <cite>Laws</cite>, 805 <span class="sc lowercase">E</span>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_118" id="footnote_118"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_118"><span class="muchsmaller">[118]</span></a> -As in Lusias, <cite><abbr title="against">ag.</abbr> Diogeiton</cite>, 32. 28.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_119" id="footnote_119"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_119"><span class="muchsmaller">[119]</span></a> -In the <cite><abbr title="Economics">Econ.</abbr></cite> <abbr title="seven">vii.</abbr> 10.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_120" id="footnote_120"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_120"><span class="muchsmaller">[120]</span></a> -Thus the <cite>Axiochos</cite> (366 <span class="sc lowercase">D</span>) puts seven years as the age at which grammatistai -and paidotribai began. Plato (<cite>Laws</cite>, 794) says six; Aristotle (<cite><abbr title="Politics">Pol.</abbr></cite> <abbr title="seven">vii.</abbr> 17) about -five; Xenophon (<cite><abbr title="Contitution of the Lacedaemonians">Constit. of Lak.</abbr></cite> ii.) “as soon as the children begin to understand.”</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_121" id="footnote_121"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_121"><span class="muchsmaller">[121]</span></a> -Aesop was popular then, as now. This is the <ins title="mousikê">μουσική</ins> anterior to <ins title="gymnastikê">γυμναστική</ins>, -so keenly criticised in the <cite>Republic</cite>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_122" id="footnote_122"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_122"><span class="muchsmaller">[122]</span></a> -Plato, <cite><abbr title="Protagoras">Protag.</abbr></cite> 325 <span class="sc lowercase">C-E</span>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_123" id="footnote_123"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_123"><span class="muchsmaller">[123]</span></a> -<abbr title="Xenophon">Xen.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="Memorabilia">Mem.</abbr></cite> <abbr title="two">ii.</abbr> 2. 6.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_124" id="footnote_124"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_124"><span class="muchsmaller">[124]</span></a> -Plato, <cite><abbr title="Protagoras">Protag.</abbr></cite> 326 <span class="sc lowercase">C</span>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_125" id="footnote_125"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_125"><span class="muchsmaller">[125]</span></a> -Aristotle, <cite><abbr title="Politics">Pol.</abbr></cite> <abbr title="seven">vii.</abbr> 17. 7.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_126" id="footnote_126"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_126"><span class="muchsmaller">[126]</span></a> -The three in this order in Plato, <cite><abbr title="Protagoras">Protag.</abbr></cite> 312 - <span class="sc lowercase">B</span>, 325-326; <cite><abbr title="Charmides">Charmid.</abbr></cite> 159 <span class="sc lowercase">C</span>; - <cite><abbr title="Kleitophon">Kleitoph.</abbr> </cite> 407 <span class="sc lowercase">C</span>; - <abbr title="Xenophon">Xen.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="Contitution of the Lacedaemonians">Constit. - of Lak.</abbr></cite> <abbr title="two">ii.</abbr> 1; <abbr title="Isokrates">Isok.</abbr> - <cite><abbr title="Antidemocracy">Antid.</abbr></cite> 267. The first two in this - order in <cite><abbr title="Charmides">Charmid.</abbr></cite> 160 - <span class="sc lowercase">A</span>; <cite>Lusis</cite>, 209 <span class="sc lowercase">B</span>; - inverted in <cite><abbr title="Euthydemus">Euthud.</abbr> </cite> 276 <span class="sc lowercase">A</span>. <abbr title="Aristotle">Aristot.</abbr> - (<cite><abbr title="Politics">Pol.</abbr></cite> <abbr title="eight">viii.</abbr> 3) - gives <ins title="grammata, gymnastikê, mousikê">γράμματα, γυμναστική, μουσική</ins>. - Plato in the <cite>Laws</cite> 810 <span class="sc lowercase">A</span> makes -<ins title="kitharistikê">κιθαριστική</ins> follow <ins title="grammatikê">γραμματική</ins>; - Aristophanes mentions the paidotribes just after - the <ins title="kitharistês">κιθαριστής</ins>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_127" id="footnote_127"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_127"><span class="muchsmaller">[127]</span></a> -<abbr title="Aristotle">Aristot.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="Politics">Pol.</abbr></cite> <abbr title="eight">viii.</abbr> 3. 1.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_128" id="footnote_128"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_128"><span class="muchsmaller">[128]</span></a> -<abbr title="Xenophon">Xen.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="Contitution of the Lacedaemonians">Constit. of Lak.</abbr></cite> <abbr title="two">ii.</abbr></p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_129" id="footnote_129"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_129"><span class="muchsmaller">[129]</span></a> -See <abbr title="Illustrations">Illustr.</abbr> <a href="#i01a">Plates <abbr title="One">I.</abbr> <span class="sc lowercase">A</span></a> and <a href="#i01b"><abbr title="One">I.</abbr> <span class="sc lowercase">B</span></a>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_130" id="footnote_130"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_130"><span class="muchsmaller">[130]</span></a> -Plato, <cite>Laws</cite>, 810 <span class="sc lowercase">A</span>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_131" id="footnote_131"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_131"><span class="muchsmaller">[131]</span></a> -Vase B 192.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_132" id="footnote_132"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_132"><span class="muchsmaller">[132]</span></a> -Vases E 171, 172; see <a href="#i03">Plates <abbr title="Three">III.</abbr></a> and <a href="#i04"><abbr title="Four">IV.</abbr></a></p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_133" id="footnote_133"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_133"><span class="muchsmaller">[133]</span></a> -<abbr title="Aristotle">Aristot.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="Politics">Pol.</abbr></cite> <abbr title="eight">viii.</abbr> 4. 9.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_134" id="footnote_134"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_134"><span class="muchsmaller">[134]</span></a> -<cite>Ibid.</cite> <abbr title="eight">viii.</abbr> 1. 2.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_135" id="footnote_135"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_135"><span class="muchsmaller">[135]</span></a> -[Plato] <cite>Rivals</cite>, 132 <span class="sc lowercase">A</span>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_136" id="footnote_136"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_136"><span class="muchsmaller">[136]</span></a> -Plato, <cite>Lusis</cite>, 206 <span class="sc lowercase">D</span>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_137" id="footnote_137"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_137"><span class="muchsmaller">[137]</span></a> -Plato, <cite>Laches</cite>, 179 <span class="sc lowercase">A</span>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_138" id="footnote_138"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_138"><span class="muchsmaller">[138]</span></a> -<abbr title="Xenophon">Xen.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="Contitution of the Lacedaemonians">Constit. of Lak.</abbr></cite> <abbr title="three">iii.</abbr></p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_139" id="footnote_139"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_139"><span class="muchsmaller">[139]</span></a> -Plato, <cite>Lusis</cite>, 214 <span class="sc lowercase">B</span>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_140" id="footnote_140"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_140"><span class="muchsmaller">[140]</span></a> -Rhetoric is, of course, banished from a Platonic state.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_141" id="footnote_141"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_141"><span class="muchsmaller">[141]</span></a> -[Plato] <cite>Axiochos</cite>, 366 <span class="sc lowercase">E</span>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_142" id="footnote_142"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_142"><span class="muchsmaller">[142]</span></a> -See Petit, <cite>Leges Atticae</cite>, <abbr title="two">ii.</abbr> 4, compiled with great ingenuity out of many authors. -Hence the proverbs <ins title="ho mête nein mête grammata epistamenos"> -ὁ μήτε νεῖν μήτε γράμματα ἐπιστάμενος</ins>, of utter dunce, and -<ins title="prôton kolymban deuteron de grammata"> -πρῶτον κολυμβᾶν δεύτερον δὲ γράμματα</ins>. The spelling-riddles of the tragedians -imply a whole nation interested in spelling.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_143" id="footnote_143"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_143"><span class="muchsmaller">[143]</span></a> -Plato, <cite>Kriton</cite>, 50 <span class="sc lowercase">D</span>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_144" id="footnote_144"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_144"><span class="muchsmaller">[144]</span></a> -Aristophanes, <cite>Knights</cite>, 189.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_145" id="footnote_145"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_145"><span class="muchsmaller">[145]</span></a> -<cite>Ibid.</cite> 1235-1239.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_146" id="footnote_146"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_146"><span class="muchsmaller">[146]</span></a> -<cite>Ibid.</cite> 987-996.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_147" id="footnote_147"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_147"><span class="muchsmaller">[147]</span></a> -[Plato] <cite>Theages</cite>, 122 <span class="sc lowercase">E</span>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_148" id="footnote_148"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_148"><span class="muchsmaller">[148]</span></a> -Plato, <cite>Alkibiades</cite>, <abbr title="one">i.</abbr> 122 <span class="sc lowercase">B</span>. The Athenian State, however, from the time of -Solon onwards, supported and educated at public expense the sons of those who fell -in battle. The endowed systems in Teos and at Delphoi belong to the third -century; it is impossible to say whether such existed earlier.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_149" id="footnote_149"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_149"><span class="muchsmaller">[149]</span></a> -<abbr title="Xenophon">Xen.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="Memorabilia">Mem.</abbr></cite> <abbr title="two">ii.</abbr> 2. 6.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_150" id="footnote_150"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_150"><span class="muchsmaller">[150]</span></a> -[<abbr title="Xenophon">Xen.</abbr>] <cite><abbr title="Constitution">Constit.</abbr> of Athens</cite>, <abbr title="two">ii.</abbr> 10.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_151" id="footnote_151"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_151"><span class="muchsmaller">[151]</span></a> -Plutarch, <cite><abbr title="Alcibiades">Alkib.</abbr> </cite> 3; Plato, <cite>Charmides</cite>, 153 <span class="sc lowercase">A</span>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_152" id="footnote_152"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_152"><span class="muchsmaller">[152]</span></a> -<cite><abbr title="Corpus Inscriptionun Atticarum">C.I.A.</abbr></cite> <abbr title="two">ii.</abbr> 1. 444, 445, 446.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_153" id="footnote_153"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_153"><span class="muchsmaller">[153]</span></a> -See Excursus on <ins title="gymniasiarchoi">γυμνιασιαρχοί</ins>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_154" id="footnote_154"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_154"><span class="muchsmaller">[154]</span></a> -He could, and had to, use compulsion in collecting boys. This suggests that a -parent could always, if he wished, get this free education for his son.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_155" id="footnote_155"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_155"><span class="muchsmaller">[155]</span></a> -This rule fell into abeyance.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_156" id="footnote_156"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_156"><span class="muchsmaller">[156]</span></a> -<abbr title="Demosthenes">Dem.</abbr> <cite>against <abbr title="Boiotia">Boiot.</abbr></cite> 1001.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_157" id="footnote_157"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_157"><span class="muchsmaller">[157]</span></a> -[<abbr title="Xenophon">Xen.</abbr>] <cite><abbr title="Constitution">Constit.</abbr> of Athens</cite>, <abbr title="one">i.</abbr> 13.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_158" id="footnote_158"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_158"><span class="muchsmaller">[158]</span></a> -On the strength of the passages quoted from the law, and from Demosthenes, -and of Aristophanes, <cite>Clouds</cite>, 964, some have maintained a theory that the Athenian -tribes provided free education in dancing, and perhaps in other subjects, to all free -boys, exclusive of competitions. But the quotation in Aischines, except for the -actual law, which is a later interpolation, certainly refers only to the choregoi, and -the passage in Demosthenes is concerned only with chorus-dancing for competitions. -In Aristophanes the boys of the same neighbourhood naturally attend the same -school, that is all.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_159" id="footnote_159"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_159"><span class="muchsmaller">[159]</span></a> -<abbr title="Plutarch">Plut.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="Themistokles">Themist.</abbr></cite> 10.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_160" id="footnote_160"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_160"><span class="muchsmaller">[160]</span></a> -<abbr title="Aelian">Ael.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="Vera Historia">Var. Hist.</abbr></cite> <abbr title="seven">vii.</abbr> 15.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_161" id="footnote_161"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_161"><span class="muchsmaller">[161]</span></a> -<abbr title="Diodotos">Diod.</abbr> Sic. <abbr title="twelve">xii.</abbr> 42.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_162" id="footnote_162"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_162"><span class="muchsmaller">[162]</span></a> -Probably lived <span class="decoration">circa</span> 500 <span class="sc">B.C.</span></p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_163" id="footnote_163"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_163"><span class="muchsmaller">[163]</span></a> -Plato, <cite><abbr title="Timaeus">Tim.</abbr></cite> 21 <span class="sc lowercase">B</span>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_164" id="footnote_164"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_164"><span class="muchsmaller">[164]</span></a> -Böckh, 3088.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_165" id="footnote_165"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_165"><span class="muchsmaller">[165]</span></a> -<cite>Ibid.</cite> 2214. I have omitted patronymics.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_166" id="footnote_166"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_166"><span class="muchsmaller">[166]</span></a> -<cite><abbr title="Corpus Inscriptionum Graecarum">C.I.G.</abbr> <abbr title="Boeotia">Boeot.</abbr></cite> 1760-1766.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_167" id="footnote_167"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_167"><span class="muchsmaller">[167]</span></a> -Böckh, 232, 245.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_168" id="footnote_168"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_168"><span class="muchsmaller">[168]</span></a> -<abbr title="Pindar">Pind.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="Nemean">Nem.</abbr></cite> <abbr title="seven">vii.</abbr></p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_169" id="footnote_169"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_169"><span class="muchsmaller">[169]</span></a> -Bacchul. <abbr title="thirteen">xiii.</abbr>, <abbr title="Pindar">Pind.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="Nemean">Nem.</abbr></cite> v.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_170" id="footnote_170"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_170"><span class="muchsmaller">[170]</span></a> -Wrestling, <abbr title="Pindar">Pind.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="Nemean">Nem.</abbr></cite> <abbr title="four">iv.</abbr>, <abbr title="six">vi.</abbr> </p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_171" id="footnote_171"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_171"><span class="muchsmaller">[171]</span></a> -<cite><abbr title="Anthology">Anthol.</abbr></cite> <abbr title="edition">ed.</abbr> Jacobs, <abbr title="six">vi.</abbr> 308.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_172" id="footnote_172"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_172"><span class="muchsmaller">[172]</span></a> -Sometimes earlier. Plato, <cite><abbr title="Protagoras">Protag.</abbr></cite> 325 <span class="sc lowercase">C</span>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_173" id="footnote_173"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_173"><span class="muchsmaller">[173]</span></a> -Elderly, as in the picture of Medeia and her children given in Smith’s <cite>Smaller -Classical Dictionary</cite> under “Medea,” and on Douris’ Kulix, <a href="#i01a">Plates <abbr title="One">I.</abbr> <span class="sc lowercase">A</span></a> and <a href="#i01b"><abbr title="One">I.</abbr> <span class="sc lowercase">B</span></a> (if -those are paidagogoi), and on other vases.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_174" id="footnote_174"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_174"><span class="muchsmaller">[174]</span></a> -So Fabius Cunctator was called Hannibal’s paidagogos, because he followed -him about everywhere.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_175" id="footnote_175"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_175"><span class="muchsmaller">[175]</span></a> -There is only one for Lusis and his brothers (Plato, <cite><abbr title="Lusis">Lus.</abbr></cite> 223 <span class="sc lowercase">A</span>), for Medeia’s -two children (<abbr title="Euripides">Eur.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="Medeia">Med.</abbr></cite>), for two boys in <cite>Lusis</cite>, 223 <span class="sc lowercase">A</span>, and for Themistocles’ -children (<abbr title="Herodotos">Herod.</abbr> <abbr title="eight">viii.</abbr> 75).</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_176" id="footnote_176"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_176"><span class="muchsmaller">[176]</span></a> -Plato, <cite><abbr title="Lusis">Lus.</abbr></cite> 208 <span class="sc lowercase">C</span>. He is referred to as <ins title="hode">ὅδε</ins>, showing that he is present.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_177" id="footnote_177"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_177"><span class="muchsmaller">[177]</span></a> -<abbr title="Illustrations">Illustr.</abbr> <a href="#i01a">Plates <abbr title="One">I.</abbr> <span class="sc lowercase">A</span></a> and <a href="#i01b"><abbr title="One">I.</abbr> <span class="sc lowercase">B</span></a>. Perhaps only the walking-stick carried by all -Athenians.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_178" id="footnote_178"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_178"><span class="muchsmaller">[178]</span></a> -Plato, <cite><abbr title="Lusis">Lus.</abbr></cite> 223 <span class="sc lowercase">A</span>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_179" id="footnote_179"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_179"><span class="muchsmaller">[179]</span></a> -<abbr title="Plutarch">Plut.</abbr> <cite>Education of Boys</cite>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_180" id="footnote_180"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_180"><span class="muchsmaller">[180]</span></a> -<abbr title="Xenophon">Xen.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="Contitution of the Lacedaemonians">Constit. of Lak.</abbr></cite> <abbr title="two">ii.</abbr> 2.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_181" id="footnote_181"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_181"><span class="muchsmaller">[181]</span></a> -<abbr title="Herodotos">Herod.</abbr> <abbr title="eight">viii.</abbr> 75.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_182" id="footnote_182"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_182"><span class="muchsmaller">[182]</span></a> -<abbr title="Aischines">Aisch.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="against Timarchos">ag. Timarch.</abbr></cite> 35. 10.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_183" id="footnote_183"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_183"><span class="muchsmaller">[183]</span></a> -In the guardian’s accounts given by Lusias, <cite><abbr title="against">ag.</abbr> Diogeiton</cite>, 32. 28, a paidagogos is -paid for till the boy is eighteen; but there was a younger brother, for whom he may -have been required, so the elder may have been free earlier. In Plautus (<cite><abbr title="Bacchae">Bacch.</abbr></cite> 138) -we find a paidogogos in attendance till his charge was twenty.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_184" id="footnote_184"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_184"><span class="muchsmaller">[184]</span></a> -<abbr title="Xenophon">Xen.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="Contitution of the Lacedaemonians">Constit. of Lak.</abbr></cite> <abbr title="three">iii.</abbr> 1.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_185" id="footnote_185"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_185"><span class="muchsmaller">[185]</span></a> -Plato, <cite><abbr title="Republic">Rep.</abbr></cite> 406 <span class="sc lowercase">A</span>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_186" id="footnote_186"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_186"><span class="muchsmaller">[186]</span></a> -Plato, <cite><abbr title="Protagoras">Protag.</abbr></cite> 325 <span class="sc lowercase">D</span>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_187" id="footnote_187"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_187"><span class="muchsmaller">[187]</span></a> -<abbr title="Aischines">Aischin.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="against Timarchos">ag. Timarch.</abbr></cite> 9.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_188" id="footnote_188"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_188"><span class="muchsmaller">[188]</span></a> -<ins title="gymnasiarchês">γυμνασιαρχής</ins>. See Excursus on <ins title="gymnasiarchoi">γυμνασιαρχοί</ins>. This law was totally -neglected in Socratic Athens. See Plato’s <cite>Lusis</cite>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_189" id="footnote_189"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_189"><span class="muchsmaller">[189]</span></a> -<abbr title="Aischines">Aischin.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="against Timarchos">ag. Timarch.</abbr></cite> 10. The word <ins title="sôphronistês">σωφρονιστής</ins>, in a general sense, occurs -three times in Thucydides.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_190" id="footnote_190"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_190"><span class="muchsmaller">[190]</span></a> -Deinarchos, <cite><abbr title="against">ag.</abbr> Philokles</cite>, 15.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_191" id="footnote_191"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_191"><span class="muchsmaller">[191]</span></a> -Girard, <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">L’Éducation Athénienne</cite>, <abbr title="pages">pp.</abbr> 51, 52.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_192" id="footnote_192"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_192"><span class="muchsmaller">[192]</span></a> -The Archon Eponumos had the control of orphans and probably intervened -if their education was neglected.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_193" id="footnote_193"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_193"><span class="muchsmaller">[193]</span></a> -<abbr title="Aristophanes">Aristoph.</abbr> <cite>Clouds</cite>, 960 <abbr title="and following">ff.</abbr></p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_194" id="footnote_194"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_194"><span class="muchsmaller">[194]</span></a> -By Lamprokles (476 <span class="sc">B.C.</span>).</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_195" id="footnote_195"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_195"><span class="muchsmaller">[195]</span></a> -By Kudides (? = Kudias. Smyth, <cite>Melic Poets</cite>, <abbr title="page">p.</abbr> 347).</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_196" id="footnote_196"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_196"><span class="muchsmaller">[196]</span></a> -<abbr title="Isokrates">Isok.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="Areiopagitikos">Areiop.</abbr></cite> 149 <span class="sc lowercase">C</span>, <span class="sc lowercase">D</span>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_197" id="footnote_197"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_197"><span class="muchsmaller">[197]</span></a> -Plato, <cite><abbr title="Republic">Rep.</abbr></cite> 563 <span class="sc lowercase">A</span>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_198" id="footnote_198"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_198"><span class="muchsmaller">[198]</span></a> -<cite>Floruit</cite> 432 <span class="sc">B.C.</span> (in <abbr title="Athenaeus">Athen.</abbr> 18 <span class="sc lowercase">C</span>).</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_199" id="footnote_199"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_199"><span class="muchsmaller">[199]</span></a> -<abbr title="Xenophon">Xen.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="Contitution of the Lacedaemonians">Constit. of Lak.</abbr></cite> <abbr title="two">ii.</abbr> 1.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_200" id="footnote_200"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_200"><span class="muchsmaller">[200]</span></a> -<abbr title="Xenophon">Xen.</abbr> <cite>Banquet</cite>, <abbr title="three">iii.</abbr> 13.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_201" id="footnote_201"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_201"><span class="muchsmaller">[201]</span></a> -<abbr title="Herodotos">Herod.</abbr> <abbr title="six">vi.</abbr> 27.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_202" id="footnote_202"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_202"><span class="muchsmaller">[202]</span></a> -<abbr title="Thucidides">Thuc.</abbr> <abbr title="seven">vii.</abbr> 29.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_203" id="footnote_203"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_203"><span class="muchsmaller">[203]</span></a> -<abbr title="Politics">Pol.</abbr> <abbr title="four">iv.</abbr> 20. 7.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_204" id="footnote_204"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_204"><span class="muchsmaller">[204]</span></a> -<abbr title="Aelian">Ael.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="Vera Historia">Var. Hist.</abbr></cite> 7. 15.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_205" id="footnote_205"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_205"><span class="muchsmaller">[205]</span></a> - <abbr title="Pausanias">Pausan.</abbr> <abbr title="six">vi.</abbr> 9. 6.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_206" id="footnote_206"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_206"><span class="muchsmaller">[206]</span></a> -<abbr title="Athenaeus">Athen.</abbr> 604 a-b.</p> -</div><!--end chapter--> - -<div class="chapter"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79"></a><span class="pageno">79</span> -<h3 class="p4 h3head">CHAPTER III</h3> - -<h4 class="p2 h4head">ATHENS AND THE REST OF HELLAS:<br /> -PRIMARY EDUCATION</h4> - -<p class="p2"><span class="sc">We</span> have seen that Primary Education in Hellas consisted -of letters and music, with a contemporary training -in gymnastics; to which triple course was added, late in -the fourth century, drawing and painting. How the day -was divided between mental and physical training is -unknown—probably, like everything else, this varied -with the taste of the individual—but the following -sketch from Lucian,<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_207" id="fnanchor_207"></a><a href="#footnote_207" class="fnanchor">[207]</a></span> -although it belongs to a much -later date, may perhaps give some idea of a schoolboy’s -day:<span class="lock">—</span></p> - -<p class="blockquote">“He gets up at dawn, washes the sleep from his -eyes, and puts on his cloak. Then he goes out from -his father’s house, with his eyes fixed upon the ground, -not looking at any one who meets him. Behind him -follow attendants and paidagogoi, bearing in their hands -the implements of virtue, writing-tablets or books containing -the great deeds of old, or, if he is going to a -music-school, his well-tuned lyre.</p> - -<p class="blockquote">“When he has laboured diligently at intellectual -studies, and his mind is sated with the benefits of the -school curriculum, he exercises his body in liberal -<a name="Page_80" id="Page_80"></a><span class="pageno">80</span> -pursuits, riding or hurling the javelin or spear. Then -the wrestling-school with its sleek, oiled pupils, labours -under the mid-day sun, and sweats in the regular athletic -contests. Then a bath, not too prolonged; then a -meal, not too large, in view of afternoon school. For -the schoolmasters are waiting for him again, and the -books which openly or by allegory teach him who was -a great hero, who was a lover of justice and purity. -With the contemplation of such virtues he waters the -garden of his young soul. When evening sets a limit -to his work, he pays the necessary tribute to his stomach -and retires to rest, to sleep sweetly after his busy day.”</p> - -<p>The school hours were naturally arranged to suit the -times of Hellenic meals, for which the boys returned -home. The ordinary arrangement was a light breakfast -at daybreak, a solid meal at mid-day, and supper at -sunset. So the schools opened at sunrise.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_208" id="fnanchor_208"></a><a href="#footnote_208" class="fnanchor">[208]</a></span> -Solon -enacted that they should not open earlier. They closed -in time to allow the boys to return home to lunch,<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_209" id="fnanchor_209"></a><a href="#footnote_209" class="fnanchor">[209]</a></span> -opened again in the afternoon, and closed before sunset.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_210" id="fnanchor_210"></a><a href="#footnote_210" class="fnanchor">[210]</a></span> -How many of the intermediate hours were spent in -work,<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_211" id="fnanchor_211"></a><a href="#footnote_211" class="fnanchor">[211]</a></span> -and what intervals there were, is unknown. -There was, of course, no weekly rest on Sundays; but -festivals, which were whole holidays, were numerous -throughout Hellas, and, in Alexandria at any rate, on -the 7th and 20th of every month the schools were closed, -these days being sacred to Apollo.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_212" id="fnanchor_212"></a><a href="#footnote_212" class="fnanchor">[212]</a></span> -There were also -special school festivals, such as that of the Muses, and -<a name="Page_81" id="Page_81"></a><span class="pageno">81</span> -holidays in commemoration of benefactors; thus Anaxagoras -left a bequest to Klazomenai, on condition that -the day of his death should be celebrated annually by a -holiday in the schools.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_213" id="fnanchor_213"></a><a href="#footnote_213" class="fnanchor">[213]</a></span> -It must also be remembered -that one of the three branches of Primary Education in -Hellas would be called play in England: an afternoon -spent in running races, jumping, wrestling, or riding -would not be regarded as work by an English schoolboy. -Music, too, is usually learned during play-hours in an -English school. Even Letters, when the elementary -stage was past, meant reciting, reading, or learning by -heart the literature of the boy’s own language, and most -of it not stiff literature by any means, but such fascinating -fairy-tales as are found in Homer. There is little -trace of Hellenic boys creeping unwillingly to school: -their lessons were made eminently attractive.</p> - -<p>Of the fees which were paid to schoolmasters little -is known. An amusing passage in Lucian,<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_214" id="fnanchor_214"></a><a href="#footnote_214" class="fnanchor">[214]</a></span> -dealing -with the under-world, describes those who had been -kings or satraps upon earth as reduced in the future -state “to beggary, and compelled by poverty either to -sell kippers or to teach the elements of reading and -writing.” From this it may be inferred that elementary -schoolmasters did not make much money by -their fees. This inference is supported by the fact that -even the poorest Athenians managed to send their sons -to such schools. Plato in the <cite>Laws</cite> reserves the -profession for foreigners, thus suggesting that it was -neither well paid nor highly esteemed. To call a man -a schoolmaster was almost an insult; Demosthenes, -abusing Aischines, says, “You taught letters, I went -to school.”<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_215" id="fnanchor_215"></a><a href="#footnote_215" class="fnanchor">[215]</a></span> -The weakness of the masters’ position may -<a name="Page_82" id="Page_82"></a><span class="pageno">82</span> -be seen too from the extreme contempt with which their -pupils seem to have treated them. The boys bring -their pets—cats and dogs and leopards—into school, -and play with them under the master’s chair. Theophrastos,<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_216" id="fnanchor_216"></a><a href="#footnote_216" class="fnanchor">[216]</a></span> -in describing the characteristics of the mean -man, says that “he does not send his children to school -all the month of Anthesterion” (that is, from the middle -of February to the middle of March) “on account of -the number of feasts.” The school-bills were paid by -the month, and, since boys did not go to school on the -great festivals, and Anthesterion contained many such -days, the mean parent thought he would not get his -money’s worth for this particular month, and so withdrew -his boys while it lasted.</p> - -<p>Mean parents also deducted from the fees in -proportion, if their sons were absent from school owing -to ill-health for a day or two;<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_217" id="fnanchor_217"></a><a href="#footnote_217" class="fnanchor">[217]</a></span> -but this was not -usually done. The bills were paid on the 30th of each -month.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_218" id="fnanchor_218"></a><a href="#footnote_218" class="fnanchor">[218]</a></span> -Schoolmasters apparently had some difficulty -in getting their bills paid at all; according to -Demosthenes’ statement, his bills were never paid, -owing to the fraudulent behaviour of his guardian -Aphobos.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_219" id="fnanchor_219"></a><a href="#footnote_219" class="fnanchor">[219]</a></span> -</p> - -<p>No doubt the fees varied according to the merits -of the school, for the schools at Athens seem to have -differed greatly. Demosthenes, when boasting of his -career, in his speech <cite>On the Crown</cite>, says that he -went as a boy to the <em>respectable</em> schools;<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_220" id="fnanchor_220"></a><a href="#footnote_220" class="fnanchor">[220]</a></span> -the quality -and quantity of the teaching must have been varied -to suit the parent’s pocket. For the poor there would -probably be schools where only the elements of reading -<a name="Page_83" id="Page_83"></a><span class="pageno">83</span> -and writing were taught. In the higher class of school -these elements would be taught by under-masters, -frequently slaves; but free citizens might also be -reduced by poverty to take such a post. This may be -seen from the case of the father of Aischines, the -orator.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_221" id="fnanchor_221"></a><a href="#footnote_221" class="fnanchor">[221]</a></span> -Impoverished and exiled like many democrats -by the Thirty Tyrants, he returned with the Restoration -a ruined man. To earn his living, he became an usher -at the school of one Elpias, close to the Theseion, -and taught letters: his son Aischines seems to have -begun his life by assisting his father in this occupation. -His opponent, Demosthenes, takes advantage of the -contempt with which these ushers were regarded to -declare that the father was a slave of Elpias,<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_222" id="fnanchor_222"></a><a href="#footnote_222" class="fnanchor">[222]</a></span> -“wearing -big fetters and a collar,” and the son was employed in -“grinding the ink and sponging the forms and sweeping -out the schoolroom (<ins title="paidagôgeion">παιδαγωγεῖον</ins>), the work of a -servant, not of a free boy.”</p> - -<p>No doubt letters and music were often taught at -the same school, in different rooms. Such an arrangement -would be natural and convenient. The vases -suggest it, but their evidence is uncertain. The school -buildings seem often to have been surrounded by playgrounds. -A passage in Aelian<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_223" id="fnanchor_223"></a><a href="#footnote_223" class="fnanchor">[223]</a></span> -shows us the boys, -just let out of school, playing at tug-of-war. No -doubt in these places they played with their hoops -and tops, and amused themselves with pick-a-back and -the stone- and dice-games which corresponded to our -marbles. In villages these playgrounds probably did -duty as palaistrai.</p> - -<p>The headmaster of the school sat on a chair with a -<a name="Page_84" id="Page_84"></a><span class="pageno">84</span> -high back; under-masters and boys had stools without -backs, but cushions were provided. For lessons in -class there were benches.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_224" id="fnanchor_224"></a><a href="#footnote_224" class="fnanchor">[224]</a></span> -There was a high reading-desk -for recitations. Round the walls hung writing-tablets, -rulers, and baskets or cases containing manuscript -rolls labelled with the author’s name, composing the -school library; the rolls might also hang by themselves.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_225" id="fnanchor_225"></a><a href="#footnote_225" class="fnanchor">[225]</a></span> -Masters were expected to possess at any rate a copy of -Homer—Alkibiades thrashed one who did not. Sometimes -they emended their edition themselves.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_226" id="fnanchor_226"></a><a href="#footnote_226" class="fnanchor">[226]</a></span> -In the -music-schools hung lyres and flutes and flute-cases. -The (<ins title="paidagôgeion">παιδαγωγειον</ins>) mentioned by Demosthenes may have -been an anteroom where the paidagogoi sat, but more -probably the word is only a rhetorical variant for -“schoolroom.” There were often busts of the Muses -round the walls,<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_227" id="fnanchor_227"></a><a href="#footnote_227" class="fnanchor">[227]</a></span> -which were also decorated with vases, -serving for domestic purposes, and, perhaps, illustrating -with their pictures the books which the boys were -reading. At a later date, at any rate, a series of -cartoons, illustrating scenes in the <cite>Iliad</cite> and <cite>Odyssey</cite>, -were sometimes hung upon the walls: the “Tabula -Iliaca,” now in the Capitoline Museum, has been -recognised as a fragment of such a series.</p> - -<p>The first stage was to learn to read and write. -Instead of a slate, boys in Hellas had tablets of wax, -usually made in two halves, so as to fold on a hinge -in the middle, the waxen surfaces coming inwards and -so being protected. Sometimes there were three pieces, -forming a triptych, or even more. For pencil, they -<a name="Page_85" id="Page_85"></a><span class="pageno">85</span> -had an instrument with a sharp point at one end, -suitable for making marks on the wax, and a flat -surface at the other, which was used to erase what had -been written, and so make the tablets ready for future -use. These tablets are shown in the school-scenes on the -fifth-century vases.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_228" id="fnanchor_228"></a><a href="#footnote_228" class="fnanchor">[228]</a></span> -At a later period, when parchment -and papyrus became more common, these materials were -used in the schools. Lines could be ruled with a lump -of lead, and writing done either with ink and a reed pen -or with lead; for erasures a sponge was employed.</p> - -<p>The early stages of learning to write are described -in the <cite>Protagoras</cite> of Plato.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_229" id="fnanchor_229"></a><a href="#footnote_229" class="fnanchor">[229]</a></span> -“When a boy is not -yet clever at writing, the masters first draw lines, and -then give him the tablet and make him write as the -lines direct.” The passage has been variously interpreted. -Some regard the master as merely writing a -series of letters which the boy is to copy underneath. -The word used in Greek for the master’s writing is -<ins title="hypograpsantes">ὑπογράψαντες</ins>, and it is significant that the word for -a “copy” in this sense is a derivative of this word, -<ins title="hypogrammos">ὑπογραμμός</ins>. Such a copy, corresponding to the -phrases like “England exports engines” or “Germany -grows grapes,” which are employed in English schools -for this purpose, is extant.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_230" id="fnanchor_230"></a><a href="#footnote_230" class="fnanchor">[230]</a></span> -It is a nonsense sentence -designed to contain all the letters of the alphabet -<ins title="marpte sphinx klôps zbychthêdon">μάρπτε σφὶγξ κλὼψ ζβυχθηδόν</ins>. If this rendering is -correct, the master wrote a sentence of this sort on -the tablets, and the boy copied it underneath. Others -interpret the lines which the master draws on the -tablet as parallel straight lines, within which the boy -<a name="Page_86" id="Page_86"></a><span class="pageno">86</span> -had to write. Just such a device is often employed -in English copy-books. The word used for “lines,” -<ins title="grammai">γραμμαί</ins>, usually means “straight lines,” which supports -this interpretation. But <ins title="hypographê">ὑπογραφή</ins>, on the other hand, -a derivative of <ins title="hypographein">ὑπογράφειν</ins>, is used for irregular traces, -<span class="decoration">e.g.</span> a footstep,<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_231" id="fnanchor_231"></a><a href="#footnote_231" class="fnanchor">[231]</a></span> -and <ins title="hypographein">ὑπογράφειν</ins> itself is a technical -term in Hellenic art for “sketching in” what is afterwards -to be finished in detail. Consequently a third -rendering of the passage makes the master draw a -faint, rough outline of the various letters, and the boy -has to go over them with his pen, marking the grooves -in the wax deeper and filling in the details. For -example, in England, the master might draw |·| and -the boy go over the two vertical lines and draw in -the other two, M. Thus all three interpretations are -sensible and rest on good authority. But surely the -master may be regarded as adopting all three processes, -according to the intelligence of the pupils. For the -beginner he would outline the whole letter, and leave -him only the task of going over it again. Then he -would gradually give less and less help, till the boy was -capable of writing the letters with the assistance of the -parallel lines alone. Finally these would be withdrawn, -and the boy would be left to write his imitation of the -copy without assistance. The phrase in Plato is purposely -vague, and will include the whole of this process.</p> - -<p>The letters were written in lines horizontal and -vertical, so that they fell beneath one another. No -stops or accents were inserted, and no spaces were left -between words. The writing-master probably ruled -both the horizontal and the vertical lines on the tablet -for his pupil. On the Vase of Douris,<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_232" id="fnanchor_232"></a><a href="#footnote_232" class="fnanchor">[232]</a></span> -an under-master -is represented as writing with his pen on -<a name="Page_87" id="Page_87"></a><span class="pageno">87</span> -a wax tablet, while a boy stands in front of him. He -is probably meant either to be writing a copy or else -correcting his pupil’s exercise. Over his head hangs a -ruler, for marking out the guiding lines on the tablet. -Behind the boy sits a bearded man with a staff, who is -probably the paidagogos. The boys in the class are -clearly coming up one by one to receive their copies or -have their exercises corrected, while the rest are doing -their writing. It will be noticed that there is no desk -or table: the Hellenes wrote with their tablets on their -knees.</p> - -<p>As soon as the boy had acquired a certain facility in -writing, he entered the dictation class. The master read -out something, and the boys wrote it down.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_233" id="fnanchor_233"></a><a href="#footnote_233" class="fnanchor">[233]</a></span> -At first, -of course, very simple words would be dictated, and -there would not be much to write. But, later on, the -boys would write at his dictation passages of the poets -and other authors. For this purpose, ink and parchment -may sometimes have been employed: Aischines -seems to have “ground ink”<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_234" id="fnanchor_234"></a><a href="#footnote_234" class="fnanchor">[234]</a></span> -for a writing-school. -Various “elaborations in the way of speed and beauty” -of writing seem to have been customary in the case of -more advanced pupils.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_235" id="fnanchor_235"></a><a href="#footnote_235" class="fnanchor">[235]</a></span> -Possibly they learnt to make -flourishes and ornamental letters. Speed would naturally -be taught, for it was usual to take notes at the lectures -of Sophists and Philosophers, and speed is required -for this purpose. This must have involved the use -of the cursive letters, which otherwise were not needed, -for the Hellene had not very much writing to do, -unless he became a clerk to a public body.</p> - -<p>Learning to read must have been a difficult business -in Hellas, for books were written in capitals at this -<a name="Page_88" id="Page_88"></a><span class="pageno">88</span> -time. There were no spaces between the words, and no -stops were inserted. Thus, the reader had to exercise -much ingenuity before he could arrive at the meaning -of a sentence. Still more difficult for the boys to grasp -was the Attic accent, upon which the masters set a great -importance. So difficult was it, that few foreigners -ever acquired it, and a born Athenian, if he went abroad -for a few years, often lost the power of speaking with -the Attic intonation. The first step in learning to read -is to acquire the alphabet. The Hellenes, wishing, as -usual, to make learning as easy as possible, seem to have -put the alphabet into verse. A metrical alphabet, -ascribed to Kallias, a contemporary of Perikles, is still -extant, but in a mutilated form, which has been restored -in several not very convincing ways. Probably it has -been adapted to suit different alphabets, for there were -several current in different parts of Hellas. The following -is a conjectural <span class="lock">restoration:—</span></p> - -<div class="poem-container"> - <div class="poem"> - <div class="i0"><ins title="est’ alpha, bêta, gamma, delta t’, ei te, kai">ἔστ’ ἄλφα, βῆτα, γάμμα, δέλτα τ’, εἶ τε, καί</ins></div> - <div class="i0"><ins title="zêt’, êta, thêt’, iôta, kappa, labda, mu,">ζῆτ’, ἦτα, θῆτ’, ἴωτα, κάππα, λάβδα, μῦ,</ins></div> - <div class="i0"><ins title="nu, xei, to ou, pei, rhô, to sigma, tau, to u,">νῦ, ξεῖ, τὸ οὖ, πεῖ, ῥῶ, τὸ σίγμα, ταῦ, τὸ ὖ,</ins></div> - <div class="i0"><ins title="paronta phei te chei te tô psei eis to ô.">πάροντα φεῖ τε χεῖ τε τῷ ψεῖ εἰς τὸ ὦ</ins>.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_236" id="fnanchor_236"></a><a href="#footnote_236" class="fnanchor">[236]</a></span></div> - </div><!--end poem--> -</div><!--end poem container--> - -<p>This complete alphabet of twenty-four letters, which -appears in modern Greek Grammars, was not adopted -for official purposes at Athens till 403 <span class="sc">B.C.</span>, “but it is -clear that it was in ordinary use at Athens considerably -earlier.”<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_237" id="fnanchor_237"></a><a href="#footnote_237" class="fnanchor">[237]</a></span></p> - -<p>This metrical alphabet formed the prologue to what -may be called a spelling-drama, in which the whole -process of learning to spell was expressed either in -iambic lines or in choral songs. Since its author, -Kallias, is coupled with Strattis, the comic poet,<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_238" id="fnanchor_238"></a><a href="#footnote_238" class="fnanchor">[238]</a></span> -it -<a name="Page_89" id="Page_89"></a><span class="pageno">89</span> -may be inferred that the play was a comedy, not a -tragedy; the chorus would then be twenty-four in -number. Each member of the chorus represented one -of the twenty-four letters. In the first choric song the -letters were put together in pairs, in the fashion of a -spelling class. The first strophé runs as <span class="lock">follows:—</span></p> - -<table summary="" class="together"> - -<tr><td class="left">Beta</td> - <td class="left">Alpha</td> - <td class="left">BA</td></tr> -<tr><td class="left">Beta</td> - <td class="left">Ei</td> - <td class="left">BĔ</td></tr> -<tr><td class="left">Beta</td> - <td class="left">Eta</td> - <td class="left">BĒ</td></tr> -<tr><td class="left">Beta</td> - <td class="left">Iota</td> - <td class="left">BI</td></tr> -<tr><td class="left">Beta</td> - <td class="left">Ou</td> - <td class="left">BŎ</td></tr> -<tr><td class="left">Beta</td> - <td class="left">U</td> - <td class="left">BU</td></tr> -<tr><td class="left">Beta</td> - <td class="left">O</td> - <td class="left">BŌ<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_239" id="fnanchor_239"></a><a href="#footnote_239" class="fnanchor">[239]</a></span></td></tr> -</table> - -<p class="unindent">In the corresponding antistrophé Gamma was similarly -coupled with the seven vowels, and so on apparently -through the alphabet. During the song, which was set -to excellent music, the members of the chorus, dressed -to represent the letters quite clearly, and no doubt -posturing in the right attitude, would form themselves -into the required pairs. Thus, during the first line -Beta and Alpha would come together, during the second -Beta and Ei, and so on. After this song came a lecture -on the vowels, in iambic verse, the chorus being told to -repeat them one by one after the speaker. There seems -to have been a plot of some sort in this extraordinary -drama, but the main interest was, no doubt, the spelling. -Opportunities were also taken for describing the shapes -of the letters, the audience having to guess what letter -was intended. This kind of alphabetical puzzle seems to -have caught the popular fancy at Athens, for Euripides, -<a name="Page_90" id="Page_90"></a><span class="pageno">90</span> -Agathon, and Theodektes all employed it. In each -case the concealed word was “Theseus.”</p> - -<p>Euripides’ description, if it be his, may be rendered -<span class="lock">thus:—</span></p> - -<div class="poem-container"> - <div class="poem"> - <div class="i0">First, such a circle as is measured out</div> - <div class="i0">By compasses, a clear mark in the midst.</div> - <div class="i0">The second letter is two upright lines,</div> - <div class="i0">Another joining them across their middles.</div> - <div class="i0">The third is like a curl of hair. The fourth,</div> - <div class="i0">One upright line and three crosswise infixed.</div> - <div class="i0">The fifth is hard to tell: from several points</div> - <div class="i0">Two lines run down to form one pedestal.</div> - <div class="i0">The last is with the third identical.</div> - </div><!--end poem--> -</div><!--end container--> - -<p>In the same spirit, Sophocles, in his satyric drama -<cite>Amphiaraos</cite>, introduced an actor who represented -the shapes of the letters by his dancing.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_240" id="fnanchor_240"></a><a href="#footnote_240" class="fnanchor">[240]</a></span> -Periclean -Athens seems to have taken a very keen interest in -matters of spelling: the audience must all have known -their letters, or such devices could never have become -so popular.</p> - -<p>Kallias’ play is the ancestor of such books as -<cite>Reading without Tears</cite>. His dramatic presentation -of the process of spelling must have caught the imagination -and impressed the memory of many Athenian boys. -It may even be suspected that his method was adopted -in enterprising schools, and spelling lessons were conducted -to a tune, perhaps even accompanied by dancing.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_241" id="fnanchor_241"></a><a href="#footnote_241" class="fnanchor">[241]</a></span> -The tunes of Kallias were highly praised, and were, no -doubt, very different from the monotonous drone which -announces to the outside world the presence of a Board -School.</p> - -<p><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91"></a><span class="pageno">91</span> -To return to more prosaic methods. Plato gives an -interesting sketch<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_242" id="fnanchor_242"></a><a href="#footnote_242" class="fnanchor">[242]</a></span> -of a reading class. “When boys -have just learnt their letters, they recognise any of them -readily enough in the shortest and easiest syllables, and -are able to give a correct answer about them. But in -the longer and more difficult syllables they are not -certain, but form a wrong opinion and answer wrongly. -Then the best way is to take them back to the syllables -in which they recognise the same letters and then compare -them with those in which they made mistakes, and, -putting them side by side, show that in both combinations -the same letters have the same meaning.”</p> - -<p>Take an English example. The master writes -<span class="sc lowercase">SCRAPE</span> on the blackboard and asks the boys to tell -him what letters it contains. The class fail to recognise -the letters: the word is too long and difficult. The -master then writes beside it consecutively <span class="sc lowercase">APE</span>, <span class="sc lowercase">RAPE</span>, -<span class="sc lowercase">CAPE</span>, in all of which the boys recognise the letters -correctly. Then <span class="sc lowercase">CRAPE</span> and <span class="sc lowercase">SCRAP</span>. From these -he passes on to <span class="sc lowercase">SCRAPE</span>, which they now recognise by -analogy from the words which they know already. -“Finally, they learn always to give the same name to -the same letter whenever it comes.”<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_243" id="fnanchor_243"></a><a href="#footnote_243" class="fnanchor">[243]</a></span></p> - -<p>The methods by which boys learn to spell are the -same in all ages. “When boys come together to learn -their letters, they are asked what letters there are in -some word or other.”<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_244" id="fnanchor_244"></a><a href="#footnote_244" class="fnanchor">[244]</a></span> -A certain amount of mental -arithmetic seems to have been included in this stage -of spelling: the pupils were asked <em>how many</em> letters -there were in a word, as well as the order in which -they were arranged.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_245" id="fnanchor_245"></a><a href="#footnote_245" class="fnanchor">[245]</a></span> -But this will be discussed -later.</p> - -<p><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92"></a><span class="pageno">92</span> -While the boys were still unable to read, and often -afterwards owing to the comparative scarcity of books, -the master dictated to them the poetry which he intended -them to learn by heart, and they repeated it -after him.</p> - -<p>The Kulix of Douris gives an interesting picture of -either a reading or a repetition lesson.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_246" id="fnanchor_246"></a><a href="#footnote_246" class="fnanchor">[246]</a></span> -On a high-backed -chair sits an elderly master, holding a roll in -his hand. On it is inscribed what is clearly meant to -be an hexameter line from some epic poet, but Douris -was not very well educated, and so the line is misspelt -and will not scan. In front of the master stands a boy, -behind whom sits an elderly man who is probably, as in -the writing scene, a paidagogos. The master may be -dictating the poem while the boy learns it by heart after -him, or he may be hearing him say it. But very -possibly the scene represents a reading-lesson. The -attitudes of boy and master are not very convenient, if -both are reading out of the same book; but this was -unavoidable, for, owing to the canons of vase-painting, -the figures could only be full-faced or in profile, and -the front of the manuscript had to be turned in such a -way as to be legible.</p> - -<p>On the walls of the school hang a manuscript rolled -up and tied with a string, and an ornamental basket. -These baskets were used as bookcases, to hold the -manuscript rolls. They may sometimes be seen on -vases suspended over the heads of reading figures, as in -the British Museum vase,<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_247" id="fnanchor_247"></a><a href="#footnote_247" class="fnanchor">[247]</a></span> -which represents a woman -reading a scroll. The paidagogos, we may notice, is -revealing his humble origin by crossing his feet, a -serious offence against good manners in Hellas.</p> - -<p>“When the boys knew their letters and were -<a name="Page_93" id="Page_93"></a><span class="pageno">93</span> -beginning to understand what was written, the masters -put beside them on the benches the works of good poets -for them to read, and made them learn them by heart. -They chose for this purpose poets that contained many -moral precepts, and narratives and praises of the heroes -of old, in order that the boy might admire them and -imitate them and desire to become such a man himself.”<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_248" id="fnanchor_248"></a><a href="#footnote_248" class="fnanchor">[248]</a></span> -It is noteworthy that Hellenic boys began at once -with the very best literature to be found in their -language: there was no preliminary course of childish -tales. Grammar, when invented, was taught at a later -stage: the boys plunged straight into literature.</p> - -<p>The schoolmasters at Athens differed as to which -was the best way of introducing boys to their national -literature. The great majority held that a properly -educated boy ought to be saturated in all poetry, comic -and serious, hearing much of it in the reading class, and -learning much of it—in fact, whole poets—by heart.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_249" id="fnanchor_249"></a><a href="#footnote_249" class="fnanchor">[249]</a></span> -A minority would pick out the leading passages,<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_250" id="fnanchor_250"></a><a href="#footnote_250" class="fnanchor">[250]</a></span> -the -“purple patches,” and certain whole speeches,<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_251" id="fnanchor_251"></a><a href="#footnote_251" class="fnanchor">[251]</a></span> -and put -them together and have them committed to memory. -Plato argued in favour of expurgated editions of passages -carefully selected according to a very strict standard, -since much in literature was good and much bad.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_252" id="fnanchor_252"></a><a href="#footnote_252" class="fnanchor">[252]</a></span> -</p> - -<p>Homer, of course, played the largest part in these -literary studies; from early times “he was given an -honourable place in the teaching of the young.”<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_253" id="fnanchor_253"></a><a href="#footnote_253" class="fnanchor">[253]</a></span> -Vast -<a name="Page_94" id="Page_94"></a><span class="pageno">94</span> -quantities of the <cite>Iliad</cite> and <cite>Odyssey</cite> were learnt by -heart. Nikeratos, in Xenophon,<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_254" id="fnanchor_254"></a><a href="#footnote_254" class="fnanchor">[254]</a></span> -says: “My father, -wishing me to grow up into a good man, made me -learn all the lines of Homer; and now I can repeat the -whole of the <cite>Iliad</cite> and <cite>Odyssey</cite> from memory.” Such -prodigious feats were, no doubt, assisted by the rhapsodes, -who could be heard at Athens declaiming Homer -“nearly every day.”<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_255" id="fnanchor_255"></a><a href="#footnote_255" class="fnanchor">[255]</a></span> -The Hellenes did not let their -greatest poet lie neglected, to be “revived” at long -intervals. Homer was supposed to teach everything, -especially soldiering and good morals. “I suppose you -know,” continues Nikeratos,<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_256" id="fnanchor_256"></a><a href="#footnote_256" class="fnanchor">[256]</a></span> - “that Homer, the wisest -of men, has written about all human matters. So whoever -of you wishes to excel as a householder or public -speaker or general, or desires to become like Achilles -or Aias or Nestor or Odusseus, let him come to me.” -Then he proceeds to show how, for example, the poet -gives full directions about the proper way to drive a -chariot in a race. Aristophanes<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_257" id="fnanchor_257"></a><a href="#footnote_257" class="fnanchor">[257]</a></span> -makes the shade of -Aeschylus say, “Whence did divine Homer win his -honour and renown, save from this, that he taught drill, -courage, the arming of troops? Many a man of valour -he trained, and our own dead hero, Lamachos. I took -my print from him, and represented many deeds of -valour done by a Patroklos or lion-hearted Teukros, to -rouse my countrymen to model themselves upon such -men, when they heard the trumpet sound.”</p> - -<p>The great poet does not seem to have been taught -pedantically; the attention of the boys was not concentrated -simply on the difficulties of the Homeric -vocabulary. In fact, probably they were little troubled -with such points; the sense, the rhythm, and the beauty -<a name="Page_95" id="Page_95"></a><span class="pageno">95</span> -of the original do not depend upon an exact understanding -of every word, as many a modern reader has -discovered. In a fragment of Aristophanes,<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_258" id="fnanchor_258"></a><a href="#footnote_258" class="fnanchor">[258]</a></span> -a father -asks his son the meaning of some hard words in Homer, -such as <ins title="amenêna karêna">ἀμένηνα κάρηνα</ins> and <ins title="korymba">κόρυμβα</ins>; the son is quite -unable to translate them, at any rate when separated -from their context, and can only retort by asking his -father to interpret some archaic phrases in Solon’s laws. -A later comic poet<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_259" id="fnanchor_259"></a><a href="#footnote_259" class="fnanchor">[259]</a></span> -introduced a cook who insisted on -using Homeric language, just as a modern <em>chef</em> writes -his <em>menu</em> in French; the man who has hired him is -ludicrously unable to understand his phrases, and has to -go in search of a commentary.</p> - -<p>Explanations and interpretations of supposed moral -allegories in Homer, and lessons drawn from a close -study of his characters, were very popular in Hellas, -and no doubt figured in the schools.</p> - -<p>If Homer occupied the first place in literary education, -other leading authors were not neglected. All -the great poets were made useful. “Orpheus taught -ceremonial rites and abstinence from bloodshed, and -Mousaios medicine and oracles, and Hesiod the tillage -of land, the seasons of fruits and ploughing.”<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_260" id="fnanchor_260"></a><a href="#footnote_260" class="fnanchor">[260]</a></span> -Hesiod -probably served more as a theological handbook than as -a manual of agriculture; the moral precepts to Perses -in the <cite>Works and Days</cite> probably also found favour -with schoolmasters. The fourth-century comic poet -Alexis gives an interesting catalogue of a school -library.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_261" id="fnanchor_261"></a><a href="#footnote_261" class="fnanchor">[261]</a></span> -Besides Orpheus, Hesiod, and Homer, who -have been mentioned already, there are Epicharmos, -Choirilos, the author of an epic poem on the Persian -war, and what is called vaguely “tragedy,” probably -<a name="Page_96" id="Page_96"></a><span class="pageno">96</span> -meaning a selection from the great tragedians. We can -see from Plato’s attacks that Aeschylus and Euripides -must have been important in the schools, and we know -that Athenian gentlemen were expected to be able to -recite them at dinner-parties, and must therefore have -learnt them by heart. The vague words “tragedy” -and “comedy” are similarly used of the recitations of -the boys at Teos. Various editions of moral precepts -were also popular. Among these were <cite>The Precepts -of Cheiron</cite>, or Cheironeia, supposed to have been given -by the wise Centaur to his pupil Achilles and put -into verse by Hesiod; on a vase at Berlin three boys -are seen reading this work with apparent interest. -The extant lines of Theognis are often supposed to -represent a school edition of the poet’s works, containing -the more improving portions. The lyric poets -were taught at the lyre-school, and I shall discuss them -later.</p> - -<p>Alexis also mentions “all sorts of prose works” in -the school library. The only one of these to which he -gives a more definite name is a cookery-book by Simos. -But that is only introduced for the sake of a joke; such -a work would not, of course, figure in an Athenian -school. Aesop may have been a prose work read in -schools; it was considered the sign of an ignoramus -“not to have thumbed Aesop,” or to be able to quote -him.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_262" id="fnanchor_262"></a><a href="#footnote_262" class="fnanchor">[262]</a></span> -Such moral works as Prodikos’ <cite>Choice of -Herakles</cite> were probably popular in schools. The -case of Lusis in Plato suggests that some of the old -nature-philosophers may have been read. No doubt -the school library varied according to the taste of the -master, and his freedom of choice may have led to some -curious selections. But on the whole prose works very -<a name="Page_97" id="Page_97"></a><span class="pageno">97</span> -rarely figured in the elementary schools, partly because -they were usually too technical, still more because the -artistic and literary sense of the Hellenes regarded -poetry, if only because of its greater beauty and its -imaginative value, as better for educational purposes -than prose.</p> - -<p>It must be remembered that when boys recited -Homer or Aeschylus or Euripides, they acted them, -delivering even the narrative with a great deal of -gesture, and dramatising the speeches as fully as they -could. The almost daily recitations of the rhapsodes, -and the frequent dramatic performances in the theatres, -gave them plenty of examples of the way to act. The -Hellenes were extremely sensitive and sympathetic: -they were a nation of actors. The rhapsode Ion tells -Plato that, when he recited Homer, his eyes watered -and his hair stood on end. This may give the modern -reader some idea of what his repetition-lesson meant to -a boy at Athens. More may be gathered from Plato’s -vehement denunciations of dramatisation in poetry -intended for use in schools; he believed that this continuous -acting exerted an evil influence upon character. -But this question will be discussed elsewhere.</p> - -<p>The schoolrooms were used as the scene of lectures, -to which grown-up men were invited; probably the -lectures would be given to the boys at a different time. -The wandering teacher, Hippias of Elis, meeting -Sokrates one day, invited him to such a lecture, which, -from its subject, was clearly meant mainly for the -young.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_263" id="fnanchor_263"></a><a href="#footnote_263" class="fnanchor">[263]</a></span> -After the fall of Troy, according to the story -which Hippias invented for the occasion, Neoptolemos -asked the wise old Nestor what was good and honourable -conduct and what manner of life would cause a -<a name="Page_98" id="Page_98"></a><span class="pageno">98</span> -young man to win renown. Given this convenient -opening, Nestor replied by suggesting many excellent -rules of conduct. Hippias had delivered this lecture at -Sparta, where it had won great applause. He now -proposes, he says, “to deliver it the day after to-morrow -in the schoolroom of Pheidostratos, and to -impart much other valuable information at the same -time, at the request of Eudikos son of Apemantos. -Mind you come and bring any friends who will be -capable of appreciating what I say.” No doubt it was -a very excellent little sermon on the duties of life, -closely analogous to Prodikos’ famous <cite>Choice of -Herakles</cite>, and most improving for the pupils of -Pheidostratos, if they were allowed to attend.</p> - -<p>One charming picture of two Athenian school -friends,<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_264" id="fnanchor_264"></a><a href="#footnote_264" class="fnanchor">[264]</a></span> -in their sleeveless tunics, is extant. “I saw -you, Sokrates,” says a guest at a dinner-party, “when -you and Kritoboulos at the School of Letters were both -looking for something in the same book, putting your -head against his, and your bare shoulder against his -shoulder.”</p> - -<p>It is also recorded that the Athenians were great -hands at nicknames:<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_265" id="fnanchor_265"></a><a href="#footnote_265" class="fnanchor">[265]</a></span> -it may be inferred that this -peculiarity extended also to their schoolboys.</p> - -<p>A vivid picture of school life has recently come to -light in the third Mime of Herondas. It belongs to -the Alexandrian period in point of date, but many of -its details will, no doubt, suit the Athenian schools just -as well; it is, however, quite inconceivable that gags -and fetters were used as punishments at Athens in the -schools.</p> - -<p>A mother, Metrotimé, brings her truant boy, -<a name="Page_99" id="Page_99"></a><span class="pageno">99</span> -Kottalos, to his schoolmaster Lampriskos to receive a -flogging.</p> - -<div class="drama-container"> - <div class="poem"> - <div class="i1"><span class="sc">Metrotimé</span>.<span class="ss" style="width:5em"> </span>Flog him, Lampriskos,<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_266" id="fnanchor_266"></a><a href="#footnote_266" class="fnanchor">[266]</a></span></div> - <div class="i0">Across the shoulders, till his wicked soul</div> - <div class="i0">Is all but out of him. He’s spent my all</div> - <div class="i0">In playing odd and even: knucklebones</div> - <div class="i0">Are nothing to him. Why, he hardly knows</div> - <div class="i0">The door o’ the Letter School. And yet the thirtieth</div> - <div class="i0">Comes round and I must pay—tears no excuse.</div> - <div class="i0">His writing-tablet, which I take the trouble</div> - <div class="i0">To wax anew each month, lies unregarded</div> - <div class="i0">I’ the corner. If by chance he deigns to touch it,</div> - <div class="i0">He scowls like Hades, then puts nothing right</div> - <div class="i0">But smears it out and out. He doesn’t know</div> - <div class="i0">A letter, till you scream it twenty times.</div> - <div class="i0">The other day his father made him spell</div> - <div class="i0"><span class="sc">Maron</span>; the rascal made it <span class="sc">Simon</span>; dolt</div> - <div class="i0">I thought myself to send him to a school:</div> - <div class="i0">Ass-tending is his trade. Another time</div> - <div class="i0">We set him to recite some childish piece;</div> - <div class="i0">He sifts it out like water through a crack,</div> - <div class="i0">“Apollo,” pause, then “hunter.”</div> - </div><!--end drama--> -</div><!--end container--> - -<p>The poor mother goes on to say that it is useless to -scold the boy; for, if she does, he promptly runs away -from home to sponge upon his grandmother, or sits up -on the roof out of the way, like an ape, breaking the -tiles, which is expensive for his parents.</p> - -<div class="drama-container"> - <div class="poem"> - <div class="i0"><span class="ss" style="width:5em"> </span>Yet he knows</div> - <div class="i0">The seventh and the twentieth of the month,</div> - <div class="i0">Whole holidays, as if he read the stars.</div> - <div class="i0">He lies awake o’ nights adreaming of them.</div> - <div class="i0">But, so may yonder Muses prosper you,</div> - <div class="i0">Give him in stripes no less than——</div> - - <div class="i1"><span class="sc">Lampriskos.</span><span class="ss" style="width:8em"> </span>Right you are.</div> - <div class="i0">Here, Euthias, Kokkalos, and Phillos, hoist him</div> - <div class="i0">Upon your backs.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_267" id="fnanchor_267"></a><a href="#footnote_267" class="fnanchor">[267]</a></span> I like your goings on,</div> -<a name="Page_100" id="Page_100"></a><span class="pageno">100</span> - <div class="i0">My boy. I’ll teach you manners. Where’s my strap,</div> - <div class="i0">The stinging cow’s-tail!</div> - - <div class="i1"><span class="sc">Kottalos.</span><span class="ss" style="width:5em"> </span>By the Muses, Sir,</div> - <div class="i0">Not with the stinger.</div> - - <div class="i1"><abbr title="Lampriskos"><span class="sc">Lamp.</span></abbr><span class="ss" style="width:5em"> </span>Then you shouldn’t be</div> - <div class="i0">So naughty.</div> - - <div class="i1"><abbr title="Kottalos"><span class="sc">Kott.</span></abbr><span class="ss" style="width:2em"> </span>O, how many will you give me?</div> - - <div class="i1"><abbr title="Lampriskos"><span class="sc">Lamp.</span></abbr> Your mother fixes that.</div> - - <div class="i1"><abbr title="Kottalos"><span class="sc">Kott.</span></abbr><span class="ss" style="width:8em"> </span>How many, mother?</div> - - <div class="i1"><abbr title="Metrotimé"><span class="sc">Metr.</span></abbr> As many as your wicked hide can bear.</div> - - <div class="i1"><abbr title="Kottalos"><span class="sc">Kott.</span></abbr> Stop, that’s enough, stop.</div> - - <div class="i1"><abbr title="Lampriskos"><span class="sc">Lamp.</span></abbr><span class="ss" style="width:8em"> </span>You should stop your ways.</div> - - <div class="i1"><abbr title="Kottalos"><span class="sc">Kott.</span></abbr> I’ll never do it more, I promise you.</div> - - <div class="i1"><abbr title="Lampriskos"><span class="sc">Lamp.</span></abbr> Don’t talk so much, or else I’ll bring a gag.</div> - - <div class="i1"><abbr title="Kottalos"><span class="sc">Kott.</span></abbr> I won’t talk, only do not kill me, please.</div> - - <div class="i1"><abbr title="Lampriskos"><span class="sc">Lamp.</span></abbr> Let him down, boys.</div> - - <div class="i1"><abbr title="Metrotimé"><span class="sc">Metr.</span></abbr><span class="ss" style="width:8em"> </span>No, leather him till sunset.</div> - - <div class="i1"><abbr title="Lampriskos"><span class="sc">Lamp.</span></abbr> Why, he’s as mottled as a water-snake.</div> - - <div class="i1"><abbr title="Metrotimé"><span class="sc">Metr.</span></abbr> Well, when he’s done his reading, good or bad,</div> - <div class="i0">Give him a trifle more, say twenty strokes.</div> - - <div class="i1"><abbr title="Kottalos"><span class="sc">Kott.</span></abbr> Yah!</div> - - <div class="i1"><abbr title="Metrotimé"><span class="sc">Metr.</span></abbr><span class="ss" style="width:2em"> </span>I’ll go home and get a pair of fetters.</div> - <div class="i0">Our Lady Muses, whom he scorned, shall see</div> - <div class="i0">Their scorner hobble here with shackled feet.</div> - </div><!--end poem--> -</div><!--end container--> - -<p>The exact age at which arithmetic was taught to -boys at Athens involves a somewhat complicated inquiry. -The arrangements which Plato makes in the <cite>Republic</cite> -and <cite>Laws</cite> defer this subject till the age of sixteen. In -the <cite>Laws</cite><span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_268" id="fnanchor_268"></a><a href="#footnote_268" class="fnanchor">[268]</a></span> -he says: “It remains to discuss, first the -question of Letters, and secondly that of the Lyre and -practical arithmetic—by which I mean so much as is -necessary for purposes of war and household management -and the work of government.” His citizens will -also require, he thinks, enough astronomy to make the -calendar intelligible to them. In this passage he distinctly -couples practical arithmetic with music; and -<a name="Page_101" id="Page_101"></a><span class="pageno">101</span> -when he proceeds to detail, he makes the study of the -lyre last from thirteen to sixteen, and then deals with -arithmetic, the weights and measures, and the astronomical -calendar, studies which terminate with the seventeenth -year. This course is designed for all the free -boys in his State: it is to be noticed that it is eminently -practical, elementary, and concrete. In the <cite>Republic</cite> -he is educating a few picked boys: before they are -eighteen they are to have gone through a course of -abstract and theoretical mathematics, the Theory of -Numbers, Plane and Solid Geometry, Kinetics and -Harmonics. Thus he mentions two sorts of mathematics, -the one practical and concrete, called by the -Hellenes <ins title="logistikê">λογιστική</ins>,<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_269" id="fnanchor_269"></a><a href="#footnote_269" class="fnanchor">[269]</a></span> -whose object is mainly mercantile, -and the other theoretical and abstract, which they called -<ins title="arithmêtikê">ἀριθμητική</ins>. Both sorts are to be learned in the period -next before the eighteenth year.</p> - -<p>But it must not be assumed that this was the case -at Athens. The philosopher is dealing with an ideal -State, where education can be arranged in the theoretically -best way, not with the real Athens, where the boy -might be called away to the counting-house or the -farm at any moment, and many did not stay at school -after they had once learned to read and write. Moreover -Plato, as a good Pythagorean, saw a peculiar -appropriateness in making numbers follow music, and -his Dorian sympathies made him divide up education -into clearly marked periods, in each of which only one -subject was taught. This arrangement, I have already -shown, did not find favour at Athens.</p> - -<p>His system must, then, be received with caution. -<a name="Page_102" id="Page_102"></a><span class="pageno">102</span> -It is inherently far more probable that the simpler, -practical arithmetic would be taught at the elementary -schools of letters, which all citizens, including future -tradesmen and artisans, attended, not at some later -date in a separate school. But can any evidence be -found for such an arrangement? Yes, Plato himself -in the <cite>Laws</cite><span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_270" id="fnanchor_270"></a><a href="#footnote_270" class="fnanchor">[270]</a></span> -declares that the future builder ought to -play with toy bricks and learn weights and measurements -when he is a child. His builder, at any rate, -cannot wait to learn arithmetic till he is sixteen. -Then, in the same work, he quotes the instance of -Egypt, where “a very large number of children learn -practical arithmetic <em>simultaneously with their letters</em>,” -and he goes on to commend the methods by which it -was taught. Now Egypt in the <cite>Laws</cite> is represented -as the home of ideal education, a sort of Utopia. -Again, in Plato<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_271" id="fnanchor_271"></a><a href="#footnote_271" class="fnanchor">[271]</a></span> -Protagoras blames his brother Sophists -for “leading their pupils <em>back</em>, much against their wish, -and casting them <em>again</em> into the sciences from which -they have escaped, practical arithmetic and astronomy -and geometry and music.” How could the Sophists<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_272" id="fnanchor_272"></a><a href="#footnote_272" class="fnanchor">[272]</a></span> -be described as “leading them back and casting them -again” into studies from which they had escaped? -Where had they learnt these subjects before they were -fourteen? It could only have been at school. But -what the Sophists taught must have been new to the -boys, or they would not have paid to learn it. It was -new, because the Sophists taught the advanced and -theoretical stages, which appear in the <cite>Republic</cite>, and the -elementary schoolmasters taught the simpler and concrete -elements of arithmetic, weights and measures, -and the calendar, described in the <cite>Laws</cite>, which were -<a name="Page_103" id="Page_103"></a><span class="pageno">103</span> -necessary to every Athenian citizen. From all this -it may be assumed that the Athenian boys, like Plato’s -Egyptian boys, learnt simple arithmetic, weights and -measures, and perhaps the calendar, “simultaneously -with their letters.”</p> - -<p>Now there are two passages in Xenophon which -seem to suit this view. They are not conclusive in -themselves, but they give a valuable hint. In the first<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_273" id="fnanchor_273"></a><a href="#footnote_273" class="fnanchor">[273]</a></span> -it is stated that any one who knows his letters could -say <em>how many</em> letters there are in “Sokrates,” and in -what order they occur. In the second,<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_274" id="fnanchor_274"></a><a href="#footnote_274" class="fnanchor">[274]</a></span> -in the course -of an argument, two illustrations are used, in close -connection with one another. The passage runs:—“Take -the case of Letters. Suppose some one asks -you how many letters there are in ‘Sokrates,’ and -which are they?… Or take the case of Numbers. -Suppose some one asks what is twice five?” These two -quotations certainly make simple counting a part of -learning letters, with which study the second passage -also closely connects the multiplication table. It would -seem that it was part of a spelling lesson to answer such -questions as “How many letters in ‘Sokrates’?” -Answer, “Eight.” “Where does R come?” Answer, -“Fourth.” It may be noticed also that the symbols of -the numerals in ancient Hellas were, with one or two -exceptions, identical with the current alphabet. The -games with cubic dice and knucklebones, to which the -boys were much addicted, must also have needed some -arithmetical skill. The natural conclusion is that -simple arithmetic, with, probably, the weights and -measures, and the outlines of the calendar, were taught -by the letter-master: the practice of music by the -music-master: while the theory of numbers, of -<a name="Page_104" id="Page_104"></a><span class="pageno">104</span> -astronomy, and of music were taught by the Sophists -to <ins title="meirakia">μειράκια</ins>.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="i104" id="i104"></a> - <img src="images/104.jpg" - width="500" height="413" - alt="Illustration: Finger counting system" - title="Illustration: Finger counting system" - /> -</div><!--end illustration--> - -<p>Simple counting was done on the fingers. “Reckon -on your fingers,” says a character in Aristophanes,<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_275" id="fnanchor_275"></a><a href="#footnote_275" class="fnanchor">[275]</a></span> -“not with pebbles.” A common word for counting -was <ins title="pempazein">πεμπάζειν</ins>, “to reckon on the five fingers”; the -division of the month into three periods of ten days -can be traced to the same custom. But by various -devices it was possible to count up to very large -numbers on the fingers. Pebbles were also employed -to assist in arithmetic. In the case of complicated -accounts a reckoning board (<ins title="abakos">ἄβακος</ins> or <ins title="abax">ἄβαξ</ins>) was used, -on which the pebbles varied in value according to their -position. Such boards go back to early days at Athens, -for Solon compared the life of a courtier to a pebble -upon them, since he was now worth much and now -little.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_276" id="fnanchor_276"></a><a href="#footnote_276" class="fnanchor">[276]</a></span> -A character in a fourth-century comedy<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_277" id="fnanchor_277"></a><a href="#footnote_277" class="fnanchor">[277]</a></span> -sends -for an abacus and pebbles, in order that he may do his -accounts. The pebbles were arranged in grooves, -<!--Blank Page--> -<a name="Page_105" id="Page_105"></a><span class="pageno">105</span> -being worth one or ten or a hundred and so forth, -according to the groove in which they were placed. -If they were put on the left-hand side of the board, -their value was multiplied by five.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_278" id="fnanchor_278"></a><a href="#footnote_278" class="fnanchor">[278]</a></span> -The various -games of <ins title="pessoi">πεσσοί</ins>, which somewhat resembled chess, were -played on a somewhat similar board to this, and these -chess-boards were known as <ins title="abakes">ἄβακες</ins>. Now the art of -playing with <ins title="pessoi">πεσσοί</ins> is more than once coupled by -Plato with arithmetic or mathematics generally in such -a way as to show that the game must have involved -mathematical skill.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_279" id="fnanchor_279"></a><a href="#footnote_279" class="fnanchor">[279]</a></span> -As was usual in Athens, instruction -went hand in hand with amusement, and, in -playing games, the boys learned arithmetic willingly. -A similar value seems to have attached to the game of -knucklebones, which the boys in the <cite>Lusis</cite> are found -playing during their whole holiday. Each boy carried -a large basket of knucklebones, and the loser in each -game paid so many of them over to the winner. The -art of playing this game is also coupled with mathematics -by Plato;<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_280" id="fnanchor_280"></a><a href="#footnote_280" class="fnanchor">[280]</a></span> -so it must at any rate have -encouraged the study of arithmetic, in his opinion. In -the school scene of the British Museum amphora, a -little bag, usually supposed to contain knucklebones, is -figured: so they may even have been used in schools -for teaching arithmetic. In another school scene this -bag is present with a lyre and ruler; so it was evidently -part of the school furniture.</p> - -<div class="figcenter together" style="width: 500px"> - <p class="captionleft">PLATE <abbr title="Three">III.</abbr></p> - <a name="i03" id="i03"></a> - <img src="images/3.jpg" - width="500" height="312" - alt="Illustration: Music School Scenes" - /> - <p class="caption">MUSIC-SCHOOL SCENES<br /> -From a Hudria in the British Museum (E 171).</p> -</div><!--end illustration--> - -<p>After such revelations of Hellenic educational -methods, it is natural to suppose that the ingenious -<a name="Page_106" id="Page_106"></a><span class="pageno">106</span> -devices by which the “Egyptians,”<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_281" id="fnanchor_281"></a><a href="#footnote_281" class="fnanchor">[281]</a></span> -according to Plato, -“make simple arithmetic into a game” for their -children, were really used in Attica. One of these -devices<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_282" id="fnanchor_282"></a><a href="#footnote_282" class="fnanchor">[282]</a></span> -was as follows. The master took, say, sixty -apples. First he divided them among two boys, who -were made to count their share, thirty each; then -among three boys, twenty each; then among four, -fifteen each; then among five, twelve each; and then -among six, ten each. This would teach the system of -factors. Then, again, a real or imaginary competition -in boxing or wrestling<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_283" id="fnanchor_283"></a><a href="#footnote_283" class="fnanchor">[283]</a></span> -was arranged, say in a class of -nine. The boys would work out, by actual experiment, -how many fights would be necessary, if each boy had to -fight all the others one by one, and how many if a -system of rounds and byes was introduced. This might -even teach Permutations and Combinations.</p> - -<p>In another case a number of bowls, some containing -mixed coins, gold, silver, and bronze, some all of one sort, -would be handed round the class. The boys would -have to count them, add and subtract them, and so on. -Thus they would learn addition and subtraction of -money, and would also gain a clear knowledge of the -national coinage.</p> - -<p>Plato was immensely impressed with the educational -value of Arithmetic. “Those who are born with a -talent for it,” he says, “are quick at all learning; while -even those who are slow at it, have their general intelligence -much increased by studying it.”<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_284" id="fnanchor_284"></a><a href="#footnote_284" class="fnanchor">[284]</a></span> - “No -branch of education is so valuable a preparation for -household management and politics, and all arts and -<a name="Page_107" id="Page_107"></a><span class="pageno">107</span> -crafts, sciences and professions, as arithmetic; best of -all, by some divine art, it arouses the dull and sleepy -brain, and makes it studious, mindful, and sharp.”<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_285" id="fnanchor_285"></a><a href="#footnote_285" class="fnanchor">[285]</a></span> -</p> - -<p>The question of the more advanced stages of Mathematics, -which were taught to older boys, may be left -for the chapter on Secondary Education.</p> - -<p class="center">* * * * *</p> - -<p>The chief and often the sole instrument taught in -the music school was the seven-stringed lyre,<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_286" id="fnanchor_286"></a><a href="#footnote_286" class="fnanchor">[286]</a></span> -with a -large sounding-board originally made of a tortoise’s -shell.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_287" id="fnanchor_287"></a><a href="#footnote_287" class="fnanchor">[287]</a></span> -It might be played either with the hand or else -with the “plektron” or striker; the boy Lusis had -learnt to do either.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_288" id="fnanchor_288"></a><a href="#footnote_288" class="fnanchor">[288]</a></span> -The boys were also taught how -to tighten and relax the strings by turning the pegs till -the proper degree of tension was obtained. They -brought their own lyre with them from home, the -paidagogos carrying it behind his charge. This was a -wise regulation from the master’s point of view; for -the boys seem to have usually ruined these instruments -by their early efforts.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_289" id="fnanchor_289"></a><a href="#footnote_289" class="fnanchor">[289]</a></span> -Like the piano, the lyre required -great delicacy of touch and very agile fingers, -and these qualities could only be obtained by continual -practice.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_290" id="fnanchor_290"></a><a href="#footnote_290" class="fnanchor">[290]</a></span> -</p> - -<p>As would naturally be expected, individual tuition -was usual in the lyre-school; instrumental music -cannot be learnt in class. The vases make this point -quite clear. The master has a single boy seated in -front of him; both hold lyres in their hands, to which -they are singing, the words of the song being sometimes -<a name="Page_108" id="Page_108"></a><span class="pageno">108</span> -represented by a string of little dots. In -<a href="#i04">Plate <abbr title="Four">IV.</abbr></a>, on the left of this group, a boy is coming up -to take his turn, lyre in hand, while behind him stands -his paidagogos, leaning on a reading-desk and following -his charge with his eyes. On the right is a boy just -taking up his flute-case and preparing to depart, while -another sits in the corner, wrapped in his cloak, waiting -for his turn to take a lesson. In <a href="#i03">Plate <abbr title="Three">III.</abbr></a>,<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_291" id="fnanchor_291"></a><a href="#footnote_291" class="fnanchor">[291]</a></span> -the -master is playing a barbitos and apparently singing, -while the pupil plays the flute. On the left is a flute-master -playing, and a pupil just leaving him, flute in -hand. Another pupil, with a lyre, is waiting to take a -lesson from the master in the centre, and is amusing -himself meanwhile by playing with an animal that is -probably a leopard,<span class="lock"><a href="#footnote_291" class="fnanchor">[291]</a></span> -like that which figures in <a href="#i04">Plate -<abbr title="Four">IV.</abbr></a> Another pet, a dog, is howling in disgust at -the music. On the right, a pupil with a flute is -advancing to take a lesson from the flute-master in front -of him. Behind him follows a young man, who may be -an elder brother replacing the customary paidagogos -for the nonce, or an admirer. In the background sits -a small child, sucking his thumb, probably the younger -brother of one of the pupils, who has come, in accordance -with Aristotle’s advice, to look on, although still -too young to learn.</p> - -<div class="figcenter together" style="width: 500px"> - <p class="captionleft">PLATE <abbr title="Four">IV.</abbr></p> - <a name="i04" id="i04"></a> - <img src="images/4.jpg" - width="500" height="312" - alt="Illustration: In a Lyre-School" - /> - <p class="caption">IN A LYRE-SCHOOL<br /> -From a Hudria in the British Museum (E 172).</p> -</div><!--end illustration--> - -<p>As soon as his pupils knew how to play, the master -taught them the works of the great lyric poets,<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_292" id="fnanchor_292"></a><a href="#footnote_292" class="fnanchor">[292]</a></span> -which -were not taught in the school of letters. These were -set to music, and the boys sang them and played the -accompaniment. Every gentleman at Athens was -expected to be able to sing and play in this manner -when he went out to a dinner-party. The custom, -<!--Blank Page--> -<a name="Page_109" id="Page_109"></a><span class="pageno">109</span> -however, began to become unfashionable during the -Peloponnesian War. When old Strepsiades, in the -<cite>Clouds</cite>,<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_293" id="fnanchor_293"></a><a href="#footnote_293" class="fnanchor">[293]</a></span> -asked Pheidippides to take the lyre and sing a -song of Simonides, his new-fashioned son replies that -playing the lyre was quite out of date, and singing over -the wine was only fit for a slave-woman at the grindstone. -Whether this state of feeling continued and -whether it had a prejudicial effect on the music-schools -cannot be decided. Sometimes the guests brought -their boys to sing to the company: in the <cite>Peace</cite> the -son of the hero Lamachos is going to sing Homer, while -the coward Kleonumos’ boy has a song of Archilochos -ready. Alkaios and Anakreon were also favourites;<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_294" id="fnanchor_294"></a><a href="#footnote_294" class="fnanchor">[294]</a></span> -the lyric portions of Kratinos’ comedies, too, are -mentioned as sung at banquets:<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_295" id="fnanchor_295"></a><a href="#footnote_295" class="fnanchor">[295]</a></span> -no doubt, the same -was true of the other great comedians. As the iambic -parts of Aeschylus and Euripides were recited at the -dinner-table, it is natural to suppose that their songs -were also sung. The aged Dikasts in the <cite>Wasps</cite> sing -the choruses from Phrunichos’ <cite>Sidonians</cite>. Old songs -like Lamprokles’ “Pallas, dread sacker of cities” and -Kudides’ “A cry that echoes afar” were popular in -earlier times. No doubt there was plenty of variety -in accordance with the master’s taste. At the music -school, too, may have been taught the metrical version, -set to music, of the Athenian laws, which was ascribed -to Solon,<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_296" id="fnanchor_296"></a><a href="#footnote_296" class="fnanchor">[296]</a></span> -and that of the legislation of Charondas, -which Athenian gentlemen sang over their wine.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_297" id="fnanchor_297"></a><a href="#footnote_297" class="fnanchor">[297]</a></span> -Athenian boys were expected to know the laws by the -time that they were epheboi, and may well have been -taught them in this convenient and attractive way at -<a name="Page_110" id="Page_110"></a><span class="pageno">110</span> -the lyre-master’s. To know how to play the lyre -became the mark of a liberal education, since every one -learned letters, but the poorest did not enter the music-school. -“He doesn’t know the way to play the lyre,” -became a proverb for an uneducated person, who had -not had so many opportunities in life as his wealthier -fellow-citizens. So, as a plea for a defendant we find—</p> - -<div class="poem-container"> - <div class="poem"> - <div class="i0">He may have stolen. But acquit him, for</div> - <div class="i0">He doesn’t know the way to play the lyre.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_298" id="fnanchor_298"></a><a href="#footnote_298" class="fnanchor">[298]</a></span></div> - </div><!--end poem--> -</div><!--end poem container--> - -<p class="unindent">To this the Dikast retorts that he has not learnt the -lyre either, so he must be forgiven if he is so stupid as -to condemn the accused.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_299" id="fnanchor_299"></a><a href="#footnote_299" class="fnanchor">[299]</a></span> -</p> - -<p>At the beginning of the fifth century the Hellenes -were stimulated, according to Aristotle,<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_300" id="fnanchor_300"></a><a href="#footnote_300" class="fnanchor">[300]</a></span> -by their growing -wealth and importance to make many educational -experiments, especially in music. All manner of musical -instruments were tried in the music-schools, but were -rejected on trial, when the moral effects could be better -appreciated. Among the instruments thus found -wanting was the flute. At one time the flute became -so popular at Athens that the majority of the free -citizens could play it. But its moral effect proved to -be unsatisfactory; it was the instrument which belonged -to wild religious orgies, and it aroused that hysterical -and almost lunatic excitement<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_301" id="fnanchor_301"></a><a href="#footnote_301" class="fnanchor">[301]</a></span> -which the Hellenes -regarded as a useful medicine, when taken at long -intervals of time, for giving an outlet to such feelings -and working them off the system, in order that a long -period of calm might follow. But such a medicine was -most unsuitable to be the daily food of boys. The -<a name="Page_111" id="Page_111"></a><span class="pageno">111</span> -flute had two other disadvantages. It distorted the -face sufficiently to horrify a sensitive Hellene.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_302" id="fnanchor_302"></a><a href="#footnote_302" class="fnanchor">[302]</a></span> -It also -prevented the use of the voice: the boys could not -sing to it, as they sang to the lyre. So Athena, in the -old legend, had been quite right in throwing the -instrument away in disgust: it was only suitable for a -Phrygian Satyr, for it made no appeal to the intellect, -but only to the passions.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_303" id="fnanchor_303"></a><a href="#footnote_303" class="fnanchor">[303]</a></span> -</p> - -<p>This is Aristotle’s account. It may be objected -that the vases which represent scenes in the music-schools -show the flute and the lyre being taught side -by side, and apparently equally popular. But these -vases can mostly be traced more or less certainly to -the first half of the fifth century, and so they bear out -Aristotle’s statement. Moreover, the flute did not, of -course, die out in Hellas by any means; it only became -an extra, instead of the regular instrument in schools. -The most notable Athenians, Kallias and Kritias and -Alkibiades, are said to have played it.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_304" id="fnanchor_304"></a><a href="#footnote_304" class="fnanchor">[304]</a></span> -It always -remained popular at Thebes. But at Athens, in the -banquets, while the guests usually played the lyre -themselves, the flute was as a rule only played by -professional flute-girls,<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_305" id="fnanchor_305"></a><a href="#footnote_305" class="fnanchor">[305]</a></span> -although on the vases the guests -are sometimes found performing on this instrument -also.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_306" id="fnanchor_306"></a><a href="#footnote_306" class="fnanchor">[306]</a></span> -Probably the Athenian attitude may be summed -up in the “ancient proverb”:<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_307" id="fnanchor_307"></a><a href="#footnote_307" class="fnanchor">[307]</a></span></p> - -<div class="poem-container"> - <div class="poem"> - <div class="i0">A flutist’s brains can never stay:</div> - <div class="i0">He puffs his flute, they’re puffed away.</div> - </div><!--end poem--> -</div><!--end container--> - -<p class="unindent"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112"></a><span class="pageno">112</span> -It was usual to play on two flutes at the same time. -Such a pair has been found,<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_308" id="fnanchor_308"></a><a href="#footnote_308" class="fnanchor">[308]</a></span> -together with a lyre, in a -tomb at Athens. The flutes are somewhat over a foot -in length, and have five holes on the upper and one -on the lower side. Each has a separate mouthpiece. -Besides this, flute-players sometimes wore a sort of -leathern muzzle<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_309" id="fnanchor_309"></a><a href="#footnote_309" class="fnanchor">[309]</a></span> -over their mouths; but this does not -appear in the schools. The pair of flutes were carried -in a double case, made of some spotted skin; it had a -pocket on one side, to hold the mouthpieces,<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_310" id="fnanchor_310"></a><a href="#footnote_310" class="fnanchor">[310]</a></span> -and a -cord attached by which it could be hung up when not -in use. The two flutes seem to have corresponded to -treble and bass, “male” and “female” as Herodotos -calls them. The treble was on the right, the bass on -the left.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_311" id="fnanchor_311"></a><a href="#footnote_311" class="fnanchor">[311]</a></span> -Flutes could be set to different harmonies, -apparently by some rearrangement of stops. In the -case of the flute, as in the case of the lyre, individual -tuition was the rule. First the master played an air, -and then the boy had to repeat it, while the master -criticised.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_312" id="fnanchor_312"></a><a href="#footnote_312" class="fnanchor">[312]</a></span> -Or the master played the air on a barbitos -and sang to it, while the pupil accompanied him on the -flute. This method had two advantages. The master -was able to play at the same time as the boy, and give -him instruction while playing, which the flute prevented -him from doing. The song, too, which he was enabled -to sing obviated one of the chief disadvantages of the -flute: for the Hellenes objected to instrumental music -as meaningless, unless it was accompanied by words.</p> - -<p>There seem to have been music-schools scattered -throughout Attica, besides those established in the -capital: the description of the village boys marching off -<a name="Page_113" id="Page_113"></a><span class="pageno">113</span> -to the lyre-master’s in a snow-storm without overcoats -has already been quoted. The names of a few masters -are extant. Lampros taught Sophocles the poet.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_313" id="fnanchor_313"></a><a href="#footnote_313" class="fnanchor">[313]</a></span> -Sokrates<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_314" id="fnanchor_314"></a><a href="#footnote_314" class="fnanchor">[314]</a></span> -recommends Nikias to send his son to the -famous Damon, who “is not merely a first-class musician, -but also just the man to be with boys like this.” But -whether these musicians kept regular schools cannot be -ascertained. Sokrates himself in his later years attended -the music-school of Konnos, and learned among the -boys. “I am disgracing Konnos the music-master,” -he says, “who is still teaching me to play the lyre. -The boys who are my schoolfellows laugh at me and -call Konnos the ‘Greybeard teacher.’”<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_315" id="fnanchor_315"></a><a href="#footnote_315" class="fnanchor">[315]</a></span> -The same -Konnos adopted the common but iniquitous custom -of bestowing his chief attention on his more promising -pupils, while neglecting the backward.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_316" id="fnanchor_316"></a><a href="#footnote_316" class="fnanchor">[316]</a></span> -Aristophanes -caricatures Kleon’s school-days as follows: “The boys -who went to school with Kleon say he would often set -his lyre to the Dorian (= Gift-ian) harmony alone. -Finally, the lyre-master lost his temper and told the -paidagogos to take him away, saying, “This boy can’t -learn anything but the Briberian (Dorodokisti) mode.”<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_317" id="fnanchor_317"></a><a href="#footnote_317" class="fnanchor">[317]</a></span> -</p> - -<p>The attitude of the philosophers towards music will -be discussed elsewhere. Plato’s view may be summed -up in the words which he puts in the mouth of -Protagoras the Sophist.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_318" id="fnanchor_318"></a><a href="#footnote_318" class="fnanchor">[318]</a></span> - “The music-master makes -rhythm and harmony familiar to the souls of the boys, -and they become gentler and more refined, and having -more rhythm and harmony in them, they become more -efficient in speech and in action. The whole life of Man -stands in need of good harmony and good rhythm.” -<a name="Page_114" id="Page_114"></a><span class="pageno">114</span> -Aristotle’s attitude is briefly this. “Music is neither a -necessary nor a useful accomplishment in the sense in -which Letters are useful, but it provides a noble and -worthy means of occupying leisure-time.”<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_319" id="fnanchor_319"></a><a href="#footnote_319" class="fnanchor">[319]</a></span> -</p> - -<p class="center">* * * * *</p> - -<p>Aristotle mentions that in his day some added drawing -and painting to the three parts of the course.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_320" id="fnanchor_320"></a><a href="#footnote_320" class="fnanchor">[320]</a></span> -It -was not universal, like these, and it does not seem to -have started till the fourth century. In the <cite>Republic</cite> -and <cite>Laws</cite> Plato does not attack and criticise it among -the other educational subjects; but it plays so prominent -a part in the <cite>Republic</cite> that it is obvious that the -philosopher regarded it as a dangerous enemy to the -views which he wished to spread. It is noticeable that -the discussion of Art comes in as an after-thought, in -Book <abbr title="Ten">X.</abbr> May it not be inferred that when Plato -wrote the earlier books, drawing and painting were not -yet in vogue in the schools, but they became popular -before he had finished his great work?</p> - -<p>In Periclean Athens the possibilities of artistic training -had certainly existed. In the <cite>Protagoras</cite>,<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_321" id="fnanchor_321"></a><a href="#footnote_321" class="fnanchor">[321]</a></span> -as an -instance in some argument, it is suggested that the -lad Hippokrates might “go to this young fellow who -has been in Athens of late, Zeuxippos of Heraklea. -Every day that he was with him he would improve as -an artist.” Earlier in the same dialogue Sokrates -remarks that his friend might go to Polukleitos or -Pheidias, and pay to be taught sculpture.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_322" id="fnanchor_322"></a><a href="#footnote_322" class="fnanchor">[322]</a></span> -The large -numbers of boys who became apprentices to the potters -at Athens must have learned line-drawing and designing -and painting from the earliest times. But art probably -did not become a usual part of a liberal, as distinct from -<a name="Page_115" id="Page_115"></a><span class="pageno">115</span> -a technical, education till the middle of the fourth -century.</p> - -<p>This date is fixed by a passage in Pliny.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_323" id="fnanchor_323"></a><a href="#footnote_323" class="fnanchor">[323]</a></span> -According -to him, its introduction was due to Pamphilos the -Macedonian. At his instance, first at Sikuon, where -he lived, and afterwards in the rest of Hellas, free boys -were taught before everything painting on boxwood, -and this art was included in the first rank of the liberal -arts. Now Pamphilos’ picture of the Herakleidai is -mentioned in the <cite>Ploutos</cite> of Aristophanes, which -appeared in 388 <span class="sc">B.C.</span> Apelles, his pupil, began to -come into prominence about 350: Pamphilos himself -seems to have lived on till the close of the century. -The introduction of painting into the schools at Sikuon -may therefore be dated, roughly, about 360 <span class="sc">B.C.</span>, and -from there the custom spread over Hellas. By 300 -<span class="sc">B.C.</span> no doubt art had become a regular part of the -educational curriculum; for the philosopher Teles,<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_324" id="fnanchor_324"></a><a href="#footnote_324" class="fnanchor">[324]</a></span> -who probably lived about that time, mentions the -gymnastic trainer, the letter-master, the musician, and -the painter as the four chief burdens of boys. A -trace of the new art-schools, with their technical -vocabulary, is found in the <cite>Laws</cite>, the work of Plato’s -old age:<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_325" id="fnanchor_325"></a><a href="#footnote_325" class="fnanchor">[325]</a></span> - “paint in or shade off,” he says, “or whatever -the artists’ boys call it.”</p> - -<p>Of the methods used in drawing and painting in -Hellas little trace is left. Polugnotos and his contemporaries -had produced idealised pictures, taking -points from many beautiful men and women and -uniting them to make one perfect man or woman. -When Idealism gave way to Realism in Hellas, the change -affected painting also. The artists tried to create a real -<a name="Page_116" id="Page_116"></a><span class="pageno">116</span> -illusion in their works, taking subjects like chairs or -tables and making the spectator believe them to be real. -They were helped by the developments of perspective -and foreshortening, which were discovered at this time. -It is against this exaggerated realism and the choice -of homely subjects that Plato’s attack is directed: he -hates such illusions as shams.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_326" id="fnanchor_326"></a><a href="#footnote_326" class="fnanchor">[326]</a></span> -In the diatribes of the -<cite>Republic</cite> the possibility of idealised painting seems -to be forgotten. Whether the boys in the art-schools -also suffered by this change and were condemned to -draw chairs and tables only cannot be decided.</p> - -<p>The pupils, of course, did not have paper to draw -and paint upon, nor was canvas employed. Ordinarily -they used white wood, boxwood for preference, owing -to its smoothness. Lead or charcoal would serve for -drawing; for erasures, instead of india-rubber a sponge -was used.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_327" id="fnanchor_327"></a><a href="#footnote_327" class="fnanchor">[327]</a></span> -They may, perhaps, have practised on their -wax tablets. One process was <ins title="skiagraphia">σκιαγραφία</ins> “shadow-drawing,” -which produced rough sketches in light and -shade: these seem to have been only intelligible when -considered from a distance. Plato regarded them with -distrust, as a sort of conjuring.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_328" id="fnanchor_328"></a><a href="#footnote_328" class="fnanchor">[328]</a></span> -</p> - -<p>In ordinary painting, which might be either watercolour -or encaustic,<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_329" id="fnanchor_329"></a><a href="#footnote_329" class="fnanchor">[329]</a></span> -the first thing was to sketch in the -outline (<ins title="hypographein, perigraphê">ὑπογράφειν, περιγραφή</ins>); the artist then filled -in (<ins title="apergazesthai">ἀπεργάζεσθαι</ins>) the picture with his colours, with -perpetual glances, now to the original, now to the copy, -mixing his paints the while. Beginners would, no doubt, -rub out (<ins title="exaleiphein">ἐξαλείφειν</ins>) frequently, and paint in again.</p> - -<p><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117"></a><span class="pageno">117</span> -Aristotle,<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_330" id="fnanchor_330"></a><a href="#footnote_330" class="fnanchor">[330]</a></span> -in discussing artistic education, notices -that it gave boys a good eye for appreciating art, and -enabled them to exercise good taste in buying furniture, -pottery, and other household requisites, which, to judge -from the scanty relics, must have been masterpieces of -beauty in the house of a cultivated Athenian. But still -more important, it gave them “an eye for bodily -beauty”:<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_331" id="fnanchor_331"></a><a href="#footnote_331" class="fnanchor">[331]</a></span> -which suggests that the human form, -especially its proportions, formed the chief study of the -art-schools. Proportion was the essence of Hellenic -art; the great sculptors, as is well known, spent much -time in drawing up a canon of perfect proportions for -the human body. The boys may well have used their -companions in the palaistrai for models, and the -canons of physical proportion which they were taught -by the art-master would serve to stimulate them with -a desire to attain to such a perfection of body by -their own athletic exercises.</p> - -<p class="p2 footnote"> <a name="footnote_207" id="footnote_207"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_207"><span class="muchsmaller">[207]</span></a> -Lucian, <cite>Loves</cite>, 44-45.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_208" id="footnote_208"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_208"><span class="muchsmaller">[208]</span></a> -<abbr title="Aischines">Aischin.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="against">ag.</abbr> <abbr title="Timarchos">Timarch.</abbr></cite> 12; <abbr title="Thucidides">Thuc.</abbr> <abbr title="seven">vii.</abbr> 29; Plato, <cite>Laws</cite>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_209" id="footnote_209"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_209"><span class="muchsmaller">[209]</span></a> -Lucian, <cite>Paracite</cite>, 61.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_210" id="footnote_210"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_210"><span class="muchsmaller">[210]</span></a> -<abbr title="Aischines">Aischin.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="against">ag.</abbr> <abbr title="Timarchos">Timarch.</abbr></cite> 12.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_211" id="footnote_211"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_211"><span class="muchsmaller">[211]</span></a> -<cite><abbr title="Anthologia Palatina">Anthol. Palat.</abbr></cite> <abbr title="ten">x.</abbr> 43 has been quoted as evidence that six hours’ work a day -was a maximum. The epigram runs: “Six hours suffice for work; rest of the day, -expressed in numerals, says <ins title="zêthi">ζῆθι</ins>, ‘enjoy life.’” But the point is the joke that the -numerals for 7, 8, 9, 10, the later hours of the day, are <ins title="z">ζʹ</ins>, <ins title="ê">ηʹ</ins>, <ins title="th">θʹ</ins>, <ins title="i">ιʹ</ins>, which spells -<ins title="zêthi">ζῆθι</ins>. The epigram does not mean to state a fact; the joke is its only <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">raison d’être</i>. -In any case schools are not mentioned.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_212" id="footnote_212"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_212"><span class="muchsmaller">[212]</span></a> -Herondas, <cite>Schoolmaster</cite> (iii.) 53.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_213" id="footnote_213"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_213"><span class="muchsmaller">[213]</span></a> -Mahaffy, <cite>Greek Education</cite>, <abbr title="page">p.</abbr> 54.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_214" id="footnote_214"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_214"><span class="muchsmaller">[214]</span></a> -Lucian, <cite><abbr title="Necyomantia">Nekuom.</abbr></cite> 17.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_215" id="footnote_215"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_215"><span class="muchsmaller">[215]</span></a> -<abbr title="Demosthenes">Dem.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="de Coronoa">de Cor.</abbr></cite> 315.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_216" id="footnote_216"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_216"><span class="muchsmaller">[216]</span></a> -<abbr title="Theophrastos">Theoph.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="Characters">Char.</abbr></cite> 30.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_217" id="footnote_217"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_217"><span class="muchsmaller">[217]</span></a> -<cite>Ibid.</cite> 30.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_218" id="footnote_218"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_218"><span class="muchsmaller">[218]</span></a> -Herondas, <abbr title="three">iii.</abbr> 3.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_219" id="footnote_219"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_219"><span class="muchsmaller">[219]</span></a> -<abbr title="Demosthenes">Demos.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="against">ag.</abbr> Aphobos</cite>, <abbr title="one">i.</abbr> 828.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_220" id="footnote_220"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_220"><span class="muchsmaller">[220]</span></a> -<abbr title="Demosthenes">Demos.</abbr> <cite>Crown</cite>, 312.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_221" id="footnote_221"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_221"><span class="muchsmaller">[221]</span></a> -<abbr title="Demosthenes">Demos.</abbr> <cite>Crown</cite>, 270. This is the most probable restoration of the facts from -the statements of the opposing orators.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_222" id="footnote_222"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_222"><span class="muchsmaller">[222]</span></a> -<cite>Ibid.</cite> 313.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_223" id="footnote_223"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_223"><span class="muchsmaller">[223]</span></a> -Aelian, <cite><abbr title="Vera Historia">Var. Hist.</abbr></cite> <abbr title="twelve">xii.</abbr> 9 (at Klazomenai).</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_224" id="footnote_224"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_224"><span class="muchsmaller">[224]</span></a> -Benches do not appear on vases, because a row of boys involves elaborate perspective; -the artist preferred to take single boys on stools, as a sort of section of a -class, just as he gave the stools only two legs. <abbr title="Xenophon">Xen.</abbr> <cite>Banquet</cite>, 4. 27, shows two -boys sitting side by side. It is not necessary to reject benches, with Girard.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_225" id="footnote_225"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_225"><span class="muchsmaller">[225]</span></a> -Alexis, <cite>Linos</cite> (in <abbr title="Athenaeus">Athen.</abbr> 164 <span class="sc">B.C.</span>). See <abbr title="Illustrations">Illustr.</abbr> <a href="#i01a">Plates <abbr title="One">I.</abbr> <span class="sc lowercase">A</span></a> and <a href="#i01b"><abbr title="One">I.</abbr> <span class="sc lowercase">B</span></a>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_226" id="footnote_226"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_226"><span class="muchsmaller">[226]</span></a> -<abbr title="Plutarch">Plut.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="Alcibiades">Alkib.</abbr> </cite> 7.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_227" id="footnote_227"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_227"><span class="muchsmaller">[227]</span></a> -Herondas, <abbr title="three">iii.</abbr> 83. 96.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_228" id="footnote_228"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_228"><span class="muchsmaller">[228]</span></a> -See <abbr title="Illustration">Illustr.</abbr> <a href="#i01a">Plate <abbr title="Number One">No. I.</abbr> <span class="sc lowercase">A</span></a>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_229" id="footnote_229"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_229"><span class="muchsmaller">[229]</span></a> -Plato, <cite><abbr title="Protagoras">Protag.</abbr></cite> 326 <span class="sc lowercase">D</span>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_230" id="footnote_230"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_230"><span class="muchsmaller">[230]</span></a> -In Clement of Alexandria, who gives two others. <cite><abbr title="Stromata">Strom.</abbr></cite> <abbr title="volume">v.</abbr> 8 (<abbr title="page">p.</abbr> 675, Potter). -A writing copy set by a master, though not of the alphabetical kind described by -Clement, is actually extant on a wax tablet in the British Museum (Add. MS. 34,186). -It consists of two lines of verse written out by the master and copied twice by a pupil.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_231" id="footnote_231"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_231"><span class="muchsmaller">[231]</span></a> -Aeschylus, <cite>Choeph.</cite> 209.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_232" id="footnote_232"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_232"><span class="muchsmaller">[232]</span></a> -<abbr title="Illustration">Illustr.</abbr> <a href="#i01a">Plate <abbr title="One">I.</abbr> <span class="sc lowercase">A</span></a>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_233" id="footnote_233"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_233"><span class="muchsmaller">[233]</span></a> -<abbr title="Xenophon">Xen.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="Economics">Econ.</abbr></cite> <abbr title="fifteen">xv.</abbr> 5.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_234" id="footnote_234"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_234"><span class="muchsmaller">[234]</span></a> -<abbr title="Demosthenes">Demosth.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="de Coronoa">de Cor.</abbr></cite> 313.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_235" id="footnote_235"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_235"><span class="muchsmaller">[235]</span></a> -Plato, <cite>Laws</cite>, 810 <span class="sc lowercase">A</span> (<abbr title="compare">cp.</abbr> the prizes for calligraphy in Teos).</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_236" id="footnote_236"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_236"><span class="muchsmaller">[236]</span></a> -<abbr title="Athenaeus">Athen.</abbr> 453 d.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_237" id="footnote_237"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_237"><span class="muchsmaller">[237]</span></a> -Giles’ <cite>Manual of Comparative Philology</cite>, § 604.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_238" id="footnote_238"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_238"><span class="muchsmaller">[238]</span></a> -<abbr title="Athenaeus">Athen.</abbr> 453 c, d.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_239" id="footnote_239"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_239"><span class="muchsmaller">[239]</span></a> -A fragment of terra-cotta has been found at Athens, containing on it:</p> - -<div class="poem-container"> - <div class="poem"> - <div class="i0"><ins title="ar bar gar dar">αρ βαρ γαρ δαρ</ins></div> - <div class="i0"><ins title="er ber ger der">ερ βερ γερ δερ</ins></div> - </div><!--end poem--> -</div><!--end container--> - -<p class="footnote unindent">which must have belonged to some spelling-book—perhaps the brick formed part of -the wall of a schoolroom.—Quoted by Girard, <abbr title="page">p.</abbr> 131.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_240" id="footnote_240"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_240"><span class="muchsmaller">[240]</span></a> -<abbr title="Athenaeus">Athen.</abbr> 454 f.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_241" id="footnote_241"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_241"><span class="muchsmaller">[241]</span></a> -This is by no means inconceivable, when it is remembered that the Hellenes -often set even the laws to music, in order to make them easier to learn and -remember.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_242" id="footnote_242"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_242"><span class="muchsmaller">[242]</span></a> -Plato, <cite><abbr title="Politics">Polit.</abbr></cite> 278 <span class="sc lowercase">A</span>, <span class="sc lowercase">B</span>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_243" id="footnote_243"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_243"><span class="muchsmaller">[243]</span></a> -<cite>Ibid.</cite></p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_244" id="footnote_244"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_244"><span class="muchsmaller">[244]</span></a> -<cite>Ibid.</cite> 285 <span class="sc lowercase">C</span>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_245" id="footnote_245"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_245"><span class="muchsmaller">[245]</span></a> -<abbr title="Xenophon">Xen.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="Economics">Econ.</abbr></cite> <abbr title="eight">viii.</abbr> 14.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_246" id="footnote_246"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_246"><span class="muchsmaller">[246]</span></a> -See <abbr title="Illustration">Illustr.</abbr> <a href="#i01a">Plate <abbr title="One">I.</abbr> <span class="sc lowercase">A</span></a>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_247" id="footnote_247"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_247"><span class="muchsmaller">[247]</span></a> -Case E 190.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_248" id="footnote_248"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_248"><span class="muchsmaller">[248]</span></a> -Plato, <cite><abbr title="Protagoras">Protag.</abbr></cite> 325 <span class="sc lowercase">E</span>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_249" id="footnote_249"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_249"><span class="muchsmaller">[249]</span></a> -Plato, <cite>Laws</cite>, 811.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_250" id="footnote_250"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_250"><span class="muchsmaller">[250]</span></a> -<ins title="ta kephalaia">τὰ κεφάλαια</ins>—a phrase used in later times for “commonplaces,” “topics,” -which suggests that these selections were of that sort.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_251" id="footnote_251"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_251"><span class="muchsmaller">[251]</span></a> -As the great speeches are picked out from Shakespeare for “repetition” -nowadays.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_252" id="footnote_252"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_252"><span class="muchsmaller">[252]</span></a> -Plato, <cite>Laws</cite>, 802, 811.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_253" id="footnote_253"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_253"><span class="muchsmaller">[253]</span></a> -Isokrates (<cite><abbr title="Panegyricus">Paneg.</abbr></cite> 74 <span class="sc lowercase">A</span>). He says the object was to make the boys hate the -barbarians; as, <span class="decoration">e.g.</span>, English boys might learn <cite>Henry <abbr title="Five">V.</abbr></cite> in order to dislike the -French!</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_254" id="footnote_254"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_254"><span class="muchsmaller">[254]</span></a> -<abbr title="Xenophon">Xen.</abbr> <cite>Banquet</cite>, <abbr title="three">iii.</abbr> 5.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_255" id="footnote_255"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_255"><span class="muchsmaller">[255]</span></a> -<cite>Ibid.</cite></p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_256" id="footnote_256"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_256"><span class="muchsmaller">[256]</span></a> -<cite>Ibid.</cite> <abbr title="four">iv.</abbr> 6.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_257" id="footnote_257"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_257"><span class="muchsmaller">[257]</span></a> -<abbr title="Aristophanes">Aristoph.</abbr> <cite>Frogs</cite>, 1035.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_258" id="footnote_258"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_258"><span class="muchsmaller">[258]</span></a> -From the <cite>Banqueters</cite>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_259" id="footnote_259"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_259"><span class="muchsmaller">[259]</span></a> -Straton (in <abbr title="Athenaeus">Athen.</abbr> 382, 383).</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_260" id="footnote_260"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_260"><span class="muchsmaller">[260]</span></a> -<abbr title="Aristophanes">Aristoph.</abbr> <cite>Frogs</cite>, 1032.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_261" id="footnote_261"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_261"><span class="muchsmaller">[261]</span></a> -<abbr title="Athenaeus">Athen.</abbr> 164.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_262" id="footnote_262"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_262"><span class="muchsmaller">[262]</span></a> -<abbr title="Aristophanes">Aristoph.</abbr> <cite>Birds</cite>, 471; <cite>Wasps</cite>, 1446. 1401.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_263" id="footnote_263"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_263"><span class="muchsmaller">[263]</span></a> -Plato, <cite><abbr title="Hippias Major">Hipp. Maj.</abbr></cite> 286 <span class="sc lowercase">B</span>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_264" id="footnote_264"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_264"><span class="muchsmaller">[264]</span></a> -<abbr title="Xenophon">Xen.</abbr> <cite>Banquet</cite>, <abbr title="four">iv.</abbr> 27. School friendships are also mentioned in <abbr title="Aristotle">Aristot.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="Ethics">Eth.</abbr></cite> -<abbr title="eight">viii.</abbr> 12; <abbr title="Aristophanes">Aristoph.</abbr> <cite>Clouds</cite>, 1006.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_265" id="footnote_265"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_265"><span class="muchsmaller">[265]</span></a> -<abbr title="Athenaeus">Athen.</abbr> 242 d.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_266" id="footnote_266"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_266"><span class="muchsmaller">[266]</span></a> -The translation is free, and I omit a good deal that is less relevant.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_267" id="footnote_267"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_267"><span class="muchsmaller">[267]</span></a> -For a picture of such a flogging see <abbr title="page">p.</abbr> 599 of Bury’s <cite>Roman Empire</cite>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_268" id="footnote_268"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_268"><span class="muchsmaller">[268]</span></a> -Plato, <cite>Laws</cite>, 809 <span class="sc lowercase">C</span>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_269" id="footnote_269"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_269"><span class="muchsmaller">[269]</span></a> -The distinction between <ins title="logistikê">λογιστική</ins>, reckoning up and comparing numbers, -chiefly in bills and the like, practical arithmetic, and <ins title="arithmêtikê">ἀριθμητική</ins>, theory of numbers, -is noted in Plato, <cite><abbr title="Gorgias">Gorg.</abbr></cite> 451 <span class="sc lowercase">B</span>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_270" id="footnote_270"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_270"><span class="muchsmaller">[270]</span></a> -Plato, <cite>Laws</cite>, 643 <span class="sc">B.C.</span></p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_271" id="footnote_271"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_271"><span class="muchsmaller">[271]</span></a> -Plato, <cite><abbr title="Protagoras">Protag.</abbr></cite> 318 <span class="sc lowercase">D</span>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_272" id="footnote_272"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_272"><span class="muchsmaller">[272]</span></a> -So Theodoros in the <cite>Theaitetos</cite>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_273" id="footnote_273"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_273"><span class="muchsmaller">[273]</span></a> -<abbr title="Xenophon">Xen.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="Economics">Econ.</abbr></cite> <abbr title="eight">viii.</abbr> 14.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_274" id="footnote_274"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_274"><span class="muchsmaller">[274]</span></a> -<abbr title="Xenophon">Xen.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="Memorabilia">Mem.</abbr></cite> <abbr title="four">iv.</abbr> 4. 7.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_275" id="footnote_275"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_275"><span class="muchsmaller">[275]</span></a> -<abbr title="Aristophanes">Aristoph.</abbr> <cite>Wasps</cite>, 656.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_276" id="footnote_276"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_276"><span class="muchsmaller">[276]</span></a> -In Diogenes Laertius, <abbr title="one">i.</abbr> 2. 10.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_277" id="footnote_277"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_277"><span class="muchsmaller">[277]</span></a> -Alexis (in <abbr title="Athenaeus">Athen.</abbr> 117 e).</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_278" id="footnote_278"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_278"><span class="muchsmaller">[278]</span></a> -An abacus of a very similar sort is still in use in China and Japan, even in -banks. The “pebbles” are pushed to and fro, not in grooves, but on wires passing -through the middle of them. Calculations can be made by this means with -marvellous rapidity.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_279" id="footnote_279"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_279"><span class="muchsmaller">[279]</span></a> -e.g. <cite><abbr title="Politics">Polit.</abbr></cite> 299 <span class="sc lowercase">D</span>. <ins title="petteian ê xympasan arithmêtikên">πεττείαν ἢ ξύμπασαν ἀριθμητικήν</ins>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_280" id="footnote_280"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_280"><span class="muchsmaller">[280]</span></a> -Plato, <cite><abbr title="Phaidros">Phaid.</abbr></cite> 274.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_281" id="footnote_281"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_281"><span class="muchsmaller">[281]</span></a> -Plato, <cite>Laws</cite>, 819 <span class="sc lowercase">B</span>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_282" id="footnote_282"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_282"><span class="muchsmaller">[282]</span></a> -The restoration of this process rests on <abbr title="Athenaeus">Athen.</abbr> 671; the other two are purely -conjectural.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_283" id="footnote_283"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_283"><span class="muchsmaller">[283]</span></a> -Suggests at once Hellenic, not Egyptian customs.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_284" id="footnote_284"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_284"><span class="muchsmaller">[284]</span></a> -Plato, <cite><abbr title="Republic">Rep.</abbr></cite> 526 <span class="sc lowercase">B</span>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_285" id="footnote_285"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_285"><span class="muchsmaller">[285]</span></a> -Plato, <cite>Laws</cite>, 747.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_286" id="footnote_286"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_286"><span class="muchsmaller">[286]</span></a> -Technically speaking, this was <ins title="lyra">λύρα</ins>, the <ins title="kithara">κιθάρα</ins> being a professional -instrument which was not taught at school.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_287" id="footnote_287"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_287"><span class="muchsmaller">[287]</span></a> -<abbr title="Illustration">Illustr.</abbr> <a href="#i01b">Plate <abbr title="One">I.</abbr> <span class="sc lowercase">B</span></a>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_288" id="footnote_288"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_288"><span class="muchsmaller">[288]</span></a> -Plato, <cite>Lusis</cite>, 209 <span class="sc lowercase">B</span>. On Inscriptions there are separate prizes for the two -methods.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_289" id="footnote_289"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_289"><span class="muchsmaller">[289]</span></a> -<abbr title="Xenophon">Xen.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="Economics">Econ.</abbr></cite> <abbr title="two">ii.</abbr> 13.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_290" id="footnote_290"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_290"><span class="muchsmaller">[290]</span></a> -<cite>Ibid.</cite> <abbr title="seventeen">xvii.</abbr> 7.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_291" id="footnote_291"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_291"><span class="muchsmaller">[291]</span></a> -<abbr title="Compare">Cp.</abbr> British Museum Vase E 57, on which a man is leading a leopard by a string.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_292" id="footnote_292"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_292"><span class="muchsmaller">[292]</span></a> -Plato, <cite><abbr title="Protagoras">Protag.</abbr></cite> 326 <span class="sc lowercase">B</span>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_293" id="footnote_293"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_293"><span class="muchsmaller">[293]</span></a> -<abbr title="Aristophanes">Aristoph.</abbr> <cite>Clouds</cite>, 1356.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_294" id="footnote_294"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_294"><span class="muchsmaller">[294]</span></a> -<abbr title="Aristophanes">Aristoph.</abbr> fragment of <cite>Banqueters</cite>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_295" id="footnote_295"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_295"><span class="muchsmaller">[295]</span></a> -<abbr title="Aristophanes">Aristoph.</abbr> <cite>Knights</cite>, 526.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_296" id="footnote_296"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_296"><span class="muchsmaller">[296]</span></a> -<abbr title="Plutarch">Plut.</abbr> <cite>Solon</cite>, <abbr title="three">iii.</abbr></p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_297" id="footnote_297"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_297"><span class="muchsmaller">[297]</span></a> -Hermippos (in <abbr title="Athenaeus">Athen.</abbr> 619 b).</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_298" id="footnote_298"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_298"><span class="muchsmaller">[298]</span></a> -<abbr title="Aristophanes">Aristoph.</abbr> <cite>Wasps</cite>, 959.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_299" id="footnote_299"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_299"><span class="muchsmaller">[299]</span></a> -<cite>Ibid.</cite> 989.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_300" id="footnote_300"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_300"><span class="muchsmaller">[300]</span></a> -<abbr title="Aristotle">Aristot.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="Politics">Pol.</abbr></cite> <abbr title="eight">viii.</abbr> 6. 11.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_301" id="footnote_301"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_301"><span class="muchsmaller">[301]</span></a> -For this reason it was opposed to <em>Dorian</em> influences by Pratinas. It was -excluded from the Pythian games (<abbr title="Pausanias">Pausan.</abbr> 10. <abbr title="seven">vii.</abbr> 5). Pratinas bids it be content -to “lead drunk young men in their carousals and brawls.”</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_302" id="footnote_302"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_302"><span class="muchsmaller">[302]</span></a> -Telestes, in his defence of the flute, could only retort that Athena, being condemned -to eternal spinsterhood, ought not to be particular about her looks -(<abbr title="Athenaeus">Athen.</abbr> 617).</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_303" id="footnote_303"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_303"><span class="muchsmaller">[303]</span></a> -<abbr title="Aristotle">Aristot.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="Politics">Pol.</abbr></cite> <abbr title="eight">viii.</abbr> 6. 11.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_304" id="footnote_304"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_304"><span class="muchsmaller">[304]</span></a> -<abbr title="Athenaeus">Athen.</abbr> 184 d. Plutarch, however, says that when Alkibiades’ masters tried to -make him learn the flute, he refused, declaring that it was unfit for gentlemen -(<cite><abbr title="Alkibiades">Alk.</abbr></cite> <abbr title="two">ii.</abbr> 5).</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_305" id="footnote_305"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_305"><span class="muchsmaller">[305]</span></a> -Not a respected profession at Athens.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_306" id="footnote_306"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_306"><span class="muchsmaller">[306]</span></a> -<abbr title="British Museum">Brit. Mus.</abbr> E 495, 64, 71.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_307" id="footnote_307"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_307"><span class="muchsmaller">[307]</span></a> -<abbr title="Athenaeus">Athen.</abbr> 337 f.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_308" id="footnote_308"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_308"><span class="muchsmaller">[308]</span></a> -Smith’s <cite>Dictionary of Antiquities</cite>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_309" id="footnote_309"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_309"><span class="muchsmaller">[309]</span></a> -<ins title="phorbeia">φορβεία</ins>. It belonged to professionals.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_310" id="footnote_310"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_310"><span class="muchsmaller">[310]</span></a> -<ins title="glôssokomeion">γλωσσοκομεῖον</ins>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_311" id="footnote_311"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_311"><span class="muchsmaller">[311]</span></a> -See the “Inscription” of the <cite>Andria</cite> and other plays of Terence.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_312" id="footnote_312"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_312"><span class="muchsmaller">[312]</span></a> -See <abbr title="Illustration">Illustr.</abbr> <a href="#i02">Plate <abbr title="Two">II.</abbr></a></p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_313" id="footnote_313"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_313"><span class="muchsmaller">[313]</span></a> -<abbr title="Athenaeus">Athen.</abbr> 20 f.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_314" id="footnote_314"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_314"><span class="muchsmaller">[314]</span></a> -Plato, <cite>Laches</cite>, 180 <span class="sc lowercase">D</span>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_315" id="footnote_315"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_315"><span class="muchsmaller">[315]</span></a> -Plato, <cite><abbr title="Euthydemus">Euthud.</abbr> </cite> 272 <span class="sc lowercase">C</span>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_316" id="footnote_316"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_316"><span class="muchsmaller">[316]</span></a> -<cite>Ibid.</cite> 295 <span class="sc lowercase">D</span>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_317" id="footnote_317"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_317"><span class="muchsmaller">[317]</span></a> -<abbr title="Aristophanes">Aristoph.</abbr> <cite>Knights</cite>, 987-996.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_318" id="footnote_318"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_318"><span class="muchsmaller">[318]</span></a> -Plato, <cite><abbr title="Protagoras">Protag.</abbr></cite> 326 <span class="sc lowercase">B</span>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_319" id="footnote_319"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_319"><span class="muchsmaller">[319]</span></a> -<abbr title="Aristotle">Aristot.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="Politics">Pol.</abbr></cite> <abbr title="eight">viii.</abbr> 3. 7.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_320" id="footnote_320"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_320"><span class="muchsmaller">[320]</span></a> -<cite>Ibid.</cite> <abbr title="eight">viii.</abbr> 3. 1.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_321" id="footnote_321"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_321"><span class="muchsmaller">[321]</span></a> -Plato, <cite><abbr title="Protagoras">Protag.</abbr></cite> 318 <span class="sc lowercase">B</span>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_322" id="footnote_322"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_322"><span class="muchsmaller">[322]</span></a> -<cite>Ibid.</cite> 311 <span class="sc lowercase">C</span>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_323" id="footnote_323"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_323"><span class="muchsmaller">[323]</span></a> -<abbr title="Pliny">Plin.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="Historia Naturalis">Hist. Nat.</abbr></cite> 35.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_324" id="footnote_324"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_324"><span class="muchsmaller">[324]</span></a> -<abbr title="Stobaeus">Stob.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="Florilegium">Floril.</abbr></cite> 98, <abbr title="page">p.</abbr> 535.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_325" id="footnote_325"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_325"><span class="muchsmaller">[325]</span></a> -Plato, <cite>Laws</cite>, 769 <span class="sc lowercase">B</span>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_326" id="footnote_326"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_326"><span class="muchsmaller">[326]</span></a> -See <cite><abbr title="Republic">Rep.</abbr></cite> <span class="sc"><abbr title="Ten">X.</abbr></span> 596 <span class="sc lowercase">E</span>, 605 <span class="sc lowercase">A</span>, etc. In the <cite>Sophist</cite>, 235 <span class="sc lowercase">D</span>, 266 <span class="sc lowercase">D</span>, etc., Plato reserves -his denunciation for <ins title="phantastikê">φανταστική</ins> which creates illusions; he almost approves of -<ins title="eikastikê">εἰκαστική</ins>. Idealised painting is hinted at in <cite><abbr title="Republic">Rep.</abbr></cite> 472 <span class="sc lowercase">D</span>, 484 <span class="sc lowercase">C</span>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_327" id="footnote_327"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_327"><span class="muchsmaller">[327]</span></a> -Aeschylus, <cite>Agamemnon</cite>, 1329.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_328" id="footnote_328"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_328"><span class="muchsmaller">[328]</span></a> -Plato, <cite><abbr title="Theaitetos">Theait.</abbr></cite> 208 <span class="sc lowercase">E</span>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_329" id="footnote_329"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_329"><span class="muchsmaller">[329]</span></a> -The modern oil process was not employed till late on in the Renaissance. -Fresco was common.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_330" id="footnote_330"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_330"><span class="muchsmaller">[330]</span></a> -<abbr title="Aristotle">Aristot.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="Politics">Pol.</abbr></cite> <abbr title="eight">viii.</abbr> 3. 12.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_331" id="footnote_331"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_331"><span class="muchsmaller">[331]</span></a> -<ins title="theôrêtikon tou peri ta sômata kallous"> - θεωρητικὸν τοῦ περὶ τὰ σώματα κάλλους</ins>.</p> -</div><!--end chapter--> - -<div class="chapter"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118"></a><span class="pageno">118</span> - -<h3 class="p4 h3head">CHAPTER IV</h3> - -<h4 class="p2 h4head">ATHENS AND THE REST OF HELLAS:<br /> -PHYSICAL EDUCATION</h4> - -<p class="p2"><span class="sc">It</span> is well known that the Hellenes attached an -enormous importance to physical exercise. This was -partly, no doubt, due to their intense appreciation of -bodily beauty, which it was the endeavour of their -gymnastic training to produce. But it must be -remembered that to be in “good condition” was -essential to them. Any morning an Hellenic citizen -might find himself called upon to take the field against -an invader, or might be despatched to ravage an -enemy’s territory. Only the most cogent excuses -were accepted. Plato<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_332" id="fnanchor_332"></a><a href="#footnote_332" class="fnanchor">[332]</a></span> -has left a vivid picture of a -rich man, who has lived in idleness and luxury, suddenly -called out to serve his country. Unhappy Dives -marches along panting and perspiring, he is ill on -board ship, and in battle when he has to charge or -fight vigorously, he has no wind and is in a state of -hopeless misery; while his poorer or wiser companions, -who are “lean and wiry, and have lived in the open -air,” mock at him and despise him. Sokrates points -out to young Epigenes,<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_333" id="fnanchor_333"></a><a href="#footnote_333" class="fnanchor">[333]</a></span> -who has neglected his physical -condition, what risks he runs. In battle, when a -<a name="Page_119" id="Page_119"></a><span class="pageno">119</span> -retreat is sounded, he will be left behind by his -companions, and be either killed or taken prisoner by -the foe; and the lot of the captive was frequently -slavery for life, unless his friends ransomed him. But -there were also intellectual and moral risks. “Bodily -debility,” says Sokrates, “frequently causes a loss of -memory, and low spirits, and a peevish temper, and -even madness, to invade a man, so as to make even -intellectual pursuits impossible.” To be a good citizen -and to be a good thinker a man must always be in good -physical condition. It became a duty to oneself and to -the State “to live in the open air and accustom oneself -to manly toils and sweat, avoiding the shade and -unmanly ways of life.”<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_334" id="fnanchor_334"></a><a href="#footnote_334" class="fnanchor">[334]</a></span> -By divine ordinance, “Sweat -was the doorstep of manly virtue,” as old Hesiod had -sung.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_335" id="fnanchor_335"></a><a href="#footnote_335" class="fnanchor">[335]</a></span> -</p> - -<p>This addiction to gymnastic exercises of all kinds -was characteristic of the Hellenic peoples from the -days of Homer. The original object had been -symmetrical development of the body, health, speed, -strength, and agility. But, as the Egyptian sage -remarked, the Hellenes were a nation of children—it is -just that which gives to them their charm and interest—and -children usually and naturally care most for the -body. Consequently athletics were carried too far: -they became an end in themselves, instead of being -merely a means of attaining physical activity and health. -The professional athlete became a sort of spoilt child, -fed at public expense,<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_336" id="fnanchor_336"></a><a href="#footnote_336" class="fnanchor">[336]</a></span> -courted by crowds of admirers, -and all the time he was quite useless for everything -except his own particular sort of contest, boxing or -<a name="Page_120" id="Page_120"></a><span class="pageno">120</span> -wrestling or the like. The tendency was ruinous: the -Hellenes preferred to be good gymnasts rather than -good soldiers.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_337" id="fnanchor_337"></a><a href="#footnote_337" class="fnanchor">[337]</a></span> -The competitor, boy or man, who -entered for one of the great prizes had to live in -complete idleness from other pursuits.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_338" id="fnanchor_338"></a><a href="#footnote_338" class="fnanchor">[338]</a></span> -Such professionals -“slept all the day long, and if they departed -from their prescribed system of training in the very -slightest degree, they were seized with serious diseases.”<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_339" id="fnanchor_339"></a><a href="#footnote_339" class="fnanchor">[339]</a></span> -Consequently they were useless as soldiers, since in -war it is necessary to be wide awake, not torpid, and -to be able to stand vicissitudes of heat and cold, and -not to be made ill by changes of diet. Specialisation -even led to deformity. The long-distance runner -developed thick legs and narrow shoulders, the boxer -broad shoulders and thin legs.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_340" id="fnanchor_340"></a><a href="#footnote_340" class="fnanchor">[340]</a></span> -It is to this specialisation -that Galen<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_341" id="fnanchor_341"></a><a href="#footnote_341" class="fnanchor">[341]</a></span> -attributes the decline in utility of -Hellenic athletics. Philostratos even notes that only -in the good old days was the health of athletes not -actually impaired by their exercises. In those times, -he says, they grew old late, and took part in eight or -nine Olympic contests—retained, that is, their efficiency -for thirty years or more; moreover, they were as good -soldiers as they were athletes. Later, these habits -changed, and athletes became averse to war, torpid, -effeminate, luxurious in their diet. The medical profession -took upon itself to advise them—a good thing -in its way, but unsuitable for athletes; for it told them -to sit still after meals before taking exercise, and -introduced them to elaborate cookery. Bribery also -<!--Blank Page--> -<!--Blank Page--> -<a name="Page_121" id="Page_121"></a><span class="pageno">121</span> -came into vogue among the professionals; usurers began -to enter the training schools on purpose to lend them -money for bribing their opponents.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_342" id="fnanchor_342"></a><a href="#footnote_342" class="fnanchor">[342]</a></span> -The first recorded -instance of this was early in the fourth century.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_343" id="fnanchor_343"></a><a href="#footnote_343" class="fnanchor">[343]</a></span> -</p> - -<div class="figcenter together" style="width: 500px"> - <p class="captionleft">PLATE <abbr title="Five">V.</abbr> <span class="sc lowercase">A.</span></p> - <a name="i05a" id="i05a"></a> - <img src="images/5a.jpg" - width="500" height="269" - alt="Illustration: Scenes in a Palaistra" - /> - <p class="caption">SCENES IN A PALAISTRA<br /> -<cite lang="de" xml:lang="de">Archaeologische Zeitung</cite>, 1878, Plate <span class="sc lowercase"><abbr title="Two">II.</abbr></span> From a Kulix at Munich, attributed to Euphronios.</p> -</div><!--end illustration--> - -<div class="figcenter together" style="width: 500px"> - <p class="captionleft">PLATE <abbr title="Five">V.</abbr> <span class="sc lowercase">B.</span></p> - <a name="i05b" id="i05b"></a> - <img src="images/5b.jpg" - width="500" height="316" - alt="Illustration: Title or description" - /> - <p class="caption">SCENE IN A PALAISTRA—A BOY WITH HALTERES, A BOY WITH JAVELIN, AND TWO PAIDOTRIBAI<br /> -<cite lang="de" xml:lang="de">Archaeologische Zeitung</cite>, 1878, Plate <span class="sc lowercase"><abbr title="Two">II.</abbr></span> From a Kulix at Munich, attributed to Euphronios. -</p> -</div><!--end illustration--> - -<p>Critics of this exaggerated athleticism were not -wanting, even in the earliest times. The attack begins -with Xenophanes of Kolophon. In an elegiac poem -he writes: “If a man wins a victory at Olympia -… either by speed of foot or in the pentathlon, -or by wrestling, or competing in painful boxing, -or in the dread contest called the pankration, his -countrymen will look upon him with admiration, and -he will receive a front seat in the games, and eat his -dinners at the public cost, and be presented with some -gift that he will treasure. All this he will get, even if -he only win a horse race. Yet he is not as worthy as I; -for my wisdom is better than the strength of men and -steeds. Nay, this custom is foolish, and it is not right -to honour strength more than the excellence of wisdom. -Not by good boxing, not by the pentathlon, nor by -wrestling, nor yet by speed of foot, which is the most -honoured in the contests of all the feats of human -strength—not so would a city be well governed. Small -joy would it get from a victory at Olympia: such -things do not fatten the dark corners of a city.”</p> - -<p>Pass straight from this to the works of Pindar, in -order to see whether Xenophanes’ attack was justified. -To Pindar the world holds nothing better than an -Olympian victory. Be the descendant of athletes and -be an athlete yourself—that is the summit of human -attainment and bliss. His gods are either athletes -themselves or founders of athletic contests. A man’s -true desires may usually be best traced in the conception -<a name="Page_122" id="Page_122"></a><span class="pageno">122</span> -which he forms of the future state: Pindar’s portrait -of Elysium is characteristic. First the scenery, a -magnificent description in his best manner:</p> - -<div class="poem-container"> - <div class="poem"> - <div class="i0">In that Underworld the sun shines in his might</div> - <div class="i4">Through our night.</div> - <div class="i0">Round that city through the dewy meadow-ways</div> - <div class="i4">Roses blaze.</div> - <div class="i0">Through the fragrant shadows, bright with golden gleams,</div> - <div class="i4">Fruitage teems.…</div> - <div class="i0">Every flower of joyance blooms nor withers there.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_344" id="fnanchor_344"></a><a href="#footnote_344" class="fnanchor">[344]</a></span></div> - </div><!--end poem--> -</div><!--end container--> - -<p class="unindent">And in this Paradise how are the shades of the departed -occupying themselves? “Some take their joy in horses, -some in gymnasia, some in draughts.”<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_345" id="fnanchor_345"></a><a href="#footnote_345" class="fnanchor">[345]</a></span> -That is the -highest bliss conceivable, in Pindar’s opinion.</p> - -<p>But Euripides did not agree with him. He denounces -the athletic life with much vigour.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_346" id="fnanchor_346"></a><a href="#footnote_346" class="fnanchor">[346]</a></span> - “Of -countless ills in Hellas, the race of athletes is quite the -worst.… They are slaves of their jaw and worshippers -of their belly.… In youth they go about in splendour, -the admiration of their city, but when bitter old age -comes upon them, they are cast aside like worn-out -coats. I blame the custom of the Hellenes, who gather -together to watch these men, honouring a useless -pleasure.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_347" id="fnanchor_347"></a><a href="#footnote_347" class="fnanchor">[347]</a></span> -Who ever helped his fatherland by winning -a crown for wrestling, or speed of foot, or flinging -the quoit, or giving a good blow on the jaw? Will -they fight the foe with quoits, or smite their fists -through shields? Garlands should be kept for the -wise and good, and for him who best rules the city by -his temperance and justice, or by his words drives away -evil deeds, preventing strife and sedition.”</p> - -<p><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123"></a><span class="pageno">123</span> -In return for this, the athlete-loving populace, finding -their voice in the popular poet Aristophanes, -denounced Euripides and his Sophist friends for emptying -the gymnasia and making the boys desire only a -good tongue, instead of a sound body, turning them -into pale-faced, indoor pedants, fit for nothing but -jabbering nonsense. The attitude of the poet in the -<cite>Clouds</cite> and <cite>Frogs</cite> is just that of an average schoolboy -discussing a student.</p> - -<p>Plato has already been quoted as an authority against -the athlete of his day. In the <cite>Laws</cite> he rejects every -kind of gymnastics which is not strictly conducive to -military efficiency, and, like the Spartans, condemns the -pankration and boxing. Races in the ideal State are to -be run in full armour, and the javelin and spear are to -replace the quoit. It is exactly the position of some -moderns, who would substitute shooting and field-days -for cricket and football. The case against the athletes -may be closed with Aristotle’s testimony: he also condemns -the specialisation of the trained professional.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_348" id="fnanchor_348"></a><a href="#footnote_348" class="fnanchor">[348]</a></span> -</p> - -<p>But these denunciations of athletes do not apply so -much to Athens as to the other States of Hellas. The -Athenian Agora was full of the statues of generals and -patriots, not, as was the usual custom, of athletes.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_349" id="fnanchor_349"></a><a href="#footnote_349" class="fnanchor">[349]</a></span> -The author of the treatise on the Athenian constitution,<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_350" id="fnanchor_350"></a><a href="#footnote_350" class="fnanchor">[350]</a></span> -writing in the early days of the Peloponnesian War, -notices that the democracy had driven gymnastics out -of fashion.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_351" id="fnanchor_351"></a><a href="#footnote_351" class="fnanchor">[351]</a></span> -He writes as one of the aristocrats who, -like Pindar and his princely friends, cared mainly for -the body and the outward beauties of life: the democracy -was vulgar, for it could not spend all its time in bodily -<a name="Page_124" id="Page_124"></a><span class="pageno">124</span> -exercises and musical banquets. No doubt at that -period in Athens, as can be seen in Aristophanes, there -was a reaction in favour of intellectual pursuits against -the exclusive athleticism of the preceding age: the time -of the citizens in a great democracy was also largely -monopolised by State duties, whether in the Assembly -or in the Law Courts or in fighting by sea or land. -But athletics still remained quite sufficiently popular -even at Athens, and athletic “shop” remained one of -the chief topics of conversation at a dinner-party.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_352" id="fnanchor_352"></a><a href="#footnote_352" class="fnanchor">[352]</a></span> -</p> - -<p class="center">* * * * *</p> - -<p>Gymnastic exercises centred round two sorts of -buildings which are often confused, the “gymnasium” -and the “palaistra.” The former may be said to -correspond to the whole series of fields and buildings -intended for games, which surround a modern public -school, including football and cricket grounds, running -track and jumping pit, fives courts, and so forth. The -“palaistra” often resembled little more than the playground -of a village school: it only demanded a sandy -floor, and sufficient privacy to protect the exercises from -intrusion: such buildings could be run up at private -expense in the smallest villages, and were often attached -to private houses. A “gymnasium,” on the other -hand, must have cost a vast sum to erect: even a great -capital like Athens only possessed three in the fourth -century; small towns must have been unable to afford -them at all. But the gymnasia were public buildings, -open to all; they were always full of citizens of all -ages, practising or watching others practise; they were -a fashionable place of resort, where Sophists lectured in -the big halls, and philosophers taught in the shady -gardens. For the trainer who wished to instruct his -<a name="Page_125" id="Page_125"></a><span class="pageno">125</span> -class of boys they were wholly unsuitable; besides, any -casual stranger could stand by and get a lesson for -nothing. Consequently, even at Athens, the boys were -taught in palaistrai which could be closed to the -public:<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_353" id="fnanchor_353"></a><a href="#footnote_353" class="fnanchor">[353]</a></span> -in the towns and villages there was no other -place.</p> - -<p>It is quite true that boys went to the gymnasia. -Aristophanes<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_354" id="fnanchor_354"></a><a href="#footnote_354" class="fnanchor">[354]</a></span> -talks of “a nice little boy on his way -home from the gymnasium.” In Antiphon,<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_355" id="fnanchor_355"></a><a href="#footnote_355" class="fnanchor">[355]</a></span> -some -older boys are practising the javelin in a gymnasium; -a younger boy, who had been standing among the -spectators, being called by his paidotribes, runs across the -course and is killed. If the reading “paidotribes,” for -which K. F. Hermann would substitute “paidagogos,” is -correct, we find a paidotribes and his class of younger -boys present in a gymnasium, probably to practise -javelin-throwing, which must have demanded a larger -space than the palaistra often afforded. The elder boys -are probably not under his tuition, for they are using -real javelins, not the unpointed shafts which were -employed at school. Paidotribai with small palaistrai -may often have taken their classes to the free public -gymnasia to practise the diskos, the javelin, and running, -which required a large space. But none the less the -palaistra was the usual scene of the teaching of boys.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_356" id="fnanchor_356"></a><a href="#footnote_356" class="fnanchor">[356]</a></span> -It must not, however, be supposed that a palaistra -was always reserved for boys. The “many palaistrai,” -which the democracy built for itself,<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_357" id="fnanchor_357"></a><a href="#footnote_357" class="fnanchor">[357]</a></span> -were doubtless -as much public buildings, open to all ages, as the -Akademeia or Lukeion. The palaistrai owned or -<a name="Page_126" id="Page_126"></a><span class="pageno">126</span> -hired by private teachers must have been open to adults -when the boys were not present; that which is the -scene of the <cite>Lusis</cite> was apparently attended by two -classes, one of boys and the other of youths, who only -met there on festival days. In the palaistra of Taureas, -however, mentioned in the <cite>Charmides</cite>, the different -classes seem all to meet in the undressing-room; but -on that occasion the building may have been open for -general practice, not for teaching. Some such arrangement -into classes must have taken place in the village -palaistrai.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_358" id="fnanchor_358"></a><a href="#footnote_358" class="fnanchor">[358]</a></span> -The master who taught the boys in the -palaistra was called the paidotribes, “boy-rubber”: -he must have owed his name to the great part which -rubbing, whether with oil or with various sorts of dust, -played in athletics.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_359" id="fnanchor_359"></a><a href="#footnote_359" class="fnanchor">[359]</a></span> -He was expected to be scientific. -He had to know what exercises would suit what constitutions:<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_360" id="fnanchor_360"></a><a href="#footnote_360" class="fnanchor">[360]</a></span> -he is often coupled with the doctor.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_361" id="fnanchor_361"></a><a href="#footnote_361" class="fnanchor">[361]</a></span> -His -object was to prevent, the doctor’s to cure, diseases. -He even prescribed diet. Besides health, he was -expected to aim at beauty and strength.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_362" id="fnanchor_362"></a><a href="#footnote_362" class="fnanchor">[362]</a></span> -His training, -in Plato’s opinion, also served to produce firmness of -character and strength of will: he must therefore know -how much training to administer to each boy, for too -much would cause excess of these qualities and lead -to savage brutality, and too little would result in -effeminacy.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_363" id="fnanchor_363"></a><a href="#footnote_363" class="fnanchor">[363]</a></span></p> - -<p><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127"></a><span class="pageno">127</span> -Since so much science was demanded of the paidotribes, -parents exercised much forethought in choosing -a gymnastic school for their boys:<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_364" id="fnanchor_364"></a><a href="#footnote_364" class="fnanchor">[364]</a></span> -they would “call -upon their friends and relations to give advice, and -deliberate for many days,” in order to find a trainer -whose instructions would “make their son’s body a -useful servant to his mind, not likely by its bad -condition to compel him to shirk his duty in war or -elsewhere.”<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_365" id="fnanchor_365"></a><a href="#footnote_365" class="fnanchor">[365]</a></span> -This at Athens, no doubt: in the smaller -towns and villages there could have been little choice: -parents must have taken what they could get.</p> - -<p>On arriving at the chosen palaistra with his paidagogos -the boy would find a class assembling. He -would first go into the undressing-room<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_366" id="fnanchor_366"></a><a href="#footnote_366" class="fnanchor">[366]</a></span> -and strip. -For all the exercises were performed naked. This no -doubt gave the trainer a good opportunity of watching -which muscles most required development, and what -constitutional weaknesses, if any, must be treated circumspectly. -Passing into the palaistra proper, the boy -would find an enclosure surrounded, in the case of the -more expensive schools, with pillars. There would be -no roof. Hellenic custom maintained that it was -healthy to expose the naked body to the open air and -the mid-day sun: a white skin was regarded as a sign -of effeminacy.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_367" id="fnanchor_367"></a><a href="#footnote_367" class="fnanchor">[367]</a></span> -If the sun became dangerously hot, -little caps were worn, which at other times hung on the -walls of the palaistra. The floor was sand. Before -wrestling or practising the pankration or jumping, -the boys had to break up the soil with pickaxes<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_368" id="fnanchor_368"></a><a href="#footnote_368" class="fnanchor">[368]</a></span> -in order to make it soft: these pickaxes were -also suspended on the walls. Beside them would -<a name="Page_128" id="Page_128"></a><span class="pageno">128</span> -be also <em>kôrukoi</em> or punch-balls, <em>haltêres</em> (a sort of -dumb-bell, used for jumping and other exercises), -the scrapers with which the dirt and sweat were -removed, bags to hold the cords which were used -as boxing-gloves, and spare javelins. Grown-up men -were not allowed to enter during the lessons, but could -apparently, if they wished, watch “from outside,” that -is, probably, from the dressing-room, where we often -find Sokrates conversing with the pupils, boys and -lads: he could not, probably, penetrate further.</p> - -<p>The symbol of office which marked the paidotribes -was a long forked stick depicted in the vases.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_369" id="fnanchor_369"></a><a href="#footnote_369" class="fnanchor">[369]</a></span> -This was -probably derived from the branch which the umpires at -the games held in their hands. The two symbols are -so much alike when represented on the vases<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_370" id="fnanchor_370"></a><a href="#footnote_370" class="fnanchor">[370]</a></span> -that it is -often hard to distinguish them. There were generally -several under-masters in the palaistra. The more proficient -boys also were employed in teaching backward -schoolfellows; these “pupil-teachers” appear on vases,<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_371" id="fnanchor_371"></a><a href="#footnote_371" class="fnanchor">[371]</a></span> -holding the stick of office like the grown-up masters. -No doubt, poor boys managed to get instruction in this -manner from their richer friends in the public gymnasia -and palaistrai, without attending a school at all.</p> - -<p>The staff of a palaistra also included professional -flute-players, for most of the exercises<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_372" id="fnanchor_372"></a><a href="#footnote_372" class="fnanchor">[372]</a></span> -were performed -to the sound of a flute, in order that good time might -be preserved in the various movements. The player -in these cases wore the <ins title="phorbeia">φορβεία</ins> or mouth-band.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_373" id="fnanchor_373"></a><a href="#footnote_373" class="fnanchor">[373]</a></span> -</p> - -<p>As I have pointed out in Chapter <abbr title="Two">II.</abbr>, although the -literary authorities make gymnastic training of a sort -<!--Blank Page--> -<!--Blank Page--> -<a name="Page_129" id="Page_129"></a><span class="pageno">129</span> -begin with the seventh year, it is not at all probable -that the more recognised exercises, such as boxing and -wrestling, began till a good many years later. The -vases suggest that these subjects were taught some years -after letters and music had begun, for they represent -only older boys as learning them. Aristotle seems to -vouch for a graduated course of gymnastic exercises -during boyhood.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_374" id="fnanchor_374"></a><a href="#footnote_374" class="fnanchor">[374]</a></span> -</p> - -<div class="figcenter together" style="width: 500px"> - <p class="captionleft">PLATE <abbr title="Six">VI.</abbr> <span class="sc lowercase">A.</span></p> - <a name="i06a" id="i06a"></a> - <img src="images/6a.jpg" - width="500" height="262" - alt="Illustration: Wrestlers" - /> - <p class="caption">IN THE PALAISTRA: WRESTLERS, PAIDOTRIBES, BOY PREPARING GROUND<br /> -Gerhard’s <cite lang="de" xml:lang="de">Auserlesene Vasenbilder</cite>, <abbr title="271">cclxxi.</abbr> Fig. 2.</p> -</div><!--end illustration--> - -<div class="figcenter together" style="width: 500px"> - <p class="captionleft">PLATE <abbr title="Six">VI.</abbr> <span class="sc lowercase">B.</span></p> - <a name="i06b" id="i06b"></a> - <img src="images/6b.jpg" - width="500" height="239" - alt="Illustration: Boy putting on boxing thong" - /> - <p class="caption">IN THE PALAISTRA: BOY PUTTING ON BOXING-THONG, A PANKRATION LESSON, AND A PAIDOTRIBES<br /> -Gerhard’s <cite lang="de" xml:lang="de">Auserlesene Vasenbilder</cite>, <abbr title="271">cclxxi.</abbr> Fig. 1.</p> -</div><!--end illustration--> - -<p>What did the boys learn at the palaistra in the -meantime? Deportment and easy exercises. A passage -in Aristophanes informs us that they were taught the -most graceful way to sit down and get up.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_375" id="fnanchor_375"></a><a href="#footnote_375" class="fnanchor">[375]</a></span> -Vases -represent boys learning how to stand straight. There -were also all sorts of exercises in which the unpointed -javelin played the part of a training-rod and the -halteres the part of dumb-bells. The paidotribes might -also try to strengthen particular muscles in particular -boys. In an epigram,<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_376" id="fnanchor_376"></a><a href="#footnote_376" class="fnanchor">[376]</a></span> -a trainer is exercising a boy’s -middle by bending him over his knee, and then, while -holding his feet fast, swinging him over backwards.</p> - -<p>No doubt what was known as “gesticulation” (<ins title="to -cheironomein">τὸ χειρονομεῖν</ins>) played a large part in this earlier training. -“Gesticulation” meant a scientific series of gestures and -movements of all the limbs, somewhat like the modern -systems of physical education taught by Sandow and -others. It was chiefly an exercise for the arms, as the -name implies, but on a celebrated occasion Hippokleides -the Athenian stood on his head on a table and “gesticulated” -with his feet.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_377" id="fnanchor_377"></a><a href="#footnote_377" class="fnanchor">[377]</a></span> -The particular movements were -very carefully designed, and were all intended to be -beautiful and gentlemanly.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_378" id="fnanchor_378"></a><a href="#footnote_378" class="fnanchor">[378]</a></span> -Gesticulation served as a -preparation for various dancing-systems, but was -<a name="Page_130" id="Page_130"></a><span class="pageno">130</span> -distinct from dancing, for Charmides was able to gesticulate -but unable to dance.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_379" id="fnanchor_379"></a><a href="#footnote_379" class="fnanchor">[379]</a></span> -It was also preparatory -to gymnastics, for it resembled the movements of a -boxer sparring at the air for lack of an opponent.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_380" id="fnanchor_380"></a><a href="#footnote_380" class="fnanchor">[380]</a></span> -The halteres were possibly often employed, for they -played a part in many gymnastic exercises.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_381" id="fnanchor_381"></a><a href="#footnote_381" class="fnanchor">[381]</a></span> -This -“gesticulation,” then, being a preliminary to gymnastics -and dancing, would be the natural thing for the small -boys to learn in the palaistra. Other early exercises -were rope-climbing<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_382" id="fnanchor_382"></a><a href="#footnote_382" class="fnanchor">[382]</a></span> -and a sort of leap-frog.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_383" id="fnanchor_383"></a><a href="#footnote_383" class="fnanchor">[383]</a></span> -The -various kinds of ball-game,<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_384" id="fnanchor_384"></a><a href="#footnote_384" class="fnanchor">[384]</a></span> -mostly designed to exercise -the body scientifically, may also have been employed. -Of the regular exercises of the palaistra, which I am -about to discuss, running and jumping would suit quite -small boys; the diskos and javelin could also be begun -at an early age, for smaller sizes were made for children.</p> - -<p class="center">* * * * *</p> - -<p>The age at which the recognised exercises were first -taught no doubt varied with individual taste and -physical capacity: no strict line can be drawn. These -exercises were wrestling, boxing, the pankration, jumping, -running, throwing the diskos and the javelin. - -<span class="decoration">Wrestling</span> (<ins title="palê">πάλη</ins>) was probably regarded as the most -important of these subjects, for it gave its name to the -Palaistra. For this exercise the soil was broken up -with the pickaxe and watered: the bodies of the -combatants were oiled beforehand. By these means -the Hellenes prevented their boys from disfiguring their -bodies with bumps and bruises, and the slipperiness of -the ground and of the antagonist’s body made the -exercise more difficult and therefore more valuable. -<a name="Page_131" id="Page_131"></a><span class="pageno">131</span> -Three throws were necessary for victory. There were -two sorts of wrestling. In one the victor had to throw -his antagonist without coming to the ground himself; -this was a matter of ingenious twists and turns somewhat -like the Japanese jiu-jitsu. In the other both -combatants rolled over and over on the ground: this -was less scientific. The leading paidotribai had their -own favourite systems of wrestling, with various -openings, as in chess, and various ways of meeting -them. “What style of wrestling did you learn at the -Palaistra?” Kleon asks the sausage-seller.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_385" id="fnanchor_385"></a><a href="#footnote_385" class="fnanchor">[385]</a></span> -When -two boys were set to wrestle in school, they were not -allowed to contend as they pleased with a view to -victory, but had to carry out the directions of the -paidotribes.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_386" id="fnanchor_386"></a><a href="#footnote_386" class="fnanchor">[386]</a></span> -A fragment of a system of wrestling has -been unearthed at Oxurhunchos.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_387" id="fnanchor_387"></a><a href="#footnote_387" class="fnanchor">[387]</a></span> -</p> - -<p>Suppose there are two boys, Charmides and Glaukon. -The paidotribes sets them to wrestle, while the rest -of the class watch. He holds a long forked stick in -his hand. Pointing with it to Charmides, he says, -“You put your right hand between his legs and grip -him.” Then to Glaukon, “Close your legs on it, and -thrust your left side against his side.” To Charmides, -“Throw him off with your left hand.” To Glaukon, -“Shift your ground, and engage.” Each group of -directions, or figure <ins title="schêma">σχῆμα</ins>, as it was called, closes -with the word “Engage” <ins title="plexon">πλέξον</ins>. At this point, -probably, the two boys were allowed to wrestle at will, -the result, however, being foreseen and inevitable owing -to the previous moves.</p> - -<p>An epigram in the <cite>Anthology</cite> represents instruction -<a name="Page_132" id="Page_132"></a><span class="pageno">132</span> -of this sort being given: the boy retorts in the middle, -“I can’t possibly do it, Diophantos; that’s not the -way boys wrestle.”<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_388" id="fnanchor_388"></a><a href="#footnote_388" class="fnanchor">[388]</a></span> -</p> - -<p>But, to use a parallel given by Isokrates, a pupil is -not yet a complete orator, when he knows how to -create pathos, irony, and so forth, and has been taught -the parts of a speech: he has still to learn when and -where and in what order to employ these several -artifices. So with wrestling. A boy who knows his -“figures” is not yet a wrestler: he has got to learn -when is the right moment to employ each of them in -an actual contest with a real antagonist. “When the -paidotribes has taught his pupils the ‘figures’ invented -for bodily training and practised them and made them -perfect in these, he makes the boys go through their -exercises again and accustoms them to physical toil, and -compels them to string together one by one the figures -which they have learnt, that they may have a firmer -grasp of them and get a clearer comprehension of the -right occasions for using them: for it is impossible to -comprehend these in an exact science.”<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_389" id="fnanchor_389"></a><a href="#footnote_389" class="fnanchor">[389]</a></span> -The boys -have to judge for themselves, in the heat of the -contest, which figure it will be expedient to use: the -trainer cannot fix that beforehand. But they will best -be able to judge, if by long practice they have -discovered which figures suit them best and which -prove fatal to a particular type of opponent.</p> - -<p><span class="decoration">Boxing</span> was similarly taught by a series of “figures.” -The boys used the light gloves, consisting of strings -wound round the hands, not the heavy, metal-weighted -gloves which professional athletes wore. The <span class="decoration">pankration</span><span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_390" id="fnanchor_390"></a><a href="#footnote_390" class="fnanchor">[390]</a></span> -was a mixture of boxing and wrestling: the boys -<!--Blank Page--> -<a name="Page_133" id="Page_133"></a><span class="pageno">133</span> -usually wore similar gloves for this but left the fingers -unfastened, only the wrists and knuckles being protected: -sometimes they fought with bare hands. For -both these exercises it was usual to wear dogskin -caps, in order to protect the ears from injury. The -pankration seems to have been regarded as an unsatisfactory -game for boys: so it was excluded from both -Olympian and Pythian games till a comparatively -late date. For one thing, it was dangerous, and -the exercise was very severe. But in the palaistra, -carefully regulated by the paidotribes and stopped -when the fighting became dangerous, no doubt it was -harmless enough. Alkibiades, however, once succeeded -in biting an opponent who was pressing him hard, being -ready to do anything rather than be beaten. “You -bite like a girl, Alkibiades!” exclaimed the indignant -boy. “No, like a lion,” answered Alkibiades.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_400" id="fnanchor_400"></a><a href="#footnote_400" class="fnanchor">[400]</a></span> -</p> - -<div class="figcenter together" style="width: 500px"> - <p class="captionleft">PLATE <abbr title="Seven">VII.</abbr></p> - <a name="i07a" id="i07a"></a> - <img src="images/7a.jpg" - width="500" height="506" - alt="Illustration: Stadion at Delphi" - /> - <p class="captionright"><span class="decoration">Photo by Mr. R. Coupland.</span></p> - <p class="caption"><span class="sc">Stadion at Delphi from the Fortifications of Philomelos.</span><br /> -Length about 220 yards.</p> -</div><!--end illustration--> - -<div class="figcenter together" style="width: 500px"> - <a name="i07b" id="i07b"></a> - <img src="images/7b.jpg" - width="500" height="509" - alt="Illustration: Stadion at Delphi" - /> - <p class="captionright"><span class="decoration">Photo by Mr. R. Coupland.</span></p> - <p class="caption"><span class="sc">Stadion at Delphi from the Fortifications of Philomelos.</span><br /> -A nearer view.</p> -</div><!--end illustration--> - -<p><span class="decoration">Running</span> needs no comment: the methods are much -the same in all ages. The chief distances for races in -Hellas were the Stadion or 200 yards,<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_401" id="fnanchor_401"></a><a href="#footnote_401" class="fnanchor">[401]</a></span> -the Diaulos or -quarter-mile, and the Long-distance race, which varied -from three-quarter mile to about three miles. The -race in armour was not taught to boys. Races were -often run over soft sand, where the runners sank in, -just as long-distance races in England often include a -ploughed field or two. The sand made running both -a more severe exercise (so that a shorter distance -sufficed) and also a better training for war.</p> - -<p>For the <span class="decoration">long jump</span> the Hellenes used the “halteres” -or light dumb-bells, to assist their momentum.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_402" id="fnanchor_402"></a><a href="#footnote_402" class="fnanchor">[402]</a></span> -Even -in competitions, a flute-player stood by, to give the -competitors the assistance of his music: no doubt it -<a name="Page_134" id="Page_134"></a><span class="pageno">134</span> -helped them to manage their steps so as to “take off” -on the right spot. They alighted into a large sandy -pit, dug up by the ever-present pickaxe: the jump -was only measured if they came down on to this evenly, -leaving a clear trace of their foot.</p> - -<p>The <span class="decoration">diskos</span> was a flat circle of polished bronze or -other metal.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_403" id="fnanchor_403"></a><a href="#footnote_403" class="fnanchor">[403]</a></span> -The specimen in the British Museum is -between 8 and 9 inches in diameter, and is inscribed -with athletic pictures on either side. It was flung with -either hand. A great many attitudes were necessary -before the diskos was launched, and every muscle of -the body must have been well exercised in the process. -The time was given, in the palaistra, by a flute-player. -In competitions both the distance and the direction of -the throw were taken into consideration.</p> - -<p>Boys learnt to throw the <span class="decoration">javelin and spear</span> by -practising with long unpointed rods, which were also -used for a variety of physical exercises. The mark -seems to have been a sort of croquet-hoop or pair of -compasses, fixed into the ground: other targets were -also employed.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_404" id="fnanchor_404"></a><a href="#footnote_404" class="fnanchor">[404]</a></span> -The vases which represent this pursuit -often show the paidotribes carrying this hoop or fixing -it into the ground. It was planted at a fixed distance -which was stepped out.</p> - -<p>It may be mentioned, before we leave the “paidotribes,” -that his fee for his whole course seems to -have been a <ins title="mna">μνᾶ</ins>, about £4:<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_405" id="fnanchor_405"></a><a href="#footnote_405" class="fnanchor">[405]</a></span> -this enabled the pupil -to attend his lectures “for ever,” that is, perhaps till -the course was finished. Or perhaps this sum made a -pupil a life-member of a particular private palaistra.</p> - -<p>Let us now look into one of the gymnasia at -Athens, the Akademeia or Lukeion. We will suppose -<a name="Page_135" id="Page_135"></a><span class="pageno">135</span> -that it is late in the afternoon, for this was a favourite -time for taking exercise: the Athenians liked to get a -good appetite for their evening meal. Outside, a -troop of young men who intend to be enrolled in the -State-cavalry are practising their evolutions, mounting, -in the absence of stirrups, by a leaping-pole, and charging -in squadrons. On another side a body of heavy -infantry with spear and shield are assembling for a -night march into the Megarid;<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_406" id="fnanchor_406"></a><a href="#footnote_406" class="fnanchor">[406]</a></span> -they are packing -their supplies, onions and dried fish, perhaps, into their -knapsacks as they fall in, and are grumbling at having -to leave Athens just when a festival is coming; a burly -countryman is complaining to his general that it is not -his turn to serve, as he took part in the raid into -Boiotia last week, and his general is threatening him -with a prosecution for insubordination if he becomes -abusive. After paying our respects to the patron -deities, Herakles and Hermes and Eros,<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_407" id="fnanchor_407"></a><a href="#footnote_407" class="fnanchor">[407]</a></span> -and having -muttered a curse on all tyrants suggested by the statue -of Eros which Charmos the father-in-law of Hippias -the Peisistratid set up,<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_408" id="fnanchor_408"></a><a href="#footnote_408" class="fnanchor">[408]</a></span> -we enter the gymnasium.</p> - -<p>The first room which we come to is the undressing-room.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_409" id="fnanchor_409"></a><a href="#footnote_409" class="fnanchor">[409]</a></span> -On the benches round the walls a row of men -are sitting discussing the exact nature of Self-control: -an extremely ugly person, to whom they all pay great -respect, is stating that it is an exact science, and, if only -they can discover this science, the whole world will -become virtuous. Lads and men are stripping all -about the room, and passing off to take their exercises -elsewhere; others keep coming in and dressing and -listening to the discussion for a minute or two. A -handsome young fellow comes in: the ugly man makes -<a name="Page_136" id="Page_136"></a><span class="pageno">136</span> -room for him with great energy, and his friends who -are sitting at the end of the bench are pushed off -suddenly on to the floor. A shout of laughter, -mingled with some strong Attic abuse, arises. Not -wishing to be involved as witnesses in an interminable -lawsuit, we hurry out through the further door into a -great cloister.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_410" id="fnanchor_410"></a><a href="#footnote_410" class="fnanchor">[410]</a></span> -In the centre of this is a large open -space, with no roof. Here we meet a well-known -mathematician from Kurene,<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_411" id="fnanchor_411"></a><a href="#footnote_411" class="fnanchor">[411]</a></span> -who is walking round the -cloister with a crowd of pupils: he is explaining to -them that famous theorem about right-angled triangles, -whose proof is so neat that Pythagoras the vegetarian -sacrificed a hundred oxen when he discovered it. At -intervals the mathematician stops and draws a diagram -in the dust with his stick. As we follow him, we can -look into the rooms which surround the cloister. In -one, a crowd of men are anointing themselves with oil.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_412" id="fnanchor_412"></a><a href="#footnote_412" class="fnanchor">[412]</a></span> -The rubbing, which is so good for all bodily ills, and -the oil, even if not followed by any further exercise, are -regarded as an excellent thing. An Athenian gentleman -is expected to carry about a certain fragrance of this -oil,<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_413" id="fnanchor_413"></a><a href="#footnote_413" class="fnanchor">[413]</a></span> -and his skin must always be sleek with it; but as -a rule the anointing is a prelude to exercise, and is -meant to make the joints supple and the body slippery -enough to elude a wrestler’s grip.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_414" id="fnanchor_414"></a><a href="#footnote_414" class="fnanchor">[414]</a></span> -A slave or an -attendant stands by many of the men, holding one of -those dainty oil-flasks which make so great a feature in -modern Museums of Archæology. Through the next -<a name="Page_137" id="Page_137"></a><span class="pageno">137</span> -door we see the “dusting-room.” Various sorts of -dust were used for rubbing the body. They served -to clean it of sweat after exercise, to open the pores, to -warm it when cold, and to soften the skin. A yellow -dust was particularly popular; for it made the body -glisten so as to be pleasant to look at, as a good body -in good condition ought to be.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_415" id="fnanchor_415"></a><a href="#footnote_415" class="fnanchor">[415]</a></span> -Next perhaps will be -the bathing-room—a popular place in the evening, for -it was usual to take a bath before dinner.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_416" id="fnanchor_416"></a><a href="#footnote_416" class="fnanchor">[416]</a></span> -The -bathers either splash themselves out of great bowls -which stand upon pedestals, or receive a shower bath -by getting a companion or an attendant to pour a -pitcher of water over them. Tanks capable of receiving -the whole body at once were not usual, though -known to Homer.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_417" id="fnanchor_417"></a><a href="#footnote_417" class="fnanchor">[417]</a></span> -Then we see the room of the -<span class="decoration">korukos</span>, or punch-ball, which will present a very curious -appearance.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_418" id="fnanchor_418"></a><a href="#footnote_418" class="fnanchor">[418]</a></span> -The <span class="decoration">korukos</span> is a large sack hanging -from the ceiling by a rope. The lighter <span class="decoration">korukoi</span> are -filled with fig seeds or meal, the heavier with sand. -They hang at about the height of a man’s waist. You -push one of them gently at first, and more and more -violently as you gain experience; having pushed it, -you plant yourself in the way of the rebound, and try -to stop the sack with your hands or your chest or your -back or your head. If you are not strong enough, you -will be knocked over, and the room will laugh. This -will practise you in standing steady, and make all parts -of your body firm and muscular. The <span class="decoration">korukos</span> can -also be used as a punch-ball, to strengthen the boxer’s -arms and shoulders. This exercise is especially recommended -for boxers and pankratiasts: the latter -<a name="Page_138" id="Page_138"></a><span class="pageno">138</span> -ought to use the heavier variety. Perhaps there will -also be some lay-figures hanging up round the walls, -for these also were used for practising. Here, too, -some unlucky individuals who, from unpopularity or -other causes, are unable to find an antagonist, will be -exercising their fists on thin air. But both these -expedients were regarded as ridiculous.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_419" id="fnanchor_419"></a><a href="#footnote_419" class="fnanchor">[419]</a></span> -</p> - -<p>There were a large number of other rooms round -the cloister, some intended for exercises in wet weather, -for, if possible, exercise was always taken out of doors; -for it was regarded as a great object to make the skin -brown and hard by exposure to the sun. So King -Agesilaos put his Asiatic captives up for sale in his -camp naked, in order that his Hellenic soldiers, seeing -their pale, soft flesh, unused to exposure, might despise -their enemy. But as most of these rooms were furnished -with seats, they were largely used as lecture-halls -by wandering Sophists,<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_420" id="fnanchor_420"></a><a href="#footnote_420" class="fnanchor">[420]</a></span> -who gave free lectures in -them to any passer-by who might care to listen, in -order to attract regular, paying pupils. So we can -take our pick and hear lectures on poetry or metaphysics, -music or rhetoric, geography or history, at our -pleasure.</p> - -<p>After this, we can turn our attention to the -great central courtyard,<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_421" id="fnanchor_421"></a><a href="#footnote_421" class="fnanchor">[421]</a></span> -which is surrounded by the -cloister, or to the racecourse and open spaces which -lie beyond it. In one part will be the wrestling -arena.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_422" id="fnanchor_422"></a><a href="#footnote_422" class="fnanchor">[422]</a></span> -Pairs of oiled, naked combatants will be -struggling together, amid a crowd of cheering spectators, -<a name="Page_139" id="Page_139"></a><span class="pageno">139</span> -and perhaps the trainer will be standing by, -giving them directions. One group attracts especial -attention: for the pair are going to represent Athens -at Olympia next year. Elsewhere the pankratiasts are -contending, some sparring at arm’s length, others -joined in a deadly grapple, rolling over and over on -the ground and pummelling one another’s heads with -their gloved knuckles. They are covered with clotted -dust and oil and will need much scraping. Then there -are the boxers, bearing either the light gloves, or, if -they intend to take part in a big competition, the -heavy iron balls padded over with leather which were -used in the great Games.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_423" id="fnanchor_423"></a><a href="#footnote_423" class="fnanchor">[423]</a></span> -There are races too in -progress, lap by lap round the great Stadion. Some of -the runners are naked, others are wearing helmet and -shield, since they are practising for the Race in Armour. -Friends run beside them for a little way, pacing them -and encouraging them. Others are jumping, with the -halteres in their hands, into the pit, while their friends -mark the point where their heels have left a mark in -the sand. A professional flute-player, with his mouth-band -on, sets the time. Each is, no doubt, hoping -to beat Phaüllos’ great jump of 55 feet—the world’s -record. Everywhere are crowds of spectators,<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_424" id="fnanchor_424"></a><a href="#footnote_424" class="fnanchor">[424]</a></span> -and -everywhere eager trainers giving advice, hoping, if their -pupil gains a prize at some great Games, to make a -name for themselves, and attract a crowd of lads to -their paid lessons: perhaps they will even be immortalised -by some contemporary Pindar in a song in honour -of their pupil’s victory.</p> - -<p>In another corner, it may be, there will be teams -<a name="Page_140" id="Page_140"></a><span class="pageno">140</span> -practising together. A regiment of epheboi may be -undergoing their gymnastic training before service -on the frontier:<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_425" id="fnanchor_425"></a><a href="#footnote_425" class="fnanchor">[425]</a></span> -or a team of them may be training, -watched by the rich “gumnasiarchos,” for the -torch-race at the festival of Hephaistos, or for the -race from the Temple of Dionusos to that of Athena -of the Sunshades, where the winner will receive a large -bowl containing wine and honey and cheese and meat -and olive oil—not all mixed together, let us hope.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_426" id="fnanchor_426"></a><a href="#footnote_426" class="fnanchor">[426]</a></span> -There may also be teams practising wrestling and other -bodily exercises together. Their trainer, “thinking it -impossible to lay down separate regulations for each -individual, orders roughly what suits the majority. So -every one of the team takes an equal amount of exercise, -and they all start and all stop running, or wrestling, or -whatever it may be, at the same moment.”<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_427" id="fnanchor_427"></a><a href="#footnote_427" class="fnanchor">[427]</a></span> -</p> - -<p>In the larger open spaces we shall find Athenians -throwing the diskos, like Muron’s celebrated figure, or -practising archery, or flinging the spear or javelin. -In watching these care must be exercised: unwary spectators -may be killed or injured. Mythology is full of -unfortunates killed in this way. Was not the fair -Huakinthos slain by Apollo’s quoit? Antiphon, too, -in his new book on speech-writing, takes as one of his -themes a boy killed by a comrade’s javelin accidentally. -We can also take a lesson in the use of spear and shield -from the teacher of arms: a pair of Sophists, who -specialise in this subject, have just come to Athens, and -will doubtless be exhibiting their skill here. We remember, -though, that the warlike Spartans ridicule these -professors, and General Laches regards them as quite -<a name="Page_141" id="Page_141"></a><span class="pageno">141</span> -useless for military purposes, as we heard him telling -Sokrates the other day.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_428" id="fnanchor_428"></a><a href="#footnote_428" class="fnanchor">[428]</a></span> -So we will pass on.</p> - -<p>The vast majority of people in the gymnasium -confine themselves to walking about. The colonnades -and the gardens are convenient and attractive, and -there is plenty to watch everywhere. The “xustos,” -or covered cloister,<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_429" id="fnanchor_429"></a><a href="#footnote_429" class="fnanchor">[429]</a></span> -where athletes exercise in bad -weather, is particularly popular among the walkers. -And while they walk, they talk. There is a group of -philosophical students arguing about the Supreme Good -or constructing an ideal State. There is a party of -inquirers who are discussing the nature of plants, or -the varieties of crustaceans. Yonder, a half-naked, -unkempt enthusiast is declaiming against luxury. -“Man,” he cries, “is independent of circumstances.” -Everywhere, walkers and spectators and talkers, but -walkers above all.</p> - -<p>For the average Athenian spent all his time upon -his legs: to sit down was the mark of a slave.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_430" id="fnanchor_430"></a><a href="#footnote_430" class="fnanchor">[430]</a></span> -He -walked nearly all day: the distance which he covered -in five or six days would easily stretch from Athens to -Olympia. He took a walk before breakfast, another -before lunch, another before dinner, and another between -dinner and bed.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_431" id="fnanchor_431"></a><a href="#footnote_431" class="fnanchor">[431]</a></span> -</p> - -<p>Games of ball are going on in the ball-court yonder.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_432" id="fnanchor_432"></a><a href="#footnote_432" class="fnanchor">[432]</a></span> -We may remember that the poet Sophocles was a -famous player.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_433" id="fnanchor_433"></a><a href="#footnote_433" class="fnanchor">[433]</a></span> -But the shadow on the great sun-dial -has nearly reached the ten-foot mark which announces -dinner-time to the Athenian world. The crowds who -have been exercising themselves are scraping off the -<a name="Page_142" id="Page_142"></a><span class="pageno">142</span> -sweat and dirt with the <ins title="stlengis">στλεγγίς</ins> or scraper,<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_434" id="fnanchor_434"></a><a href="#footnote_434" class="fnanchor">[434]</a></span> -or else -hurrying to the bath-rooms. After the bath comes -another anointing, with oil and water this time.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_435" id="fnanchor_435"></a><a href="#footnote_435" class="fnanchor">[435]</a></span> -Then -away through the nearest gate into the city, while the -great buildings on the Akropolis grow misty in the -twilight and Athena’s guardian Spear catches the last -rays of the setting sun.</p> - -<p>All this was open to the poorest Athenian: there -was no fee for entrance. The only expenses were those -incurred in buying an oil-flask and scraper, which the -State did not as a rule provide, and any fees that might -be paid to a trainer for special “coaching.” The poor -could learn as much as they required from watching -those who were proficient. It was usual to tip the man -in the public baths who poured cold water over the -bathers and assisted them generally: but this probably -did not apply to the bath-rooms in the gymnasia. The -State certainly made it easy for every citizen to take as -much exercise as he pleased.</p> - -<p>Women were wholly excluded from athletics at -Athens. In Sparta girls exercised themselves as much -as the boys. In other Dorian States feminine athletics -were encouraged to a less degree. At Argos there -were foot-races for girls. In Chios they could be seen -wrestling in the gymnasia.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_436" id="fnanchor_436"></a><a href="#footnote_436" class="fnanchor">[436]</a></span> -</p> - -<p class="center">* * * * *</p> - -<p>But the gymnasia and palaistrai, though they provided -so many different kinds of exercises, did not -supply the Hellenes with their sole opportunities for -keeping the body in good condition. Hunting was a -popular employment at Sparta and no doubt elsewhere: -Xenophon, who was devoted to it, would have liked -<a name="Page_143" id="Page_143"></a><span class="pageno">143</span> -to make it more popular in Attica,<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_437" id="fnanchor_437"></a><a href="#footnote_437" class="fnanchor">[437]</a></span> -where it languished, -perhaps from lack of game. Swimming and rowing -were usual accomplishments. Riding was compulsory -for rich citizens at Athens, for they had to serve in the -cavalry; it was also popular in Thessaly, the land of -horses. Military service provided both an incentive -to physical exercise and a frequent means of obtaining -it. Dancing was universal throughout the Hellenic -world and played a larger part in Hellenic education than -is usually recognised. At Sparta it was of paramount -importance. At Athens it was taught free to large -numbers of boys under the system of leitourgiai. Plato -divides physical education into dancing and wrestling.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_438" id="fnanchor_438"></a><a href="#footnote_438" class="fnanchor">[438]</a></span> -Aristophanes<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_439" id="fnanchor_439"></a><a href="#footnote_439" class="fnanchor">[439]</a></span> -brackets dancing between the palaistra -and music, when he wishes to give the three elements -of a gentleman’s education. Choral dancing to a -Hellene was at once the ritual of religion, the ordinary -accompaniment of a festival or public holiday, the -highest form of music, and the most perfect system of -physical exercise then discovered.</p> - -<p>The modern reader finds it very hard to realise -why Hellenic philosophers attach so much educational -importance to the various kinds of dance. This is -because modern dancing differs from its ancient prototype -in two very important particulars: it is not -connected with religion and it is not dramatic. In the -East dancing was, and is, the language of religion. -David, to show his fervour, danced before the Ark -with all his might. In Hellas, dancing accompanied -every rite and every mystery.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_440" id="fnanchor_440"></a><a href="#footnote_440" class="fnanchor">[440]</a></span> -The choral dance -afforded the outlet to religious enthusiasm which elsewhere -<a name="Page_144" id="Page_144"></a><span class="pageno">144</span> -is provided by services: any change in its -characteristics was a change in ritual and in the inexpressible -sentiments and moral attitudes which become -so closely bound up with habitual religious observances. -And, since it was the usual ritual of worship, dancing -became all-important in education, as providing the -forms through which the highest aspirations of the -children were accustomed to find expression.</p> - -<p>The boy who danced in honour of Dionusos was -trying to assimilate himself to the god, whose history -and personality would be brought home to him vividly -by the vineyards around him: they would serve him for -a parable. The vine that came so mysteriously out of -the earth, lived its short life in the rain and sunshine, -and was crushed and killed at the harvest, to rise -again in the strange juice which thrilled him with such -wondrous power—there was plenty of parable for him -there. And while he felt the god’s history so vividly, -he was acting it, for acting was the very essence of -Hellenic dancing. He would act the sorrows of -Dionusos, his persecution from city to city, and his -final conquest; he would match each incident in the -story with suitable inward feelings and outward gestures -of sorrow and triumph. Thus his dancing came to -be a keenly religious observance, accompanied by more -vivid acting than is possible on a modern stage; such -dancing, it must be remembered, was the parent of Attic -Drama. The dramatic power of such acting became -enormous; one dancer, it is said, could make the whole -philosophic system of Pythagoras intelligible without -speaking a word, simply by his gestures and attitudes.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_441" id="fnanchor_441"></a><a href="#footnote_441" class="fnanchor">[441]</a></span> -</p> - -<p>In such dramatic dancing the subject or plot was -important. Here the weakness of the old Hellenic -<a name="Page_145" id="Page_145"></a><span class="pageno">145</span> -mythology became fatal. For it was the old myths -that supplied the motives of religious dances as well -as of the drama, and many of them were morally -unsatisfactory. When a chorus of boys danced the -<cite>Birth-pangs of Semelé</cite>, the most famous dithyramb -of Timotheos, not unnaturally objections were raised. -The new school of musicians and poets, which arose -towards the end of the fifth century, tried to represent -everything and anything in the most realistic way -possible: their dancers had to imitate with voice and -gesture “blacksmiths at the forge, craftsmen at work, -sailors rowing and boatswains giving them orders, -horses neighing, bulls bellowing,”<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_442" id="fnanchor_442"></a><a href="#footnote_442" class="fnanchor">[442]</a></span> -and so forth. They -chose the commonest and coarsest scenes, just like -Dutch painters. In their hands, dancing became something -vulgar, as well as morally risky, though still under -a semi-religious sanction. It is this charge which -justified Plato’s denunciations of the dramatic element -in poetry and music. It must be remembered that the -choregos at Athens, who collected the boys from his -tribe to dance these dithyrambs, could use compulsion -if fathers refused to allow their sons to join his chorus.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_443" id="fnanchor_443"></a><a href="#footnote_443" class="fnanchor">[443]</a></span> -Yet the advantages of learning to dance were great, -quite apart from the religious aspects. Dancing was a -scientifically designed system of physical training, which -exercised every part of the body symmetrically.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_444" id="fnanchor_444"></a><a href="#footnote_444" class="fnanchor">[444]</a></span> -The -different masters invented systems of their own, just -as the paidotribai invented systems of wrestling; in -both cases the teaching began with a series of figures, -which were afterwards fitted together. Different -localities also had their own particular figures.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_445" id="fnanchor_445"></a><a href="#footnote_445" class="fnanchor">[445]</a></span></p> - -<p><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146"></a><span class="pageno">146</span> -The solo dance was used for private exercise. It -also made its way into the drama. Sometimes, too, in -the choral performances one or two of the best dancers -were singled out to perform more elaborate evolutions -expressing the dramatic course of the subject. But -the choral dance was universal throughout Hellas. Its -motives ranged from the solemn religious questionings -of Aeschylus to the drunken buffoonery of the vine-festivals. -The dance might be the act of worship of -a whole people, as in the great festivals at Delos. It -might, like the Gumnopaidia at Sparta, be designed to -exhibit the physical perfection and practise the military -evolutions of a nation in arms. It might celebrate -the triumphant return of an Olympian victor to his -native city, as did many of the dances which accompanied -the extant odes of Pindar. The chorus-songs -of Tragedy and Comedy were set to dances of a sort; -but from these last boys seem to have been excluded.</p> - -<p>For educational purposes, besides the dithuramboi -already mentioned, the two most important classes were -the War-dance and the Naked-dance (<ins title="gymnopaidia">γυμνοπαιδία</ins>).<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_446" id="fnanchor_446"></a><a href="#footnote_446" class="fnanchor">[446]</a></span> -In the War-dance the performers, clad in arms, imitated -all the ways in which blows and spears might be avoided, -now bending to one side, now drawing back, now leaping -in the air, now crouching down: then, again, they -acted as though they were hurling javelins and spears -and dealing all manner of blows at close quarters.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_447" id="fnanchor_447"></a><a href="#footnote_447" class="fnanchor">[447]</a></span> -The Kuretic dance in Crete was very similar; the -dancers “in full armour beat their swords against their -shields and leaped in an inspired and warlike manner.”<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_448" id="fnanchor_448"></a><a href="#footnote_448" class="fnanchor">[448]</a></span> -The field-days, when teams of boys and “packs” of -epheboi fought one another to the sound of music, were -<a name="Page_147" id="Page_147"></a><span class="pageno">147</span> -only a more warlike sort of dance. In fact, war and -the war-dance were as closely connected in Hellas as -war and drill in Modern Europe. The Thessalians -called their heroes “dancers”; Lucian quotes an -inscription that “the people set up this statue to -Eilation, who danced the battle well”: “chief dancer” -(<ins title="proorchêstêr">προορχηστήρ</ins>)<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_449" id="fnanchor_449"></a><a href="#footnote_449" class="fnanchor">[449]</a></span> -was a dignified title. The same author -observes that in warlike Sparta the young men learn -to dance as much as to fight, and that their military -and gymnastic exercises alike were inextricably mixed -up with dancing.<span class="lock"><a href="#footnote_449" class="fnanchor">[449]</a></span> -</p> - -<p>The “Naked-dance” was to gymnastics what the war-dance -was to war.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_450" id="fnanchor_450"></a><a href="#footnote_450" class="fnanchor">[450]</a></span> -It represented the movements of -the palaistra set to music, accompanied by some singing.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_451" id="fnanchor_451"></a><a href="#footnote_451" class="fnanchor">[451]</a></span> -The style was solemn, like that of the <ins title="emmeleia">ἐμμέλεια</ins>, or -dance of Tragedy. It was performed in the main by -boys, as the name <ins title="gymnopaidia">γυμνοπαιδία</ins> implies; but grown men -also took part, as at Sparta, where practically the whole -male population danced it at once. Plato seems to -mean a similar type by his “peace-dance” (in the -<cite>Laws</cite>), which is to be a thanksgiving for past mercies -or a prayer for continued prosperity.</p> - -<p>In the regular system of education at Athens, it -is true, the boys learned only to sing and play, not -to dance. But owing to the perpetual demand for -boys from each of the ten tribes to compete at the great -festivals in war-dances and dithyrambs, dancing must -have been a common accomplishment. These competitors -also attracted and encouraged a large number -of dancing-masters. Any boy who showed promise -<a name="Page_148" id="Page_148"></a><span class="pageno">148</span> -as a dancer, or perhaps even as a singer only, would -be singled out by the agents who collected choroi for -the choregoi.</p> - -<p>Some rich man, let us call him Tisias,<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_452" id="fnanchor_452"></a><a href="#footnote_452" class="fnanchor">[452]</a></span> -has just -been appointed choregos of the Erechtheid tribe for -the war-dance of boys at the Panathenaic festival, or -a boy-chorus in dithyrambs at the Thargelia. After -drawing lots with the choregoi of other tribes, he gets -Pantakles assigned to him as his poet and music-master, -to teach the boys: he might, if he wished, hire at his -own expense extra dancing- and music-masters.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_453" id="fnanchor_453"></a><a href="#footnote_453" class="fnanchor">[453]</a></span> -Tisias -then sends for Amunias, whom the Erechtheid tribe -have chosen to collect their choroi and keep an eye on -them while they are being trained. If Tisias bears a -bad name or is unpopular with his tribe, he and his -agent will have trouble in collecting the boys; for the -fathers will refuse to give them up, and there will be -fines imposed and securities taken, before the chorus -assembles. But as a rule the parents will accept gladly; -it is a chance of a free education for a month or so, -for Tisias will pay all expenses, even of meals, and the -State supplies the teacher; it is a chance, too, for the -boy to distinguish himself.</p> - -<p>Meanwhile, Tisias will have provided a suitable -schoolroom, in his own house, if possible; rich men, -to whom the post of choregos was a frequent burden, -would keep an apartment for the purpose. If he -himself is busy, he will depute friends, who can be -trusted to swear in his favour before the Courts, to -watch the teaching; the agent will also be present.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_454" id="fnanchor_454"></a><a href="#footnote_454" class="fnanchor">[454]</a></span> -For sometimes accidents occurred. Once a boy was -<a name="Page_149" id="Page_149"></a><span class="pageno">149</span> -given a dose to drink, to improve his voice, and it -killed him.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_455" id="fnanchor_455"></a><a href="#footnote_455" class="fnanchor">[455]</a></span> -</p> - -<p>When the day of the competition came, the chorus -would be suitably dressed at Tisias’ expense; he might -perhaps allow them gold crowns.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_456" id="fnanchor_456"></a><a href="#footnote_456" class="fnanchor">[456]</a></span> -There might be -nine other choroi entering for the prize, but in the -time of Demosthenes this was not common. The -whole Athenian people and many foreigners would be -present at the contest, and it would be an anxious day -for choregos, boys, and parents. The State gave the -prizes,<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_457" id="fnanchor_457"></a><a href="#footnote_457" class="fnanchor">[457]</a></span> -usually a tripod, which went to the winning -choregos, who would set it up in some public place -with an appropriate inscription, such as—</p> - -<p class="blockquote">The Oeneid tribe was victorious; a choros of boys. Eureimenes, -son of Meleteon, was choregos. Nikostratos taught.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_458" id="fnanchor_458"></a><a href="#footnote_458" class="fnanchor">[458]</a></span></p> - -<p class="unindent">Or—</p> - -<p class="blockquote">Lusikrates, son of Lusitheides of Kikunna, was choregos. -The boys of the Acamantid tribe won. Theon played the -flute. Lusiades taught. Euainetos led.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_459" id="fnanchor_459"></a><a href="#footnote_459" class="fnanchor">[459]</a></span></p> - -<p class="center">* * * * *</p> - -<p>We pass to the position which riding held in -Athenian education. The two richest classes in the -State were liable to service in the cavalry. They had to -supply their own horses, which were examined and, if -unfit, rejected; but the State paid them a sum of £8 -annually for maintenance and arms in time of peace. As, -however, the number of the citizen cavalry never rose -above 1000, the whole of these two classes can never -have been so employed at once: the remainder served -in the heavy infantry. The two Hipparchoi elected for -the year, and their subordinates, the ten Phularchoi, -<a name="Page_150" id="Page_150"></a><span class="pageno">150</span> -who each commanded a tribal contingent, on coming -into their office, would note how many of the thousand -who had served in the former year were no longer -liable to service owing to age, and would fill up the -vacancies; they would also make good those gaps -which occurred from time to time during their term of -office owing to wounds or death or sudden poverty. -To secure a recruit, they had only to go to some -rich and active young man who was not already -serving; if he refused to be enrolled, they could -prosecute him. The training often began before -eighteen, for Xenophon speaks of persuading the -recruit’s guardians,<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_460" id="fnanchor_460"></a><a href="#footnote_460" class="fnanchor">[460]</a></span> -from whom he would be free at -that age. So Teles mentions the horse-breaker as -among the teachers of the lad in the secondary stage -of education. No doubt it took some training to -make an efficient cavalryman, and the Hipparchoi -liked to take the recruits young; but to keep a stud -was the favourite amusement of a rich young Athenian, -and many would learn to ride without any view to -military efficiency. As the Hellenes rode without -stirrups, mounting was one of the great difficulties of -the young rider, and figures chiefly on the vases. -Often they used the long cavalry-spear as a vaulting-pole.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_461" id="fnanchor_461"></a><a href="#footnote_461" class="fnanchor">[461]</a></span> -Otherwise a groom or the master gave the -pupil a leg up: on a vase<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_462" id="fnanchor_462"></a><a href="#footnote_462" class="fnanchor">[462]</a></span> -in the British Museum -the master is seen simply pushing the boy into his -seat. A comic poet,<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_463" id="fnanchor_463"></a><a href="#footnote_463" class="fnanchor">[463]</a></span> -who has left us a picture of -the young recruits learning to ride under the eye -of their Phularchoi, speaks only of mounting and -dismounting.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_464" id="fnanchor_464"></a><a href="#footnote_464" class="fnanchor">[464]</a></span> - “Go to the Agora,” says the speaker to -<a name="Page_151" id="Page_151"></a><span class="pageno">151</span> -his slave, “to the Hermai, where the phularchoi keep -coming, and to the pretty disciples whom Pheidon is -teaching to mount their steeds and to get down again.” -Xenophon, among much sound advice to the young -rider about buying, training, and keeping his horse, -gives the Hipparchos the following <span class="lock">suggestions:—</span></p> - -<p class="blockquote">“Persuade the younger men to vault on to their -horses. It will be best if you supply the teacher for -this. The older men may be put up by some one else -in the Persian way. To practise the men in keeping -their seats over difficult country, frequent riding -expeditions are a good thing, but will be unpopular. -So tell your men to practise by themselves whenever -they are in the open country. But take them out -yourself occasionally and test them over all sorts of -ground. Give them sham fights in different kinds of -country. In order to make them keen about throwing -the javelin from horseback,<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_465" id="fnanchor_465"></a><a href="#footnote_465" class="fnanchor">[465]</a></span> -stir up rivalry between -the different squadrons and give prizes for this and for -good riding and the like. Above all make yourself -and your attendant gallopers as smart as possible.”<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_466" id="fnanchor_466"></a><a href="#footnote_466" class="fnanchor">[466]</a></span> -</p> - -<p>There were frequent reviews under the eyes of the -Boule. In the race-course at the Lukeion there was a -sham fight, each hipparchos commanding five squadrons -which pursued one another, and then charged front -to front, passing through the gaps in one another’s -lines. They had, also, to wheel in line. The review -was followed by javelin-throwing.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_467" id="fnanchor_467"></a><a href="#footnote_467" class="fnanchor">[467]</a></span> -Another review -was held at the Akademeia, on a course with a hard -soil (<ins title="ho epikrotos">ὁ ἐπίκροτος</ins>)—good practice for cavalry intending -to fight in rocky Attica. Here they had, among -<a name="Page_152" id="Page_152"></a><span class="pageno">152</span> -other manœuvres, to charge at full gallop and suddenly -come to a halt.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_468" id="fnanchor_468"></a><a href="#footnote_468" class="fnanchor">[468]</a></span> -</p> - -<p>One of the attractions of the cavalry service was -the great Panathenaic procession, where the horsemen -played a leading part: an idealised picture of them -may be seen on the frieze of the Parthenon. Xenophon -gives a series of directions how to make the horses -prance and hold their heads up on this great occasion, -and suggests devices in gait which will attract popular -notice. This and kindred processions must have made -recruiting for the cavalry easy.</p> - -<p class="center">* * * * *</p> - -<p><span class="decoration">Swimming</span> seems to have been, as would naturally -be expected, an exceedingly common accomplishment -in the maritime states of Hellas; even at inland Sparta -the boys must have learnt it for their daily plunge in -the Eurotas. According to tradition,<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_469" id="fnanchor_469"></a><a href="#footnote_469" class="fnanchor">[469]</a></span> -there was a law -at Athens that every boy should be taught reading, -writing, and swimming: the proverb for an utter dunce -was “he knows neither his letters nor how to swim.”<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_470" id="fnanchor_470"></a><a href="#footnote_470" class="fnanchor">[470]</a></span> -Herodotos distinctly implies that all Hellenes knew -how to swim. “The Hellenic loss at Salamis,” he -says, “was small. For, as they knew how to swim -(as opposed to the barbarians who did not), when -their ships were destroyed, they swam over to the -island.”<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_471" id="fnanchor_471"></a><a href="#footnote_471" class="fnanchor">[471]</a></span> -He takes it as a matter of course that every -sailor could swim. The whole crew of a captured -trireme during the Peloponnesian War as often as not -jumped overboard and escaped by swimming.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_472" id="fnanchor_472"></a><a href="#footnote_472" class="fnanchor">[472]</a></span> -In -a story in Athenaeus the boys of Lasos, on coming out -of the wrestling-school, go off together for a bathe -and begin to dive. A friend of Aristippos used to -<a name="Page_153" id="Page_153"></a><span class="pageno">153</span> -boast to him of his diving.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_473" id="fnanchor_473"></a><a href="#footnote_473" class="fnanchor">[473]</a></span> -During the blockade -of Sphakteria by the Athenian fleet, numbers of -Helots swam over from the mainland to the island -under water.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_474" id="fnanchor_474"></a><a href="#footnote_474" class="fnanchor">[474]</a></span> -Scanty and scrappy as they are, these -details show that swimming must have been taught -to most boys, at any rate if they were ever likely to -serve in a fleet. Plato twice<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_475" id="fnanchor_475"></a><a href="#footnote_475" class="fnanchor">[475]</a></span> -uses a metaphor drawn -from a man swimming on his back, showing that this -method was known. When a young disputant is being -severely handled in a discussion, Sokrates intervenes, -“wishing to give the boy a rest, since he saw that he -was getting a severe ducking and he feared that he -might lose heart.”<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_476" id="fnanchor_476"></a><a href="#footnote_476" class="fnanchor">[476]</a></span> -The phrase suggests that the sight -of boys learning to swim was familiar. They could -learn either in the innumerable creeks and bays of the -sea, or in the lakes and rivers, or in diving-pools.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_477" id="fnanchor_477"></a><a href="#footnote_477" class="fnanchor">[477]</a></span> -There were also various “gymnastic games” which -young people played in the water together;<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_478" id="fnanchor_478"></a><a href="#footnote_478" class="fnanchor">[478]</a></span> -but of -their nature nothing is known.</p> - -<p>It cannot reasonably be doubted that in the maritime -states a large proportion of the boys, at any rate of the -lower classes, were taught to <span class="decoration">row</span>, since each trireme -required a crew of 200, nearly all of whom had to use -the oar. In the good old days, according to the -<cite>Wasps</cite>, the main object was to be a good oar,<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_479" id="fnanchor_479"></a><a href="#footnote_479" class="fnanchor">[479]</a></span> -and -rowing-blisters were a sign of patriotism.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_480" id="fnanchor_480"></a><a href="#footnote_480" class="fnanchor">[480]</a></span> -In an -emergency, the Athenians could make the whole citizen -force under a certain age embark on the fleet and could -win a victory with these rowers; this would have been -impossible if the average citizen had been ignorant of -rowing.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_481" id="fnanchor_481"></a><a href="#footnote_481" class="fnanchor">[481]</a></span> -On such occasions many even of the Hippeis -<a name="Page_154" id="Page_154"></a><span class="pageno">154</span> -embarked: Aristophanes jestingly asserts that in an -expedition to Korinth the horses tried also, shouting, -“Gee-ho, put your backs into it. Do more work, -Dobbin.”<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_482" id="fnanchor_482"></a><a href="#footnote_482" class="fnanchor">[482]</a></span> -Before the close of the war,<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_483" id="fnanchor_483"></a><a href="#footnote_483" class="fnanchor">[483]</a></span> -Charon, the -ferryman of Styx, assuming that every Hellene knows -the way to row, makes the souls of the departed row -themselves across. Boat-races were certainly known at -this period. A client of Lusias asserts that he has won -a race with a trireme off Cape Sounion.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_484" id="fnanchor_484"></a><a href="#footnote_484" class="fnanchor">[484]</a></span> -Probably the -trierarchoi, the rich men appointed to fit out the State -navy, either voluntarily or by regular custom, made the -ships race one another. Thus the races would be as -much inter-tribal contests as the dithyrambs or torch-races. -Two crews of the epheboi of a later date used -to race in the two sacred triremes. The vessels sailing -out for the Sicilian expedition raced as far as Aigina.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_485" id="fnanchor_485"></a><a href="#footnote_485" class="fnanchor">[485]</a></span></p> - -<p>A fragment of Plato the comic poet<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_486" id="fnanchor_486"></a><a href="#footnote_486" class="fnanchor">[486]</a></span> -refers to similar -contests:</p> - -<div class="poem-container"> - <div class="poem"> - <div class="i0">Thy high-heaped tomb on this fair promontory</div> - <div class="i0">Shall take the greetings of our far-flung fleets,</div> - <div class="i0">And watch the merchants sailing out and in,</div> - <div class="i0">And be spectator when the galleons race.</div> - </div><!--end poem--> -</div><!--end container--> - -<p class="p2 center">EXCURSUS I</p> - -<p><span class="sc">The</span> “gumnasiarchoi” have created some confusion among -those who have discussed Attic ways. Some authorities would -make them rich men performing a “leitourgia” and holding a -similar position to the trierarchoi and choregoi: others make -them officials appointed to superintend the gymnasia.</p> - -<p>The gumnasiarchia is certainly reckoned among leitourgiai -as a general rule. A speaker in Lusias,<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_487" id="fnanchor_487"></a><a href="#footnote_487" class="fnanchor">[487]</a></span> -giving a list of these -duties which he had performed, says: “I supplied a chorus of -<a name="Page_155" id="Page_155"></a><span class="pageno">155</span> -men at the Thargelia, a chorus of war-dancers at the Panathenaia, -a cyclic chorus at the little Panathenaia, I was Gumnasiarchos -for the Prometheia and was victorious, then choregos with a -chorus of boys, then with beardless war-dancers at the little -Panathenaia.” In Andokides<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_488" id="fnanchor_488"></a><a href="#footnote_488" class="fnanchor">[488]</a></span> -a gumnasiarchos at the -Hephaisteia is mentioned. The author of the treatise on the -Athenian constitution says:<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_489" id="fnanchor_489"></a><a href="#footnote_489" class="fnanchor">[489]</a></span> - “In the case of the choregiai, -gumnasiarchiai, and trierarchiai, the Athenians realise that the -rich fill the offices and the populace serve under them and get -the benefit. So the populace claims to be paid for singing and -running and dancing and sailing in the ships.” Now “singing -and dancing” belong to the choregiai, and “sailing in the -ships” to the trierarchiai. So “running” is left for the -gumnasiarchiai. The main feature of the yearly festivals of -Hephaistos and Prometheus, which the two earlier passages -gave as the scene of the duties of the gumnasiarchos, was a -torch-race. It may thus be inferred that the duty of the -gumnasiarchos was to collect, and train, a team of his own -tribe for the torch-race at these festivals.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_490" id="fnanchor_490"></a><a href="#footnote_490" class="fnanchor">[490]</a></span> -In connection -with this duty, they could prosecute members of their team, -or any one who interfered with them, for impiety before the -Archon Basileus,<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_491" id="fnanchor_491"></a><a href="#footnote_491" class="fnanchor">[491]</a></span> -since the race was a religious function. -They were thus in the sacrosanct position which Demosthenes -as choregos claims for himself in his speech against Meidias.</p> - -<p>So far the gumnasiarchos is an ordinary performer of a -leitourgia, and his duties are confined to providing a tribal -team for the torch-races at the Prometheia and Hephaisteia. -His team, usually at any rate, consisted of epheboi, as we learn -from an inscription describing the victory of Eutuchides with -his epheboi.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_492" id="fnanchor_492"></a><a href="#footnote_492" class="fnanchor">[492]</a></span> -</p> - -<p class="center">* * * * *</p> - -<p>There is also the law quoted as Solon’s in Aischines’ -speech against Timarchos.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_493" id="fnanchor_493"></a><a href="#footnote_493" class="fnanchor">[493]</a></span> - “The gumnasiarch<em>ai</em> (note that -<a name="Page_156" id="Page_156"></a><span class="pageno">156</span> -it is a different word) “are not to allow any one over age to -keep company with the boys at the festival of Hermes in any -way whatsoever: if he does not keep all such persons out of -the gymnasia, the gumnasiarch<em>es</em> shall be liable to the law that -prescribes penalties for those who corrupt free boys.” But the -orator himself only mentions paidotribai, and special enactments -dealing with the Hermaia; there is no mention of a -gumnasiarches. The law itself is an addition made in a later -period when there was a special officer to control the gymnasia. -But there is no evidence for such an official in the days of the -independence of Hellas.</p> - -<p>One interesting passage remains. “I was gumnasiarchos -in my deme,” or country district, says a speaker in Isaios.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_494" id="fnanchor_494"></a><a href="#footnote_494" class="fnanchor">[494]</a></span> -There must therefore have been local torch-races, for which -rich men were called upon to pay and train teams, just as there -were certainly local theatrical performances. The passage -opens up a prospect of vigorous athletic life throughout the -country districts and villages of Attica.</p> - -<p class="p2 footnote"> <a name="footnote_332" id="footnote_332"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_332"><span class="muchsmaller">[332]</span></a> -Plato, <cite><abbr title="Republic">Rep.</abbr></cite> 556 <span class="sc lowercase">B-D</span>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_333" id="footnote_333"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_333"><span class="muchsmaller">[333]</span></a> -<abbr title="Xenophon">Xen.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="Memorabilia">Mem.</abbr></cite> <abbr title="three">iii.</abbr> 12. 1.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_334" id="footnote_334"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_334"><span class="muchsmaller">[334]</span></a> -Plato, <cite><abbr title="Phaidros">Phaidr.</abbr></cite> 239 c.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_335" id="footnote_335"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_335"><span class="muchsmaller">[335]</span></a> -Hesiod, <cite>Works and Days</cite>, 289.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_336" id="footnote_336"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_336"><span class="muchsmaller">[336]</span></a> -Solon reduced this endowment to 500 drachmai for an Olympian victor, 100 for -an Isthmian (<abbr title="Plutarch">Plut.</abbr> <cite>Solon</cite>, 23).</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_337" id="footnote_337"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_337"><span class="muchsmaller">[337]</span></a> -<abbr title="Plutarch">Plut.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="Quastiones Romanae">Quaest. Rom.</abbr></cite> 40.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_338" id="footnote_338"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_338"><span class="muchsmaller">[338]</span></a> -Plato, <cite>Laws</cite>, 807 c.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_339" id="footnote_339"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_339"><span class="muchsmaller">[339]</span></a> -For this their vast appetites were partly responsible. Milo and Theagenes -each ate a whole ox in a single day (<abbr title="Athenaeus">Athen.</abbr> 412 f). Astuanax the pankratiast ate -what was meant for nine guests (<cite>ibid.</cite> 413 b).</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_340" id="footnote_340"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_340"><span class="muchsmaller">[340]</span></a> -<abbr title="Xenophon">Xen.</abbr> <cite>Banquet</cite>, <abbr title="two">ii.</abbr> 17.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_341" id="footnote_341"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_341"><span class="muchsmaller">[341]</span></a> -Galen, <cite>On <abbr title="Medicine and Gymnastics">Medic. and Gym.</abbr></cite> § 33 (ed. Kühn. v. 870).</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_342" id="footnote_342"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_342"><span class="muchsmaller">[342]</span></a> -<abbr title="Philostratus">Philos.</abbr> <cite>On Gymnastics</cite>, 54.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_343" id="footnote_343"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_343"><span class="muchsmaller">[343]</span></a> - <abbr title="Pausanias">Pausan.</abbr> v. 21. 10.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_344" id="footnote_344"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_344"><span class="muchsmaller">[344]</span></a> -<abbr title="Pindar">Pind.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="Olympian">Olymp.</abbr></cite></p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_345" id="footnote_345"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_345"><span class="muchsmaller">[345]</span></a> -Pindar, <abbr title="fragment">frag.</abbr></p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_346" id="footnote_346"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_346"><span class="muchsmaller">[346]</span></a> -Fragment of <cite>Autolukos</cite>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_347" id="footnote_347"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_347"><span class="muchsmaller">[347]</span></a> -A very bold attack on the Olympian games, which must have caused a sensation -in the theatre.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_348" id="footnote_348"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_348"><span class="muchsmaller">[348]</span></a> -<abbr title="Aristotle">Aristot.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="Politics">Pol.</abbr></cite> <abbr title="seven">vii.</abbr> 16. 13.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_349" id="footnote_349"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_349"><span class="muchsmaller">[349]</span></a> -Lukourg. <cite><abbr title="against Leokrates">ag. Leok.</abbr></cite> 51.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_350" id="footnote_350"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_350"><span class="muchsmaller">[350]</span></a> -[<abbr title="Xenophon">Xen.</abbr>] <cite><abbr title="Constitution">Constit.</abbr> of Athens</cite>, <abbr title="one">i.</abbr> 13.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_351" id="footnote_351"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_351"><span class="muchsmaller">[351]</span></a> -<ins title="katelyse">κατέλυσε</ins> must mean this, as in [<abbr title="Andokides">Andok.</abbr>] <cite><abbr title="against">ag.</abbr> Alkibiades</cite>, where that gentleman -is said to be <ins title="katalyôn ta gymnasia">καταλύων τὰ γυμνάσια</ins> by his bad example.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_352" id="footnote_352"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_352"><span class="muchsmaller">[352]</span></a> -See end of <abbr title="Aristophanes">Aristoph.</abbr> <cite>Wasps</cite>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_353" id="footnote_353"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_353"><span class="muchsmaller">[353]</span></a> -As shown by the beginning of Plato, <cite>Lusis</cite>, 203 <span class="sc lowercase">B</span>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_354" id="footnote_354"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_354"><span class="muchsmaller">[354]</span></a> -<abbr title="Aristophanes">Aristoph.</abbr> <cite>Birds</cite>, 141.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_355" id="footnote_355"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_355"><span class="muchsmaller">[355]</span></a> -Antiphon, <cite>Second Tetralogy</cite>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_356" id="footnote_356"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_356"><span class="muchsmaller">[356]</span></a> -The law quoted in Aischines <cite><abbr title="against">ag.</abbr> Timarchos</cite> is spurious, being a later interpolation; -it cannot therefore be used as evidence.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_357" id="footnote_357"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_357"><span class="muchsmaller">[357]</span></a> -[<abbr title="Xenophon">Xen.</abbr>] <cite><abbr title="Constitution">Constit.</abbr> of Athens</cite>, <abbr title="two">ii.</abbr> 10.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_358" id="footnote_358"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_358"><span class="muchsmaller">[358]</span></a> -The division of the boys into classes by age in the contests points to such a -usage. <abbr title="Compare">Cp.</abbr> the <ins title="hêlikiai">ἡλικίαι</ins> at Teos.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_359" id="footnote_359"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_359"><span class="muchsmaller">[359]</span></a> -Later, this was done by a special official, the <ins title="aleiptês">ἀλειπτής</ins>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_360" id="footnote_360"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_360"><span class="muchsmaller">[360]</span></a> -<abbr title="Aristotle">Aristot.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="Politics">Pol.</abbr></cite> <abbr title="four">iv.</abbr> 1. 1.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_361" id="footnote_361"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_361"><span class="muchsmaller">[361]</span></a> -<span class="decoration">e.g.</span> Plato, <cite><abbr title="Gorgias">Gorg.</abbr></cite> 504 <span class="sc lowercase">A</span>; <cite><abbr title="Protagoras">Protag.</abbr></cite> 313 <span class="sc lowercase">D</span>; <abbr title="Aristotle">Aristot.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="Politics">Pol.</abbr></cite> <abbr title="three">iii.</abbr> 16. 8.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_362" id="footnote_362"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_362"><span class="muchsmaller">[362]</span></a> -Plato, <cite><abbr title="Gorgias">Gorg.</abbr></cite> 452 <span class="sc lowercase">B</span>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_363" id="footnote_363"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_363"><span class="muchsmaller">[363]</span></a> -The paidotribes is distinguished from the gumnastes as the schoolmaster -from the crammer. The gumnastes coached pupils chiefly for the great games, -while the paidotribes presided over physical training generally, especially of boys, -but sometimes of epheboi. See the elaborate discussion in Grasberger, <abbr title="one">i.</abbr> 263-268.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_364" id="footnote_364"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_364"><span class="muchsmaller">[364]</span></a> -Plato, <cite><abbr title="Protagoras">Protag.</abbr></cite> 313 <span class="sc lowercase">A</span>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_365" id="footnote_365"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_365"><span class="muchsmaller">[365]</span></a> -<cite>Ibid.</cite> 326 <span class="sc lowercase">C</span>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_366" id="footnote_366"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_366"><span class="muchsmaller">[366]</span></a> -<ins title="apodytêrion">ἀποδυτήριον</ins>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_367" id="footnote_367"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_367"><span class="muchsmaller">[367]</span></a> -See Thompson, Plato, <cite><abbr title="Phaidros">Phaedr.</abbr></cite> 239 <span class="sc lowercase">C</span>., and <abbr title="Euripides">Eur.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="Bacchae">Bacch.</abbr></cite> 456.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_368" id="footnote_368"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_368"><span class="muchsmaller">[368]</span></a> -<abbr title="Illustration">Illustr.</abbr> <a href="#i06a">Plate <abbr title="Six">VI.</abbr> <span class="sc lowercase">A</span></a>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_369" id="footnote_369"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_369"><span class="muchsmaller">[369]</span></a> -<abbr title="Illustrations">Illustr.</abbr> <a href="#i06a">Plates <abbr title="Six">VI.</abbr> <span class="sc lowercase">A</span></a> and <a href="#i06b"><abbr title="Six">VI.</abbr> <span class="sc lowercase">B</span></a>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_370" id="footnote_370"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_370"><span class="muchsmaller">[370]</span></a> -See especially the Panathenaic vases in the British Museum.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_371" id="footnote_371"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_371"><span class="muchsmaller">[371]</span></a> -<span class="decoration">e.g.</span> <abbr title="British Museum">Brit. Mus.</abbr> E 288.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_372" id="footnote_372"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_372"><span class="muchsmaller">[372]</span></a> -Brit Mus. B 361, E 427, E 288.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_373" id="footnote_373"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_373"><span class="muchsmaller">[373]</span></a> -<abbr title="Illustration">Illustr.</abbr> <a href="#i08">Plate <abbr title="Eight">VIII.</abbr></a></p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_374" id="footnote_374"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_374"><span class="muchsmaller">[374]</span></a> -<abbr title="Aristotle">Aristot.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="Politics">Pol.</abbr></cite> <abbr title="eight">viii.</abbr> 4.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_375" id="footnote_375"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_375"><span class="muchsmaller">[375]</span></a> -<abbr title="Aristophanes">Aristoph.</abbr> <cite>Clouds</cite>, 973.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_376" id="footnote_376"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_376"><span class="muchsmaller">[376]</span></a> -<cite><abbr title="Anthologia Palatina">Anthol. Palat.</abbr></cite> <abbr title="thirteen">xiii.</abbr> 222.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_377" id="footnote_377"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_377"><span class="muchsmaller">[377]</span></a> -Herod, <abbr title="six">vi.</abbr> 127-129.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_378" id="footnote_378"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_378"><span class="muchsmaller">[378]</span></a> -<abbr title="Athenaeus">Athen.</abbr> 629 <span class="sc lowercase">B</span>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_379" id="footnote_379"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_379"><span class="muchsmaller">[379]</span></a> -<abbr title="Xenophon">Xen.</abbr> <cite>Banquet</cite>, <abbr title="two">ii.</abbr> 19.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_380" id="footnote_380"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_380"><span class="muchsmaller">[380]</span></a> -Plato, <cite>Laws</cite>, 830 <span class="sc lowercase">C</span>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_381" id="footnote_381"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_381"><span class="muchsmaller">[381]</span></a> -Philostratus, <cite>On Gymnastics</cite>, 55.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_382" id="footnote_382"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_382"><span class="muchsmaller">[382]</span></a> -Galen, <cite><abbr title="De sanitate tuenda">De sanit. tuend.</abbr></cite> <abbr title="two">ii.</abbr> 8.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_383" id="footnote_383"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_383"><span class="muchsmaller">[383]</span></a> -Grasberger, <abbr title="one">i.</abbr> 154.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_384" id="footnote_384"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_384"><span class="muchsmaller">[384]</span></a> -Described at length, Grasberger, <abbr title="one">i.</abbr> 84-98.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_385" id="footnote_385"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_385"><span class="muchsmaller">[385]</span></a> -<abbr title="Aristophanes">Aristoph.</abbr> <cite>Knights</cite>, 1238.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_386" id="footnote_386"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_386"><span class="muchsmaller">[386]</span></a> -See <abbr title="Illustration">Illustr.</abbr> <a href="#i06a">Plate <abbr title="Six">VI.</abbr> <span class="sc lowercase">A</span></a> for a wrestling lesson. Lucian, <cite><abbr title="Asinus">Ass.</abbr></cite> 8-11.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_387" id="footnote_387"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_387"><span class="muchsmaller">[387]</span></a> -Oxyrhynchus Papyri, Grenfell and Hunt, Part <abbr title="Three">III.</abbr> <abbr title="number">No.</abbr> 466 (1903). The -papyrus is of the second century.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_388" id="footnote_388"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_388"><span class="muchsmaller">[388]</span></a> -<cite><abbr title="Anthologia Palatina">Anthol. Palat.</abbr></cite> <abbr title="twelve">xii.</abbr> 206.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_389" id="footnote_389"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_389"><span class="muchsmaller">[389]</span></a> -<abbr title="Isokrates">Isok.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="Antidemocracy">Antid.</abbr></cite> 184.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_390" id="footnote_390"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_390"><span class="muchsmaller">[390]</span></a> -See <abbr title="Illustration">Illustr.</abbr> <a href="#i06b">Plate <abbr title="Six">VI.</abbr> <span class="sc lowercase">B</span></a> for a pankration lesson.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_400" id="footnote_400"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_400"><span class="muchsmaller">[400]</span></a> -<abbr title="Plutarch">Plut.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="Alcibiades">Alkib.</abbr> </cite> <abbr title="two">ii.</abbr> 3.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_401" id="footnote_401"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_401"><span class="muchsmaller">[401]</span></a> -See <abbr title="Illustration">Illustr.</abbr> <a href="#i07a">Plate <abbr title="Seven">VII.</abbr></a></p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_402" id="footnote_402"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_402"><span class="muchsmaller">[402]</span></a> -See <abbr title="Illustration">Illustr.</abbr> <a href="#i05b">Plate <abbr title="Five">V.</abbr> <span class="sc lowercase">B</span></a>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_403" id="footnote_403"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_403"><span class="muchsmaller">[403]</span></a> -<abbr title="Illustration">Illustr.</abbr> <a href="#i05a">Plate <abbr title="Five">V.</abbr> <span class="sc lowercase">A</span></a>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_404" id="footnote_404"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_404"><span class="muchsmaller">[404]</span></a> -<abbr title="Illustration">Illustr.</abbr> <a href="#i05b">Plate <abbr title="Five">V.</abbr> <span class="sc lowercase">B</span></a>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_405" id="footnote_405"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_405"><span class="muchsmaller">[405]</span></a> -<abbr title="Athenaeus">Athen.</abbr> 584 <span class="sc lowercase">C</span>, referring to about 320 <span class="sc">B.C.</span></p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_406" id="footnote_406"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_406"><span class="muchsmaller">[406]</span></a> -<abbr title="Aristophanes">Aristoph.</abbr> <cite>Peace</cite>, 357.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_407" id="footnote_407"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_407"><span class="muchsmaller">[407]</span></a> -Zeno in <abbr title="Athenaeus">Athen.</abbr> 561 <span class="sc lowercase">C</span>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_408" id="footnote_408"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_408"><span class="muchsmaller">[408]</span></a> -<abbr title="Athenaeus">Athen.</abbr> 609 <span class="sc lowercase">D</span>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_409" id="footnote_409"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_409"><span class="muchsmaller">[409]</span></a> -<ins title="apodytêrion">ἀποδυτήριον</ins>. See Plato, <cite>Charmides</cite>, 153 <abbr title="and following">ff.</abbr></p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_410" id="footnote_410"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_410"><span class="muchsmaller">[410]</span></a> -<ins title="katastegos dromos">κατάστεγος δρόμος</ins>. Plato, <cite><abbr title="Euthydemus">Euthud.</abbr> </cite> 273 <span class="sc lowercase">A</span>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_411" id="footnote_411"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_411"><span class="muchsmaller">[411]</span></a> -Theodoros (Plato, <cite><abbr title="Theaitetos">Theait.</abbr></cite>).</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_412" id="footnote_412"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_412"><span class="muchsmaller">[412]</span></a> -This was often done outside (Plato, <cite><abbr title="Theaitetos">Theait.</abbr></cite> 144 <span class="sc lowercase">C</span>). The oil-room (<ins title="elaiothesion">ἐλαιοθέσιον</ins>) -of Vitruvius may be a later invention. This preliminary anointing was called -<ins title="xêraloiphein">ξηραλοιφεῖν</ins>. After the baths they rubbed themselves with a mixture of oil and -water; this was <ins title="chytlousthai">χυτλοῦσθαι</ins>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_413" id="footnote_413"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_413"><span class="muchsmaller">[413]</span></a> -See <abbr title="Xenophon">Xen.</abbr> <cite>Banquet</cite>, 1. 7.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_414" id="footnote_414"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_414"><span class="muchsmaller">[414]</span></a> -<abbr title="Aristophanes">Aristoph.</abbr> <cite>Knights</cite>, 492.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_415" id="footnote_415"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_415"><span class="muchsmaller">[415]</span></a> -Philostratus, <cite>On Gymnastics</cite>, 56. It was usual to be dusted before wrestling.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_416" id="footnote_416"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_416"><span class="muchsmaller">[416]</span></a> -<abbr title="Xenophon">Xen.</abbr> <cite>Banquet</cite>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_417" id="footnote_417"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_417"><span class="muchsmaller">[417]</span></a> -For a good bathing scene, see <abbr title="British Museum">Brit. Mus.</abbr> Vase E 83. Also E 32.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_418" id="footnote_418"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_418"><span class="muchsmaller">[418]</span></a> -Philostratus, <cite>On Gymnastics</cite>, 57.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_419" id="footnote_419"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_419"><span class="muchsmaller">[419]</span></a> -Plato, <cite>Laws</cite>, 830 <span class="sc lowercase">C</span>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_420" id="footnote_420"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_420"><span class="muchsmaller">[420]</span></a> -Particular Sophists attached themselves to particular gymnasia and palaistrai -which they came to regard as their schools. Mikkos has already occupied the -newly-built palaistra in the <cite>Lusis</cite>, 204 <span class="sc lowercase">A</span>. <abbr title="Compare">Cp.</abbr> Plato’s position at the Akademeia and -Aristotle’s at the Lukeion.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_421" id="footnote_421"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_421"><span class="muchsmaller">[421]</span></a> -<ins title="aulê">αὐλή</ins> (Plato, <cite>Lusis</cite>, 206 <span class="sc lowercase">E</span>).</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_422" id="footnote_422"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_422"><span class="muchsmaller">[422]</span></a> -<ins title="konistra">κονίστρα</ins>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_423" id="footnote_423"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_423"><span class="muchsmaller">[423]</span></a> -Plato, <cite>Laws</cite>, 830 <span class="sc lowercase">B</span>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_424" id="footnote_424"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_424"><span class="muchsmaller">[424]</span></a> -For the excitement of the spectators and their shouts of encouragement see -<abbr title="Isokrates">Isok.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="Euagoras">Euag.</abbr></cite> 32.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_425" id="footnote_425"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_425"><span class="muchsmaller">[425]</span></a> -Some gymnasia provided a large “Room of the Epheboi.” So in Vitruvius’ -model.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_426" id="footnote_426"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_426"><span class="muchsmaller">[426]</span></a> -<abbr title="Athenaeus">Athen.</abbr> 495-6.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_427" id="footnote_427"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_427"><span class="muchsmaller">[427]</span></a> -Plato, <cite><abbr title="Politics">Polit.</abbr></cite> 294 <span class="sc lowercase">D</span>, <span class="sc lowercase">E</span>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_428" id="footnote_428"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_428"><span class="muchsmaller">[428]</span></a> -But by the end of the fourth century the teacher of arms becomes an -important individual in the training of the epheboi.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_429" id="footnote_429"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_429"><span class="muchsmaller">[429]</span></a> -Plato, <cite><abbr title="Euthydemus">Euthud.</abbr> </cite> 273 <span class="sc lowercase">A</span>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_430" id="footnote_430"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_430"><span class="muchsmaller">[430]</span></a> -<abbr title="Xenophon">Xen.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="Economics">Econ.</abbr></cite> <abbr title="three">iii.</abbr> 13.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_431" id="footnote_431"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_431"><span class="muchsmaller">[431]</span></a> -<abbr title="Xenophon">Xen.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="Economics">Econ.</abbr></cite> <abbr title="eleven">xi.</abbr> 18; <cite>Banquet</cite>, <abbr title="one">i.</abbr> 7, <abbr title="nine">ix.</abbr> 1.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_432" id="footnote_432"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_432"><span class="muchsmaller">[432]</span></a> -<ins title="sphairistêrion">σφαιριστήριον</ins>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_433" id="footnote_433"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_433"><span class="muchsmaller">[433]</span></a> -<abbr title="Athenaeus">Athen.</abbr> 20 f.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_434" id="footnote_434"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_434"><span class="muchsmaller">[434]</span></a> -<abbr title="British Museum">Brit. Mus.</abbr> E 83, for a picture of this in use.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_435" id="footnote_435"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_435"><span class="muchsmaller">[435]</span></a> -<ins title="chytlousthai">χυτλοῦσθαι</ins>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_436" id="footnote_436"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_436"><span class="muchsmaller">[436]</span></a> -<abbr title="Athenaeus">Athen.</abbr> 566 e.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_437" id="footnote_437"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_437"><span class="muchsmaller">[437]</span></a> -<cite>Hunting with Hounds</cite>, passim. So Plato in the <cite>Laws</cite>, with reservations.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_438" id="footnote_438"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_438"><span class="muchsmaller">[438]</span></a> -Plato, <cite>Laws</cite>, 795 <span class="sc lowercase">E</span>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_439" id="footnote_439"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_439"><span class="muchsmaller">[439]</span></a> -<abbr title="Aristophanes">Aristoph.</abbr> <cite>Frogs</cite>, 729.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_440" id="footnote_440"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_440"><span class="muchsmaller">[440]</span></a> -Lucian, <cite>On Dancing</cite>, 15.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_441" id="footnote_441"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_441"><span class="muchsmaller">[441]</span></a> -<abbr title="Athenaeus">Athen.</abbr> 20 d.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_442" id="footnote_442"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_442"><span class="muchsmaller">[442]</span></a> -Plato, <cite><abbr title="Republic">Rep.</abbr></cite> 396 <span class="sc lowercase">A</span>, <span class="sc lowercase">B</span>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_443" id="footnote_443"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_443"><span class="muchsmaller">[443]</span></a> -Antiphon, <cite>The Choreutes</cite>, 11.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_444" id="footnote_444"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_444"><span class="muchsmaller">[444]</span></a> -<abbr title="Xenophon">Xen.</abbr> <cite>Banquet</cite>, <abbr title="two">ii.</abbr> 17.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_445" id="footnote_445"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_445"><span class="muchsmaller">[445]</span></a> -Lakonian and Attic (<abbr title="Herodotos">Herod.</abbr> <abbr title="six">vi.</abbr> 129); Persian (<abbr title="Xenophon">Xen.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="Anabasis">Anab.</abbr> </cite> <abbr title="six">vi.</abbr> 1. 10); Troizenìan -Epizephurian Lokrian, Cretan, Ionian, Mantinean in Lucian, <cite>On Dancing</cite>, 22.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_446" id="footnote_446"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_446"><span class="muchsmaller">[446]</span></a> -Not necessarily nude, for <ins title="gymnos">γυμνός</ins> only represents the absence of the armour used -in the War-dance.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_447" id="footnote_447"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_447"><span class="muchsmaller">[447]</span></a> -Plato, <cite>Laws</cite>, 815 <span class="sc lowercase">A</span>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_448" id="footnote_448"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_448"><span class="muchsmaller">[448]</span></a> -Lucian, <cite>On Dancing</cite>, 8.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_449" id="footnote_449"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_449"><span class="muchsmaller">[449]</span></a> -Lucian, <cite>On Dancing</cite>, 8.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_450" id="footnote_450"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_450"><span class="muchsmaller">[450]</span></a> -The dance known as <ins title="gymnopaidikê">γυμνοπαιδική</ins> is described in <abbr title="Athenaeus">Athen.</abbr> 631 b, as including -representations of wrestling. In 678 b, c, the festival of the <ins title="Gymnopaidiai">Γυμνοπαιδίαι</ins>, and the -dances in it are referred to, but no mention is there made of wrestling.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_451" id="footnote_451"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_451"><span class="muchsmaller">[451]</span></a> -<abbr title="Athenaeus">Athen.</abbr> 630 d.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_452" id="footnote_452"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_452"><span class="muchsmaller">[452]</span></a> -This sketch is drawn chiefly from Antiphon, <cite>The Choreutes</cite>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_453" id="footnote_453"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_453"><span class="muchsmaller">[453]</span></a> -<abbr title="Demosthenes">Demos.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="against">ag.</abbr> Midias</cite>, 533.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_454" id="footnote_454"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_454"><span class="muchsmaller">[454]</span></a> -Rivals sometimes tried to interrupt the lessons or bribe the teacher (<abbr title="Demosthenes">Demos.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="Midias">Mid.</abbr></cite> -535).</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_455" id="footnote_455"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_455"><span class="muchsmaller">[455]</span></a> -The situation of Antiphon’s speech.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_456" id="footnote_456"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_456"><span class="muchsmaller">[456]</span></a> -<abbr title="Demosthenes">Demos.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="Midias">Mid.</abbr></cite> 520.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_457" id="footnote_457"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_457"><span class="muchsmaller">[457]</span></a> -<abbr title="Xenophon">Xen.</abbr> <cite>Hiero</cite>, <abbr title="nine">ix.</abbr> 4.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_458" id="footnote_458"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_458"><span class="muchsmaller">[458]</span></a> -Böckh, 212.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_459" id="footnote_459"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_459"><span class="muchsmaller">[459]</span></a> -<cite>Ibid.</cite> 221.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_460" id="footnote_460"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_460"><span class="muchsmaller">[460]</span></a> -<abbr title="Xenophon">Xen.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="Hipparchos">Hipparch.</abbr></cite> <abbr title="one">i.</abbr> 11.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_461" id="footnote_461"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_461"><span class="muchsmaller">[461]</span></a> -<abbr title="Illustration">Illustr.</abbr> <a href="#i09">Plate <abbr title="Nine">IX.</abbr></a></p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_462" id="footnote_462"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_462"><span class="muchsmaller">[462]</span></a> -<abbr title="British Museum">Brit. Mus.</abbr> E 485.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_463" id="footnote_463"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_463"><span class="muchsmaller">[463]</span></a> -Mnesimachos, <cite>Hippotrophos</cite> (<abbr title="Athenaeus">Athen.</abbr> 402 f).</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_464" id="footnote_464"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_464"><span class="muchsmaller">[464]</span></a> -See <abbr title="Illustrations">Illustr.</abbr> <a href="#i10a">Plates <abbr title="Ten">X.</abbr> <span class="sc lowercase">A</span></a>, <a href="#i10b"><abbr title="Ten">X.</abbr> <span class="sc lowercase">B</span></a> and the <a href="#frontis">Frontispiece</a> for scenes in a riding-school.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_465" id="footnote_465"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_465"><span class="muchsmaller">[465]</span></a> -The mark was a suspended shield, <abbr title="British Museum">Brit. Mus.</abbr> Prize-Amphora 7, Room -<abbr title="Four">IV.</abbr></p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_466" id="footnote_466"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_466"><span class="muchsmaller">[466]</span></a> -A rough summary of <abbr title="Xenophon">Xen.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="Hipparchos">Hipparch.</abbr></cite> <abbr title="one">i.</abbr> 15-26.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_467" id="footnote_467"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_467"><span class="muchsmaller">[467]</span></a> -<abbr title="Xenophon">Xen.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="Hipparchos">Hipparch.</abbr></cite> <abbr title="three">iii.</abbr> 6.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_468" id="footnote_468"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_468"><span class="muchsmaller">[468]</span></a> -<abbr title="Xenophon">Xen.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="Hipparchos">Hipparch.</abbr></cite> <abbr title="three">iii.</abbr> 14.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_469" id="footnote_469"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_469"><span class="muchsmaller">[469]</span></a> -Petit, <cite><abbr title="Leges Atticae">Leg. Att.</abbr></cite> <abbr title="two">ii.</abbr> 4.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_470" id="footnote_470"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_470"><span class="muchsmaller">[470]</span></a> -Plato, <cite>Laws</cite>, 689 <span class="sc lowercase">D</span>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_471" id="footnote_471"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_471"><span class="muchsmaller">[471]</span></a> -<abbr title="Herodotos">Herod.</abbr> <abbr title="eight">viii.</abbr> 89.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_472" id="footnote_472"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_472"><span class="muchsmaller">[472]</span></a> -<span class="decoration">e.g.</span> <abbr title="Thucidides">Thuc.</abbr> <abbr title="four">iv.</abbr> 25.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_473" id="footnote_473"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_473"><span class="muchsmaller">[473]</span></a> -Diogenes <abbr title="Laertius">Laert.</abbr> <abbr title="two">ii.</abbr> 8. 73.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_474" id="footnote_474"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_474"><span class="muchsmaller">[474]</span></a> -<abbr title="Thucidides">Thuc.</abbr> <abbr title="four">iv.</abbr> 26.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_475" id="footnote_475"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_475"><span class="muchsmaller">[475]</span></a> -Plato, <cite><abbr title="Republic">Rep.</abbr></cite> 529 <span class="sc lowercase">C</span>; <cite><abbr title="Phaidros">Phaedr.</abbr></cite> 264 <span class="sc lowercase">A</span>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_476" id="footnote_476"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_476"><span class="muchsmaller">[476]</span></a> -Plato, <cite><abbr title="Euthydemus">Euthud.</abbr> </cite> 277 <span class="sc lowercase">D</span>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_477" id="footnote_477"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_477"><span class="muchsmaller">[477]</span></a> -Plato, <cite><abbr title="Republic">Rep.</abbr></cite> 453 <span class="sc lowercase">D</span>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_478" id="footnote_478"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_478"><span class="muchsmaller">[478]</span></a> -Galen, <cite>de <abbr title="locis affectics">loc. aff.</abbr></cite> <abbr title="four">iv.</abbr> 8. See Grasberger, <abbr title="one">i.</abbr> 151.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_479" id="footnote_479"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_479"><span class="muchsmaller">[479]</span></a> -<abbr title="Aristophanes">Aristoph.</abbr> <cite>Wasps</cite>, 1095.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_480" id="footnote_480"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_480"><span class="muchsmaller">[480]</span></a> -<cite>Ibid.</cite> 1119.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_481" id="footnote_481"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_481"><span class="muchsmaller">[481]</span></a> -<abbr title="Xenophon">Xen.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="Hellenica">Hellen.</abbr></cite> <abbr title="one">i.</abbr> 6. 24.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_482" id="footnote_482"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_482"><span class="muchsmaller">[482]</span></a> -<abbr title="Aristophanes">Aristoph.</abbr> <cite>Knights</cite>, 600.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_483" id="footnote_483"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_483"><span class="muchsmaller">[483]</span></a> -<abbr title="Aristophanes">Aristoph.</abbr> <cite>Frogs</cite>, 200-271, describes a rowing lesson.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_484" id="footnote_484"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_484"><span class="muchsmaller">[484]</span></a> -<cite><abbr title="Lusis">Lus.</abbr></cite> 21. 5.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_485" id="footnote_485"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_485"><span class="muchsmaller">[485]</span></a> -<abbr title="Thucidides">Thuc.</abbr> <abbr title="six">vi.</abbr> 32.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_486" id="footnote_486"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_486"><span class="muchsmaller">[486]</span></a> -<abbr title="Plutarch">Plut.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="Themistokles">Themist.</abbr></cite> 32.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_487" id="footnote_487"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_487"><span class="muchsmaller">[487]</span></a> -Lusias, speech 21. 1-2.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_488" id="footnote_488"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_488"><span class="muchsmaller">[488]</span></a> -<abbr title="Andokides">Andok.</abbr> 17. 20.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_489" id="footnote_489"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_489"><span class="muchsmaller">[489]</span></a> -[<abbr title="Xenophon">Xen.</abbr>] <cite><abbr title="Constitution">Constit.</abbr> of <abbr title="Athens">Athen.</abbr></cite> <abbr title="one">i.</abbr> 13.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_490" id="footnote_490"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_490"><span class="muchsmaller">[490]</span></a> -So</p> -<div class="poem-container"> - <div class="poem"> - <div class="i0"><ins title="gymnasiarchein lampadi">γυμνασιαρχεῖν λαμπάδι</ins>.—Isaios, <cite>Philoktemon</cite>, 62. 60.</div> - <div class="i0"><ins title="gymnasiarcheisthai eu tais lampasin">γυμνασιαρχεῖσθαι εὐ ταῖς λαμπάσιν</ins>.—<abbr title="Xenophon">Xen.</abbr> <cite>Revenues</cite>, 4. 52.</div> - <div class="i0"><ins title="lampadi nikêsas gymnasiarchôn">λάμπάδι νικήσας γυμνασιαρχῶν</ins>.—Böckh, 257.</div> - </div><!--end poem--> -</div><!--end container--> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_491" id="footnote_491"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_491"><span class="muchsmaller">[491]</span></a> -<abbr title="Demosthenes">Dem.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="against">ag.</abbr> Lakritos</cite>, 940; <abbr title="Aristotle">Aristot.</abbr> <ins title="Athenian Politics">Ἀθ. Πολ.</ins> 57.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_492" id="footnote_492"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_492"><span class="muchsmaller">[492]</span></a> -Böckh, 243.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_493" id="footnote_493"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_493"><span class="muchsmaller">[493]</span></a> -<abbr title="Aeschylus">Aesch.</abbr> <cite>Tim.</cite> 12.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_494" id="footnote_494"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_494"><span class="muchsmaller">[494]</span></a> -Isaios, <cite>Menekles</cite>, § 42. See Wyse’s edition on the passage.</p> -</div><!--end chapter--> - -<div class="chapter"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157"></a><span class="pageno">157</span> -<h3 class="p4 h3head">CHAPTER V</h3> - -<h4 class="p2 h4head">SECONDARY EDUCATION: <abbr title="One">I.</abbr> THE SOPHISTS</h4> - -<p class="p2"><span class="sc">At</span> fourteen or soon after, it was usual for the ordinary -course of letters and lyre-playing to terminate: the -gymnastic lessons might be carried on till old age -interrupted them. During the first three-quarters of the -fifth century, the lad, on leaving school, was left to live -more or less as he pleased, if he was rich enough not to -have to work for his living: the sons of poorer citizens -at this age, if not before, settled down to learn a trade -or engaged in merchandise. Rich boys, no doubt, spent -most of their time in athletic pursuits; riding and -chariot-driving were favourite amusements. But with -the Periclean age arose a violent desire for a further -course of intellectual study, and a system of secondary -education arose, to occupy the four years which -elapsed between the time when the lad finished his -primary education and the time when the State -summoned him to undergo his two years of military -training.</p> - -<p>Many of the primary schools of the better sort -started courses of study for lads, providing, no doubt, -separate class-rooms, or else the younger boys attended -at different hours from those at which the elder pupils -assembled. Probably some such provision had been -made much earlier for those who wished to obtain a -<a name="Page_158" id="Page_158"></a><span class="pageno">158</span> -more advanced knowledge of literature and music -than was offered by the primary schools. But in the -time of Sokrates many masters seemed to have held -classes for lads as well as for boys. On entering the -schools of Dionusios,<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_495" id="fnanchor_495"></a><a href="#footnote_495" class="fnanchor">[495]</a></span> -the master of letters, Sokrates -finds a class of lads assembled here.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_496" id="fnanchor_496"></a><a href="#footnote_496" class="fnanchor">[496]</a></span> -They all belong -to noble families: the poor were no doubt unable to -afford education of this sort. Two of the lads were -busy discussing a point of astronomy, and were quoting -the authority of Oinopides<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_497" id="fnanchor_497"></a><a href="#footnote_497" class="fnanchor">[497]</a></span> -and Anaxagoras, for -Sokrates catches these two names as he enters the -room. They were drawing circles on the ground and -imitating the inclination of some orbit or other with -their hands. This scene shows a much more advanced -sort of study than was usual at the primary school of -letters. The Sophists seem to have often lectured in -class-rooms.</p> - -<p>More often secondary education was imparted, not -in the regular schools by regular, established masters, -but by the wandering savants, who taught every conceivable -subject, and were all grouped together under -the general name of Sophists.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_498" id="fnanchor_498"></a><a href="#footnote_498" class="fnanchor">[498]</a></span> -From this category the -mathematicians and astronomers, who in all respects -occupied the same position, are often excluded. This -is due to the authority of Plato, who, while detesting -the other subjects taught as secondary education, had a -great affection for mathematics and astronomy, the -only subjects which he prescribes for lads in the -<cite>Republic</cite> and <cite>Laws</cite>. But Aristophanes, taking a -more logical position, includes geometry and astronomy -<a name="Page_159" id="Page_159"></a><span class="pageno">159</span> -among the subjects taught by the burlesque Sophists -of the <cite>Clouds</cite>. In point of fact, secondary education -included any subject that the lad or his parents -desired; and the wandering professors who imparted -it, and even established teachers like Isokrates, who -kept permanent secondary schools at Athens, were all -alike, in the popular view, Sophists.</p> - -<p>But the more important subjects do naturally fall -into two great groups, Mathematics and Rhetoric. -Mathematics, as may be seen from the <cite>Republic</cite>, -meant, as a part of secondary education, the Science of -Numbers, Geometry, and Astronomy, with a certain -amount of the theory of Music, which, owing partly to -Pythagorean traditions, was classed with mathematics. -We have already seen a class learning Astronomy. -Plato, in the <cite>Theaitetos</cite>,<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_499" id="fnanchor_499"></a><a href="#footnote_499" class="fnanchor">[499]</a></span> -supplies a sketch of a lesson -in more advanced arithmetic, which, by Hellenic custom, -was usually expressed in geometrical terms in order to -obtain the assistance of a diagram. The lad Theaitetos -says to Sokrates that Theodorus of Kurene, the great -contemporary mathematician, had been teaching him. -“He was giving us a lesson in Roots, with diagrams, -showing us that the root of 3 and the root of 5 did not -admit of linear measurement by the foot (that is, were -not rational). He took each root separately up to 17. -There, as it happened, he stopped. So the other pupil -and I determined, since the roots were apparently -infinite in number, to try to find a single name which -would embrace all these roots.</p> - -<p>“We divided all number into two parts. The number -which has a square root we likened to the geometrical -square, and called ‘square and equilateral’ (<span class="decoration">e.g.</span> 4, 9, -16). The intermediate numbers, such as 3 and 5 and -<a name="Page_160" id="Page_160"></a><span class="pageno">160</span> -the rest which have no square root, but are made up -of unequal factors, we likened to the rectangle with -unequal sides, and called rectangular numbers.” And -so on. As the pupils apply the same principle to -cubes and cube roots, Theodorus must have initiated -them into the mysteries of solid geometry also.</p> - -<p>Here we find a professor lecturing to a select class, -in this case of only two lads, and his pupils, as in the -class-room of Dionusios, discussing and elaborating -among themselves afterwards the subject-matter of the -lecture. Theodoros is mentioned as teaching Geometry, -Astronomy, and the theory of Music, as well as the -Science of Numbers. Geometry by this time included -a good number of the easier propositions which were -afterwards incorporated in the works of Euclid; the -school of Pythagoras, and, later, that of Plato, did -much to develop it. The problem of squaring the -circle was already occupying attention.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_500" id="fnanchor_500"></a><a href="#footnote_500" class="fnanchor">[500]</a></span> -Compasses -and the rule were the ordinary geometrical implements: -diagrams were drawn on the ground, on dust or sand. -In Arithmetic surds<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_501" id="fnanchor_501"></a><a href="#footnote_501" class="fnanchor">[501]</a></span> -were a popular subject: but -arithmetical problems, being usually expressed in terms -of geometry plane or solid, become as a rule a part of -the latter science.</p> - -<p>To Plato these mathematical studies are alone suitable -for secondary education: the philosopher Teles,<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_502" id="fnanchor_502"></a><a href="#footnote_502" class="fnanchor">[502]</a></span> -carrying on the same tradition, makes arithmetic and -geometry the special plagues of the lad.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_503" id="fnanchor_503"></a><a href="#footnote_503" class="fnanchor">[503]</a></span> -But then the -philosophers despised Rhetoric.</p> - -<p>Rhetoric, from the time of Gorgias onwards, -formed a very large part of secondary education -<a name="Page_161" id="Page_161"></a><span class="pageno">161</span> -Isokrates was its greatest professor. He provided in -his school a course of three or four years for lads, to -occupy their time till they were epheboi. But the -methods, the aims, and the personality of this interesting -professor will be discussed later.</p> - -<p class="center">* * * * *</p> - -<p>Besides mathematics and rhetoric, there were literary -studies. The <cite>Axiochos</cite> gives <ins title="kritikoi">κριτικοί</ins> among the -teachers of a lad. These are the lecturers on literary -subjects, who concerned themselves with interpretations, -often far-fetched, of the poets; a summary of the -literary discussion in the <cite>Protagoras</cite> may give some -idea of such a lesson.</p> - -<p>“<span class="sc">Protagoras.</span> I consider that it is a most important -part of a man’s education to be skilled in poetry; -to understand, that is, what is rightly said, and what is -not, by the poets. Simonides says to Skopas, son of -Kreon the Thessalian, ‘To become indeed a good man is -hard, a man foursquare, wrought without blame in hands -and feet and mind.’ You know the poem? Do you -know then that farther on in the same poem he says, -‘But the saying of Pittakos, wise though he was, seems -to me not said aright: he said, “’Tis hard to be -noble.”’ Don’t you see that the poet has contradicted -himself?”</p> - -<p>Sokrates replies by distinguishing “being” from -“becoming,” and suggests that <ins title="chalepos">χαλεπός</ins> (hard) may -mean not “difficult” but “bad.” He then gives a -lecture in his turn. He picks out a <ins title="men">μέν</ins> in the first line -and puts it into a most unwarrantable position in his -translation, and makes “indeed” go with “hard.” To -become good is difficult but possible, to be and remain -good quite impossible. Hence Simonides goes on to -say that he is quite satisfied with those who do no -<a name="Page_162" id="Page_162"></a><span class="pageno">162</span> -positive harm. Sokrates also notes a philological point, -that <ins title="epainêmi">ἐπαίνημι</ins> in the poem is a Lesbian Aeolic form, -justified because the poem is addressed to a citizen of -Mitulene. It may be remarked that Hippias also -possessed a lecture on the subject. A lecture on -Homer by a Sophist is mentioned by Isokrates: such -lectures were frequently given by the rhapsodes.</p> - -<p>Grammar was also taught, and the right use of -words. Less usual subjects were geography,<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_504" id="fnanchor_504"></a><a href="#footnote_504" class="fnanchor">[504]</a></span> -art, and -metre. Logic was in its infancy, but the growing lad -could practise himself in argument by listening to the -disputes of the dialecticians. Current conversation was -full of ethical and political discussions: in the fourth -century there were the philosophical schools of Plato -and, later, of Aristotle, and the lectures of Antisthenes -the cynic in Kunosarges; and Isokrates taught political -science. Lads seem to have been expected to learn -something, at any rate, of the laws of their country: no -doubt they were taken up to the Akropolis to read -Solon’s code: occasionally they may have been present -as spectators in the law-courts, in order that they might -gain an idea of legal procedure. Those who intended -to become speech-writers for the courts would doubtless -learn more: they would also attend some well-known -writer like Lusias or Isaios, and learn the art of forensic -rhetoric.</p> - -<p>It must be clearly understood that the whole of this -secondary education was purely voluntary. The parent -need not send his lad to hear any teaching of the sort: -the poorer classes certainly would not. The richer -parents could choose what subjects they or their sons -<a name="Page_163" id="Page_163"></a><span class="pageno">163</span> -preferred: rhetoric or literature, geography or mathematics—it -was all one to the State. Teachers came and -went: few stayed in Athens long. Their pupils had -either to follow them abroad, as Isokrates went to -Gorgias in Thessaly, or wait for their next visit. It -was only the schools of Isokrates, of the great philosophers, -and of a few speech-writers like Lusias and Isaios, -that had any permanence in Athens. Isokrates himself -had taught in Chios for a time: Plato was more -than once in Sicily, and his school had to do without -him in his absence. There is a peculiar fluidity about -secondary education in Hellas: the teachers are always -on the move. Endowed buildings for them there were -none: they taught in their own houses and gardens, or -in those of rich hosts, or in school-rooms borrowed for -the occasion, or in public resorts like the gymnasia, or -even in the streets. Consistent or continuous instruction -was the exception: the Sophists proper gave it only to -a few. The average lad at this time naturally acquired -a wide and superficial knowledge of a great number of -subjects, just the amount of knowledge which is such a -dangerous thing. The lads became Jacks-of-all-trades: -Plato, struck with the educational error of wide superficiality, -wrote the <cite>Republic</cite> as a counterblast, preaching -“One man, one trade.” This protest is largely -directed against the specious superficiality of the Sophists’ -teaching.</p> - -<p>Consequently, secondary education fell into two -halves, the fluid teaching of the wandering Sophists and -the continuous teaching of the more stationary schools -of Plato and Isokrates. It will be convenient to accept -this division, and take the fluid half first. In subjects, -the two must overlap one another: the Sophists taught -logic as much as Plato, rhetoric as much as Isokrates, -<a name="Page_164" id="Page_164"></a><span class="pageno">164</span> -and universal information of very much the same range -as Aristotle. But the method was different, just because -as a rule the Sophist was here to-day and gone to-morrow, -while the stationary teachers taught the same -pupils for several years together and could study their -particular idiosyncrasies, and the value of education -depends very largely on the teacher’s understanding -of, and sympathy with, the individual boys whom he -teaches.</p> - -<p>It is of interest to trace the development of the term -Sophia and of the Sophists who professed it.</p> - -<p>The earliest thoughts of the Hellenic peoples were -enshrined in hexameter verse. Homer and Hesiod -represent the science and philosophy, as well as the -religion, of their age. The poetical tradition survived -in philosophy as late as Parmenides and Empedokles: -the last trace of it may perhaps be found in the myths -of Plato. The religious and ritual thinkers and the -composers of oracles also employed verse. Consequently -“wisdom,” in the earliest Hellenic literature, is mainly -associated with poetry and music, and the words <ins title="sophoi">σοφοί</ins> -and <ins title="sophistai">σοφισταί</ins> are applied indiscriminately to poets.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_505" id="fnanchor_505"></a><a href="#footnote_505" class="fnanchor">[505]</a></span> -This sense of <ins title="sophistês">σοφιστής</ins> survived in later times, and -Protagoras could call Homer, Hesiod, Mousaios, -Orpheus, and Simonides all alike by this title. Orpheus -is so styled in the <cite>Rhesos</cite>. Phrunichos called -Lampros the musician a “hyper-sophist,” and Athenaeus -declares that Sophist was a general title for all -students of music.</p> - -<p>A second use of the word “wise man” had also -existed from the earliest times, by which it had been -applied to those who were skilful in some particular -<a name="Page_165" id="Page_165"></a><span class="pageno">165</span> -craft, such as carpentering,<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_506" id="fnanchor_506"></a><a href="#footnote_506" class="fnanchor">[506]</a></span> -medicine,<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_507" id="fnanchor_507"></a><a href="#footnote_507" class="fnanchor">[507]</a></span> -or chariot-driving.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_508" id="fnanchor_508"></a><a href="#footnote_508" class="fnanchor">[508]</a></span> -</p> - -<p>The “Seven Sages” also received the name of -Sophist,<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_509" id="fnanchor_509"></a><a href="#footnote_509" class="fnanchor">[509]</a></span> -and in their age the cognate words <ins title="sophos">σοφός</ins> and -<ins title="sophia">σοφία</ins> became connected with practical and political -wisdom.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_510" id="fnanchor_510"></a><a href="#footnote_510" class="fnanchor">[510]</a></span> -</p> - -<p>Then the rise of education in Hellas, in which these -old poets and thinkers were largely employed, and the -analogy of the other educational titles with similar -endings, <ins title="grammatistês">γραμματιστής</ins> and <ins title="kitharistês">κιθαριστής</ins>, gave the word -<ins title="sophistês">σοφιστής</ins> an association with the teaching profession. -Scientific knowledge was beginning to accumulate. -Sufficient history was known to serve as a foundation -for political theory and precept. Rhetoric was becoming -an essential preliminary to political life, since, with -the rise of democracy, persuasion became the dominating -influence in law-courts and assemblies. The desire -for knowledge was never so keen as during the latter -half of the fifth century in Hellas. With the demand -came the men. All over the Hellenic world arose -professional teachers, who carried the knowledge, which -they had learnt from one another or discovered for -themselves, from city to city. Everywhere their -lectures attracted large and enthusiastic <a name="crowds" id="crowds"></a>crowds. -Among the subjects which they studied and taught -may be mentioned mathematics (including arithmetic, -geometry, and astronomy), grammar, etymology, -geography, natural history, the laws of metre and -rhythm, history (under which head fell also mythology -and genealogies), politics, ethics, the criticism of -religion, mnemonics, logic, tactics and strategy, music, -drawing and painting, scientific athletics, and, above all, -<a name="Page_166" id="Page_166"></a><span class="pageno">166</span> -rhetoric. To such a heterogeneous collection what -name could be given but “wisdom,” <ins title="sophia">σοφία</ins>? The -name Sophist was applied indiscriminately to all these -secondary teachers.</p> - -<p>There are several interesting accounts of these -Sophists in extant literature, but the writers are always -prejudiced opponents.</p> - -<p>In the <cite>Clouds</cite> of Aristophanes, the Sophists and their -pupils are represented as living in an underground -Thinking-Shop. They are pale and squalid, engaged -in all sorts of researches. Natural history is represented -by the important question, “How many times the -length of its own foot does a flea jump?” a problem -which is solved by actual experiment. Later in the -play they inquire why the sea does not overflow, since -the rivers are always running into it. Scientific instead -of mythological explanations of thunder and lightning -are given. There is religious criticism too, such -as Xenophanes had uttered long before: “If Zeus -imprisoned his own father, why has he not been -punished?” There is astronomy, “the paths and orbit -of the sun,” and a hanging basket is introduced as an -observatory. Geometry and compasses are mentioned. -The visitor is shown a map of the world, containing -Euboia, Lakedaimon, and Attica on a large enough -scale, it would seem, to mark the deme Kikunna; -perhaps, as Strepsiades expects to find dikastai on it at -Athens, it had pictures of elephants and monsters in unknown -districts. The students are interested in metres -and rhythms. The poet laughs at grammar, forming -“cockess” as the logical feminine of cock, and making -the chief Sophist object to feminine nouns with -masculine terminations. It is suggested that the pupils -at the Thinking-Shop are dirty, half-starved vegetarians, -<a name="Page_167" id="Page_167"></a><span class="pageno">167</span> -too economical to go to the hair-cutter or the baths, -abstaining from wine and the gymnasia. But the main -point attacked by Aristophanes is the teaching of -Argument. The whole object of learning under the -Sophists is, according to him, to be able to cajole the -dikastai and so win impunity to cheat, and to have an -argument to justify anything. The successful scholars -beat their fathers and mothers, giving logical reasons -for their behaviour; they refuse to go to school, and -are too clever to believe or accept anything. But their -intellectual exhilaration is spasmodic; they have been -taught, if they reach a difficult problem, to jump on to -something else.</p> - -<p>A vivid sketch of Sophist-life is given in Plato’s -<cite>Protagoras</cite>. Young Hippokrates, on returning to -Athens in the evening after pursuing a runaway slave -to the frontier, hears that Protagoras the great Sophist -has arrived in the city. Only the lateness of the hour -deters him from rushing off to find Sokrates, who will -give him an introduction to the teacher. Next morning -he comes round to Sokrates’ house long before it is -light, bangs and shouts at the door in his excitement, -and announces that he is ready to spend all the money -which he and all his friends possess, in fees.</p> - -<p>They go off to the house of Kallias, where -Protagoras and other Sophists are staying. The porter -is so worn out by the number of visitors that he is -distinctly rude. They find Protagoras walking up and -down in the cloisters of the house, with three or four -listeners on either side, one of whom is learning to be a -Sophist himself. Behind follows a crowd, mostly composed -of the foreigners whom he draws from city to -city, like Orpheus, with his magic voice. Another -Sophist, Hippias, is sitting on a sort of throne in the -<a name="Page_168" id="Page_168"></a><span class="pageno">168</span> -opposite part of the cloisters; around him on benches -are a number of inquirers, who were asking him -questions about natural science and astronomy. A -third Sophist, Prodikos, is in a side-building, still in -bed, covered up in blankets.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_511" id="fnanchor_511"></a><a href="#footnote_511" class="fnanchor">[511]</a></span> -His audience sat on -neighbouring beds. The whole assemblage finally -collect couches and benches together in a great circle to -hear a discussion between Sokrates and Protagoras. -Kallias, the host on this occasion, often entertained -Sophists: at another time he had Gorgias and Polos -in the house. His cloisters must have provided a -favourite lecture-room. The Sophists also haunted -the gymnasia. The discussion in the <cite>Euthudemos</cite> -takes place in the undressing-room of the Lukeion: -the two Sophists have been walking in the cloister. -Hippias on one occasion lectures in a school-room, on -another in a public place at Olympia.</p> - -<p>Protagoras was the first of these teachers to take -pay. His system was very fair. On the close of their -course of instruction his pupils, if they chose, paid the -fee for which he asked; otherwise, they went into a -temple, and, after taking an oath, paid as much as they -said his instruction was worth.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_512" id="fnanchor_512"></a><a href="#footnote_512" class="fnanchor">[512]</a></span> -Hippias made about -£600 in a very short time in Sicily, receiving some £80 -from the tiny town of Inukos, although Protagoras -was also lecturing in the island at the time. Prodikos -charged £2 for a particular lecture on correct speech,<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_513" id="fnanchor_513"></a><a href="#footnote_513" class="fnanchor">[513]</a></span> -but there was also a less complete form of it which cost -only 10d.; he seems to have been noted for the gradations -in his charges, for there were also lectures at 5d., -1s. 8d., and 3s. 4d.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_514" id="fnanchor_514"></a><a href="#footnote_514" class="fnanchor">[514]</a></span> -The sum which Euenos of Paros -asked for teaching the whole duties of a man and a -<a name="Page_169" id="Page_169"></a><span class="pageno">169</span> -citizen was £20.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_515" id="fnanchor_515"></a><a href="#footnote_515" class="fnanchor">[515]</a></span> -Probably, however, the charges of -these Sophists, and the money which they made, were -much exaggerated by their contemporaries. Isokrates, -the pupil of Gorgias, gives a much lower estimate. -“None of the so-called Sophists,” he says, “will be -found to have collected much money. On the contrary, -some passed their lives in poverty and the rest in quite -ordinary circumstances. The richest Sophist within -my memory was Gorgias. He spent most of his time -in Thessaly, the most prosperous part of Hellas. He -lived to a great age and followed his profession for a -great many years. He did not take upon himself any -public burdens by settling in any one city. He did not -marry or have children to bring up. Yet with all these -opportunities of growing wealthy, he only left about -£800 at his death.”<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_516" id="fnanchor_516"></a><a href="#footnote_516" class="fnanchor">[516]</a></span> -It must be remembered that the -Sophists received money only from those who definitely -enrolled themselves as pupils or came to a few advertised -lectures. Hippias lectured at Sparta frequently, and -never received a penny. Any one might go and ask a -Sophist a question, and would almost always receive a -voluminous answer. The eloquence and practical -skill of these men were also always at the disposal of -their own city. Like the greater Renaissance scholars, -Hippias, Gorgias, and Prodikos were much occupied -in going on embassies. For the larger part of their -life-work they received no payment whatever; what -they actually received was possibly less than what their -philosophic opponents obtained in donations from -friendly tyrants.</p> - -<p>At any rate, their fees were not heavy enough to -damp the ardour of their pupils. Young men left -their relations and friends to follow Sophists from -<a name="Page_170" id="Page_170"></a><span class="pageno">170</span> -city to city. These enthusiastic disciples were almost -ready to carry their teachers about on their shoulders, -so great was their affection for them. Why this -enthusiasm? Partly because the Sophists were men -of great personal charm. Partly because in that age -the thirst for knowledge was unbounded. Partly -from a desire to learn the way of virtue, which the -Sophists claimed to teach. But the most potent reason -was ambition. The young wished to shine in conversation, -the great occupation of the age, and to be able to -discuss every conceivable topic with intelligence. But -education was also the road to political success. The -Sophists taught systematic rhetoric, and logic of a sort. -They also supplied the subject-matter for orations, in -their practical handling of political science, of history, -of ethical commonplaces; for a public oration was -expected to be a storehouse of erudition. Rhetoric -was needful not only for power, but also for security; -for in the courts it had more influence than mere -argument and facts.</p> - -<p class="center">* * * * *</p> - -<p>About the individual Sophists little is known. They -appear for us only in the pages of those who traduced -them. Plato is mainly occupied with various conclusions -which he draws from their philosophic theories, -which were not a part of their teaching. <cite>Protagoras</cite>, the -eldest of them, a most dignified personage, set himself -to train good citizens: he claimed that he enabled his -pupils to manage their households and govern their -states. He imparted to them all the worldly wisdom -which he had gained by long years of personal experience. -He made a special study of political science, no -doubt for this purpose, and left a treatise upon the -subject, which was sufficiently excellent for a certain -<a name="Page_171" id="Page_171"></a><span class="pageno">171</span> -Aristoxenos to be able to say that Plato had plagiarised -most of the <cite>Republic</cite> from it.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_517" id="fnanchor_517"></a><a href="#footnote_517" class="fnanchor">[517]</a></span> -Being businesslike, he -favoured clearness of thought, and studied grammar: he -was the first to separate nouns into the three genders.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_518" id="fnanchor_518"></a><a href="#footnote_518" class="fnanchor">[518]</a></span></p> - -<p><cite>Prodikos</cite> belonged to the same practical school. He -began by teaching his pupils the right use of words.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_519" id="fnanchor_519"></a><a href="#footnote_519" class="fnanchor">[519]</a></span> -Thus he told Sokrates not to use <ins title="deinos">δεινός</ins> when he meant -“clever”; for its proper meaning was “terrible,” -applicable to war, disease, or the like.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_520" id="fnanchor_520"></a><a href="#footnote_520" class="fnanchor">[520]</a></span> -There is an -amusing skit on his pet subject in Plato.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_521" id="fnanchor_521"></a><a href="#footnote_521" class="fnanchor">[521]</a></span> -“The audience -in a philosophical debate should give an impartial -but not an equal attention to both speakers; for it is -not the same thing. For it is right to give an impartial -hearing, but you ought to incline, not equally towards -both, but rather towards the wiser speaker. I also ask -you to agree, and to discuss, not to dispute. For -friends discuss with friends for friendship’s sake, but -enemies dispute. In this way our meeting will be best -conducted. For you, the speakers, would thus win -from the audience most repute, not praise (for repute -is without deception in the minds of the hearers, but -praise is an outward expression of what is often not -felt); and we, the audience, would thus receive most -happiness, not pleasure; for happiness is produced by -the mental reception of knowledge and wisdom, pleasure -by eating or by some other pleasant physical state.” -It was easy to laugh, but, as Plato himself shows, these -distinctions of meaning were extremely useful in meeting -logical quibbles, and were much needed in contemporary -logic. Besides this, Prodikos was a moral -teacher, and composed the famous <cite>Choice of Herakles</cite>, -<a name="Page_172" id="Page_172"></a><span class="pageno">172</span> -in which he inculcated the duty of hard work as opposed -to a life of laziness and pleasure. He was an invalid, -but worked on in spite of ill-health; the result was, -perhaps, a certain amount of pessimism.</p> - -<p><span class="person">Hippias</span> was a marvellously all-round genius. He -once came to the Olympian festival with everything -that he wore or carried made by himself, ring, oil bottle, -shoes, clothes, a wonderful Persian girdle; he also -brought epic poems, tragedies, dithyrambs, and all sorts -of prose-works.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_522" id="fnanchor_522"></a><a href="#footnote_522" class="fnanchor">[522]</a></span> -He knew astronomy, geometry, -arithmetic, grammar. At Sparta he taught history and -archæology. He had a wonderful system of mnemonics, -by which, if he once heard a string of fifty names, he -could remember them all.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_523" id="fnanchor_523"></a><a href="#footnote_523" class="fnanchor">[523]</a></span> -He lectured on Homer -and other poets. He also composed a moral discourse, -which won great applause at Sparta, where quibbles or -bad morality would have been sternly repressed; it -was afterwards delivered in an Athenian school-room. -Hippias was always ready to answer any question which -was put to him, and was rarely at a loss.</p> - -<p>A less prominent Sophist was <span class="person">Antiphon</span>, who must -be carefully distinguished from his namesake the Attic -orator. He published works on physics, on concord -(<ins title="homonoia">ὁμόνοια</ins>), and on political science. The fragments are -interesting, and show some popular handling of ethical -teaching. The following extracts<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_524" id="fnanchor_524"></a><a href="#footnote_524" class="fnanchor">[524]</a></span> -will give some idea -of the <span class="lock">man:—</span></p> - -<p class="blockquote">“First among things human I reckon education. -For if you begin anything whatever in the right way, -the end will probably be right also. The nature of the -harvest depends upon the seed you sow. If you plant -<a name="Page_173" id="Page_173"></a><span class="pageno">173</span> -good education in a young body, it bears leaves and -fruit the whole life long, and no rain or drought can -destroy it.”</p> - -<p class="blockquote">“Life is like a day’s sentry-duty, and the length of -life is comparable to a single day. While our day -lasts, we look up to the sunlight, then we pass on our -duty to our successors.”</p> - -<p class="blockquote">“A miser stored up money in a hiding-place, and -did not lend or use it. Then it was stolen. A man to -whom he had refused to lend it told him to put a stone -in the hiding-place instead, and imagine that it was -money; it would be just as useful.”</p> - -<p>Among the Sophists were some apparently who were -merely jesters, and used their brains solely in arousing -laughter. It may well be doubted whether the account -which Plato gives of <span class="person">Euthudemos</span> and <span class="person">Dionusodoros</span> is -true to life; but they probably represent a type. As -teachers, no sane man could take them seriously. They -had been gladiators, and had taught forensic rhetoric; -afterwards they discovered a genius for quibbles. They -were ready to make out any statement to be true or -false. The respondent may only answer “Yes” or -“No,” and no previous statement could be quoted -against them, since they did not claim to teach anything -consistent. A sample<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_525" id="fnanchor_525"></a><a href="#footnote_525" class="fnanchor">[525]</a></span> -of their arguments will make -their methods clearer. “<span class="decoration">A.</span> Your father is a dog. <span class="decoration">B.</span> -So is yours. <span class="decoration">A.</span> If you answer my questions, you will -admit it. Have you a dog? <span class="decoration">B.</span> Yes, a very bad one. -<span class="decoration">A.</span> Has it puppies? <span class="decoration">B.</span> Mongrels like itself. <span class="decoration">A.</span> -Then the dog is a father? <span class="decoration">B.</span> Yes. <span class="decoration">A.</span> Isn’t the dog -yours? <span class="decoration">B.</span> Certainly. <span class="decoration">A.</span> Then being yours and a -father, it is your father, and you are the brother of -puppies.” Absurd as it is, such discussions are a good -<a name="Page_174" id="Page_174"></a><span class="pageno">174</span> -means of teaching logic, since they make the search for -rules intellectually compulsory.</p> - -<p>No doubt there were black sheep among the lesser -Sophists, to whom Plato’s bitter definitions in the -<cite>Sophist</cite> were quite applicable, who were “hunters -after young men of wealth and position, with sham -education as their bait, and a fee for their object, making -money by a scientific use of quibbles in private conversation, -while quite aware that what they were teaching -was wrong.” But they do not appear in extant literature, -which has only recorded a very few, and those the -very pick, of the hundreds of Sophists that there must -have been in the Socratic age.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_526" id="fnanchor_526"></a><a href="#footnote_526" class="fnanchor">[526]</a></span> -</p> - -<p class="center">* * * * *</p> - -<p>The Sophists who have been mentioned so far have -been but little concerned with Rhetoric: they form -rather a school of Logic, opposed to the rhetorical school -of <span class="person">Gorgias</span> and his followers.</p> - -<div class="figcenter together" style="width: 500px"> - <p class="captionleft">PLATE <abbr title="Eight">VIII.</abbr></p> - <a name="i08" id="i08"></a> - <img src="images/8.jpg" - width="500" height="229" - alt="Illustration: In the Palastra" - /> - <p class="caption">IN THE PALAISTRA: FLUTE-PLAYERS (WITH <ins title="phorbeia">φορβεία</ins>), JAVELIN-THROWER, DISK-THROWER, AND BOXER<br /> -Gerhard’s <cite lang="de" xml:lang="de">Auserlesene Vasenbilder</cite>, <abbr title="272">cclxxii.</abbr> Fig. 1.<br /> -From a Kulix, now at Berlin, signed by Epiktetos (<abbr title="number">No.</abbr> 2262).</p> -</div><!--end illustration--> - -<p>Of the rise of Rhetoric in Hellas I need say little: -the whole subject has been admirably treated elsewhere.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_527" id="fnanchor_527"></a><a href="#footnote_527" class="fnanchor">[527]</a></span> -For educational purposes, Hellenic rhetoric started with -several fatal drawbacks and some counterbalancing -advantages. The southern nature of the Hellenes preferred -sensuous charm of sound to logical accuracy of -fact; their rhetoric, arising as it did out of poetry, and -modelling itself upon its literary parent, pandered only -too readily to their taste. With truth it had no more -to do than Homer had; its object was to please the ear -by curious rhythms, balanced clauses, parisosis, and all -other possible devices. As long as the form was excellent, -no matter how trivial the subject:<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_528" id="fnanchor_528"></a><a href="#footnote_528" class="fnanchor">[528]</a></span> -mice or salt -<!--Blank Page--> -<a name="Page_175" id="Page_175"></a><span class="pageno">175</span> -were good enough for a theme. The oration must, of -course, be full of passion, but that could be simulated: -rhetoric had inherited the legacy of acting from its -parent, Lyric Poetry. So rhetoric became simply a -question of style, not of argument; and since arguments -were not required, the strength or weakness of a -case did not matter: rhetoric could make any cause -attractive to a sensuous Hellenic ear by its tricks of -style, and thus make “the weaker cause the stronger.” -The method by which its professors taught their pupils -brought out this attitude clearly. They were accustomed -to take an imaginary case, and then to teach their pupils -how to write a speech on either side of it: the extant -“Tetralogies” of Antiphon are examples of the -method, which was excellent educationally; for it is -good to see the arguments on both sides of a case. It -was the carelessness about fact and indifference to truth, -and the element of acting, that were so dangerous to -the pupils. These elements certainly wrecked the justice -of the Athenian courts; their effect on Hellenic character -was probably equally unsatisfactory.</p> - -<p>Rhetoric also inherited the “gnome” or commonplace, -a general statement about ethics or politics or -what not, which could be developed into a sententious -little essay. Budding orators learned to compose a -little store of these and keep them ready for use, to -be inserted in a speech whenever an opportunity -occurred. For writing these essays, a certain amount -of independent thought about politics and ethics was -necessary; and both the thought and the essay-writing -were no doubt good for the lads.</p> - -<p>The flowery and poetic style, which was the main -characteristic of early Hellenic rhetoric, was the creation -of Gorgias. A fragment of a funeral oration, in which -<a name="Page_176" id="Page_176"></a><span class="pageno">176</span> -no doubt he put forth all his powers, may be given as a -sample of the sort of thing which his pupils learned to -<span class="lock">write:—</span></p> - -<p>“As witness to their deeds these dead set up trophies -over the foe, offerings to Zeus, offered by themselves. -They were not unskilled in natural Ares nor lawful -loves nor armèd strife nor beauty-loving Peace; revering -the Gods by Justice, honouring their parents by -Service, just to their countrymen by Equality, faithful -to their friends by Loyalty. Therefore, when they died, -love for them died not with them, but deathless in -bodies no longer bodies it lives when they live no -longer.” In the <cite>Encomium on Helen</cite> we have “fright -exceeding fearful, and pity exceeding tearful, and yearning -exceeding painful,” and “productive of pleasure, -destructive of pain.” In the <cite>Palamedes</cite> Gorgias even -uses puns.</p> - -<p>His poetical compounds and those of his pupil -<span class="person">Alkidamas</span> were famous. In short, at this time there -was no boundary whatever between poetry and prose: -prose, if anything, was the more poetical of the two.</p> - -<p>This strange hothouse Euphuistic style of Gorgias -took Hellas by storm, and his influence was enormous: -it even half-mastered the austere mind of Thucydides. -As reformed by the greater critical faculties of his pupil -Isokrates, it became the parent of Ciceronian Latin and -so of the prose literature of centuries.</p> - -<p>The other rhetorical Sophists of the time are less -interesting. <span class="person">Likumnios</span> and <span class="person">Polos</span>, teacher and pupil, -seem to have devoted themselves to questions of -rhythm: they employed quaint conceits and affectations, -like Gorgias. <span class="person">Theodoros</span> and <span class="person">Euenos</span> divided and subdivided -the parts of an oration into “confirmation” and -“additional confirmation,” and “by-blames” and “by-panegyrics”: -<a name="Page_177" id="Page_177"></a><span class="pageno">177</span> -in which work Polos joined them. -<span class="person">Thrasumachos</span> of Chalcedon, who seems to have been a -bigger man altogether, began to attack the psychological -side of rhetoric by studying the questions of pathos and -indignation; these studies he embodied in pamphlets, -and no doubt his results were imparted to his pupils.</p> - -<p>One of the beauties of old Hellenic education had -been that it did not make the rich a class apart from -the poor by giving a widely different form of culture. -The rise of the Sophists changed all this: their fees -excluded the poor. The odium of resultant class-separation -fell upon the teachers. Their pupils, rich, -aristocratic, and cultured, inclined towards oligarchy. -Hellenic sentiment held the teacher responsible for the -whole career of his pupils. So for this reason again the -democracies regarded the Sophists with suspicion, as -the trainers of oligarchs and tyrants. It was chiefly -because he had been the teacher of Kritias and Alkibiades -that Sokrates was put to death by the restored democracy. -The persuasive powers which the rhetoricians -gave to their pupils might be, and often were, misused; -the pupils might mislead the Ekklesia into -bad policy or the law-courts into injustice by their -eloquence. However much the Sophists might protest -that they taught only rhetoric, not ethics, they were -held responsible for the dishonesty as well as for the -eloquence of such pupils. Besides, rhetoric gave the -rich man, who alone could buy it, a most undemocratic -influence in the State. The odium against the Sophists -was increased by their religious and political views. -They were free thinkers in all things. Protagoras was -a frank agnostic; Gorgias believed that nothing whatever -existed. Their political theories were equally -revolutionary, full of the idea of Social Contracts and -<a name="Page_178" id="Page_178"></a><span class="pageno">178</span> -the right of the one strong man. All this was extremely -distasteful to the majority, who were democratic -and orthodox. But it must be remembered that no -such views appeared in lectures: they were confined to -an occasional book or to private conversation. Outwardly -the Sophists were law-abiding and respectable -servants of the constitution, and their lectures were, if -anything, rather commonplace.</p> - -<p>Thus the prejudice against them was excited partly -by their freethinking and partly by their fees. The -first of these two reasons applied still more to Sokrates -and the philosophic schools. But Sokrates neither -asked nor received fees: Plato and Aristotle only -accepted presents. Consequently when the philosophic -party tried to dissociate themselves in the popular mind -from the Sophists with whom they were confounded, -they attempted to revive the old Hellenic prejudice -against taking fees for “wisdom,” which had given -trouble to the lyric poets, and to emphasise the money-making -aspects of the Sophists’ profession. This rather -absurd appeal to the gallery has influenced posterity; -but it did not win universal acceptation in Hellas. -Aischines still calls Sokrates a Sophist. Under the -Roman Empire “Sophist” became a title of distinction -applied to artistic stylists and teachers like Libanius.</p> - -<p class="p2 footnote"> <a name="footnote_495" id="footnote_495"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_495"><span class="muchsmaller">[495]</span></a> -Plato’s own schoolmaster, <abbr title="Diogenes Laertius">Diog. Laertius</abbr> <abbr title="three">iii.</abbr> 5.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_496" id="footnote_496"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_496"><span class="muchsmaller">[496]</span></a> -[Plato] <cite>Lovers</cite>, 132.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_497" id="footnote_497"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_497"><span class="muchsmaller">[497]</span></a> -Reputed inventor of Euclid <abbr title="one">i.</abbr> 12 and 23, and a great astronomer.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_498" id="footnote_498"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_498"><span class="muchsmaller">[498]</span></a> -Thus the lad Theages, who has learnt letters, lyre-playing, and wrestling, is -vaguely in search of a Sophist, to make him “wise” ([Plato] <cite>Theages</cite>, 121 <span class="sc lowercase">D</span>, 122 <span class="sc lowercase">E</span>).</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_499" id="footnote_499"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_499"><span class="muchsmaller">[499]</span></a> -Plato, <cite><abbr title="Theaitetos">Theait.</abbr></cite> 147 <span class="sc lowercase">D</span>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_500" id="footnote_500"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_500"><span class="muchsmaller">[500]</span></a> -<abbr title="Aristophanes">Aristoph.</abbr> <cite>Birds</cite>, 1005.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_501" id="footnote_501"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_501"><span class="muchsmaller">[501]</span></a> -Plato, <cite><abbr title="Hippias Major">Hipp. Maj.</abbr></cite> 303 <span class="sc lowercase">B</span>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_502" id="footnote_502"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_502"><span class="muchsmaller">[502]</span></a> -<abbr title="Stobaeus">Stob.</abbr> 98, <abbr title="page">p.</abbr> 535.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_503" id="footnote_503"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_503"><span class="muchsmaller">[503]</span></a> -And learning to ride. He is thinking of the aristocratic lad, who would afterwards -enter the later exclusive ephebic college.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_504" id="footnote_504"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_504"><span class="muchsmaller">[504]</span></a> -Among the common amusements of Athenian dinner-parties was a geographical -game, in which A gave, say, the name of a city in Asia beginning with K, and B had -to reply with one in Europe beginning with the same letter (<abbr title="Athenaeus">Athen.</abbr> 457).</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_505" id="footnote_505"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_505"><span class="muchsmaller">[505]</span></a> -<abbr title="Pindar">Pind.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="Isthmian">Isthm.</abbr></cite> 5 (4) 36. <ins title="sophistai">σοφισταί</ins>; <ins title="sophos">σοφός</ins>, <abbr title="Pindar">Pind.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="Olympian">Ol.</abbr></cite> <abbr title="one">i.</abbr> 15; <cite><abbr title="Pythian">Pyth.</abbr></cite> <abbr title="one">i.</abbr> 42. <ins title="sophia">σοφία</ins>, -<cite>Hymn to Hermes</cite>, and <abbr title="Pindar">Pind.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="Olympian">Ol.</abbr></cite> <abbr title="one">i.</abbr> 187.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_506" id="footnote_506"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_506"><span class="muchsmaller">[506]</span></a> -<abbr title="Homer">Hom.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="Iliad">Il.</abbr></cite> 15. 412.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_507" id="footnote_507"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_507"><span class="muchsmaller">[507]</span></a> -<abbr title="Pindar">Pind.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="Pythian">Pyth.</abbr></cite> 3. 96.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_508" id="footnote_508"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_508"><span class="muchsmaller">[508]</span></a> -<cite>Ibid.</cite> 5. 154.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_509" id="footnote_509"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_509"><span class="muchsmaller">[509]</span></a> -In Isokrates, <cite><abbr title="Antidemocracy">Antid.</abbr></cite> 235.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_510" id="footnote_510"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_510"><span class="muchsmaller">[510]</span></a> -As in <abbr title="Theognis">Theog.</abbr> 1074.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_511" id="footnote_511"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_511"><span class="muchsmaller">[511]</span></a> -He was an invalid.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_512" id="footnote_512"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_512"><span class="muchsmaller">[512]</span></a> -Plato, <cite><abbr title="Protagoras">Protag.</abbr></cite> 328 <span class="sc lowercase">C</span>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_513" id="footnote_513"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_513"><span class="muchsmaller">[513]</span></a> -Plato, <cite><abbr title="Kratinos">Krat.</abbr></cite> 384 <span class="sc lowercase">E</span>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_514" id="footnote_514"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_514"><span class="muchsmaller">[514]</span></a> -[Plato] <cite><abbr title="Axiochos">Axioch.</abbr></cite> 366 <span class="sc lowercase">C</span>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_515" id="footnote_515"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_515"><span class="muchsmaller">[515]</span></a> -Plato, <cite><abbr title="Apology">Apol.</abbr></cite> <abbr title="four">iv.</abbr> 20 <span class="sc lowercase">B</span>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_516" id="footnote_516"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_516"><span class="muchsmaller">[516]</span></a> -<abbr title="Isokrates">Isok.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="Antidemocracy">Antid.</abbr></cite> 156.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_517" id="footnote_517"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_517"><span class="muchsmaller">[517]</span></a> -<abbr title="Diogenes Laertius">Diog. Laertius</abbr> <abbr title="three">iii.</abbr> 25.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_518" id="footnote_518"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_518"><span class="muchsmaller">[518]</span></a> -<abbr title="Aristotle">Aristot.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="Rhetoric">Rhet.</abbr></cite> <abbr title="three">iii.</abbr> 3. 5.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_519" id="footnote_519"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_519"><span class="muchsmaller">[519]</span></a> -Plato, <cite><abbr title="Euthydemus">Euthud.</abbr> </cite> 277 <span class="sc lowercase">E</span>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_520" id="footnote_520"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_520"><span class="muchsmaller">[520]</span></a> -Plato, <cite><abbr title="Protagoras">Protag.</abbr></cite> 341 <span class="sc lowercase">A</span>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_521" id="footnote_521"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_521"><span class="muchsmaller">[521]</span></a> -<cite>Ibid.</cite> 337 <span class="sc lowercase">A-C</span>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_522" id="footnote_522"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_522"><span class="muchsmaller">[522]</span></a> -Plato, <cite><abbr title="Hippias Minor">Hipp. Min.</abbr></cite> 368.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_523" id="footnote_523"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_523"><span class="muchsmaller">[523]</span></a> -Plato, <cite><abbr title="Hippias Major">Hipp. Maj.</abbr></cite> and <cite><abbr title="Protagoras">Protag.</abbr></cite> 318.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_524" id="footnote_524"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_524"><span class="muchsmaller">[524]</span></a> -Quoted in the Teubner Antiphon from Stobaeus. <cite><abbr title="Florilegium">Flor.</abbr></cite> 98. 533. <cite><abbr title="Florilegium">Flor.</abbr></cite> Appendix, -16. 36. This Antiphon comes in <abbr title="Xenophon">Xen.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="Memorabilia">Mem.</abbr></cite> <abbr title="one">i.</abbr> 6. 1.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_525" id="footnote_525"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_525"><span class="muchsmaller">[525]</span></a> -Plato, <cite><abbr title="Euthydemus">Euthud.</abbr> </cite> 298 <span class="sc lowercase">D</span>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_526" id="footnote_526"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_526"><span class="muchsmaller">[526]</span></a> -It is not fair to condemn Polos and Thrasumachos on the score of the opinions -which Plato puts into their mouths.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_527" id="footnote_527"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_527"><span class="muchsmaller">[527]</span></a> -Jebb, <cite>Attic Orators</cite>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_528" id="footnote_528"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_528"><span class="muchsmaller">[528]</span></a> -Compare Renaissance poetry in Italy.</p> -</div><!--end chapter--> - -<div class="chapter"><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179"></a><span class="pageno">179</span> - -<h3 class="p4 h3head">CHAPTER VI</h3> - -<h4 class="p2 h4head">SECONDARY EDUCATION: <abbr title="Two">II.</abbr> THE PERMANENT SCHOOLS</h4> - -<p class="p2"><span class="sc">Athens</span> was the place in which the fluid educational -system of the Sophists would naturally begin to crystallise. -Not only were the Athenians the keenest and most -intellectual of the Hellenes: owing to the vast trade -of their city, merchants, astronomers, inventors, poets, -thinkers of all sorts, poured into it, and men of all trades -and all tongues collected there. Many stayed there for -a few days only, in passing; for Athens was a sort of -Clapham Junction in those days. All these brought a -perpetual supply of new ideas into the city, which the -inhabitants were quick to assimilate.</p> - -<p>But, possessing all the advantages of a commercial -centre, Athens was free from the disadvantages. The -clamour and vulgarity of trade were confined to the -Peiraieus: in the gymnasia or the streets or the colonnades -of Athens the philosopher and the thinker could -teach and meditate in peace, in an atmosphere ennobled -by her treasures of architecture and art and sculpture, -which subdued the most blatant visitor, amid the literary -circles which her dramatic contests attracted and encouraged. -Here was an ideal spot for the meeting-place -of the best minds in Hellas and the growth of a -great educational system. The city was an education -in itself. Perikles had called Athens the school of -<a name="Page_180" id="Page_180"></a><span class="pageno">180</span> -Hellas; the name was now to be justified in its most -literal sense.</p> - -<p>Early in the fourth century there arose established -secondary schools in Athens. Plato began to teach -Logic and Philosophy, Isokrates Rhetoric, not for a few -weeks at a time, but permanently: their courses lasted -three or four years. Characteristically, there was no -State organisation or interference; Isokrates taught in -his own house, near the Lukeion, Plato in his garden -near Kolonos and in the Akademeia. Their pupils came -from all parts of the civilised world, staying in Athens -during their course of study. Plato imposed a preliminary -examination in mathematics upon his pupils; -Isokrates only commended a knowledge of such subjects. -The students of these two schools became recognised -features of Athenian life.</p> - -<p>Plato led his pupils towards intellectual research and -a life of retirement; the tendency of the school was -markedly aristocratic, and several of the lads became -tyrants in after life. Isokrates inculcated the practical -life: his teaching was meant as a preparation for success -in society and politics. But as his school naturally was -only for the comparatively wealthy and leisured classes, -it also tended to be aristocratic; however, it produced -some of the leading democratic statesmen of the day.</p> - -<p>Besides these two great schools others grew up. It -is hard to distinguish exactly between the boys who -went to Isokrates in order to learn political speaking -and those who went to a “logographos” like Lusias -or Demosthenes to learn forensic oratory. The -“logographoi” do not seem to have claimed to impart -culture, but only technical instruction: they are thus -on the boundary line of education. But Demosthenes -went to the “logographos” Isaios to get precisely the -<a name="Page_181" id="Page_181"></a><span class="pageno">181</span> -instruction which Isokrates had refused him: so it is -hard to make a clear distinction. I shall therefore give -a short sketch of the “logographoi” also.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_529" id="fnanchor_529"></a><a href="#footnote_529" class="fnanchor">[529]</a></span> -</p> - -<p>By the time that these schools began to establish -themselves the Sophists were beginning to die out. -Times were harder in the fourth century, and fewer -people had money to spend on these expensive teachers. -The intellectual movement of the Periclean age had -spent itself, and the desire for universal knowledge was -no longer so keen. Moreover, it is quite probable that -settled schools, like that of Isokrates at Athens, were -forming in many of the great centres: it is known that -Isokrates himself taught for a while in Chios. The -great demerit of the Sophists’ teaching, namely, that it -was too much in a hurry and gave no time for personal -endeavour on the part of the pupil, had been recognised: -and the result was that the Sophists settled down in a -single place and gave continuous courses of instruction.</p> - -<p>But a good many Sophists of the old type remained, -to vex Isokrates by their criticisms and rivalries. They -still came to Athens at the great festivals, and gave -hurried lectures.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_530" id="fnanchor_530"></a><a href="#footnote_530" class="fnanchor">[530]</a></span> -But they had not the originality of -their predecessors, and people preferred to read the -works of Protagoras or Gorgias for themselves to hearing -them repeated as original by a lecturer. Books -were already a serious rival to lecturing, and were a -cause of much searching of heart to Plato: Isokrates, -however, preferred to write himself and so advertise his -school.</p> - -<p>Besides the wandering Sophists there were probably -a good many teachers, both of Philosophy and of -<a name="Page_182" id="Page_182"></a><span class="pageno">182</span> -Rhetoric, established permanently at Athens. Isokrates -mentions casually that all the schools<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_531" id="fnanchor_531"></a><a href="#footnote_531" class="fnanchor">[531]</a></span> -produce only -two or three first-class speakers. In his educational -prospectus, <cite>Against the Sophists</cite>, he criticises these -rivals freely. “They merely try to attract pupils by -low fees and big promises. The speeches which they -write themselves are worse than the improvisations of -the wholly untrained, yet they promise to make a complete -orator out of any one who comes to them; for -they make no allowance for natural talent or for experience, -but regard eloquence as an exact science, just like -the A B C and equally communicable; whereas it is -really a progressive art, where the same thing must -never be said twice, and its rules must be relative to the -occasion and the circumstances.”<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_532" id="fnanchor_532"></a><a href="#footnote_532" class="fnanchor">[532]</a></span> -It is clear that these -rivals committed the serious crime of underselling -Isokrates and also of issuing more attractive prospectuses; -perhaps, too, they are the captious critics to -whom he is always referring.</p> - -<p>Isokrates is still more severe on various philosophical -teachers; he cannot mean Plato alone, for he mentions -their fees, and Plato made no charge. There must have -been a large number of philosophical professors, of -whom Plato was only the most brilliant. But in many -points Isokrates no doubt meant his denunciations to -apply to Plato also. The summary of his attack is as -follows:—“They make impossible offers, promising to -impart to their pupils an exact science of conduct, by -means of which they will always know what to do. -Yet for this science they charge only 3 or 4 <ins title="mnai">μναῖ</ins> (£12 -or £16), a ridiculously small sum. They try to attract -pupils by the specious titles of the subjects which they -claim to teach, such as Justice and Prudence. But the -<a name="Page_183" id="Page_183"></a><span class="pageno">183</span> -Justice and the Prudence which they teach are of a very -peculiar sort, and they give a meaning to the words -quite different from that which ordinary people give; -in fact, they cannot be sure about the meaning themselves, -but can only dispute about it. Although they -profess to teach Justice, they refuse to trust their pupils, -but make them deposit the fees with a third party -before the course begins.”<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_533" id="fnanchor_533"></a><a href="#footnote_533" class="fnanchor">[533]</a></span> -Here we have a picture of -a distinct group of ethical teachers all trying to work -at that Socratic paradox that virtue is knowledge, and -imparting their results to pupils for low fees.</p> - -<p>All these Professors of Ethics seem to have made -Mathematics and Astronomy a part of their course, -just as Plato did. “To the old Athenian education, of -Letters and Music and Gymnastics, they have added a -more advanced course, consisting of Geometry and -Astronomy and such subjects, together with eristic -dialogues,” that is, Dialectic.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_534" id="fnanchor_534"></a><a href="#footnote_534" class="fnanchor">[534]</a></span> -This course seems to have -been much criticised as being a mere waste of time, since -it was of no practical use and the knowledge so obtained -was soon forgotten in after life. But Isokrates, although -these subjects played no part in his own school, was -sufficiently good an educationalist to see their merits: -the study of subtle and difficult matters like Astronomy -and Geometry “trains a boy to keep his attention -closely fixed upon the point at issue and not to allow his -mind to wander; so, being practised in this way and -having his wits sharpened, he will be made capable of -learning more important matters with greater ease and -speed.”<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_535" id="fnanchor_535"></a><a href="#footnote_535" class="fnanchor">[535]</a></span> -But all these unpractical, if improving, -studies should be abandoned before the nineteenth -year: for they dry up the human nature and make men -<a name="Page_184" id="Page_184"></a><span class="pageno">184</span> -unbusinesslike. “Some of those who have become so -adept in these subjects that they teach them to others, -show themselves in the practical conduct of life less -wise than their pupils, not to say than their servants.”<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_536" id="fnanchor_536"></a><a href="#footnote_536" class="fnanchor">[536]</a></span> -Consequently, those who care to study mathematics and -eristic should confine them to the years between fourteen -and eighteen: and then pass on to learn rhetoric -with Isokrates; the rest can come to his school as lads, -as many did.</p> - -<p>But, although he differentiated himself so carefully -from what moderns would call the philosophical schools, -Isokrates styled himself a teacher of philosophy quite as -much as they did. To him, as to the Romans, philosophy -was the art of living a practical life. “That -which is of no immediate use either for speech or for -action does not deserve the name of Philosophy.”<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_537" id="fnanchor_537"></a><a href="#footnote_537" class="fnanchor">[537]</a></span> -The -true philosopher is not the dreamer who neglects what -is practical and essential, but the man of the world who -learns and studies subjects which will make him able to -manage his household and govern his state well; for -this is the object of all labour and all philosophy.<span class="lock"><a href="#footnote_537" class="fnanchor">[537]</a></span> -With this practical end in view he ridicules the metaphysical -researches of “the old Sophists, of whom -Demokritos said that the number of realities was infinite, -and Empedokles declared for four, and Ion for not -more than three, and Alkmaion for only two, and -Parmenides and Melissos for one, while Gorgias asserted -that nothing existed at all.”<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_538" id="fnanchor_538"></a><a href="#footnote_538" class="fnanchor">[538]</a></span> -</p> - -<p>In the promises which he makes of imparting to his -pupils this practical wisdom which he calls philosophy, -Isokrates is characteristically cautious. An exact -science, which will embrace all possible questions and -circumstances which may arise in domestic and political -<a name="Page_185" id="Page_185"></a><span class="pageno">185</span> -matters, is an impossibility; men must be content with -a general capacity of forming a right judgment in view -of each particular case when it arises. Consequently he -defines as “wise men,” <ins title="sophoi">σοφοί</ins>, “those whose judgment -usually hits upon the right course of action,” and as -“seekers after wisdom” or philosophers, <ins title="philosophoi">φιλόσοφοι</ins>, -“those who occupy themselves with those studies and -pursuits from which they will most quickly obtain this -practical wisdom,”<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_539" id="fnanchor_539"></a><a href="#footnote_539" class="fnanchor">[539]</a></span> -or capacity of forming correct -judgments. But a judgment can only be formed -properly after a proper deliberation: so the work of -Philosophy is to practise her pupils in this deliberation.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_540" id="fnanchor_540"></a><a href="#footnote_540" class="fnanchor">[540]</a></span> -</p> - -<p>This practice is, of course, provided in the school -of Isokrates; for his school was, in fact, a debating -or deliberating society, in which the pupils wrote and -recited carefully composed speeches on given themes, -or listened to the harangues of their master. Sometimes -they discussed events of the day and matters of general -interest<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_541" id="fnanchor_541"></a><a href="#footnote_541" class="fnanchor">[541]</a></span> -at the moment; at another time their topic -was some constitutional or historical question, or the -comparative merits of different nations and governments.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_542" id="fnanchor_542"></a><a href="#footnote_542" class="fnanchor">[542]</a></span> -At another time, as may be seen from the example of -Isokrates’ own orations, they dealt with those mythical -characters who were historical realities as well as sacred -personages to the average Hellene, Theseus and Helen -and Bousiris: this in their eyes was almost equivalent -to religious instruction and they were virtually writing -theological essays. No doubt also the pupils wrote -and recited those “commonplaces” or short essays on -general topics, composed in a most elaborate style, -which ancient orators kept in stock, ready to be inserted -<a name="Page_186" id="Page_186"></a><span class="pageno">186</span> -in a speech when a suitable opening presented itself. -Isokrates’ own works are particularly full of these -highly finished little essays:<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_543" id="fnanchor_543"></a><a href="#footnote_543" class="fnanchor">[543]</a></span> -so it is at least extremely -probable that he insisted upon their composition in his -school. Before his pupils, too, Isokrates would recite -those fine sermons of his, like the <cite>Demonikos</cite>; and -effective pieces of moral exhortation they must have -been.</p> - -<p>Thus the Isocratean school claimed to be, and was, -a school of morals: it was also a school of good style -and composition. The boys’ essays had to be written -in a particular style, grandiloquent and ornate, to suit -their themes. “For it is absurd to suppose that the -matter and manner of ordinary conversation or of -forensic oratory are suitable to Pan-Hellenic themes; -on the contrary, in this kind of speech the thoughts -must be more original and more lofty, the style more -striking, and the diction more poetical and elaborate.”<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_544" id="fnanchor_544"></a><a href="#footnote_544" class="fnanchor">[544]</a></span> -Style, diction, and matter must, in fact, be that which -Isokrates worked out in his own speeches. That style<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_545" id="fnanchor_545"></a><a href="#footnote_545" class="fnanchor">[545]</a></span> -I do not mean to discuss here. The fact that he wrote -in a study and never spoke in public, has made him -exaggerate the merits of the artistic prose-style of which -he was the first really great exponent; but of its -popularity with an Hellenic audience there can be no -question. The pupils of Isokrates became the most -eminent politicians and the most eminent prose-writers -of the time; his house, as Cicero puts it, was the school -of Hellas and the manufactory of eloquence.</p> - -<p>To acquire this kind of oratory, there was need both -of natural ability and of diligent study. Isokrates -<a name="Page_187" id="Page_187"></a><span class="pageno">187</span> -professes to supply, first an exact science of all the -rhetorical devices and the various forms which speech -can take, and then practice in the right employment -and arrangement of these several parts. To learn the -technique of rhetoric is comparatively easy, if the -aspirant applies to the right man; but the right use of -the technique can never be brought under any set of -rules, or taught by one man to another: it can only be -learnt by experience. The future orator must try the -effect of each arrangement and combination of technique -on the audience, and so draw up his own system.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_546" id="fnanchor_546"></a><a href="#footnote_546" class="fnanchor">[546]</a></span> -The -requisite audience for these experiments will be provided -by the other pupils of the school, with the master -as chief critic. A good master is essential. By his -personal influence he will be able to communicate those -finer elements of style which cannot be communicated -in formal teaching. If he is worth his salt, all his -pupils will bear the stamp of his own manner, and will -easily be distinguished from every one else by the -similarity of their style to his and to one another’s.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_547" id="fnanchor_547"></a><a href="#footnote_547" class="fnanchor">[547]</a></span> -Education in rhetoric at Isokrates’ school seems to have -begun with the study of his own works. In the -<cite>Panathenaikos</cite> he describes himself as reading the -speech over with two or three of his regular pupils; -they revise and criticise it as they go along. This -would give Isokrates the opportunity of expounding -his own views of technique, with his own works before -him as illustrations. It may be inferred from the -beginning of the <cite>Bousiris</cite> that the written speeches -of other Sophists were also studied, and their faults, or -aberrations from Isocratean canons, pointed out, in -order that they might be avoided in future. At any -rate, Isokrates complains that other professors of the -<a name="Page_188" id="Page_188"></a><span class="pageno">188</span> -same sort of Rhetoric at Athens made use of his -writings for teaching their own pupils, though, of -course, according to him, they did so in order to show -the boys what to admire, not what to avoid. When -this technique had been fully mastered Isokrates set his -pupils to write speeches on their own account, choosing -for them some great and improving theme: in these -speeches they had to apply the rules which they had -learnt, and the subtler influences which they had imbibed, -from their teacher. But they had also to think -out the subject-matter, and in this lies much of the -merit of the whole system. For, as Isokrates observes, -the essayist who writes upon such themes will have to -think noble thoughts, and select noble deeds as his -instances and illustrations. This contemplation of what -is noble will be a greater incentive to virtue than any -so-called science of ethics:<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_548" id="fnanchor_548"></a><a href="#footnote_548" class="fnanchor">[548]</a></span> -for there is no science -which can create goodness in wicked natures, but exhortation -and persuasion can work wonders. Moreover, -since the orator’s best argument is, after all, a good -reputation, the young orator will see that his conduct -and character are as excellent as possible.<span class="lock"><a href="#footnote_548" class="fnanchor">[548]</a></span> -And the -practice of weighing just what thoughts and actions are -suitable to the speech involves that faculty of sound -deliberation which is necessary for the formation of -right judgments. In fact, Isocratean “Philosophy” -does more to form character than it does to produce -eloquence.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_549" id="fnanchor_549"></a><a href="#footnote_549" class="fnanchor">[549]</a></span> -</p> - -<p>The pupils practised themselves, as we have seen, by -delivering their harangues before Isokrates and their -fellow-pupils. The school formed a select clique of -trained critics of Rhetoric; the encouragement of -criticism by this means must have been valuable. To -<a name="Page_189" id="Page_189"></a><span class="pageno">189</span> -this council Isokrates submitted his own orations before -publication; former pupils were also invited to attend -on these occasions. There is an interesting account of -such an assembly at the end of the <cite>Panathenaikos</cite>. “I -was revising the speech as it stands down to this point,” -Isokrates says, “with three or four of the lads who are -accustomed to study with me. On reading it through, -we were satisfied with it and thought it only needed a -peroration. I determined, however, to send for one of -those among my pupils who had been brought up in an -oligarchy and had set themselves to praise Lakedaimon, -so that he might notice any false charge which we had -unwittingly brought against the Spartans.” The pupil -comes, and, while praising the speech enthusiastically, -makes an unguarded criticism of its matter which led -to a long discussion, in the course of which he and -Isokrates deliver lengthy harangues. Finally, the pupil -is crushed. The boys who had been present throughout -the discussion were completely convinced by -Isokrates and applauded him warmly. But the master -himself was not satisfied. So three or four days later -he called together all his old pupils who were in -Athens, and the speech was submitted to their judgment, -and received with enthusiastic applause. The -former critic then delivered a brilliant harangue, trying -to elucidate a hidden meaning in the speech. “The -crowd of pupils, which is usually ready to applaud, -shouted, flocked round him, and congratulated him, -thoroughly agreeing with his eulogy of me,” says -Isokrates. “I praised him too, but did not reveal -whether he had hit off my secret meaning or not.”</p> - -<p>The whole tone of the passage suggests that such -an appeal to the pupils for criticism and advice was -common, the only extraordinary feature being the -<a name="Page_190" id="Page_190"></a><span class="pageno">190</span> -presence of the “old boys.” This view is supported -by other passages. In the <cite>Areiopagitikos</cite><span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_550" id="fnanchor_550"></a><a href="#footnote_550" class="fnanchor">[550]</a></span> -Isokrates -tells his imaginary audience that “Some who heard me -on a former occasion describe this constitution which -Athens once enjoyed, while praising it enthusiastically -and calling our ancestors happy,… told me that I -was not likely to persuade you to adopt it.” On -another occasion his speech made such an impression -upon this preliminary audience that “No one praised -the beauty of the style, as they usually do, but all -admired the truth of the argument.” When he first -told his pupils that he meant to send an advisory -speech to Philip, “they all thought he was mad, and -had the impudence to rebuke him, a thing which they -had never done before.… But when they had heard -the speech, they changed their minds completely and -thought that Philip, Athens, and all Hellas would alike -be grateful to him.”<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_551" id="fnanchor_551"></a><a href="#footnote_551" class="fnanchor">[551]</a></span> -</p> - -<p>Isokrates’ great political pamphlets, with their -wonderfully polished style and their striking themes, -naturally served him as an excellent advertisement, as -he naïvely admits in the <cite>Antidosis</cite>. Those who -required further information about his educational -methods and aims would turn to the prospectus -<cite>Against the Sophists</cite>, which he published at the -beginning of his career. Owing to these attractions, -pupils came to him from all parts of the Hellenic -world, from Pontos, Sicily, and Cyprus;<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_552" id="fnanchor_552"></a><a href="#footnote_552" class="fnanchor">[552]</a></span> -he had -“more than all the other teachers of philosophy put -together.”<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_553" id="fnanchor_553"></a><a href="#footnote_553" class="fnanchor">[553]</a></span> -They were not merely private citizens, -but statesmen, generals, kings, and tyrants.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_554" id="fnanchor_554"></a><a href="#footnote_554" class="fnanchor">[554]</a></span> -Probably -the age at which they came varied greatly, but most -<a name="Page_191" id="Page_191"></a><span class="pageno">191</span> -of his actual pupils would probably be between fifteen -and twenty-one. He often speaks of <ins title="meirakia">μειράκια</ins> as among -them. Moreover, he speaks of parents bringing their -sons to him,<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_555" id="fnanchor_555"></a><a href="#footnote_555" class="fnanchor">[555]</a></span> -which they certainly would not do if the -boys were over eighteen. Public life in the average -Hellenic state began at twenty; so boys would wish -to be ready for it by that age. The course at Isokrates’ -school lasted for three or four years.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_556" id="fnanchor_556"></a><a href="#footnote_556" class="fnanchor">[556]</a></span> -The Athenian -lad was more or less busy with his military duties from -eighteen to twenty, so he would probably take the -course between fourteen and eighteen; natives of other -states would fit it in according to their local customs. -The fee for the whole course was 10 mnai, or £40.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_557" id="fnanchor_557"></a><a href="#footnote_557" class="fnanchor">[557]</a></span> -The story<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_558" id="fnanchor_558"></a><a href="#footnote_558" class="fnanchor">[558]</a></span> -goes that Demosthenes, having only £8, -offered to pay that sum for one-fifth of the course. -But Isokrates replied that he could not sell his philosophy -in slices; the customer must take the whole fish -or none at all. Probably, however, the tale is a fiction: -Isokrates himself claims not to have made any money -out of his countrymen, and only to have charged his -foreign pupils.</p> - -<p>Since, soon after the opening of his school, he had -a hundred pupils, the accounts of his great wealth, -which he repudiated so indignantly, cannot have been -far wrong, especially as he received 20 talents -(nearly £5000) for his panegyric on Euagoras. His -own comparison of his wealth with that of Gorgias, -who left only £800 at his death, is curious, if the above -statements are true.</p> - -<p>But his pupils, drawn from a class that had sufficient -substance to live at leisure,<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_559" id="fnanchor_559"></a><a href="#footnote_559" class="fnanchor">[559]</a></span> -seem to have been well -satisfied with what they got for their money. “At -<a name="Page_192" id="Page_192"></a><span class="pageno">192</span> -the end of their time, when they were on the point -of sailing home to their friends, they so loved their -life in Athens that they parted from it with tears and -sighs.” Isokrates kept on friendly terms with them -afterwards. Thus he writes to Timotheos, tyrant of -Herakleia and an old pupil, to congratulate him on -his accession and commend to him another old pupil, -Autokrator. Then there is the charming letter in -which he introduces Diodotos, another of his pupils, to -the Macedonian Antipater, at some personal risk, for -there was war between Athens and Macedon at the -time. “I have had many pupils,” the letter runs, -“some of whom have become great orators, some men -of action, some great thinkers, some, with no particular -talents, have at any rate become upright and cultured -gentlemen: Diodotos combines all these qualities.”</p> - -<p>The chief boast of the school of Isokrates was -that it produced gentlemen. Isokrates defines education -not as a knowledge of metaphysics and a contemplation -of the Good, nor yet as technical ability -in some particular profession, art, or trade, but as a -sort of culture and polish. “This is my definition of -the educated man,” he says. “First, he is capable of -dealing with the ordinary events of life, by possessing a -happy sense of fitness and a faculty of usually hitting -upon the right course of action.</p> - -<p>“Secondly, his behaviour in any society is always -correct and proper. If he is thrown with offensive or -disagreeable company, he can meet it with easy good-temper; -and he treats every one with the utmost -fairness and gentleness.</p> - -<p>“Thirdly, he always has the mastery over his -pleasures, and does not give way unduly under misfortune -and pain, but behaves in such cases with -<a name="Page_193" id="Page_193"></a><span class="pageno">193</span> -manliness and worthily of the nature which has been -given to us.</p> - -<p>“Fourthly (the most important point) he is not -spoilt or puffed up nor is his head turned by success, -but he continues throughout to behave like a wise -man, taking less pleasure in the good things which -chance has given him at birth than in the products of -his own talents and intelligence.</p> - -<p>“Those whose soul is well tuned to play its part in -all these ways, those I call wise and perfect men, and -declare to possess all the virtues; those I regard as -truly educated.”<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_560" id="fnanchor_560"></a><a href="#footnote_560" class="fnanchor">[560]</a></span> -</p> - -<p>Thus the object of Isokrates was rather to impart -culture and polish to his pupils than to teach them -rhetoric; it is in this point that he differs from the -other professors who taught the same sort of rhetoric -as he did at Athens and have now been forgotten, and -from the logographoi, who taught the kind of speaking -which suited the Athenian law-courts, without professing -to supply anything but a technical knowledge of -their particular subject.</p> - -<p>In an Athenian trial the prosecutor and defendant -had each to deliver a speech for themselves; afterwards, -regular advocates might address the jury in some cases, -but this was rare. So the duty of an Athenian lawyer -was simply to write speeches for his clients to deliver, -not to speak himself. Thus the metic Lusias, who -had no right to speak in a court himself, was a famous -lawyer, or logographos, speech-writer, as the Hellenes -called him.</p> - -<p>Mantitheos, say, finds himself involved in a lawsuit. -He comes to Lusias and explains the circumstances. -Lusias masters the details, looks up the laws on the -<a name="Page_194" id="Page_194"></a><span class="pageno">194</span> -question, and studies his client’s age, character, and so -forth. He then writes a speech sufficiently dramatised -to come naturally from Mantitheos’ mouth. In composing -it he will simulate the indignation which he -supposes his client to feel, he will adopt the nonchalant -air of injured innocence which Mantitheos showed in -telling the story, and so on, till the speech is a real -bit of dramatisation like the speeches in a tragedy. -When composed, the speech would be carried off by -Mantitheos, learnt by heart, and duly recited. It is -all a bit of acting on Lusias’ part. The habit of -simulating feelings when writing speeches was dangerous, -when the logographos came forward to speak in his -own person on some question. Demosthenes never -quite escapes the suspicion of acting and posing, even -in his most impressive moments.</p> - -<p>Besides these clients, the Athenian lawyers had -permanent pupils, who either intended to be lawyers -themselves or thought the study would help them in -a political life. Their methods of teaching, as may -be seen from Plato’s <cite>Phaidros</cite>, resembled those of -Isokrates. In the dialogue called by his name, Phaidros -is going out to walk off the effects of sitting indoors -too long.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_561" id="fnanchor_561"></a><a href="#footnote_561" class="fnanchor">[561]</a></span> -He had been listening to Lusias, “the -cleverest speech-writer of the age,” reciting one of his -speeches, on which he had spent much labour. Phaidros -had made him repeat it several times, and has now -borrowed the book in order to learn it by heart during -his walk. Sokrates persuades him to read it aloud, in -doing which he is quite carried away by its eloquence.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_562" id="fnanchor_562"></a><a href="#footnote_562" class="fnanchor">[562]</a></span> -Sokrates then proceeds to criticise the style and -matter of the speech,<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_563" id="fnanchor_563"></a><a href="#footnote_563" class="fnanchor">[563]</a></span> -and to compose one of his -<a name="Page_195" id="Page_195"></a><span class="pageno">195</span> -own on the same subject to show how it ought to be -treated.</p> - -<p>This reveals the method of teaching. The teacher, -as here and in Isokrates’ case, recites a speech of his -own, explaining how it was done and asking for -criticism from the pupils. Then the pupil would learn -it by heart and declaim it in some solitary place. On -other occasions, as Sokrates does here, the master would -take the speech of some rival professor and criticise it -severely, composing a better speech himself. The -<cite>Bousiris</cite> and <cite>Helen</cite> of Isokrates show this method. -Or else the pupil replied to the teacher, or the -teacher wrote two speeches on opposite sides of the -question. The extant work of Antiphon and the lost -work of Gorgias<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_564" id="fnanchor_564"></a><a href="#footnote_564" class="fnanchor">[564]</a></span> -are of this type.</p> - -<p>Most of the Attic orators seem to have taken pupils. -Isaios taught Demosthenes. Demosthenes in his turn -seems to have had great popularity as a teacher. He -“promises to teach young men the art of speaking”;<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_565" id="fnanchor_565"></a><a href="#footnote_565" class="fnanchor">[565]</a></span> -“he filled Aristarchos with empty hopes of becoming -the prince of orators all in a moment”;<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_566" id="fnanchor_566"></a><a href="#footnote_566" class="fnanchor">[566]</a></span> - “he invited -some of his pupils to come and listen to the speech -<cite>On the False Embassy</cite>, promising to show them how to -cheat and mislead the audience”;<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_567" id="fnanchor_567"></a><a href="#footnote_567" class="fnanchor">[567]</a></span> - “later on he will -brag before his boys of his tricks.” These passages -give an interesting picture of Demosthenes and -his pupils, as seen through his opponent’s green -spectacles.</p> - -<p class="center">* * * * *</p> - -<p>In opposition to the schools of Rhetoric stood the -schools of Philosophy, leading their pupils towards the -life of retirement and contemplation and away from the -<a name="Page_196" id="Page_196"></a><span class="pageno">196</span> -strenuous life of political and social activity.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_568" id="fnanchor_568"></a><a href="#footnote_568" class="fnanchor">[568]</a></span> -We -have seen that there were many professors of Philosophy -at Athens in Isokrates’ time, charging fees of three or four -mnai for their course. But only one of them is known -to posterity, and he gave lessons gratis. Otherwise, -Plato must be taken as a member of a class, albeit the -most brilliant member. The teaching of Plato centred, -as is well known, round the Akademeia. Plato possessed -a house and garden, which he bequeathed to his school, -between that gymnasium and Kolonos. When he and -his pupils wished to be private they could withdraw into -his gardens; otherwise they frequented the Akademeia, -from which their school took its name. It was not -every one who could obtain admission to the school, -for, as Plato taught gratuitously, he could pick and -choose his pupils. He expected would-be students to -be well grounded in Geometry: there must have been -some sort of entrance-examination. His successor, -Xenokrates, finding that an applicant was ignorant of -Music, Geometry, and Astronomy, told him to go away: -“for you give philosophy no chance of getting a grip -upon you.”<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_569" id="fnanchor_569"></a><a href="#footnote_569" class="fnanchor">[569]</a></span> -The inner circle of the school had their -meals in common: the banquets were extremely plain. -Timotheos, the Athenian general, who was accustomed -to rich living, after having been a guest at one of these -meals, remarked, on meeting Plato next day, “Your -suppers are more pleasant on the following day than -they are at the time.”<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_570" id="fnanchor_570"></a><a href="#footnote_570" class="fnanchor">[570]</a></span> -After the meal, a larger -number of friends probably came in; this, at any rate, -was a custom at the similar meetings held by the -philosopher Menedemos a generation later.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_571" id="fnanchor_571"></a><a href="#footnote_571" class="fnanchor">[571]</a></span> -The discourse -often went on all night. There was a fixed code -<a name="Page_197" id="Page_197"></a><span class="pageno">197</span> -of rules to regulate these meals,<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_572" id="fnanchor_572"></a><a href="#footnote_572" class="fnanchor">[572]</a></span> -which is suggestive of -Plato’s pleasantries in the <cite>Laws</cite> about the educational -value of strictly regulated bouts of intoxication. But -drunkenness was, of course, not allowed: Plato had a -particular objection to it, and used to tell drunkards to -look in the looking-glass and they would never err in -that way again.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_573" id="fnanchor_573"></a><a href="#footnote_573" class="fnanchor">[573]</a></span> -It offended his strict canons of -physical beauty and propriety. It is interesting to note -that the author of the <cite>Republic</cite> admitted women on -terms of equality to this inner circle of the Akademeia, -in defiance of Athenian prejudice. Lastheneia of -Mantineia and Axiothea of Phlious, who dressed in -male attire, are the first champions of women’s rights -to a University education who appear in history.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_574" id="fnanchor_574"></a><a href="#footnote_574" class="fnanchor">[574]</a></span> -The -discussions of this clique were probably conducted after -the model of the Platonic dialogue, and doubtless were -in Plato’s mind when in the <cite>Laws</cite> he constructed -his curious ethical and political debating-society for the -older and wiser members of his state.</p> - -<p>But admission to these mysteries must have been -reserved for comparatively few, personal friends and -mature thinkers: the members formed rather a private -club than an educational system. The young Athenian -who wished, when his primary education was finished, -to study philosophy under Plato, had two means open -to him: there were lectures in various public places; -there was also a school for lads in the Akademeia.</p> - -<p>The only lecture,<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_575" id="fnanchor_575"></a><a href="#footnote_575" class="fnanchor">[575]</a></span> -of which any very definite trace -is left, was not a great success from the educational -point of view. Plato announced beforehand that -his subject would be “The Good.” A great crowd -<a name="Page_198" id="Page_198"></a><span class="pageno">198</span> -collected, expecting to hear a neat Isocratean discussion -of such things as Health, Wealth, Friendship, which -were popularly considered to be rival claimants for the -title of the Good. But Plato began to talk about -arithmetic and geometry and astronomy, and discussed -the One as the Good. The whole lecture was couched -in enigmatical language. The majority of the audience -went away in despair.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_576" id="fnanchor_576"></a><a href="#footnote_576" class="fnanchor">[576]</a></span> -Only practised Platonists like -Aristotle and Herakleides and Hestiaios did their best -to understand the lecture, and took notes. The whole -idea of a “popular lecture” must have been repugnant -to Plato. In his view, knowledge was only for the few, -who, starting with great natural abilities, could devote -themselves for years at a time to continual study and -research. The pupil must be talented to start with: -he must undergo a long course of preparatory studies -in Logic and Mathematics: only when middle-aged -might he approach the inner mysteries of Philosophy. -Holding such educational ideas as these, Plato naturally -made his lectures unintelligible to all but a few: his -main subject for public exposition seems to have been -that curious mathematical metaphysic which Aristotle -combats as Platonic, although it is nowhere found in -the extant dialogues. By reading the <cite>Metaphysics</cite> of -Aristotle the modern inquirer can perhaps realise how -difficult Plato’s lectures must have been.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_577" id="fnanchor_577"></a><a href="#footnote_577" class="fnanchor">[577]</a></span> -</p> - -<p>At the school in the Akademeia, Plato seems to have -instructed his lads chiefly in Logic and Mathematics. -Logic consisted chiefly of definitions, such as those for -which Sokrates was always hunting, and that curious -<a name="Page_199" id="Page_199"></a><span class="pageno">199</span> -process of “division” which is exemplified at such -length in the <cite>Sophist</cite> and <cite>Politikos</cite>. Diogenes -Laertius<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_578" id="fnanchor_578"></a><a href="#footnote_578" class="fnanchor">[578]</a></span> -gives a long catalogue of such divisions, of -which only a few can be found in extant works: the -rest must have figured in the school, and survived as -traditions in the commentaries. A comic poet has left -a picture of the logic school at work<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_579" id="fnanchor_579"></a><a href="#footnote_579" class="fnanchor">[579]</a>:—</span></p> - -<p class="blockquote">“<span class="decoration">A.</span> What of Plato and Speusippos and Menedemos? -Upon what are they now engaged? What is their -thought? What argument is investigated among them? -Tell me, I pray, if you know.</p> - -<p class="blockquote">“<span class="decoration">B.</span> I can tell you clearly. For at the Panathenaia -I saw a herd (<ins title="agelê">ἀγέλη</ins>: note the Spartan word) of lads -in the gymnasium of the Akademeia, and listened to -strange, portentous arguments. They were drawing -up definitions about natural history. They separated -the life of animals and the nature of trees and the tribes -of vegetables: then, among these last, they inquired to -what tribe the cucumber belonged.… First of all -they stood speechless, and, putting their heads down, -thought for a long time. Then suddenly, while the -lads still had their heads down, and were thinking, one -of them said it was a circular vegetable, another declared -that it was a herb, another suggested a tree. A Sicilian -Doctor who was present ridiculed them most rudely. -But the lads took no notice; and Plato, very gently -and without losing his temper at all, told them to try -again to define the species to which it belonged. So -they began their divisions again.”</p> - -<p>In the <cite>Sophist</cite> the mysterious stranger divides -Art into (1) creative or productive, (2) acquisitive. -Then acquisitive art into (1) acquisition by exchange, -(2) acquisition by capture. Then the art which acquires -<a name="Page_200" id="Page_200"></a><span class="pageno">200</span> -its object by capture is divided into public or competitive -and secret or hunting. Then, when hunting has been -duly divided and subdivided, a definition of angling is -obtained. In the parody by Epikrates, the same process -is employed in order to define “cucumber,” although -the stages are, of course, confused. A cucumber is a -form of life. Life is divided into animals and vegetation: -vegetation into trees and vegetables. Then the -doubt arises, to which half does the cucumber belong. -Some of the pupils say it is a vegetable, some a tree. -So the lesson begins again.</p> - -<p>Plato’s pupils seem to have been expected to take -great care of their personal appearance: their neatness -is a common butt of contemporary comedians<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_580" id="fnanchor_580"></a><a href="#footnote_580" class="fnanchor">[580]</a>:—</span></p> - -<div class="poem-container"> - <div class="poem"> - <div class="i0">Then rose a smart young man from the Akademeia</div> - <div class="i0">Of Plato.…</div> - <div class="i0">His hair was neatly smoothed, his foot was neatly</div> - <div class="i0">Laced in the sandal, bound with even lengths</div> - <div class="i0">Of shoe-lace curved about his ankle-bones:</div> - <div class="i0">And neat the corselet of his weighty cloak.</div> - </div><!--end poem--> -</div><!--end container--> - -<p class="unindent">And again:</p> - -<div class="poem-container"> - <div class="poem"> - <div class="i0"><span class="decoration">A.</span> Who’s that old fellow yonder, do you know?</div> - <div class="i0"><span class="decoration">B.</span> He looks a Hellene, wears a mantle white,</div> - <div class="i1">A fair grey tunic, little soft felt hat,</div> - <div class="i1">A well-tuned<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_581" id="fnanchor_581"></a><a href="#footnote_581" class="fnanchor">[581]</a></span> -staff, in fact, to put it short,</div> - <div class="i1">’Tis like a glimpse of the “Academy.”<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_582" id="fnanchor_582"></a><a href="#footnote_582" class="fnanchor">[582]</a></span></div> - </div><!--end poem--> -</div><!--end container--> - -<p>Of Plato himself, as he walked up and down among -his pupils, wrestling with intellectual difficulties, several -pictures survive in literature. A character in Alexis<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_583" id="fnanchor_583"></a><a href="#footnote_583" class="fnanchor">[583]</a></span> -remarks to a friend who has come to visit him:</p> - -<a name="Page_201" id="Page_201"></a><span class="pageno">201</span> -<div class="poem-container"> - <div class="poem"> - <div class="i0">You’ve come in the nick of time. I’m in a fix.</div> - <div class="i0">Though walking up and down, like Plato, I’ve</div> - <div class="i0">Found nothing clever: but my legs are tired.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_584" id="fnanchor_584"></a><a href="#footnote_584" class="fnanchor">[584]</a></span></div> - </div><!--end poem--> -</div><!--end container--> - -<p>Amphis, in his <cite>Dexidemides</cite>, said:</p> - -<p class="blockquote">Plato, all you can do is to frown, drawing up your eyebrows -severely, like a shellfish.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_585" id="fnanchor_585"></a><a href="#footnote_585" class="fnanchor">[585]</a></span></p> - -<p>The psychological yearning of the <cite>Phaidon</cite>, perpetually -interrupted by cold currents of scepticism, -must have found an echo in Plato’s school-teaching, as -the following dialogues from Comedy show<span class="lock"><a href="#footnote_585" class="fnanchor">[585]</a>:—</span></p> - -<div class="poem-container"> - <div class="poem"> - <div class="i0"><span class="decoration">A.</span><span class="ss" style="width:5em"> </span>My mortal frame grew dry:</div> - <div class="i1">My deathless part rushed forth into the air.</div> - <div class="i0"><span class="decoration">B.</span> Why, bless us, are we in the school of Plato?</div> - </div><!--end poem--> -</div><!--end container--> - -<p class="unindent">And</p> - -<div class="poem-container"> - <div class="poem"> - <div class="i0"><span class="decoration">A.</span> You’re a man, clearly, and have got a soul.</div> - <div class="i0"><span class="decoration">B.</span> Like Plato, I don’t know but I suspect it.<span class="lock"><a href="#footnote_585" class="fnanchor">[585]</a></span></div> - </div><!--end poem--> -</div><!--end container--> - -<p>Of discipline in the Akademeia under Plato nothing -is known: the following story<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_586" id="fnanchor_586"></a><a href="#footnote_586" class="fnanchor">[586]</a></span> -belongs to the school -a little after his death. A certain Polemon agreed with -some young friends of his, who attended the school, -that he would rush into the room during the lesson, -drunk and garlanded. This he carried out. But the -teacher, Xenokrates, went calmly on with his lecture, -which happened to deal with Sobriety. This conduct -quite overcame Polemon, and he became a most diligent -pupil, and finally succeeded Xenokrates as teacher.</p> - -<p>Of Plato’s affection for his pupils, his own poems -afford sufficient proof. One of them was named Aster, -or Star. One day, as the lad was studying the heavens, -his master wrote the following epigram about <span class="lock">him:—</span></p> - -<a name="Page_202" id="Page_202"></a><span class="pageno">202</span> -<div class="poem-container"> - <div class="poem"> - <div class="i0">Star of my soul, thou gazest</div> - <div class="i1">Upon the starry skies;</div> - <div class="i0">I envy Heaven, that watches</div> - <div class="i1">Thy face with countless eyes.</div> - </div><!--end poem--> -</div><!--end container--> - -<p class="unindent">And when he died, Plato wrote his epitaph:</p> - -<div class="poem-container"> - <div class="poem"> - <div class="i0">Thou wert the morning Star among the living,</div> - <div class="i1">Ere thy fair light had fled:</div> - <div class="i0">Now, being dead, thou art as Hesperus, giving</div> - <div class="i1">New splendour to the dead.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_587" id="fnanchor_587"></a><a href="#footnote_587" class="fnanchor">[587]</a></span></div> - </div><!--end poem--> -</div><!--end container--> - -<p class="unindent">Additional evidence is given by his efforts on behalf of -Dionusios and Dion, which led him into so many perils -in Sicily.</p> - -<p>Plato was teaching in Athens almost continually -from 388 till 347. His pupils included, no doubt, many -of the chief men of the day: Chabrias, Iphikrates, -Hupereides, Phokion, Lukourgos, and Demosthenes -are mentioned, besides the philosophers Speusippos, -Xenokrates, Herakleides of Pontos, and Aristotle. -But posterity ascribed pupils recklessly to all the great -teachers of antiquity, so the catalogue carries little -weight. It is interesting to observe that the school as -a whole was attacked for producing tyrants: the bitter -description of the miseries of tyranny in the <cite>Republic</cite> -are at once a sad reflection upon former pupils and a -warning to those whom he was instructing at the time. -But the Philosopher-king, who embodied Plato’s ideal -form of Government, may well have had a corrupting -influence upon the pupils. Dion, the philosopher and -patriot who became a tyrant, is an interesting commentary -upon the <cite>Republic</cite>.</p> - -<p>Teaching in the Akademeia was given gratuitously; -but those who were so disposed might give presents to -<a name="Page_203" id="Page_203"></a><span class="pageno">203</span> -their teacher. Dionusios presented Plato with over -80 talents.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_588" id="fnanchor_588"></a><a href="#footnote_588" class="fnanchor">[588]</a></span> -</p> - -<p>The school of Aristotle in the Lukeion differed -little in its methods from the school of Plato in the -Akademeia. He had been a pupil of Plato for twenty -years before he began to teach on his own account. -He used to give instruction walking up and down in -the walks of the Lukeion. In his earlier period, at any -rate, he seems to have taught rhetoric, and taught it in -Isocratean fashion: we hear of him setting a theme, -on which he and the pupils delivered harangues “in -rhetorical fashion.” Later the school became a home -of universal knowledge and research; in this respect -Aristotle is the heir of the much-abused Sophists. He -adopted Xenokrates’ custom of appointing one of the -pupils to be Archon of the school for ten days, and -then another: this system must have relieved him of -much petty business.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_589" id="fnanchor_589"></a><a href="#footnote_589" class="fnanchor">[589]</a></span> -He delivered two courses of -lectures daily: one in the morning on abstruse subjects -to picked pupils; and the other in the afternoon, open -to all comers and more intelligible in matter and manner.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_590" id="fnanchor_590"></a><a href="#footnote_590" class="fnanchor">[590]</a></span> -His fame as a teacher was sufficient to win him the -honour of being chosen to be Alexander’s tutor, and -he seems to have retained his pupil’s respect, if not -perhaps his affection. Aristotle, dreaming of a tiny -city-state, and Alexander, dreaming of a world-empire -and carrying out his dream, are an ill-assorted pair. -What would Plato have given for the chance of -educating such a Philosopher-king?</p> - -<p>That there were bitter feuds between the various -educational leaders in Athens, goes without saying. A -<a name="Page_204" id="Page_204"></a><span class="pageno">204</span> -Hellene could no more brook a rival than could an -Italian of the Renaissance. Isokrates attacks Plato,<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_591" id="fnanchor_591"></a><a href="#footnote_591" class="fnanchor">[591]</a></span> -Plato Isokrates, and then their pupils take the quarrel -on into the next generation. Both attack with equal -animus the wandering Sophists and the Eristics, who -retaliated with vigour. A would-be pupil must have -found it hard to choose a professor under whom to -study, when so much evil had been spoken of them all.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_592" id="fnanchor_592"></a><a href="#footnote_592" class="fnanchor">[592]</a></span> -</p> - -<p class="center">* * * * *</p> - -<p>The schools of Rhetoric and of Philosophy were -only for the rich and the leisured classes: the poor had -neither the time nor the money requisite for attending -them. But they were not wholly debarred from the -higher knowledge. There were still Sophists lecturing -for advertisement in public places. Still more, there -were books, which were beginning to be both numerous -and cheap: every Athenian could read. How important -a part books were beginning to take in national -education may be seen from the works of Isokrates and -Plato, who are both excessively indignant at the intrusion -of such a rival.</p> - -<p>“I know that what is read has less power of persuasion -than what is heard. It is universally believed that -a speech, if actually delivered, deals with serious and -important subjects; but if only written and never -spoken, it is supposed to aim merely at effect and the -fulfilment of a contract. This opinion is quite reasonable. -For the written speech is deprived of the prestige -of the author’s presence and of his voice and of the -proper rhetorical delivery: it is read when the occasion -which called it forth is past, and the points which it -<a name="Page_205" id="Page_205"></a><span class="pageno">205</span> -discusses are consequently less interesting. The slave -who reads it aloud puts no character into it, but drones -it out as though he were reckoning up the items of a -bill.” Such is Isokrates’ view, somewhat freely translated, -of “the written word,” which his shyness -compelled him to use instead of the spoken, and he -beseeches Philip of Macedon, whom he is addressing, -to put aside the usual prejudice against writings.</p> - -<p>Plato regarded the written word with even greater -contempt. To him it is the cause of forgetfulness; -those who employ writing learn to rely on their notes, -not on their memory, and are accustomed to register -their impressions on tables of wax, not of the mind.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_593" id="fnanchor_593"></a><a href="#footnote_593" class="fnanchor">[593]</a></span> -Again, it is impossible for an author to control the -circulation of his works; they may reach those for -whom they are not intended.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_594" id="fnanchor_594"></a><a href="#footnote_594" class="fnanchor">[594]</a></span> -For Plato expects -speaker and writer alike to express only what is suitable -to their audience; the teacher must, by a study of -psychology, know what arguments will do good and -what will do harm to each particular pupil. But a -book cannot impart knowledge, in the Platonic sense -of the word, at all; for it is unable to answer questions -or to explain its author’s meaning when the reader fails -to follow.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_595" id="fnanchor_595"></a><a href="#footnote_595" class="fnanchor">[595]</a></span> -Comprehension of a fact or of a statement -made on a writer’s authority, without comprehension -of the meaning and the explanation, is not knowledge.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_596" id="fnanchor_596"></a><a href="#footnote_596" class="fnanchor">[596]</a></span> -Consequently, not even a lecture<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_597" id="fnanchor_597"></a><a href="#footnote_597" class="fnanchor">[597]</a></span> -or a sermon, far less -a book whose author is absent or dead, can impart -knowledge; to gain this, long study and a severe course -of dialectic are essential. The possessor of true knowledge -<a name="Page_206" id="Page_206"></a><span class="pageno">206</span> -must be able to defend his view against any -opposing arguments and to support it by discussion -himself:<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_598" id="fnanchor_598"></a><a href="#footnote_598" class="fnanchor">[598]</a></span> -neither book nor lecture can give this intimate -acquaintance with every point of view. Moreover, -teaching is like agriculture. There are different soils -and different minds. The seed of knowledge will bear -different fruit in different soils, and there are types of -minds in which some particular seeds must not be sown -at all. Thus the same teacher will produce quite -different philosophical results in different minds: just -as Sokrates did with his various pupils. It is the -development of the individual intellect and aptitudes -of each pupil, not the inculcation of his own theories, -that is the teacher’s true object.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_599" id="fnanchor_599"></a><a href="#footnote_599" class="fnanchor">[599]</a></span> -Consequently, even -a consistent scheme of dogmas is wrong for educational -purposes; for it may suit the intellect of the teacher -himself, but it cannot suit all his pupils.</p> - -<p>Hence, in order to be consistent with his own -educational ideals, Plato makes his works inconsistent: -they are not a body of rigid dogmas. Also, he provides -in them just that discussion which he notes as lacking -in most books; it is possible to ask his books a certain -number of questions, for he anticipates and answers -them himself in the dialogue. In this way he makes -his words pass through the alembic<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_600" id="fnanchor_600"></a><a href="#footnote_600" class="fnanchor">[600]</a></span> -of each pupil’s -brain, and come out according to the type of mind -through which they have passed. There is no enforcement -of authority in true Platonism.</p> - -<p>Plato refused to publish any philosophy in his own -name. By speaking through the mouth of others, he -could vary his attitudes just as he wished. The written -word, he declares, must necessarily contain much trifling. -<a name="Page_207" id="Page_207"></a><span class="pageno">207</span> -Its composition is a good amusement for leisure hours.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_601" id="fnanchor_601"></a><a href="#footnote_601" class="fnanchor">[601]</a></span> -Its one use is that it serves to remind the writer of -what he knows already, when the forgetfulness of old -age comes upon him. But the writer is quite worthless -if he possesses nothing better in his mind than what -he has written on paper,<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_602" id="fnanchor_602"></a><a href="#footnote_602" class="fnanchor">[602]</a></span> - “twisting words up and -down, glueing them together and pulling them -apart.”<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_603" id="fnanchor_603"></a><a href="#footnote_603" class="fnanchor">[603]</a></span> -</p> - -<p>Books, however, were already serious rivals to -personal intercourse, as a means of education. The -libraries founded by Peisistratos at Athens and by -Polukrates at Samos were, it is true, almost certainly -fabulous; for Euripides was satirised for possessing a -collection of books, so it must have been a novelty in -his time. Books were probably very rare before the -Periclean age, but then they multiplied with great -rapidity. The children used them in the schools. -Schoolmasters were expected to possess them: Alkibiades -beat one for not having a copy of Homer. The -comic poet Alexis makes Herakles’ master, Linos, possess -copies of Orpheus, Hesiod, the tragedians, Choirilos, -Homer, Epicharmos, and all sorts of prose works, including -a cookery-book. A cargo of books was wrecked at -Salmudessos,<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_604" id="fnanchor_604"></a><a href="#footnote_604" class="fnanchor">[604]</a></span> -a fact which points to a large book-trade -in Hellenic waters. Euthudemos, the companion of -Sokrates, possessed a fine collection of the best-known -poets and Sophists, including the works of Homer.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_605" id="fnanchor_605"></a><a href="#footnote_605" class="fnanchor">[605]</a></span> -Sokrates suggests that he may be collecting his books -in order to learn Medicine, on which subject there -were many treatises, or Architecture or Geometry or -<a name="Page_208" id="Page_208"></a><span class="pageno">208</span> -Astronomy. This shows how handbooks dealing with -all manner of subjects were multiplying.</p> - -<p>Xenophon’s treatise on <cite>The Horse</cite> had been preceded -by a similar work by Simon;<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_606" id="fnanchor_606"></a><a href="#footnote_606" class="fnanchor">[606]</a></span> -he himself also -wrote on <cite>Hunting</cite>, on <cite>The Duties of a Cavalry Officer</cite>, -on <cite>The Management of a Farm</cite>, and <cite>The Constitution -of Sparta</cite>, besides his more definitely historical and -philosophical works. His <cite>Education of Kuros</cite> conceals -a treatise on the duties of a general. The subjects are -significant of the new movement; for earlier Hellenes -had supposed that Homer and Hesiod taught the whole -art of agriculture and generalship. Other agricultural -treatises, containing much theory but very little practical -knowledge, were also in circulation.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_607" id="fnanchor_607"></a><a href="#footnote_607" class="fnanchor">[607]</a></span> -Later in the -fourth century Aineias the Tactician contributed a -manual for generals. Medical treatises emanated in -great numbers from the school of Hippokrates, and -probably from elsewhere. Chares and Apollodoros -published works on Husbandry,<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_608" id="fnanchor_608"></a><a href="#footnote_608" class="fnanchor">[608]</a></span> -Mithaikos a <cite>Sicilian -Cookery-Book</cite>,<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_609" id="fnanchor_609"></a><a href="#footnote_609" class="fnanchor">[609]</a></span> -Metrodoros a book of Homeric allegories. -Books of travels and geography are also -mentioned by Aristotle.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_610" id="fnanchor_610"></a><a href="#footnote_610" class="fnanchor">[610]</a></span> -Handbooks on “Rhetoric” -were first compiled by Korax and Tisias: they dealt -with the subject of “arguments from probability.” -Show pieces were written by Antiphon and Gorgias. A -treatise by Polos upon the systematic arrangement of a -speech was read by Sokrates. Thrasumachos published -a work upon <cite>Appeals to Compassion</cite>.</p> - -<p>The prices were probably not high, for the labour of -copying could be cheaply performed by means of slaves. -Sokrates, in the Platonic Apology,<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_611" id="fnanchor_611"></a><a href="#footnote_611" class="fnanchor">[611]</a></span> -mentions that a -<a name="Page_209" id="Page_209"></a><span class="pageno">209</span> -copy of Anaxagoras could sometimes be picked up for -a drachma; and there is no reason to suppose that -Anaxagoras was particularly cheap. If this was an -average price, books must have been within the reach -of most Athenians.</p> - -<p class="p2 footnote"> <a name="footnote_529" id="footnote_529"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_529"><span class="muchsmaller">[529]</span></a> -Isokrates clearly felt them to be his educational rivals. See <cite><abbr title="Antidemocracy">Antid.</abbr></cite> 310 <span class="sc lowercase">A</span>, and -the end of the <cite><abbr title="Panegyricus">Paneg.</abbr></cite></p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_530" id="footnote_530"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_530"><span class="muchsmaller">[530]</span></a> -There is a sketch of them in <abbr title="Isokrates">Isok.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="Panathenaikos">Panath.</abbr></cite> 236 <span class="sc lowercase">C</span>; to a lecture on Homer -three or four of them had appended an attack upon Isokrates.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_531" id="footnote_531"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_531"><span class="muchsmaller">[531]</span></a> -<abbr title="Isokrates">Isok.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="Antidemocracy">Antid.</abbr></cite> 99.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_532" id="footnote_532"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_532"><span class="muchsmaller">[532]</span></a> -<abbr title="Isokrates">Isok.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="Sophist">Soph.</abbr></cite> 10. 293 <span class="sc lowercase">A</span>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_533" id="footnote_533"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_533"><span class="muchsmaller">[533]</span></a> -<abbr title="Isokrates">Isok.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="Sophist">Soph.</abbr></cite> 4. 291 <span class="sc lowercase">D</span>. <abbr title="Compare">Cp.</abbr> the modern “caution-money.”</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_534" id="footnote_534"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_534"><span class="muchsmaller">[534]</span></a> -<abbr title="Isokrates">Isok.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="Panathenaikos">Pan.</abbr></cite> 26. 238 <span class="sc lowercase">A</span>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_535" id="footnote_535"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_535"><span class="muchsmaller">[535]</span></a> -<abbr title="Isokrates">Isok.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="Antidemocracy">Antid.</abbr></cite> 118. 265.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_536" id="footnote_536"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_536"><span class="muchsmaller">[536]</span></a> -<abbr title="Isokrates">Isok.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="Panathenaikos">Panath.</abbr></cite> 238 <span class="sc lowercase">D</span>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_537" id="footnote_537"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_537"><span class="muchsmaller">[537]</span></a> -<abbr title="Isokrates">Isok.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="Antidemocracy">Antid.</abbr></cite> 118. 266.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_538" id="footnote_538"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_538"><span class="muchsmaller">[538]</span></a> -<cite>Ibid.</cite> 118. 268.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_539" id="footnote_539"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_539"><span class="muchsmaller">[539]</span></a> -<abbr title="Isokrates">Isok.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="Antidemocracy">Antid.</abbr></cite> 118. 268.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_540" id="footnote_540"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_540"><span class="muchsmaller">[540]</span></a> -<cite>Ibid.</cite> 91.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_541" id="footnote_541"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_541"><span class="muchsmaller">[541]</span></a> -<abbr title="Isokrates">Isok.</abbr> letter to Alexander.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_542" id="footnote_542"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_542"><span class="muchsmaller">[542]</span></a> -<abbr title="Isokrates">Isok.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="Panathenaikos">Panath.</abbr></cite> 275. It is noticeable how many of his pupils became historians—Ephoros, -Theopompos, Androtion, Asklepiades.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_543" id="footnote_543"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_543"><span class="muchsmaller">[543]</span></a> -See, for example, “On Slander “(<cite><abbr title="Antidemocracy">Antid.</abbr></cite> 313 <span class="sc lowercase">E</span>), “On Speech” (115. 255).</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_544" id="footnote_544"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_544"><span class="muchsmaller">[544]</span></a> -<abbr title="Isokrates">Isok.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="Antidemocracy">Antid.</abbr></cite> 48.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_545" id="footnote_545"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_545"><span class="muchsmaller">[545]</span></a> -For a complete analysis of it, see Jebb’s <cite>Attic Orators</cite>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_546" id="footnote_546"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_546"><span class="muchsmaller">[546]</span></a> -<abbr title="Isokrates">Isok.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="against">ag.</abbr> <abbr title="Sophist">Soph.</abbr></cite> 294 <span class="sc lowercase">C</span>; <cite><abbr title="Antidemocracy">Antid.</abbr></cite> 91-93, etc.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_547" id="footnote_547"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_547"><span class="muchsmaller">[547]</span></a> -<cite>Ibid.</cite> 294 <span class="sc lowercase">E</span>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_548" id="footnote_548"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_548"><span class="muchsmaller">[548]</span></a> -<abbr title="Isokrates">Isok.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="Antidemocracy">Antid.</abbr></cite> 121.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_549" id="footnote_549"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_549"><span class="muchsmaller">[549]</span></a> -<abbr title="Isokrates">Isok.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="against">ag.</abbr> <abbr title="Sophist">Soph.</abbr></cite> 295 <span class="sc lowercase">D</span>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_550" id="footnote_550"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_550"><span class="muchsmaller">[550]</span></a> -<abbr title="Isokrates">Isok.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="Areiopagitikos">Areiop.</abbr></cite> 151 <span class="sc lowercase">B</span>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_551" id="footnote_551"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_551"><span class="muchsmaller">[551]</span></a> -<abbr title="Isokrates">Isok.</abbr> <cite>Philip</cite>, 85, 86.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_552" id="footnote_552"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_552"><span class="muchsmaller">[552]</span></a> -<abbr title="Isokrates">Isok.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="Antidemocracy">Antid.</abbr></cite> 106.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_553" id="footnote_553"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_553"><span class="muchsmaller">[553]</span></a> -<cite>Ibid.</cite> 318 <span class="sc lowercase">C</span>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_554" id="footnote_554"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_554"><span class="muchsmaller">[554]</span></a> -<cite>Ibid.</cite> 316 <span class="sc lowercase">C</span>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_555" id="footnote_555"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_555"><span class="muchsmaller">[555]</span></a> -<abbr title="Isokrates">Isok.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="Antidemocracy">Antid.</abbr></cite> 110.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_556" id="footnote_556"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_556"><span class="muchsmaller">[556]</span></a> -<cite>Ibid.</cite> 62.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_557" id="footnote_557"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_557"><span class="muchsmaller">[557]</span></a> -[<abbr title="Demosthenes">Demos.</abbr>] <cite>Lakritos</cite>, 15 and 42.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_558" id="footnote_558"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_558"><span class="muchsmaller">[558]</span></a> -[Plutarch] <cite>Ten Orators</cite>, 837.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_559" id="footnote_559"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_559"><span class="muchsmaller">[559]</span></a> -<abbr title="Isokrates">Isok.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="Antidemocracy">Antid.</abbr></cite> 129.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_560" id="footnote_560"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_560"><span class="muchsmaller">[560]</span></a> -<abbr title="Isokrates">Isok.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="Panathenaikos">Panath.</abbr></cite> 239.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_561" id="footnote_561"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_561"><span class="muchsmaller">[561]</span></a> -Plato, <cite><abbr title="Phaidros">Phaedr.</abbr></cite> 227-228.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_562" id="footnote_562"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_562"><span class="muchsmaller">[562]</span></a> -<cite>Ibid.</cite> 234 <span class="sc lowercase">D</span>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_563" id="footnote_563"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_563"><span class="muchsmaller">[563]</span></a> -The criticisms do not suit Lusias; they fit Isokrates much better.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_564" id="footnote_564"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_564"><span class="muchsmaller">[564]</span></a> -Cicero, <cite>Brutus</cite>, <abbr title="twelve">xii.</abbr> 46-47.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_565" id="footnote_565"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_565"><span class="muchsmaller">[565]</span></a> -Aischines, <cite><abbr title="Timarchos">Timarch.</abbr></cite> 171, 173.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_566" id="footnote_566"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_566"><span class="muchsmaller">[566]</span></a> -<cite>Ibid.</cite> 171.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_567" id="footnote_567"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_567"><span class="muchsmaller">[567]</span></a> -<cite>Ibid.</cite> 175.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_568" id="footnote_568"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_568"><span class="muchsmaller">[568]</span></a> -Plato, <cite><abbr title="Gorgias">Gorg.</abbr></cite> 484-486; end of <cite><abbr title="Euthydemus">Euthud.</abbr> </cite>; <cite><abbr title="Theaitetos">Theait.</abbr></cite> 172-177; <cite><abbr title="Republic">Rep.</abbr></cite> 496.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_569" id="footnote_569"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_569"><span class="muchsmaller">[569]</span></a> -<abbr title="Diogenes Laertius">Diog. Laertius</abbr> <abbr title="four">iv.</abbr> 2. 6.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_570" id="footnote_570"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_570"><span class="muchsmaller">[570]</span></a> -<abbr title="Athenaeus">Athen.</abbr> 419 d.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_571" id="footnote_571"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_571"><span class="muchsmaller">[571]</span></a> -<cite>Ibid.</cite> 419 e and 55 d.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_572" id="footnote_572"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_572"><span class="muchsmaller">[572]</span></a> -<abbr title="Athenaeus">Athen.</abbr> 186 b.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_573" id="footnote_573"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_573"><span class="muchsmaller">[573]</span></a> -<abbr title="Diogenes Laertius">Diog. Laertius</abbr> <abbr title="three">iii.</abbr> 26.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_574" id="footnote_574"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_574"><span class="muchsmaller">[574]</span></a> -<cite>Ibid.</cite> <abbr title="three">iii.</abbr> 31.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_575" id="footnote_575"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_575"><span class="muchsmaller">[575]</span></a> -See for this lecture Simplikios (on <abbr title="Aristotle">Aristot.</abbr> <cite>Physics</cite>, <abbr title="page">p.</abbr> 202 <span class="sc lowercase">B</span>, 36), and Aristoxenos, -<cite>Harmon</cite>, <abbr title="beginning of Book two">beg. of Bk. ii.</abbr> On one occasion, at least, it was delivered in the -Peiraieus (<abbr title="Themistokles">Themist.</abbr> <cite>Orat.</cite> 21. 245).</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_576" id="footnote_576"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_576"><span class="muchsmaller">[576]</span></a> -The popular attitude may be seen in Amphis’ <cite>Amphrikates</cite> (<abbr title="Diogenes Laertius">Diog. Laertius</abbr> -<abbr title="three">iii.</abbr> 25): “I no more know what good you’ll get than I know what Plato’s Good is.”</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_577" id="footnote_577"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_577"><span class="muchsmaller">[577]</span></a> -Plato seems also to have recited his dialogues in public. Favonius asserted that -Aristotle alone of the audience stayed to the end when Plato thus delivered the -<cite>Phaidon</cite> (<abbr title="Diogenes Laertius">Diog. Laertius</abbr> <abbr title="three">iii.</abbr> 25).</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_578" id="footnote_578"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_578"><span class="muchsmaller">[578]</span></a> -<abbr title="Diogenes Laertius">Diog. Laertius</abbr> <abbr title="three">iii.</abbr> 45, etc.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_579" id="footnote_579"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_579"><span class="muchsmaller">[579]</span></a> -Epikrates (in <abbr title="Athenaeus">Athen.</abbr> 59 d, e).</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_580" id="footnote_580"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_580"><span class="muchsmaller">[580]</span></a> -Ephippos, <cite>Shipwrecked Man</cite> (<abbr title="Athenaeus">Athen.</abbr> 509).</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_581" id="footnote_581"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_581"><span class="muchsmaller">[581]</span></a> -<ins title="eurythmos">εὔρυθμος</ins>, probably a hit at Plato’s demand for “rhythm.”</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_582" id="footnote_582"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_582"><span class="muchsmaller">[582]</span></a> -Antiphanes, <cite>Antaros</cite> (<abbr title="Athenaeus">Athen.</abbr> 545 a).</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_583" id="footnote_583"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_583"><span class="muchsmaller">[583]</span></a> -Alexis, <cite>Meropis</cite> (<abbr title="Diogenes Laertius">Diog. Laertius</abbr> <abbr title="three">iii.</abbr> 22).</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_584" id="footnote_584"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_584"><span class="muchsmaller">[584]</span></a> -This walking up and down was characteristic of Hellenic teaching. Compare -the <cite>Peripatetics</cite>, and Archutas in the temple-gardens at Tarentum (<abbr title="Athenaeus">Athen.</abbr> 545 b).</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_585" id="footnote_585"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_585"><span class="muchsmaller">[585]</span></a> -<abbr title="Diogenes Laertius">Diog. Laertius</abbr> <abbr title="three">iii.</abbr> 22.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_586" id="footnote_586"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_586"><span class="muchsmaller">[586]</span></a> -<cite>Ibid.</cite> <abbr title="four">iv.</abbr> 3. 1.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_587" id="footnote_587"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_587"><span class="muchsmaller">[587]</span></a> -The first translation is my own, the second Shelley’s.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_588" id="footnote_588"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_588"><span class="muchsmaller">[588]</span></a> -Saturos and Onetor in <abbr title="Diogenes Laertius">Diog. Laertius</abbr> <abbr title="three">iii.</abbr> 11.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_589" id="footnote_589"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_589"><span class="muchsmaller">[589]</span></a> -The above details are mainly from <abbr title="Diogenes Laertius five">Diog. Laertius v.</abbr></p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_590" id="footnote_590"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_590"><span class="muchsmaller">[590]</span></a> -<abbr title="Aulus Gellius twenty">Aul. Gell. xx.</abbr> 5. 4.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_591" id="footnote_591"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_591"><span class="muchsmaller">[591]</span></a> -Plato had also his feuds with Antisthenes, who wrote a dialogue against him, -calling him Satho, with Aristippos, and with Aischines the Sokratic (<abbr title="Diogenes Laertius">Diog. Laertius</abbr> -iii. 24).</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_592" id="footnote_592"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_592"><span class="muchsmaller">[592]</span></a> -Kriton feels this difficulty in <cite><abbr title="Euthydemus">Euthud.</abbr> </cite> 306 <span class="sc lowercase">D</span>, <span class="sc lowercase">E</span>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_593" id="footnote_593"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_593"><span class="muchsmaller">[593]</span></a> -Plato, <cite><abbr title="Phaidros">Phaedr.</abbr></cite> 275 <span class="sc lowercase">A</span>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_594" id="footnote_594"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_594"><span class="muchsmaller">[594]</span></a> -<cite>Ibid.</cite> 275 <span class="sc lowercase">E</span>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_595" id="footnote_595"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_595"><span class="muchsmaller">[595]</span></a> -Plato, <cite><abbr title="Phaidros">Phaedr.</abbr></cite> 275 <span class="sc lowercase">D</span>; <cite><abbr title="Theaitetos">Theait.</abbr></cite> 164; <cite><abbr title="Protagoras">Protag.</abbr></cite> 329 <span class="sc lowercase">A</span>, and 347 <span class="sc lowercase">E</span>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_596" id="footnote_596"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_596"><span class="muchsmaller">[596]</span></a> -So book-knowledge is a hothouse plant which has sprung up unnaturally all in a -moment, and very delicate when exposed to the open air of criticism (<cite><abbr title="Phaidros">Phaedr.</abbr></cite> 276-7).</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_597" id="footnote_597"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_597"><span class="muchsmaller">[597]</span></a> -Plato, <cite>Sophist</cite>, 230 <span class="sc lowercase">A</span>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_598" id="footnote_598"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_598"><span class="muchsmaller">[598]</span></a> -Plato, <cite>Menon</cite>, 97; <cite><abbr title="Republic">Rep.</abbr></cite> 534 <span class="sc lowercase">B</span>, <span class="sc lowercase">C</span>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_599" id="footnote_599"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_599"><span class="muchsmaller">[599]</span></a> -Plato, <cite><abbr title="Republic">Rep.</abbr></cite> 518.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_600" id="footnote_600"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_600"><span class="muchsmaller">[600]</span></a> -Plato, <cite><abbr title="Phaidros">Phaidr.</abbr></cite> 277 <span class="sc lowercase">A</span>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_601" id="footnote_601"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_601"><span class="muchsmaller">[601]</span></a> -Plato, <cite><abbr title="Phaidros">Phaidr.</abbr></cite> 276 <span class="sc lowercase">D</span>, <span class="sc lowercase">E</span>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_602" id="footnote_602"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_602"><span class="muchsmaller">[602]</span></a> -Plato apparently regarded his dialogues as mere trifles compared with what he -taught to his inner circle.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_603" id="footnote_603"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_603"><span class="muchsmaller">[603]</span></a> -Plato, <cite><abbr title="Phaidros">Phaedr.</abbr></cite> 278 <span class="sc lowercase">D</span>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_604" id="footnote_604"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_604"><span class="muchsmaller">[604]</span></a> -<abbr title="Xenophon">Xen.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="Anabasis">Anab.</abbr> </cite> <abbr title="seven">vii.</abbr> 5. 14.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_605" id="footnote_605"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_605"><span class="muchsmaller">[605]</span></a> -<abbr title="Xenophon">Xen.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="Memorabilia">Mem.</abbr></cite> <abbr title="four">iv.</abbr> 2.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_606" id="footnote_606"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_606"><span class="muchsmaller">[606]</span></a> -<abbr title="Xenophon">Xen.</abbr> <cite>Horsemanship</cite>, <abbr title="one">i.</abbr></p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_607" id="footnote_607"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_607"><span class="muchsmaller">[607]</span></a> -<abbr title="Xenophon">Xen.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="Economics">Econ.</abbr></cite> xvi.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_608" id="footnote_608"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_608"><span class="muchsmaller">[608]</span></a> -<abbr title="Aristotle">Aristot.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="Politics">Pol.</abbr></cite> <abbr title="one">i.</abbr> 11. 7.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_609" id="footnote_609"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_609"><span class="muchsmaller">[609]</span></a> -Plato, <cite><abbr title="Gorgias">Gorg.</abbr></cite> 518 <span class="sc lowercase">B</span>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_610" id="footnote_610"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_610"><span class="muchsmaller">[610]</span></a> -<abbr title="Aristotle">Aristot.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="Politics">Pol.</abbr></cite> <abbr title="two">ii.</abbr> 3. 9.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_611" id="footnote_611"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_611"><span class="muchsmaller">[611]</span></a> -Plato, <cite><abbr title="Apology">Apol.</abbr></cite> 26 <span class="sc lowercase">D</span>.</p> -</div><!--end chapter--> - -<div class="chapter"><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210"></a><span class="pageno">210</span> - -<h3 class="p4 h3head">CHAPTER VII</h3> - -<h4 class="p2 h4head">TERTIARY EDUCATION</h4> - -<p class="p2"><span class="sc">When</span> he reached eighteen years, the young Athenian -partly came of age. His property passed into his -possession, if he had been a ward, and he could now -prosecute his guardians if they had defrauded him. -But he could not appear in any other sort of lawsuit, -or take part in the National Assembly, nor could he -be taxed, till he was twenty.</p> - -<p>First of all, his deme or parish had to examine him -to see if he was of proper parentage and of the requisite -age.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_612" id="fnanchor_612"></a><a href="#footnote_612" class="fnanchor">[612]</a></span> -If they rejected him, the case came before the -regular Court of Athens. In the event of being -again rejected, if it was on the score of age, he returned -to the ranks of the boys to wait a further trial, but -if on the score of parentage, he might be sold as a -slave and his price put into the Treasury. If his deme -accepted him he was again examined by the Boule of -500 at Athens, who might rescind their decision.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_613" id="fnanchor_613"></a><a href="#footnote_613" class="fnanchor">[613]</a></span> -</p> - -<p>When he had passed all these preliminary examinations, -the boy was inscribed upon the roll of his deme, -the <ins title="lêxiarchikon grammateion">ληξιαρχικὸν γραμματεῖον</ins>, and became in the eyes of -the law an ephebos. It was then incumbent upon him -to take a solemn oath in the temple of Aglauros, in -the following terms<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_614" id="fnanchor_614"></a><a href="#footnote_614" class="fnanchor">[614]</a>:—</span></p> - -<p class="blockquote"><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211"></a><span class="pageno">211</span> -“I will not disgrace my sacred weapons nor desert -the comrade who is placed by my side. I will fight for -things holy and things profane, whether I am alone or -with others. I will hand on my fatherland greater and -better than I found it. I will hearken to the magistrates, -and obey the existing laws and those hereafter -established<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_615" id="fnanchor_615"></a><a href="#footnote_615" class="fnanchor">[615]</a></span> -by the people. I will not consent unto any -that destroys or disobeys the constitution, but will -prevent him, whether I am alone or with others. I -will honour the temples and the religion which my forefathers -established. So help me Aglauros, Enualios, -Ares, Zeus, Thallo, Auxo, Hegemone.”</p> - -<p>This oath and ceremony must be ancient. The -orator Lukourgos<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_616" id="fnanchor_616"></a><a href="#footnote_616" class="fnanchor">[616]</a></span> -includes them among “the ancient -laws and customs of the original founders,” and claims -that the oath of the Hellenic army at Plataea in 479 -was imitated from the oath of the Athenian epheboi. -By this solemn act the ephebos accepted the duties and -responsibilities of an Athenian citizen. So in Plato’s -dialogue, the <cite>Kriton</cite>,<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_617" id="fnanchor_617"></a><a href="#footnote_617" class="fnanchor">[617]</a></span> -where the Laws of Athens are -introduced as pleading their cause, they say, “When -any one has passed his examination, and has seen the -constitution of the city and us, the Laws of Athens, we -bid him, if he is dissatisfied with us, to take what is his -and go whither he pleases. But if he stays, we consider -that he has promised to obey us.” For there is good -evidence, besides that which is afforded by the above -passage, to show that Athenian boys were taught what -the laws of their city were, before they promised to -obey them. Thus Aischines says: “When any one is -inscribed upon the muster roll of his deme and knows -the laws of the city.”<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_618" id="fnanchor_618"></a><a href="#footnote_618" class="fnanchor">[618]</a></span> -Plato puts it even more -<a name="Page_212" id="Page_212"></a><span class="pageno">212</span> -definitely: “When the children leave school,<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_619" id="fnanchor_619"></a><a href="#footnote_619" class="fnanchor">[619]</a></span> -the city -compels them to learn the laws.”<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_620" id="fnanchor_620"></a><a href="#footnote_620" class="fnanchor">[620]</a></span> -So the ephebos -knew what he was doing when he swore to obey the -law of the land.</p> - -<p>Meanwhile the tribes had met and each chosen three -men of over forty years of age, from whom the -assembled people elected one, to look after the epheboi -of each tribe.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_621" id="fnanchor_621"></a><a href="#footnote_621" class="fnanchor">[621]</a></span> -These supervisors were called Sophronistai -or Moderators. That these Moderators probably -dated back to Solonic times, and possessed a general, -but rarely exercised, supervision over all education, I -have endeavoured to show in Chapter <abbr title="Two">II.</abbr> Their -province was the morality and discipline of the epheboi, -whose military training was naturally controlled by the -military officers, the Generals and Taxiarchoi; later, -however, when the epheboi ceased to be a military body, -these latter functionaries ceased to have any connection -with them. Towards the close of the fourth century -the people elected a single Kosmetes or Chancellor for -the epheboi; he is first mentioned, if a probably spurious -passage in the <cite>Axiochos</cite> is rejected, in an inscription, -in which he is associated with the epheboi and Moderators -of the year in awarding a crown to Theophanes in the -Archonship of Nikostratos (333-332 <span class="sc">B.C.</span>).<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_622" id="fnanchor_622"></a><a href="#footnote_622" class="fnanchor">[622]</a></span> -But in -280 <span class="sc">B.C.</span>, in the list of the officers and masters of the -epheboi, the Kosmetes is mentioned, but no Sophronistai:<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_623" id="fnanchor_623"></a><a href="#footnote_623" class="fnanchor">[623]</a></span> -at that time the epheboi were too few to need -an officer to each tribe.</p> - -<p><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213"></a><span class="pageno">213</span> -These newly appointed magistrates took the epheboi -of their year in charge at once. The young recruits -were first taken round the temples, and then put into -garrison in Mounuchia and Peiraieus. They had masters -and under-masters appointed for them by the Sophronistai -to teach them the use of heavy arms, and also of the -bow, javelin, and catapult. There were also two Paidotribai, -for gymnastics. These masters, together with -later introductions such as literary teachers, chaplains, -doctors, and so forth, appear regularly in the inscriptions -after 300 <span class="sc">B.C.</span><span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_624" id="fnanchor_624"></a><a href="#footnote_624" class="fnanchor">[624]</a></span> -The Sophronistai were paid a drachma -a day for their services. They also received four obols -for every ephebos in their tribe, out of which they had -to provide the rations, etc.; the ephebos did not handle -the money himself. Each tribe messed together.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_625" id="fnanchor_625"></a><a href="#footnote_625" class="fnanchor">[625]</a></span> -</p> - -<p>Besides the Sophronistai and Kosmetes, the Council -of the Areiopagos also kept a watch over the epheboi. -Discipline seems to have been fairly strict: the -<cite>Axiochos</cite><span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_626" id="fnanchor_626"></a><a href="#footnote_626" class="fnanchor">[626]</a></span> -talks of “rods and immensities of evils.” -But there were plenty of amusements, and, apparently, -plenty of vacations. There were a very large number -of special festivals, in which the epheboi took part. -There were also the torch-races at the feasts of Hephaistos -and Prometheus, for teams of epheboi from each tribe, -trained at the expense of a gumnasiarchos. The epheboi -had also a special part of the theatre reserved for them.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_627" id="fnanchor_627"></a><a href="#footnote_627" class="fnanchor">[627]</a></span> -</p> - -<p>No doubt a large part of the time of these epheboi -was spent in severe physical exercise in the gymnasia. -The analogy of the epheboi in Plato’s <cite>Republic</cite> and -<cite>Laws</cite> would suggest this. The <cite>Axiochos</cite> mentions, -as consequent upon enrolment in the epheboi, “the -Lukeion and Akademeia,” <span class="decoration">i.e.</span> practices in these -<a name="Page_214" id="Page_214"></a><span class="pageno">214</span> -gymnasia. Xenophon,<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_628" id="fnanchor_628"></a><a href="#footnote_628" class="fnanchor">[628]</a></span> -just before mentioning the -“peripoloi” or epheboi in their second year, talks of -“those who are ordered to practise gymnastic exercises,” -clearly referring to this period. He suggests -that their duties would be better and more cheerfully -performed if they received a larger supply of rations -than those who were training for torch-races; to these -latter no doubt a liberal gumnasiarchos might serve -out meals costing much more than four obols a day. -Probably those who were physically inferior alone were -told off for these compulsory gymnastics: Xenophon’s -phrase seems to distinguish them from the epheboi -selected for the torch-race, who would naturally be the -physically fittest in the tribal contingent.</p> - -<p>At the end of their first year of training, the epheboi -appeared in the theatre at the great Dionusia to show -off their military evolutions and the drill which they -had learned. After the review they received a spear -and shield from the State.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_629" id="fnanchor_629"></a><a href="#footnote_629" class="fnanchor">[629]</a></span> -The sons of those who -had fallen in battle, being the wards of the State,<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_630" id="fnanchor_630"></a><a href="#footnote_630" class="fnanchor">[630]</a></span> -received a complete outfit of armour. These arms, -which the epheboi received from the State, were -considered to be sacred: consequently to throw away -the shield in flight was regarded as a serious offence, -almost an act of sacrilege.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_631" id="fnanchor_631"></a><a href="#footnote_631" class="fnanchor">[631]</a></span> -</p> - -<div class="figcenter together" style="width: 500px"> - <p class="captionleft">PLATE <abbr title="Nine">IX.</abbr></p> - <a name="i09" id="i09"></a> - <img src="images/9.jpg" - width="500" height="247" - alt="Illustration: Riding lesson" - /> - <p class="caption">A RIDING LESSON—MOUNTING -<cite>Archaeologische Zeitung</cite>, 1885, Plate 11.<br /> -From a Kulix at Munich, attributed to Euphronios.</p> -</div><!--end illustration--> - -<p>After receiving their arms from the State, the -epheboi were marched out of Athens, and spent most -of the next year patrolling the country and frontiers, -and garrisoning the forts.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_632" id="fnanchor_632"></a><a href="#footnote_632" class="fnanchor">[632]</a></span> -Attica was studded with -<!--Blank Page--> -<a name="Page_215" id="Page_215"></a><span class="pageno">215</span> -these <ins title="peripolia">περιπόλια</ins>, or patrol-stations, from Oinoé and -Phulé on the north-western frontier to Anaphlustos -and Thorikos in the south. The epheboi, like the -<ins title="kryptoi">κρυπτοί</ins> in Plato’s <cite>Laws</cite> and at Sparta, were shifted -about from district to district, in order that they might -acquire a thorough knowledge of their country’s -geographical peculiarities. The tribal companies, into -which they were divided, relieved one another in various -stations. Thus in the course of 334-333 we know -that both the Hippothontid and the Kekropid tribes -were successively stationed at Eleusis, for the people -of that district pass two separate votes of thanks to -them for the excellent discipline which they had -preserved.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_633" id="fnanchor_633"></a><a href="#footnote_633" class="fnanchor">[633]</a></span> -There may also have been open-air -camps: the Eleusinian inscriptions talk of <ins title="hypaithrioi">ὑπαίθριοι</ins>.</p> - -<p>The epheboi seem to have been assisted in their -patrol-duties by a mercenary force of foreigners. -Thucydides<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_634" id="fnanchor_634"></a><a href="#footnote_634" class="fnanchor">[634]</a></span> -declares that Phrunichos was assassinated -by a peripolos: the Athenian people, according to -Lusias, rewarded Thrasuboulos of Kaludon as the -slayer and recorded his name on a pillar.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_635" id="fnanchor_635"></a><a href="#footnote_635" class="fnanchor">[635]</a></span> -If the -historian had meant to dispute this award, he must have -referred to it, for it was clearly the accepted version. -He also states that the plot was arranged at the house -of the captain of the peripoloi, and mentions an -Argive as one of the accomplices: Lusias mentions -a Megarian. Both these foreigners were probably -peripoloi. But foreign youths cannot at this period -have been permitted to serve with the tribal companies -of epheboi. A legend, it is true, asserts that this -privilege was granted to the young men of Kos, in -honour of the great doctor Hippokrates; but even -<a name="Page_216" id="Page_216"></a><span class="pageno">216</span> -this only shows that all other states were excluded. -Indeed, foreigners were not enrolled among the -Athenian epheboi until a much later epoch, when the -system was no longer military.</p> - -<p>What, then, was this “Foreign Legion”? M. -Girard identifies it with the Mounted Archers, on the -strength of a passage in Aristophanes’ <cite>Birds</cite>. An -unknown deity has invaded the territory of Cloud-Cuckoo -town. Peisthetairos exclaims, “Why didn’t -you despatch peripoloi after him at once?” To which -the messenger replies, “We did send 30,000 Mounted -Archers.” The inscriptions at Eleusis also make a force -of non-citizen troops serve under the captain of the -peripoloi. These mercenary troops, having no civil -duties, would naturally be used as a patrol. Moreover, -to an Athenian, “archer” meant “policeman.” -Athens was policed by foreign “Archers”: it would be -natural for Attica to be policed in like manner, only -by a mounted force, as a greater distance had to be -covered.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_636" id="fnanchor_636"></a><a href="#footnote_636" class="fnanchor">[636]</a></span> -But it is also possible that the non-Athenian -peripoloi were the sons of <ins title="metoikoi isoteleis">μέτοικοι ἰσοτελεῖς</ins>, who, -being forced to serve as hoplites when grown up, would -require some preliminary training; these alien hoplites -are coupled by Thucydides<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_637" id="fnanchor_637"></a><a href="#footnote_637" class="fnanchor">[637]</a></span> -with the recruits and -veterans, who garrisoned the Athenian walls and forts: -they seem to have served as a perpetual patrol.</p> - -<p>The first three classes of Athenian citizens in wealth -must all have passed through this training; for, -although the two first were liable to cavalry service, -they might also be called upon to serve as hoplites.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_638" id="fnanchor_638"></a><a href="#footnote_638" class="fnanchor">[638]</a></span> -Rich young epheboi, who had plenty of time on their -<a name="Page_217" id="Page_217"></a><span class="pageno">217</span> -hands, would naturally learn both cavalry and infantry -drill. The poorer Zeugitai would only have to learn -their duties as heavy infantry, and were probably -allowed to spend a good proportion of their time on -their farms in Athens. But what about the fourth -class, the Thetes? They were not liable to be called -out as hoplites, but had to serve on land as light-armed -troops or at sea as rowers. Did they also have -a recruit course? Now the garrisons of the Athenian -forts and walls were hoplites:<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_639" id="fnanchor_639"></a><a href="#footnote_639" class="fnanchor">[639]</a></span> -there is no trace of the -Thetes here. But the patrol duties in the mountains -can hardly have been performed by heavy troops: it -is noticeable that in Xenophon light troops are -suggested for this purpose, when Sokrates is developing -an elaborate scheme for holding the frontiers of -Attica against all invaders.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_640" id="fnanchor_640"></a><a href="#footnote_640" class="fnanchor">[640]</a></span> -In the next century, at -any rate, light troops were used for this purpose. -In a later work Xenophon talks of “those who are -ordered to occupy the forts and those who have to -serve as peltasts and patrol the country,”<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_641" id="fnanchor_641"></a><a href="#footnote_641" class="fnanchor">[641]</a></span> -in a passage -where he is clearly referring to the epheboi. Thus -there are two classes, the garrisons, who would -naturally be hoplites, and the patrols, who are peltasts, -suitably equipped for mountaineering. But the peltasts -only began to appear towards the close of the Peloponnesian -War: the first mention of them is in Thucydides’ -account of the army of Brasidas. Before this -time, the light troops were archers and some slingers; -thus, in the monument to those of the Erechtheid tribe -who fell in the year 459, after the hoplites four archers -are mentioned.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_642" id="fnanchor_642"></a><a href="#footnote_642" class="fnanchor">[642]</a></span> -But they were a small force: there -<a name="Page_218" id="Page_218"></a><span class="pageno">218</span> -were only 1600 of them in 431 <span class="sc">B.C.</span> The majority -of the Thetes served in the ships. In the <cite>Birds</cite> of -Aristophanes, which appeared in 414, when it was a -question of repelling a sudden raid, just after the -peripoloi have been mentioned, Peisthetairos bids his -immediate attendants arm themselves with slings and -bows: these are clearly the weapons for a flying column -despatched in pursuit of raiders.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_643" id="fnanchor_643"></a><a href="#footnote_643" class="fnanchor">[643]</a></span> -</p> - -<p>The passage of Xenophon makes it clear that there -were peltasts in the ephebic force in the fourth century; -that of Aristophanes suggests the probability of archers -and slingers among them in the fifth. But whether -these light-armed troops consisted of enterprising -Zeugitai who added this training to their hoplite drill, -or were a small detachment of Thetes, cannot be fixed. -Thetes must, at any rate, not have been numerous in -the ephebic force, for they could not have spared the -time necessary for such lengthy training.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_644" id="fnanchor_644"></a><a href="#footnote_644" class="fnanchor">[644]</a></span> -</p> - -<p>As a rule, the epheboi were not expected to do more -than guard the frontier and repel an occasional foray: -even this, however, must have given them plenty of -employment in war-time. But they shared in Muronides’ -great victory in the Megarid in 458, when Athens had -to use her reserves.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_645" id="fnanchor_645"></a><a href="#footnote_645" class="fnanchor">[645]</a></span> -Either they or the “foreign -legion” joined in a later invasion of Megara.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_646" id="fnanchor_646"></a><a href="#footnote_646" class="fnanchor">[646]</a></span> -But -as a rule they served for home defence only. Their -recruit-course ended with their twentieth year: henceforth -they were ordinary Athenian citizens and soldiers.</p> - -<p>In about 332 <span class="sc">B.C.</span>, when Lukourgos delivered his -speech against Leokrates, the old ephebic system seems -<a name="Page_219" id="Page_219"></a><span class="pageno">219</span> -still to have been in force. The suggestion that -Leokrates might have evaded the ephebic oath is only -rhetorical, for the orator immediately goes on to assume -that he took it.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_647" id="fnanchor_647"></a><a href="#footnote_647" class="fnanchor">[647]</a></span> -In 328, the probable date of Aristotle’s -<cite>Athenian Constitution</cite>, it seems still to have been in -existence, for the philosopher records it as part of the -contemporary regime. The inscriptions support these -authorities. A list of epheboi of the Kekropid tribe -enrolled in 334 is given under the vote of thanks: -the upper part of the list is gone, but the numbers were -apparently large.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_648" id="fnanchor_648"></a><a href="#footnote_648" class="fnanchor">[648]</a></span> -Some forty-four names can be inferred -from the fragments, belonging to six or seven -demes out of the twelve which composed the tribe; but -apparently the smallest contingents are at the bottom, -so there may well have been a hundred names in the -tribe, and 1000 epheboi altogether. Considering the -impoverishment of Attica and the consequent decrease -in the hoplite classes, this is probably a fair proportion -of epheboi.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_649" id="fnanchor_649"></a><a href="#footnote_649" class="fnanchor">[649]</a></span> -A tribal contingent is still large enough -to serve as a garrison for Eleusis, and to act by itself.</p> - -<p>But in the next century the numbers drop down to -twenty-nine and twenty-three. The service must have -been voluntary. Moreover, brothers are found serving -together, from which it may be inferred that the exact -age qualification was no longer regarded.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_650" id="fnanchor_650"></a><a href="#footnote_650" class="fnanchor">[650]</a></span> -Philosophy -and literature become subjects of study; and a -library, swollen by gifts from old epheboi, is collected. -Foreigners begin to be enrolled in the second century, -<a name="Page_220" id="Page_220"></a><span class="pageno">220</span> -and in course of time outnumber the native Athenians. -Although the old military service is preserved, no doubt -in a mummified condition, the system of the epheboi -develops into the Athenian university, where young -Romans like Cicero’s son came to learn philosophy, -though they had little to learn from Athens in military -matters. The Sophronistai and Kosmetes become the -Proctors and Chancellor, the special festivals the compulsory -services, of the new University. The torch-races, -the military duties, and the naval races<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_651" id="fnanchor_651"></a><a href="#footnote_651" class="fnanchor">[651]</a></span> -become -its athletics. It is the old conscription system of -Athens, not the schools of Plato or Isokrates, that -gives birth to the first University.</p> - -<p>The system of epheboi was represented at Sparta -by the κρυπτοί [kryptoi]. We hear of an archephebos at Argos, -and a gumnasiarchos who manages the epheboi at -Troizen.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_652" id="fnanchor_652"></a><a href="#footnote_652" class="fnanchor">[652]</a></span> -In the Megarid and in Boiotia the epheboi -were trained as cavalry, hoplites, or peltasts.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_653" id="fnanchor_653"></a><a href="#footnote_653" class="fnanchor">[653]</a></span> -An -ephebarchos can be traced in Teos. There were -patrol-houses, and so possibly epheboi patrols in the -territory of Syracuse.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_654" id="fnanchor_654"></a><a href="#footnote_654" class="fnanchor">[654]</a></span> -This period of special training -for military duties seems to have been general all over -Hellas. Plato adopts it without demur in the <cite>Republic</cite> -and <cite>Laws</cite>.</p> - -<p class="p2 footnote"> <a name="footnote_612" id="footnote_612"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_612"><span class="muchsmaller">[612]</span></a> -<abbr title="Aristotle">Aristot.</abbr> <ins title="Ath. Pol.">Ἀθ. Πολ.</ins> 42 for these examinations.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_613" id="footnote_613"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_613"><span class="muchsmaller">[613]</span></a> -<abbr title="Lukourgos">Luk.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="against Leokrates">ag. Leok.</abbr></cite> 18. 76.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_614" id="footnote_614"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_614"><span class="muchsmaller">[614]</span></a> -Pollux, <abbr title="eight">viii.</abbr> 105-106, etc.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_615" id="footnote_615"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_615"><span class="muchsmaller">[615]</span></a> -<ins title="krainontes">κραίνοντες</ins>. Note the archaic word.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_616" id="footnote_616"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_616"><span class="muchsmaller">[616]</span></a> -<abbr title="Lukourgos">Luk.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="against Leokrates">ag. Leok</abbr></cite>. 18. 75.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_617" id="footnote_617"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_617"><span class="muchsmaller">[617]</span></a> -Plato, <cite><abbr title="Kriton">Krit.</abbr></cite> 51 <span class="sc lowercase">D</span>, <span class="sc lowercase">E</span>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_618" id="footnote_618"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_618"><span class="muchsmaller">[618]</span></a> -<abbr title="Aischines">Aischin.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="against">ag.</abbr> <abbr title="Timarchos">Timarch.</abbr></cite> 18.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_619" id="footnote_619"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_619"><span class="muchsmaller">[619]</span></a> -I have already suggested that metrical versions may have been taught at the -music-schools.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_620" id="footnote_620"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_620"><span class="muchsmaller">[620]</span></a> -Plato, <cite><abbr title="Protagoras">Protag.</abbr></cite> 326 <span class="sc lowercase">D</span>. Boys used to listen to cases in the law-courts. This -would give them some idea of legal procedure. (Compare the custom at some English -public schools of letting the boys go to hear the local assizes.) Demosthenes thus -went with his paidagogos to hear the trial of Kallistratos.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_621" id="footnote_621"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_621"><span class="muchsmaller">[621]</span></a> -<abbr title="Aristotle">Aristot.</abbr> <ins title="Ath. Pol.">Ἀθ. Πολ.</ins> 42. 2.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_622" id="footnote_622"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_622"><span class="muchsmaller">[622]</span></a> -<cite><abbr title="Corpus Inscriptionun Atticarum">C.I.A.</abbr></cite> <span class="sc"><abbr title="Four">IV.</abbr></span> <abbr title="two">ii.</abbr> 1571 <span class="sc lowercase">B</span>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_623" id="footnote_623"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_623"><span class="muchsmaller">[623]</span></a> -<cite><abbr title="Corpus Inscriptionun Atticarum">C.I.A.</abbr></cite> <span class="sc"><abbr title="Two">II.</abbr></span> 316.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_624" id="footnote_624"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_624"><span class="muchsmaller">[624]</span></a> -e.g. <cite><abbr title="Corpus Inscriptionun Atticarum">C.I.A.</abbr></cite> <abbr title="two">ii.</abbr> 316. 338.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_625" id="footnote_625"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_625"><span class="muchsmaller">[625]</span></a> -<abbr title="Aristotle">Aristot.</abbr> <ins title="Ath. Pol.">Ἀθ. Πολ.</ins> 42. 3.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_626" id="footnote_626"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_626"><span class="muchsmaller">[626]</span></a> -[Plato] <cite>Axiochos</cite>, 367 <span class="sc lowercase">A</span>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_627" id="footnote_627"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_627"><span class="muchsmaller">[627]</span></a> -<abbr title="Scholia">Schol.</abbr> on <abbr title="Aristophanes">Aristoph.</abbr> <cite>Birds</cite>, 794.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_628" id="footnote_628"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_628"><span class="muchsmaller">[628]</span></a> -<abbr title="Xenophon">Xen.</abbr> <cite>Revenues</cite>, <abbr title="four">iv.</abbr> 52.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_629" id="footnote_629"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_629"><span class="muchsmaller">[629]</span></a> -<abbr title="Aristotle">Aristot.</abbr> <ins title="Ath. Pol.">Ἀθ. Πολ.</ins> 42. 4.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_630" id="footnote_630"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_630"><span class="muchsmaller">[630]</span></a> -<abbr title="Thucidides">Thuc.</abbr> <abbr title="two">ii.</abbr> 46.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_631" id="footnote_631"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_631"><span class="muchsmaller">[631]</span></a> -Lucias, <abbr title="ten">x.</abbr> 1, and Aristophanes anent Kleonumos, <cite>passim</cite>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_632" id="footnote_632"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_632"><span class="muchsmaller">[632]</span></a> -Properly speaking, it was only during his second year that the ephebos was a -peripolos or patrol. Aischines, however, claims to have served two years as a -peripolos. The term may have been used loosely, or else in times of crisis the -epheboi may have been hurried off to the frontier as soon as they were enrolled.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_633" id="footnote_633"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_633"><span class="muchsmaller">[633]</span></a> -<cite><abbr title="Corpus Inscriptionun Atticarum">C.I.A.</abbr></cite> <span class="sc muchsmaller"><abbr title="Four">IV.</abbr></span> <abbr title="two">ii.</abbr> 574 <span class="sc lowercase">D</span>, and 563 <span class="sc lowercase">B</span>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_634" id="footnote_634"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_634"><span class="muchsmaller">[634]</span></a> -<abbr title="Thucidides">Thuc.</abbr> <abbr title="eight">viii.</abbr> 92.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_635" id="footnote_635"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_635"><span class="muchsmaller">[635]</span></a> -Lusias, <abbr title="thirteen">xiii.</abbr> 71.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_636" id="footnote_636"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_636"><span class="muchsmaller">[636]</span></a> -The force may also have included citizens, for the younger Alkibiades once -served in it (<abbr title="Lusis">Lus.</abbr> <abbr title="fifteen">xv.</abbr> 6). But that was a special occasion, when the ordinary -cavalry had refused to receive him.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_637" id="footnote_637"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_637"><span class="muchsmaller">[637]</span></a> -<abbr title="Thucidides">Thuc.</abbr> <abbr title="two">ii.</abbr> 13. 6-7.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_638" id="footnote_638"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_638"><span class="muchsmaller">[638]</span></a> -<abbr title="Lusis">Lus.</abbr> xvi. 13, xiv. 10.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_639" id="footnote_639"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_639"><span class="muchsmaller">[639]</span></a> -<abbr title="Thucidides">Thuc.</abbr> <abbr title="two">ii.</abbr> 13. 6-7.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_640" id="footnote_640"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_640"><span class="muchsmaller">[640]</span></a> -<abbr title="Xenophon">Xen.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="Memorabilia">Mem.</abbr></cite> <abbr title="three">iii.</abbr> 5. 27.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_641" id="footnote_641"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_641"><span class="muchsmaller">[641]</span></a> -<abbr title="Xenophon">Xen.</abbr> <cite>Revenues</cite>, <abbr title="four">iv.</abbr> 52.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_642" id="footnote_642"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_642"><span class="muchsmaller">[642]</span></a> -<cite><abbr title="Corpus Inscriptionun Atticarum">C.I.A.</abbr></cite> <span class="sc"><abbr title="One">I.</abbr></span> 143. <abbr title="Compare">Cp.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="Corpus Inscriptionun Atticarum">C.I.A.</abbr></cite> <span class="sc"><abbr title="One">I.</abbr></span> 79 for citizen-archers.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_643" id="footnote_643"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_643"><span class="muchsmaller">[643]</span></a> -It is noticeable that in Aristotle’s time the epheboi were taught by a “Teacher -of Archery.” He may be a survival.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_644" id="footnote_644"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_644"><span class="muchsmaller">[644]</span></a> -In Boiotia and the Megarid the epheboi served as cavalry, hoplites, or peltasts -(<cite><abbr title="Corpus Inscriptionum Graecarum">C.I.G.</abbr></cite> <abbr title="Boiotia">Boiot.</abbr> and <abbr title="Megarid">Meg.</abbr> 2715, 2717-21, 1747-48, etc.).</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_645" id="footnote_645"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_645"><span class="muchsmaller">[645]</span></a> -<abbr title="Thucidides">Thuc.</abbr> <abbr title="one">i.</abbr> 105.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_646" id="footnote_646"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_646"><span class="muchsmaller">[646]</span></a> -<cite>Ibid.</cite> <abbr title="four">iv.</abbr> 67.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_647" id="footnote_647"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_647"><span class="muchsmaller">[647]</span></a> -<abbr title="Lukourgos">Luk.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="against Leokrates">ag. Leok.</abbr></cite> 76.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_648" id="footnote_648"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_648"><span class="muchsmaller">[648]</span></a> -<cite><abbr title="Corpus Inscriptionun Atticarum">C.I.A.</abbr></cite> <span class="sc muchsmaller"><abbr title="Four">IV.</abbr></span> <abbr title="two">ii.</abbr> 563 b.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_649" id="footnote_649"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_649"><span class="muchsmaller">[649]</span></a> -In 431 <span class="sc">B.C.</span> Athens had 13,000 hoplites of between twenty and forty years of -age. On this average there would be perhaps about 1000 epheboi per year, or 2000 -altogether—the same number as here. The 16,000 of the reserve in 431 includes -veterans and metics as well as epheboi.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_650" id="footnote_650"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_650"><span class="muchsmaller">[650]</span></a> -The changes seem to have happened shortly before 305, for in an inscription -of that year the numbers have dropped greatly and brothers serve together.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_651" id="footnote_651"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_651"><span class="muchsmaller">[651]</span></a> -<cite><abbr title="Corpus Inscriptionun Atticarum">C.I.A.</abbr></cite> <abbr title="two">ii.</abbr> 466, 470.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_652" id="footnote_652"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_652"><span class="muchsmaller">[652]</span></a> -<cite><abbr title="Corpus Inscriptionum Graecarum">C.I.G.</abbr></cite> <abbr title="Peloponesia">Pelop.</abbr> 589, 749, 753.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_653" id="footnote_653"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_653"><span class="muchsmaller">[653]</span></a> -See <a href="#footnote_644">note 2</a> on <abbr title="page">p.</abbr> 218.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_654" id="footnote_654"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_654"><span class="muchsmaller">[654]</span></a> -<abbr title="Thucidides">Thuc.</abbr> <abbr title="six">vi.</abbr> 45, <abbr title="seven">vii.</abbr> 48.</p> -</div><!--end chapter--> - -<div class="chapter"><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221"></a><span class="pageno">221</span> -<h4 class="p4 h3head"> -THE EPHEBIC INSCRIPTIONS OF THE -FOURTH CENTURY</h4> - -<p class="center">(Dealing with Attica only)</p> - -<p class="p2 center"><abbr title="One">I.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="Corpus Inscriptionun Atticarum">C.I.A.</abbr></cite> <span class="sc muchsmaller"><abbr title="Four">IV.</abbr></span> <abbr title="two">ii.</abbr> 574 d.</p> - -<p>“The epheboi of the Hippothontid tribe, who were enrolled -when Ktesikles was Archon (334-333 <span class="sc">B.C.</span>), having been -crowned by the Boule and Demos, offered this offering.”</p> - -<p>Then follows a mutilated vote of thanks from the people -of Eleusis to the epheboi for the discipline which they had -preserved while garrisoning the town, and to their Sophronistes, -who is to receive a crown, and to have a front seat at local -festivals.</p> - -<p class="p2 center"><abbr title="Two">II.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="Corpus Inscriptionun Atticarum">C.I.A.</abbr></cite> <span class="sc muchsmaller"><abbr title="Four">IV.</abbr></span> <abbr title="two">ii.</abbr> 563 b.</p> - -<p>Decrees in honour of the epheboi of the Kekropid tribe.</p> - -<p>(<span class="decoration">a</span>) By the Kekropid tribe.</p> - -<p>“Kallikrates of Aixoné proposed. Whereas the epheboi -of the Kekropid tribe, who were enrolled when Ktesikles was -Archon (334-333 <span class="sc">B.C.</span>), are orderly and do everything that the -laws enjoin upon them, and are obedient to the Sophronistes -appointed by the people, we pass a vote of thanks to them and -crown them with a golden crown of 500 drachmas for their -excellent discipline and behaviour. We also pass a vote of -thanks to the Sophronistes, Adeistos, son of Antimachos, and -award him a golden crown of the aforesaid weight, for that he -hath well and diligently directed the epheboi of the Kekropid -tribe. This vote to be recorded on a stone pillar and set -up in the shrine of Kekrops.”</p> - -<p><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222"></a><span class="pageno">222</span> -(<span class="decoration">b</span>) Vote of the Athenian people.</p> - -<p>“Hegemachos, son of Chairemon, proposed. Whereas the -epheboi of the Kekropid tribe stationed at Eleusis do well and -diligently pay heed to the orders of the Boule and Demos, -and do behave themselves orderly, we pass a vote of thanks -to them for their good discipline and behaviour, and enact that -each of them be crowned with an olive crown. We also -pass a vote of thanks to their Sophronistes, Adeistos, son of -Antimachos, and decree to him a crown of olive, when he has -passed his scrutiny. This vote to be recorded on the offering -which the epheboi of the Kekropid tribe offer.”</p> - -<p>(<span class="decoration">c</span>) Vote of Eleusinians.</p> - -<p>“Protias proposed. Whereas the epheboi of the Kekropid -tribe and their Sophronistes, Adeistos, son of Antimachos, do -well and diligently garrison Eleusis, the people of the deme -pass a vote of thanks to them and crown each of them with -a crown of olive.”</p> - -<p>The vote to be recorded as before.</p> - -<p>(<span class="decoration">d</span>) Similar vote of the Athmonian deme in honour of their -fellow-demesman, Adeistos.</p> - -<p>With this is a list of the epheboi in question, much -mutilated.</p> - -<p class="p2 center"><abbr title="Three">III.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="Corpus Inscriptionun Atticarum">C.I.A.</abbr></cite> <span class="sc muchsmaller"><abbr title="Four">IV.</abbr></span> <abbr title="two">ii.</abbr> 1571 b.</p> - -<p>“Theophanes, son of Hierophon, offered this to Hermes, -having been crowned by the epheboi and Sophronistai and -Kosmetai.”</p> - -<p>This is signed by the epheboi for the years 333-332, 332-331, -and 331-330.</p> - -<p class="p2 center"><abbr title="Four">IV.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="Corpus Inscriptionun Atticarum">C.I.A.</abbr></cite> <span class="sc muchsmaller"><abbr title="Four">IV.</abbr></span> <abbr title="two">ii.</abbr> 251 b.</p> - -<p>A vote of thanks from the Boule and Demos to the epheboi -as a whole for their exemplary behaviour, and to their Kosmetes -and Sophronistai and teachers. A mutilated list of epheboi -follows. This belongs to the year 305-304 <span class="sc">B.C.</span></p> - -<p class="p2 center"><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223"></a><span class="pageno">223</span> -<abbr title="Five">V.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="Corpus Inscriptionun Atticarum">C.I.A.</abbr></cite> <span class="sc muchsmaller"><abbr title="Four">IV.</abbr></span> <abbr title="two">ii.</abbr> 565 b.</p> - -<p>A vote of thanks of the Pandionid tribe to Philonides, who -had been elected by the people Sophronistes of their epheboi, -and had performed his duty well.</p> - -<p class="p2 center"><abbr title="Six">VI.</abbr> Böckh, 214 (belonging to 320 <span class="sc muchsmaller">B.C.</span>).</p> - -<p class="center">(Dug up at Aixoné.)</p> - -<p>An extract:—“We pass a vote of thanks to the Sophronistai -and crown each of them with a crown of olive, namely, Kimon, -son of Megakles, and Puthodoros, son of Putheas … for the -zeal they showed in regard to the all-night revel.”</p> - -<p>The epheboi took part in a sacrifice and revel in honour -of Hebe. Apparently, as a rule, they were noisy and gave -trouble to the inhabitants of the neighbourhood. But this -year they were kept in order by the Sophronistai. Hence the -vote.</p> -</div><!--end chapter--> - -<div class="chapter"> -<a name="Page_224" id="Page_224"></a><span class="pageno">224</span><br /><!--Blank Page--> -<a name="Page_225" id="Page_225"></a><span class="pageno">225</span> -<h3 class="p4 h3head">PART II<br /> - -THE THEORY OF EDUCATION</h3> -</div><!--end chapter--> - -<div class="chapter"> -<a name="Page_226" id="Page_226"></a><span class="pageno">226</span><br /><!--Blank Page--> -<a name="Page_227" id="Page_227"></a><span class="pageno">227</span> -<h3 class="p4 h3head">CHAPTER VIII</h3> - -<h4 class="p2 h4head">RELIGION AND EDUCATION IN HELLAS</h4> - -<p class="p2"><span class="sc">The</span> greater part of the religious instruction in Hellas -was given outside the schools, in the home and in public -life. The child learnt the current ritual observances -proper to each particular deity or occasion by participating -in them himself. His religious devotion was -practised and stimulated by the festivals and sacred -songs and dances which made up so large a part of -Hellenic life. In a religion like the Hellenic, which -was so largely a matter of forms and ceremonies, there -was little dogma to be learnt by children; no catechism, -no sectarian teaching was necessary. Such dogma as -there was consisted in the myths which were current -about the various deities and heroes; and of these -myths there were so many varieties that heterodoxy -about them became almost impossible.</p> - -<p>Such as it was, this dogma, consisting of manifold -and often contradictory myths, was enshrined in the -poetry of the race, so that most of the poems became -sacred books, regarded by the orthodox as inspired. -This sacred literature, as we have seen, was the chief -object of study in the primary schools at Athens, where -it was read, written, and learnt by heart. At Sparta -almost the whole of literary and intellectual education -consisted of sacred songs in honour of gods and heroes. -<a name="Page_228" id="Page_228"></a><span class="pageno">228</span> -The myths were the very essence of primary education -in Hellas.</p> - -<p>In order to understand the attitude of the educational -theorists towards these myths which run through -most of the Hellenic poetry, it is necessary to -realise the extraordinary authority which was given to -the poets, and especially to Homer and Hesiod. Every -word of them was regarded as inspired and strictly -true: their authority was indisputable. At the beginning -of the sixth century an interpolated line in the -<cite>Iliad</cite> was made the main support of the Athenian -claim to the Island of Salamis. Gelon, the tyrant of -Syracuse, according to the current legend, was refused -the command of the Hellenic forces against Persia -because, as the Spartan envoy put it, Agamemnon -would groan if he heard of such a thing, and because -Homer had said that an Athenian was the best man at -drawing up and marshalling a host, for which cause the -Athenians now claimed the command.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_655" id="fnanchor_655"></a><a href="#footnote_655" class="fnanchor">[655]</a></span> -That such -arguments could be employed shows in what veneration -Homer was held. He was considered to be especially -inspired.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_656" id="fnanchor_656"></a><a href="#footnote_656" class="fnanchor">[656]</a></span> -His admirers asserted that he had educated -Hellas, and that his works provided fit instruction for -the whole conduct of life.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_657" id="fnanchor_657"></a><a href="#footnote_657" class="fnanchor">[657]</a></span> -More specifically, it was said -that “The divine Homer won his glory and renown -from this, that he taught good things, drill, valour and -the arming of troops.”<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_658" id="fnanchor_658"></a><a href="#footnote_658" class="fnanchor">[658]</a></span> -He was misquoted to support -peculiar views, as in Plato.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_659" id="fnanchor_659"></a><a href="#footnote_659" class="fnanchor">[659]</a></span> -People had their favourite -texts: Sokrates’ was “In due proportion to thy means -pay honour to the gods.” It was a not unheard-of accomplishment -to know the whole <cite>Iliad</cite> and <cite>Odyssey</cite> by heart. -<a name="Page_229" id="Page_229"></a><span class="pageno">229</span> -Moral lessons were drawn from them. Thus the story -of Kirké was a warning against self-indulgence. Kirké -made the companions of Odusseus swine through their -over-indulgence in the pleasures of the table; Odusseus -himself, by Hermes’ advice and his own self-restraint -in such matters, escaped this fate.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_660" id="fnanchor_660"></a><a href="#footnote_660" class="fnanchor">[660]</a></span> -</p> - -<p>In time, however, the higher morality of the leading -Hellenic thinkers revolted against the low morality, to -say nothing more, of much of the mythology embodied -in the poets. Xenophanes began the attack. -“Homer and Hesiod,” he cries, “ascribed to the -gods all that is considered disgraceful among men.” -Herakleitos declared that Homer deserved a thrashing. -Even the pious Pindar tried to alter some of the myths -to suit his own morality, and Aeschylus fights hard -for an underlying monotheism. In the next generation -the storm broke: awakening intelligence, fostered -by the Sophists and the philosophers, shrank away -from the horrors of the <cite>Theogony</cite>. Tragedy, by -bringing mythology before the eyes, had made its -impossibility more apparent. The researches of the -earlier historians in comparative mythology had undermined -the bases of belief. Herodotos had found that a -god named Herakles had been recognised in Egypt -17,000 years before his time; consequently the Hellenic -Herakles, only six centuries before the historian’s age, -must be only a man of the same name.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_661" id="fnanchor_661"></a><a href="#footnote_661" class="fnanchor">[661]</a></span> -Rationalism -began to master the mythology: Thucydides tried to -apply scientific methods to the Trojan War, making, for -<a name="Page_230" id="Page_230"></a><span class="pageno">230</span> -example, its duration due to the difficulty of obtaining -supplies for so large a force. The rationalism of -Euripides is well known. Metrodoros, a pupil of -Anaxagoras, made the gods natural forces and varieties -of matter—a device already employed by Empedokles -for poetical convenience. In this way Sokrates -rationalises the Boreas-myth in the <cite>Phaidros</cite>,<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_662" id="fnanchor_662"></a><a href="#footnote_662" class="fnanchor">[662]</a></span> -where -Plato states that the wise disbelieve such tales; but -Sokrates was too busy studying his own personality -to raise all these numerous questions, so he accepts -the customary belief. The defenders of Homer, led -by Metrodoros and Stesimbrotos,<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_663" id="fnanchor_663"></a><a href="#footnote_663" class="fnanchor">[663]</a></span> -tried to allegorise -him, declaring that the worst myths had a moral -meaning in the background. The allegories were -often ludicrous: Plato rejects them wholly for educational -purposes, as children always take the literal -interpretation.</p> - -<p>But public opinion was still fiercely attached to the -old deities, as the incident of the Hermai and the -condemnation of Anaxagoras, Protagoras, and Sokrates -showed. The deities could not be sacrificed: consequently -it was the myths that had to go. The myths -said that Zeus dethroned his own father and committed -adultery: if the myth is true, since Zeus is Supreme -God, these crimes are justifiable.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_664" id="fnanchor_664"></a><a href="#footnote_664" class="fnanchor">[664]</a></span> -Therefore the myth -must be untrue. Homer and Hesiod lied: their works -are mainly a blasphemous fiction.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_665" id="fnanchor_665"></a><a href="#footnote_665" class="fnanchor">[665]</a></span> -Isokrates<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_666" id="fnanchor_666"></a><a href="#footnote_666" class="fnanchor">[666]</a></span> -sums -up this new attitude. “The poets,” he declares, -“blasphemously represented the sons of the Immortals -as having done and suffered worse deeds than the most -impious of men: they spoke such things about the -<a name="Page_231" id="Page_231"></a><span class="pageno">231</span> -gods as no one would venture to allege of his worst -enemy; not only do they make them steal, commit -adultery, and fall into slavery to mortals, but even -represent them as eating their children, mutilating their -fathers, and binding their mothers in chains.… For -this the poets did not go unpunished, but some of them -were wanderers and begged their bread, some became -blind, another was an exile all his life long, and Orpheus, -who devoted himself especially to such stories, was torn -in pieces.”<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_667" id="fnanchor_667"></a><a href="#footnote_667" class="fnanchor">[667]</a></span></p> - -<p>The greatest objection to these immoral legends was -that they were taught in the nursery and the elementary -school, at the most impressionable age.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_668" id="fnanchor_668"></a><a href="#footnote_668" class="fnanchor">[668]</a></span> -Hence Plato -wishes to lay down strict canons for the myths, legends, -and fables which are to be taught to children. “For -the beginning of everything is half the battle, especially -in the case of what is young and tender. Young -children are like soft wax, ready to take a clear and -deep impression of any seal which is laid upon them. -Hence the immense importance of the earliest stages of -education, the myths and stories taught in the nursery -and at school.… The compositions of Homer and -Hesiod are fiction, and unlovely fiction at that; even -if true, they had better not be told to the young and -undiscerning.… The myths must be improving on -the surface, not by allegory.”<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_669" id="fnanchor_669"></a><a href="#footnote_669" class="fnanchor">[669]</a></span></p> - -<p>Plato is not prepared to rewrite the Hellenic Bible: -he will only draw up the canons which the poets must -follow. It is to be noticed that these canons are -peculiar, and would exclude not merely most of Homer -and Hesiod, but a large part of the Old and some of -<a name="Page_232" id="Page_232"></a><span class="pageno">232</span> -the New Testament. The first canon is that God, being -good, cannot be the cause or originator of any harm or -evil to mankind; for these things some other cause -must be discovered. The greater part of the human -lot is evil: so God is not the cause of the majority of -human events.</p> - -<p>This excludes Homer’s lines:</p> - -<div class="poem-container"> - <div class="poem"> - <div class="i2">Two butts of human fortunes by the gates of Heaven stood,</div> - <div class="i2">One full of all things evil, and one of all things good.</div> - <div class="i2">To whom God gives a mixture, his life is weal and woe,</div> - <div class="i2">But to whom He gives of the evil alone, he lives as a beggar below.</div> - </div><!--end poem--> -</div><!--end container--> - -<p class="unindent">And</p> - -<div class="poem-container"> - <div class="poem"> - <div class="i2">Zeus is the world’s housekeeper, who serves out weal and woe.</div> - </div><!--end poem--> -</div><!--end container--> - -<p class="unindent">And Aeschylus’</p> - -<div class="poem-container"> - <div class="poem"> - <div class="i2">God plants the seed of sin among mankind,</div> - <div class="i2">Whene’er He wills to bring a race to naught.</div> - </div><!--end poem--> -</div><!--end container--> - -<p>If God is represented as the cause of misfortunes, -the poet must say that the misfortunes were good for -the sufferers, making them better and happier.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_670" id="fnanchor_670"></a><a href="#footnote_670" class="fnanchor">[670]</a></span> -</p> - -<p>The second canon is that God is not a wizard, -appearing now in one form, now in another. Why -should He change? External forces are not likely to -change Him: He would not change Himself, since it -would necessarily be a transition to the less good and -less beautiful, since He is perfect. So the <span class="lock">lines—</span></p> - -<div class="poem-container"> - <div class="poem"> - <div class="i2">Disguised as human strangers, in many a changing guise,</div> - <div class="i2">Gods roam about the cities, to spy iniquities,</div> - </div><!--end poem--> -</div><!--end container--> - -<p class="unindent">and the tales of Proteus and other metamorphoses, are -false. Consequently mothers should not tell their -children that a god may always be present in disguise, -for it is a lie and is also likely to make the children -<a name="Page_233" id="Page_233"></a><span class="pageno">233</span> -cowardly. Lying is only useful in dealing with enemies, -for managing lunatics, and for making a satisfactory -explanation where certainty is impossible. God has no -such reason for lying or deception.</p> - -<p>The character of the Deity having been thus purged -of mythological accretions, Plato passes on to the treatment -of the future state. This must not be described -as in any way terrible, or the children will learn to -prefer dishonourable life to honourable death. So -reject<span class="lock">—</span></p> - -<div class="poem-container"> - <div class="poem"> - <div class="i2">O better be a poor man’s serf, and share his scanty bread,</div> - <div class="i2">Than be the crownèd king of all the nations of the dead.</div> - </div><!--end poem--> -</div><!--end container--> - -<p class="unindent">And</p> - -<div class="poem-container"> - <div class="poem"> - <div class="i2">From him his soul bewailing her hapless fortunes fled,</div> - <div class="i2">Her youth and beauty leaving, to the kingdoms of the dead!</div> - </div><!--end poem--> -</div><!--end container--> - -<p>All such passages must be expurgated from school -editions; nor is it right to admit the fearful scenery of -Hell, the rivers of Hate (Styx) and Wailing (Kokutos), -ghosts, banshees, and other terrible words, for fear of -making the children nervous.</p> - -<p>Then comes the discussion of the ideal man, in which -Achilles falls from the pedestal which he had previously -occupied as the ideal of Hellenic manhood. Great men -must not indulge in immoderate lamentations for their -dead friends. The lament of Achilles for Patroklos -and of Priam for Hektor, when he rolled in the dust -and the dungheap, must be rejected. “For if the -young should take such stories seriously and not -laugh them to scorn as contemptibly improbable, they -would be most unlikely to consider such lamentations -degrading, or to check themselves when they felt any -impulse to act in such a way, but, without shame or -<a name="Page_234" id="Page_234"></a><span class="pageno">234</span> -restraint, they would whine out many dirges over tiny -misfortunes.”<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_671" id="fnanchor_671"></a><a href="#footnote_671" class="fnanchor">[671]</a></span></p> - -<p>Nor must the heroes be made too fond of laughing. -For immoderate laughter leads by reaction to immoderate -grief. So <span class="lock">reject—</span></p> - -<div class="poem-container"> - <div class="poem"> - <div class="i2">Then rose among the blessed gods a laugh unquenchable.</div> - </div><!--end poem--> -</div><!--end container--> - -<p>The myths must instil self-control, obedience to -rulers and elders and to the better instincts. This -leads Plato to <span class="lock">expurgate—</span></p> - -<div class="poem-container"> - <div class="poem"> - <div class="i2">Thou drunkard, shameless as a dog, and fearful as a deer:</div> - </div><!--end poem--> -</div><!--end container--> - -<p class="unindent">but <span class="lock">commend—</span></p> - -<div class="poem-container"> - <div class="poem"> - <div class="i2">Good father, sit in silence, and hearken to what I say.</div> - </div><!--end poem--> -</div><!--end container--> - -<p>Then Homer teaches gluttony, by making Odusseus, -the wisest of men, <span class="lock">say—</span></p> - -<div class="poem-container"> - <div class="poem"> - <div class="i2">Best thing in life I count it, a heavy-laden board,</div> - <div class="i2">While in the goblets ceaselessly the good strong wine is poured.</div> - </div><!--end poem--> -</div><!--end container--> - -<p>Still worse are the tales of the lusts of Zeus or of -Ares and Aphrodite, and of the covetousness of the -gods.</p> - -<div class="poem-container"> - <div class="poem"> - <div class="i2">Gifts win the heart of gods: gifts win the heart of kings.</div> - </div><!--end poem--> -</div><!--end container--> - -<p>Nor must the heroes be allowed to blaspheme. “My -respect for Homer makes me shrink from saying it, -but it is impious to state or to believe that Achilles was -ready to fight against the river, a god, or that he -dragged Hektor’s body round Patroklos’ tomb or -slaughtered captives upon it, or that he gave to the -dead Patroklos the hair which he had dedicated to the -river god Spercheios.”<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_672" id="fnanchor_672"></a><a href="#footnote_672" class="fnanchor">[672]</a></span> -Nor must poets say that -<a name="Page_235" id="Page_235"></a><span class="pageno">235</span> -wicked men are enviable, if they are not found out, or -that justice does good to others but is a loss to oneself. -On the contrary, they must invent myths to establish -the opposite, whether it be true or not, because it is -profitable.</p> - -<p>Plato cares very little for literal truth in mythology; -he is only desirous that the fiction should be -improving and in accordance with sound ethics. It -is impossible to know the truth, he thinks, about things -primeval and the gods, so it is necessary to invent stories -as near the truth as possible and such that they will be -improving. The majority of men, as Isokrates also -noticed, prefer myths to anything else; for their intelligence -can only grasp ethical and metaphysical truths -when they are embodied in stories and parables and -fables.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_673" id="fnanchor_673"></a><a href="#footnote_673" class="fnanchor">[673]</a></span> -These fictions, however, are like powerful drugs: -their concoction must only be entrusted to competent -hands, or the result will be deadly. The rulers of the -State, the philosophers, must construct the national -mythology, not unskilled and irresponsible persons like -poets.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_674" id="fnanchor_674"></a><a href="#footnote_674" class="fnanchor">[674]</a></span> -Plato himself gives a good many instances -of such profitable myths; he enshrines in them, as in -a popular form, many of his deepest beliefs, his -psychology,<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_675" id="fnanchor_675"></a><a href="#footnote_675" class="fnanchor">[675]</a></span> -his views of the immortality of the soul,<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_676" id="fnanchor_676"></a><a href="#footnote_676" class="fnanchor">[676]</a></span> -his political theory that all men are not equal.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_677" id="fnanchor_677"></a><a href="#footnote_677" class="fnanchor">[677]</a></span> -In his -opinion mythology was the proper food for the unenlightened -many who were incapable of philosophic -certainty; the philosopher, by the light of his exact -<a name="Page_236" id="Page_236"></a><span class="pageno">236</span> -knowledge of ethics and metaphysics, was to concoct -this food.</p> - -<p>In pursuance of this theory an ideal character, in -history or fiction, was required to personify and make -real to the multitude the disembodied ideals of Ethics.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_678" id="fnanchor_678"></a><a href="#footnote_678" class="fnanchor">[678]</a></span> -Achilles had been tumbled from his pedestal by philosophy. -Who was to replace him? Plato tries to -put an idealised Sokrates in this position, but he could -not square the historical personality with the ideal -man postulated in the <cite>Republic</cite>. Xenophon, also -thinking that a pattern man is “an excellent invention -for the study of morality,” proposes Agesilaos.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_679" id="fnanchor_679"></a><a href="#footnote_679" class="fnanchor">[679]</a></span> -Prodikos tried to make Herakles the model of the -young. Aristotle formulated the <ins title="megalopsychos">μεγαλόψυχος</ins>, but -never personified him. Stoicism sought for its Wise -Man or Perfect Saint, but never found him; Epicureanism -was satisfied with its founder. But the -search for the personification of the ethical ideal becomes -the central feature of Hellenic philosophy and religion -from the time of Plato onwards.</p> - -<p class="p2 footnote"> <a name="footnote_655" id="footnote_655"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_655"><span class="muchsmaller">[655]</span></a> -<abbr title="Herodotos">Herod.</abbr> <abbr title="seven">vii.</abbr> 159-161.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_656" id="footnote_656"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_656"><span class="muchsmaller">[656]</span></a> -Plato, <cite>Ion</cite>, 24 <span class="sc lowercase">C</span>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_657" id="footnote_657"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_657"><span class="muchsmaller">[657]</span></a> -<cite><abbr title="Republic">Rep.</abbr></cite> 606 <span class="sc lowercase">E</span>. So in Isokrates, <cite>To Nikokles</cite>, 530 <span class="sc lowercase">B</span>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_658" id="footnote_658"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_658"><span class="muchsmaller">[658]</span></a> -<abbr title="Aristophanes">Aristoph.</abbr> <cite>Frogs</cite>, 1034-1036.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_659" id="footnote_659"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_659"><span class="muchsmaller">[659]</span></a> -Plato, <cite><abbr title="Republic">Rep.</abbr></cite> 391 <span class="sc lowercase">B</span>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_660" id="footnote_660"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_660"><span class="muchsmaller">[660]</span></a> -Sokrates in Xenophon, <cite><abbr title="Memorabilia">Mem.</abbr></cite> <abbr title="one">i.</abbr> 3, 7. The moralisation is quite un-Homeric.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_661" id="footnote_661"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_661"><span class="muchsmaller">[661]</span></a> -Herod, <abbr title="two">ii.</abbr> 43-46. This tendency culminated in Euhemeros, at the end of the -fourth century, who claimed to have found inscriptions in Crete giving the careers of -mortal kings named Ouranos, Kronos, and Zeus. He argued that the gods were -distinguished men, deified by admiring posterity. His theory passed to Rome in -Ennius’ translation and supported the imperial cult.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_662" id="footnote_662"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_662"><span class="muchsmaller">[662]</span></a> -Plato, <cite><abbr title="Phaidros">Phaedr.</abbr></cite> 229 <span class="sc lowercase">C</span>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_663" id="footnote_663"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_663"><span class="muchsmaller">[663]</span></a> -Plato, <cite>Ion</cite>, 530. <abbr title="Compare">Cp.</abbr> <abbr title="Xenophon">Xen.</abbr> <cite>Banquet</cite>, <abbr title="three">iii.</abbr> 6, where Anaximandros is mentioned.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_664" id="footnote_664"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_664"><span class="muchsmaller">[664]</span></a> -<abbr title="Compare">Cp.</abbr> <abbr title="Aristophanes">Aristoph.</abbr> <cite>Clouds</cite>, 905, 1080, representing “Sophist” arguments.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_665" id="footnote_665"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_665"><span class="muchsmaller">[665]</span></a> -Plato, <cite><abbr title="Republic">Rep.</abbr></cite> 377 <span class="sc lowercase">D</span>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_666" id="footnote_666"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_666"><span class="muchsmaller">[666]</span></a> -<abbr title="Isokrates">Isok.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="Bousiris">Bous.</abbr></cite> 228 <span class="sc lowercase">D</span>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_667" id="footnote_667"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_667"><span class="muchsmaller">[667]</span></a> -<abbr title="Compare">Cp.</abbr> the statement of Herodotos (<abbr title="two">ii.</abbr> 53) that Homer and Hesiod created the -details of Hellenic mythology, even the names and functions of the deities.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_668" id="footnote_668"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_668"><span class="muchsmaller">[668]</span></a> -Plato, <cite><abbr title="Republic">Rep.</abbr></cite> 377 <span class="sc lowercase">B</span>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_669" id="footnote_669"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_669"><span class="muchsmaller">[669]</span></a> -<cite>Ibid.</cite> 378.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_670" id="footnote_670"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_670"><span class="muchsmaller">[670]</span></a> -Plato, <cite><abbr title="Republic">Rep.</abbr></cite> 380.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_671" id="footnote_671"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_671"><span class="muchsmaller">[671]</span></a> -Plato, <cite><abbr title="Republic">Rep.</abbr></cite> 388 <span class="sc lowercase">D</span>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_672" id="footnote_672"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_672"><span class="muchsmaller">[672]</span></a> -<cite>Ibid.</cite> 391 <span class="sc lowercase">B</span>. Plato maligns Achilles. He only promised the hair to Spercheios -on condition that he returned home alive, which he knew he would not do if he -slew Hektor.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_673" id="footnote_673"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_673"><span class="muchsmaller">[673]</span></a> -Compare Tennyson, <cite>In Memoriam</cite>, <abbr title="thirty-six">xxxvi.</abbr>:</p> - -<div class="poem-container"> - <div class="poem"> - <div class="i0">For Wisdom dealt with mortal powers,</div> - <div class="i2">Where truth in closest words shall fail,</div> - <div class="i2">When truth embodied in a tale</div> - <div class="i0">Shall enter in at lowly doors.</div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_674" id="footnote_674"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_674"><span class="muchsmaller">[674]</span></a> -Plato, <cite><abbr title="Republic">Rep.</abbr></cite> 389 <span class="sc lowercase">C</span>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_675" id="footnote_675"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_675"><span class="muchsmaller">[675]</span></a> -In the <cite>Phaidros</cite>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_676" id="footnote_676"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_676"><span class="muchsmaller">[676]</span></a> -In the <cite>Republic</cite>, and elsewhere.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_677" id="footnote_677"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_677"><span class="muchsmaller">[677]</span></a> -<cite><abbr title="Republic">Rep.</abbr></cite> 414-417, etc. For the use which Plato made of myths as popular expositions -of his views, <abbr title="compare">cp.</abbr> <cite>Laws</cite>, 663, 664, 713, 714, 716.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_678" id="footnote_678"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_678"><span class="muchsmaller">[678]</span></a> -Isokrates recognised this too, <cite><abbr title="Antidemocracy">Antid.</abbr></cite> 105 <span class="sc lowercase">C</span>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_679" id="footnote_679"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_679"><span class="muchsmaller">[679]</span></a> -<abbr title="Xenophon">Xen.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="Agesilaus">Ag.</abbr></cite> <abbr title="ten">x.</abbr> 2.</p> -</div><!--end chapter--> - -<div class="chapter"><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237"></a><span class="pageno">237</span> -<h3 class="p4 h3head">CHAPTER IX</h3> - -<h4 class="p2 h4head">ART, MUSIC, AND POETRY</h4> - -<p class="p2"><span class="sc">Since</span> poetry, music, singing, and dancing were the -chief components of a Hellenic boy’s education, the -æsthetic canons by which these were regulated came to -be of great importance in the moral history of Hellas, -and were the objects of much thought and inquiry on -the part of the educational theorists. It is hard for a -modern reader to understand the attitude which Plato -and Aristotle adopt towards poetry, art, and music, -partly owing to the way in which these subjects are -neglected in many modern schools, and still more -owing to the immense changes which have taken place -both in the subjects themselves and in their relations -to the State as a whole.</p> - -<p>In ancient Hellas art, literature, and music were -addressed to the whole citizen-body, not to a cultured -upper class. The epics were recited to crowds that -might number thousands. The choral lyrics were -danced and sung by large choruses in the presence of a -whole city. Tragedy and Comedy were acted before -the whole Athenian populace, swollen by crowds from -every part of Hellas. The great orations were spoken -either to the national assembly, where every grown -man might be present, or to a jury of several hundred -<a name="Page_238" id="Page_238"></a><span class="pageno">238</span> -citizens. So with Hellenic art. The statues and -pictures were not created for private drawing-rooms, -but for public temples, colonnades, or gymnasia.</p> - -<p>Thus it was national, not individual taste which -was the standard of Hellenic art and literature: they -had to follow the taste of the city, not of a clique. But -every city in Hellas, as in the Italy of the Renaissance, -had an intense individuality of its own, which dominated -its poets, artists, and musicians. The art-schools of -the islands, of Argos, of Athens were as distinct from -one another as those of Venice, Florence, Perugia. -The greater centres had types of music so far distinct -that they required different instruments. Language, -character, and politics in like manner presented a -different aspect in each community. But underneath -this ubiquitous local individuality lay the fundamental -distinction between the Dorian, on the one hand, and the -Ionian, with whom for æsthetic purposes may be classed -the Aeolian, on the other. For Hellenism began to -run its course in two distinct channels, the Doric and -the Ionic.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_680" id="fnanchor_680"></a><a href="#footnote_680" class="fnanchor">[680]</a></span> -</p> - -<p>The Doric characteristics were the sacrifice of -the detail and the individual to the whole and -the community, a love of terseness and simplicity, a -strong sense of harmony, order, and proportion, a hatred -of complexity, mystery, vagueness, and luxury, and a -preference for the perfect body over the developed -intellect. The Dorians were essentially one-sided, and -lacking in imagination, intellect, and invention; they -were strong conservatives, and any innovation was -repugnant to them.</p> - -<p>The Ionians were a very different people. Individualism -<a name="Page_239" id="Page_239"></a><span class="pageno">239</span> -was strong in them from the first. They -had a tendency to floridity, to exaggeration of detail, -and to luxury. A quick-witted and imaginative race, -they were fond of perpetual innovation. Versatility -was characteristic of them. They preferred intellectual -to physical success. Their imagination outran their -powers of execution. They had none of the solidity -of the less brilliant Dorian, none of his discipline, self-restraint, -directness, or perseverance. They were his -inferiors in most physical and ethical qualities, his -superiors in all intellectual pursuits.</p> - -<p>Till the fifth century the two conflicting types -exercise little influence upon one another. The Ionians -produce a sensuous, dreamy, refined, and imaginative -sculpture; the Dorians a series of physically excellent -but wholly unintellectual athlete-statues. The Aeolians -produce the personal lyrics of love and wine; the -Dorians the choral poetry of athletic triumphs and -gymnastic dances. The Dorians can claim the ethical -and collectivist philosophy of Pythagoras; the Ionians -the intellectual and individualist philosophy of the so-called -Ionian schools.</p> - -<p>Athens during this period was purely Ionic, as her -statues, the remains of which are now being recovered -from the rubbish heaps where Xerxes threw them, -abundantly testify. Further evidence comes from the -style of dress shown in these statues and in other works -of art of the period: it is almost oriental.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_681" id="fnanchor_681"></a><a href="#footnote_681" class="fnanchor">[681]</a></span> -The statues -reveal an excess of detail and over-refinement: the -most common type was a draped woman. The Dorians, -on the other hand, were most successful in the nude -male type; and the great Aeginetan school quite failed -to represent the goddess Athena.</p> - -<p><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240"></a><span class="pageno">240</span> -The same principle of differentiation applied to -music as well as to art, in Hellas: the Dorian, the -Ionian, the Aeolian, as well as the neighbouring Phrygian -and Lydian, each produced a type of their own, or -“harmony,” as it was called. Each “harmony” bore the -mark of the “ethos,” or moral character, of the tribe or -race which produced it, plainly and unmistakably. Music -in early Hellas must have been of a primitive type, and -an acute musical ear had not yet been developed by long -training. Consequently, the average Hellenic audience -was in the position of the utterly unmusical man of -modern times: the complicated music of modern masters -would have been wholly unintelligible to them, and the -only meanings which they could extract from music were -certain broad ethical impressions. The unmusical man -is stirred by a good marching tune, moved to a certain -depression by a dirge or dead march, enlivened and -excited by a rollicking bacchanalian song, and reduced -to a solemn and half-religious frame of mind by the -tones of a great organ. So with the average Hellene: -he extracted this amount of impressions from his music, -and no more. Any idea of music as the voice of the -unutterable was quite foreign to his mind; in fact, he -disliked any music that was unaccompanied by singing: -tunes without words were unknown in earlier Hellas.</p> - -<p>How these different harmonies were produced, by -what combination of notes and scales each was regulated, -may be left to the specialists: it is one of those -questions which will probably never be settled conclusively. -The fact remains that they existed, each -with an unmistakable moral characteristic of its own. -But what exactly the moral characteristic of each was, -is rendered doubtful by the conflicting evidence of -different writers; probably, as musical taste changed -<a name="Page_241" id="Page_241"></a><span class="pageno">241</span> -and developed, the same “harmony” came to cause a -different impression. Plato’s ear, accustomed to the -prevalent Dorian, found the Lydian doleful and depressing; -Aristotle and his contemporaries, more used -to softer music, praised it as valuable for educational -purposes.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_682" id="fnanchor_682"></a><a href="#footnote_682" class="fnanchor">[682]</a></span> -Herakleides of Pontos,<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_683" id="fnanchor_683"></a><a href="#footnote_683" class="fnanchor">[683]</a></span> -who made a -special study of music, gives, in a fragment, a sketch -of the old Hellenic “harmonies.” The Dorian, -according to him, was manly, dignified, stern, and -robust, not effeminate nor merry nor variegated nor -versatile.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_684" id="fnanchor_684"></a><a href="#footnote_684" class="fnanchor">[684]</a></span> -The Aeolic, afterwards called “Hypo-Dorian,” -was haughty and pretentious, rather conceited, -not, however, base in any way, but inflated and -confident. It was the right music for “woman, wine, -and song.” The Ionic, representing the old Ionic -character before the race degenerated, was passionate, -headstrong, contentious, showing no signs of benevolence -or merriment, but revealing a certain hardness of heart -and temperament. It was not florid nor cheerful, but -austere and harsh, with a not ignoble dignity which -fitted it to accompany Tragedy. Later, the race and -the “harmony” seem to have degenerated, and are -charged with being luxurious and effeminate. There -used also to be a Locrian “harmony,” which was used -by Pindar and Simonides, but afterwards it fell into -contempt and died out.</p> - -<p>Besides these purely Hellenic types, there were two -which came from barbarian races, the Lydian and the -Phrygian. Of the Lydian there were several varieties. -The Mixed-Lydian was doleful and suitable to dirges: -<a name="Page_242" id="Page_242"></a><span class="pageno">242</span> -it made the audience feel mournful and grave. The -Syntono-Lydian was very similar. The pure Lydian is -rejected as effeminate by Plato;<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_685" id="fnanchor_685"></a><a href="#footnote_685" class="fnanchor">[685]</a></span> -but Aristotle, resting -on the musical experts, declares that it involves order -and arrangement (<ins title="kosmos">κόσμος</ins>) and is well adapted for -education. About the Phrygian opinion is still more -divided. Plato commends it. According to him it -suitably represents the notes and accents of a self-controlled -man “in peaceful and unconstrained circumstances, -trying to persuade some one or making a -request, praying to a god or advising a man, or giving -his attention to the request or advice or arguments of -some one else; and if he attains his object, not puffed -up, but in all things acting, and accepting the consequences -of his actions, with moderation and self-control.” -The philosopher then goes on to reject -the flute, as suitable only to hysterical enthusiasm. -But this, as Aristotle pointed out, was inconsistent. -For the Phrygian harmony and the flute went hand in -hand: the wild orgies of Dionusos and other worships -of an enthusiastic nature were usually accompanied by -the flute and could only be set to the Phrygian -harmony. The dithyramb, for instance, could only be -set in this way; when Philoxenos definitely tried to -write one to the Dorian, he slid back without being able -to prevent it into the Phrygian. Aristotle therefore, -accounting it an enthusiastic harmony, reserves it as a -“purge” (<ins title="katharsis">κάθαρσις</ins>), which, by providing under well-regulated -conditions an occasional outlet for hysteria, will -work such affections out of the system for a long period: -at the end of which another dose will be required.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_686" id="fnanchor_686"></a><a href="#footnote_686" class="fnanchor">[686]</a></span></p> - -<p><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243"></a><span class="pageno">243</span> -In Hellas music was held to be an efficacious medicine -for the ills alike of body, soul, and mind. Even the -grave and learned philosopher Theophrastos, the pupil of -Aristotle, asserted that the Phrygian “harmony” on the -flute was the proper means of curing lumbago.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_687" id="fnanchor_687"></a><a href="#footnote_687" class="fnanchor">[687]</a></span> -Pindar -states that Apollo “gives to men and women cures for -grievous sickness, and invented the harp, and gives the -Muse to whom he will, bringing warless peace into the -heart”:<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_688" id="fnanchor_688"></a><a href="#footnote_688" class="fnanchor">[688]</a></span> -the god of medicine is the son of the god of -the harp. The Pythagorean philosopher Kleinias, when -he was in a bad temper, used to take up his harp, saying, -“I am calming myself.”<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_689" id="fnanchor_689"></a><a href="#footnote_689" class="fnanchor">[689]</a></span> -He and his school regarded -the harp as the true means of attaining that peace -and solemn orderliness of soul which as true Dorian -musicians they desired. Lukourgos produced at Sparta -the state of mind necessary to enable his reforms to -be carried, by sending from Crete a lyric poet named -Thales, whose songs, by their calm and orderly tune -and rhythm, were an incentive to discipline and concord: -by this means the Spartans were imperceptibly -calmed in character.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_690" id="fnanchor_690"></a><a href="#footnote_690" class="fnanchor">[690]</a></span> -The Arcadians, according to -their compatriot Polubios, from ancient times onwards -“made music their foster-brother” from their cradles -till they were thirty years of age, in order to counteract -the brutalising tendencies of their rough life and harsh -climate; and the inhabitants of one district, Kunaitha, -which neglected this preventive, were notorious for -their wickedness.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_691" id="fnanchor_691"></a><a href="#footnote_691" class="fnanchor">[691]</a></span> -</p> - -<p>Thus music came to be regarded as the best means -of forming character. It was only necessary to apply -the right sort of “harmony” to the young and susceptible -personality, and the right “ethos” would be -<a name="Page_244" id="Page_244"></a><span class="pageno">244</span> -produced. The Dorian was most in request for -educational purposes: its merits were universally -recognised. For it “suitably represented the notes and -accents of a brave man in the presence of war or of any -other violent action, going to meet wounds or death or -fallen into any other misfortune, facing his fate with -unflinching resolution.”<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_692" id="fnanchor_692"></a><a href="#footnote_692" class="fnanchor">[692]</a></span> -Of the others, as has been -said, Plato preferred the Phrygian and Aristotle the -Lydian.</p> - -<p class="center">* * * * *</p> - -<p>Not only beautiful music, but beautiful art also, was -believed to produce, by an unconscious but irresistible -influence, beautiful characters in those who came into -contact with it; while, on the other hand, bad art, as -well as bad music, was the cause of vice and low moral -ideals.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_693" id="fnanchor_693"></a><a href="#footnote_693" class="fnanchor">[693]</a></span> -This, they naturally thought, was particularly -true in the case of children, who are so sensitive to all -external influences; moreover, it is the early impressions -that make most difference in a man’s life. To serve -this educational end, the Hellenes expected every statue -and painting, as well as every poem and tune, to have -<ins title="êthos">ἦθος</ins>, that is, according to Aristotle’s definition,<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_694" id="fnanchor_694"></a><a href="#footnote_694" class="fnanchor">[694]</a></span> -to be -such that its moral purpose was manifest to the average -man. For this purpose Hellenic art had to become -impersonal: the great statues represent a single trait -of character. The smaller individualising traits are -omitted: the single trait chosen is then idealised and -carried to its utmost possible development. This -produced a single and easily intelligible effect. The -frieze on the Parthenon represented the perfect knight -in various attitudes, not So-and-so and Somebody-else. -<a name="Page_245" id="Page_245"></a><span class="pageno">245</span> -The same idealised abstractions can be traced in the -“Theseus” of the Pediment, and in most of the dramas -of Sophocles.</p> - -<p>The realisation of this artistic ideal was made possible -by the fusion of the two currents, Doric and Ionic. At -the end of the sixth century a wave of Doricism passes -over Athens, and the first competent athlete-sculptors -arise there. A second wave came in the middle of the -next century, in the period of Perikles. The Dorian -characteristics now dominate Attic artists alike in poetry, -sculpture, and vase-painting. Aeschylus had possessed -the best traits of the Ionic temperament, chastened by -the great crisis of the Persian wars: his imagination is -half oriental, and he has often been compared to a -Hebrew prophet. But the canons of Sophocles are -purely Doric, as are those of Pheidias. The mixture -of Doric ethics with Ionic imagination produces the -great age of Hellenic art and literature. With art in -such an educative condition, the effect of the great -public buildings and temples, which adorned even quite -humble villages, and of the glorious statues of which -every temple, agora, and gymnasium formed a perfect -treasure-house, must have been very great upon the -Hellenes, who were probably the most susceptible of all -peoples to artistic influences. Moderns vaguely realise -that a great Gothic Cathedral does direct the emotions -quite perceptibly. The more susceptible Athenians -must have been much more strongly influenced by -the Parthenon and the Propulaia. In fact, it is related -that Epaminondas declared that his countrymen could -never become great unless they removed these buildings -bodily to Thebes. Strangers visiting Athens were so -overcome by her architectural glories that they thought -her the natural capital of the world—an effect which -<a name="Page_246" id="Page_246"></a><span class="pageno">246</span> -Perikles may well have intended. Great works of art -produce great effects: it is not unnatural to suppose -that smaller works produce a not inconsiderable, if -smaller, effect. Modern theorists often declare that -the pictures and wall-paper of the nursery ought to be -in the best taste. Plato and Aristotle ruled that -everything, however humble, which surrounds the -growing child should be in accordance with the best -canons of art, since art influenced morality so strongly. -“Ought we not to keep an eye,” says Plato,<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_695" id="fnanchor_695"></a><a href="#footnote_695" class="fnanchor">[695]</a></span> - “on the -craftsmen also, and prevent them from representing -moral evil or disorderliness or bad taste or lack of grace -or lack of harmony either in their imitations of animals -or in their buildings or in any other object of their -craft? If they are unable to carry out our directions -in this matter, ought we not to expel them from the -community, lest boys who are brought up in the bad -pasture of these bad representations may pluck poison -daily from everything around them, and little by little -insensibly accumulate a large amount of evil in their -souls? Must we not rather search for such craftsmen -as are able, by their native genius, to discover what is -beautiful and graceful? For in this way our children, -dwelling in a region of health, will be influenced for -good by every sound and every sight of these works of -beauty, inhaling as it were a healthy breeze that blows -to them from a goodly land.” Every article of -furniture, every detail of architecture, is to take its part -in educating the citizens. But if art and music are so -potent a factor in education, they require to be carefully -regulated: a depravation of popular taste, which -will cause a depravation of the dependent artists, -will by its educating influence increase the national -<a name="Page_247" id="Page_247"></a><span class="pageno">247</span> -decadence both of taste and of morals, in an ever-widening -degree.</p> - -<p class="center">* * * * *</p> - -<p>Poetry had at least an equally potent influence upon -contemporary ethics. The works of the great poets -were the chief medium of education, and large quantities -of them were learned by heart in all the elementary -schools.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_696" id="fnanchor_696"></a><a href="#footnote_696" class="fnanchor">[696]</a></span> -What the boys learned, they then recited, -with as much dramatic action as they were capable of: -the rhapsodes provided them with models. Thus the -boys really <em>acted</em> the poets as far as they could. -Acting was a new thing in Hellas in Solon’s time, and -it was received with apprehension. When Thespis first -acted one of his plays, Solon asked him if he was not -ashamed to tell such lies in public, making himself out -to be what he was not. Thespis replied that it was -only in fun. Then Solon struck the ground with his -stick and said, “We shall soon find this fun of yours -invading our commercial transactions.” Later, when -Peisistratos obtained the bodyguard, to which he owed -his tyranny, by pretending to have been wounded by -his enemies, Solon said the stratagem was a case of -acting.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_697" id="fnanchor_697"></a><a href="#footnote_697" class="fnanchor">[697]</a></span> -This objection was echoed by Plato, and is -not wholly unjustified by the course of history. For -the great vice of Hellenic life was its insincerity: it is -impossible to tell how far a Hellene is in earnest. It -is this vice which ruins their oratory; it is this which, -in later times, made the “hungry little Greek” the type -of a fawning liar in Roman opinion. It was not only -in recitations that acting played a great part. The -<a name="Page_248" id="Page_248"></a><span class="pageno">248</span> -dances were essentially dramatic: it was this quality -which enabled them to give birth to the drama. In -the war-dance all the gestures and attitudes of attack -and defence in actual battle were represented. The -Dionysiac dances were originally the acts of devotees -trying to assimilate themselves to the god in his -sufferings and triumphs.</p> - -<p>How vividly a Hellene entered into the dramatisation -may be seen from the case of the rhapsode Ion. -When he recited Homer, his eyes filled with water and -his hair stood on end; and his audience were in much -the same condition. The effect in the “Mimetic” -dances, where music, gestures, rhythm, and poetry all -combined to produce a single impression, must have -been greater still; the audience, as well as the performers, -must often have been quite carried away. -Such performances were very frequent. Is it unnatural -to suppose that such frequent assimilation had an -important effect on the Hellenes, with their artistic -temperament and great susceptibility? At any rate, -Plato, Aristotle, and Aristophanes, not to mention lesser -names, believed that it had.</p> - -<p>Among these potent poetic influences, the drama -must certainly not be forgotten. Sokrates regarded the -<cite>Clouds</cite> of Aristophanes as a far more deadly attack -upon his career than anything that Anutos and Meletos -could say. To Plato, the theatre plays the part of the -“Great Sophist,” the educating influence which forms -the opinion and the character of the young.</p> - -<p>It must be remembered that Hellenic poetry enshrined -the religion of the race: this fact gave it an -enormous influence. The characters in Aeschylus and -Sophocles are divine or semi-divine; many of the audience -in the theatre were wont to revere Agamemnon -<a name="Page_249" id="Page_249"></a><span class="pageno">249</span> -or Theseus; all paid worship to Athena and Apollo. -The Athenian drama was sacred to a Hellene as is the -play at Oberammergau to a Christian. Had Shakespeare -dramatised the Bible, modern children might have -recited his speeches and acted his plays with somewhat -similar feelings to those with which Hellenic boys -recited Homer or Aeschylus. Suppose Shakespeare had -thus dramatised the story of Esau and Jacob, and an -imaginative child was set to learn Jacob’s speeches and -repeat them; suppose he was also in the habit of -hearing them recited by a first-class actor who knew -how to bring out the minuter traits of character.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_698" id="fnanchor_698"></a><a href="#footnote_698" class="fnanchor">[698]</a></span> -Is -it not, at any rate, quite rational to argue that the -child would gradually absorb some of these traits of -character, just as children often pick up the peculiarities -of nurses and others with whom they have no hereditary -connection? Might not underhand habits be reasonably -attributed to frequent acting of the part of Jacob? -Yet in ancient Hellas the influence was much stronger, -for the people were more susceptible and the characters -were believed to be half-divine.</p> - -<p class="center">* * * * *</p> - -<p>Thus in ancient Hellas music, art, and poetry had -an immense effect on the characters and morals of the -race. This influence may well have been exaggerated -by Hellenic thinkers. Damon the musician declared -that every change in artistic standards produced a -change in the tone and constitution of a State; and -Plato agreed with him.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_699" id="fnanchor_699"></a><a href="#footnote_699" class="fnanchor">[699]</a></span> -The danger of such innovations -is a large part of the theme of the <cite>Laws</cite>, and, -in a less degree, of the <cite>Republic</cite>. Sparta accepted -<a name="Page_250" id="Page_250"></a><span class="pageno">250</span> -this attitude and forbade all change. The opinion -was certainly widely held, and must have rested on -experience.</p> - -<p>Just as the thinkers were beginning to realise this -principle, it happened that a very great change in the -artistic canons did take place. Sophocles is succeeded -by Euripides, Pheidias by Praxiteles: music suffers a -similar transformation. Idealism gives way to realism: -Sophocles and Pheidias had represented men as they -ought to be, Euripides and Praxiteles represent them -as they are. Poets and sculptors still pretend to be -delineating deities, but in reality they are delineating -contemporary life.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_700" id="fnanchor_700"></a><a href="#footnote_700" class="fnanchor">[700]</a></span> -Their creations not only cease to -be idealised, they cease to have only a single trait. -The “Hermes” of Praxiteles is a dreamy but vigorous -young Athenian who might have been met in the -Akademeia or Lukeion; the “Herakles” of Euripides is -now a homicidal maniac, now a reckless mercenary.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_701" id="fnanchor_701"></a><a href="#footnote_701" class="fnanchor">[701]</a></span> -The characters become human by losing their divineness. -In the next generation the divine names are dropped, -and Menander can depict contemporary life without -having to call his characters Orestes or Phaidra. Music -also ceased to be so severely separated off into types. -All manner of musical innovations arise, which it is -very hard for a modern to grasp. But the result is -clear enough. It became no longer possible to detect -the ethical meaning of a tune: music was becoming -complex, just as characters in drama and sculpture were -becoming complex. It was also more homely in subject. -It became daringly “mimetic” also, imitating all the -sounds of nature. This was an age of daring experiments, -and musicians shared the general movement.</p> - -<p><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251"></a><span class="pageno">251</span> -To the Conservative party in Hellas and to the -educational theorists these changes naturally appeared -ruinous. In their opinion, Euripides was practically -parodying the Bible and making divine characters share -all the follies and weaknesses, and use the homely -language, of mere men. Boys, learning such poetry by -heart, would cease to have ideals: everything would be -commonplace to them. They would recite the most -homely language, and act the most homely parts, under -the idea that they were half-divine. Moreover, with -the attack of the new school upon the old religion, the -more immoral parts of Hellenic mythology were brought -into undue prominence. Euripides seems to have -chosen some questionable subjects; the dithyrambic -poets were worse, and chose themes quite unsuitable for -children to act or hear. And music ceased to have any -ethical value; it was all trills and onomatopœia. Such -changes meant a revolution in the results of education.</p> - -<p>The poet Aristophanes is the first to raise his voice -against the change. A few months before the utter -ruin of Athens, he produces the <cite>Frogs</cite>, which really -repeats the attack of the <cite>Clouds</cite>, with Euripides -instead of Sokrates for the defendant. The poet is -attacked as at once the prophet of the new culture of -the Sophists and of the new artistic standards. The -following are some of the chief faults which Aristophanes -finds with the new school represented by Euripides:<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_702" id="fnanchor_702"></a><a href="#footnote_702" class="fnanchor">[702]</a></span> -(1) an undignified style of music, worthy only of the -bones as an accompaniment; (2) its habit of mixing all -sorts of incongruous musical rubbish together, “lewd -love-songs, drinking catches of Meletos, Karian flute-music, -dirges, and dances”; (3) its trills or shakes, as -in <ins title="eieieieieilissete">εἰειειειειλίσσετε</ins>; (4) its mixture of incongruous -<a name="Page_252" id="Page_252"></a><span class="pageno">252</span> -pictures, “dolphins, spiders, halcyons, prophet-chambers, -and race-courses,” pathos and bathos, commonplace and -solemnity; (5) bad metre, licenses of every sort, and -frequent “resolved” feet. As a parody of its habitual -incongruity Aristophanes gives:</p> - -<p class="blockquote">“O God of the sea, that’s what it is. O ye neighbours, -behold yon monstrous deed: Gluke’s gone off -with my cock. Nymphs, ye daughters of the hills! -Mary Ann, lend a hand.”</p> - -<p>Aristophanes’ voice comes with a certain pathos, for -the play is the last utterance of Periclean Athens, -just at the point of falling and trying to find a scapegoat -on whom to lay the responsibility of its ruin: -and the scapegoat chosen is the new artistic and musical -standard. The Ionic temperament had, in fact, -broken away from all restraint. The Doric canons of -order, symmetry, regularity, and solidity were thrown -aside. Everything antique was treated with disdain; -all authority was rejected with scorn. No standards, -ethical or artistic, were tolerated. Perpetual change, -daily novelty, became the one desire of Athens. The -foundations of belief, the bases of the moral code, were -broken down. The whole world seemed to be -crumbling away, and nothing was arising to take its -place. Spectators became dizzy with the eternal -fluctuations. What wonder if they turned longing eyes -towards the one centre of gravity in Hellas, towards -the one place where politics, art, and ethics retained -their old stability, towards Sparta? So Sparta becomes -the philosopher’s ideal, and it is the Spartan canon that -Plato tries to reimpose on Ionicism running riot.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_703" id="fnanchor_703"></a><a href="#footnote_703" class="fnanchor">[703]</a></span> -The -fault which he finds with contemporary art and music -<a name="Page_253" id="Page_253"></a><span class="pageno">253</span> -is that they simply try to please and amuse the audience, -not to educate and improve it.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_704" id="fnanchor_704"></a><a href="#footnote_704" class="fnanchor">[704]</a></span> -They are like parents -who try to soothe a fractious child with sweetmeats -when his health requires castor oil. But the poets and -artists are the slaves of the mob which pays them. -They must be freed from this control, and made the -servants of the government. Strict canons must be -drawn up, which they must follow on pain of being -expelled from the State. The canons must be drawn -up by a select body of experts; the mob is incapable of -judging in such matters; the critic must guide their -taste, not follow it.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_705" id="fnanchor_705"></a><a href="#footnote_705" class="fnanchor">[705]</a></span> -Good music and art must -bear the stamp of a good “ethos,” and, since men -appreciate the character most which most resembles -their own, it will be the good man who will most -appreciate good music:<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_706" id="fnanchor_706"></a><a href="#footnote_706" class="fnanchor">[706]</a></span> -so the good man becomes the -standard. In order to point his moral, Plato sketches -the history of the Athenian drama, showing how its -dependence on popular opinion ruined it<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_707" id="fnanchor_707"></a><a href="#footnote_707" class="fnanchor">[707]</a>:—</span></p> - -<p>“At the time of the Persian wars Athens was a -limited democracy, with the magistracies arranged -according to a property qualification. The spirit of -obedience and discipline prevailed in those days, and was -strengthened by the dread of Persia. The populace -willingly obeyed the laws that fixed the artistic and -musical standards. By these regulations the different -types of song and accompaniment, hymns or prayers to -the gods, lamentations, pæans, dithyrambs, and so forth -were kept quite distinct, no one being allowed to mix -them together; the standard, too, was not fixed, as now, -by the shouts and stampings and confused applause of -the mob, but every one listened in silence until the end -<a name="Page_254" id="Page_254"></a><span class="pageno">254</span> -of the play, the educated classes from preference, and -boys and their paidagogoi, and the mob generally, -under the direction of the rod. Thus the mass of the -citizens were ready to obey in an orderly manner, not -venturing to make noisy criticisms. In course of time -some poets, who ought to have known better, led the -way in breaking down these laws. Frenzied and distracted -by their desire for pleasure, they mixed lamentations -with hymns and pæans with dithyrambs, they -imitated the flute on the lyre, they confused everything -with everything else. Blinded by ignorance, they lied -and said that there was no question of accuracy of representation -in music: the only standard was the pleasure -of the hearer, whatever sort of man he might be. With -such style of poetry, and arguments to match, they -inspired the many with contempt for the laws of Art, -and gave them the idea that they were capable of -criticising it. So the audience was no longer silent but -noisy, since it supposed that it knew what was good and -what was bad. Art was no longer governed by good -taste, but by the bad taste of the mob. Nor was this -the worst of it. From Art the infection spread to other -spheres, and every one began to think that he knew -everything, and consequently to break the laws. For, -thinking themselves wiser than the laws, they no longer -feared them.… Next comes a refusal to obey the -Archons, then contempt for the orders of parents and -elders, then a desire to be free from the restraints of a -constitution. The end is utter contempt for oaths and -covenants and the gods.”</p> - -<p>It is the lack of order and system in contemporary -music which Plato dislikes.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_708" id="fnanchor_708"></a><a href="#footnote_708" class="fnanchor">[708]</a></span> -In modern dances, he -<a name="Page_255" id="Page_255"></a><span class="pageno">255</span> -complains, manly words are set to effeminate tunes or -gestures, and the voices of men and beasts and instruments -are mixed together into a confused and unintelligible -hodgepodge.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_709" id="fnanchor_709"></a><a href="#footnote_709" class="fnanchor">[709]</a></span> -Music without words is equally -detestable. Music that runs on without the proper -pauses and loves mere speed and meaningless clamour, -using flutes and harps without words, is in the worst -taste. The meaning must be quite plain.</p> - -<p>Music must also be good. Poets say much that is -good, much that is bad: they are irresponsible beings.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_710" id="fnanchor_710"></a><a href="#footnote_710" class="fnanchor">[710]</a></span> -The State ought to appoint censors who will reject all -unsuitable poems and tunes and dances. Those which -are already in existence must be selected and expurgated. -If this ruins the poetry, never mind: moral tone is far -more important than poetical skill. In fact, poetry -ought to be written by moral citizens without any -regard being paid to their poetical talents: it would -also be well if they did not compose till they were fifty!<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_711" id="fnanchor_711"></a><a href="#footnote_711" class="fnanchor">[711]</a></span> -A sketch of a Platonic Censor re-editing Homer is -given in Books <abbr title="two">ii.</abbr> and <abbr title="three">iii.</abbr> of the <cite>Republic</cite>: his methods -are drastic.</p> - -<p>But Plato’s chief denunciation is reserved for the -“mimetic” or imitative aspect of poetry. The poet -teaches “posing.” Homer, when he described the siege -of Troy, is posing as a skilled tactician (as his admirers -often claimed that he was), when really the silence of -history proves that he was nothing of the sort. So too -the painter who represents a plough is posing as an -authority upon agriculture: question him, and he will -prove to be completely ignorant of the subject. Both -poetry and painting are a fraud and a deception; by -their pretence of knowledge, they encourage the mind -in the habit, to which it is so prone, of accepting vague -<a name="Page_256" id="Page_256"></a><span class="pageno">256</span> -opinions as certainties without testing their truth.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_712" id="fnanchor_712"></a><a href="#footnote_712" class="fnanchor">[712]</a></span> -They foster that belief in the sense-perceptions which -it is the object of Platonic education to destroy.</p> - -<p>But the poet not only poses himself: he makes his -audience, his reader, his performer pose. The boy -who recites the dying speech of Aias in Sophocles’ play -is posing as Aias, pretending to be Aias, and adopting -the tone and the traits of Aias. The boy who dances -in the dithyramb <cite>Semelé</cite> is trying to enter into -Semelé’s feelings and moods, being helped by the music -and the gestures and the words.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_713" id="fnanchor_713"></a><a href="#footnote_713" class="fnanchor">[713]</a></span> -Such posing, if -begun in early years, will invade the character and -change it: the boy will become like the personages -whom he is accustomed to act. Hence Plato lays -down strict laws dealing with the recitations and dances -of the young.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_714" id="fnanchor_714"></a><a href="#footnote_714" class="fnanchor">[714]</a></span> - “If they speak in character, it must -only be in the character of those who are, what they -themselves must be when they are grown up, brave, -temperate, pious gentlemen. They must have no skill -in taking unsuitable characters, lest from their dramatic -representation of what is vulgar and base they become -infected with the reality of vulgarity and baseness. For -imitation, if begun in early years and carried far, sinks -into a boy’s habits and nature, and influences his voice, -his gestures, and his ideas.… So boys must not be -allowed to take the character of a woman, young or -old, abusing her husband or blaspheming against the -gods or uttering lamentations,—certainly not of a -woman in sickness or in love or in pangs; nor the -<a name="Page_257" id="Page_257"></a><span class="pageno">257</span> -character of slaves performing slavish duties; nor of -bad men, cowards, insulting or mocking one another, -using foul language, drunk or sober; nor yet of madmen.”<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_715" id="fnanchor_715"></a><a href="#footnote_715" class="fnanchor">[715]</a></span> -It will be seen that this will exclude much of -Hellenic drama, especially of the plays of Euripides -and Aristophanes. Comedy, according to Plato, should -only be acted by foreigners, and should serve as an -awful warning of everything that a gentleman ought -not to do. The new music is subjected to similar -rules. “Boys must not imitate blacksmiths at the -forge, or craftsmen occupied in any trade, or sailors -rowing, or boatswains giving them orders, or anything -of the sort; nor yet horses neighing, or bulls roaring, -or the noise of rivers or the sea or thunder or wind or -hail or chariot-wheels or pulleys or trumpets or flutes -or pipes …; nor the sounds made by dogs and -sheep and birds.” So the proper style of poetry for -educational purposes will be mostly narrative, with -occasional dramatisation of virtuous men. To accompany -this simplified and purified poetry only the Dorian -and Phrygian “harmonies” will be required: all the -others may be rejected. Simple instruments alone will -be wanted: many-stringed lyres and the flute can be -banished. The seven-stringed lyre and the shepherd’s -pipe will be left.</p> - -<p>Plato finds it too difficult to carry these principles -into rhythm, since he is not an expert in the subject. -But he thinks that the metres could be regulated in -accordance with his canons; the expert Damon declared -that some had a demoralising tendency.</p> - -<p>As a whole, Plato’s aim is to restore Doric standards, -to combat amateurism and dabbling, by which boys -<a name="Page_258" id="Page_258"></a><span class="pageno">258</span> -were made Jacks-of-all-trades, and above all to insist -that the refined few ought to set the standard of taste in -matters musical, literary, and artistic, not the unrefined -many. With his view may be contrasted Perikles’ -boast to the Athenian people, “We can all criticise -adequately, if we cannot all invent,” and Aristotle’s -belief that a crowd judges better than an individual -because its judgment is compounded of many judgments.</p> - -<p>But when we come to Aristotle the creative instinct -of the Hellenic nation, apart from a few gifted -individuals, is dead. To him and his contemporaries -music and painting are no longer rendered necessary -parts of education owing to the irresistible craving -of an artistic temperament for expression. Listen -to his theory. Painting gives boys an eye for -beauty, and prevents them from being cheated in -art-dealing: there is no inward compulsion to paint. -Boys had better learn to sing and play, since children -must needs make a noise. All they really need is the -power of criticising professional music. This power, -unluckily, cannot be acquired without personal study. -But let them drop their music as soon as they can, -or they might be mistaken for vulgar professionals. -Such words could hardly have been addressed to a -nation that was still musical and artistic. So Aristotle’s -æsthetic criticism is really a study of the past, the -discussion of a dead age. He has no natural affinity -for such things himself: he prefers to sum up the -opinions of experts. Consequently his remarks on the -subject are scientific but no more; for a real appreciation -of the Hellenic artistic and musical spirit it is -necessary to go to Plato, who combated it so fiercely -just because he was more in sympathy with it than -suited his philosophic desires.</p> -<!--Blank Page--> - -<div class="figcenter together" style="width: 500px"> - <p class="captionleft">PLATE <abbr title="Ten">X.</abbr> <span class="sc lowercase">A.</span></p> - <a name="i10a" id="i10a"></a> - <img src="images/10a.jpg" - width="500" height="266" - alt="Illustration: In a Riding School" - /> - <p class="caption">IN A RIDING-SCHOOL<br /> -From a Kulix by Euphronios, now in the Louvre. Hartwig’s <cite>Meisterschalen</cite>, Plate 53.</p> -</div><!--end illustration--> - -<div class="p2 figcenter together" style="width: 500px"> - <p class="captionleft">PLATE <abbr title="Ten">X.</abbr> <span class="sc lowercase">B.</span></p> - <a name="i10b" id="i10b"></a> - <img src="images/10b.jpg" - width="500" height="258" - alt="Illustration: In a Riding School" - /> - <p class="caption">IN A RIDING-SCHOOL<br /> -From a Kulix by Euphronios, now in the Louvre. Hartwig’s <cite>Meisterschalen</cite>, Plate 53.</p> -</div><!--end illustration--> - -<!--Blank Page--> - -<p class="p2 footnote"> <a name="footnote_680" id="footnote_680"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_680"><span class="muchsmaller">[680]</span></a> -The characteristics are sketched in <abbr title="Thucidides">Thuc.</abbr> <abbr title="one">i.</abbr> 70. <abbr title="Compare">Cp.</abbr> the difference between -Florence and Venice in Renaissance Italy.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_681" id="footnote_681"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_681"><span class="muchsmaller">[681]</span></a> -See also <abbr title="Thucidides">Thuc.</abbr> <abbr title="one">i.</abbr> 6; <abbr title="Athenaeus">Athen.</abbr> 512 <span class="sc">B.C.</span></p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_682" id="footnote_682"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_682"><span class="muchsmaller">[682]</span></a> -No doubt all the theorists had a fatal temptation to judge the harmony by the -opinion which they held of the race which produced it. The Lydian may have -recovered prestige during the fourth century, for it included Karian, and Karia -became a great power under Mausolos.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_683" id="footnote_683"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_683"><span class="muchsmaller">[683]</span></a> -<abbr title="Athenaeus">Athen.</abbr> 624 <span class="sc lowercase">C</span>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_684" id="footnote_684"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_684"><span class="muchsmaller">[684]</span></a> -It is the only true Hellenic harmony (Plato, <cite><abbr title="Laches">Lach.</abbr></cite> 188 <span class="sc lowercase">D</span>).</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_685" id="footnote_685"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_685"><span class="muchsmaller">[685]</span></a> -Plato’s opinion of the harmonies is in <cite><abbr title="Republic">Rep.</abbr></cite> 398-399. Aristotle, who professes -only to summarise the views of experts, discusses them in <cite><abbr title="Politics">Pol.</abbr></cite> <abbr title="eight">viii.</abbr> 7.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_686" id="footnote_686"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_686"><span class="muchsmaller">[686]</span></a> -Plato apparently accepts this principle with regard to the Korubantic dances -(<cite>Laws</cite>, 790 <span class="sc lowercase">D</span>).</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_687" id="footnote_687"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_687"><span class="muchsmaller">[687]</span></a> -<abbr title="Athenaeus">Athen.</abbr> 624 b.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_688" id="footnote_688"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_688"><span class="muchsmaller">[688]</span></a> -<abbr title="Pindar">Pind.</abbr> <cite>P.</cite> 5. 60-63. <abbr title="Compare">Cp.</abbr> the story of Saul and David.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_689" id="footnote_689"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_689"><span class="muchsmaller">[689]</span></a> -<abbr title="Athenaeus">Athen.</abbr> 624 a.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_690" id="footnote_690"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_690"><span class="muchsmaller">[690]</span></a> -<abbr title="Plutarch">Plut.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="Lukourgos">Luk.</abbr></cite> 4.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_691" id="footnote_691"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_691"><span class="muchsmaller">[691]</span></a> -<cite><abbr title="Politics">Pol.</abbr></cite> <abbr title="four">iv.</abbr> 20. 2.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_692" id="footnote_692"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_692"><span class="muchsmaller">[692]</span></a> -Plato, <cite><abbr title="Republic">Rep.</abbr></cite> 399 <span class="sc lowercase">A</span>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_693" id="footnote_693"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_693"><span class="muchsmaller">[693]</span></a> -Londoners must devoutly hope that the Hellenic theory is false.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_694" id="footnote_694"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_694"><span class="muchsmaller">[694]</span></a> -<abbr title="Aristotle">Aristot.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="Rhetoric">Rhet.</abbr></cite> <abbr title="two">ii.</abbr> 21. 16.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_695" id="footnote_695"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_695"><span class="muchsmaller">[695]</span></a> -Plato, <cite><abbr title="Republic">Rep.</abbr></cite> 401 <span class="sc lowercase">B</span>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_696" id="footnote_696"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_696"><span class="muchsmaller">[696]</span></a> -A poetical education probably develops the imagination at the expense of the -logical mind. Plato is a good instance of this: his imagination, against his will, -outweighs his reason. It may be this personal experience which gives so much -bitterness to his attack on poetry.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_697" id="footnote_697"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_697"><span class="muchsmaller">[697]</span></a> -<abbr title="Plutarch">Plut.</abbr> <cite>Solon</cite>, 29. 30.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_698" id="footnote_698"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_698"><span class="muchsmaller">[698]</span></a> -Children have a natural tendency to act, and need little inducement or -instruction.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_699" id="footnote_699"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_699"><span class="muchsmaller">[699]</span></a> -Plato, <cite><abbr title="Republic">Rep.</abbr></cite> 424 <span class="sc lowercase">C</span>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_700" id="footnote_700"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_700"><span class="muchsmaller">[700]</span></a> -So in the later Renaissance the “Madonna” is the artist’s wife.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_701" id="footnote_701"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_701"><span class="muchsmaller">[701]</span></a> -According to Dr. Verrall.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_702" id="footnote_702"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_702"><span class="muchsmaller">[702]</span></a> -<abbr title="Aristophanes">Aristoph.</abbr> <cite>Frogs</cite>, 1301, 1340.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_703" id="footnote_703"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_703"><span class="muchsmaller">[703]</span></a> -Ionicism = Herakleiteanism, <ins title="panta rhei">πάντα ῥεῖ</ins>. Doricism = Parmenideanism, <ins title="to pan -menei">τὸ πᾶν μένει</ins>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_704" id="footnote_704"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_704"><span class="muchsmaller">[704]</span></a> -Plato, <cite><abbr title="Gorgias">Gorg.</abbr></cite> 501-502; <cite><abbr title="Politics">Polit.</abbr></cite> 288 <span class="sc lowercase">C</span>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_705" id="footnote_705"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_705"><span class="muchsmaller">[705]</span></a> -Plato, <cite>Laws</cite>, 657-659.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_706" id="footnote_706"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_706"><span class="muchsmaller">[706]</span></a> -<cite>Ibid.</cite> 656.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_707" id="footnote_707"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_707"><span class="muchsmaller">[707]</span></a> -<cite>Ibid.</cite> 698-701 <span class="sc lowercase">C</span>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_708" id="footnote_708"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_708"><span class="muchsmaller">[708]</span></a> -The essence of dancing is that it is <em>orderly</em> movement; of singing that it is -<em>orderly</em> sound (<cite>Laws</cite>, 654).</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_709" id="footnote_709"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_709"><span class="muchsmaller">[709]</span></a> -Plato, <cite>Laws</cite>, 669-70.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_710" id="footnote_710"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_710"><span class="muchsmaller">[710]</span></a> -<cite>Ibid.</cite> 800-802.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_711" id="footnote_711"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_711"><span class="muchsmaller">[711]</span></a> -<cite>Ibid.</cite> 829 c.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_712" id="footnote_712"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_712"><span class="muchsmaller">[712]</span></a> -Consequently the painter and the poet are, in Plato’s opinion, allies of the -Sophist.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_713" id="footnote_713"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_713"><span class="muchsmaller">[713]</span></a> -This is true, in a less degree, of the audience. <abbr title="Compare">Cp.</abbr> Plutarch’s account of the -Spartans (<cite><abbr title="Laconica Institutions">Lac. Inst.</abbr></cite> 239 <span class="lowercase">A</span>): “They did not listen to tragedies or comedies, in order -that neither in earnest nor in jest they might hear men gainsaying the laws.”</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_714" id="footnote_714"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_714"><span class="muchsmaller">[714]</span></a> -Plato, <cite><abbr title="Republic">Rep.</abbr></cite> 395 <abbr title="and following">ff.</abbr></p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_715" id="footnote_715"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_715"><span class="muchsmaller">[715]</span></a> -Plato holds that no one likes to imitate his inferiors; so the good man will not -care to imitate any but the good. He ascribes this attitude to the Deity.</p> -</div><!--end chapter--> - -<div class="chapter"><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259"></a><span class="pageno">259</span> -<h3 class="p4 h3head">CHAPTER X</h3> - -<h4 class="p2 h4head">XENOPHON: “THE EDUCATION OF KUROS”</h4> - -<p class="p2"><span class="sc">The</span> central figure in many parishes in England is a -retired Major-General or Colonel. He constitutes the -chief pillar of the neighbouring church, reads the -Lessons on Sundays, teaches in the Sunday School, -gives away the prizes at School-treats held in his own -grounds, and heads every subscription list; while his -leisure is given to the compilation of a military memoir -or two, and perhaps, if he is very literary, of a few -short stories. Just such a man was Xenophon. On -retiring from active service, he withdrew to the little -village of Skillous in Elis, where he owned a house and -a park. The whole country swarmed with fish and -game, so that he and his sons could have as much -hunting as they pleased. Guests were numerous, for -past his gates ran the great high-road from Lakedaimon -to Olympia. In his grounds he built a chapel to -Artemis, the expenses being defrayed from a tithe of -the spoils he had taken in the heart of the Persian -Empire. The tenth of the produce of his land was -paid to the goddess, and once a year he gave a great -sacrificial feast in her honour, to which all the neighbours -were invited. In this way the retired General -lived for twenty years, devoted to his religion, his -hunting, and the composition of his books. Having -<a name="Page_260" id="Page_260"></a><span class="pageno">260</span> -two sons of his own, he naturally gave some attention -to the problems of education. His treatise on the -constitution of Lakedaimon is simply a sketch of the -Spartan school system, no doubt intended for his boys, -who were brought up at Sparta. A curious passage in -his <cite>Economics</cite><span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_716" id="fnanchor_716"></a><a href="#footnote_716" class="fnanchor">[716]</a></span> -shows that he considered the most -effective mode of teaching to be a series of appeals, by -means of question and answer, to personal observation -and common-sense. Ischomachos asks Sokrates whether -he knows how to plant trees. Sokrates at first replies -“No,” but when he is questioned point by point, -whether on his excursions to Lukabettos, he has noticed -the depth of the trenches in the orchards, and some -similar details, and when his common-sense has shown -him that plants grow quicker through soft than -through hard soil, he finds that he is an expert nurseryman, -and decides that questioning must be the way to -teach.</p> - -<p>But the most important of Xenophon’s educational -works is the <cite>Education of Kuros</cite>. In this he becomes -the classical Miss Edgeworth and Henty combined. The -book is really an historical novel, mostly fiction, embodying -a moral story for the young, an ideal system of -education, and a practical treatise on the whole duty of -a general. The ideal system comes first, as a sort of -preface, and presents a curious parallel to the rival -schemes of his contemporary Plato. Xenophon makes -the reader suppose that his system was practised in -Persia in the time of Kuros’ boyhood, but there is no -authority for his statement. Persia is in this case a -convenient title for Utopia.</p> - -<p>The ordinary State, according to Xenophon, leaves -its citizens to form their own characters; but the -<a name="Page_261" id="Page_261"></a><span class="pageno">261</span> -Persian system definitely aims at producing virtue. In -every Persian city there is what is called the “Free -Agora.”<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_717" id="fnanchor_717"></a><a href="#footnote_717" class="fnanchor">[717]</a></span> -This is an open square, like the ordinary -market-place, but unlike it in being without shops or -booths, for the vulgar bustle and clamour of buying and -selling is forbidden here, as likely to disturb the peace -and calm of the educated. Round it lie the royal palace -and the State buildings, so that it would be a place of -some architectural pretensions and not unlike the quadrangle -of a College at an English University. The -square is divided into four parts—one for the children, -one for the epheboi, one for full-grown men, and one -for the old; for men of all ages have their place in -this College. Any Persian is at liberty to send his son -to school here, but only the rich can afford to support -their sons while they attend the classes: the poor man’s -children, in Utopian Persia as in modern England, must -needs work for their living at an early age. The schools -are apparently only for boys: Xenophon has nothing to -say here about feminine education, although he approves -of the Spartan system.</p> - -<p>All boys under sixteen are ranged together in twelve -companies, according to the number of Persian tribes; -of arrangement in classes by age or intelligence nothing -is said. They have to be in their quarter of the Free -Agora at daybreak. Their education is under the control -of twelve masters chosen from the elder men. What -they learn in school is <em>Justice</em>, as boys elsewhere learn -letters. The system is as curious as the subject. A sort -of miniature law-court is constituted, where the masters -act as judges and the boys accuse one another before -them. The accusations must not be concocted for the -<a name="Page_262" id="Page_262"></a><span class="pageno">262</span> -occasion, for any one found guilty of bringing a false -charge against a schoolfellow is severely punished. -Smith Major has stolen Brown’s bow and arrows, or -Jones has called Robinson various opprobrious names; -the offenders are hauled up before the tribunal, duly -tried, and, if convicted, flogged.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_718" id="fnanchor_718"></a><a href="#footnote_718" class="fnanchor">[718]</a></span> -Ingratitude is regarded -as a particularly heinous crime. It appears that -promising pupils were allowed to act as judges sometimes. -The boy Kuros tells his mother how he received -this honour and once gave a wrong verdict, to -his own discomfiture. “The case was like this, -mother,” he is made to say. “A big boy wearing a -small coat met a small boy wearing a big coat, and -compelled him to exchange. I was told to decide the -case, and said that it was best that each should have the -coat which fitted him. Then the master flogged me. -For the point was, To whom did the big coat belong? -not, Whom did it fit best? It belonged to the boy who -bought or made it, not to the boy who took it by force, -breaking the law.”</p> - -<p>Besides “Justice,” the children were taught the -properties of plants, in order that they might avoid those -that were harmful and use those which were good.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_719" id="fnanchor_719"></a><a href="#footnote_719" class="fnanchor">[719]</a></span> -This seems a curious anticipation of “Nature-study,” -with a strictly utilitarian object, and Xenophon deserves -credit for an original suggestion.</p> - -<p>The boys are assisted in the formation of good habits -by the sight of their elders in the adjacent quarter of the -Free Agora, setting them an example in temperance and -obedience and self-restraint. They also learn not to be -greedy, by taking their meals, when ordered, in the -school, under supervision, off the very simple fare of -<a name="Page_263" id="Page_263"></a><span class="pageno">263</span> -bread, water, and a sort of seed resembling the modern -mustard, which is all that they are allowed to bring with -them from home for the purpose. What is more, this -probably constituted the only meal which the children -had on such days. It must have been a pretty stiff -lesson in abstinence! How they would have hated a -master who ordered it too often! For games and -exercise they had shooting with the bow and hurling -the javelin—that is, military training.</p> - -<p>The other three ages are also organised each under -twelve masters in its own quarter of the Agora of Education. -The epheboi, who in Utopia include all from -sixteen to twenty-six, even sleep there, acting as a standing -army and a police force to guard the palace and the -State buildings. Xenophon thinks it well that the men -of this age, who need more attention, in his opinion, than -even the boys, should be always under the eye of the -authorities. They are organised into twelve companies, -one from each of the Persian tribes. Their time is -largely occupied in police-work, such as catching brigands, -and in hunting. Xenophon attaches great importance -to hunting of all sorts, as being the best training -for war.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_720" id="fnanchor_720"></a><a href="#footnote_720" class="fnanchor">[720]</a></span> -For it involves exposure to heat and cold and -other hardships, training in marching and running, and -skill with bow and javelin;<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_721" id="fnanchor_721"></a><a href="#footnote_721" class="fnanchor">[721]</a></span> -it also requires courage, to -meet the sudden charge of a panther; and long and -patient strategy, to catch birds and hares.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_722" id="fnanchor_722"></a><a href="#footnote_722" class="fnanchor">[722]</a></span> -So, several -times a month, the king goes out hunting and takes six -companies of the epheboi with him, armed with bows and -arrows, a dagger, a light shield, and two spears—one for -throwing and one for stabbing. When not engaged in -hunting or in police-work, the epheboi revise what they -learned as boys, and practise shooting, competing with -<a name="Page_264" id="Page_264"></a><span class="pageno">264</span> -one another; there are also public contests, with prizes. -Prizes are also given to the officer in charge of the -company which shows itself the most intelligent, -courageous, and trustworthy; the master who taught -this company in its school-days is also commended.</p> - -<p>The men from twenty-six to fifty occupy the third, -and the elders the fourth, quarter of the Agora. The -former act as a standing army of heavy infantry; the -latter as a reserve force for home defence, as Judges, as -the electors to the offices of State, and as the teachers -of the children. The other offices are filled by the -third age. Any freeborn Persian can climb this four-runged -Ladder of Education to the very top; but no -one may enter a higher class without having served his -full time in those below it. To Xenophon, it appears, -belongs the credit of being the first theorist to recognise -the merits of this Thessalian custom of the “Free -Agora,” the State-provided centre of culture, afterwards -adopted so extensively in Alexandria, where the -educated classes of all ages might meet in an intellectual -atmosphere and amid beautiful surroundings, and -provide that exchange and mart of ideas by personal -intercourse which Newman considered to be the essence -of a University. In the Free Agora of Utopian Persia -all the educated spend their days, influencing one -another by talk and example, exchanging and criticising -ideas, competing in warlike exercises—and all -in an atmosphere untainted by the vulgarity of money-making. -On the other hand, culture there does not mean -idleness; to Xenophon, as to Plato, education seemed -to entail great responsibilities, and the educated classes -provide the sole standing army of the State and have to -give their countrymen the benefit of their intelligence -by serving as Rulers and Judges.</p> - -<p><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265"></a><span class="pageno">265</span> -But Xenophon’s University provides only legal and -military instruction; intellectual culture is not recognised -in his “Persia.” The boys learn the principles -of their national law; for, as Xenophon is careful to -proclaim, the Justice which they are taught is no -Platonic elaboration, but simple conformity to the law -of the land.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_723" id="fnanchor_723"></a><a href="#footnote_723" class="fnanchor">[723]</a></span> -Their other lessons aim solely at the -soldier’s life: this is the object of their severe diet, -their botany, and their training in arms. General -morality is to be imbibed from contact in the Agora with -their exemplary seniors, not by ethical contemplation. -The system has the merit of being extremely practical, -as would be expected from a man of Xenophon’s -stamp. The boys are to be soldiers all their lives, and -Rulers and Judges in their old age. Consequently they -are to be taught only what is essential to this calling. -The soldier must be well versed in the use of arms and -capable of enduring hardships; so the boys are taught -to use the bow and javelin and lead a sternly simple -life. The chief essential to the Ruler and Judge is a -sound knowledge of the national law: the boys are -taught law from the first, in a highly practical way, and -even learn to administer it, acting as judges to their -schoolfellows. No better means could be devised for -teaching boys the legal procedure of their native land -than this of constituting them into a miniature Court.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_724" id="fnanchor_724"></a><a href="#footnote_724" class="fnanchor">[724]</a></span> -It is a scheme, however, which would be repugnant to -the whole idea of an English public school, where the -boys are expected to fight their own battles and set -their own tone without calling in the master’s assistance -except in grave cases. But the Hellenic boy was never -<a name="Page_266" id="Page_266"></a><span class="pageno">266</span> -left without supervision: the paidagogos, or some elder, -was always in attendance.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_725" id="fnanchor_725"></a><a href="#footnote_725" class="fnanchor">[725]</a></span> -Probably the chief criticism -which it would have occurred to an Athenian of that -age to urge against Xenophon’s system would be, not -that it encouraged tale-bearing, nor that it failed to -teach self-reliance, but that his countrymen were quite -sufficiently litigious already without any teaching. -The absence of literature and music would also have -seemed a fatal objection.</p> - -<p>The “Persian” schools are apparently open, free of -charge, to any boy whose father chooses to send him. -For the only expense which the parents are mentioned -as incurring is the loss of any wages which their son -might have been earning if set to a trade instead of being -sent to school. Xenophon thus institutes free education -without compulsion. Pupils may be withdrawn at any -age; if they or their families have enough private -means to enable them to live in leisure all their lives -they can rise through the various stages to the highest -offices of the State, provided that they are not rejected -as unfit during their upward passage. Theoretically the -educational ladder is open to all; practically it is closed -to all but those who are well-to-do and fairly capable -to boot. But the education provided is not a general -culture, intellectually and morally good for all children, -nor yet utilitarian knowledge, such as arithmetic or -writing, which will serve as a useful, or even necessary, -basis for a trade or profession: it is a strictly -technical education in the work of War and Government. -Few parents, therefore, would send their boys to -Xenophon’s schools, at any rate for a longer period -than would be required for learning just the rudiments -<a name="Page_267" id="Page_267"></a><span class="pageno">267</span> -of national law and morality, unless they designed them -for a public career.</p> - -<p>Thus Xenophon, like his beloved Spartans, has made -war the main object of education, and, like the Romans, -uses law as the chief instrument of instruction. But he -has seen the demerits of the Spartan “Mess-clubs,” and -his boys take their meals and sleep, as a rule, at home; -only the epheboi, as in Crete, dine and sleep always in -the agora. His chief merit is that he recognised that -an educational atmosphere, <ins title="eukosmia tôn pepaideumenôn">εὐκοσμία τῶν πεπαιδευμένων</ins>, -free from the associations of money-making, is essential -to an educational establishment.</p> - -<p>After this deeply interesting sketch of Xenophon’s -educational ideals, the <cite>Education of Kuros</cite> becomes a -historical novel with a purpose, an idealised Kuros -acting as example throughout. In Book <abbr title="one">i.</abbr> there is the -description of him as the model boy, courteous to his -elders, quick and eager to learn, brave, impetuous, -loved by all, but rather a prig. The description is full -of improving anecdotes and little sermons. The book -concludes with a lecture on the duties of a general, -dealing with tactics and the best means of training -the army and providing supplies. Xenophon puts -all his personal experience into this, and there is plenty -of adventure to make the book palatable to his young -readers.</p> - -<p>A few extracts will make the characteristics of this -curious work plain.</p> - -<p>When quite young, Kuros went with his mother -Mandané to stay with his grandfather Astuages, King of -Media. The old man, thinking that the boy would be -homesick and wishing to comfort him, sent for him at -dinner the first evening and set all sorts of rich meats -and sauces before him. Then Kuros said, “Grandfather, -<a name="Page_268" id="Page_268"></a><span class="pageno">268</span> -you must find it a great nuisance, if you have to help -yourself to so many courses and taste so many kinds of -food.” His grandfather replied, “Why, don’t you -think this a much finer dinner than what you get at -home?” “No, grandfather,” replied Kuros; “at home -we satisfy our appetites by a short-cut, just bread and -meat, but here, although your object is the same, you -wind in and out so much on the way that it takes you -ever so much longer to reach it.” “But, my boy, the -delay is only so much pleasure, as you will see if you -try.” Kuros, however, persisted in refusing the unwholesome -dainties, so his grandfather compensated him by -giving him an enormous help of meat. “Is all this -meant for me,” asked Kuros, “to do what I like with?” -“Yes, my boy.” Then Kuros took the meat and distributed -it to the servants who were waiting at table, -saying to one, “This is because you taught me to ride”; -to another, “This is because you gave me a javelin”; to -a third, “This is for waiting on my grandfather so nicely.” -From this example the young reader doubtless learned -not to desire too many courses or too rich sweets at -table, and perhaps also to be grateful to every one, even -servants. After this Kuros remained in Media, while -his mother returned home. “He soon won the love of -his schoolfellows, and quite charmed their parents when -invited to their houses by the affection which he showed -for their sons.” A good moral, this, for little boys who -go out to parties.</p> - -<p>This model boy does not die young, but grows up. -He had been rather a chatterbox when small (a warning -to the young readers), but only owing to his desire for -knowledge and his readiness to answer questions; -besides, he chattered in such a nice way that it was a -pleasure to hear him. But as he grew older, he grew -<a name="Page_269" id="Page_269"></a><span class="pageno">269</span> -more bashful. “He always blushed when he met his -elders, and he talked in a quieter tone. When he -played with his schoolfellows, he chose the games -where he expected to be beaten, not those in which he -expected to win; and he was always ready to lead the -laugh against himself when beaten.” Model youth! -Of course, he soon became the champion at every form -of sport, just as in a modern book of the kind he -would have won at least five “Blues.”</p> - -<p>Kuros next appears as a mighty hunter, and then at -the age of fifteen takes a leading part in a battle -against the Assyrians; in fact, it is his strategy and -prowess that decide the day. What more could be -wanted in a book for boys? The modern author -would give him a grizzly bear, a lion, and a <abbr title="Victoria Cross">V.C.</abbr>: -Xenophon gives him the Persian equivalents.</p> - -<p>After this, little more is said of Kuros’ boyhood. -He is next introduced as a man of twenty-six, just put -into command of a Persian expedition to help Media -against the Assyrians.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_726" id="fnanchor_726"></a><a href="#footnote_726" class="fnanchor">[726]</a></span> -Henceforth Xenophon’s object -is no longer to point a moral, but to instruct budding -generals and princes in strategy and government. The -remaining books are a “Handbook of Tactics, with hints -on the proper treatment of inferiors”; so they fitly -begin with a long lecture by Kuros’ father on the -whole duty of a general.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_727" id="fnanchor_727"></a><a href="#footnote_727" class="fnanchor">[727]</a></span> -There is, however, a good -deal of moral advice and occasional allegory interspersed -amid the tactics. For instance, a certain Gobruas came -to dine with the Persian army. “Seeing how plain the -food was, he regarded the Persians as rather <em>bourgeois</em>. -But then he observed what good manners the guests -had. No educated Persian would allow himself to -be seen staring at a dish, or helping himself hurriedly, -<a name="Page_270" id="Page_270"></a><span class="pageno">270</span> -or acting at table without proper deliberation. For -they think it piggish to be excited by the presence -of food or drink. He noticed, too, that they never -asked one another questions which might cause pain, -that their jests were never malicious nor their wit rude, -that everything that they did was in the best taste, and -that they never lost their tempers with one another.” -And so on. “Manners for men,” we might call it, by -Xenophon.</p> - -<p>A curiously interesting case of allegory, which well -shows how imaginary most of the history is, may be -found in the third book.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_728" id="fnanchor_728"></a><a href="#footnote_728" class="fnanchor">[728]</a></span> -The son of the king -of Armenia had had for a companion and tutor a -certain Sophist, of whose wisdom he was very proud. -But his father condemned the Sophist for corrupting<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_729" id="fnanchor_729"></a><a href="#footnote_729" class="fnanchor">[729]</a></span> -the boy. When he was being led to execution, the -man showed what a saint and hero he was by calling -the boy and saying, “Do not be angry with your father -for putting me to death. For it is no wicked purpose -which makes him do it, but only ignorance. All sins -which men commit in ignorance I rank as involuntary -errors.” Later, the father confesses that he put the -Sophist to death for stealing away his son’s affections, -“for I feared that my boy might love him more than -he loved me.” Kuros admits that such jealousy is an -explanation and regards it as pardonable.</p> - -<p>The analogy to Sokrates is obvious to any one. -The half-apology for the Athenian people is very -interesting in the mouth of the old Socratic companion -Xenophon.</p> - -<p>But the object of the <cite>Education of Kuros</cite> is, after -all, to teach generalship. A couple of examples of the -way in which this is done will suffice. On one -<a name="Page_271" id="Page_271"></a><span class="pageno">271</span> -occasion<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_730" id="fnanchor_730"></a><a href="#footnote_730" class="fnanchor">[730]</a></span> -Kuros orders the foot-cuirassiers to lead the -way in a forced march, and kindly explains the object -of such a manœuvre. “This command I give,” he -says, “because they are the heaviest part of the army. -When the heaviest part is in the van, obviously it is -quite easy for the other arms, being lighter, to keep -up. But if the quickest detachment is in front on a -night march, it is not surprising if the army straggles, -for the vanguard goes faster than the rest.” Again, -Kuros could call all his officers by name, to their great -surprise.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_731" id="fnanchor_731"></a><a href="#footnote_731" class="fnanchor">[731]</a></span> - “For he thought it very absurd that -tradesmen should know the names of all their tools, -and yet a general should be so stupid as not to know -the names of his officers whom he must use as his -tools in the most serious emergencies. Soldiers who -thought that their general knew their names would, -he considered, be more eager to do heroic deeds in his -presence, and less eager to play the coward. It seemed -also to be foolish to be obliged to give orders, when -he wanted something done, in the way some masters -do in their households, ‘Fetch me some water, Somebody’; -or ‘Cut some firewood, Someone.’ For when -the order is addressed to no one in particular, each -stands looking at his neighbour and expecting him to -carry it out.”</p> - -<p>The military part is exceedingly well done. Xenophon -was one of the few good strategists whom Hellas -produced, and his remarks on tactics, the hygiene of an -army, and discipline are sound and useful. What is -more, his novel is interesting and occasionally witty: -it is distinctly good reading. He has disguised his -powder in the most appetising jam, and so has achieved -with success the difficult task of writing a novel with -<a name="Page_272" id="Page_272"></a><span class="pageno">272</span> -a purpose. Had books been common then, his work -would have been both popular and useful in Boys’ -Libraries, and have done good service as a school prize. -But from Plato it only provoked the malicious and not -very deep criticism that it was unhistorical and unsound.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_732" id="fnanchor_732"></a><a href="#footnote_732" class="fnanchor">[732]</a></span> -“Of Kuros,” he says, “I conjecture that, though he -was a good general and a patriot, he had not come -across the merest scrap of sound education, and never -applied his mind to the art of managing a household.<span class="lock"><a name="fnanchor_733" id="fnanchor_733"></a><a href="#footnote_733" class="fnanchor">[733]</a></span> -For, being absent on campaigns all his life, he allowed -the women to bring up his children. The women -spoilt the boys, letting no one gainsay them, and -made them effeminate, not teaching them the Persian -habits or their father’s profession, but Median luxury. -Hence the collapse of Persia under Kambuses.”</p> - -<p class="p2 footnote"> <a name="footnote_716" id="footnote_716"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_716"><span class="muchsmaller">[716]</span></a> -<abbr title="Xenophon">Xen.</abbr> <cite><abbr title="Economics">Econ.</abbr></cite> 19.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_717" id="footnote_717"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_717"><span class="muchsmaller">[717]</span></a> -Aristotle (<cite><abbr title="Politics">Pol.</abbr></cite> <abbr title="seven">vii.</abbr> 12) says that “Free Agoras” were customary in Thessaly. -He adopts the system for his ideal state—a clear compliment to Xenophon.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_718" id="footnote_718"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_718"><span class="muchsmaller">[718]</span></a> -Floggings were apparently to be frequent. “Tears are a master’s instruments -of instruction” (<abbr title="two">ii.</abbr> 2. 14).</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_719" id="footnote_719"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_719"><span class="muchsmaller">[719]</span></a> -<abbr title="eight">viii.</abbr> 8. 14.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_720" id="footnote_720"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_720"><span class="muchsmaller">[720]</span></a> -Hence his treatise on hunting.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_721" id="footnote_721"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_721"><span class="muchsmaller">[721]</span></a> -<abbr title="one">i.</abbr> 2. 10.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_722" id="footnote_722"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_722"><span class="muchsmaller">[722]</span></a> -<abbr title="one">i.</abbr> 6. 39-40.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_723" id="footnote_723"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_723"><span class="muchsmaller">[723]</span></a> -<abbr title="one">i.</abbr> 3. 17.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_724" id="footnote_724"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_724"><span class="muchsmaller">[724]</span></a> -<abbr title="Compare">Cp.</abbr> the experiment which was, I believe, tried in an American school, where -the boys learned the national constitution by themselves electing in due form a -President, Congress, etc.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_725" id="footnote_725"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_725"><span class="muchsmaller">[725]</span></a> -“The perpetual presence of masters,” according to Xenophon, “best inculcates -proper modesty and discipline.”</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_726" id="footnote_726"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_726"><span class="muchsmaller">[726]</span></a> -<abbr title="one">i.</abbr> 5. 5.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_727" id="footnote_727"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_727"><span class="muchsmaller">[727]</span></a> -<abbr title="one">i.</abbr> 6. 1-46.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_728" id="footnote_728"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_728"><span class="muchsmaller">[728]</span></a> -<abbr title="three">iii.</abbr> 1. 38.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_729" id="footnote_729"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_729"><span class="muchsmaller">[729]</span></a> -<ins title="diaphtheirein">διαφθείρειν</ins>, the word used in Sokrates’ accusation.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_730" id="footnote_730"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_730"><span class="muchsmaller">[730]</span></a> -<abbr title="five">v.</abbr> 3. 37.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_731" id="footnote_731"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_731"><span class="muchsmaller">[731]</span></a> -<abbr title="five">v.</abbr> 3. 46. Notice the Socratic comparison.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_732" id="footnote_732"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_732"><span class="muchsmaller">[732]</span></a> -Plato, <cite>Laws</cite>, 694 <span class="sc lowercase">C</span>-<span class="sc lowercase">D</span>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_733" id="footnote_733"></a> -<a href="#fnanchor_733"><span class="muchsmaller">[733]</span></a> -A hit at Xenophon’s <cite>Economics</cite>.</p> -</div><!--end chapter--> - -<div class="chapter"><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273"></a><span class="pageno">273</span><br /> -<a name="Page_274" id="Page_274"></a><span class="pageno">274</span><!--Blank Page--> -<h3 class="p4 h3head">PART III</h3> -<a name="Page_275" id="Page_275"></a><span class="pageno">275</span> -<h3 class="p4 h3head">CHAPTER XI</h3> - -<h4 class="p2 h4head">CONCLUDING ESSAY: THE SCHOOLS OF HELLAS</h4> - -<p class="p2"><span class="sc">The</span> preceding chapters have sufficiently established, as -it seems to me, that Hellenic education alike at Sparta -and at Athens, in theory and in practice, aimed at producing -the best possible citizen, not the best possible -money-maker; it sought the good of the community, -not the good of the individual. The methods and -materials of education naturally differed with the conception -of good citizenship held in each locality, but -the ideal object was always the same.</p> - -<p>The Spartan, with his schoolboy conception of life, -believed that the whole duty of man was to be brave, -to be indifferent to hardships and pain, to be a good -soldier, and to be always in perfect physical condition; -when his Hellenic instincts needed æsthetic satisfaction, -he made his military drill into a musical dance and -sang songs in honour of valour. Long speaking and -lengthy meditation he regarded with contempt, for he -preferred deeds to words or thoughts, and the essence -of a situation could always be expressed in a single -sentence. This Spartan conception of citizenship fixed -the aim of Spartan education. Daily hardships, endless -physical training, perpetual tests of pluck and endurance, -were the lot of the Spartan boy. He did not -<a name="Page_276" id="Page_276"></a><span class="pageno">276</span> -learn to read or write or count; he was trained to -speak only in single words or in the shortest of -sentences, for what need had a Spartan of letters or of -chattering? His imagination had also to be subordinated -to the national ideal: his dances, his songs, his -very deities, were all military.</p> - -<p>The Athenian’s conception of the perfect citizen was -much wider and much more difficult of attainment. -Pluck and harmony of physical development did not -satisfy him: there must be equal training of mind and -imagination, without any sacrifice of bodily health. -He demanded of the ideal citizen perfection of body, -extensive mental activity and culture, and irreproachable -taste. “We love and pursue wisdom, yet avoid bodily -sloth; we love and pursue beauty, yet avoid bad taste -and extravagance,” proclaims Perikles in his summary -of Athenian ideals. Consequently Athenian education -was triple in its aims; its activities were divided -between body, mind, and taste. The body of the -young Athenian was symmetrically developed by the -scientifically designed exercises of the palaistra. At -eighteen the State imposed upon him two years of -physical training at public cost. In after life he could -exercise himself in the public gymnasia without any -payment; there was no actual compulsion, except the -perpetual imminence of military service, which, however, -almost amounted to compulsion.</p> - -<p>As to mental instruction, every boy had to learn -reading, writing, arithmetic, and gain such acquaintance -with the national literature as these studies involved. -The other branch of primary education, playing and -singing, intended to develop the musical ear and taste, -was optional, but rarely neglected. The secondary -education given by the Sophists, rhetors, and philosophers -<a name="Page_277" id="Page_277"></a><span class="pageno">277</span> -was only intended for the comparatively few -who had wealth and leisure.</p> - -<p>Taste and imagination were cultivated in the music- and -art-schools, but the influences of the theatre, the -Akropolis, the temples and public monuments, and the -dances which accompanied every festival and religious -occasion, were still more potent, and were exercised -upon all alike. This æsthetic aspect of education was -regarded as particularly important in Hellas owing to -the prevalent idea that art and music had a strong -influence over character.</p> - -<p>For the training of character was before all things -the object of Hellenic education; it was this which -Hellenic parents particularly demanded of the schoolmaster. -So strongly did they believe that virtue could -be taught, that they held the teacher responsible for any -subsequent misdemeanour of his pupils. Alkibiades -and Kritias had ruined Athens: they were Sokrates’ -pupils: therefore execute Sokrates; this seemed perfectly -logical to an Athenian. If a Sophist sued a -defaulting pupil for an unpaid bill, he was regarded as -ridiculous, for it was his business to teach justice, and -if those who had learned under him behaved unjustly, -it was clearly because his teaching had been worthless.</p> - -<p>Since the main object of the schools of Hellas was -to train and mould the character of the young, it would -be natural to suppose that the schoolmasters and every -one else who was to come into contact with the boys -were chosen with immense care, special attention being -given to their reputation for virtue and conduct. At -Sparta this principle was certainly observed. Education -was controlled by a paidonomos, selected from the -citizens of the highest position and reputation, and the -teaching was given, not by hired foreigners or slaves, -<a name="Page_278" id="Page_278"></a><span class="pageno">278</span> -but by the citizens themselves under his supervision. -But then the teaching at Sparta dealt mostly with the -manners and customs of the State, or with bodily and -military exercises, known to every grown man, and the -citizens had plenty of leisure. The Athenians were in -a more difficult position. There were more subjects -for the boy to learn, and some of them the parents -might have neither the capacity nor the time to teach. -Owing also to the day-school system at Athens and the -peculiarities of Hellenic manners, the boys needed -some one always at hand to take them to and from -school and palaistra. Thus both paid teachers and -attendants were needed. But it was also necessary not -to let education become too expensive, lest the poor -should be unable to afford it. Consequently the -paidagogoi came often to be the cheapest and most -worthless slaves, and the schoolmasters as a class to be -regarded with supreme contempt. No doubt careful -parents chose excellent paidagogoi, schoolmasters, and -paidotribai for their sons, and made the choice a matter -of much deliberation: the teachers at the best schools -and palaistrai were often men of position and repute. -But that the class as a whole was regarded with -contempt there can be little doubt. The children went -into a school as they would have gone into any other -shop, with a sense of superiority, bringing with them -their pets, leopards and cats and dogs, and playing -with them during lesson-times. Idlers and loungers -came into the schools and palaistrai, as they came into -the market-booths, to chatter and look on, seriously -interrupting the work. The schoolmasters and paidotribai -at Athens were, in fact, too dependent upon their -public for subsistence to take a strong line, and, in -spite of their power, often exercised, of inflicting -<a name="Page_279" id="Page_279"></a><span class="pageno">279</span> -corporal punishment, they seem to have been distinctly -at the mercy of the pupils and their friends. The paidagogoi -too, though they seem to have kept their pupils -in order, were often not the right people to control a -boy’s conduct; they were apt to have a villainous -accent, and still more villainous habits. It must be -confessed that the Athenians, in their desire to make -education cheap, ran a very great risk of spoiling what -in their opinion was its chief object, the training of -character.</p> - -<p>Otherwise, they sought this end whole-heartedly. -The games, physical exercises, and hardships of a boy’s -life were meant to develop his pluck, fortitude, and -endurance. For, according to the Hellenic view, now -too much neglected in many quarters, the condition and -treatment of the body had a very important effect both -upon mental activities and upon character. It was for -this reason that physical training formed at least half of -every system of education practised in Hellenic states -or recommended by Hellenic philosophers. A National -School which trained the minds only, and neglected the -bodies of the pupils, would have been inconceivable to -a Hellene. It was not merely that physical infirmities -interrupted the free exercise of thought, or led to -peevishness and lack of decision. Man was a whole to -the Hellenes, and one part of him could not be sound -if the other parts were not. So strongly did they hold -this opinion, that they more than half believed that -physical beauty was a sign of moral beauty; it was this -latent idea which added an additional significance to the -exercises of the palaistra with their symmetrical development -of the body, and to the competitions for manly -beauty which were prevalent throughout the country; -it lent, moreover, a nobler aspect to that passion for -<a name="Page_280" id="Page_280"></a><span class="pageno">280</span> -the outward loveliness of youth which the vases, -sculpture, and literature of ancient Hellas reveal so -surprisingly. But, besides this vaguer and more -doubtful connection with character, bodily exercise and -development were supposed to have a special and indubitable -effect in strengthening the resolution and -will-power. The object of physical training was only -in a minor degree to keep the body in good condition; -its main aim was to develop strength of character, -determination, fortitude, endurance, pluck, and energy. -But, in accordance with that Hellenic canon of -“moderation in all things,” which was worked out so -thoroughly by Aristotle, there might be too much, as -well as too little, of all these ethical qualities. Consequently -physical exercise must be taken only in due -moderation, and carefully balanced by artistic and -musical training, which militated in an opposite -direction, leading, if pursued in excess, to weakness of -character, indecision, effeminacy, cowardice, and sloth. -A scientifically arranged symmetry between the two -would produce the perfect character.</p> - -<p>In the literary and æsthetic schools there were two -elements of the subjects taught, both with an ethical -effect, matter and form. The literature studied in the -schools was expected to be full of improving suggestions -and life-histories of heroes worthy of imitation, couched -in the form most attractive to young minds, in order -that they might appreciate and love its teaching and -examples. The music which the boys played or heard, -the songs which they sang, the dances which they performed -or watched, the art which they copied or -observed, must be such as would influence their -characters for good—mould them, that is, in accordance -with the national ideal. For Hellenic morality was -<a name="Page_281" id="Page_281"></a><span class="pageno">281</span> -æsthetic; they followed the course which appealed to -their imagination and sense of beauty. It was therefore -the object of education to make the children see -and feel beauty in virtue, and good art in good ethics, -in order that they might find satisfaction for their -æsthetic cravings—the dominant instinct of a Hellene—in -living good and upright lives.</p> - -<p>For the unanimous feeling of Hellas based ethics -not upon duty, but upon happiness—upon the satisfaction, -that is, of the instincts. But this eudæmonistic -attitude was qualified by an important consideration -which is often forgotten. Owing to the solidarity of -Hellenic life, the happiness which was sought was -primarily not that of the individual but that of the -community. The readiness of the average Hellene, -during the best period of the country, to sacrifice everything -on behalf of his city is very remarkable. The -real, if unformulated, basis of his ethics came thus to be -not personal pleasure, but duty to the State. When the -individualism of the Socratic age overthrew this basis, -the Hellenes fell back from the happiness of the State -to the happiness of the self, and both patriotism and -personal morality suffered from the change.</p> - -<p>It was the sense of duty to the State, the resolution -to promote the happiness of the whole citizen-body, -which made parents willing to undergo any sacrifice in -order to have their sons educated in the way which -would best minister to this ideal. The bills of the -masters of letters and music and of the paidotribai, and -the lengthy loss of the son’s services in the shop or on -the farm in Attica, the break-up of family life at Sparta, -must have been a sore trial to the parents and have -involved many sacrifices. Yet there is no trace of -grumbling. The Hellene felt that it was quite as much -<a name="Page_282" id="Page_282"></a><span class="pageno">282</span> -his duty to the State to educate her future citizens -properly as it was to be ready to die in her cause, and -he did both ungrudgingly. If the laws which made -the teaching of letters compulsory at Athens fell into -desuetude, it was only because the citizens needed no -compulsion to make them do their duty. Nor had the -State to pay the school bills; for every citizen, however -poor, was ready to make the necessary sacrifices of -personal luxuries and amusements in order to do his -duty to the community by having his children properly -taught. The State only interfered to make schooling -as cheap and as easy to obtain as possible.</p> - -<p>The solidarity of Hellenic life, which converted -eudæmonism into patriotism, was carefully encouraged -by the educational system. Sparta, with this object, -invented the boarding-school, where boys learnt from -early years to sink their individualities in a community -of character and interests. The Athenians and most of -the other Hellenes, on the other hand, had day-schools. -This fact might seem to militate against the principle -which I have stated. But Hellenic custom qualified -the system of day-schools in a particular way. There -were no home-influences in Hellas. The men-folk lived -out of doors. The young Athenian or Ephesian from -his sixth year onwards spent his whole day away from -home (excepting possibly for an interval for the mid-day -meal), in the company of his contemporaries, at -school or palaistra or in the streets. When he came -home, there was no home-life. His father was hardly -ever in the house. His mother was a nonentity, living -in the women’s apartments; he probably saw little of -her. His real home was the palaistra, his chief -companions his contemporaries and his paidagogos. -He learned to dissociate himself from his family and -<a name="Page_283" id="Page_283"></a><span class="pageno">283</span> -associate himself with his fellow-citizens. No doubt he -lost much by this system, but the solidarity of the State -gained.</p> - -<p>The duties of citizenship were also impressed upon -the boys in other and more direct ways, especially its -supreme duty, at any rate in those days, of military -service. The schools of Sparta and Crete were one -long training for war. The other States set apart two -years of the boy’s life, those from eighteen to twenty, -as a period of conscription, during which he was at the -service of his city and under the orders of the military -authorities, learning tactics and the use of arms, and -being practised in the life of camps and forts. The -young recruit took a solemn oath of allegiance to his -country and its constitution: the sacredness of his civic -duties was impressed upon him from the first. The -first function of his new officers was to take him on a -personally conducted tour, so to speak, of the national -temples, that he might realise something of the religious -life and history of his country. His weapons were -solemnly presented to him in the theatre of Dionusos, -before the assembled people; they were sacred, and to -lose them in battle or disgrace them by cowardice was -not only dishonourable, it was impious. Nor were the -boys allowed to grow up in ignorance of the constitution -of their city: the ephebos of eighteen had to be -acquainted with the laws, some of which he had -probably learnt in the music-school, set to a tune. -Every means was taken of making the boys realise that -they were members of a community, to whose prosperity -and happiness their own advantage or pleasure must be -subordinated. In this way grew up the strong Hellenic -sense of an obligation of utter self-sacrifice on behalf of -the State.</p> - -<p><a name="Page_284" id="Page_284"></a><span class="pageno">284</span> -But education had also to consult the happiness of -the children as well as the happiness of the community, -although in a lesser degree. This may seem a startling -statement to make with regard to Spartan education. -Nevertheless, I believe it to be strictly true. It must -be remembered that all our accounts of the rigours and -horrors of Spartan methods come from Athenian writers -who in all probability had never been to Lakedaimon. -Xenophon, who had his sons educated there, gives a -much milder, and wholly eulogistic, account. The -somewhat hedonistic Attic visitor must have watched -Spartan games and exercises with much the feelings of a -French visitor at an English public school; he found -it difficult to realise that the boys underwent such hardships -of their own free will. Then we must remember -what the Spartan boys were. They were a picked breed -of peculiar toughness, strength, and health; for centuries -every invalid had been exposed at birth or rejected -as incapable of the school-system. Generation after -generation had been trained to be thick-skinned and -stout-hearted; pluck and endurance were hereditary, -and asceticism was a national characteristic. The whole -system, with its perpetual fighting, its rough games, its -hardships, its fagging and “roughing-it” in the woods, is -just what boys of this sort might be expected to evolve -for themselves because they liked it. I have already -pointed out, in my account of the Spartan schools, how -very similar are many of the customs which grew up at -the older English public schools, mainly on the boys’ -own initiative. If English boys, brought up on the -whole much less roughly, evolved such customs of their -own free will, the young Spartans may reasonably be -supposed to have accepted them gladly. One significant -token of this survives. The violent and sometimes -<a name="Page_285" id="Page_285"></a><span class="pageno">285</span> -fatal floggings of the epheboi at the altar of Artemis -Orthia were entirely voluntary on the part of the -victims; yet there was no lack of candidates even in -Plutarch’s days. The Spartan school-system was, in -fact, an exact expression of the national characteristics, -and accordingly was entirely acceptable to the Spartan -boys.</p> - -<p>That the Athenian system was designed to suit the -wishes of the Athenian children is less difficult to -establish. It is only necessary to think what the -primary schools were like. When once the letters and -rudiments of reading and writing had been mastered, -the process perhaps being aided by metrical alphabets -and dramatised spelling, the boys began to read, learn -by heart, and write down the fascinating stories of -adventure and the romantic tales of Homer. There -was no grammar to be studied; that, when invented, -came at a later age as a voluntary subject. There were -no years wasted over “Primary Readers” consisting of -dull and second-rate stories. The boys began at once -upon the best and most attractive literature in their -language, and it remained their study for many years, -and was still remembered and loved in after life. Nor -can it be doubted that the music- and art-schools were -attractive to Athenian boys, sons of a people who filled -their whole city with art, and made their year a round -of musical festivals. A large part, too, of Athenian -schooling was what now would be called play; for the -Hellene recognised the importance of physical exercise -in the upbringing of the young, and included it in his -conception of education.</p> - -<p>The effect upon Hellenic culture of thus making -education attractive was far-reaching. Instead of -regarding with aversion or a bored indifference the -<a name="Page_286" id="Page_286"></a><span class="pageno">286</span> -subjects which they had studied at school, the Hellenes -had an affection for them and continued to practise and -improve themselves in them. Throughout their lives -they were eager to hear recitations of Homer. At -banquets they sang the songs and played the music on -the lyre which they had learnt at school. Elderly men -would return to a music-master, to improve their style, -or rush off to hear a Sophist lecture on geography or -astronomy. The exercises of the palaistra were pursued -till old age made them impossible. Grown citizens -retained throughout an affection for education, and went -on educating themselves all their lives. Thus an -Hellenic city formed a centre of widely diffused culture, -a home where literature and art and music and research -could flourish surrounded by appreciation and capable -criticism. Children, too, seeing how much their -elders were preoccupied with education, found it even -more attractive than its designers had made it, since -they were not constrained by nursery-logic to see in it -one of the plagues of youth from which “grown-ups” -were set free. No doubt the Hellenic schoolmaster -was much assisted in his endeavour to make education -attractive by the intellectual curiosity which was a -feature of all those States where the intellect was -systematically trained. The young Athenian or young -Chian was exceedingly eager to learn. In fact, his -eagerness was excessive; he was too much in a hurry; -he desired to have his information given to him ready-made, -not having the patience to think or to undertake -researches on his own account. Hence the phenomenal -success and educational unsoundness of those prototypes -of the modern “crammer,” the Sophists, who supplied -their pupils with a superficial knowledge of many subjects -ready-made, and already dressed in striking phraseology. -<a name="Page_287" id="Page_287"></a><span class="pageno">287</span> -This intellectual appetite for the accumulation -of facts made secondary education at Athens attractive -without much effort on the part of the teachers, but it -was not allowed to influence the primary schools; a -sound and symmetrical development of mind and body, -artistic taste and moral character, had to precede the -accumulation of facts. This latter stage too was -universally treated as optional. In unintellectual -districts it found no place, and even in Athens it was -only for those who felt a desire for it; it was not forced -upon the unwilling and incapable. For education was -regarded as the development of the latent powers of -the individual personality, it was no vain attempt to -excite or implant non-existent faculties. Every one had -a body, which he must make as efficient as possible, for -the service of the State; every one, in an æsthetic people, -had a taste which could be developed; every one had -enough intellect to learn his letters; and every one, -above all, had a character to be formed. But not -every one could be an international athlete or a first-class -artist or musician, and not every one had sufficient -mental gifts to combine the accumulation of facts with -profit or enjoyment.</p> - -<p>In fact, Hellenic sentiment was distinctly adverse to -great development in any one direction: the Hellenes -had a reasonable horror of undue specialisation at school. -The object of education was to make symmetrical, -all-round men, sound alike in body, mind, character, -and taste, not professional athletes who were mentally -vacuous and without any appreciation of art, nor great -thinkers of stunted physique, nor celebrated musicians -who lacked brains. Opponents of the Spartan system -tried to condemn it on this ground, as a specialisation -intended only to produce good soldiers; but the -<a name="Page_288" id="Page_288"></a><span class="pageno">288</span> -pro-Spartans seemed to have claimed in return that it -developed both character and good taste in judging art -and music, even if it produced small capacity for painting -or playing, while Laconian terseness involved a greater -depth of mental exercise than Athenian verbosity.</p> - -<p>Thus Hellenic education was not intended to produce -professional knowledge of a single subject; such -technical instruction was deemed unworthy of the name -of education, and was excluded from the schools. The -subjects studied were for the most part a means, not -an end. Just as a walk is sometimes taken not for the -sake of reaching any particular place, but in order to -keep the muscles of the body in good condition, so -education in Hellas was meant to develop and exercise -the muscles of mind, imagination, and character, not to -inculcate so-called “useful” information. The literature -read at school was imaginative poetry, like that of Homer -or Simonides, not the practical prose treatises upon -Agriculture and Economics which utilitarian motives -would have demanded. For the poetry was both attractive -to the boys and improving for their characters, -while the handbooks, however excellent, only enhanced -their financial prospects. The immediate future of the -individual boy may, it is true, depend somewhat largely -upon the utilitarian knowledge which he has learnt at -school, although a sound education in the Hellenic sense -of the word will prove more advantageous to him in -the long run; but the future of a State depends upon -the character of its citizens. Thus a truly national -education like that of Sparta or of Athens seeks to train -the characters of the future citizens; having formed -their characters, it leaves them with well-justified confidence -to gain what technical instruction they need for -themselves. At a national crisis it was not skill in trade -<a name="Page_289" id="Page_289"></a><span class="pageno">289</span> -or profession, not good cobbling, nor good weaving, -that Athens required of her citizens; but pluck, energy, -self-sacrifice, obedience, and loyalty. Money was, it is -true, required for building the triremes and for fortifying -the city: it was therefore well that Athenian trade -and manufactures should prosper. But Athens recognised, -and rightly, that her financial resources would be -better served if she trained her boys to be industrious -and thrifty and ascetic, if she made it repugnant to their -taste to fling their money away upon luxury and self-indulgence, -than if she founded the finest system of -technical instruction possible.</p> - -<p>But whether Sparta and Athens could have ignored -technical and utilitarian subjects so wholly in their -schools, if they had been educating the whole population -of the State, is another question. It must be -remembered that the Spartan and Athenian citizens who -attended the schools were only a fraction of the -inhabitants of Laconia and Attica. They corresponded -pretty closely to the upper classes, the aristocracy and -gentlemen, of a modern State. The bulk of the middle -and lower classes in a Hellenic State were either foreign -immigrants, who possessed no civic rights and did not -usually attend the schools, or serfs and slaves. Athens, -like mediæval Florence, was only a democracy in the -very limited sense that her full citizens—a governing -class, that is, and a mere fraction of the population—had -equality of civic rights among themselves: the rest -had no rights at all. Sparta was a “mixed constitution”; -but that did not mean that the middle and lower classes, -the Perioikoi and Helots, had any share in it whatever.</p> - -<p>Consequently education in Hellas is the education of -a small upper class, not of the whole population of the -State. The schools of Hellas were not necessarily for -<a name="Page_290" id="Page_290"></a><span class="pageno">290</span> -the wealthiest inhabitants of the country, for there were -plenty of rich Metoikoi and poor citizens at Athens; -not necessarily for the boys who had most leisure, for -the sausage-seller goes to school as well as a Nikias or -Alkibiades; but for a hereditary aristocracy of birth, -for that is what Hellenic “citizenship” means. The -boys who attended the lessons of Dionusios or Elpias -were the sons and grandsons of a cultured class, no -matter how humble their circumstances might be; their -families had lived in Attica, they believed, from time -immemorial, and were probably descended from the -local deities. They had the views of an hereditary -caste, including a certain preoccupation with physical -and military activities, and a contempt for trade.</p> - -<p>For the duties of such an aristocracy did not consist -in heaping up riches; their position was comparatively -independent of their financial successes. Their work -was, in brief, to govern and to fight. They composed -the electorate of the State, which chose the magistrates; -they alone were members of the public Assembly; they -alone were eligible for office. They sat as dikastai—jurymen -and justices in one—in the law-courts; they -made the laws and they administered them. The -national honour and morality lay in their hands, for -they controlled alike the foreign and the home policy -of the State. They formed, too, the cultured circle -which governed natural taste; it was their criticism -which shaped the art of the vase-painters, the architects, -the sculptors, the bronze-makers, and the countless -other artistic tradesmen, the style of the orators, the -literature of dramatists and dithyrambists, the music -of the choric composers. When governors and administrators -were needed for the outlying districts of -the Athenian or Spartan Empires, or if officers were -<a name="Page_291" id="Page_291"></a><span class="pageno">291</span> -required to lead local levies to battle, any citizen, rich -or poor, might be sent. The citizens, too, formed the -core of the fleets and armies in the best days of Hellas. -The object of Hellenic education was to produce this -type of citizen—a man capable of governing, of fighting, -and of setting the taste and standards of his country.</p> - -<p>Thus the schools of Hellas correspond in England -not to the national schools, but to the “public schools.” -I do not mean to assert that the English public-school -boy stands, in after life, in the position of the Hellenic -citizen to the bulk of the population. English democracy -rests on a wider basis than Athenian or -Florentine, and, in theory at any rate, the exclusive -power of the “upper classes” is at an end. None the -less it is true that from among the boys educated at -the public schools comes a very considerable part of -the generals and military officers, of the clergy, of the -squires, of the Justices of the Peace and other administrators -of the law, of the governors and officials -required by the Indian Empire and the various -dependencies and Crown Colonies, of the members of -Parliament and statesmen at home. If the influence of -the public schools of England upon the governing and -fighting of the nation is less than that which the schools -of Hellas were able to exercise, their influence upon -national taste and standards in art and culture and -literature is probably in no way inferior. It is therefore -their duty to train their pupils’ characters, that they -may be fit and able administrators, governors, and -justices; and their tastes, that their criticism and demands -may rightly direct the culture of the nation. -In striving after these ends, the public schools of -England may, I think, take not a few hints from the -like-motived schools of Hellas.</p> -</div><!--end chapter--> - -<div class="chapter"> -<a name="Page_292" id="Page_292"></a><span class="pageno">292</span><br /><!--Blank Page--> -<a name="Page_293" id="Page_293"></a><span class="pageno">293</span> -<h3 class="p4 h3head"> -INDEX</h3> - -<ul class="none"> -<li>Abacus, illustrated, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li> - -<li>Aegina pediment, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li> - -<li>Aeolian harmony, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li> - -<li>Aeschylus, <a href="#Page_245">245</a></li> - -<li>Aesop, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li> - -<li>Agesilaos, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a></li> - -<li>Aglauros, temple of, <a href="#Page_210">210</a></li> - -<li>Aineias Tacticus, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li> - -<li>Aischines, father of, an usher, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li> - -<li>Akademeia, <a href="#Page_125">125</a> - <ul class="none"> - <li>description of scene in, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>-142</li> - <li>Plato’s teaching in the, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>-207</li> - <li>Plato’s lectures in the, described by Epikrates, <a href="#Page_199">199</a></li> - <li>Plato’s lectures, reference by Ephippos and Antiphanes, <a href="#Page_200">200</a></li> - <li>Plato’s lectures in the, reference by Amphis, <a href="#Page_201">201</a></li> - <li>Plato’s lectures in the, references in Comedy, <a href="#Page_201">201</a></li> - <li>Plato’s lectures in the, reference by Alexis, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>-201</li> - <li>Plato’s pupils described by Ephippos, <a href="#Page_200">200</a></li> - </ul></li> - -<li>Alexander, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></li> - -<li>Alexis, <a href="#Page_207">207</a> - <ul class="none"> - <li>his catalogue of a school library, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li> - <li>on the Akademeia, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>-201</li> - </ul></li> - -<li>Alkibiades, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a> - <ul class="none"> - <li>plays the flute, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></li> - <li>in the pankration, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li> - </ul></li> - -<li>Alphabet, metrical, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></li> - -<li>Amphis, on the Akademeia, <a href="#Page_201">201</a></li> - -<li>Anaxagoras, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a></li> - -<li>Angelo, Michel, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li> - -<li>Anthology, on wrestling, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></li> - -<li><span class="person">Antidosis</span> of Isokrates, <a href="#Page_190">190</a></li> - -<li>Antigenes, palaistra of, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li> - -<li>Antipater, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li> - -<li>Antiphanes, on the Akademeia, <a href="#Page_200">200</a></li> - -<li>Antiphon the Sophist, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>-173</li> - -<li>Apelles, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></li> - -<li>Apollodoros, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li> - -<li>Apprenticeship, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>-45</li> - -<li>Arcadia, <a href="#Page_243">243</a> -</li> - -<li>Archephebos, <a href="#Page_220">220</a></li> - -<li>Archon Eponumos, <a href="#footnote_192">71</a> <span class="decoration">n.</span></li> - -<li><cite>Areiopagitikos</cite> of Isokrates, <a href="#Page_190">190</a></li> - -<li>Areiopagos, supervision of the young, <a href="#Page_70">70</a> - <ul class="none"> - <li>and the epheboi, <a href="#Page_213">213</a></li> - </ul></li> - -<li>Ares, <a href="#Page_211">211</a></li> - -<li>Argos, <a href="#footnote_3">12</a> <span class="decoration">n.</span> - <ul class="none"> - <li>foot-races for girls at, <a href="#Page_142">142</a></li> - </ul></li> - -<li>Aristophanes, supports athleticism, <a href="#Page_123">123</a> - <ul class="none"> - <li>criticism of Sophists in the <cite>Clouds</cite>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>-167</li> - <li>attacks new artistic standards, <a href="#Page_251">251</a></li> - </ul></li> - -<li>Aristotle, <a href="#Page_202">202</a> - <ul class="none"> - <li>condemns professional athletes, <a href="#Page_123">123</a></li> - <li>at Plato’s lecture on “The Good,” 198</li> - <li>his school in the Lukeion, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></li> - <li>views on art in education, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a></li> - </ul></li> - -<li>Aristoxenos, <a href="#Page_171">171</a></li> - -<li>Arithmetic, teaching of, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>-107</li> - -<li>Arkadia, schools in, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a></li> - -<li>Art, characteristics of Greek, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>-239 - <ul class="none"> - <li>teaching of, in primary schools, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>-117</li> - </ul></li> - -<li>Artemis Koruthalia, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></li> - -<li>Artemis Orthia, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a></li> - -<li>Artistic education, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>-258 - <ul class="none"> - <li>Aristotle on, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></li> - </ul></li> - -<li>Art-schools, date of the rise of, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></li> - -<li>Aster, Plato’s pupil, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>-202</li> - -<li>Astupalaia, school in, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li> - -<li>Athleticism at Sparta, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>-34 - <ul class="none"> - <li>in Crete, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>-38</li> - <li>at Athens and the rest of Greece, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>-156</li> - <li>revolt against excessive, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li> - <li>excessive addiction to, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>-132</li> - </ul></li> - -<li>Autokrator, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li> - -<li>Autolukos, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>-76</li> - -<li>Auxo, <a href="#Page_211">211</a></li> - -<li>Axiothea, <a href="#Page_197">197</a></li> -</ul> - -<ul class="none"> -<li>Barbitos, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li> - -<li>Bathing-room in the gymnasium, <a href="#Page_137">137</a></li> - -<li>Boiotia, schools in, <a href="#Page_76">76</a> -<a name="Page_294" id="Page_294"></a><span class="pageno">294</span></li> - -<li>Books, use of, in education, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>-209 - <ul class="none"> - <li>Isokrates’ opinion of, <a href="#Page_204">204</a></li> - <li>Plato’s opinion of, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li> - <li>rare before the Periclean age, <a href="#Page_207">207</a></li> - <li>trade in, <a href="#Page_207">207</a></li> - <li>prices of, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>-209</li> - <li>variety of, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li> - </ul></li> - -<li><span class="person">Bousiris</span> of Isokrates, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a></li> - -<li>Boxing in the palaistra, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>-133</li> - -<li>Bribery, among professional athletes, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li> -</ul> - -<ul class="none"> -<li>Cavalry, training for, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>-152</li> - -<li>Chabrias, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li> - -<li>Chancellor (Kosmetes) of the epheboi, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>-213</li> - -<li>Chares, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li> - -<li>Charondas, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></li> - -<li><cite>Cheiron, Precepts of</cite>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li> - -<li>Chess (<ins title="pessoi">πεσσοί</ins>), <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li> - -<li>Children, exposure of Spartan, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li> - -<li>Chios, Isokrates in, <a href="#Page_181">181</a> - <ul class="none"> - <li>collapse of a school of letters in, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li> - <li>girls wrestling in, <a href="#Page_142">142</a></li> - </ul></li> - -<li>Choirilos, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a></li> - -<li>Choregia, description of, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>-149</li> - -<li>Choregos, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></li> - -<li>Competitions, local, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>-65</li> - -<li>Conscription, <a href="#Page_283">283</a> - <ul class="none"> - <li>at Athens, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>-56</li> - </ul></li> - -<li>Cookery-book, <a href="#Page_207">207</a> - <ul class="none"> - <li>by Simos, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li> - <li>by Mithaikos, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li> - </ul></li> - -<li>Cookery-schools, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li> - -<li>Corporal punishment, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>-100, <a href="#Page_262">262</a> and <a href="#footnote_718"><span class="decoration">n.</span></a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a></li> - -<li>Crete, education at, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>-38</li> -</ul> - -<ul class="none"> -<li>Damon, a music-teacher, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a></li> - -<li>Dancing at Sparta, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>-32 - <ul class="none"> - <li>dithuramboi, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>-145</li> - <li>religious aspect of, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>-144, <a href="#Page_248">248</a></li> - <li>dramatic aspects of, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>-145</li> - <li>systems of, <a href="#Page_145">145</a></li> - <li>the War-dance, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>-147</li> - <li>the Naked-dance, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a></li> - <li>universal throughout Hellas, <a href="#Page_143">143</a></li> - <li>educational importance of, <a href="#Page_143">143</a></li> - </ul></li> - -<li>Delphoi, educational endowments at, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></li> - -<li>Demosthenes, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li> - -<li>Derkulos, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li> - -<li>Diaulos, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li> - -<li>Dictation, <a href="#Page_87">87</a></li> - -<li>Diodotos, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li> - -<li>Dion, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li> - -<li>Dionusia, epheboi at, <a href="#Page_214">214</a></li> - -<li>Dionusios, Plato’s master, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a> - <ul class="none"> - <li>Plato’s pupil, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></li> - </ul></li> - -<li>Dionusodoros the Sophist, <a href="#Page_173">173</a></li> - -<li>Dionusos, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a> -</li> - -<li>Diskos in the palaistra, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li> - -<li>Dorian harmony, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>-241</li> - -<li>Douris, Vase of, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></li> - -<li>Drama, influence of, in education, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>-249</li> - -<li>Drawing, teaching of, in primary schools, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li> - -<li>Dresden Gallery, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li> - -<li>Dusting-room in the gymnasium, <a href="#Page_137">137</a></li> -</ul> - -<ul class="none"> -<li>Edgeworth, Maria, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a></li> - -<li>Egypt, in Plato’s <cite>Laws</cite>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>-103</li> - -<li>Eleusis, education at, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li> - -<li>Elgin marbles, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li> - -<li>Elpias, school of, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li> - -<li>Empedokles, <a href="#Page_230">230</a></li> - -<li>Enualios, <a href="#Page_211">211</a></li> - -<li>Epaminondas, <a href="#Page_245">245</a></li> - -<li>Ephebarchos, <a href="#Page_220">220</a></li> - -<li>Ephebic inscriptions, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>-223</li> - -<li>Epheboi, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a> - <ul class="none"> - <li>examination and oath, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>-211</li> - <li>decline in number, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>-220</li> - </ul></li> - -<li>Ephippos, on the Akademeia, <a href="#Page_200">200</a></li> - -<li>Epicharmos, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a></li> - -<li>Epikrates, on Plato’s lectures, <a href="#Page_199">199</a></li> - -<li>Eponumos, Archon, <a href="#footnote_192">71</a> <span class="decoration">n.</span></li> - -<li>Eretria, school in, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li> - -<li>Eros, <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li> - -<li>Eruthrai, school in, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li> - -<li>Euagoras, <a href="#Page_191">191</a></li> - -<li>Eudikos, son of Apemantos, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></li> - -<li>Euenos of Paros, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a></li> - -<li>Euhemeros, <a href="#footnote_661">229</a> <span class="decoration">n.</span></li> - -<li>Euripides, his alphabetical puzzle, <a href="#Page_90">90</a> - <ul class="none"> - <li>denunciation of athleticism, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li> - <li>his rationalism, <a href="#Page_230">230</a></li> - </ul></li> - -<li>Euthudemos the Sophist, <a href="#Page_173">173</a></li> - -<li>Euthudemos, companion of Sokrates, <a href="#Page_207">207</a></li> - -<li>Eutuchides, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></li> - -<li>Exposure of Spartan children on Taügetos, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li> -</ul> - -<ul class="none"> -<li>Fees, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a> - <ul class="none"> - <li>paid to schoolmasters, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li> - <li>of the paidotribes, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li> - <li>paid to Sophists, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>-169</li> - <li>of permanent secondary teachers, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></li> - <li>in the Akademeia, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>-203</li> - <li>to the Sophronistai, <a href="#Page_213">213</a></li> - </ul></li> - -<li>Festivals, school, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>-81</li> - -<li>Flute, teaching of, <a href="#Page_110">110</a> - <ul class="none"> - <li>condemned by Pratinas, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></li> - <li>condemned by Plato, <a href="#Page_242">242</a></li> - <li>particulars of, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li> - </ul></li> - -<li>Flute-girls, professional, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></li> - -<li>“Foreign Legion,” <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></li> -</ul> - -<ul class="none"> -<li>Gelon of Syracuse, <a href="#Page_228">228</a> -<a name="Page_295" id="Page_295"></a><span class="pageno">295</span></li> - -<li>Gesticulation, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>-130</li> - -<li>Girls at Sparta, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>-30 - <ul class="none"> - <li>wrestle at Chios, <a href="#Page_142">142</a></li> - <li>foot-races for, at Argos, <a href="#Page_142">142</a></li> - </ul></li> - -<li>Gorgias the Sophist, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>-176, <a href="#Page_208">208</a> - <ul class="none"> - <li>his euphuistic style, <a href="#Page_176">176</a></li> - <li>his influence on later writers, <a href="#Page_176">176</a></li> - </ul></li> - -<li>Grammatistes, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li> - -<li>Gumnasiarchos, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>-214, <a href="#Page_220">220</a> - <ul class="none"> - <li>excursus on, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>-156</li> - </ul></li> - -<li>Gumnastes, distinct from paidotribes, <a href="#footnote_363">126</a> <span class="decoration">n.</span></li> - -<li>Gumnopaidia, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>-147</li> - -<li>Gymnasium, description of, <a href="#Page_124">124</a> - <ul class="none"> - <li>cost, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></li> - <li>description of scene in, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>-142</li> - <li><ins title="apodytêrion">ἀποδυτήριον</ins>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li> - <li>patron deities, <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li> - <li>the oil-room, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li> - <li>the dusting-room, <a href="#Page_137">137</a></li> - <li>the bathing-room, <a href="#Page_137">137</a></li> - <li>the punch-ball room, <a href="#Page_137">137</a></li> - <li>Sophists’ lectures, <a href="#Page_138">138</a></li> - <li>central courtyard, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>-139</li> - <li>the xustos, <a href="#Page_141">141</a></li> - </ul></li> - -<li>Gymnastics, excessive addiction to, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>-123 - <ul class="none"> - <li>professional, disadvantages of, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></li> - </ul></li> -</ul> - -<ul class="none"> -<li>Haltêres, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li> - -<li>Hegemone, <a href="#Page_211">211</a></li> - -<li><span class="person">Helen</span> of Isokrates, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a></li> - -<li>Hellas, educator of the world, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>-3</li> - -<li>Hellenism, two currents of, <a href="#Page_6">6</a> - <ul class="none"> - <li>spread by Alexander, Rome, and the Renaissance, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>-3</li> - <li>spirit of, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li> - <li>methods of teaching, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>-291</li> - </ul></li> - -<li>Henty, G. A., <a href="#Page_260">260</a></li> - -<li>Hephaisteia, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></li> - -<li>Herakleides of Pontos, <a href="#footnote_83">36</a> <span class="decoration">n.</span>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li> - -<li>Herakleitos, <a href="#Page_229">229</a></li> - -<li>Hermann, K. F., an emendation of, <a href="#Page_125">125</a></li> - -<li>“Hermes” of Praxiteles, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a></li> - -<li>Herondas, third Mime of, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>-100</li> - -<li>Hesiod, <a href="#Page_207">207</a> - <ul class="none"> - <li>authority of, <a href="#Page_228">228</a></li> - <li>teaching of, in primary schools, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li> - </ul></li> - -<li>Hestiaios, <a href="#Page_198">198</a></li> - -<li>Hippias of Elis, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a></li> - -<li>Hippokleides, <a href="#Page_129">129</a></li> - -<li>Hippokrates, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a></li> - -<li>Hippothontid tribe, <a href="#Page_215">215</a></li> - -<li>Holidays, on festivals, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>-81</li> - -<li>Homer, <a href="#Page_207">207</a> - <ul class="none"> - <li>teaching of, in primary schools, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>-95</li> - <li>authority of, <a href="#Page_228">228</a></li> - </ul></li> - -<li>Horace, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></li> - -<li>Hunting, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>-143, <a href="#Page_259">259</a></li> - -<li>Hupereides, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li> - -<li>Hypo-Dorian harmony, <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li> -</ul> - -<ul class="none"> -<li>Iliaca, Tabula, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li> - -<li>Ink, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a></li> - -<li>Inscriptions, ephebic, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>-223</li> - -<li>Inukos, <a href="#Page_168">168</a></li> - -<li>Ion, the rhapsode, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></li> - -<li>Ionian harmony, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>-241</li> - -<li>Iphikrates, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li> - -<li>Isaios, <a href="#Page_195">195</a></li> - -<li>Isokrates, <a href="#Page_161">161</a> - <ul class="none"> - <li>pupil of Gorgias, <a href="#Page_169">169</a></li> - <li>his school near the Lukeion, <a href="#Page_180">180</a></li> - <li>teaching in Chios, <a href="#Page_181">181</a></li> - <li>on the theory of education, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></li> - <li>on the nature of philosophy, <a href="#Page_184">184</a></li> - <li>his school described, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>-195</li> - <li>his methods, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>-190</li> - <li>his pupils, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li> - <li>on theory of education, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li> - <li>definition of the educated man, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>-193</li> - <li>on religious myths, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>-231</li> - </ul></li> -</ul> - -<ul class="none"> -<li>Javelin and spear throwing in the palaistra, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li> - -<li>Jiu-jitsu, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></li> - -<li>Jump, long, in the palaistra, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li> -</ul> - -<ul class="none"> -<li>Kallias, his metrical alphabet, <a href="#Page_88">88</a> - <ul class="none"> - <li>his spelling drama, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>-90</li> - </ul></li> - -<li>Kameiros, in Rhodes, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li> - -<li>Karia, <a href="#footnote_682">241</a> <span class="decoration">n.</span></li> - -<li>Karneia, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></li> - -<li>Kekropid tribe, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a></li> - -<li>Kikunna, <a href="#Page_166">166</a></li> - -<li>Kitharistes, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li> - -<li>Klazomenai, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li> - -<li>Kleinias, <a href="#Page_243">243</a></li> - -<li>Kleon, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li> - -<li>Knucklebones, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li> - -<li>Kolonos, <a href="#Page_196">196</a></li> - -<li>Konnaros, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li> - -<li>Konnos, his music-school, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li> - -<li>Korax, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li> - -<li>Korubantic dances, <a href="#footnote_686">242</a> <span class="decoration">n.</span></li> - -<li>Kôrukoi, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a></li> - -<li>Kos, <a href="#Page_215">215</a></li> - -<li>Kosmetes of the epheboi, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>-213</li> - -<li>Kottalos, in Herondas, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>-100</li> - -<li>Kritias, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a> - <ul class="none"> - <li>plays the flute, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></li> - </ul></li> - -<li>Kunaitha, <a href="#Page_243">243</a></li> - -<li>Kuretic dance in Crete, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a> -<a name="Page_296" id="Page_296"></a><span class="pageno">296</span></li> - -<li><cite>Kuros, The Education of</cite>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>-272</li> -</ul> - -<ul class="none"> -<li>Lampriskos, in Herondas, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>-100</li> - -<li>Lampros, a music-teacher, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li> - -<li>Lastheneia, <a href="#Page_197">197</a></li> - -<li>Laughter, statue of, in Sparta, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li> - -<li>Leap-frog in the palaistra, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></li> - -<li>Lectures in primary schools, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></li> - -<li>Leitourgiai, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>-61, <a href="#Page_148">148</a> - <ul class="none"> - <li>excursus on gumnasiarchoi, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>-156</li> - </ul></li> - -<li>Leokrates, <a href="#Page_219">219</a></li> - -<li>Lesbos, schools in, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li> - -<li>Leschai at Sparta, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li> - -<li>Libanius, <a href="#Page_178">178</a></li> - -<li>Libraries of Euthudemos, <a href="#Page_207">207</a> - <ul class="none"> - <li>of Peisistratos at Athens, <a href="#Page_207">207</a></li> - <li>of Polukrates at Samos, <a href="#Page_207">207</a></li> - </ul></li> - -<li>Library, a school, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li> - -<li>Likumnios the Sophist, <a href="#Page_176">176</a></li> - -<li>Linos, <a href="#Page_207">207</a></li> - -<li>Literature, teaching of, in primary schools, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>-97 - <ul class="none"> - <li>in secondary schools, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>-162</li> - </ul></li> - -<li>Logographoi, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>-181, <a href="#Page_193">193</a></li> - -<li>Long jump in the palaistra, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li> - -<li>Lukeion, <a href="#Page_125">125</a> - <ul class="none"> - <li>description of scene in, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>-142</li> - </ul></li> - -<li>Lukourgos the orator, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a></li> - -<li>Lusandros, <a href="#Page_16">16</a></li> - -<li>Lusias, the logographos, <a href="#Page_193">193</a></li> - -<li>Lusis, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li> - -<li>Lydian harmony, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>-242</li> - -<li>Lyre, and lyric-schools, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>-114</li> -</ul> - -<ul class="none"> -<li>Mantitheos, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li> - -<li>Marathon, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li> - -<li>Marriage customs, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li> - -<li>Mathematics, teaching of, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>-107 - <ul class="none"> - <li>in secondary schools, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></li> - </ul></li> - -<li>Meals, hours of, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li> - -<li>Medical beliefs, <a href="#Page_243">243</a></li> - -<li>Menander, <a href="#Page_250">250</a></li> - -<li>Menedemos, <a href="#Page_196">196</a></li> - -<li>Metrodoros, <a href="#Page_230">230</a></li> - -<li>Metrotimé, in Herondas, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>-100</li> - -<li>Michel Angelo, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li> - -<li>Mikkos, <a href="#footnote_420">138</a> n.</li> - -<li>Mithaikos, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li> - -<li>Mixed-Lydian harmony, <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li> - -<li>Moderators (Sophronistai), <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>-213, <a href="#Page_220">220</a></li> - -<li>Mounuchia, <a href="#Page_213">213</a></li> - -<li>Mousaios, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li> - -<li>Mukalessos, schools at, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li> - -<li>Muronides, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></li> - -<li>Music, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>-244 - <ul class="none"> - <li>in Crete, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>-37</li> - <li>in primary schools, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>-114</li> - </ul></li> - -<li> -Music, Plato on the value of, <a href="#Page_113">113</a> - <ul class="none"> - <li>Aristotle on the value of, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li> - <li>characteristics of Greek, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>-244</li> - <li>Greek views of the properties of, <a href="#Page_243">243</a></li> - <li>in Arkadia, <a href="#Page_243">243</a></li> - </ul></li> - -<li>Music-schools, experiments in, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></li> -</ul> - -<ul class="none"> -<li>“Nature-study,” <a href="#Page_262">262</a></li> - -<li>Nikeratos, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></li> - -<li>Nikostratos, archonship of, <a href="#Page_212">212</a></li> -</ul> - -<ul class="none"> -<li>Oberammergau, <a href="#Page_249">249</a></li> - -<li>Oil-room in the gymnasium, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li> - -<li>Oinopides, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></li> - -<li>Orpheus, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a></li> - -<li>Oxurhunchos, fragment on wrestling unearthed at, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></li> -</ul> - -<ul class="none"> -<li>Paidagogos, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>-279 - <ul class="none"> - <li>duties of, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>-69</li> - </ul></li> - -<li>Paidonomos, <a href="#Page_277">277</a></li> - -<li>Paidotribes, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a> - <ul class="none"> - <li>duties of, <a href="#Page_126">126</a></li> - <li>his symbol of office, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li> - <li>his fee, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li> - </ul></li> - -<li>Painting, teaching of, in primary schools, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li> - -<li>Palaistra, distinct from gymnasium, <a href="#Page_124">124</a> - <ul class="none"> - <li>life in the, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>-134</li> - <li>teaching of gesticulation (<ins title="to cheironomein">τὸ χειρονομεῖν</ins>), <a href="#Page_129">129</a></li> - <li>wrestling (<ins title="palê">πάλη</ins>), <a href="#Page_130">130</a>-132</li> - <li>leap-frog, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></li> - <li>rope-climbing, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></li> - <li>boxing, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></li> - <li>pankration, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>-133</li> - <li>long jump, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li> - <li>running, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li> - <li>javelin and spear, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li> - <li>diskos, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li> - <li>fees of the paidotribes, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li> - </ul></li> - -<li>Pamphilos the Macedonian, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></li> - -<li>Panathenaic festival, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></li> - -<li><span class="person">Panathenaikos</span> of Isokrates, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a></li> - -<li>Pankration in the palaistra, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>-133</li> - -<li>Parthenon, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a> - <ul class="none"> - <li>the “Theseus” of the, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li> - </ul></li> - -<li>Peiraieus, <a href="#Page_213">213</a></li> - -<li>Peisistratos, <a href="#Page_247">247</a> - <ul class="none"> - <li>popularisation of Homer by, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li> - </ul></li> - -<li>Pencils, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li> - -<li>Perikles, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a></li> - -<li>Peripoloi, <a href="#Page_214">214</a> and n., <a href="#footnote_632">215</a></li> - -<li>Permanent secondary schools, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>-209 - <ul class="none"> - <li>their natural growth at Athens, <a href="#Page_179">179</a></li> - <li>fees, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></li> - <li>of Isokrates, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>-195</li> - </ul></li> - -<li>Phaüllos, <a href="#Page_139">139</a></li> - -<li>Pheidias, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a></li> - -<li>Pheiditia at Sparta, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>-15 -<a name="Page_297" id="Page_297"></a><span class="pageno">297</span></li> - -<li>Pheidostratos, schoolroom of, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></li> - -<li>Pherekrates, <span class="person">The Slave-Teacher</span>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li> - -<li>Philosophy, schools of, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>-207 - <ul class="none"> - <li>their feuds, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>-204</li> - </ul></li> - -<li>Philoxenos, <a href="#Page_242">242</a></li> - -<li>Phokion, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li> - -<li>Phrunichos, <a href="#Page_215">215</a></li> - -<li>Phrunis, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li> - -<li>Phrygian harmony, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li> - -<li>Physical education, <a href="#Page_279">279</a> - <ul class="none"> - <li>in Athens and the rest of Hellas, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>-156</li> - <li>contemporary criticism of excess, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>-123</li> - <li>dancing, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>-149</li> - </ul></li> - -<li>Pindar, eulogy of athleticism, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>-122</li> - -<li>Pittalos, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li> - -<li>Plataea, oath of the army at, <a href="#Page_211">211</a></li> - -<li>Plato, denounces excessive athleticism, <a href="#Page_123">123</a> - <ul class="none"> - <li>criticism of Sophists, <a href="#Page_174">174</a></li> - <li>his teaching in the Akademeia, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>-207</li> - <li>his teaching in the Akademeia described by Epikrates, <a href="#Page_199">199</a></li> - <li>teaching in the Akademeia: his affection for his pupils, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>-202</li> - <li>teaching in the Akademeia: names of his pupils, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li> - <li>teaching in the Akademia, gratuitous, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></li> - <li>on the theory of education, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>-206</li> - <li>criticism of religious myths, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>-233</li> - <li>on the value of myths, <a href="#Page_235">235</a></li> - <li>on the educative value of artistic environment, <a href="#Page_246">246</a></li> - <li>his excessive imagination, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></li> - <li>on the Athenian drama, <a href="#Page_253">253</a></li> - <li>criticism of art, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>-258</li> - <li>on Xenophon’s Kuros, <a href="#Page_272">272</a></li> - </ul></li> - -<li>Playgrounds, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li> - -<li>Plecktron, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li> - -<li>Poetry, place of, in education, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>-249</li> - -<li>Polemon, <a href="#Page_201">201</a></li> - -<li>Polos the Sophist, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li> - -<li>Polugnotos, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></li> - -<li>Polybios, on Arcadian music, <a href="#Page_243">243</a></li> - -<li>Pratinas, on the flute, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></li> - -<li>Praxiteles, the “Hermes” of, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a></li> - -<li>Prizes, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li> - -<li>Prodikos the Sophist, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>-172 - <ul class="none"> - <li><cite>Choice of Herakles</cite>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>-172</li> - </ul></li> - -<li>Propulaia, <a href="#Page_245">245</a></li> - -<li>Protagoras the Sophist, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>-168, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a></li> - -<li>Proverbs, Greek, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#footnote_142">57</a> <span class="decoration">n.</span>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a></li> - -<li>Public schools, English, compared, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#footnote_620">212</a> <span class="decoration">n.</span>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a></li> - -<li>Punch-ball, <a href="#Page_137">137</a></li> - -<li>Pyrrhic dance, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li> -</ul> - -<ul class="none"> -<li>Raphael, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li> - -<li>Rationalism, spread of, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>-230</li> - -<li>Reading, teaching of, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>-92</li> - -<li>Religious education, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>-236 - <ul class="none"> - <li>Plato’s revision, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>-233</li> - </ul></li> - -<li>Rhetoric in secondary schools, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>-161 - <ul class="none"> - <li>weaknesses of Greek, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>-175</li> - </ul></li> - -<li>Riding, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>-152</li> - -<li>Rope-climbing in the palaistra, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></li> - -<li>Rowing, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>-154</li> - -<li>Running, long-distance, <a href="#Page_133">133</a> - <ul class="none"> - <li>in the palaistra, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li> - </ul></li> -</ul> - -<ul class="none"> -<li>Salmudessos, <a href="#Page_207">207</a></li> - -<li>Schoolmaster, status of, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li> - -<li>Secondary education, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>-209 - <ul class="none"> - <li>secondary classes in primary schools, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>-158</li> - <li>Sophists, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>-178</li> - <li>permanent schools, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>-209</li> - <li>variety of subjects, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></li> - <li>rhetoric, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>-161</li> - <li>literary subjects, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></li> - <li>the education voluntary, <a href="#Page_163">163</a></li> - </ul></li> - -<li><cite>Semelé</cite>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a></li> - -<li>Shakespeare, <a href="#Page_249">249</a></li> - -<li>Shelley, translation of epigram, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li> - -<li>Siburtios, palaistra of, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li> - -<li>Sicily, education in Chalcidian cities of, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></li> - -<li>Sikinnos, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li> - -<li>Simon, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li> - -<li>Simos, his cookery-book, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li> - -<li>Sistine Chapel, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li> - -<li>Skias, council-chamber at Sparta, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li> - -<li>Skillous, <a href="#Page_259">259</a></li> - -<li><span class="person">Slave-Teacher, The</span>, of Pherekrates, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li> - -<li>Sokrates, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a></li> - -<li>Solon, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a> - <ul class="none"> - <li>enactment on handicraft, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li> - <li>regulations about paidagogoi, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li> - <li>enactments to safeguard morality, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>-69</li> - <li>archaic phrases in his laws, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li> - <li>on courtiers, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li> - <li>metrical version of Athenian laws, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li> - <li>? on gumnasiarchai, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></li> - </ul></li> - -<li>Sophists, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>-178, <a href="#Page_286">286</a> - <ul class="none"> - <li>and mathematics, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></li> - <li>subjects taught, <a href="#Page_165">165</a></li> - <li>criticism of Aristophanes, <a href="#Page_166">166</a></li> - <li>criticism of Plato, <a href="#Page_174">174</a></li> - <li>scale of fees, <a href="#Page_169">169</a></li> - <li>secret of their power, <a href="#Page_170">170</a></li> - <li>their undemocratic influence, <a href="#Page_177">177</a></li> - <li>their rationalism, <a href="#Page_177">177</a></li> - <li>criticised by Isokrates, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></li> - </ul></li> - -<li>Sophokles, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li> - -<li>Sophronistai, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>-213, <a href="#Page_220">220</a></li> - -<li>Sparta, education at, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>-34 - <a name="Page_298" id="Page_298"></a><span class="pageno">298</span> - <ul class="none"> - <li>character of people, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li> - <li>importance of education at, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li> - <li>details of Pheiditia, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>-15</li> - <li>the State a military machine, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li> - <li>conservatism of, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li> - <li>strictness of discipline, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li> - <li>Spartan nurses, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li> - <li>system of State schools, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li> - <li>Syssitia, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>-40</li> - <li>ideals in education, <a href="#Page_275">275</a></li> - <li>educational methods, <a href="#Page_285">285</a></li> - </ul></li> - -<li>Spelling, teaching of, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>-90</li> - -<li>Spelling-book, terra-cotta fragment of, <a href="#footnote_239">89</a> <span class="decoration">n.</span></li> - -<li>Speusippos, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li> - -<li>Stadion, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li> - -<li>Stesimbrotos, <a href="#Page_230">230</a></li> - -<li>Swimming, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>-153</li> - -<li>Syntono-Lydian harmony, <a href="#Page_242">242</a></li> - -<li>Syssitia at Sparta, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>-40, <a href="#Page_267">267</a> - <ul class="none"> - <li>at Crete, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>-41</li> - </ul></li> -</ul> - -<ul class="none"> -<li>Tabula Iliaca, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li> - -<li>Taügetos, exposure of Spartan children on, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li> - -<li>Taureas, palaistra of, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li> - -<li>Technical instruction, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>-46 - <ul class="none"> - <li>of the logographoi, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>-181</li> - </ul></li> - -<li>Teles, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li> - -<li>Tennyson, quoted, <a href="#Page_235">235</a></li> - -<li>Teos, <a href="#Page_220">220</a> - <ul class="none"> - <li>educational endowments in, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></li> - <li>prizemen in competitions, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li> - <li>recitations of boys at, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li> - </ul></li> - -<li>Tertiary education, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>-223</li> - -<li>Thales (Cretan poet), <a href="#Page_243">243</a></li> - -<li>Thallo, <a href="#Page_211">211</a></li> - -<li>Thargelia, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></li> - -<li>Theodoros, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a></li> - -<li>Theognis, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li> - -<li>Theophanes, <a href="#Page_212">212</a></li> - -<li>Theophrastos, <a href="#Page_243">243</a></li> - -<li>Theory of education, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>-272, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>-291 - <ul class="none"> - - <li>Plato’s views on, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>-206</li> - <li>Xenophon’s views on, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>-272</li> - </ul></li> - -<li>Thermopylae, <a href="#Page_3">3</a> - -“Theseus,” of the Parthenon, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a></li> - -<li>Thespis, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></li> - -<li>Thrasuboulos of Kaludon, <a href="#Page_215">215</a></li> - -<li>Thrasumachos, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li> - -<li>Timeas, palaistra of, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li> - -<li>Timotheos, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a></li> - -<li>Timotheos the general, <a href="#Page_196">196</a></li> - -<li>Timotheos of Herakleia, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li> - -<li>Tisias, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li> - -<li>Tithenidia, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></li> - -<li>Torch-race, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></li> - -<li>Trade, Greek views on, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li> - -<li>Troizen, schools in, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a></li> -</ul> - -<ul class="none"> -<li>Undressing-room in the gymnasium, <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li> -</ul> - -<ul class="none"> -<li>Virgil, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></li> -</ul> - -<ul class="none"> -<li>Wax, tablets of, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li> - -<li>Women, gymnastics for, at Sparta, <a href="#Page_30">30</a> - <ul class="none"> - <li>seclusion of, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li> - <li>duties of, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li> - <li>excluded from athletics in Athens, <a href="#Page_142">142</a></li> - <li>admitted to the Akademeia, <a href="#Page_197">197</a></li> - <li>position of, <a href="#Page_282">282</a></li> - </ul></li> - -<li>Wrestling in the palaistra described, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>-132</li> - -<li>Writing, teaching of, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>-87</li> -</ul> - -<ul class="none"> -<li>Xenokrates, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></li> - -<li>Xenophanes, <a href="#Page_229">229</a></li> - -<li>Xenophanes of Kolophon, criticises athleticism, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li> - -<li>Xenophon, treatise on <cite>The Horse</cite>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a> - <ul class="none"> - <li>handbooks on educational subjects, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li> - <li><cite>The Education of Kuros</cite>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>-272</li> - <li>character of, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>-260</li> - </ul></li> - -<li>Xerxes, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a></li> - -<li>Xustos, in the gymnasium, <a href="#Page_141">141</a></li> -</ul> - -<ul class="none"> -<li>Zeuxippos of Heraklea, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li> -</ul> -</div><!--end chapter--> - -<div class="chapter"> -<ul class="none"> - -<li><ins title="abakos">ἄβακος</ins>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li> - -<li><ins title="agelai">ἀγέλαι</ins>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></li> - -<li><ins title="aleiptês">ἀλειπτής </ins>, <a href="#footnote_359">126</a> <span class="decoration">n.</span></li> - -<li><ins title="andreia">ἀνδρεῖα</ins>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></li> - -<li><ins title="apergazesthai">ἀπεργάζεσθαι</ins>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li> - -<li><ins title="apodromoi">ἀπόδρομοι</ins>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li> - -<li><ins title="apodytêrion">ἀποδυτήριον</ins>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li> -</ul> - -<ul class="none"> -<li><ins title="grammai">γραμμαί</ins>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li> - -<li><ins title="grammatistês">γραμματιστής</ins>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a></li> - -<li><ins title="gymnasiarchein">γυμνασιαρχεῖν</ins>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></li> - -<li><ins title="gymnopaidia">γυμνοπαιδία</ins>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a></li> -</ul> - -<ul class="none"> -<li><ins title="elaiothesion">ἐλαιοθέσιον</ins>, <a href="#footnote_412">136</a> <span class="decoration">n.</span></li> - -<li><ins title="exaleiphein">ἐξαλείφειν</ins>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li> - -<li><ins title="epaiklon">ἔπαικλον</ins>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li> - -<li><ins title="epikrotos">ἐπίκροτος</ins>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a></li> -</ul> - -<ul class="none"> -<li><ins title="êthos">ἦθος</ins>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a></li> -</ul> - -<ul class="none"> -<li><ins title="katharsis">κάθαρσις</ins>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a> -<a name="Page_299" id="Page_299"></a><span class="pageno">299</span></li> - -<li><ins title="katastegos dromos">κατάστεγος δρόμος]</ins>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li> - -<li><ins title="kitharistês">κιθαριστής</ins>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a></li> - -<li><ins title="kopides">κοπίδες</ins>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></li> - -<li><ins title="kryptoi">κρυπτοί</ins>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a></li> -</ul> - -<ul class="none"> -<li><ins title="lêxiarchikon grammateion">ληξιαρχικὸν γραμματεῖον</ins>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a></li> -</ul> - -<ul class="none"> -<li><ins title="megalopsychos">μεγαλόψυχος</ins>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a></li> - -<li><ins title="meirakion">μειράκιον</ins>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a></li> - -<li><ins title="metoikoi isoteleis">μέτοικοι ἰσοτελεῖς</ins>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></li> -</ul> - -<ul class="none"> -<li><ins title="xêraloiphein">ξηραλοιφεῖν</ins>, <a href="#footnote_412">136</a> <span class="decoration">n.</span></li> -</ul> - -<ul class="none"> -<li><ins title="homonoia">ὁμόνοια</ins>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a></li> - -<li><ins title="hormos">ὄρμος</ins>, <a href="#footnote_69">30</a> <span class="decoration">n.</span></li> -</ul> - -<ul class="none"> -<li><ins title="paidagôgeion">παιδαγωγεῖον</ins>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li> - -<li><ins title="paidonomos">παιδονόμος</ins>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li> - -<li><ins title="palê">πάλη</ins>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>-132</li> - -<li><ins title="pempazein">πεμπάζειν</ins>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li> - -<li><ins title="perigraphê">περιγραφή</ins>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li> - -<li><ins title="peripolia">περιτόλια</ins>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a></li> - -<li><ins title="pessoi">πεσσοί</ins>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li> - -<li><ins title="plexon">πλέξον</ins>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></li> -</ul> - -<ul class="none"> -<li><ins title="skiagraphia">σκιαγραφία</ins>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li> - -<li><ins title="sophistês">σοφιστής</ins>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a></li> - -<li><ins title="stlengis">στλεγγίς</ins>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a></li> - -<li><ins title="schêma">σχῆμα</ins>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></li> -</ul> - -<ul class="none"> -<li><ins title="hypaithrioi">ὑπαίθριοι</ins>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a></li> - -<li><ins title="hypogrammos">ὑπογραμμός</ins>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a></li> - -<li><ins title="hypographêin">ὑπογράφειν</ins>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li> - -<li><ins title="hypographê">ὑπογραφή</ins>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li> -</ul> - -<ul class="none"> -<li><ins title="phorbeia">φορβέια</ins>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li> -</ul> - -<ul class="none"> -<li><ins title="cheironomein">χειρονομεῖν</ins>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a></li> - -<li><ins title="chytlousthai">χυτλοῦσθαι</ins>, <a href="#footnote_412">136</a> <span class="decoration">n.</span></li> -</ul> - -<h3 class="p4 h3head">THE END</h3> - -<p class="p4 center"><span class="decoration">Printed by</span> <span class="sc">R. & R. Clark, Limited</span>, <span class="decoration">Edinburgh</span>.</p> -</div><!--end chapter--> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h4 class="p4 h4head">Transcriber’s Note</h4> - -<p>Footnotes were renumbered sequentially and were moved to the -end of the chapter in which related anchors occur. Dialect, -obsolete words and misspellings were left unchanged. Obvious -printing errors, such as backwards, upside down, or partially -printed letters, were corrected. Final stops missing at the end -of sentences were added. Transliterations of words and phrases in -Greek are provided as inserts; scroll cursor over the Greek and -transliteration will appear.</p> - -<ul> -<li>The following items were noted or changed:</li> - -<li>There are two anchors to Footnotes <a href="#footnote_28">[28]</a>, - <a href="#footnote_291">[291]</a>, <a href="#footnote_449">[449]</a>, - <a href="#footnote_537">[537]</a>, and <a href="#footnote_548">[548]</a>. - Footnote <a href="#footnote_585">[585]</a> has 3 anchors. - Return links are to the first anchor.</li> -<li>Unprinted “<abbr title="One">I.</abbr>” added at the beginning of the list of Illustrations.</li> -<li>In Footnote <a href="#footnote_513">[513]</a>, - the reference letter after 384 is unclear; it could be either E or B.</li> -<li>In Footnote <a href="#footnote_651">[651]</a>, changed stop to comma in list: “… 466, 470”.</li> -</ul> - -</div><!--end chapter--> - - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of Project Gutenberg's Schools of Hellas, by Kenneth John Freeman - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCHOOLS OF HELLAS *** - -***** This file should be named 63644-h.htm or 63644-h.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/6/3/6/4/63644/ - -Produced by Carol Brown, Turgut Dincer and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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