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diff --git a/old/63623-0.txt b/old/63623-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 9f70412..0000000 --- a/old/63623-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,7593 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Pearl, its story, its charm and its value, by Wallis Richard Cattelle - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you -will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before -using this eBook. - -Title: The Pearl, its story, its charm and its value - -Author: Wallis Richard Cattelle - -Release Date: November 4, 2020 [eBook #63623] -[Most recently updated: October 30, 2021] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -Produced by: Fay Dunn, Fiona Holmes and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team - -*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE PEARL, ITS STORY, CHARM, VALUE *** - - - - -Transcriber's Notes. - -Hyphenation has been standardised. - -A number of different spellings have been retained, e.g. rubies/rubyes, -encrusted/incrusted. - - - - -THE PEARL - -[Illustration: H. M. QUEEN ALEXANDRA AND HER PEARLS] - - - - - THE PEARL - - ITS STORY, ITS CHARM, - AND ITS VALUE - - BY - W. R. CATTELLE - AUTHOR OF - "PRECIOUS STONES" - - WITH SIXTEEN ILLUSTRATIONS - - [Illustration] - - PHILADELPHIA & LONDON - J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY - MDCCCCVII - - - - - COPYRIGHT, 1907 - - BY J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY - - Published September, 1907 - - - _Electrotyped and printed by J. B. Lippincott Company - The Washington Square Press, Philadelphia, U. S. A._ - - - - -NOTE - - -In these pages the story of the pearl is told from its birth and growth -under tropic seas, through the search for it by dark skinned divers -of the Orient and its journeyings by the hands of men who traffic in -precious things, until it becomes finally the cherished familiar of -the great. Historical and traditional allusions, the sentiment and -superstitions, the romance of ancient and noble associations, drawn -to it through the ages, are garnered here and to them added the more -prosaic facts which a merchant's experience suggests, to enable lovers -of the dainty sea-gem to discriminate. The qualities which make some -pearls of great value and the imperfections which render others less -valuable are described in detail, that owners and buyers may appreciate -at their true value the gems they have or would purchase and the market -price of all kinds is given. Means for the detection of imitations are -included. - -Long time has been given to microscopic research and though much -remains to be learned of the genesis of the pearl, it is hoped that -something of value has been added to the knowledge of Nature's -wonderful and curious processes whereby through the humblest she makes -a jewel fit to adorn the most beautiful of her creatures—woman. - - * * * * * - -My thanks are due Messrs. Combes & Van Roden of Philadelphia for the -loan of the original photographs from which were made the reproductions -of the portraits of Queen Alexandra, The Marchioness of Londonderry, -Countess Torby and Princess Lazareff, which will, I trust, be of great -interest to lovers of pearls: also to Mr. Ludwig Stross for much -valuable information about Oriental pearl fisheries. - - W. R. C. - - - - -CONTENTS - - - PAGE - - AT THE BOTTOM OF THE DEEP BLUE SEA 13 - - A PEARL OF LEGEND 25 - - ANTIQUITY OF THE PEARL 39 - - THE FASHION OF PEARLS 69 - - VARIETIES 89 - - COLOR 101 - - IMPERFECTIONS 111 - - GENESIS OF THE PEARL 127 - - METHODS OF FISHING 177 - - HABITAT OF THE PEARL OYSTER 199 - - PEARL FISHERIES 211 - - PRICE 275 - - IMITATION AND DOCTORED PEARLS 295 - - FACTS AND FANCIES 311 - - PEARLS IN LITERATURE 335 - - GLOSSARY 363 - - GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF PEARLS AND SHELLS - FROM THE VARIOUS FISHERIES 369 - - - - -ILLUSTRATIONS - - - PAGE - - H. M. QUEEN ALEXANDRA AND HER PEARLS _Frontispiece _ - - THE RAJAH OF DHOLPUR 21 - Whose Pearls Have Been Valued at $7,500,000 - - PRINCESS ABAMALEK LAZAREFF, NÉE DEMIDOFF 70 - From the Painting by Vitelleschi - - VARYING FORMS OF PEARLS 83 - - PANAMA PEARL-SHELL, SHOWING MUD-BLISTERS, - BORERS AND PEARL 92 - - TUAMOTU PEARL-SHELL 127 - - AUSTRALIAN PEARL-SHELL 129 - - VENEZUELAN PEARL-SHELL WITH PEARL ATTACHED 131 - - MANILA PEARL-SHELL WITH THE LIP CONSERVED 144 - - MISSISSIPPI NIGGER-HEAD PEARL MUSSEL 146 - - VENEZUELAN PEARL-SHELL SHOWING BAROQUE 161 - - NATIVE AUSTRALIAN PEARL-DIVERS 188 - - EAST INDIAN PEARL-DIVERS RESTING 215 - - PEARL-FISHING IN THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER 262 - - THE MARCHIONESS OF LONDONDERRY 283 - - COUNTESS TORBY 326 - - - - -AT THE BOTTOM OF THE DEEP BLUE SEA - - -The sea in all her moods has a strange fascination for the children of -the dry land. The rumble and thunder of her never ending procession -of rolling breakers, rising and falling, tumbling over the sands, to -race hissing back to shelter under the curling crest of an eternal -successor; the mad recurring dash which cannot be discouraged, of -great waters upon unyielding rocks whose grim faces smile at the -spume fountains falling back upon them; the wash and mutter of rocky -shoals; the suck and bellow of her caverns and the monotone she chants, -heedless of hearers to the ages; all these charm the hearts of men -and bring them into the fellowship of spirits they feel, but cannot -understand. For the moods of the sea and the ways of the wind are akin -to the heart of a man. His eyes dance with the flicker of light in -the path of the sun over watery wastes; his breast heaves in unison -with the multitudinous swellings of the sea; he finds peace in the -slumber of her calms and exults in her mad race before the drive of -the tempest, but he seldom thinks below the surface and knows little -of the things she hides in her deeps. Yet a world lives there, very -strange and full of enchantments. Sheltered under the breasts of the -sea and undisturbed by the furies of the upper world, myriads of living -creatures, graceful, beautiful, wonderful, traverse the peaceful -depths. In the vast and fathomless solitudes, things grow and take on -form, meet for the eyes of the gods. In everlasting touch with soft -currents, trees of coral grow from rocky beds and finny tribes of -every shape and hue glide in and out among their fantastic branches. -Water covering all, on hills, plateaus, shelving stretches, sandy bars -and rocky shoals; in valleys, chasms and even in the dread abysses, -are things as strange to man as Jupiter or Saturn holds; weird as the -creatures of our dreams; uncanny as the pictures a riotous imagination -paints and some as beautiful. - -Near the shore and a few miles out, where the bottom of the sea is but -a few fathoms deep and where man can go and come and live, there are -among other marvellous creations, shells of wonderful structure and -beautiful to look upon. One by one these have been discovered during -past ages by the adventurous and for their usefulness or beauty have -awakened the desire of those who dwell upon the earth. The chank, the -sacred shell of the Hindus, has been used by the priests of Buddha for -centuries as a horn to call the faithful. Shankar the Destroyer, of -Hindu mythology, and Vishnu, each hold a chank shell in one of their -hands. - -The shell whorl usually runs from left to right, sometimes it is found -with the whorl reversed and these were so highly regarded by Hindus, -Cingalese and Chinese that in old times they were sold for their weight -in gold. Even now they bring a good price in the eastern markets. They -are kept in the pagodas of China to hold the sacred oil: the priests -of Ceylon administer medicine by them. In Dacca the chank is cut into -armlets and anklets for Hindu women upon whose persons they are left -after death. The delicate pink cameos carved from the Queen Conch -have delighted feminine eyes of almost every race. The Pearly Nautilus -decks many a dainty lady's table and is wrought into a thousand quaint -conceits. The silky byssus of the Pinna has been woven into fabrics -of such fineness as to be thought worthy of acceptance by Popes and -princes. - -Before Europe knew of their existence, the people of China and Japan, -the Maoris of New Zealand, the Indians of our Pacific coast and the -brown skinned natives of far-off islands of the Southern Seas, were -delighting themselves with the magnificent coloring and iridescence of -the Haliotis even as ancient Greece and Rome made ornaments from the -"Venus Ear-shell," as they called it, brought from the ruder coasts and -islands further west. In these later days the costly outer garments of -proud dames are ornamented with buttons cut from the same resplendent -shell. But of all the beautiful things old ocean pays as tribute to the -adventurous spirit of man, the pearl-oyster and the gem found sometimes -in it are most precious. - -From unknown times when man discovered them until now, mother-of-pearl -shells and their pearly treasures have held desire constant and the -eyes of modern queens brighten when the opening of the gift casket -reveals a string of these spheres of beauty just as eyes did in the -far-off Indies thousands of years ago. When Europe was a land of -barbarians and America an unknown country of savages, dusky fingers -that held the life and destiny of millions, toyed lovingly with pearls, -even as now the favored few who enter the sanctum sanctorum of fortune, -pride themselves in the possession of them and find pleasure for cloyed -desire, in every addition to their store. - -In all ages, pearls have been the social insignia of rank among the -highly civilized. No other gem was so abundantly used for adornment by -the princes of the east. Above great diamonds from the mines of India -or glowing rubies from Burmah, the ocean gem became peerless among the -ancient nations of Asia and as their power began to wane and the tide -of empire swept westward, there went with it the love of pearls. The -rulers of Rome when she was Empress of the world sought pearls, so also -have the rich and powerful of every nation as it rose to affluence, -and now in this new western star of Empire the men who hold the vast -wealth of these United States in their hands, when they place their -consorts on the last plane of social eminence, buy pearls. - -Before the machine-like system of modern industry had combined -ownership and seized the vast natural reservoirs which hold the -diamonds of Africa, and brought the output to a known average yield of -so many carats to so many loads, and established the cost of mining, -washing, shipping and marketing, separately or together, to the -fraction of a penny, there was a fascination in the hunt for diamonds -there, the charm of which drew thousands to the fields. - -From the discovery of them as baubles in the hands of children and the -Hottentots, or plastered in the mud walls of Boer farm-houses through -the search for them along the Vaal River, to the time where findings -led men to the kopjes, which capped the great chimneys of diamond -bearing clay, where they staked and worked their individual claims, the -ever present hope of finding a royal gem among the small stones which -formed the every-day yield, gave edge to appetite and the spur to toil, -and the stories of fortunes diverted from one man to another by the -lapse of a few minutes at the beginning or expiration of a lease, or by -the line separating the mining rights of one from another, read like -fairy tales. - -More exciting yet is the search for them when, as in Brazil, they lie -scattered over the river beds where one man hunts in vain and another -by chance stumbles upon a pocket full, or as in India, where one must -dig for them blindly into detrital matter ten or twelve feet under a -later covering of earth. Who has not felt the stir of it while reading -of miners in Brazil using diamonds worth a king's ransom as counters -in their games of chance, or of a naked Hindu, emaciated and diseased -carrying about his person, wrapped in a bit of soiled cloth, a gem -found by chance which the richest prince of India would covet. So also -do the tales of rubies brought from Death's Valley of Burmah renew -within us the glow which fired the heart of youth when we read of -Aladdin and his lamp. - -But none of these are so redolent of romance as the story of the -pearl. Beneath the rolling of the sea, where the waves pace softly -and restlessly like caged lions, or lift themselves roaring to answer -the voice of the storm; where at times the water lies green and -placid under burning skies; at times, lashed by tornado and monsoon, -becoming a seething caldron of black perdition; where spice-laden -vessels sail, and where in the old days, privateers and pirates lay in -wait for prey, there, at the bottom of the sea, unruffled by storm or -pirate, unmindful of sun and calm, myriads of delicate creatures toil -ceaselessly to strew old ocean's bed with gems. The chaste spheres -with which you toy, while counting up the cost of hanging them round -some fair neck, at one time lay fathoms deep, the ocean rolling over -them. Dusky fishermen, at risk of life, brought them up and turbanned -merchants gave great sums of money to own them; ships carried them, and -dealers in precious things handled, sorted, examined and matched them, -ere they came to rest in festooned rows within the velvet covers your -jeweller opens to you. - -[Illustration: THE RAJAH OF DHOLPUR - -Whose pearls were valued at $7,500,000] - -On almost every tropical sea that washes a shore near the equator, -when the time of storm is over, boats ride over the shallows, and men -dive from them for the pearl oyster as they have done for ages. Black -slaves for Arab masters in the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf: Tamil -and Singhalese in the Indian waters: Polynesians about the islands -of the South Seas: Indians and other natives along the Atlantic and -Pacific coasts of tropical America, and not a few white men in "dress" -off the coasts of Australia. Your pearls have seen the dusky man-fish -come silently and swiftly from the world of air to wrench the gaping -shells that held them, from their anchorage. It may be your pearl lay -twenty fathoms deep in the clear water of some lonely atoll in the -great Pacific, among branching coral, and found its way from water's -solitudes to the light of the Sun and admiring eyes by the hand of a -bright-eyed Polynesian. It may have come from Egypt or the Indies, from -Australia or Mexico; but from whatever quarter of the globe it came and -by whom, it was born and grew somewhere at the bottom of the sea. - - - - -A PEARL OF LEGEND - - -Long ago, ere the great Nations of Europe came into existence; before -Rome was, or Greece had made history: when the power of the Earth -dwelt in the lands of the Sun and was for good or evil in the hands of -princes, there lived in Travancore a ruler of renown. Of those who came -from the north, he with his followers had subjugated the fierce native -tribes inhabiting the country for many miles along the seacoast and -back to the mountainous interior. Over all, to the utmost bounds of his -territory, the land was fertile and very beautiful. Along the shores, -but a short distance from the ocean, were numerous shallow stretches -of water, formed by the meeting of the inland streams with the swift -current of the sea which there sweeps the coast. In them fish abounded, -yet were they free from the dangers of the outer waters, so that young -and old could there disport themselves without fear. Though the tropic -heat was often great there were no parched and barren wastes in the -land, for the rains were many and the streams which ran to the sea -from the mountains were numerous. Everywhere luxuriant verdure swayed -to breezes that played to and fro over the rolling lowlands and about -the hillsides, now coming from the water and now from the mountains. -Coffee, rice, the palm, cocoanut, the areca-nut, the pepper, tamarind, -and other tropical fruits and trees grew in rank abundance, and huge -forest timbers sheltered many noble creatures of the wild. - -At the first coming of this prince, fighting was constant and bloody. -The hill tribes, more war-like than those of many lands, made frequent -descents from their fastnesses, seeking by every ruse of barbarous -warfare to exterminate the intruder. But this man was wary and alert. -Possessing the confidence of his followers, they obeyed him with -unquestioning obedience. Quick to move, merciless in his reprisals, he -was soon feared by all the surrounding country and as it became known -that he was also just and generous, peace presently followed. - -Then did he seek to establish his kingdom wisely and well. He -encouraged his subjects to cultivate the land, to fish the waters, and -to trade with those who came by ship and over-land bringing all manner -of things for barter. - -Though he and his people were devout believers in the Veda, yet did -he tolerate the faith of others, and considered the low-born, for -Brahmanism had not yet established the extremes of caste which came -later. He himself was a Kshattriya but he ruled the Brahmans and would -not permit injustice to the Sudras, therefore was he as a god among his -people. - -And this prince was good to look upon. Tall and straight as a tree of -the forest, the fine lines of his grave impassive face were made alive -by the light of eyes keen as an eagle's, inscrutable as those of a lion -when he looks beyond. - -One son only had he, for the others had all fallen in battle. The son -was like the sire, and the father's heart was knit to him as steel when -it is welded. - -Now the time came when it was good that the young prince should marry, -for he was man-grown and had been invested with the sacrificial cord. -So the prince his father said to him, "My son, thou standest alone to -guard the manes of thy fathers. It is meet that the sons of my son be -alive upon the earth, that when the time is come I die in peace and -return to the place from whence I came, in confidence. I will find for -thee a wife." And the young prince answered, "Let it be as my lord -wills." - -Now there was in the country beyond the hills, on the eastern coast of -India, a prince whose daughter was famed for her beauty and he also -was Kshattriya. To him the ruler of Travancore sent certain of those -who were near him, and a wise priest in whom he had great confidence, -to treat with the father of the maid. And these when they had arrived, -made haste to do their lord's bidding, nor was it difficult to obtain -his desire, for the prince of Travancore was in great repute. So as -soon as could be, the maid become the wife of the heir of Travancore. - -Report had not lied concerning the beauty of the girl, and such other -qualities had she that the heart of her husband melted to her and -became as the gold of a jewel when it holds a ruby most precious. - -In due time a son was born to them, and the father and his sire and all -the people with them were exceeding glad, for said they, "Now is wisdom -and power established on the throne of Travancore and a son's son will -guard the name of our lord." - -Now when the princess was a maid in the land of her father, a Rover -from the coast of Kandy had greatly desired her, and when she was -carried away to Travancore he was very wroth. It was told that he would -seek vengeance, but another year passed and another son came and both -the children and the mother thrived. - -But one day, when many sea-boats lay within the harbor of a city of -Travancore where much trading was done with men who came from far-off -countries and when multitudes were gathered there, it chanced that the -princess passed by the market-place. Suddenly, a great number of them -that were there from foreign shores, gathered together, and drawing -swords, rushed upon the guards which accompanied her. These, with the -bearers they over-powered, and ere the bewildered populace knew the -meaning of the tumult, the princess was dragged from her attendants and -hurried to a boat waiting and ready to sail. Immediately this glided -swiftly toward the sea followed by many others manned by ruffians who -had lately mingled with the men on shore as peaceful traders. They were -followers of the Kandy Rover. - -In a very little while, the King, with the trusted priest of his -household, the prince and many picked men of the King's body-guard -rode furiously to the water-side. The face of the King was very stern, -but only in the flashings of his eyes could be seen the unrelenting -vengeance which moved him. Quietly he gave orders to man his ships of -war. Then it was found that every one of them had been damaged. Not -until the sailors made ready to sail were the hindrances observable, -and in no case was the evil great, or so that it could not be presently -repaired, for fearing discovery the doers of it sought only to delay -the sailing of the King's ships, as the ships of the Rover were swift, -and after they were out of the harbor, Travancore had none which could -overtake them. Then was the wrath of the King terrible to look upon. - -Now while the prince and his followers chafed, and the dismayed -populace watched the work of the men who sought to make the boats ready -to sail, the King filled them with the fiercest of his soldiers, being -resolved that if the pirate escaped him on the sea he would follow him -to his lair with swift and overwhelming vengeance. While these things -were being done, the Rover passed out to the open sea and in sight of -all the people turned his prows to the south. - -Then the Brahman, standing where the lapping waters encircled his feet, -stretched forth his hands toward the white sails as they spread to the -west wind and called upon Shankar to destroy the despoiler. Immediately -the wind died out and the ships were becalmed. Then the heart of the -King swelled with fierce joy. - -At his orders all the lighter boats were filled with men and oars -were provided that they might row to the attack, and the young prince -stood in the front of the fastest one. But while the people whetted -themselves for battle, the Brahman still stood and prayed. And -presently the air became thick. Though no clouds appeared the sky faded -rapidly from sight, and the sun could no more be seen and the light of -it was as the color of fire in thick smoke only. - -Darkness as of chaos and a silence like that of a dead world -encompassed the people, and a great dread gripped them. Suddenly there -came from the sea a breath of sighing broken by sobs very heartrending, -and this was followed by the sound of churning and lashing water. Soon -a furious wind swept the coast in gusts which rested only that they -might gather strength to rage, as the rush of rioters is momentarily -stayed between whiles. And the black air, writhing like smoke, was -driven hither and thither, and shaken by the din of thunder. Fierce -lightnings pierced the darkness and in passing gave lurid glimpses of -the sea's frenzy and the wind-swept earth. But though the storm raged -so that the roaring sickened the hearts of the people, the Brahman -remained unmoved, his hands stretched toward the sea where the Rover -and his fleet were when it began. - -Presently the wind passed, and the people looking seaward saw that -there were no ships there, but the foam of the surf was black with -wreckage, and tossing in it were the forms of dead men. The Rover -and his followers had all perished. But the joy of the King and his -people was savage, and their thoughts were black, for the princess was -with them that were destroyed. Then the people made haste to spread -themselves along the coast to watch if perchance the gods might cast -her ashore alive, but no living thing appeared, neither was her body -seen. - -Now while these things were being done, great clouds, very thick and -black, gathered, and rolling together, poured themselves in torrents -into the sea. So thickly did the rain fall that the waves were beaten -down and the sea became as a threshing-floor on which the rain fell -white and hissing. The Brahman watching, said "Behold! the Heavens -weep," and turning, he went straightway to the temple. - -For many hours thereafter did the torrents fall and all Travancore -mourned, the lamentations of the people being very loud, for the King -and his son were much beloved and it was known that the prince was -sorely distressed, and the more so that his sword must needs be idle -for there were none left upon whom he could take vengeance. - -Now when the elements were at peace again, the King gave orders that -certain fishermen of his people who were expert divers, should explore -the bottom of the sea where the ships of the Rover were destroyed. One -of these discovered the body of the princess and brought it to shore. -And when they prepared it for burial, the women found fastened upon -one of the hands a shell-fish, the two shells of which had closed upon -a finger when it fell between them as they gaped. And when the shells -were pried apart, there rolled from between them a round bone, white -and shining, yet of a luster so soft and beautiful that no man had seen -the like. And the Brahman when he saw it said, "Herein are the tears of -Heaven which fell into the sea congealed and have become a gem which -is beyond price." And he named it "Pearl," and carried it to the King. -Then the King after he had heard the story of it, sent for the chief -man of them that worked in gold and commanded him that he make for the -pearl a setting most precious, and when it was done he gave it to the -prince his son saying, "Above all things let this be first among the -jewels of Travancore for-ever." And the prince when he looked upon it -said, "The beauty of it is like the brightness of her eyes when they -veiled themselves before my passion," and he prized it more than all -the diamonds and rubies in his treasure-house. - -From that day, when the fishermen dived for the chank, they sought -also for shells like unto that in which the King's pearl was found, -and after great rains many more pearls were brought from the depths -of the sea, and fishermen following the coast, found them on the -shoals between India and Kandy in great plenty. These were carried to -the King, for no man dared to sell them, yet did the King reward the -finders very liberally. So the store of them in the King's treasury -grew, and for that there were no gems like them in all the earth, the -fame of them spread, and travellers came from many and far-off lands to -look upon the pearls of Travancore. - - - - -ANTIQUITY OF THE PEARL - - -How long the pearl has been used as a jewel is unknown. It is seen all -through the pages of history, from the long ago days when records were -inscribed on the leaves of plants, to the rapid-fire prints of to-day, -which unceasingly scatter to myriads the knowledge of things as they -occur. - -Back of history, pearls loom everywhere in the mists of tradition -like delicate but imperishable orbs of beauty set in the smoulder -of burned out days and passions. And wherever their tranquil light -attracts the eye of imagination, the ghosts of the great are seen, -for pearls lie in the hair of royalty and clasp the fair necks of -Queens. Upon them shine the eyes of turbanned princes who valued them -above the blood and life of thousands of subjects. Shades of imperious -fingers, long since fallen to the elements, toy with them: they deck -the spectral gatherings of the mighty in all lands and ages, and there -is no dream of song or story which does not hold them among the chief -enchantments. As the fair moon hangs from the brow of night when she -broods over lonely waters, so does the pearl shine in the shades of the -ages. - -In this country abundant evidence exists that before the advent of the -white man, or of the red-skins as we know them, the aborigines, from -the cold rise of the Mississippi to the glades of Florida, used them -for their adornment. In savage wilds, and on coasts that knew not the -sight of ships or other shores, copper-skinned natives treasured the -glistening things they found in the mollusks of the sea-shoals and -inland streams. Quantities of pearls have been found in the Indian -mounds, many of them loose, others strung for necklaces and wristlets, -some mounted in quaint and primitive fashion, all showing that in -the days of unbroken forests and swarming game and roving tribes of -untrammeled savages, in the tepees of the braves, their queens wore -pearls even as they are worn now by fairer successors in the palaces -reared where once were forests and camping-grounds. In those days -the savage lords of the undivided earth knew nothing of whirring -lathes and drills; of hardened points of steel turning with lightning -rapidity and unerring precision. Slowly they burned a way through the -gem with hot copper wire, destroying thereby with ruthless ignorance -the delicate beauty of jewels fit for royalty. To them the slender -prongs of gold with which the modern jeweller holds the lustrous -balls, uncovered and in safety, were unknown. Instead, the savage set -them in holes bored in the teeth of animals, possibly to enhance the -relics of a great fight with some fierce beast that succumbed finally -to his prowess: possibly to add beauty to the grim reminders of her -lord's valor when he hung them round the neck of a favored mate. The -Indian of this continent was much more primitive in the art of the -jeweller than in the manufacture of implements for war and the chase. -Gaudy colors extracted from plants and minerals appealed more to his -unthinking eye than a chaste form of beauty. With these he could stain -his blankets, record on skins of slaughtered animals his deeds, or -paint in hideous signs upon his face the malignancy of war. His time -and thought and ingenuity were given to things which would contribute -to his master passion and glorify its deeds. The scalps of his enemies, -the skins of animals he slaughtered, the feathers of birds that fell -to his unerring arrow, the teeth of bears and mountain lions slain -in desperate encounters, these were his jewels. Nor was his sexual -instinct sufficiently refined to enthrone his mate. She was his slave, -and her reward for toil was pride in his deeds and glory. He knew -little of the tender homage which brings gifts and lays them at the -feet of woman. Instinctively he made a setting for his pearls of bears' -teeth, that they might carry the scent of blood and tell the story of -his conquest. Nevertheless, among these rude tribes of wolfish savages, -sequestered from the touch of other people more refined, the modest -pearl found favor, and in it they unconsciously paid tribute to one of -the purest forms of beauty. But even this recognition must have been -the growth of years, possibly of ages, for not until the understanding -of worth has become general among a people is value established, -and only things valuable are stored. As desire for a thing for its -inherent qualities spreads, there is added a larger number of those -who seek to possess it for the profit they can make in supplying that -desire. Not many years ago, fishermen along the streams of remote parts -of Kentucky had no eye for the beauty of a pearl, and no knowledge that -men and women lived who prized them. If while fishing, the fisherman's -hook fell between the gaping valves of a mollusk it was immediately -seized. The disgusted angler thereupon angrily pulled the nuisance out, -and if upon disengaging the hook from the bivalve, he found within the -shells a pearl, it was immediately tossed back into the stream for -luck; for the beginning of a day's sport with a catch of that kind -was ill-luck and the fates could only be appeased by the finding of a -pearl, or a "mussel egg" as he would call it, in the mollusk, and its -return to the water. There lives yet on the banks of the Clinch River, -an old pearler, the distress of many a speculator for his knowledge of -pearls and their value, who sometimes sorrowfully relates how he thus -in bygone years angrily threw away many good pearls, one of them the -finest "ball" pearl he has ever seen. If these gems were so regarded -by the ignorant white settlers of the west until the advent of men who -had learned to appreciate them either for their beauty or the price -they would bring from the outside world, it may be surmised that the -awakening of the ancient Indian to their beauty, must have been a much -slower process, unassisted as it was by men from beyond their limits -who had long regarded them as precious. At first, probably, pearls were -thrown to the children as playthings, as diamonds were in the Cape: -then the young squaws gradually opened their eyes to the fact that the -white shining things enhanced the charms of their smooth copper skins -by contrast: the brave sought them to please the maid he would bring -to his tepee: perhaps rovers brought news that in the far south, in -lands of houses and teocalli and much magnificence, or farther off -among the Incas, these baubles were prized by the chiefs. So gradually -it dawned upon some that the "eggs" of the mollusk were beautiful, and -upon others that they could be bartered for skins, blankets, or arrows, -possibly for a pony, and so they came to be gathered and stored and -displayed as things which enriched the owner. - -How far back in the ages the use of pearls on this continent extends -cannot be estimated. The discovery of them in the mounds east of -the Mississippi, which are credited to an ancient race that finally -succumbed to the similar but more war-like red men found here when -the country was discovered by Europeans, suggests many centuries. And -the use of pearls to the extent manifest by the discoveries, favors -the theory that the mound-builders had reached a degree of refinement -never attained by the North American Indians of record. When white men -invaded the North American continent, they found tribes of red men as -rugged as the coasts of New England. Inured to hardships, despising -pain, contemptuous of death, they lived by hunting and found their -chief pleasure in the slaughter of their enemies. Camping at will, -their lodges were here to-day and there to-morrow, and brutal if -heroic, they roamed over fields once inhabited by a race which had -passed, but left evidence that they were sufficiently civilized to -appreciate the pearl. - -In Florida and South America, the conditions, when the country was -discovered by the Spaniards, were different. The ancient races, -corresponding with the mound-builders of the north, undisturbed by -the incursions of stronger tribes, had continued to progress and had -reached a high degree of barbarous luxury. - -In Mexico, when Montezuma gave audience to Cortez, he was ablaze with -gold and silver and precious stones. His cloak and sandals were adorned -with pearls. Pearls were used to decorate temples, canoes and even the -paddles. Indian women had great strings of them coiled around their -necks and arms, and the chiefs used them freely on all occasions of -state. It was the same on the Colombian coasts. - -At the island of Cubagua and on the main coast, Columbus found great -quantities of pearls, as did De Soto and his followers when they landed -at Tampa Bay, known by the Spaniards as "Spiritu Santo," in Florida -in 1539. The Incas of Peru also owned many fine pearls. Though the -natives of all these countries ignorantly injured the gems by cooking -the oyster to extract them, or by their crude methods of boring, and -reckoned them of little value as compared with the European idea, they -nevertheless esteemed them as jewels and must have done so for ages, -for the invaders found them in the sepulchres of the dead, so altered -by the processes of time that they retained nothing of their original -beauty. - -From these premises therefore it can be said of the antiquity of the -pearl in this hemisphere, that it had been used as a jewel for some -centuries before the early part of the sixteenth century. - -The European regard for the pearl at this time may be estimated by the -eagerness with which pearls were sought on the American continent by -the adventurers of Spain, and by the pains they took on the arrival -here of a new expedition, to convey assurances to the King of Spain -that pearls were to be had in the new conquest. In the commission -appointing De Soto to the governorship of Cuba, and as adelantado of -Florida, Charles V. stipulated that of the gold, silver, stones and -pearls, obtained by barter or in battle or otherwise, a certain portion -should be reserved for the Crown. - -In all the courts of Europe during the fifteenth and sixteenth -centuries the pearl was, if not the chief, one of the most prominent -jewels. Mary, Queen of Scots, possessed a rosary of pearls which -excited the envy of Catherine de Médicis and Elizabeth of England, both -of whom sought diligently to acquire them when the Scotch Queen became -mired by misfortune. - -The virgin queen of England when she went in state to chapel, wore -pendent pearls in her ears after the fashion of Rome, and borders of -large pearls fastened on her dress. When in her time Sir Thomas Gresham -of London, a wealthy subject, wished to show the Spanish Ambassador, -who had boasted of the magnificence of his Sovereign's court, how -prodigal her liege subjects could be in her honor, nothing occurred to -him more striking than to grind to powder a large pearl and mix it with -the wine he drank to her health. This act of the English merchant shows -that the pearl was then regarded by the great as the acme of costliness -and beauty. - -From the reign of Francis I. of France to that of Louis XIII. the -pearl was prominent in all jewels of note, and from that time to the -death of Maria Theresa of Austria toward the close of the eighteenth -century, it was worn in preference to all other gems. It was during the -reign of Louis XIII. that Tavernier, the celebrated French Jeweller and -traveller, assisted by that monarch, made his journeys into Asia. The -account of his travels, published later, are highly esteemed for their -truthfulness, and are regarded as exact, if prosaic statements of fact. - -The desire for the gem in Europe at this time was so great that -Tavernier purchased over half a million dollars' worth from the Arabian -Sea. Probably the immense quantities of pearls sent to Spain from the -Indies by her rovers in the early part of the sixteenth century, caused -the vogue of that gem during the three centuries following, for not -much mention is made of them in western Europe prior to that time. -Nevertheless pearls were esteemed in the British Isles as early as the -eleventh century, for it is recorded that Gilbert, Bishop of Limerick, -sent a present of Irish pearls from the fishery at Omagh, to Anselm, -Archbishop of Canterbury, about 1094, and Scotch pearls were not only -in demand in Britain but on the continent also as early as the twelfth -century. In 1355, the Parisian goldsmiths forbade by statute, workers -in gold and silver to set Scotch pearls with the Oriental. - -The Oriental pearl probably came into Europe first from Egypt through -the incursions of the Macedonians into that country. Later, when -Alexander overran Persia his followers doubtless became yet more -familiar with the gem, for they spread through Arabia and the Persian -Gulf where ancient fisheries also existed. - -Pearls were not well known west and north of Asia and Africa at this -time, for a writer of Mytilene in the island of Lesbos, about 350 B.C., -which was but a few years before Alexander's conquest of Persia, says: -"In the Indian Sea, off the coasts of Armenia, Persia, Susiana and -Babylonia, a fish like an oyster is caught, from the flesh of which men -pick out white bones called by them 'pearls'." This would indicate that -knowledge of them was being carried at that time by returning soldiers, -camp-followers and travellers, and these men probably brought home -also many of the "white bones" obtained by trade or looting. Whatever -the method by which they were introduced, pearls came into favor, and -the favor increased as they were brought with other jewels from the -looted treasuries of eastern potentates. The Macedonians established -fisheries in the Red Sea, where the Egyptians obtained their chief -supply, and the Romans later brought them also from the Arabian Sea. - -Three centuries B.C., the power of the Macedonians commenced to wane; -Rome began to rise and overrun the countries which had been subject -to the Macedonians; and pearls were thereby carried further west. The -Romans adopted the pearl as a jewel of the first importance if not -the chief of all, probably because they had found them so regarded by -the older royalties they plundered. As the riches of surrounding and -far-off countries which she raided, poured into the coffers of Rome, -and the city grew to be the centre of power and wealth, the excesses -of the rich became ludicrous to the verge of insanity. In their wild -extravagances the pearl was prominent. - -Affected doubtless by the splendor of Asiatic courts, the rude soldiers -of Rome learned to regard the pearl as a royal luxury, and therefore -adopted it as a sign of great wealth and power. Enormous sums were paid -for pearls of rare size and beauty. Great leaders of men vied with -each other in the effort to add to their collections. It is said that -Julius Cæsar's chief incentive for pushing his conquests into the west -so far, was his desire to obtain the pearls to be found in the streams -of the British Isles. The Emperor Caligula decked his favorite horse -with a necklace of pearls. Pliny says of Lollia Paulina, Caligula's -wife, that he had seen her so bedecked with pearls and precious stones -that "she glittered and shone like the sun as she went." Clodius, the -glutton, claiming for them a very delicate flavor, placed one by the -plate of each guest at a great banquet to be mixed with the wine. This -same profligate, either setting the example or emulating Cleopatra, -swallowed in a cup of wine one worth eight thousand pounds that he -might have the pleasure of consuming so much value at once. - -If in the intrigues so common then, a woman's influence was required, -pearls were given her. To convey an indirect bribe to a man of high -station a pearl of great price was presented to a member of his family. -Women wore them while they slept that they might possess them in their -dreams; they hung them in loose clusters suspended from the ears, -that the tinkling might remind them of the beauty they could not see, -and to attract the admiration and envy of others. These were called -"crotalia," meaning "rattles." Young men of fortune in Athens and Rome -followed the Persian fashion of wearing one in the right ear, hung as a -clapper in a small bell of metal. So strong and general did the desire -to own them become that Cæsar forbade unmarried women, and women under -a certain rank, to wear them. - -Perhaps never in the history of jewels has the vogue of one so nearly -approached a frenzy as that of the pearl in Rome during her days of -extreme power and grandeur. The high esteem in which it was held there -is reflected in the Scriptures. The Saviour used it in His parables as -a symbol. The gates of the Holy City, as the prophet John saw it in -his vision, were pearls. From that time until now, writers have used -pearls to symbolize purity, innocence and the highest type of feminine -beauty. To say that a woman's teeth were like pearls has been the -poets' favorite adulation, and the discovery and sale of great pearls -has been deemed of sufficient importance by travellers and historians -to record them. - -Much of the literature of pearls is founded on the statements of Pliny -regarding them: many, if not most, of the absurd beliefs as to their -origin and superstitions concerning them, may be traced to the same -source; and though these ancient errors have been repeatedly exposed -by later scientists and naturalists the poetic absurdities of the -industrious Roman compiler, gathered from contemporaneous writers and -tradition are current to-day, for they appeal more to the child-like -human love of the indefinite wonderful than the exact statements of -research, though the latter are really more marvellous. - -Though jewels are regarded by many as baubles and of little account -among the great commercial interests of the world, they have been -an important factor in shaping the destiny of nations, changing -the borders of great countries and thereby aiding the progress of -civilization. As pearls helped materially to bring Rome to the British -Isles and the colonists of Spain to South America, so it is quite -probable that the pearls of Egypt had their influence in drawing the -Macedonians to that country, to be followed by the Romans when the -latter sought to overturn the Macedonian empire. Beyond this, their -influence among those who held the reins in the government of empires, -or those having power with them that did, cannot be estimated. - -Passing beyond the days of Greece and Rome to more remote times and -countries, we come to the realms of conjecture. We know that pearls -were known and used as jewels in Egypt under the Ptolemies. Chares of -Mytilene mentioned that they were worn by women of the East about the -neck and arms and even upon the feet. It is said there is a word for -them in a Chinese dictionary four thousand years old. - -There is evidence that they had been used in India and the far East -long before the West had knowledge of those countries, but we have -nothing recorded which penetrates the past beyond three to four -hundred years B.C., for there is not as much mention made of them in -ancient writings familiar to the West as of other precious stones. -Nevertheless the pearl is among the most ancient in the nomenclature -of jewels because when it did come to be written of only the one thing -could be meant. Nature produces nothing similar with which it could -be confounded, whereas it is not certain that the diamond, ruby, and -other stones as we know them, were intended when the names by which we -designate them were used. Such indiscriminate use of names has been -made by translators that it is difficult to determine what the stones -really were about which ancient authors wrote. The names of those in -the Jewish High Priest's breastplate, given in our English version of -the Old Testament, undoubtedly misrepresent the stones actually used, -and the only thing authorities agree upon regarding the names is that -they are incorrect. - -As there was no definite knowledge of the crystallography and chemistry -of stones in the old days, writers referred to them often in general -terms rather than by specific names, and these were translated into the -names of later times according to the understanding of the translator, -who had neither expert knowledge of his own nor reliable literature -from which to gather information or guidance. An illustration of this -general confusion occurs in the book of Job XXVIII. 18. It is written -there, "No mention shall be made of coral, or of pearls; for the price -of wisdom is above rubies." Scholars tell us that the words translated -here "coral" and "pearls," signify "found in high places," and are -thought to be precious stones though the variety is unknown. The Targum -renders the first "Sandalchin," probably our sardonyx. Junius and -Tremellius translated it "Sandaztros" in their Latin version of the Old -Testament, whereas Pliny described it as a sort of carbuncle having -shining golden drops in the body of it. - -After the same manner the last sentence, "For the price of wisdom is -above rubies" is rendered by the great oriental scholar Bochart, "The -extraction of wisdom is greater than the extraction of pearls," and -other authorities agree with him. - -Although there is evidence that many if not all the precious stones -of to-day were known and used by the ancients, it is equally evident -that they were much confounded and very roughly classified by general -appearance only, and as various peoples gave them different names, all -records of them are as misleading as the recorders were ignorant of -their differential qualities. Even with the rapid increase of knowledge -in the last few centuries, not until quite lately has science drawn the -lines clearly between stones similar in appearance though essentially -different and furnished means for the detection of those inherent -differences. It is impossible therefore to learn by ancient writings -how long any of the precious stones have been known and used as jewels, -for we do not know positively what the stone was by the name given in -old writings or by the translator of them. The pearl only has not been -thus generally confounded with other gems. - -Once only are pearls mentioned in the Old Testament—the instance -quoted from the book of Job. It would seem therefore, that although -used as jewels, they were not regarded as of great value in the East -prior to about 400 years B.C., at which time the last of the sacred -Jewish books is supposed to have been written. True, royalty wore them -in Egypt and the people of Persia and Arabia used them very generally -for personal adornment; but they were abundant in those countries and -there had been no demand for them beyond their borders, therefore, -though beautiful, they were common and not appreciated fully. Upon the -influx of foreign invaders from shores that yielded no such gems their -status changed rapidly. The greedy avidity with which Greeks and Romans -seized them, and the demand for them from the West which came later, -gave these natives of pearl-producing shores a new idea of the value of -their pearls and the trinkets became gems. - -It was a condition similar to that which arose nineteen hundred years -later when the Spaniards invaded America. At their first coming the -natives gave them freely large quantities of pearls and gleefully -traded magnificent gems for broken pieces of gaudily painted and -varnished porcelain. As one to-day might take a new acquaintance for -a day's fishing to a well-stocked stream, so the Indians took the -Spaniards to the pearl banks to show them how they obtained their -pearls. With pleasure and probably some amusement, they watched the -eagerness with which the strangers sought the pearls, and doubtless -wondered at the gratification displayed when they found any. - -The Egyptians and Asiatics being more highly civilized undoubtedly -valued their pearls more than the South American Indians did, but -naturally they would not appreciate them so highly as they did after -foreign desire had depleted their hoards and established a constant -demand for them, greater than the yield of their fisheries. - -That this condition prevailed in Egypt and Asia prior to the advent -of Europeans, is indicated by the apparent ignorance of the writer of -the book of Job concerning pearls. The word used in Chapter XXVIII. -18 is simply the translator's sign for an unknown quantity, and as -the pearl is an apt symbol and illustration of many ideas connected -with or embodied in the cult of the Jewish Church, the fact that the -Jewish writers did not so use it, though the precious metals and other -precious stones were so used, and though their books were written -in various countries, suggests that the pearl in those days was not -reckoned of equal importance with gold and silver and stones like those -set in the Jewish High Priest's breastplate for instance. - -That a very considerable change in the world's estimate of the pearl -took place during the four centuries B.C. is illustrated by the -references made to pearls in the New Testament. Rome had made of the -"white bones from a shell-fish" of the fourth century B.C., a gem for -the rich and powerful and so generally established it in the public -estimation that the sacred writers used it to illustrate their greatest -conceptions of beauty and spiritual worth. - -The Saviour likened the Kingdom of Heaven to "a pearl of great price:" -under the similitude of pearls He counseled the reservation of holy -things from men incapable of appreciating them. Paul and John numbered -them among the costly adornments in the pride of life and with -the most precious articles of merchandise. From that day, with the -extension of commerce, and the growth of Western nations in affluence -and refinement, the demand for pearls grew and spread until even the -rude island of Britain learned to appreciate them. - -The quantities of large and beautiful pearls stored in the -treasure-houses of Hindu princes suggest that they have existed as -jewels in India for a very long period, but for how many centuries -cannot be definitely stated. The probability is that in very remote -ages, rude fishermen of tropic seas all over the world, while fishing -for food were attracted by the lustrous objects found occasionally in -the oysters which they gathered and that they saved them as things -likely to please some maid or matron of their affections. A favor for -them once established, they would be sought, and with the growth of -intelligence and refinement would come increased appreciation. There is -a close analogy in all things between the development of the individual -and nations, and even of the world. Each progresses on the same lines, -the difference consists in the magnitude and duration of the processes -only. - -To the child, pearls are playthings; to youth, pretty baubles; to -mature years, important gems; to age, most beautiful and wonderful -creations, and the more intelligent and refined the individual, the -more quickly are these stages of regard reached. - -So probably, in countries where they were found, pearls have risen -with the evolution of a great nation out of a primitive race, from the -rude favor of toilers of the sea, to a high place in the esteem of the -princes of a cultivated people. It is quite probable that when the -Aryans from the north spread over India, they found pearls among the -possessions of the natives of the Madras and Malabar coasts, if not of -the interior and north, as Spain found them among the natives of South -America. Having a higher order of intelligence, they would naturally -estimate the gem as of greater value than the aborigines would. - -As the invaders in the course of centuries gradually divided themselves -into castes, the gem would come largely into the hands of the highest -and its value would increase with the affluence of the ruling class, -according to the ratio existing between their wealth and that of the -average community; for the centralization of wealth establishes a price -for its imperishable forms which debars the masses from ownership. So, -probably, the Aryans from the north acquired the pearls they found in -the possession of the Dasyus. When the shepherd invaders were settled -in the territory they had conquered and became divided into castes -of Vaisyas, Kshattriya and Brahman, pearls gravitated to the upper -classes, to be garnered later by their princes as the government -assumed a tyrannical form; and so it is that the great pearls of India -found in ancient times are among the jewels of the princes of India, or -of the Shah of Persia and the Afghan Ameers, who in turn looted some of -the richest treasuries of India. - -In countries east of India one can only imagine the history of pearls -for there are no records of them. Year after year, for centuries and -cycles, in undiscovered deeps, the beds of the sea were strewn with -noble gems that through all their years of beauty lay neglected: the -soft luster of succeeding charms appealed in vain for eyes which never -came, and when the slow processes of time had brought decay they passed -unseen to the catacombs of Nature. - -So it was in many a tropic sea, on unknown shores and about islands -holding strange creatures and stranger men. In the still, clear waters -of far-away lagoons, treasures of pearls, released by the death of -their creators, have rolled to a resting-place on coral reefs, to lie -there until the sea, atom by atom, devoured them. Could all the pearls -hoarded by every nation on earth be gathered together, the mighty sum -would be small compared with the number of those which lie buried -beneath the ocean. - -But, one by one, slant-eyed Celestials, Maoris, Malays, Papuans, -Polynesians and others, discovering, learned to prize and hoard the -pearl. Then came men from far-off wonderlands, whose great ships spread -their sails to the winds of the deep waters and who could endure for -many days the solitudes of the great seas. These in the early days made -war to plunder, but were replaced as the centuries passed, by others -who gave gaudy beads and cloths of many colors and water that fired the -soul and other wonderful things, in exchange for the white beads of the -sea, and so the pearls of the unenlightened children of the South Seas -passed to the princes of the West, even as the same restless spirits, -spreading their sails to the winds of the great seas in the opposite -direction, brought them east from more barbarous shores far away to the -westward. - -Our knowledge of pearls reaches back about twenty-three hundred years, -through the writings of Pliny, who nearly nineteen hundred years ago -gathered the facts of his day and the rumors of traditions concerning -them. Beyond that we can only surmise that in prehistoric ages, with -the dawn of intelligence in the infantile period of the race, men -dwelling near tropic seas were attracted by them as children are by -bright and pretty baubles; and that as humanity by families, tribes and -nations, grew out of savagery to the mental stature of a man, so pearls -grew to be jewels very precious. - - - - -THE FASHION OF PEARLS - - -Although the pearl like all other jewels, has had its periods of -extreme and general public favor, unlike other gems if it is once -appreciated by an individual or a nation it is never utterly discarded -by either. If not the fashion, pearls are always in fashion. Far as we -can look back among the dim, uncertain figures of the mystic past whose -shades stand where the unknown multitudes have fallen, we find pearls. - -The princes of India through all their generations, the dynasties of -Egypt, the royalties of Persia, the wild chiefs of Arab tribes, the -potentates of Greece, Rome and Venice, the houris of Turkey, the Queens -of every European court, from the time they found a place in history -until now, all wear pearls. At first thought this seems strange, for -of all gems the origin of the pearl is most humble. No titanic forces, -groaning in the travail of subterranean convulsions, crushed and ground -and fired its particles to shape and beauty. It grew, a few fathoms -deep, where the waters are at peace, in the embrace of a mollusk and -out of its exudations. - -[Illustration: PRINCESS ABAMALEK LAZAREFF - -( _From the painting by Vitelleschi _)] - -From this lowly parentage it rises at once to a place among the -noblest, for it is the aristocrat of gems and finds its warmest -admirers among the aristocrats of all nations. The favorites of fortune -the world over in all ages have succumbed to the modest beauty of the -pearl. Its ascendancy marks not alone the refinement of the individuals -with whom it finds favor, but the high status of the nation where it -is widely appreciated. The pearl is the favorite of those who are -surfeited with jewels. One may become tired of the diamond's splendor, -but those who learn to appreciate the unobtrusive loveliness of the -pearl, seldom lose that fondness for them which it develops. It is -the one gem which does not satiate. The love of pearls usually marks -a connoisseur of gems and one accustomed to the possession of jewels. -Diamonds emblazon the gates of luxury but pearls are the familiars of -the luxurious. Glittering gems are admired by all classes but usually -the pearl is fully appreciated only by old countries and persons "to -the manor born." It is in the treasure-houses of the princes of the -Orient and among the jewels of great and noble families that one must -look for the pearls gathered during the centuries. Except in Italy and -Arabia, where all classes prize them, the pearl is not a jewel of the -people, but of the gentry and the very rich who come in contact with -them. - -It is essentially a jewel for the wealthy. Unostentatious, exquisite, -it is insufficient for those who have no other jewels and unfit for -common wear. Of a nature too delicate for rough usage, it must be well -cared for and properly housed. Even then the hand of time bears heavily -upon it for it is susceptible to many influences which do not affect -other gems. Comparatively soft, the lustrous skin is injured by rough -and careless contact with other jewels. The gold of the setting, in -time, cuts into the surface where it binds, or if it is pierced and -strung, the rings of nacre about the orifices gradually peel away. Hot -water injures it; gases discolor it. As the cheek of beauty grows dim -with age, so gradually the brilliancy of youth fades from the pearl -and the complexion of it is changed. And yet it retains a certain -loveliness which may well be compared to the exquisite serenity with -which the maturer years of some women are adorned. - -The pearl, therefore, being essentially a jewel of the rich, is not -affected as others by the whims of fashion. In Oriental countries, -where the lives of the masses and what little property they hold are -practically at the mercy of their rulers, the centuries make little -change in conditions and less in fashions. The nobles have always -possessed the jewels of the various eastern countries and the fashion -continues through generations and dynasties, to accumulate and hold -them until some stronger power takes them away by force. As the people -hammered heavy bracelets and anklets out of the precious metals, not -alone for display, but also to hoard them, so their princes hoarded -jewels. - -In the old times these hoards of the precious metals were periodically -gathered by the requisitions of the princes on the people, and of -jewels by the demands of a successful invader upon the princes; but -while the possessors changed, the fashion remained always the same, and -whether the Shah of Persia, the Ameer of Afghanistan, or the Mogul, -there has been no variation in the constant desire to obtain more -jewels, pearls among them, and to display them after the same fashion -through all the generations. - -To some extent this is true of pearls in the Occident also. Since -Rome set the fashion there has not been a time in the history of any -European nation, once it had risen to the pearl-wearing eminence, when -the upper classes did not wear pearls. There is this difference between -the East and the West however; whereas the men of the East wear them, -in the West, pearls are worn almost entirely by women alone. The more -rugged life of European men, the coarser fabrics of their garments to -suit climatic needs, and their virile distaste for effeminate display, -all combine to bar them from a jewel suited only to soft silks and -linens or the touch of softer flesh. - -In ancient times, among Asiatics, fashion probably did not culminate -in any direction, as to-day, in a vogue. The inability of the masses -to follow a fashion of the upper classes, both for lack of means and -permission to do so; the absence of all rapid methods of communication -between sections of country within and without national borders, -with the consequent limitations of a knowledge of men and things to -community affairs, and the paucity of manufacturing possibilities, -all combined to make fashions permanent. With the awakening of the -vigorous barbarian tribes of Europe to a knowledge of their power, and -their rapid civilization, came the frenzied desire of men new to the -situation, to crowd as much as possible into the span of life. - -Rome rioted in the accumulations of ages. With an appetite whetted by -an heredity of unsatisfied desire, she drank the finest vintages and -gourmandized the choicest morsels of the world, immune from present -punishment for excess by a long ancestry of hard and simple life. Every -land that she could reach, sent to her the best of all their products, -and from the incoming tide of things new to her experience, she -adopted many fashions, among them that of wearing pearls. For several -centuries they were in vogue, so much so that edicts were issued -restricting them to certain classes. Since that time, the very general -use of them by persons of high station in Europe, beyond all other -gems, seems to have been confined to the seventeenth and eighteenth -centuries and is now being revived at the opening of the twentieth. - -There is one fashion of wearing pearls which is common to all ages -and races, viz. strung as beads in chains to hang about the neck. The -mound-builders of North America, the Indians of the Mississippi Valley, -of Virginia, of the coasts of Florida, of the lands around the Gulf -of Mexico and everywhere in New Spain, all wore them so. Egyptians, -Persians, Arabians, Hindus, Singhalese and South Sea islanders, many of -them without knowledge of countries or peoples beyond their own or very -near territory, alike adopted this fashion. And it has been followed by -every newer people, as they acquired by trade or the sword, the pearls -with which to so adorn themselves. - -In lands of tropic heat the women wound these strings of pearls about -their arms, wrists and ankles also. Nor was the fashion confined to -women. When the Spaniards first reached these shores, the caciques of -Florida and the incas of Peru, on occasions of State, wore ropes of -pearls around their necks, and so to this day do the rajahs and princes -of India and the eastern islands. The more civilized peoples used round -pearls, and became more critical about the quality and perfection of -the gems as they grew in wealth and refinement. - -The necklaces found in the Indian mounds are made principally of -baroques, some of them rounded, but many of them long, slender pieces, -bored a short distance from the thinner end, so that they hung in -pendant festoons. As with all primitive races, the magnificence of -size appealed to the Indians of this hemisphere, as it did also to -the Spanish adventurers who first landed on the coasts of America. A -chronicler of events during the time when De Soto was governor of the -province which now forms several of the Southern States, mentions that -a cacique brought as a present to the governor at the town of Ichiaha, -a string of pearls as large as filberts, five feet long. - -It is noticeable, that in all the accounts given of the wealth of -pearls discovered in the possession of the natives, the Spaniards -rarely say anything about the shape or quality of the pearls seen -or taken, but always mention the size when large. They do, however, -constantly deplore the discoloration caused by the use of fire in -the process of boring them. One may imagine the chagrin of these -freebooters on finding heaps of royal gems wrecked by the ignorance -of the plundered; the value burned out of them, like bank notes for -millions mutilated beyond redemption. The pearls composing this -five-foot string were all discolored,—good enough for Indians, but of -little value in Spain and Europe. - -Round baroques are strung for necklaces to this day, especially -in Italy, where the peasantry save from their small earnings the -equivalent of two to three hundred dollars, to them an enormous sum, -to buy the coveted necklace of pearls. These necklaces are composed -usually of several strands of small rounded baroques weighing about -one to two grains each and connected by bars. Usually there are three -to five strands, but some are made with as many as eleven or twelve. -Necklaces are made also in the same way, of small round pearls, and the -bars, of which there are generally four, including that containing the -clasp, are studded with diamonds. - -The Asiatics prefer strings of large pearls, graduating in size on -either side from a large central one. A number of these of increasing -length and fastened together at the clasp are worn by Oriental -royalties, so that each string festoons below the preceding one, the -lowest and longest string sometimes hanging to the waist. There are few -however even among the Hindu princes whose store of large pearls is -equal to such prodigality. - -When pearl necklaces were adopted by the Romans after their conquests -in Egypt, Persia and India, they vied with the monarchs they had -conquered, some of their rulers acquiring pearls of enormous value. The -wife of Caligula owned pearls worth two million dollars, but Oriental -treasure-houses held greater accumulations. The pearls of the late Rana -of Dholpur in Upper India, were valued at seven and a half million -dollars. From Rome the fashion spread with the advance of civilization -through all the nations of Europe and followed their colonizations -westward. Only in the last decade has the use of pearls in the United -States become sufficiently general to place them in the list of things -that are a fashion. - -Many large pearls of pear, egg, or drop shape, and some round, are used -as pendants, to be hung on slender gold neck chains, or suspended from -brooches of diamonds. They are bored at the smaller end to a depth of -about one-eighth of an inch, the hole is filled with a composition -which hardens rapidly, and in this a gold wire, looped at one end for -connecting, is inserted. Formerly the pearl was drilled quite through -and the suspending wire riveted, but this is rarely done now as it -lessens the value of the pearl and destroys the perfect pendant effect. -This is a European fashion. The Chinese mount pearls by boring into -the body of the pearl at two, three or four points and inserting the -bent ends of spreading wires so that the gem is clasped as by spreading -finger tips. - -Pear-shaped pearls were used in Rome for pendant purposes as now and -were known as "elenchi." After the Roman fashion of "crotalia" or -"castanet" eardrops had passed, drop pearls continued in more or less -favor throughout succeeding centuries as eardrops, the matching of one -nearly doubling the value of both. Of late, egg and pear-shaped pearls -have been used largely as heads for scarf pins. They are drilled and -set on a gold wire or "pegged" as it is called, in the manner described -for pendants but with the smaller end resting upon a light gold ring -soldered to the scarf pin, or in a small cup, so that the pressure, -while inserting the pin, is distributed over the body of the pearl and -upon the end, instead of upon the inner wall in contact with the end of -the pin. - -The Persians used pearls largely in the jewelling of royal headgear, -for Pompey is said to have brought home twenty crowns of pearls with -the loot from his eastern raid. Hindu princes strung them on straight -wires of equal length and bound a number of them together, to be -fastened as pompons or aigrettes, to their turbans. They encrusted and -edged their robes with them as also did the royalties and nobles of -Europe during the middle ages. Seed pearls were strung in lengths of -four to six feet and the strands twisted together like a rope. This -fashion continues to this day, such ropes of pearls sometimes measuring -five feet in length. - -The semi-barbarous Indian tribes of America did not confine the use -of pearls altogether to personal adornment. They decorated their -idols, state canoes, the handles of the paddles, and the figures in -their temples with them, and they buried enormous quantities in the -sepulchres with their dead. There is no evidence that this latter form -of extravagance was at any time general in Asia or Europe, but Julius -Cæsar made a buckler of British pearls which he hung up in the temple -of Venus Genetrix after dedicating it to her. - -Among the ancients it does not appear that pearls were used in -connection with the precious metals to a great extent. Collars of gold -and silver with large pearls as pendants were sometimes seen upon the -necks of Indians by the Spaniards when they landed on this continent, -but in Asia, Africa, and upon their first introduction into Europe, -pearls were not used with the metals as freely as other gems. As the -art of the jeweller developed however, they came into more general -use and are now utilized with gold in every form of jewelry. Round -and button pearls with diamonds or other stones, or alone, are set in -gold as brooches, ear-rings, finger-rings, bracelets, hair-ornaments, -scarf-pins, dress-pins, studs, cuff and dress buttons, etc., and -baroques are also used for the same purposes. Brooches, lockets and -pendants are paved with solid masses of half pearls. - -Some ancient swords of Hindu warriors betray a curious custom. A groove -with over-lapping edges was sunk in the blade and into this pearls were -introduced from the hilt end to represent the tears of enemies. There -are blades so constructed in the collection of Indian swords presented -to King Edward of England when, as the Prince of Wales, he visited -India. - -Jewellers frequently avail themselves of the odd shapes in which -baroques occur to construct unique jewels. Nature frequently gives them -a resemblance to animals, and sometimes to the human figure and face, -which may be accentuated by the jeweller's art so as to make the -resemblance striking. In one notable instance lately, a baroque was -so mounted that it might easily pass as a modelled portrait of Queen -Victoria. Baroques resembling bird's wings are common and are often -made effective by mounting them on a bird of gold. Others remind one -of fish, birds, insects, and beasts of various kinds. Clustered pearls -enveloped together sometimes look like dog's heads, in which two of -the enveloped pearls near the surface pass for eyes. Long, slender -baroques are set to resemble the petals of a chrysanthemum, and others, -mounted singly in sepals of gold, are suggestive of the buds of various -flowers, roses, lilies, etc. - -[Illustration: VARYING FORMS OF PEARLS - -1-5 Abalone Baroques. 6 Blister. 7-10 Twinned Pearls. 11-21 Baroques. -22-29 Round Baroques. 30-31 Wing Pearls. 32-35 Button Pearls. 36-37 -Colored Round Pearls. 38-41 White Round Pearls. 42 Jockey Cap.] - - -Round and button pearls are used extensively now, and have been at -various periods formerly, as centres for circles, or "clusters" of -diamonds mounted as scarf-pins, finger-rings and formerly, when they -were worn, as ear-rings. The pearls are sometimes drilled and set on -a peg; sometimes they are held by claws or prongs as the diamonds -surrounding them are. - -Pearls are very generally used now as studs by men for evening dress, -usually mounted on pegs so as to avoid the display of any gold. - -But all fashions of wearing pearls except as necklaces, are ephemeral. -The fashion of pearl necklaces has been constant for thousands of -years, though it is only brought to general public notice when some new -country with its great and rapid accretions of wealth, adopts it. The -markets of the world are then affected, the price of the gem rises, and -this in turn tempts ancient and impoverished families to unlock their -jewel cases to the bidding of the nouveau riche. That this condition -has existed from the beginning of this century is shown by the sales -which are being made constantly in Europe at the great public auctions -of jewels. In 1901 the Comtesse de Castiglione necklace was sold for -$84,000. At the sale of the Princess Mathilde jewels in Paris, a three -strand necklace of 133 pearls weighing 3320 grains, once the property -of Queen Sophie of Holland, brought 885,000 francs, which with the -taxes to the purchaser made the cost $188,000. At the same sale, a -seven strand collar given by Napoleon I. to the Queen of Westphalia, -weighing 4,200 grs., brought $89,000, and another collar once owned by -the same Queen containing thirty-three black pearls, weighing 1040 grs. -was sold for $20,240. Several fine strings were sold in London in 1903. -Among them a three-row necklace from the Aquila Jewels for $22,400. -A string of 198 finely matched gem pearls, round and graduated, was -sold at Christie's for 6,500 pounds. A triple row of 153 of the same -kind brought 6,500 pounds. Many important sales have been made in the -States, during the last ten years especially, but as they were made -privately, and as buyers here are averse to any publicity they are -not chronicled. It is a fact well known to jewellers, that Americans -in their home market are extremely difficult. They demand a degree of -perfection, not only in the gems themselves, but also in the matching -of them, rarely exacted in other countries. There are strings of pearls -in this country which if less magnificent, for extreme perfection and -beauty are seldom equalled by the more notorious jewels of Europe, -and princely sums have been paid for single pieces of great size and -purity. Greater quantities of the coveted treasures of the earth -are pouring into the lap of the United States of America through the -channels of peaceful industry, than were ever gathered to a nation in -the olden times by the marauders of the sword, and the jewel cases of -our princes of commerce will soon eclipse those held by the scions of -ancient freebooters. - - - - -VARIETIES - - -True pearls are divided primarily into two classes, "oriental," and -"fresh-water." By true pearls those creations are meant which consist of -concentric layers of nacre or mother-of-pearl, as distinguished from -similar formations by mollusks out of material that is not pearly. - -In the early days pearls brought from the Orient were therefore called -"Oriental" pearls. For the same reason the fine mellow luster which -characterized and made them superior to others came to be known as the -"orient" of the pearl. These pearls were taken from oysters found on -the coasts of Ceylon, Arabia, and the Red Sea. Later, when the same -kind of oysters containing similar pearls were found in other seas, -they were also classified with them, until the term "oriental" is now -applied usually to all true pearls taken from salt water mollusks, to -distinguish them from those found in the fresh water mussels and other -products of ocean shell-fish which, though similar in construction and -composition, are not nacreous. Occasionally, however, the term is -still applied specifically to pearls from the Indian Seas, though their -"orient" or luster is not always finer than that of like pearls found -in many other localities. - -Pearl oysters are varieties of the Avicula Margaritifera, of which -the Meleagrina Margaritifera is the most prolific of mother-of-pearl -and pearls combined, and, the Indian excepted, yields the finest -pearls. All pearl oysters do not produce sufficient mother-of-pearl -to make their shells valuable, nor do they all contain pearls. The -name therefore applies to all oysters whose secretions are productive, -in some degree, of mother-of-pearl and therefore under favorable -conditions of pearls also. - -"Fresh-water" or "sweet-water" pearls are, as the name signifies, those -found in the mollusks of inland waters. This mollusk is a mussel. The -name "mussel" in Anglo-Saxon signifies something which retires on being -touched. It is known as "Unio" of which there are many pearl-bearing -varieties. - -In both the sea oyster and the fresh-water mussel, other nacreous -formations occur of irregular shape called "baroque" pearls. The -orientals approach more nearly to the globular and hemispherical form -of true pearls, having frequently the lumpy rotundity of a snowball and -sometimes sections which are smooth and round. The fresh-water baroques -are usually very irregular, often fantastically so. Many resemble -the incisor teeth of man or distorted grains of corn. Slender pieces -similar to the wing of a bird and therefore called "wing" pearls, or -"hinge" pearls because they are found near the hinge of the shell, -are common. Some are shaped like a flat spike nail. Unlike oriental -baroques, the surface of a large proportion of the fresh-waters is -grooved or indented and some show a beautiful iridescence. Large button -baroques of fine luster and iridescent, especially when they have a -decided tinge of pink, have come to be known of late as "rose" pearls. -Another variety of pink baroques having a fairly regular shape with a -lustrous and finely irregular pimply surface are known as "strawberry" -pearls. These terms are applied indiscriminately to the two varieties -however. - -Another nacreous formation found in the mother-of-pearl oyster shells -is the "blister." It is produced by the raising of the nacreous -deposits above the level of the shell to cover some intruder of -considerable size. This results in a growth similar in shape to a -blister on the flesh, hence the name. It is cut out of the shell and -used in various ways as a set for jewelry, or to imitate the bodies -of insects or small animals. Others with a slightly higher dome and -rounded oval shape, regular in form, are called "turtlebacks." - -[Illustration: PANAMA PEARL-SHELL, SHOWING MUD-BLISTERS, BORERS, AND -PEARL] - -Some of these hollow shells of pearl have been found to cover small -fish, lizards, etc. The writer saw one which appeared to be a -large button-pearl. On lifting, it proved to be a shell of several -thicknesses of nacre covering a small shell-fish about a half-inch in -diameter. The imprisoned mollusk was shrunken and crumbling so that the -nacreous covering could be lifted from over it, a hollow dome of pearl. -Mud blisters are common in some waters and depreciate the quality of -the shell and are otherwise useless. A typical mud-blister appears in -the shell illustrated herewith. - -The Abalone pearl occurs usually as a baroque or blister but -occasionally it is found solid and spherical. Although it is not -classed among true pearls, a few globular pieces found are entitled to -a place among them because they are sometimes identical in construction -and have a similar pearly luster, it is however very liable to crack -and break and can seldom be pierced with safety. - -The shell-fish from which it takes the name is the Haliotis, called -here the Abalone. It is known under many names—ear-shell, Venus's -ear, etc. In the English Channel Islands it is the ormer, and on the -adjacent coast of France where it is very abundant the name for it is -similar—"ormier." The Aelonians called it the "Ear of Venus." The shell -is ear-shaped, flattened, slightly spiral and has a series of round -holes near the edge curving with the last whorl toward the boss. As -it grows, the oldest of these are successively filled up and the last -remaining open, serves as the anal channel. The exterior is very rough -and unsightly, but the mother-of-pearl interior is one of the most -exquisite pieces of color work painted by the hand of nature and to -this is added an enlivening iridescence most fascinating. Like it, the -pearl formations are deeply tinted. Brownish reds, peacock greens, and -dark grays are the prevailing colors. They are seldom of even color or -luster, many of them having but one lustrous point where a pearly glaze -seems to have been incorporated with the earthenware like surface. - -Usually the pearls when round and lustrous are not constructed as -compactly as those of the bivalves. The texture of the skins vary in -quality and the frequent presence of intermediary strata of black -conchiolin which shrink, makes them liable to crack and break. The -blisters run very even in these two qualities of color and luster and -though seldom quite as brilliant as the nacre of the shell, are very -beautiful and often curiously formed. These blister-baroques are like -two blisters joined at the edges, and are liable to separate there. The -interior consists chiefly of black conchiolin, rough and somewhat shiny. - -The "Conch" pearl, found in the Conch (Strombus gigas) of the West -Indies, also is not a true pearl. The shell is used largely for -ornamental purposes, especially for the cutting of cameos, and also -in porcelain works. It is a large shell, sometimes weighing four or -five pounds. Formerly great quantities were exported to England from -the Bahamas; in one year as many as three hundred thousand. Conch -pearls are devoid of nacreous luster, the surface having an appearance -like china. They are slightly transparent and show under the surface a -series of delicate wavy markings. - -The silky sheen of these lines causes them to appear lighter than the -body color of the pearl, and they seem to branch toward the surface, -changing kaleidoscopically as the pearl is turned. Almost without -exception the shape is ovoid, or a flattened ovoid, though some are -distorted. In color they range from very pale to deep pink and coral -red, the ends being usually much lighter than the body and often -white. In the deeper tints they are more uniform in color, and as they -are apt to be less lustrous and transparent as the shade deepens to -red they show less plainly the distinguishing wavy lines, and may be -easily mistaken for pieces of coral cut to the shape and polished. They -are very delicate and therefore easily fractured or cracked. As the -natives usually obtain the pearls by cooking the fish, for which they -have a great liking, a large proportion of the few which come into the -market are cracked. It is claimed also that the color fades with time. -They are sometimes called "Nassau" pearls. - -Pearls similar in appearance to the Conch, except that the wavy lines -are absent and the skin rarely as brilliant, are taken with true pearls -from the small varieties of the Avicula, especially about the coast of -Venezuela. Some are white as chalk, many are tinted in various shades -of gray, yellow and brownish reds. They have the shining appearance of -china in different degrees, but no nacreous luster. The skins of many -of these are peculiarly constructed, they show modified characteristics -of various parts of the shell. The surface wave lines are present -to some extent, together with curious malformations of prisms and -conchiolin. - -The hexagonal faces look as though they had been doubled up upon -themselves together with a layer of conchiolin, the latter appearing -as thick black V or U shaped marks in the faces of the distorted -hexagons. Heretofore these have been considered valueless, but it is -possible that with the increasing vogue of pearls and the growing -desire for oddities, they will be utilized in the cheaper forms of -jewelry. - -Creations similar in construction to pearls are found occasionally -in the common oyster and clam. Though entirely devoid of the pearly -texture and luster, some of them are very perfect in shape and -smoothness of skin. Whether taken from the oyster or clam they are -usually called "clam pearls." The color of the oyster pearl is -generally a light drab. The clam pearls are mostly purplish red or -blue, often dark enough to appear black. Those taken from the oyster -are generally round; those from the clam are more frequently ovoid. -Occasionally one or both ends of the oval are lighter in color, as -the Conch pearl is, changing there to a dark red or purple. When the -color is very dark and the skin uncommonly good, they have been sold -for black pearls by unscrupulous dealers. They are accounted of little -value, though exceptionally large pieces will sometimes sell for as -much as one hundred to a hundred and fifty dollars. Similar to these, -pearly formations characterized by a glazed, or glassy, or shiny -surface, are found in many molluscan varieties, bivalves and univalves, -but none of these are true pearls. - -Pearls similar to the pink Conch are found in the shank or chank of -Ceylon (Turbinella scolymus). This is the sacred shell of the Hindus -and the national emblem of Travancore in the Madras presidency, India. -Vishnu carries a chank called "Devadatta" in his hand. It is said his -first incarnation was for the purpose of destroying Shankhásura (the -giant chank shell), and thereby regaining the Vedas, which had been -stolen and taken to ocean deeps. - - - - -COLOR - - -The ideal color for a pearl is white. Although all fine white pearls -show by comparison a tint of some color, a fine white must be free -from an appearance which can only be described as "dark." It is not -color always but a certain density which makes the gem appear dead by -comparison with the soft, warm, life-like white of the perfect pearl. -The layers or skins of some pearls are more transparent than others and -this imparts a liveliness which is absent in the more dense. - -Upon looking at a string of pearls held between the eye and the light, -some will appear much lighter than others and show a translucent band -about one-fifth the diameter of the pearl, extending from the edge of -the circumference inward. Such pearls upon examination will be found -much finer in color and texture than those which have the appearance -beside them of dark opaque spots when held against the light. - -There is also a white which is not dark and is yet dead. To some -extent it is characteristic of all fresh-water pearls. It is a chalky, -milky white that even when lustrous, carries a reminder of chalk in -the texture and lacks the essential life of the ideal pearl. Color -in the highest perfection is found in the pearls of the Ceylon and -Australian waters, the former being also very lustrous, and such are -sometimes termed by the trade "Madras," after the city where the Indian -pearls have been marketed for ages. It must not be inferred however -that pearls equally good are not found in other localities, but that -the color averages better, and the number of gems of ideal color and -luster is greater from the Ceylon fisheries than elsewhere. The color -and texture, and therefore luster, of fine Indian pearls is seldom -equalled, never surpassed. - -To those who are without experience, and see for the first time a -large quantity of pearls apparently alike in color, it would seem an -easy matter to match any required number; but in attempting to gather -sufficient for a single strand necklace, one would learn that a parcel -or series of pearls, seemingly all white, contains a surprisingly -great variety of shades or tones of color; that which appears at first -sight quite easy becomes in the attempt extremely difficult. Probably -nothing requires a sharper eye, a more delicate sense of color and -greater patience, than the assembling of a finely matched string of -pearls. Bearing in mind that size, shape, color, and perfection, must -all correspond, it is not surprising that few strings exist which are -above criticism. - -Those who buy them seldom realize what enormous quantities of pearls, -and skilful and painstaking effort is necessary, to match perfectly, -thirty or more, especially of large size. Pearls which, separated by a -few inches seem alike, when brought close together reveal differences -of texture and tone of color sufficiently pronounced to arrest the eye -and destroy that ideal perfection of purity which permits no spot to -mar the symmetry of an assemblage of these emblematic gems. It was said -in old times that to match a pearl perfectly was to double the value -of both; one may imagine therefore the difficulty which confronts the -modern jeweller when he undertakes in this critical age to match thirty -or forty. - -The color most common in pearls of all seas is yellow, but it is not so -with fresh-water ones. Other colors are seldom found except as tints in -white pearls, but distinctly yellow oriental pearls are abundant. The -tones of color in the white are, yellow, blue, pink and green. They are -so slight that it is difficult to recognize them except by comparison. -The blue and pink are considered best, the champions of each being -about equal. The green come next in favor and the yellow last. This -order applies fully however to the Occident only. Some Oriental peoples -do not draw such fine distinctions, and the Chinese prefer the creamy -yellow to any other. - -The "blue" pearls, or "Panama" pearls as they are sometimes called -in the trade, must not be confounded with the blue white pearls just -mentioned. "Blue" pearls are of a dingy, slaty blue tint. They have -a dark appearance and the luster is seldom good. As many of this -character are found in the Panama waters such pearls are often sold as -"Panama" pearls. They are even less desirable than those which are -decidedly yellow, though persons of a little knowledge will often buy -them in preference to others which are better, because they are not -yellow and are cheap. - -"Fancies" include all decided colors, or those having a rare and -beautiful tint. Yellow pearls as generally found are not classed among -them because the color is not fine, but dark,—"brackish" one might term -it. A clean buttercup yellow, or an orange yellow, would be "fancy" -however. On the other hand a deep pink is seldom fine as the color is -then almost invariably muddy, whereas the clean delicate light pink -pearls are rare and highly esteemed. A clear grass green is never seen -but the color occurs in very beautiful bronze and peacock shadings. -Various shades of blue, rose, copper, and red with bronze effects, and -black are included in this classification. - -Black pearls are much prized, and the term covers a wide range of -dark shades of gray, slate, brown and red. The ideal color however -is sufficiently deep to be, as the name indicates, black, though it -has not the metallic appearance of hematite, nor the polished shine -of the black clam pearl. Black pearls having a bronze effect are -open to suspicion, especially if they are pierced, as many of them -are artificially colored and are liable to fade. Such pearls have a -somewhat metallic appearance, are seldom very lustrous, and if there -is a rough chalky place in the skin it will be blacker there than -elsewhere. - -It is difficult to give rules by which to judge color, but there is -a quality which can only be described as "clean." It is free from -muddiness and is desirable in pearls as in all other gems. - -The proportion of fancy colors is greater in fresh-water pearls than in -the orientals. In the United States the fisheries which have yielded -the finest "fancies" are those of Wisconsin, Kentucky and Tennessee. Of -sea pearls, most of the fine black ones come from the coasts of Mexico. -Beautiful colored pearls are found in fisheries of the Oceanic Islands, -for instance at the Isles of New Caledonia and Gambier, and in China -and Japan. - -To make close comparisons of color in pearls, place them on white -cotton under or opposite a strong natural light. To judge shape and -luster, roll them on black cloth. These are the most trying conditions -and it should be remembered by those who test them thus, that no -position as jewels when worn can be so unfavorable or trying. - - - - -IMPERFECTIONS - - -Few pearls are perfect. The great majority of small pearls even, fail -in one or more of the ideal qualities, and as the size increases -perfection becomes more rare. A perfect pearl is not necessarily of the -finest luster, but it must be lustrous and of even luster all over. If -round, it must be spherically round; if pear or ovoid, symmetrically -so, and the skin must be free from blemishes. - -Baroque and button pearls are naturally imperfect pearls, the former -being fantastically irregular in shape and the latter partially -deformed. Imperfections of shape in what are termed round pearls are -more numerous than those unaccustomed to handling them would suppose. - -A lot of pearls which to the casual glance seem to be all quite round, -will be found often on close examination to contain many, if not a -majority, that are not. Upon rolling them separately, irregularities -will appear which the luster and contiguity of others concealed. It -will be discovered that the domes of some are slightly flattened at -one part of the sphere; in others at two opposite points so as to form -a double domed disk. Very many have slight protuberances above the -contour of the sphere, or places in the spherical line, which though -not flat, are depressed. While these minor imperfections of shape do -not materially hurt the beauty of the pearl, they do decrease the value -somewhat, and as they are quite common even among fine selected pearls -they accentuate the rarity of the perfectly spherical. - -The adventures of a pearl from the moment when the mollusk begins to -cover its nucleus with nacre, until the fisher squeezes it from the -folds of the creature's mantle, are many and varied. A few only escape -untoward happenings. The fortunate, born where the mollusk gathers and -spreads its choice secretions of mother-of-pearl, with room to grow -on every side, are nursed in the lap of good fortune and uncheckered, -round out layer by layer to perfection. - -But some are not so fortunate. In some way cramped, they are held -against the unyielding shell and grow flat on one side. These are the -button pearls. Others either from an irregular rolling, or unequal -action of the mollusk's mantle, become imperfectly round. Sometimes -foreign particles attach themselves to a growing pearl and becoming -enveloped with it in future layers, make an uneven surface. - -Not infrequently two round pearls grow side by side until they touch, -and together are enveloped by succeeding deposits; a twinned pearl is -the result. For some reason, drop and pear-shaped pearls are seldom -imperfect in shape. They may not be ideal but the form is usually good -and the contour even and regular. This would imply that the simple -rolling motion by the fish is more regular than the more complicated -movements necessary to form a sphere. - -Imperfections in the texture and luster of the skin are said to be due -to the movement of the growing pearl among the zones of the mollusk's -mantle supplying the varied material for the epidermis, middle shell, -and lining. The difficulties confronting this theory are explained in -the chapter on the "Genesis of Pearls." These imperfections consist -generally of dead white chalky spots and streaks, distributed over the -surface of the pearl, oftentimes so small as to escape notice except -under the loup. Sometimes these imperfections take the form of rings -or bands which encircle the pearl. Pearls so marked are rarely if -ever round, but ovoid, capsule, or cartridge shaped, and these chalky -lines always encircle the cylinder; they never cross the dome. Rings -around the dome occur, but the surface over them is of equal luster. -Frequently the entire outer skin is without luster. Whether this arises -from lack of some element in the exudations of the mollusk from which -the pearl is created, or from an imperfect crystallization of the -calcium carbonate, is not known. Such skins have the usual nacreous -surface wave lines and are often lustrous immediately under the outer -plates of the skin. - -It is possible that these chalky skins may result from the extraction -of the pearl from the mollusk during a transitional stage, and that -the presence of spots and streaks of that character, scattered over -an otherwise lustrous surface, indicates that the secretions of the -creature's mantle did not hold some essential ingredient in sufficient -quantity to secure perfect crystallization and thereby cover the entire -surface with transparent plates of calcium carbonate. It may be also -that a lack of essential elements in the creature's exudations, causes -a cessation of the mantle's action which by all signs appears necessary -for the production of transparent plates of nacre. - -"Peelers" are pearls of imperfect skins having indications of a better -one underneath. Speculators buy these pearls at a low price and skin -them. Sometimes they are rewarded by a smaller, but much more valuable -pearl. Many times the under skins are no better or worse, or if better, -the loss in size and weight, together with the cost of the work, make -it unprofitable. - -Peeling should not be attempted with cylindrical shaped pearls having -chalky bands or rings around them, as such imperfections usually -penetrate to the interior in pearls of that character. Cylindrical -pearls are almost invariably fresh-waters. The imperfections disclosed -in the under skins by peeling, are commonly irregularities of shape -which have been rounded over to the improvement of the sphericity of -the pearl. - -It is currently reported among the pearl hunters who fish the -western and southern streams, that the finding of soft pearls is not -infrequent. Upon opening the mussel, they sometimes see through the -mantle of the creature, an apparently fine pearl which upon being taken -out proves to be a soft jelly-like substance, the form of which is -usually destroyed in squeezing it out. These men do not believe that -a pearl is formed in layers, but think that all pearls are originally -globules of a similar soft substance, hardening later to a compact -solid ball and they call them "mussel eggs." - -Many pearls taken from the small thin-shelled varieties of the ocean -mollusk, as for instance those of Venezuela, are devoid in part, or -wholly, of the nacreous luster and instead have a china-like or waxy -luster, or a dead chalky skin. A large proportion of the Abalone -pearls and baroques are lustrous only in part, one section having an -earthenware appearance. Many appear to be formed of interstratified -layers of nacre and conchiolin. This construction is very distinct in -a formation peculiar to the Abalone, consisting of two nacreous shells -joined perfectly at the edges, the inside walls of both being covered -with rough black conchiolin. - -Peculiarities in the quality of the nacre sometimes give an appearance -of uneven shape which does not exist in reality. The light falling -upon such pearls produces a knobby effect, as though there were -protuberances on the surface. The texture of others is such that when -looked at squarely from the front they appear pyramidal in form, the -rounded apex pointing toward the observer. Such pearls have a soft, -waxy appearance generally. - -Another common imperfection consists of pits in the surface. These may -result from various causes: in many cases from the dislodgement and -rolling of a pearl which has been flattened during earlier stages by -pressure in one position against the shell. Freed from this hindrance -to spherical growth, the later concentric layers would round over -the edge of the flat spot and thereby leave a pit, or cavity, in the -centre. - -In other cases pressure against the pearl, or the partial inclusion -of foreign substances, especially of an organic nature which decay -before being entirely covered, are possible causes. The reverse of -this also occurs; grains of sand or other minute particles adhering to -the surface are covered by succeeding layers, thereby producing knobs, -more or less observable according to the lapse of time between their -inclusion and the taking of the pearl from the oyster. - -If undisturbed, the fish will by the deposit of sufficient layers of -nacre, fill the intervals and round the surface again. That this is -done in time is shown by the occurrence of pearls having an even dome -over a nucleus formed by a cluster of small round and irregular pearls -enveloped together. In the process of skinning, or the removal of one -or more of the layers of nacre, it is sometimes found that a depression -has been filled by a thickening of the deposits in the hollow; at -other times extra layers fill the space, and these flaking out with -the outer skin reveal the hidden irregularity which lay beneath the -round surface, thus necessitating the removal of several entire skins -before a sphere is reached again. The under skins of some pearls appear -to have failed to completely envelop the nucleus. The cavity resulting -is then filled to an even surface and is succeeded by fully developed -skins. It is, therefore, not certain that a pearl, perfect in form and -skin when found, has been so at all stages of its growth. Broken pearls -sometimes show not only differences of color but of thickness in the -successive layers. The skins of fresh-water pearls especially are often -very irregular in thickness. - -Many pearls have cracks in them. These generally escape the observation -of inexpert persons, as they are usually under the outer layer. -The fact that they rarely extend to the surface suggests that the -solidification, or drying out of the confined interior layers, may be -the cause. These are considered detrimental and dangerous by dealers, -so that pearls with cracks in them will not bring as high a price as -they would if free from them. - -As cracked pearls are liable to break, especially when pierced for -stringing, it is well to avoid them, though the percentage of those -which do break is small. In reality these cracks are more of an -imperfection than a danger. Occasionally they are quite noticeable and -are then a bad imperfection, but frequently a sharp eye or the loup -only will detect them. Surface cracks however are quite perceptible. -They are dangerous and are considered a serious imperfection. - -There is a peculiarity of rare occurrence which, as it is a departure -from the ideal, may be termed an imperfection, though some regard it of -value as unique. It is a similarity under the surface of some pearls -to a metal which has been hammered into small flat spots identical in -appearance with the jewelry in vogue during the latter part of the 19th -century made of "hammered gold." It is scarcely noticeable except under -a loup, when the fine lines dividing the confused planes appear. These -pearls are usually slightly pink or pinkish yellow. Sometimes these -planes resemble the facets on a cut diamond, generally lozenge shape, -and often grouped similar to those on the under side of a diamond. - -Small holes and blisters on the surface are quite common, but -ordinarily they are scarcely perceptible to the naked eye. - -Many faults can be concealed by the jeweller when the pearl is mounted. -Slightly buttoned pearls are set on a peg in the centre of a small -shallow cup; they then appear quite round. A spot, blister, or cavity, -in a round pearl can be obliterated by pegging, or hidden in the -setting. Great irregularities in the sphericity are lost to the eye -when the gem is set in the prongs of a ring or other piece of jewelry. -Pearls shaped like a double convex lens may be made to look round, -or very nearly so, by piercing them so that the flattened domes are -brought in contact on the cord holding them together as a necklace. - -Piercing and stringing obliterates or hides many flaws. By careful -selection, the jeweller can utilize pearls having a blemish by drilling -through the spot where the flaw is, and if there is another on the -opposite side that also will disappear. Other imperfections near the -hole are often hidden in necklaces, as they cannot be seen when the -pearls are held close together on the string. It is for this reason -that a string of pearls can often be bought for less than a like number -of loose pearls apparently no better but which in reality are much -more perfect in shape and free from flaws. Imperfections unseen in the -strung pearls would be quite noticeable in the loose and undrilled. - -The irregularities of baroques cannot properly be called imperfections; -nevertheless a baroque is more valuable as it is free from indentations -and approaches the round in appearance, or has sides which will give it -a round face when mounted. The curious forms into which nature moulds -many of them are very attractive, and as they lend themselves to the -imaginative skill of the jeweller, are valuable. The faults common to -them are rough places uncovered by nacre and colored streaks or spots, -usually yellow tending to brown. These discolorations are confined -generally to the point where the baroque was attached to the shell, but -not infrequently they extend far enough to leave no front which would -be quite clean to the eye, when mounted. - -Oriental baroques as a rule are more lustrous, more even in shape and -seldom discolored. Many of them are sufficiently regular to string for -necklaces, and some can be used in jewelry so that on the face they -appear like round, drop, or pear-shaped pearls. - - - - -GENESIS OF PEARLS - -[Illustration: TUAMOTU PEARL-SHELL] - -Pearls are found in certain marine and fresh-water mollusks. The -former are usually termed oysters, though zoölogists regard it in some -instances as a misnomer. The sea-fish is the avicula margaritifera, a -bivalve of which there are many varieties, all of similar shape and -nature but differing widely in the size, weight, coloring, and quality -of the shell. - -Of them, the genus "meleagrina" is the largest, has the heaviest shell, -and furnishes the greatest quantity of the beautiful substance known as -mother-of-pearl. The other extreme is the small, frail-shelled variety -taken off the coast of Venezuela, called sometimes avicula squamulosa. -Similar to this is the margaritifera vulgaris, or avicula fucata, of -Ceylon. The pearl oyster of the Persian Gulf though similar is somewhat -larger. - -Exact and uniform classification of the pearl-bearing mollusks of the -sea does not exist, nor is it necessary in this connection, as the one -distinctive feature which places them in the class under consideration -is the possession of a nacreous lining to the shell, for no shell fish -can produce a true pearl without it. The fresh-water pearl-bearing -mollusk is a mussel, unio margaritifera, also found in many varieties, -but all characterized alike by the nacreous lining of the shell. - -These creatures, living upon the earth where water always covers -it, create in the building of their habitations a material of great -beauty, and sometimes produce gems which princes covet. Of the most -delicate nature, they build for themselves out of the water by which -they are surrounded, houses strong and enduring, fitted for their -protection from the rough chances of life, yet so furnished within that -they suffer no inconvenience from the rugged strength which encloses -them. Few things are coarser than the exterior of these domiciles, -but nothing in nature is finer or more exquisitely beautiful than the -substance with which they are lined. - -The avicula margaritifera is a habitant of the coral reefs and shoals -about the islands and shores of the tropics; there are none living -now in northern latitudes, though fossils of many species are found -north of the present boundary of their habitations. An idea can be -formed of the general shape and appearance of pearl-oyster shells by -the neighboring illustrations of three varieties. These show the two -extremes of the marine mollusk, the meleagrina of the South Sea and -Australia, and the squamulosa of Venezuela. - -[Illustration: AUSTRALIAN PEARL-SHELL] - -In some of the small species, that of the Venezuelan Coast for -instance, the outer shell is yellowish, with fan-like markings of dark -reddish brown radiating from the boss or beak and growing darker as -they near the lip. This shell is thin and frail. The nacreous lining is -also thin but brilliantly iridescent and shows a series of fine lines -and irregular fissure-like markings extending outward from the hinge -and crossed by bands of color which curve with the outline of the lip -edge of the shell. - -These colors, as brilliant but more evasive than the hues of the -rainbow, are not due to the presence of a pigment; they arise from a -phenomenon of light and form one of the most wonderful illustrations -of the ease with which our senses play tricks upon judgment and -understanding. It is the striated surface and the very thin transparent -plates of nacre, which cause a double interference and produce the -beautiful iridescence peculiar to the lining of these shells. - -"Interference," as it is called, is an optical phenomenon arising from -two causes. When light falls upon a sufficiently thin transparent -surface covering a denser substratum not exactly parallel with it, -part of the light is at once reflected. Of that which passes through -to the under surface a part also is in turn reflected through the -first surface, and the confusion of rays or "interference" resulting, -produces to the eye the sensation of color. - -[Illustration: VENEZUELAN PEARL-SHELL, WITH PEARL ATTACHED] - -A familiar illustration is seen when a thin film of oil is spread over -water. The other way in which iridescence by interference is produced -in shells, may be demonstrated by drawing fine lines close together on -glass with a diamond. Light falling upon them will make the surface -iridescent. Melted wax dropped upon this striated surface would, upon -removal, show a like iridescence, reproduced with the impression of -the fine lines. The outer markings of the large Australian shell are -similar to the small Venezuelan. The mother-of-pearl interior is not so -iridescent. - -Pearls and the shells in which they grow are composed almost entirely -of calcium carbonate or lime. A small percentage of organic matter and -water are the other ingredients. - -As pearls are accidental and the result of a misdirection of normal -processes, a general knowledge of those processes is necessary to an -insight into the nature and genesis of the pearl, and as pearl shells -and the pearls in them are constructed on the same general plan, a -knowledge of the former will assist to a better understanding of the -gem and its eccentricities. The mother-of-pearl shell is built up of -a series of calcium carbonate plates or prisms set in organic matter. -In the material of the inner shell, the calcium carbonate greatly -preponderates; on the outside of the shell, the organic matter is -largely in excess. In the building of its shell, the animal deposits -the finest material and does the best and most compact work where -the house is in touch with itself, the walls becoming coarser in -construction and quality as they approach the outer surface. - -In the inside of the shell, the calcium carbonate plates are very -fine and transparent, and the animal membrane in which they are set -is of extreme tenuity. In the middle shell these plates become more -chalky and less compact; in the exterior shell they are set in a -thicker binding of organic matter and terminate outside in rough, horny -fringes, completely covering the shell. - -In a general way therefore, the animal deposits the best of its -secretions about itself and pushes out to the outer extremities, the -coarser elements which are fitted to preserve the finer parts of the -shell, as the finer parts of the shell are fitted to protect the -delicate organism which they enclose. The building of the shell is done -by a membraneous covering of the fish which entirely envelops the body -and is attached to the shell a short distance from the inner edge, -leaving a rim of membrane free around the fish and the edges of the two -valves. This membrane is called the mantle. It extracts lime from the -water, and at different parts exudes modified solutions of it mixed -with animal tissue, suitable for the construction of the various parts -of the shell. - -The exterior of the shell or epidermis consists of conchiolin, -an organic compound. It is a horny-looking substance, and in the -large salt-water shells and in most of the fresh-water mussels, the -nigger-head of the Mississippi Valley especially, it appears to the -eye as a series of extensions, sometimes terminating in ridges, -which curve about the umbo and spread to the edge of the shell, each -extension coming from under the one preceding. In some varieties it -is attached as an excrescence to the prismatic formation immediately -under it, and may be easily detached in thin flakes: a rusty black in -some, brownish-yellow in all on the inner surface and in some on the -outside. The substance is generally opaque, but contains spots of which -some are translucent, resembling horn or amber, while others are more -transparent, similar in formation to the inner parts of the shell. - -In most of the marine and fresh-water varieties, unlike the -nigger-head, the conchiolin exterior does not easily flake off. In -these the outer shell is composed of wave-like plate extensions, -superimposed one upon the other recedingly from the lip to the umbo -as in the others, but without the ridges, the plates being flat and -the edges more irregular. These extensions are formed of a number -of horizontal composite plates, which penetrate the shell to the -mother-of-pearl. - -Not only may they be separated into thinner horizontal plates, but -they divide vertically into prisms. Under the microscope the edge of -a composite plate appears as a number of prisms placed side by side -lengthwise across the plate edge, but showing dark, intersecting lines -through the series where they divide as plates. - -These prisms appear on the face of the plates as translucent hexagons, -separated by dark lines like a tessellated floor, and under a powerful -microscope are seen to be composed of similar smaller particles, -also joined together by a binder of tissue. The exposed parts of the -epidermis plates, forming the outer skin of the shell, are more dense -than the unexposed portions; the hexagonal dividing lines are thick and -blurred, and the faces are almost opaque, whereas in the unexposed -parts, the faces are translucent and the hexagonal markings are clear -and fine. - -Though constructed in the same way throughout, these plates appear to -follow the general plan of shell construction, the preponderance of -calcium carbonate in the interior parts gradually changing to an excess -of organic matter as they become exposed to form the outer part of -the shell. The outer shell is in some varieties of a brownish-yellow -with radiating fan-like markings of a deeper tint or red; in others, -dark gray and brown to almost black. Immediately under the surface, -the plates become lighter in color, and finally almost white as they -approach the nacreous interior. - -In all varieties the outer plates lie almost parallel with the -extension of the shell, so that, lapping each other as they do, the -outer contour of the shell is raised by a series of low steps from -the edge to the umbo. These plates appear to have been superimposed -one upon the other. On the contrary, they are added on the under -side. Starting from the umbo, which is the oldest part, the shell is -enlarged by the addition of a succession of plates from beneath, each -series extending a little beyond its predecessor, the rough conchiolin -fringe at their extremities forming the outer covering of the shell. -Following the growth of the epidermis, the shell and the lining are -also extended and built up, so that the entire shell is constantly -pushed to dimensions necessary for the proper and commodious housing of -its growing tenant. - -Under the thin coat of epidermis on the Unio nigger-head, is a stratum -of prism plates similar to the outer plates of the Venezuelan oyster. -The prism faces are however smaller and the organic intersections are -thicker and darker. Immediately under and abutting, is another series -of plates which penetrate the shell almost horizontally at the lip end, -to the lining; diagonally at the thick part of the shell near the umbo -to another series of the same kind. Here, owing to their diagonal set, -upon peeling off the epidermis and the epidermis plates, the edges -appear as a series of fine lines curving about and spreading out from -the umbo. The plates set outward, away from the umbo, from the lower or -inner edge. - -The effect is similar to that made by a pack of cards set diagonally so -as to spread the edges sufficiently to show the merest trifle of the -faces of the cards between the edges. The arrangement of these plates, -not only produces a series of fine lines curving about the umbo, but, -as the edges are slightly irregular, another series of fine lines -cross the others at right angles, radiating from the umbo. This doubly -striated surface, by interference, produces an iridescence more full of -color than the mother-of-pearl of any but the thin-shelled varieties. - -Though similar in construction, these plates differ from those of the -epidermis. In some respects they suggest a transitional stage between -the outer and inner shell. A plate, as it separates from the series and -which appears as one line in the striated surface of plate edges, is -in reality a number of very thin plates, or waves, so welded together -that they cannot easily be separated. In this and the presence of fine -surface lines marking the wave edges, they resemble the nacreous plates. - -The composite plate is opaque, but when split so that light can -penetrate there appears on the face, markings similar to the unexposed -portions of the Venezuelan epidermis plates only the hexagonal faces -are very much smaller and less distinct. So also the edge of the -composite plate appears as series of prisms crossing it from face -to face on the plate, in sets which show plainly, lines marking the -juncture of the individual plates or waves. Although the individual -plates or waves, can only be separated with great difficulty, together, -as composite plates, they can be flaked off from the shell very easily, -and they crumble and break into fragments under slight pressure. -The component plates or waves are very thin, and appear under the -microscope as white and translucent planes marked by outlines of the -prism faces. - -The inner series of these plates as they near the nacreous lining -become harder and more compact, and incline more and more to a -horizontal position, so that at the point where they abut upon the -nacre it is not easy to distinguish them from the nacreous plates. At -the thinner end of the shell, about the edges, the plates are all of -this nature. They grow more friable and chalky as they incline to the -perpendicular, where the series are more numerous and are situated at -the thicker part of the shell about the umbo. - -Adjoining the inner edges of the middle shell plates is the nacreous -lining. In this the calcium carbonate takes the same form as the -mineral aragonite and is identical with it. As a mass however, the -specific gravity is somewhat less, owing to the inclusion of organic -matter with the mineral in the shell. This material is harder, finer, -more compact, and contains less organic matter than that of which the -middle and outer shell is composed. - -The lining is constructed of thin waves of transparent calcium -carbonate set in animal tissue of great tenuity. This is the -mother-of-pearl, and the gem differs from it only in its more or less -rounded and independent formation. The plates of which the lining is -composed lie almost parallel to the plates of the epidermis. They are -bent a little toward the interior at the inner surface of the shell, -but the general sectional structure of a shell, cutting from the umbo -to the lip, is fairly represented by that stem of the letter X which -extends from the right upper to the left lower, the diagonal line -representing the middle shell; the horizontal lines at the extremities -show the general trend of the epidermis and the nacreous lining. The -diagonal trend downward is from the epidermis toward the boss-end of -the shell. - -The nacreous plates, or mother-of-pearl, unlike those of the middle -shell of the nigger-head, cannot be easily separated. On cutting them -across the grain they appear as distinct and separate strata and show -dividing lines, yet the mass is compact to a great degree. Upon being -broken, these strata separate only at the edges, so that the entire set -usually breaks diagonally, showing a small strip of the surface of each -plate along the broken edge and forming a series of ragged edge steps. - -These plates or strata are composed of a great many very thin waves -following one upon the other, and thereby producing series of fine, -irregular lines upon the surface which, though trending generally in -straight lines, curve and twist about as do the edges of water waves, -when they run up on the sands of the sea-shore. It is the lapping of -these thin transparent waves, and the minute undulations of the layer -edges reflecting through the transparent plates, which produce the soft -luster peculiar to the linings of the shells and the surface of pearls, -and which is known as "pearly." - -The wave edges do not usually produce iridescence, but if the waves -are very thin and transparent the undulating lines of many under waves -following close upon each other appear on the surface, under the -microscope, as dark lines when the light is passed through the skin, or -silvery lines if the light be thrown upon it from above; to the naked -eye this becomes the tempered brilliancy of the pearl's orient. Under -the microscope these waves appear to be constructed of minute hexagonal -plates or prisms set in animal membrane. - -A set of waves forming a plate, when broken at right angles to the -trend of the wave, shows under the microscope a rough irregular edge, -and the small plates of which they are composed sometimes appear -separated individually from the mass though more often they are -dislodged in clusters or strips. Broken with the trend of the wave -edges, the plate breaks diagonally in steps with undulating edges, -which correspond in appearance with the successive underlying waves as -they are seen through the surface under the microscope. - -Although distinct dividing lines between the plates appear when a -sectional cut is made across the grain, there is no indication of a -division between the waves which make up the plates, and there is no -apparent difference in the structure or compactness at the junction of -the plates though a clean division can only be made there. It would -appear, therefore, that the plates mark intervals in the process of -construction and that the animal tissue is somewhat thicker between the -plates than between the waves of which they are composed, where the -formative process has been continuous. - -In all parts of the shell, the calcium carbonate takes the hexagonal -form: in the nacre, as thin waves composed of hexagonal faces, and -in the middle shell and epidermis, as plates of hexagonal particles -grouped as hexagonal prisms whose terminations form the front and back -of a plate. All the parts show a similar plan of construction, _i.e. -_, separable plates composed of thinner plates more compacted together, -and these in turn of infinitesimal hexagons of calcium carbonate; full -plates, component plates, and particles, all alike surrounded by animal -tissue. - -The shell is built up of secretions from the water in which the -oyster lives, made by the mantle, a membraneous covering of the fish. -The function of this mantle, in part, is to obtain from the water -the elements required and exude it at different parts of its folds -in the various forms required for the several parts of the shell. -The necessary lime exists in the surrounding water and is supplied -sometimes by the calcareous beds upon which the oysters grow, and in -other cases by surrounding vegetation. - -In all mother-of-pearl oysters and the fresh-water mussel unio, the -lining is usually quite thick, but in some pearl-bearing species having -small, frail shells, it is, though beautiful, too thin to be of use. In -the meleagrina, this nacreous lining lies in the interior of the shell -like a congealed pearl wave, the smooth even rim following the curve -of the shell about an inch to an inch and a half within the jagged edge -of the epidermis, as shown in the Manilla shell illustrated herewith, -in which the lip, usually trimmed off for commercial purposes, is -preserved. The lining of the meleagrina is not as iridescent as that of -the thin shell varieties. - -Thus the shell is being constantly enlarged at the edge, by a deposit -of the exudations of the mantle; conchiolin for the epidermis outside, -lime for the prisms and inner layers of transparent plates, until the -shell has attained its full growth in size, after which some varieties -continue to lay on nacre only. - -[Illustration: MANILA PEARL-SHELL WITH THE LIP CONSERVED] - -The linings of some have a black rim, extending from the hinge on one -side, around the edge to the hinge on the other side. Viewed from the -edge this dark band appears to be a sixteenth to half an inch wide -(widest at the lip), fading out as it becomes lost under the thicker -white nacre of the interior, but turn the shell up and look at it -squarely from the front and it is black only around the extreme edge -where it joins the epidermis. This kind of shell is found in the -Pacific about the islands of Polynesia and is called the black -shell. In others the nacre is white to the edge. The iridescence of the -white shell generally shows more play of color than that of the black. -The white shell is usually somewhat flatter and broader than the black, -and the epidermis is light yellowish-brown. This variety is found in -great abundance on the northern and western coasts of Australia. The -yellow, greenish and grayish shells (these colors refer to the edge of -the lining), are similar in every way, but inferior, the yellow being -the best of the three. - -The shell lining of a common form of the unio, or fresh-water mussel -pictured at page 146, like that of the meleagrina, shows little -iridescence except at the edges outside the pallial lines, where the -nacre is comparatively thin, and at the striated surface of the scar -or bed of the adductor muscle. In quality of color and luster it is -inferior to the nacre of the sea fish, the white being more chalky in -appearance and the luster less pearly. The material of which the shell -is composed and its construction are however almost identical with that -of the salt-water mollusk. In fact all shells are made of the same -ingredients and are constructed on the same general principles by the -animals inhabiting them. - -[Illustration: MISSISSIPPI NIGGER-HEAD PEARL MUSSEL] - -This description of pearl shells has been given here because a -knowledge of the shell enables one to understand the formation and -characteristics of a true pearl, and the differences which exist -between the gem and other similar formations formed in pearl and other -oysters, mussels, and univalves. Many such formations are found, having -the elements and constructed like one or both of the outer parts of -the shell, and some, in part like the lining, but these are not true -pearls; the gem has neither the material nor construction of the middle -and outer shell. Except that the pearl, because of its form, is rarely -iridescent even to a slight degree, whereas the nacreous lining of some -pearl-bearing shells is brilliantly so, the pearl and the nacre of the -shell in which it grows, are essentially the same. Pearls are more or -less spherical and independent formations, made by the fish on the -same plan and from the same secretions with which it lines the shell, -misdirected by abnormal conditions. Those constructed like any other -part of the shell are not true pearls. - -The normal instinctive action of the mollusk is self-protective and -adaptive. By the secretive action of its mantle it gathers from the -water in which it lives, material to build a shell with a rough and -rugged exterior for its enemies, and adapted to resist the chemical -activities by which it is surrounded, and a perfectly smooth lining -suitable as an interposition for its own delicate organism. - -Barring accidents, the building functions of the animal are employed -only in the extension of the shell to meet the needs of its own growth -and protection. But should a particle of secretion intended for the -shell, harden within the folds of the oyster's mantle, or some parasite -or other intruder present itself within the nacre-forming sphere, the -instinctive action which lines the rougher part of the shell is also -directed toward the foreigner, and it is at once covered with a like -deposit. This is the birth of a pearl, and it grows layer by layer as -long as it remains within the scope of the nacre building instinct. -These layers, or skins as they are called, are seldom iridescent. -Occasionally a pearl of that character is found, but it is generally -from a fresh-water mussel, and the nacreous plates are of unusual -tenuity. - -Although the pearl like the lining of the mollusk's shell is composed -of carbonate of lime in series of thin waves lapping each other, each -series constituting a plate or separable layer, there is a distinct -difference in construction. - -Whereas the lining is a series of horizontal layers, the pearl is made -up of concentric layers, each addition enveloping those preceding -it. These skins however are not always absolutely distinct and -separate. Instead of being like a succession of globular skins, each -completely covered by its successor, the growth is often spiral and -the construction is as if the nucleus had been rolled one, two, or -three complete revolutions in a continuous plate of nacre, and the -spiral envelope then finally merged into another plate and the process -repeated. That which to a casual glance, therefore, appears to be six -rings of nacre in a sectional cut, is in reality, several spirals of -two or three turns each. - -It is also noticeable that whereas the wave edges, with all their -eccentricities, trend generally in one direction in the shell nacre, -in the pearl, the lines twist and curl with a concentric tendency, as -though the waves had been laid on by turning or rolling the pearl in -the material of which it is composed. - -A white pearl on being cut in half shows a number of faint dark rings -one within the other, from the surface to the nucleus in the centre; -usually these rings occur at almost regular intervals. Upon close -examination under the microscope, it will be seen that the inner part -of these intervals is white, and that the color gradually changes to a -yellowish tint which deepens until it culminates in that which appears -as a dark line against the succeeding outer formation, the material of -which is also white in the beginning. Although this change of color is -very slight, a section between two rings will often show three distinct -bands; the inner white, the centre one faintly yellow and the outer -one of a deeper tint. In some cases the dark concentric rings succeed -each other very closely, in which case no abrupt changes of color -between them are noticeable. The material occupying the space between -the rings is the sectional appearance of the skin of pearl. Upon -applying a weak acid to the surface of an entire section of a pearl, -it effervesces, and the inner colorless parts of the bands are at once -attacked. After several hours the white inner part of the skins will -show depressions where the calcium carbonate has been dissolved, and -the outer parts of the skins will be marked by coarse black rings of -undissolved animal tissue, similar in appearance to the epidermis of -the shell. Now as these skins are made up of many very thin waves of -calcium carbonate lapping each other and set in animal tissue, it would -appear, therefore, that in the beginning these waves of transparent -calcium carbonate are set in animal tissue of extreme tenuity and that -the proportion of animal tissue increases with the growth of the skin -until it reaches a stage provocative of a new skin, which begins with -purer layers of the smoother crystallized mineral like its predecessor, -and identical with the nacre of the shell. If this be so, it would -account for the various tints of color and degrees of luster in white -pearls and for the fact that the outer skins of very lustrous pearls -are usually very thin also. Similar conditions exist in colored pearls, -though the presence of a pigment makes them less noticeable. The skins -of the haliotis pearl, which separate easily, usually show remarkable -luster on the inner surface. - -Sometimes the nucleus is surrounded by a confused mass without apparent -concentric markings, as though it had been enveloped in nacre which had -solidified while stationary, or the first deposit shows the concentric -skin arrangement at one segment of the circle only; followed by layers -which appear in the depressions of the mass and are continued until -they finally include the whole pearl. These layers are usually very -thin, and the partial or segmentary layer formation is quite common in -the early stages of the pearl's growth. At that period the concentric -lines are also irregular, and in many cases where the curve is true, -they extend about one quarter of the circumference only, another -concentric skin being lapped on the ends, as though the globular skin -had been formed in sections. - -As before stated, it often happens that the skin division lines are -spiral, as though the nucleus had been rolled one way in the nacreous -material. In all cases the first deposits of a skin, that is the first -of the nacreous waves of which a skin is composed, appear to be most -transparent and lustrous. The component waves of nacre then gradually -become more impregnated with animal tissue until they apparently reach -a stage which induces either a rest on the part of the fish, to gather -nacreous material, or a new deposit of less impure nacre, to protect -itself from the increasing impurity of the pearl's skin. - -The skins undoubtedly mark certain stages in the formation of -the pearl, though the skin and the nacreous waves of which it is -composed are often confounded. In the skinning of pearls an entire -skin is seldom peeled off. The surface is scraped, a number of the -component waves being taken off, until the luster is improved and -it is then supposed that the entire outer skin has been removed. A -close examination however, will show, by breakages in the surface -of the waves, that the under skin with its peculiar and systematic -arrangement of surface wave edges, has not been reached. - -A sectional view as seen in a half pearl would lead one to infer that a -free pearl in the beginning lies stationary in the oyster; is turned or -partially rolled as it grows larger; and finally, on attaining about a -one grain size, is kept in constant motion with a concentric rolling in -the nacreous exudations of the mantle which are deposited upon it. - -The nuclei of pearls were long thought to be grains of sand, but late -and careful research has shown that in the majority of cases they are -minute parasitic or domiciliary worms. - -Professor Herdman and James Hornell, after three consecutive -inspections of the oyster banks in the Gulf of Manaar in 1902-3, stated -in a paper contributed to the British Association for the advancement -of science, that after examining many hundreds of oysters and -decalcifying a large number of pearls, they had come to the conclusion, -that grains of sand and other inorganic particles formed the nuclei of -pearls only under exceptional circumstances, as for instance, when the -shell was injured by the breaking of the ears, which would enable sand -to get into the interior. - -Pearls, or pearly excrescences on the interior of the shell, were due -to the intrusion of leucodore, clione and other borers. Pearls found -in the mussels, especially at the levator and pallial insertions, were -formed around calcospherules, minute calcareous concretions produced -in the tissues. But most of the fine pearls found free in the body of -the Ceylon oyster, contained the remains of platyhelminthian parasites. -These observations agree with the opinions formed, after careful study, -by several eminent conchologists. - -The action of the mollusk results differently as the object to -be covered is free within the folds of the creature's mantle or, -rising above the surface of the nacreous lining, presses upon it. If -free, the intruder is enveloped by the animal's exudations and the -deposits become concentric instead of level, or nearly so, as in the -construction of the shell. It is said that the foreign substance acts -as an irritant, causing the fish to exude its secretions abnormally in -order to protect itself, and thereby creating a diseased condition; -but from the fact that the process continues after the intruder has -been enveloped and rendered as non-irritant as the natural lining of -the shell, it would appear that the introduction of a foreign element -simply draws upon it the normal impulse of the fish to cover with nacre -anything with which it comes in contact, and that the method of doing -it is similar to the instinctive rolling action of the tongue when some -insoluble globule is put in the mouth, for not only do free pearls grow -spherically, but a nucleus fast to the shell is not covered simply but -it grows to a pearl, round and domelike, as nearly spherical as its -juncture with the shell will permit. - -Not only is the composition of a pearl identical with the lining of -the shell where it is formed, but in a general way its appearance and -characteristics are the same, except that free pearls are sometimes -colored when the nacre of the shell is white. - -Button pearls, warts and baroques, grown fast to the shell, are usually -like the surrounding nacre in every respect. - -Salt-water pearls are characterized by the soft velvety luster of the -oriental mother-of-pearl, and fresh-waters, like the lining of the -unio, have a somewhat thinner looking and more chalky texture. - -Abalone pearls have the irregular surface and coloring of the haliotis. -Conch pearls resemble the delicate pink china-like lining of the shell, -and clam pearls have the glazed earthenware appearance of the inside -of a clam shell. The one material difference between a pearl and the -lining of the shell in which it grows is, that in the one case the -fish deposits the nacre over an even surface, and in the other wraps -it around a central point with delicate precision in successive filmy -layers. - -Dissection shows that a pearl during growth is liable to many mishaps. -As with the human creature, a promising youth may end in a wretched -maturity. It is also possible that an ugly period may be redeemed -by later happenings, and the thing that was worthless in its early -existence, be found in its age worthy of a place among the great gems. -Pearls found with a dull, chalky exterior sometimes have lustrous skins -beneath. Sometimes a bony-looking formation will be found, on breaking -it, to have a variety of skins in the interior, some of which are very -lustrous, others white and chalky, like the middle shell of the mollusk. - -Many of these dead pearls are formed throughout of this material. -Others, perfectly spherical, are simply successive layers of prism -groups like the conchiolin plates of the shell. Upon cutting these -through the centre the skins are shown by the concentric rings marking -their divisions and the prismatic formation appears as glistening -lines radiating from the nucleus to the surface. Under the microscope -these layers, which are thicker than the nacreous skins of true -pearls, appear identical with the epidermis plates, except that they -are concentric instead of flat, and are free from the coarse, rough, -conchiolin deposit which forms the extreme outer coating of the shells. -This deposit is also found, however, in some pearl formations, as -many of the abalone baroques, especially when they are somewhat flat -in shape, are like two pearl blisters joined, with the shell-building -process reversed, the rough, black conchiolin being inside, and the -nacre outside. Undoubtedly pearls containing hidden qualities which -made them once gems are thrown away as valueless, while others found -just as nature had covered their earlier coarseness with a coat of -beauty, are worn and excite much admiration for their skin-deep beauty. - -Though the successive skins of a pearl do not usually vary much in -color, except in abalone pearls, it does happen occasionally, for the -removal of dark yellow skins sometimes discloses another of better -color—a good pink for instance. From the sectional appearance of pearls -it seems probable, that in the majority of cases the color of yellow -pearls would be improved by the removal of the outer waves of the outer -skin. - -Changes in shape sometimes occur during the growth of the pearl, the -tendency being always toward the rounding of the surface. If the -nucleus is fast to the shell, a dome is built over and around it. If -the nucleus permits, the nacre is deposited not only over but under -its edges to the point of contact with the shell, so that a button -pearl connected with the shell at the centre only, results. Two -pearls held against the shell and growing side by side are separately -enveloped until they touch each other, after which they are included -in single deposits of nacre and the depression between their domes -becomes less distinct with each successive coating. Similarly, a -cluster of small pearls lying together often forms the nucleus of a -large rounded baroque or button pearl. Examination of such formations -shows, that up to a certain period the pearls have a separate existence -and growth. They then become joined in an irregular mass of twinned -pearls, and finally, if allowed to remain in the oyster long enough, -all individuality is lost in the tendency to round over. The same -thing occurs when grains of sand or other intrusions become attached -to a growing pearl. They are quite prominent when first included -in the nacreous deposit and can be easily detached from the under -pearl by breaking through the layer which binds them on; but they -are soon obliterated by succeeding deposits. This filling-in process -is sometimes accomplished by additional layers in the depression, -sometimes by thicker layers. It happens occasionally, when skinning a -round pearl, that one of these fillings is uncovered and flakes out, -leaving the pearl irregular, as it was in a former stage of its growth. - -Although pearls naturally grow spherically, many free pearls are more -or less buttoned, that is, have a flat place from which the pearl -rises like a dome, high or low. This happens when the pearl is held -during growth by the fish against the shell with a part of its body -intervening. According to circumstances, the pearl varies in form from -slightly button, to a low dome, rising from a plane at its greatest -diameter. Should a pearl of this description become dislodged, the -rounding action of the mollusk would begin at once to obliterate the -plane. - -If undisturbed, the process would result eventually in changing the -button to a round or nearly round pearl, but should the pearl be taken -from the fish before the metamorphosis is completed, a depression, or -pit, would mar its contour. When borers intrude through the shell, the -presentation is at once covered with nacre, and successive deposits -are built up around it resulting in the nacreous wart known as a -baroque. The rounding action of the mollusk is clearly shown in these -excrescences, as the borer is not simply covered and levelled with -the shell, but the slight elevation above the level of the lining -receives a continuity of concentric deposits which finally raise it -very considerably above the surface and separate it in construction -from the lining to which it is attached. The shell herewith reproduced -illustrates the result. Borers pierced it at the thick part of the -hinge, and burrowing down, entered the interior at the point where -the baroque is shown. In rare instances, pearls attached to the shell -do escape the concentric deposition, for they have been found buried -under even layers of nacre, when the mother-of-pearl was cut up in the -process of manufacture. - -[Illustration: VENEZUELAN PEARL-SHELL, SHOWING BAROQUE] - -From the appearance of the striæ when they are divided lengthwise, -pear-shaped pearls appear to have been spherical at one time. During a -stage in the growth, the forming layer has curved away from the centre -at one section of the sphere to a point. Succeeding layers, following -the innovation, are deposited around the extension until it becomes -sufficiently elongated to give the pearl the obovoid form. - -Many pearls are shaped like a capsule. The ends of most are rounded -up to a full dome; some have somewhat flatter ends; many are long and -cylindrical like an ordinary capsule; others are short and appear -in shape like two high button pearls joined at their bases; while -some resemble a cartridge, one end being almost flat and the other a -somewhat pointed dome. It is noticeable that such pearls have a chalky -line around the middle, and sometimes there is a lustrous band between -two. These chalky lines are found, on peeling such a pearl, to extend -through all the interior layers. Similarly, a high button joined at its -entire circumference to the shell, if the junction is abrupt, has an -intersecting chalky line, marking the juncture of the two, between the -luster of the pearl and the shell lining. If the base of the pearl and -the shell form a curve there is no chalky line of demarcation. - -This suggests that whenever the animal is unable to envelop the thing -upon which the mantle deposits its secretions completely or is not in -touch with every part of it, there is at the extremity of its action, -an unnacreous deposit, corresponding to the deposit of conchiolin or -calcite, at the extreme edge of the shell which precedes the nacreous -layers following within and slightly back of it. As the luster of the -pearl arises from the transparency of the calcium carbonate modified -by the undulating lines formed by the edges of the wave-plates, it may -be that the lapping action of the mantle is necessary for the regular -formation and crystallization of these plates, and that at points -beyond the reach of this action, the depositions of the mantle are -therefore not pearly. - -Much is necessarily conjectural as to the modus operandi by which the -shell and the pearl are formed but the invariable tendency toward -sphericity suggests that the nucleus of a pearl, when free within the -mollusk's mantle, is not only enveloped in its exudations, but is -either kept constantly moving with a rolling motion or lapped on all -sides by the membrane which exudes upon it the nacreous material. - -The instances cited of the short capsule shaped pearl and the high -button joined to the shell, which seem to escape the nacreous deposit -at the basis of the domes, favor the lapping or licking method of -depositing the nacreous solution and this action by the mollusk would -result in a constant rolling or turning motion imparted to the object -if it were free within the creature's body. The licking and rolling -action of the mollusk, modified by the conceivable influences of -position in the shell, would account for the spherical form with all -the various modifications in which the pearl is found. - -To account for the variation of quality which undoubtedly exists in the -successive skins of some pearls, and the imperfections in the nacre of -the same skin, the theory has been advanced that the secretions for the -lining, the shell proper, and the epidermis, are exuded by different -parts of the mantle; the pearl traverses during growth these different -bands and its skins are modified by the secretions, as they come within -the various zones of influence. But there are several facts which seem -to oppose the theory. - -In the first place all these parts of the mantle which supply the -material for the epidermis, the middle shell, and the lining, are -enclosed within the shell and in touch with the lining yet each -receives the exudations of that part of the mantle which supplies the -material suitable for it, the mantle invariably pushing the coarser -excretions outwardly to the shell's exterior. Again, whatever the -quality of the skin of the pearl may be, it is never of conchiolin -like the outer epidermis and though sometimes similar to the plates, -of which the conchiolin is the exposed fringe, it always contains -sufficient nacre to render the surface smooth. The fact that the skins -of a pearl do sometimes correspond with the different parts of the -shell, and that the same skin on the surface is occasionally partly -nacreous and unnacreous, in connection with the variation of quality -which exists in the internal composition of the skin, favors an idea -that the mixed and variable quantity of nacre in the skins may be -caused by the abnormal position of the mantle wrapped about the growing -pearl which would thereby come more or less under the influence of the -calcite and conchiolin zones distorted from their normal extension and -action. - -It has also been suggested that the oyster deposits the nacreous -layer in a fluid state and then rests until the deposit hardens, when -the process is repeated. To a certain extent this may be true though -apparently it could not be a yearly process as pearls found in the -small varieties of the avicula which mature in four to six years and -die out in seven years, often contain a greater number of layers than -the years of the mollusk's life, and no pearl is ever found with a soft -exterior, though it seems possible that pearls with a dead white chalky -exterior are taken from the oyster at a period when the crystallization -of the outer skin has not been perfected, or that they have escaped -some action, chemical or of the animal, necessary for the formation -of the lustrous waves of nacre. Mr. Ludwig Stross, who has had much -experience at the pearl fisheries, says that he has frequently found -pearls of fair size in shells of the Lingah type which could not be -over twelve to fifteen months old. Some of these pearls weighed fully -three grains. As there are many apparent skins in a pearl of that -size, the divisions could not mark either years, seasons, or breeding -periods. In some experiments made by Mr. Stross, he found that borings -made to the interior of a living mollusk's shell were closed by a film -of hard nacre in two days. - -The known facts about a pearl are these. It is composed of about -ninety-two per cent. carbonate of lime, about six per cent. organic -matter and a little over two per cent. water in combination almost -identical with the lining of the shell in which it grows and similar -to the mineral aragonite. In construction it is usually a series -of layers, which can sometimes be peeled off entirely, each one -successively enveloping its predecessors apparently as an independent -structure though itself composed of a number of thin lapping waves. -Upon cutting through these layers the divisions appear as a series -of rings and the intervals, though composed of many thin waves, -appear compact. It grows spherically or with such modifications as -the exigencies of position in the shell would reasonably account for. -These facts seem to justify the hypothesis that a foreign substance -upon entering the shell of a pearl oyster is at once enveloped or -washed in the creature's exudations; that the organic matter of the -secretions forms a filmy envelope in which the mineral contained in -them is precipitated or crystallizes in wave-like layers of crystals -of great tenuity, and that as these layers harden the process is -repeated, and that during the process the creature either revolves -the object, or about it, as it is free, or fastened to the shell. It -is also possible that changes in the organic matter interwoven with -the calcium carbonate may produce some chemical action resulting in -the crystallization of the lime, and the crystallization in turn be -provocative of another deposit, each process in turn being almost -simultaneous and that the process is continued until a paucity of -mineral in the exudations induces a rest for recuperation, after which -the process is repeated, the result being a succession of composite -skins as we find them. Whatever the cause, it is evident in all parts -of the shell and in the pearl that continuity of construction is -periodically arrested to be resumed upon exactly the same plan, except -that the material used in the succeeding layer of the pearl may be -formed occasionally like another of the shell sections though usually -it is like the preceding one. - -Marked differences in the same skin occur more frequently in the pearl -formations of univalves. The skins of the abalone pearl especially, are -frequently nacreous in part only. - -Pearl oysters are found in immense numbers on banks having a calcareous -foundation. They are extraordinarily prolific, the spat of one oyster -being estimated at upwards of several hundred thousands to millions, -so that were it not for the natural enemies of their young and the -liability of being swept away and scattered by storms before they have -anchored, the banks would be over-crowded with the myriads produced. -Some idea of the numbers may be gained from the fact that during the -fishing season the Ceylon divers raise about one million each day. - -The oysters are seldom found in water with a temperature below 75 -degrees and they seem to thrive best in warm sheltered bays and inlets, -especially when the banks are situated far from the equator. They -attach themselves to the beds by a bunch of tough threads which pass -out through an aperture in the shells, near the hinge, and fasten on -the rocks and stones; consequently the oysters do not lie flat, as -might be supposed, but maintain an upright position, hinge down, lip -end up, and the shell slightly open for the passage of the food-laden -water, as the fresh-water mussels do. These threads are called the -beard or byssus, and are composed of material similar to the epidermis -of the shell. - -The abalone, which is a univalve, holds on to the rocks by the foot, a -flat muscular appendage used for locomotion and also as an anchor on -the principle of the leather toy known to boys as a sucker. - -Although pearls of value are found only in shells containing -mother-of-pearl, a small proportion only of the mother-of-pearl shells -contains pearls, and many varieties in which pearls are found do -not yield enough nacre to make the shells valuable. The size of the -meleagrina in some seas is remarkable. That at page 127, photographed -from a Tuamotu shell, measures 8-7/8 inches by 6-7/8 inches and weighs -twenty-eight ounces troy. - -It is of the black-edge variety, contains a large quantity of fine -quality mother-of-pearl, and has a beautiful small pearl attached to -the lining near the center of the shell. Though large, it is not full -grown. It is probably twelve to fourteen years old and would continue -to lay on mother-of-pearl and so grow thicker and heavier until sixteen -to eighteen years of age, when the oyster would reach maturity. The -Australian white shell at page 129 is a young shell—that is, it has not -attained the full thickness and weight of a mature shell. The shells at -pages 131 and 161 are from the coast of Venezuela; they measure 2-1/4 -by 2-1/4 inches and weigh seven pennyweights each. - -The common form of the pearl-bearing fresh-water mussel unio -(nigger-head) is illustrated at page 146. This shell measures 3-3/4 by -2-3/4 inches and weighs 3-1/2 ounces. It is from the Middle West of -the United States. In construction it resembles the meleagrina, the -epidermis being dark, though not as rough as that of the oyster, and -the lining white, showing slight iridescence around the lip-edge and -to a greater degree on the adductor muscle scar. The mother-of-pearl -under the epidermis at the thick or hinge end is quite iridescent, and -the lines which make the color play are plainly discernible under the -loup. - -The largest and finest pearls, also the greatest number, are found -usually in distorted shells. This has given rise to the idea that they -are a symptom of disease in the fish, but having in mind the functions -of the three zones of the creature's mantle by which they supply -separately material for the epidermis, middle shell and lining, one -may conceive that if, by some extraordinary cause, the secretions of -one of these is largely withdrawn from the natural channel, the losing -part of the shell would warp the normal growth of the others to its own -dwarfage. - -When the nacre grows to a pearl, contrary to the intent of nature, -instead of a lining for the shell endeavoring to keep pace with the -growing oyster, the full-growing exterior is distorted in accommodating -itself to the undersized lining. In view of the fact that an oyster -sometimes contains a large number of pearls (one shell in New Caledonia -contained 256) the diversion of nacre sufficient to cover them, or -to produce one large pearl, might reasonably be expected to result -in a considerable distortion of the shell. It may also be that the -displacement of the mantle, caused by the wrapping of itself about the -growing pearl, interferes with the even deposit of shell material about -the edges of the shell and so distorts it. - -Because deformed shells are more fruitful of pearls some have advocated -the practice of throwing perfectly-formed shells back into the sea -unopened, but, inasmuch as the mother-of-pearl of the shells often -exceeds in value the pearls found in them, this is not likely to -happen. Few fisheries could be made to pay if they were fished for the -pearls alone. In many of them the shells yield 90 per cent. of the -total value and are in fact the sole incentive for the investment of -the necessary capital. - -Luckily for the world's supply of pearls, however, the disturbers of -the mollusk which cause these gems by their intrusions appear to be -more abundant in waters where the shell is valueless, the banks about -Ceylon especially being infested with the cestodes which are commonly -the nuclei of Indian pearls. It is interesting also to learn that Mr. -James Hornell (inspector of the pearl banks) finds these worms in -another stage in the file-fish, which frequents the banks to prey upon -the oysters, and confidently expects to find them in the adult stage in -the shark, which in turn devours the file-fish. - -It is the opinion of Jameson of London and others, that the parasite -which causes the formation of pearls in the mussels of Europe is -frequently the larva of distomum somaterœ, from the eider-duck and -scoter, and that the larva first inhabits Tapes, or the cockle, before -getting into the mussel. - -Generally the nuclei appear to be the bodies or eggs of minute -parasites—distoma, filaria, bucephalus, etc., and they vary in -different localities according to the animal life of the neighborhood. -In the still parts of the river Elster, where water-mites (Limnochares -anodontœ) were abundant, Kuchenmeister found that the mollusks -contained more pearls. - - - - -METHODS OF FISHING - - -The beds of the marine shell-fish from which pearls are taken lie -always under water. Unlike others which are sometimes left exposed by -the tides, to be gathered by man without difficulty, the pearl oyster -is never left uncovered by the sea. It is found usually on shoals some -distance from shore, sometimes but five to seven feet from the surface; -more frequently fifteen to forty feet deep, and often one hundred to -one hundred and twenty-five and even one hundred and fifty feet deep. - -Everywhere, then, man's quest for pearls is confronted by the heaving, -restless waters of the sea, for the greater part of the year rough and -turbulent, frequently lashed to furious racing by tropic tempests but -through which he must in any case go to get them. In a few places where -the beds lie in shallow inlets and sheltered bays they can be dredged, -but almost universally the oysters are gathered by divers. During the -greater part of the year, when storms rage, diving is very dangerous -if not quite impossible; but when the song of the sea is hushed to low -crooning, and the gentle roll of the waves does no more than playfully -slap the boats in passing, then in the seas where men dive for pearls -they gather to the harvest of gems. - -There are two ways of diving—naked, and with dress. The former is the -common method throughout the Orient and is practised to-day after the -same manner that it was in the days of the Pharaohs and the Cæsars, -for the primitive method survives with few variations wherever eastern -people control the fisheries. - -In the fishing season one sees now in the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf -and about Ceylon, the same scenes as they were enacted there before -Rome was a city, or France a nation, or the Macedonians overran Egypt. -Naked divers, diving into fifteen to forty feet of water, use few aids. -They grease their bodies, put greased cotton in the ears and a forked -stick, or tortoise-shell clip, upon the nostrils to compress them, hang -a wide-mouthed wicker basket or net at the waist, and they are ready. - -There are several methods of naked diving: head-first from a -spring-board attached to the side of the boat, as the Malabar coast -Hindus and some of the Egyptians do; swimming to the bottom, as -practised in the deep waters of the South Sea; and dropping to the -oyster bed with a stone. The latter is the most common way in Indian, -Egyptian, and Arabian waters, especially where the banks lie in forty -to fifty feet of water. - -Standing on the spring-board a few seconds to fill his lungs, the -head-first diver suddenly plunges overboard and passes smoothly and -rapidly through the water straight to the shoal below. Gathering -quickly as many oysters as possible while his breath lasts, he -places them in the net at his waist, attaches them to a convenient -rope hanging from the boat's side and shoots to the surface. There -he recuperates by lazily floating about if the water is shallow, if -deeper, by climbing back into the boat for his next plunge. If diving -in pairs, one rests while his partner dives. - -Expert divers who dive singly have an attendant, a manduck, who -attends to the lines and looks out for his interests generally. The -manduck drops a line with the oyster basket overboard and attaches to -it another weighted with a forty to fifty pound stone. These are so -fastened that they can be quickly released. The diver then drops into -the water feet first and placing his foot in a loop in the line over -the stone puts the basket on it, and releasing the lines, sinks to the -bottom. Disengaging himself, he proceeds to fill his basket while the -attendant pulls up the stone and adjusts it for the next descent. When -ready to return he signals his attendant, and holding on to the line -with the basket is drawn to the surface, occasionally accelerating his -own return by climbing the rope hand over hand at the same time. He -rests in the water by the boat's side until ready to dive again, making -seven or eight descents before climbing into the boat for a longer rest -and sun-bath. - -The divers of India, Arabia and the Red Sea are natives of the Madras -Presidency, descendants of Arab fishers at Jaffna in Ceylon, Arabs, and -Egyptian Negroes. They travel long distances to the fisheries and there -are many of them between the Red Sea and Ceylon. At the last fishing -in the Gulf of Manaar there were about forty-five hundred. Their dress -during the time of the fishing consists of a loin cloth only. They have -many hereditary and class superstitions, chief of which is their faith -in shark-charmers. While waiting for the fishing to begin they also -seek to get from the fates an inkling of the luck which will attend -them. One common method is by breaking a cocoanut on the diving stone; -the more clean and even the break, the better the luck. - -The mortality among divers at the fisheries is not great in Asiatic -waters. Pneumonia is the greatest scourge, fatalities in diving being -few. It is necessary however to select robust men for depths beyond -forty feet; comparatively few can work without injurious effects below -that. - -Some curious mixtures of ancient days and present times, of the -Pharaohs and infant industries, are seen. One may see a black slave -diver in the Red Sea hanging over the edge of his boat taking -observations through an old tin kerosene can with a bit of glass in one -end of it. This he sinks a little way in the water and gazes through -it below. Presently the can is discarded, over he goes and returns -shortly with a few shells; while near by a clumsy monster emerges and -a diver in dress climbs into his boat. This use of modern tin cans and -glass is adopted in seas where the shells are scattered and is common -to pearl-divers the world over. - -The Moros have a method of fishing in very calm weather peculiar to -themselves. They drop a three-prong catcher attached to a rattan rope -upon the oyster bunches and so haul them up to the boat. This can only -be done when the sea is perfectly still, as even a ripple would render -a sight of the oysters impossible. Ordinarily they dive to any depth -down to twenty fathoms. - -Many attempts have been made to introduce dress-diving among the -natives of the east but so far few have been successful. Results from -experiments have not compared favorably with naked diving and so, -with few exceptions, naked diving is still the rule in the east where -natives control the fishings. - -But of all, the Polynesians, both male and female, adhere most closely -to the old way. Most of them will not even use a stone to assist the -descent, and they probably reach greater depths than the naked divers -of any other sea. Travellers report that, at a coral atoll in the -Southern Pacific owned by the French government and known as Hikuereu, -where the natives of Tahiti and other islands flock during the season -to fish for pearls, the boys and girls and women are almost as expert -as the men. - -Whole families congregate here, remaining during the season housed in -huts framed of light cocoanut palms roofed with leaves. These they -bring with them, some coming several hundred miles. The shells are -mostly in sixty to seventy feet of water; some however are brought -from a depth of one hundred feet. It is reported that a boy, on an -exhibition dive, remained under water for two minutes and forty -seconds, going to a depth of a little over one hundred feet. He was -in sight all the time, the water being so transparent that he could -be seen on the bottom, leisurely selecting pieces of coral for the -officers of the ship above. These divers hang in the water by one hand -grasping the gunwale of the boat while they examine the bottom for -oysters through a glass which they hold below the surface in the other -hand. - -When shells are sighted the glass is discarded, the lungs are filled -several times and the air expelled slowly. Upon reaching a certain fit -condition a long breath is taken until the lungs are inflated to their -utmost capacity; the diver then suddenly lets go, sinks a few feet -below the surface, turns quickly and head-first swims rapidly to the -bottom. - -Arriving there, he pulls himself along by grasping the coral branches -and breaking the shells loose from their anchorage with his right -hand, which is protected by a cloth wrapping, and stows them away -in a cocoanut fibre basket slung over the shoulder. This done, he -straightens himself and shoots to the surface with astonishing -rapidity, seeming to leap up from the water as he arrives with almost -sufficient impetus to carry him into the waiting canoe. In a few -minutes he is ready to dive again. In some localities where divers were -employed the women were preferred, not because they could do better -work always, but one could depend on them more safely. This was true of -the divers in Torres Straits between Queensland and New Guinea. - -Before dress-diving was introduced these naked natives would dive -into ten or twelve fathoms and bring up an oyster under each arm. The -shells were large, weighing three to six pounds together and sometimes -ten, but they contained few pearls and those were generally small. -As they were brought up the oysters were searched for pearls and the -fish used for food. The shells sold in Sydney then for eight to nine -hundred dollars the ton. Years ago the women of Chile about the Bay of -Concepcion claimed as a right the fishing for mussels. The men rowed -them out to the beds and stuck long poles into the shoal below, down -which the women would slide, returning with both hands full of mussels. -The fishing was done from canoes, each holding one man and one woman. -The women did not consider this a hardship but a privilege of which -they were quite jealous, for they devoted the proceeds of their catch -to the purchase of finery. - -Wonderful stories are told of the great depths to which these naked -divers go and the great length of time they can remain under water. -Many of these tales are gross exaggerations,—yarns which have grown -more wonderful with the telling, or the reports of careless or -inexperienced observers. As a matter of fact at most of the fisheries, -twenty to thirty feet is good diving, and from forty to fifty feet is -the maximum depth. Sixty to eighty seconds is the average limit of -time they remain under water. If one will try to hold the breath for -sixty seconds, even while remaining perfectly still, it will be at once -understood that to do so while moving and working rapidly under water -is a great feat. Nevertheless there have been instances undoubtedly, -where naked divers have gone to much greater depths and remained -under for several minutes. Such cases are rare however and occur most -frequently among the natives of the South Sea Islands, who, male and -female, are expert divers from childhood and spend much of their lives -in the water. - -Visitors have claimed that natives of the Tongarewa Islands, in -longitude one hundred and fifty-eight degrees W. and latitude nine -degrees S., can do twenty to twenty-five fathoms and will even go -deeper when tempted by the sight of a few oysters lying in a hole or -depression near by. Going below twenty-five fathoms results almost -invariably in a sort of paralysis. The diver comes up howling and -incapable of motion and unless companions at once seize and rub him -vigorously with salt water until circulation is restored, a process -lasting sometimes many hours, he dives no more. If restored he will -dive again next day, and such is their recklessness that the same -temptation would lead him to take the risk again. - -Monsters abound in these waters. Should the diver be attacked by a -devil-fish, shark, or sword-fish, he does not use a knife, as blood -would attract other devils of the sea and becloud the water to his own -confusion. Instead he seeks to avoid his enemy, and if the troubler -is a sword-fish, tries to find shelter among the rocks. If the fish -departs quickly, he escapes; but the time of a live man one hundred -feet under water is short and sometimes the sword-fish over-stays it. - -Helmets have been used to a certain extent in all parts of the world. -Many of them were clumsy affairs, abhorred by all native divers, and -were a bad introduction to the "dress" used in the large operations of -big fisheries such as those of Australia and the Pacific coast of this -continent. In the seas about Australia, modern appliances are being -rapidly introduced. The Australians use them if possible, wherever they -fish. On their own coast all diving is now done in dress; but among -some of the islands of the Pacific, where they are extending their -interests, native prejudice is still able to hinder the use of it. - -Probably the chief reason for the general use of the dress on the -Australian coast so early was that the shallows were soon exhausted, -and naked diving was not successful beyond a depth of fifty feet. With -the dress, a diver can work at much greater depths, remain under water -an hour or two, and work all the year round. - -[Illustration: - - _Copyright, 1892, by The Century Company. _ - -NATIVE AUSTRALIAN PEARL-DIVERS] - -In fisheries like those of Ceylon, where the banks are seldom over -forty feet deep and well known, being fished over and over again at one -season of the year only, at comparatively short intervals (four to -six years), the necessity for dress-diving is less and the naked native -diver will probably survive for many years although modern innovations -are gradually creeping in even among the fisheries controlled by -Orientals. - -The dress consists of a rubber suit all in one piece, which the diver -gets into through the neck; leaden-soled boots, corselet to which the -helmet is screwed, and chest and back weights. The diver dresses and -steps on to the ladder hanging over the boat's side. The air-pipe, -life-line, and helmet are attached, the man at the air-pump is set to -work, and last of all the face glass is screwed up. - -A plunge, a splash, and he drops swiftly through the heaving billows to -the quiet depths below, his life in the hands of the tender he has left -in the boat. This man must feel the diver constantly by the life-line, -keep him supplied with air and be ready for any of the emergencies -always liable to arise. Only an alert man of good judgment and quick -action should tend the life-line, though the most successful diver, a -Japanese, on the Australian coast some years ago, had the best tender -of that section in the person of his wife. - -If it is the diver's first plunge, his ears and head will be racked -with pain as he descends. This pain will leave him when he reaches -bottom, but on his return to the surface he will find his nose and -ears bleeding and will probably spit blood also. After this he will -not experience pain in diving, but in common with nearly all divers -will never be quite free from extreme irritability and bad temper while -below; he will also have gained the diver's ability to blow smoke -through the ears. - -Diving is injurious to the health and, if persisted in, produces -deafness and incipient paralysis. Few of the divers on the Australian -coast now are aborigines. Their antipathy to the dress amounted in many -cases to a superstition, so as the fishing was pushed out to deeper -waters and the dress became a necessity, they were discarded with the -old methods. It is said that in the old times diving had a peculiar -effect upon the black-haired natives. By the end of the fishing season -the color of their hair became yellow though the natural hue returned -later. - -With the dress, a diver can work comfortably at one hundred to a -hundred and twenty-five feet, but men who know the fisheries doubt if -that can be exceeded. Nor does it seem needful to go deeper, for in -seas which have been explored at greater depths it is usually found -that the bottom consists of ooze unsuitable for the life and growth of -the oyster. - -Beyond those inherent to the art of diving, either method has its -peculiar difficulties after bottom is reached. In naked diving, -especially at the shoals of Ceylon and Venezuela, where the shells -are small and abundant, it is simply a question of gathering as many -as possible while the breath lasts and looking out for the dangerous -fishes indigenous to tropical waters. - -Sharks are common in many of the pearl-oyster seas, but experienced -divers do not fear them greatly, as the fish, formidable as it may -appear, and dangerous as it is when it can come upon one unawares, -is easily frightened. Many expert swimmers of the Indian and Pacific -oceans do not hesitate to attack them in their own element. Usually -vigorous splashing will frighten them away. The dress-divers of -Australia scare them off by allowing a jet of air to escape. As the -bubbles start for him, the man-eating monster shoots away from them as -if terror-stricken. - -The diamond-flounder of the Pacific and Indian oceans, a huge flat fish -with a habit of seizing its prey between the side fins and crushing it, -is more dangerous. If a dress-diver of experience sees one of these -approaching, he is apt to shut off the air-escape of his helmet and -signal to his tender that he is coming to the surface as fast as he can -get there. - -The rock-cod also is sometimes troublesome on the Australian coast. -Occasionally he attains an enormous size. This fish lies hidden in -submarine caves, his head protruding and his monstrous jaws yawning -vertically wide like an entrance to the cave itself. But accidents from -the denizens of the sea are comparatively few; the physical results of -deep-sea diving are more to be dreaded, for paralysis hovers close to -the thirty-fathom line. - -Although dress-diving has the advantage over naked diving that it gives -a supply of air to breathe while at work, it also entails dangers and -difficulties from which the old method is free. An imperfect supply -of air may cause the bursting of a blood-vessel. Fouling of the lines -might not only cut off the air supply entirely, but prevent the man, -anchored by his heavy dress under twenty fathoms of water more or less, -from signalling the man at the life-line. As on dry land, there are -holes and precipices at the bottom of the sea to be avoided. - -In some seas there are swift currents and as the dress-diver remains -under water for some time, instead of returning at once like his naked -brother, he must keep moving with it, and as he moves, the boat must -move in unison and his tender must keep the lines free. Both diver -and tender must be skilful and alert to do this. Nor is it always -easy in deep-sea diving to find the oysters. They lie in scattered -bunches, often hidden by sponges, coral or other sea growths, their -gray or moss-grown exteriors scarcely to be distinguished from the -surroundings; if in mud, only an inch or so of the sharp lips of the -two valves projecting above the surface are in evidence; while if in -stooping to gather the shells he should fall, he is likely to shoot -feet foremost to the surface. - -Though dress-diving has heretofore been confined almost entirely to -white men, the Japanese, Chinese, Malays, South Sea Islanders, and -others in different places, are now being educated to it chiefly -through an Australian fishery. - -At the northwestern corner of Australia, a thousand miles from the -nearest railroad and ten days from the nearest port, there are -pearl fisheries where the climate is so hot that white men cannot be -obtained for the work. Colored men are shipped there from Singapore to -man the boats, the pearl-fishers giving a bond to the government of 100 -pounds sterling for each man employed, as a guarantee that he will not -go to other parts of the state. A fleet of about three hundred boats -and fifteen hundred men are employed there, the supply station being at -Broome township. - -In all things, when once the improvements of science gain a foothold -anywhere in the world, the whole earth succumbs eventually to their -advantages, and so with diving; the habits and prejudices of thousands -of years will be forced by commercial pressure to submit themselves to -modern appliances, and the picturesque nakedness of the swarthy orient -will soon be hidden under the ugly but useful dress of civilization. - - - - -HABITAT OF THE PEARL OYSTER - - -The Pearl Oyster is found in more or less abundance on the shoals and -reefs about the shores of every land within a belt of the earth lying -between 30 degrees north and south of the equator. Coral reefs and -limestone foundations usually form the beds on which they propagate. -Beyond these limits the abalone is found at Japan, on the California -coast, Queen Charlotte's Island, the Cape, Australia, New Zealand, -China, about the English Channel, and on the coast of France, where the -shores are washed by equatorial currents. It exists also on the shores -of India and the Canary Islands. - -The largest and heaviest shells, which yield fine mother-of-pearl most -abundantly are confined almost entirely to the Pacific Ocean within -twenty degrees south of the equator. The best white shells come from -the northern shores of Australia and the Aroo islands. The best black -shells are found about Tahiti, the Gambier Islands, and the Tuamotu -Archipelago. Of the big yellow variety, the best are obtained in the -Merguian Archipelago and Dutch Indies. The shells of this district at -Ceram, Batjan, and elsewhere, vary somewhat but the bulk of them are -yellow. - -Beginning with the east coast of Africa, the pearl oyster is found in -the Red Sea, where it has been fished for ages. The shell here is of -medium size and weight; much larger than those of Venezuela, Ceylon, -or the Persian Gulf and smaller than the shells of the Pacific. The -mother-of-pearl is not of the finest quality and is used now for -inferior work only. It was more used formerly but since the fresh-water -unio shell of the United States came into the market, it has displaced -to a great degree the Egyptian and Panama shells. The inner edge of the -Red Sea shell is of a greenish-gray color. - -South of the Red Sea, on the East of the African coast, pearl oysters -are found in a number of places between Zanzibar and Inhambane, -particularly at the Bazaruto Islands, but nowhere in sufficient -abundance to develop the fishing for them into a regular industry. Good -mother-of-pearl is abundant on the German East African coast, but the -oysters carry few pearls. - -Travelling east, they are next found in large numbers in that arm of -the Arabian Sea known as the Persian Gulf. Here they have existed for -many centuries. The mollusk is of the smaller species and the shells -are known in the market as Lingahs, from the name of the centre of -the pearl trade in this district. The shells are of no commercial -importance. - -After these come the ancient fisheries of India, the most prolific -in the world. The oysters here are smaller than those of the Arabian -Sea and the shells are of no value, but they mature rapidly and yield -great quantities of pearls. Myriads of them cover the shoals and banks -between the coast of India, at the South-eastern point, and Ceylon, and -as the beds are under government supervision, they cannot be destroyed -by the reckless fishing of immature oysters. - -Crossing the Bay of Bengal and the Malay Peninsula, between longitudes -100 and 120 degrees E., there are pearl oysters on the coasts of China, -the Merguian Archipelago and western Australia. Between longitudes 120 -degrees E. and 150 degrees E., these mollusks flourish on many coasts, -including those of Japan, the Sulu Archipelago, the Dutch Indies, the -Spice Islands, the Banda Islands, the Aroo Islands, New Guinea and -northern Australia. - -The Australian shells are large and the lining is white and fine. As -shell fisheries they are the largest in the world and although the -value of the pearls found is small compared with the amount realized -from the sale of the shells it is considerable and growing. The Aroo -shells are white like the Australian. Those from the Banda Islands are -a smaller black-edge shell. Most of the others like the Manila shell of -the Sulu Islands, are yellow. - -At longitude 165 degrees E. the fisheries of New Caledonia are becoming -notable for the number of fine fancy colored pearls found there. Both -avicula margaritifera and meleagrina margaritifera are taken off the -west coast. - -In the waters of the Fiji Islands, longitude 180 degrees E. pearl -oysters of the black-edge shell variety similar to the Bandas but a -little larger are fairly abundant. - -Fine shells, often containing very beautiful pearls, are taken off the -coasts of Tahiti, Gambier, and throughout the Tuamotu Archipelago, -lying between longitudes 130 degrees W. and 150 degrees W. The shells -are of the black-edge type, large and heavy. The nacre is thick and has -a particularly mellow luster; throughout this section both shells and -pearls rank among the best. - -All over the South Sea, pearl oysters are found about the islands and -in the lagoons within the atolls which stud it, but in quantities too -small in many places to induce capital to establish fisheries. Fishing -for them is confined therefore to native divers who are rewarded by the -occasional find of a few pearls, which often they sell at ridiculous -prices to the stray traders who may chance to come their way. - -This eastward journey now brings us to the Pacific coast of the -American continent. Here the pearl-bearing mollusk is found on -the shores of Lower California, about the Islands of the Gulf of -California, at various points on the Mexican coast-line south to -Acapulco and at Panama. They exist also on the coast of Ecuador but of -late years fishing has not proved remunerative and it is now carried on -in a desultory way only. They are found also on the western coast of -Nicaragua. - -The Mexican shells known as Panama shell or bullock shell have a dark, -dirty, greenish rim and are much less valuable than the white or black -shell. Similarly, dark, slaty-colored pearls are known as Panamas -because many pearls taken on this coast are of that character. This -color tendency however often results more advantageously as many of the -pearls are sufficiently dark to be classed as fancy and some beautiful -black and red pearls are found in these waters. Panama pearls also have -the reputation of being softer than others. There are pearl oysters -also on the Peruvian coast but this section has not yet been fished. - -On the Atlantic side of America pearl oysters are abundant in the -Gulf of Campeche and on the shoals about the islands and shores of -Venezuela. The shells of Central America are similar to the Panamas -only more yellow, while those of Venezuela are small and valueless. -Between the east coast of America and the Red Sea are no fisheries -save at Haiti, for no discoveries of any importance have been made on -the western coast of Africa. - -Consideration of these homes of the pearl oyster shows it to be a -tropical fish and that it attains greater dimensions in the Pacific -Ocean and near the equator than elsewhere. Beyond 30 degrees north it -is found only at two points, the western shore of America and on the -Japanese coast. These shores are washed by equatorial currents. The -small varieties of the Indian seas and Venezuela, mature rapidly in -four to six years, and if not taken they die out after the seventh -year. The meleagrina of the Pacific however, though it attains its -full size in six to eight years, continues to lay on shell-nacre up -to twelve and even twenty years. A shell which is of good size but -comparatively thin is called by the dealers in mother-of-pearl a -"young shell." The Australian pictured at page 129 is such an one. The -Tuamotu at page 127 is not full grown but well along in years, probably -fourteen to sixteen years old. - -Of the sea mollusks yielding formations which, though not true pearls, -are so called, (Strombus gigas), is a native of the West Indies. -Another, a gasteropod, the ear-shell (Haliotis) known in the United -States as the abalone, is found on the coasts of California, Japan, the -English Channel Islands and elsewhere. The Californians are divided -into three classes, the blue backs, about six inches long, and green -and red-ears, which are half as large again. Pinnas yielding black -seed-pearls are found south of the Island of Mafia on the east coast -of Africa. On the banks and shoals between Mafia and Zanzibar is a red -mussel from which white pearls are taken. - -The fresh-water pearl-bearing mussel, the unio, unlike the sea oyster -is most abundant north of 30 degrees N. In China and the Hawaiian -Island Oahu it is found a little to the south of 30 degrees N., and -it has been discovered lately in Southern Rhodesia a little north of -30 degrees S., but the countries and streams in which the unio is -plentiful and where it yields the most pearls lie within latitudes 30 -degrees N. and 60 degrees N. They have been taken from the streams of -Great Britain since the times when the Romans had a colony here. They -exist in Bohemia, Saxony, Bavaria, Lapland, Canada, Labrador and in -great quantities in the United States. - - - - -PEARL FISHERIES - - -The pearl fisheries of the Red Sea are at Lohia. At the lower end -of the Red Sea, at Massawa on the African side, and at Lohia on the -Arabian side, are a number of small barren islands; the banks lie in -shallow water between them. The industry is financed by merchants, -principally natives of Bombay, India, who in partnership with the -Bedouin boat-owners, control the fishing. The Bedouin captain takes -with him a few Arabs to man the boat and a number of black slaves as -divers. The shells have a market value for mother-of-pearl but the -quality is inferior. They have a greenish-gray edge and are fairly -heavy and formerly they were much in demand. - -Of late years the fresh-water unio shells have replaced them to a -certain extent for cheap material but the shells are yet about ninety -per cent. of the value of the fishings. Returns show exports of pearls -averaging one hundred thousand dollars per annum but as a large -number go direct to Bombay and are not reported, this does not fairly -represent the extent of the industry. - -The beds vary in depth, thirty to forty feet being the maximum depth -fished. Naked native diving is the rule, but the Italian government -has lately farmed out concessions at Dahlak and Farsan where they are -experimenting with helmets. The fishing season is from the beginning of -March to the end of May. - -The arm of the Arabian sea lying between Arabia and Persia known as the -Persian Gulf, has always been rich in pearl oysters and is a prolific -source of supply to-day. These banks are fished chiefly for the pearls. -The shell, though larger than the Ceylon, is of the "Lingah" class as -it is called, and is of little value for mother-of-pearl. - -Though pearl oysters are found all along the coast of Arabia, the most -productive shoals are between the Islands of Halool and Katar. These -shoals commence at the Island of Bahrein immediately off the Arab -coast near the centre of the gulf and continue east and south along -the district of Katar for nearly two hundred miles after which the -banks are lost in deep water. The chief centre of the pearl trade is -Lingah, hence the name given to the shells of this district. Most of -the pearls go to Bombay and are known as Bombay pearls, many of them -having a distinctly yellow tint. The whitest and finest go to Bagdad -and eventually the best go to Europe. India takes the irregular ones -and China gets the seed-pearls. - -The principal banks are at Bahrein. This island is the most important -one of a group situated in an indentation of the Arabian coast and is -about seventy miles long and twenty-five broad. - -Small boats carrying from five to fifteen men fish the shallows near -the coast, but larger boats, manned by from twenty to fifty men, put -out for the banks further from shore into deep water. These remain -out during the entire season coming into port once or twice only for -supplies. The owners of the boats are generally poor. They depend upon -the dealers for advances at the beginning of the season for supplies, -and many of them are therefore practically in a state of bondage. - -When the deep-water boats reach the fishing grounds, half the crew -is selected for diving. The diver uses a small braided mat basket as -a receptacle for the shells and has a long line attached to him by -which he can signal to the man in the boat who manages it. There is -a man to each diver's line. Except for the short intervals at the -surface necessary for air and rest, the divers remain in the water for -hours. The oyster-beds vary in depth from six to eighteen feet in the -shallows, to forty feet at the banks. - -The duration of the fishing season depends on the temperature of the -water. It lasts usually through July, August, and September, though -some of the larger boats remain out from the end of June until the -beginning of October. - -The pearls are sold by weight, sales being made sometimes while at sea -and a duty equalling about twenty per cent. is levied on the spot. A -large number of Hindu traders come during the season to buy, returning -to India at the close as they have done for centuries. - -No exact statistics of the output of these fisheries are to be had -but the yield is said to average well; some authorities placing the -value of the fisheries of the entire district in the sixties at nearly -two millions of dollars per annum, and the number of boats engaged at -4,000 to 5,000. - -[Illustration: - - _Copyright, 1906, by The Century Company. _ - -EAST INDIAN PEARL-DIVERS RESTING] - -As ancient as those of the Arabian sea and even more important are the -pearl fisheries of India. These are also fished for the pearls, the -shells of these waters being smaller than those of the Persian Gulf and -valueless for mother-of-pearl. The pearls however average whiter than -those of the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf. Although equally fine pearls -are found in other waters the Ceylon, or Madras pearls as they are -called, have long been esteemed the best because of their good average -color and quality. These banks are situated in the Gulf of Manaar -between the southern point of India and the island of Ceylon. - -On the Madras (India) side the banks are off Tinnevalli and Madura -at Tuticorin. The Indian revenue realized a profit of £13,000 from a -fishing here in 1822, and £10,000 from another in 1830. Examinations -showed that there were not sufficient oysters for profitable fishing -after that until 1860, when the government netted £20,000, and a -fishing the following year, 1861, was equally successful. The banks -failed in 1862 and there was no fishery until 1874. Pollution of the -water from the Indian shores has been detrimental to these banks and -they are now of little importance. - -On the Ceylon side, the banks lie six to eight miles off the west -shore and a little south of the island of Manaar. Fishing has been an -industry from early times before history began. There are records of -these fisheries under the kings of Kandy and later by the Portuguese -after they took possession of Ceylon about 1505, to 1655 when the -island passed into the hands of the Dutch. In old times they were -called the fisheries of Aripo after a fort on the coast. Not until the -English gained control were the fisheries so managed that definite -knowledge of the results could be obtained. - -After the Dutch gave way to the English, until 1903, these fisheries -had yielded a net income to the government of over £1,000,000. This -covered a period of over one hundred years, as the British occupied -Ceylon in 1796. In the early years of this period and prior to that, -the fishings, or rights to fish, were sold to the highest bidders, -usually Hindu merchants. In 1796 the fishing brought £60,000. The year -after the British took possession, 1797, it realized £110,000 that -amount having been paid by Candappa Chetty, a native of Jaffna for the -fishery right, and for that of 1798, the same renter paid £140,000. - -These fishings, which were prolonged, so exhausted the banks that the -fishery of 1799 yielded but £30,000. From 1799 to 1802 the yearly -product ranged from £12,000 to £55,000. In 1804 they were leased for -£120,000 but from that time on declined so that in 1828 they brought -only £30,612. There were no fishings from 1820 to 1827, nor in 1834 -and after 1837, until 1855. The supply failed in 1864 and for several -succeeding years, and again for a decade, after five successful -fishings from 1887 to 1891. The average yearly profit up to 1891 was -about £34,000. - -The Ceylon and Madras fisheries are now in charge of a government -officer, who spends a part of each year inspecting the various banks -so as to be informed as to the whereabouts of mature oysters, and the -location and progress of the young and immature. They keep a record of -their condition at different periods, and regulate the fisheries by -permitting fishing only when they consider the banks to be ripe for it. - -The oysters mature in from four to six years so that ordinarily a -bank may be fished once in that period, but it sometimes happens -that the young oysters are swept away by violent storms or crowded -out by natural enemies. In 1901 the Ceylon banks were found to be in -a bad way, there were plenty of young oysters but none full-grown. -The government officers could not account for the condition, and in -response to a report of the facts the government sent Prof. W. A. -Herdman to Ceylon in 1902. He examined the whole of the bottom of the -Gulf of Manaar and discovered banks on which were full-grown oysters, -so that a fishing was fixed for the 23rd of February 1903. Weather -prevented commencement until the second of March, when fishing began -and lasted forty-two working days until April the fourteenth. The -fishings take place in March and April because the sea is usually calm -at that period. - -The banks lie in five to ten fathoms over a shallow area nearly fifty -miles long by twenty miles broad, opposite Aripo. A steep declivity on -the western edge gives the sea a depth of one hundred fathoms in a few -miles. In the centre of the southern part of the Gulf of Manaar, west -of the Chilaw pearl-banks, the sea is one to two thousand fathoms deep. - -Of all the paars, or oyster-beds (paar means rock or hard bottom) the -Periya paar is the largest. It is about eleven nautical miles long and -from one to two miles broad. Situated in about five to ten fathoms -close to the top of the western slope of the shallows, and running -north and south about twenty miles from land, it is exposed to the -southwest monsoon which runs up toward the Bay of Bengal for about six -months of the year. The natives call this the mother-paar, believing -that the young oysters are carried from it to the other paars, which -are thus stocked at its expense. - -Between 1880 and 1902 twenty-one examinations showed that the Periya -paar had been naturally stocked eleven times with enormous quantities -of young oysters, which as regularly disappeared before they were -old enough to yield a fishing. The most reliable paars are in the -Cheval district and it is probable that the government, acting on the -suggestion of Prof. Herdman, will hereafter dredge the breeding Periya -paar of its young oysters and plant them where they will be able to -mature. It is estimated that many millions of millions of oysters have -been lost from this paar during the last twenty-five years. - -A fishing is not only a matter of commercial importance, but of -wide-spread interest among the natives of Ceylon and India. The romance -of the situation, the hope of gain, the great gathering of people -from many and far-off countries, the opportunities for barter, the -possibilities of securing priceless gems for little, and for making -money quickly, all appeal to the oriental mind. - -For this they will endure the discomforts of long and painful journeys -and the dangers of crowded camp life with a recklessness that -contrasts curiously with the wild panics into which they are sometimes -thrown, as for instance in 1889, when the Ceylon fishing collapsed on -account of cholera. In a few hours a fleet of 200 boats disappeared, -the camp was burned, and the multitude gone. - -Great precautions are taken by the government officials in every -direction. When they have decided that there are banks in condition -to be fished, notice of a fishing is advertised. The following -notification of the fishery for 1904 is an illustration. - -"Government Notification. - -Pearl fishery of 1904. - -Notice is hereby given that a pearl fishery will take place at -Marichchikaddi, in the Island of Ceylon, on or about March 14, 1904. - -1. The bank to be fished is the southwest Cheval Paar which is -estimated to contain 13,000,000 oysters. - -2. It is notified that the first day's fishing will take place on the -first favorable day after March 13. - -3. Marichchikaddi is on the main land, eight miles by sea south of -Sillavaturai and supplies of good water and provisions can be obtained -there. - -4. The fishery will be conducted on account of the Government, and the -oysters put up for sale in such lots as may be deemed expedient. - -5. The arrangements of the fishery will be the same as have been usual -on similar occasions. Persons attending the fishery camp from India -will be permitted to travel to Ceylon by either of the following -routes: (1) Tuticorin to Colombo or (2) Paumben to Marichchikaddi -and by no other. Arrangements will be made as at the last fishery, -for travellers to proceed from Paumben direct to the camp. The only -restriction imposed on travellers by the Paumben route will be -inspection by the medical officers at Paumben. - -6. All payments to be made in ready money in Ceylon currency. - -7. Drafts on the banks in Colombo or bills on the agents of this -Government in India, at ten days sight, will be taken on letters of -credit produced to warrant the drawing of such drafts or bills. - -8. For the convenience of purchasers, the treasurer at Colombo and the -different Government agents of provinces will be authorized to receive -cash deposits from parties intending to become purchasers, and receipts -of these officers will be taken in payment of any sums due on account -of the fishery. - -9. No deposit will be received for a less sum than Rs. 250. - -By His Excellency's command. - -Everard Im Thurm, Colonial Secretary. Colonial Secretary's Office, -Colombo, Feb. 27, 1904." - -The sanitary precautions are of the utmost importance, for a plague -stricken Hindu, if he were dying, would still endeavor to go where he -might "get rich quickly." - -As the time draws near, thousands of speculators and sightseers -from farther and nearer India arrive. Berbers, Arabs, Persians, and -Burmese, mingle with the Singhalese and Tamil divers. A town of huts -to accommodate perhaps 50,000 springs into existence. Steamer service -to Colombo is started, post and telegraph service is established and -sanitary measures put in force. Conjurors employed by the divers go -through incantations to preserve them from the sharks which abound in -these waters. - -This shark-charming power is believed to be hereditary and not -dependent on the religion of the conjuror and he can, if ill or absent, -convey the power to a substitute so that it will be respected by the -sharks. To make matters doubly sure the divers arm themselves with -a short, pointed piece of ironwood. This however is not their main -reliance for a "wise woman" was able to avert a panic which was well -under way, after one of the divers was bitten at the Tuticorin fishing -of 1890. Excepting the loss of a limb occasionally not much damage is -done by the sharks, a fact which sustains the implicit faith of the -natives in their shark-charmers. - -When the day set by the Government officials arrives, the fleet puts -to sea after numerous ceremonies. The boats, which range from ten -to fifteen tons, are grouped in fleets of sixty to seventy. Beside -the divers they are manned by ten or more sailors, a steersman, and -if possible by a shark-charmer (pillal karras). The boats leave at -midnight in order to be ready on the banks at sunrise. At the firing -of a signal gun diving commences. A stone of granite, shaped like a -pyramid and weighing about thirty to forty pounds, is attached through -a hole at the smaller end to the cord by which the diver is lowered. -Some divers prefer a half-moon stone fastened to the waist. Above the -stone when attached to the line is a loop for the diver's foot. The -divers work in pairs, one going down and the other remaining in the -boat to attend to the line, and in some cases exchanging positions as -the diver becomes exhausted. Naked divers stay below fifty to eighty -seconds on an average, though some can remain under water longer. -Each man makes forty to fifty descents a day and brings up fifteen to -thirty oysters each time. As a rule the maximum depth in these waters -is about forty-two feet though fishing at twelve and thirteen fathoms -is reported. The divers work from sunrise to noon, which allowing for -shifts gives each man four hours diving for a day's work. A gun is -fired as a signal for the day's fishing to cease and the fleet starts -at once for shore. Upon arriving there the oysters are immediately -landed by coolies who carry them in baskets, on their backs, to the -"Kottu," or government stockade. There they are counted and each -boat-load is divided into three equal parts; Two of these are chosen -by officials for the government and the remaining heap is the boats' -share. Formerly the catch was divided into four parts of which the -government took three. Of the boats' share the divers get in some cases -two thirds. As soon as the division is made, those belonging to the -boat are quickly traded or sold to the numerous small speculators which -abound in the camp. Six evenings in the week the government auctions -off the catch in lots of one thousand. - -While each day's catch is being counted the average run is carefully -watched by experts who judge by the size, weight and general appearance -of the oysters as to the probable yield of pearls. Opinions so formed -are usually quite correct and bidding at the auctions are based on -them to a great extent. The principal buyers are from Madras, Bombay, -and other cities on the Coromandel and Malabar coasts of India, though -local speculators buy many. The catch runs about one million per day. -In 1903 forty-four million oysters were taken, but they realized much -less than the catch of 1904, when the number was not quite twenty-six -and three-quarter millions, though it netted the government $350,000; -1905, however, will be the record year as it is claimed the profits -will reach the large sum of $830,000. These figures represent the -government's share only. - -The price realized at these sales varies not only with the season -but from day-to-day. Ten to fourteen dollars per thousand is a fair -average, though there are days when as much as twenty-four dollars is -realized. Prices have ranged from $7.50 to $40.00 per thousand in one -season. The net proceeds go to the revenue of Ceylon. - -This has been the system under which the Ceylon fisheries were managed -until lately. For some reason unknown to the public, the government, -after a season of unequalled profit in 1905, leased the fisheries to -a company, the Pearl Fishers of Ceylon (Limited), for a period of -twenty years from January 1, 1906. The company is to pay the government -$103,333 per annum and is to expend annually upon the improvement -of the fishery not less than $16,666, or more than $50,000, at -the discretion of the government. The expenses of supervision and -protection by the government must also be borne by the company. - -As a result of the first fishery (1906), the company after setting -aside $49,628 for depreciations and reserve and carrying forward -$77,382, show a profit of $256,960 which affords dividends of 36 cents -on ordinary shares and 18 cents on deferred shares, a remarkably good -beginning. The government revenue from the fishery of 1905 was $801,882 -after the expenses, $73,510 were deducted; over $111,000 more than the -profit of 1904 which was the most successful up to that time. - -The inspector of pearl-banks anticipated a good fishery in 1906 but was -of the opinion that after a small fishery in 1907 and probably 1908 the -banks would fail for some years as they have done in the past. - -After the pearls are taken from the dead oysters they are first sorted -for size. This is done by passing them through a series of ten small -brass sieves known as baskets, containing from twenty to one thousand -holes. The sieves have twenty, thirty, fifty, eighty, one hundred, two -hundred, four hundred, six hundred, eight hundred and one thousand -holes respectively. The pearls are then sorted for color and quality, -weighed and valued. As with all things, really fine pieces are rare, -the great mass being ordinary or poor. Herein lies the attraction and -excitement of the business for some will find great gems. One may -imagine the keen interest of the swarthy buyer who has parted with -his hoards, hoping to find a "pearl of great price" when he washes -the lustrous spheres from the putrid mass of decaying fish: the eager -search; the joy when his eye lights upon a big, white, shining sphere -rising up among the heap of little ones; the growing exultation as he -picks it out and with feverish interest rolls it about between his -fingers to find it without flaw or blemish, or the keen disappointment -should his inspection show, as it most frequently does, that it is full -of imperfections. - -Hovering about are the buyers for the great Hindu merchants, agents of -far-off princes and Europeans, all watching sharply for great finds -and ready to enter into the combat of wits which marks an oriental -trading. - -If one remembers that there are probably twenty-five thousand traders -congregated on the hot sands of this far-off shore, the fair dame, -whose neck is clasped by a string of these precious globules, may -conjure from their lustrous skins, scenes as wild and weird as any -fairy tale that set her youth to dreaming. - -The pearls are sorted into a number of grades. Those perfect in -sphericity and luster are called "ani." Anitari meaning "followers" -or "companions," are of the same general character, but poorer in -those important qualities. Masanku are somewhat irregular in shape and -faulty, especially in luster and color. The poorest of this class, -lacking the essential qualities, are separated into another grade and -called "kallipu." Next come "kural," double or twinned, and "pisal," -are misshapen or clustered. Folded or bent pearls are "madanku," and -what we would call "rejection," a mixed lot of all sorts and sizes -too poor to include in any of the regular classifications, are termed -"vadivu." Seed-pearls, the very small pearls of which there are great -quantities, are known as "tul." Many of these are ground to "chunam" or -shell-lime, and used as an ingredient in a favorite masticatory. - -The assortments being made, they are weighed and recorded in kalanchu -(kalungy) and manchadi (manjaday). The kalanchu is a brass weight equal -to 67 grains troy, and the manchadi is a small red berry that is of -very even weight when full sized, and is reckoned twenty to a kalanchu. - -In the valuation of ani, anitari and vadivu, the individual size, form, -and color is considered, but the others are simply valued by weight. - -The modus operandi of these fisheries like all others managed by -Orientals continues much the same from fishing to fishing. Experiments -have been made at the Tuticorin fishery with helmeted divers but their -catch compared unfavorably with that of the naked natives, who will -sometimes under favorable circumstances bring up two thousand in a -day. It is said that the X-ray is being used to some extent in the -examination of shells and that those found to be without pearls are -thrown back into the sea, but it is doubtful if the general use would -be practical or advantageous while oysters remain abundant; so far, the -use of it has been experimental only. - -Fine pearls are found in Dutch India among the Molucca Islands. Fishing -is done by the natives, and as they seldom go deeper than ten or twelve -feet the probability is that they do not get the finest shells or -pearls, for it seems to be quite well established that the shells taken -from deep water are larger and more likely to contain large pearls. -Whether this arises from deep water being more favorable to growth, or -an unmolested opportunity to grow, has not been determined. - -Hitherto the Netherlands Indian government has opposed encroachment -upon the rights of the natives and colonists, and has patrolled the -waters with small gunboats to prevent any attempt by Europeans to fish. -But lately concessions have been made to British firms so that shell -is being shipped direct to London, and it is now thought that these -fisheries will soon rival the Australian. The pearls were formerly -bought from natives, principally of the Island of Aroe, by Chinese and -Arabs who took them to Macassar. From there they were sent first to -Singapore and then to London, Paris, and Amsterdam. Most of the pearls -brought to Macassar are baroques, though fine specimens of more regular -shape arrive there occasionally. The mother-of-pearl from these shells -is of good quality. - -Some pearls are found at the Bazaruto Islands, Portuguese East Africa, -a few miles from the coast, midway between Inhambane and Beira. A -concession was granted to a company about 1892, but bad management, -lack of funds and political difficulties, killed the enterprise. - -General reports indicate that it is very difficult for any enterprise -subject to the officials of this district to succeed. The Bazaruto -Kaffirs still fish, but without system or intelligence. They are -wasteful and damage many of the pearls by cooking the oyster. The few -found are shipped by Indian traders to Bombay and Zanzibar. - -Pearl fishing has been attempted on the coast of German East Africa -at Zanzibar Island and south, between the Island of Mafia and the main -coast. Mother-of-pearl is abundant but few pearls have been found and -there has been no sustained effort. There are large coral banks about -the islands of the coast favorable for the growth of mother-of-pearl -and there is shallow water over large areas. - -Good white pearls have been taken from a red mussel found there. South -of the Island of Mafia are beds of large pinna shells which yield -black seed-pearls. There are pearl-shell fisheries in the Merguian -Archipelago and in the government of Burmah and some pearls are found. -The banks, scattered over an area of eleven thousand square miles, are -rented from the government and rights to fish are sublet on royalty. -The fishing is nearly all done by helmeted divers. - -Avicula and meleagrina margaritifera are taken off the west coast of -New Caledonia. From the former large numbers of pearls are taken, and -from the latter, very beautiful white pearls. Fine colored pearls pink, -yellow, gray and black are often found in this district. A variety -of oyster commonly called shoulder of mutton, and another shell-fish -called jamboneau (pinna) of which the pearl is very fine, are also -found in these waters. - -A syndicate was formed in Paris to exploit these beds and obtained -concessions covering one hundred and thirty miles. Owing to the -difficulty of getting divers, the waters had not been exploited to any -great depth up to 1898, the regular fishings being confined to the -shallows of six to seven feet, though larger shells were known to be in -deeper water. More systematic work with modern appliances and in deeper -waters has since been done with good success, but late reports show an -accumulation of shell and indications that the industry has not been -profitable. - -In 1904 the price of shell (black-edge mother-of-pearl) fell to $250, -U. S. gold per ton of 2240 pounds, from $700, the former price, with -six hundred tons stored in London, Paris, Berlin, New York and San -Francisco, making a prospective loss of $270,000 for 1904. There was -an attempt to limit the production by a return to native diving. -With dress the output would be about 500 tons for the year, with -naked-diving 200 tons less. This would operate against the local -government, as it not only levies $38.60 U.S. gold per metric ton as an -export duty, but makes a large profit on the diving machines by way of -license. The pearl fisheries of French Oceanica therefore face a grave -situation. - -Pearls are found occasionally on the western coast of Nicaragua at -San Juan del Norte. The Panama coast still yields great quantities -of pearls as it has done for many years. When Spain controlled the -northwestern section of South America with the Isthmus to the borders -of Guatemala, under the name of Colombia, immense quantities of pearls -were sent home by the colonists. - -It is recorded that 697 pounds of pearls were imported into Seville -from Colombia in 1587. A large proportion of these undoubtedly came -from the coasts of what is now Venezuela. The Panama or bullock shell -as it is called, is not of the finest quality and the pearls are apt -to be dark and inferior to the Indian pearls in luster as well as in -color; nevertheless fine pearls are found there and the fisheries yield -a greater average of black pearls than any other. Beautiful iridescent -pearls are also found there. - -The Pearl islands are on the east side of the Bay of Panama about forty -miles from the city. The banks there may only be fished by divers but -between Chiriqui and Veragua dredging is allowed. Since the United -States government has become interested in this section there is a -tendency here to exploit the Panama coasts and companies have been -formed in the States for that purpose. The pearl fisheries formerly -carried on along the coast of Ecuador about two hundred miles north of -Guayaquil, are no longer operated. - -On the Atlantic coast of South America the most fruitful pearl-banks -lie along the coast of Venezuela and west to Rio Hacha on the Colombian -coast. This was the first part of the American mainland sighted by -Columbus and the quantities of pearls owned by the natives did much -to draw the tide of adventurers which set this way in the sixteenth -century. - -The oysters are taken from reefs and bars about one mile from shore and -about the islands. The principal beds are at El Tirano, north-east, -and Macanao, north-west of the island of Margarita. There are fisheries -also at the neighboring Islands of Coche and Cubagua. About four -hundred sail-boats of from three to fifteen tons, employing two -thousand men, are constantly at work in these fisheries. - -A French company purchased a concession about the year 1900 from a -Venezuelan to fish in this neighborhood. It was to pay the Venezuelan -government 10 per cent. of the profits as royalty and use divers and -diving apparatus so as to select the oysters and avoid waste of the -immature. Fishing by natives is done mostly by dredging with metal -scoops. It is estimated that upwards of $600,000 worth of pearls are -found about the island of Margarita per annum, most of them going to -the Paris market. - -Exclusive rights have been granted a Venezuelan citizen by the local -government lately to exploit the Gulf of Cariaco for pearls and other -sea products. The contract is for twenty-five years. Certain advantages -are guaranteed by the government which is to receive fifteen per cent. -of the net profits of the enterprise. - -About forty or fifty years ago several English companies conducted -profitable fisheries in the lower Gulf of Maracaibo and on the coasts -of the Goajira territory and Paraguana. They employed Indians as -divers. Revolutionary troubles during the last twenty-five years so -demoralized the Indians, that the industry was finally broken up. -Reports from authoritative sources indicate, that not only could -paying fisheries be established here, but that the interior is rich in -minerals and precious stones. - -Until lately there have been few restrictions upon fishing along -the Venezuelan coast beyond a tax of fifty dollars imposed by local -authorities upon the buyers and the payment of fifteen bolivars ($2.90) -by each boat for a fishing permit at Margarita. - -The oysters of this coast mature rapidly and like those of Ceylon live -but six or seven years. They are small and the shells are so thin that -they can be crushed between the fingers. They are of the Lingah type -and are named by some avicula squamulosa. The nacreous lining is also -very thin, but lustrous and beautifully iridescent. The pearls run -small and very many of them are quite yellow. - -Many fine white pearls are found however, though they incline -frequently to a waxy luster and are often marred by chalky spots. Great -quantities of baroques, notably beautiful for color and orient, are -found. Round pearls with a china-like skin in many colors are also -quite common. The average size and quality is not equal to those of the -Indian waters, though it is much better than is generally credited, as -the traders in this country for some inexplicable reason have an idea -that Venezuelan pearls are necessarily poorer than others. - -This notion has probably been fostered among American buyers by the -Parisian dealers who at present well nigh control the output of -these fisheries and naturally fear the diversion to a neighboring -market which now pays a heavy toll to Paris on pearls taken from this -continent. It is true an unusually large percentage of cracked pearls -is found among Venezuelans, and they lose perceptibly in weight after -being brought from the fisheries the loss averaging fully one-eighth of -one per cent., nevertheless many pearls of the finest quality are taken -from these fisheries. All pearls are subject to slight variations in -weight. - -It was from the fisheries of Colombia that Philip II. of Spain received -the large pearl of 250 carats, about the size and shape of a pigeon's -egg, so often mentioned in the chronicles of precious stones. - -The management of the pearl fisheries of the Colombia of to-day is -in the hands of the central bank of Colombia which is empowered to -transact business pertaining to property belonging to the government. -This institution holds a public auction and awards the lease of the -rights to fish for pearls, coral, etc., on the Colombian coasts of the -Atlantic and Pacific oceans, to the most desirable bidder. The lessee -must be governed by the rules and regulations laid down by the bank. -The lease is for five years and went into effect August 1st, 1906. - -New pearl oyster-beds were discovered in 1903 in the Gulf of Campèche -near Coatzacoalcos and application was made by a Mexican to the -Mexican government for a concession to work them. There are extensive -beds, which are constantly fished, along the eastern coast of Lower -California from its junction with the United States to Cape San Lucas. -La Paz is the principal centre of the fisheries. An English syndicate -has a concession from the Mexican government which was lately renewed, -for fishing about La Paz. Pearls worth $350,000, among them many fine -black pearls, and five thousand tons of shells valued at $1,250,000, -were taken in 1904. This syndicate employs all the modern appliances. - -Beds are known and worked from La Paz to and about the island of Loreto -on the east coast, and at the island of Tiburon over on the East side -of the gulf, and from Mazatlan all along the coast of Mexico proper to -the boundary line of Guatemala. These beds were discovered by Cortez in -1536 and were worked spasmodically for two centuries; then for a period -they were fished so constantly and thoroughly that the market was -over-loaded with pearls and the supply of oysters seriously diminished. -Of late years fishing has been again carried on systematically and with -sufficient judgment to prevent the immediate destruction of the beds as -before. - -A pearl oyster-bed ten miles long has lately been located at the Punta -de Santa Cristoval. The Mexican season for fishing varies in localities -from May to November, or June to December. The day's work of the diver -commences at near the ebb tide and ends shortly after the beginning -of the flood tide, about three hours in all. Much fishing is done by -independent naked native divers, in a manner similar to that of the -Hindus and Arabs, but some of the large concessionaires supply their -divers with helmets and other modern appliances. - -Schooners of various sizes having several boats, carry the fishing -parties to the banks and the men live on them through the entire -season. The daily catches are delivered to an armed boat which carries -the oysters ashore, where they are at once searched for pearls. These -when found are immediately sorted and valued, a percentage going to -the diver in addition to his wages, if he is a regular employee of the -Company. - -The oysters are found adhering to rocks by the byssus, generally in -bunches, hinge-side down, curved side up and the shells slightly -parted. The diver cuts them loose with a knife and deposits them in -his basket or net. One hundred to a hundred and fifty is a good day's -work for a naked diver, but with the appliances now being introduced, -a diver in dress can raise fully double that number. It should be -remembered that there are elements of uncertainty and irregularity in -the catch of the meleagrina. As compared with the enormous and crowded -beds of the small varieties as they exist in the Gulf of Manaar and at -the island of Margarita, Venezuela, where they can be literally scooped -up, the scattered bunches of the meleagrina do not afford easy data for -reckoning averages. - -On the coasts of China, Japan, Korea, some of the South Sea Islands, -the English Channel islands, the Canary islands, about St. Malo on -the coast of France, at Queen Charlotte's island and along the coast -of California from north of San Francisco to the border of Lower -California, at the Cape of Good Hope, India, Australia and New Zealand, -a shell-fish is taken which has considerable commercial value and -yields pearls to a limited extent. - -It is called in this country abalone. In the Channel islands it -is known as the ormer. It is the Haliotis or Ear-shell. The Greeks -called it venus ear-shell and used it as a food, considering it most -nutritious. Old English writers praised it as a delicious morsel under -the name of ormond saying that it was bigger and infinitely better than -the oyster. This shell-fish attaches itself to the rocks by a flat, -disk-shaped foot and must be taken when the tide is low. The fisherman -can then insert a knife by stealth under the foot and taking the fish -unawares, destroy the suction. Otherwise the hold of the fish could not -be broken without destroying the shell. New Zealanders call the fish -itself the mutton fish. - -The Japanese, Chinese and Indians of the Pacific coast have long used -it as an article of food. The shells are valuable on account of the -very beautiful nacreous lining which is exceptionally good material for -buttons and various ornamental purposes. The lining has an exquisite -play of colors in the richest tones of peacock greens and reds. There -are about seventy species of the Haliotis and the shells vary greatly -in size. The British ormer (H. tuberculata) is of small size, about -six inches long and is silvery. The shells are sometimes called in -trade aurora shells. After being well beaten to make them tender the -animals are used for food. - -The ormer or auris marina was esteemed by the ancients as a very sweet -and luscious dish. The people of the Channel islands ornament their -houses with the shells and farmers use them to frighten the birds from -their corn-fields. They string several together and suspend them from -the end of a slender pole stuck in the ground. The wind swaying them, -makes a constant clatter. The Haliotis iris of New Zealand is green and -brilliantly iridescent. A Cape of Good Hope species (H. Mida), under -the epidermis is tinged with color, principally orange. - -Some of the more beautiful species were formerly very abundant on the -coasts of China and Japan, but the constant use of the animal for many -years as a food stuff has made them less common there and the Chinese -and Japanese now obtain a large part of their supply from California, -where the haliotis or abalone, as it is called is taken in great -quantities. The two most beautiful species found on this coast are, the -Haliotis splendens, a magnificent shell of rainbow coloring in which -peacock green predominates, and H. rufescens, the lining of which is -red. When found, the latter is usually thickly incrusted and coated -with vegetation. The green and red range from seven to ten inches, the -latter being generally the larger. - -Another variety, H. cracherodii, very dark green or black without, and -with no apparent beauty, has a small opalescent bit inside the shell -which is cut out and made into articles of jewelry. This is common in -crevices of rocks. A variety called bluebacks has a bright clayey blue -exterior. The Indians of the Pacific coast have used these shells as -material for jewelry and decoration for centuries, but not until the -button-makers of Europe and New York began to utilize them did they -become an item of importance among the exports of the Pacific coast. - -Few pearls are found in the abalone but they yield a considerable -number of large rounded baroques and excrescences, rich and beautiful -in color and of fair luster, also odd-shaped pieces like blisters -matched and joined at the edges. The greens have a bronze appearance -and the reds and pinks are often iridescent. Quite a number of good -"peelers" are found among them. These are pearly formations which can -be improved by taking off one or more of the outer skins. - -Pearl-fishing, principally by Greeks, has been carried on about the -west and south coast of Haiti, but lately the government has granted -a concession to four of its citizens covering nine years with the -privilege of renewal at the end of that period. This will prohibit -all others from fishing unless they rent the privilege from the -concessionaires. - -To the south of the Philippines, pearl fisheries were worked by the -natives before the arrival of the Spaniards, and the industry is still -carried on, chiefly by antiquated methods. The coasts of the Sulu -islands, at Jolo and elsewhere and about the island of Mindanao, have -yielded many fine pearls and continue to do so. The shells from these -waters furnish very fine mother-of-pearl. - -All things considered, the largest and best equipped fisheries in the -world to-day are those on the coast of Australia. Not as many pearls -are found as at Ceylon. The main object of fishing is the shell, which -is large, heavy, and furnishes the best quality of mother-of-pearl of -the white variety. From Charlotte's Bay on the north-eastern coast, -all along the northern coast and around to Exmouth Gulf on the western -coast, pearl oysters are abundant. Farther south at Sharks Bay, the -oysters are smaller and the pearls, though of good shape and luster, -run yellow. Shells from the coast of Queensland are sold as Sydney -shell; those from the northern territory of South Australia, as Port -Darwin shell, and from there to Exmouth Gulf on the western coast, they -are marketed as West Australian shell. - -The fishing is carried on by organized companies having capital, and -every modern appliance of practical value is utilized. The divers fish -with the dress. The usual method of fishing is for a schooner of eighty -to one hundred tons to put out with a number of luggers of from eight -to ten tons. Each lugger is manned by a captain, a cook, one man at -the life-line, two men at the air-pumps and one diver. Each lugger will -average half a ton of shells per month ranging from 1600 to 2000 to the -ton. The pearls like the shells run white. - -The Australians are not only pushing this industry along their own -coast, but are extending operations along the islands north toward the -equator, wherever it is possible. And wherever they go they carry with -them the best modern appliances and methods. Lately however operations -have been considerably curtailed in the Torres straits owing to the -enforcement of laws for the protection of divers. - -Lack of men for diving caused some of the operators to use questionable -means to obtain a supply. Boats were sent through the South Sea among -the islands and aborigines, Chinese, and even European sailors, were -kidnapped and held in practical slavery. Many lives have been lost in -these fisheries and the evils connected with the industry became so -notorious that the government took action. It is probable that the -business will be reorganized and either conducted by the state or under -government supervision. Natives are now being trained to use the dress. - -Few pearls are found and it not infrequently happens that as many as -fifteen to twenty tons of shells are raised without finding a single -pearl of value. At this time shells from these fisheries bring from -$500 to $750 per ton in the New York market. Helmets have been used to -some extent throughout the Pacific for a number of years, but many were -crude affairs, carelessly managed and the loss of life was as great as -by naked-diving. The training of the natives to the use of the more -modern appliances will however engender confidence and the probability -is that dress-diving will become general in the south seas wherever the -industry is organized. - -As a rule the largest oysters and pearls, where there is a calcareous -foundation for the bed, are taken from the deeper waters, and it is -probable that as modern appliances are more generally used by the -larger organizations now taking hold of the industry, the fisheries -will be extended with good results in many localities to waters beyond -the shallows now fished. More systematic methods will prevent waste -and the destruction of the beds. - -The English Colonial governments of India are doing much in this -direction. By keeping experts upon the ground, they have learned how to -fish without destroying the beds, and to fish when it is possible for -the oysters to contain pearls. Strict supervision and protection of the -beds result in more frequent fishings and greater returns to both the -government and the fishermen. - -This example is being followed, and pearl fisheries are gradually -coming either under governmental supervision or into the hands of -concessionaires, whose large investment makes the preservation of the -beds a business necessity, whether they fish mainly for pearls or -shells. - -The best pearls and the largest number are found usually in mature -shells which are distorted; it has been stated as a possibility, that -in the future some of the new rays will be used in fisheries where the -pearl is the main object of the fisher, to ascertain if the oyster -contains any before destroying it. M. Dubois of Lyons has experimented -with Roentgen rays for that purpose. - -As the fish is enormously prolific it is more probable however that -effort will be directed instead toward the preservation of the mollusk -from the enemies and accidents which are occasionally greater than its -productiveness. - -One of the greatest dangers in Indian waters to a bed of young oysters -is a little mollusk known locally in Ceylon as suran (Modiola). These -cluster in masses on the sea bottom and spreading over the surface of -the coral, crowd out the delicate young of oysters recently deposited. - -The Japanese fisheries suffer from the occasional infection of the -waters by a weed, dinoflagellata gonyaulax. It accumulates in immense -quantities, causing a wide discoloration of the sea water and is very -destructive to an oyster-bed. It is called the red current or red tide. -So far no preventive or remedy has been found. - -Hitherto the most general and fatal danger to oyster-beds has been the -ungoverned extravagance of irresponsible fishers who seek to harvest -in the present regardless of the future, but these are gradually being -made amenable to restrictive laws as authorities awake to the value of -the industry. A greater danger which threatens the unio of American -streams, is the pollution of the water by the discharge of the refuse -of factories and the sewage of cities into them. A mussel bed will -recover in time when denuded by fishers, but sewage and poison kills it -out entirely. - -Although fresh-water pearl-bearing mussels are found in the streams of -many countries, only in the United States are they taken in sufficient -quantities to make the fishings important as an industry. They are -to be found throughout the Mississippi drainage area and in part of -that of the St. Lawrence. Few exist on the Pacific coast and those of -the Atlantic coast are generally inferior as pearl-mussels. There are -many varieties of the unio which yield pearls. Latin names are given -by different writers to distinguish them, but as scientists differ -in their classifications, the names are not always uniform and are -not sufficiently well established to be useful, descriptively, to the -general reader. In treating of the various kinds of pearl-bearing -unios of the United States therefore in these pages, the common names -by which they are known will as a rule be used with the scientific -names appended, as revised by the department of mollusks of the United -States National Museum. - -From the times of Roman colonization until now, pearls have been taken -from the mussels of British streams. There are three varieties of -pearl-bearing mussels in Great Britain: Painter's mussel (U. pictorum), -the Swollen River mussel (U. tumidus) and the Pearl mussel (U. -margaritifera). - -The first two occur only in the streams and ponds of England and Wales -and the pearls found in them are of inferior quality. The latter -inhabits the streams of Scotland and the northern counties of England -and to some extent are found in Ireland and Wales also. The shell is -oblong, rather flat and heavy and about five and one-half inches long. -The exterior surface is rough, and blackish-brown; the pearly interior -has a tint of flesh color mottled by stains of dull green. It was from -this variety the Perthshire Tay pearls were taken, which gained so -much notoriety in the middle of the eighteenth century when some fifty -thousand dollars worth were sent to London from this stream in three -years. - -Scotch pearl-fishing was revived in 1860 and some fine ones were -sold to Queen Victoria, the Empress of the French, the Duchess of -Hamilton and others. Pearl-mussels have been found in Lochs Rannoch, -Tay, Lubnaig and Earn, also in the Don, the Leith and other streams. -Some are found in the Welsh streams, and the river Bann in Ireland -was noted for the fine pearls found in it. Many years ago there was a -pearl fishery at Omagh in the north of Ireland. An old writer claims -that Cæsar obtained pearls of such bigness in Britain that he tried the -weight of them by his hand. - -The fishers wade for them in shallow pools, or thrust sticks between -the open valves, or drag branches over them, for as soon as anything -enters between the two shells they close upon it at once. The mussels -are found generally set up in the sand of the river-bed with the open -side, if the current is very strong, turned away from it. The custom -of the peasantry is to fish for them in the autumn after harvest. - -Pearl-mussels are found also in Saxony, Bavaria, Bohemia, Mesopotamia, -Lapland, Canada, Labrador, the Hawaiian Island Oahu, Japan (especially -the anodonta japonica), China, the United States and Italy, in the -Gwaai and Shangani rivers of Southern Rhodesia, South Africa. Nowhere -are they found however in such quantities or in so many varieties as in -the United States. The number taken from the streams here of late years -has been so great that the shells have largely displaced the marine -Egyptian and have affected the demand for the better qualities of South -Sea mother-of-pearl. The pearls found in them also have been of such -quality and quantity that they now have an important place among the -jewels of the world. - -Old records and the contents of Indian mounds show that the unio was -taken from the rivers by the aborigines for the pearls they sometimes -contained; but no wide interest in this possible wealth of the rivers -appears to have developed among their white successors until the -finding in 1857 of a large pearl weighing ninety-three grains at Notch -Brook near Paterson, N. J. It was afterwards sold to the Empress -Eugénie of France for $2500. This became noised abroad and immediately -multitudes began to search for pearls. - -Mussels were gathered and destroyed by the million, few pearls being -found. The excitement subsided as the searchers learned how few got -adequate reward for their time and labor. They soon began to realize -that the finding of a pearl of value is usually preceded by the opening -of hundreds or thousands of shells containing none, and that in the -aggregate, the shells thrown away were worth more than the few pearls -found. - -Another pearl hunt developed along the Little Miami River in Ohio from -the finding of several fine pearls near Waynesville in 1876. This -reached its height in 1878. In 1880, pearls began to come into the New -York market from the West and South. Immense beds have been fished in -the White, Wabash and Ohio Rivers in Indiana. In the summer of 1889 -a number of fine pearls were found in the south-western corner of -Wisconsin, in Crawford, Grant, Lafayette and Green counties. Not only -were they notable for extraordinary luster, but many were of beautiful -color. The sale of some at prices which seemed fabulous to the people -of that section, when it became generally known, caused such a scramble -for them by the natives that the streams were rapidly denuded of -mussels, and that section has become of much less importance than -others since developed. Prairie du Chien is the center of the Wisconsin -market, from which point the shells are distributed to the button -factories. - -The following year (1890) pearl-bearing mussels were found in several -of the central counties of Illinois—McLean, Tazewell and Woodford, in -the Mackinaw river and tributaries, but no discovery equalling that of -Wisconsin occurred until 1897 when the Arkansas beds were discovered. A -peculiarity of this district is that whereas the unio is usually most -abundant in swift clear water having a sandy or gravelly bottom, many -are found here in the mud. - -They have been taken over a wide territory from the rivers and streams -of the eastern half of the state, including the Black, White, Cache, -St. Francis, Ouachita, Saline and Dorcheat rivers, and in the valley of -the Arkansas. Following this were finds in Indian Territory, Missouri, -Georgia and Tennessee, the latter being the most prolific. The finest -pearls in Tennessee are found in the fluter, or lake shell, which is -the same as the mussel known on the Wabash as the wash-board. A yellow -shell is found in the Clinch River similar to the mucket of Arkansas, -from which pearls are taken. - -Unlike the pearl oyster, the unio seems to be more prolific of pearls -in the shallows and riffles near the edges of the rivers. Most of the -fine pearls are found between the pallial line and the lip in the free -portion of the mantle. Those found within the pallial line, where the -mantle is attached to the shell, are seldom as lustrous or perfect. - -Pearls are found in many States besides those mentioned, but the -fishing is done quietly and in some cases the sources of supply are -known to only a few who in the marketing of their pearls carefully -avoid giving any information. This is particularly true of some of the -eastern states. Streams in the Northwestern section of New York State -are regularly fished, but without excitement. The large fisheries of -the Mississippi and West are fished principally for the mother-of-pearl -in the shells. As with some of the marine fisheries, the pearl is -regarded as an extra. - -The mussels are taken in various ways. In Canada, boats drag brush and -the branches of trees over the river bottoms, gathering the mussels -into the boat as the twigs become clogged. In the large beds often -found in our Western Rivers, fishing is done wherever possible by -dredging. Metal scoops, hand, shoulder and scissor-rakes are used and -the mollusks, taken in immense quantities are cooked to open them, -then cleaned of the meat which is afterwards examined for pearls. -This method is used where the mussels lie in great masses or on sandy -bottoms. Where there are boulders or large stones, a great number of -hooks are dragged over the beds. - -The mussels, partially buried, lie lip-end up and the shell slightly -parted. Should anything come within this gaping aperture, the mussel at -once closes upon it, nipping on with such tenacity that the hold is not -loosed until the fisher draws it into the boat and forcibly releases -the hook. It is said the mollusk's shell would remain thus tightly -closed for ten or twelve hours. After dragging the hooks over the bed, -the mussels are taken off and the process repeated. - -[Illustration: PEARL-FISHING IN THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER] - -Various rough devices are used, the principle in all being the same. -One, illustrative, consists of a piece of lead pipe or an iron bar -several feet long, from which depend a number of double or triple hooks -several inches apart. This is dropped overboard, the rope on which it -is hung is fastened to the stern of the boat, and the boatman rows over -the mussel bed dragging it after him. Men who dredge for the mollusks -are called clammers. Pearlers are those who at odd times fish for the -mussels with pearls as the main object. This class is composed of the -backwoods natives who live about the streams in which the mussels -are found. They are people who usually follow their inclinations -as nearly as they can, working only as it becomes requisite to -obtain the few coarse necessities of their lives. With them also are -small farmers who at seasons when farm work is not pressing, seek the -excitement and possible profit of the hunt for pearls. - -For all such persons the occupation has a great fascination. The -difficulties of following the streams through almost impenetrable -surroundings, the coarse fare of bacon, meal and coffee; the long -tramps back and forth to their mountain huts, or the exposure to night -in the tangle of the woods, have no terrors for them; they are but -common experiences. - -Few pearls of value are found, but the occasional pearl which each one -does get, makes expectation tingle, and hope recounts again and again -the great finds which others have made. There are curious happenings -which illustrate the uncertainties of the work. - -It is told on the Clinch river in East Tennessee that a pearler, having -patiently fished all day, examining the fish from time to time as -little heaps of them were gathered, without finding even a small pearl, -finally decided to quit. He was about to examine his last small heap -when a man standing by offered him fifty cents for the lot. The offer -was accepted. From the first shell opened, the buyer extracted a ball -pearl which was afterwards sold for one thousand dollars. Two of the -finest pearls taken one season from the same section were obtained from -a heel-splitter, carelessly dug out of the sand by a man wading in -the shallows of the river. The heel-splitter is a large thin-shelled -variety, so named by the natives because of the sharp, cutting quality -of the shell which protrudes from the sand of the river. They rarely -contain pearls, but when they do, the pearls are usually fine. - -The largest proportion of fine pearls to the yield of any section since -discoveries have been recorded, came from Wisconsin, and many of the -best of these, especially of the fancy colored ones, were taken from -Sugar river. Many of these were exceptionally beautiful in both color -and luster and a good proportion of them were also round. - -Much is written and told of the marvellous pearls found in our streams -worth large sums of money. Such pearls are found undoubtedly but not -in such quantities as one might think from the enthusiastic reports -current in daily papers. Finds are written up by reporters who know -nothing of pearls and prefer to write a readable story of wondrous gems -and great values to a statement of plain unvarnished facts. In this the -news-gatherer is assisted by some simple native with an eye single to a -good price and a capacity for exaggerated ideas of value impossible to -Maiden Lane. - -It is no uncommon trick when buyers are present, to find again, a -pearl, which has been to New York and back and the ruse often succeeds. -Pearls are frequently sold at the fisheries for much more than they -would bring in the east. In fact it is difficult to buy ordinary pearls -at a reasonable price. The natives will sometimes sell a really fine -pearl for less than it is worth because they do not understand the -relative values of quality; but they usually over-estimate pieces of -poor quality. - -A large majority of those found in our fresh-water mussels fail in some -essential quality. Many are chalky, or lustrous at one or two points -only. Others are faulty in shape, or if spherical, deeply pitted. -Really fine pieces are usually small or button, and when large, are -baroques. Some of the latter are magnificent. Weighing fifty to over -one hundred grains, with skins of extraordinary luster and iridescence; -white, or of a beautiful pink tint, these strawberry or rose pearls, -as they are called, frequently excel, by every standard of beauty, the -imperfect spheres which command a greater price in the market because -they are round. - -The most common variety of unio in American rivers, especially in the -Mississippi river, is that known as the nigger-head (Quadrula ebena). -It is also the principal species used for button-making. - -Similar is the warty-back (Quadrula pustulosa) so called because the -shell has a number of warts or excrescences on the outside of the -valves. The "bull-head" (Pleurobena Aesopus) is found in abundance with -the nigger-head. It has a blackish-brown exterior, presenting several -radiating ridges, and a white lining. The two latter are inferior as -material for buttons as the shells are brittle. The mucket (Lampsilis -ligamentinus) is a large shell, average size 4 inches, has a dark brown -exterior and cream-white lining. It is too thin and brittle to make -first class material for buttons though fine pearls are sometimes found -in them. - -The sand-shells furnish good material for buttons. They are long, -sometimes six inches, and narrow. They are usually found on sandy -bottoms and are said to move from the channel toward the shores in -the morning and back in the evening. The most abundant is the yellow -sand-shell (Lampsilis anodontoides) so called from its bright yellowish -brown exterior. Another kind, the black sand-shell (Lampsilis rectus) -has a black epidermis. A smaller variety, less abundant now than -formerly, is the slough sand-shell (Lampsilis fallaciosus). These are -generally found in coves or the mouths of rivulets. - -The deer-horn or buckhorn (Tritigonia verrucosa) is a large variety, -sometimes attaining a length of nine inches in the Iowa river, though -the average in the Mississippi is about five inches. The shell, as the -name indicates, has a rough, warty exterior. The supply is small and -uncertain. - -Another rare species is the butterfly (Plagiola securis). It is a -small, flat, thick shell of fine color, and the valves are butterfly in -shape with a reddish-brown epidermis striped by darker radiating lines. -It is abundant only in the Illinois and Ohio rivers. - -The hatchet-back, hackle-back, or heel-splitter (Symphynota -complanata), is a large black mussel having a thin sharp-edged shell, -one valve-edge projecting. It yields few pearls though fine specimens -are occasionally found in this variety. - -The blue-point (Quadrula undulata) has a large, thick shell, with -ridges on the exterior, curving round the umbones and extending to -the edge. Like the black-edge meleagrina, the nacre at the edge is -discolored. In this case by a bluish or purplish tint. - -Some idea of the enormous quantities of mussels contained in some of -these beds in our western rivers may be gained from the reports of the -fisheries in the first years of their discovery. Ten thousand tons of -shells were taken in three years near New Boston, Ill., from one bed. -Reckoned by the usual average this would mean not less than 100,000,000 -shells. In some beds, the mussels have been found several feet deep, -the bottom layers being dead. - -Notwithstanding the enormous numbers, these beds are often completely -exhausted in a few seasons. When the beds are first discovered, men -will take as much as 1500 to 2000 pounds of shell each, in a day's -fishing. In one hundred pounds of shells as they are taken, the average -number of valves or half shells will be, nigger-heads, about one -thousand; sand-shells, nine hundred; muckets, eight hundred, which -would be an average of nine thousand mussels per ton. - -The meat in a ton of nigger-heads weighs over three hundred pounds. -This is usually removed by the fishermen by boiling the mussels for ten -or fifteen minutes in crude sheet iron tanks when the shells open and -the fleshy part falls out or may be easily removed by hand. To show -how little the pearls they may contain enter into the calculations of -these fishermen, it may be stated here that the shell-buyers pay about -twenty-five per cent. less for the mussels as taken from the river than -they do for the shells when cleaned. - -On the Californian coast when the divers worked independently, they -preferred to sell the oysters unopened. They received about $4.50 -per thousand on an average for the shells and double for the oysters -complete. - -The fishing season for pearlers is from August to December. The large -operations for shell, in the early days of the industry, were confined -to the same period, but of late, fishing is carried on throughout the -year, immense quantities being taken through the ice. The shells are -better in cold weather, being less brittle than when exposed in the -boats during warm weather. Fishing through the ice is very wasteful -however, as the undersized, which are dropped back from the scoops and -rakes in the summer, when thrown out on the ice are allowed to remain -there and die. - -The price of shells varies considerably from season to season. -An average price for nigger-heads is about ten dollars per ton; -sand-shells bring about twice as much, muckets half that price, and -the other varieties together will average about twenty-five per cent. -more than nigger-heads, though among these the deer-horn is worth about -four times as much as the nigger-head. - -In the first six months of 1898 nearly four thousand tons of mussel -shells were sold by mussel fishermen on the Mississippi. They brought -about thirty-nine thousand dollars, 94 per cent. of these were -nigger-heads. - -The spawning time of the unio varies with different species. In the -central Mississippi basin it is normally February, March and April for -nigger-head, and summer and early fall for the mucket and sand-shell. - -The unio is a slow growing animal. Under normal conditions it takes -ten years for a nigger-head to reach a size of three inches; fifteen -to eighteen years to attain a shell diameter of 4-1/2 inches. This -corresponds very closely with the life of the meleagrina, though the -shell of the latter ceases to grow in size at about eight or ten years. -After that it continues to lay on thickness up to eighteen or twenty -years. - -Although the discoveries so far in Africa are unimportant, it is -possible, now that the unio is known to exist there, that the streams -of that wonderful land of precious things may add a companion gem to -the vast natural hoards there of the diamond. In two years succeeding -his first find, the discoverer secured one hundred and fifty pearls at -an average of one pearl to eight hundred shells. - -Authorities tell us that the nucleus of a mussel-pearl is usually -the larva of a distoma. Nuclei of pearls vary according to the -circumstances surrounding the beds of the shell-fish and those -circumstances have much to do with the occurrence of the pearl. - - - - -PRICE - - -Value, except in things which are constant and constantly changing -hands, is a matter of opinion. Price is the expression of that opinion -in money terms. Except in a few staple sizes and qualities, pearls -are affected by so many details which determine their value that it -is difficult to formulate rules to correspond and establish a base by -which all may be judged. - -Shape, size, color, luster, and perfection, afford a multiplicity of -combinations sufficient to puzzle the judgment of the most expert, -and when to this is added the fact that there is no other one like -the piece to be valued so as to gauge opinion, there remains but one -finality, the agreement between buyer and seller on a price. - -Disregarding the fluctuations of price occasioned by temporary -influences and the variations arising from local causes, this chapter -is intended to give information of the price of pearls in the United -States to retail dealers, and an idea of the relative value of -different qualities and shapes. - -First it should be remembered that the price of pearls is reckoned -by the square of the weight, with the pearl-grain, 1/4 carat, as the -unit. Given the price at $3.00 per grain base or multiple, a half grain -pearl would be half of $3.00 or $1.50 per grain flat, or seventy-five -cents for the pearl. At the same price a one grain pearl would be at -$3.00 per grain multiple, $3.00 per grain flat and $3.00 for the pearl. -Upon the same basis a two grain pearl would be twice three are six, -$6.00 per grain flat and twice six are twelve, $12.00 for the pearl. -Or it may be stated thus: multiply the grain number by itself and the -product by the base price, as a 6 gr. pearl at $3.00 base, 6 × 6 = 36 -× 3 = 108 dollars, the price of the pearl. This rule applies to all -but rejections or those too poor for classification, and extraordinary -pieces which by their extreme rarity pass beyond the governance of -rules. The sign used in quoting a multiple price is a square. This -placed after a price quoted means that it is the multiple price per -grain, not the flat grain price. - -The price of pearls has increased even more than that of diamonds in -the last fifteen years. In common with many other things it has risen -with the rapid increase of wealth and the tremendous additions to the -world's stock of the standard or measure of values,—gold. Beyond this, -the demand for pearls, owing to the adoption of them as a fashion in -the United States where a large proportion of the world's wealth is -being created, has been stimulated to such a degree that the price of -them has advanced in a greater ratio to the depreciation of gold and -other forms of wealth than most commodities. - -Twenty years ago good round Indian pearls up to five grains could be -bought for $1.50 base; to-day such pearls would cost $4.50 base and -whereas in those days pieces of extraordinary luster were allowed to -remain in the parcels and were sold at the same rate with the others, -they are now culled from the lots and held for extraordinary prices. -Size also now counts beyond the multiple of the square. The quality -held at $4.50 base up to five grains costs $6.00 above that size, and -at ten grains will bring $8.00 and over. - -The yield of fine white pearls in sizes over ten grains is not large -and as there has been and is a steady demand for large pearls for the -centres of necklaces, sizes from ten to fifteen grains bring from eight -to eleven dollars multiple when matched. Egg and pear-shaped pearls of -the same grade, from five grains down, are worth twenty-five to thirty -per cent. less than round pearls; between five and ten grains ten to -fifteen per cent. less, and as they near fifteen grains and over the -pear-shape become of equal value with the round. - -Imperfections which can be hidden by the setting decrease the price -twenty to thirty per cent., and there is about the same difference -between button and round pearls, according to the size of the plane. -The difference is still greater in the larger sizes. A yellow color -reduces the value in the market from fifteen to fifty per cent. -according to the depth and quality of the tint. The so-called blue -pearls, which are of a dark leaden white, are worth about half as much -as ordinary white, and about one-third the price of fine white Indians. -These blue pearls must not be confounded with the deep gray, slate, or -black pearls, included in the general term black pearls, as the latter -frequently command fancy prices. - -Salt-water pearls taken from the smaller varieties of the avicula of -some seas, though of the same grade in the qualities of color, luster -and shape, are nevertheless worth less than Indian pearls, because they -lack a certain quality of texture which the latter, together with those -of some other waters, possess to an eminent degree. - -American fresh-water pearls have been and are lower in price than -Orientals. They have however commanded much better prices of late than -formerly and are increasing in value. At present they bring about -one-third less than corresponding qualities from the seas. There is a -greater difference in the price of baroques. Fine Venezuelan baroques -from a half to seven or eight grains are worth now thirty-five to fifty -cents base. - -Some of these when mounted appear like round or pear-shape pearls and -are in good demand. Larger pieces can rarely be made to appear other -than baroque and do not therefore command as good figures. They seldom -bring more than five dollars per grain flat, in sizes from ten to -twenty grains. Fresh-water pearls likewise fetch better prices reckoned -by the multiple in the smaller sizes, though they are usually quoted -by the grain flat at five to twenty-five cents under ten grains, and -twenty-five cents to three dollars per grain in larger sizes. - -Iridescent, finely tinted, very lustrous, strawberry, and rose baroques -of large size, are worth five dollars per grain and very exceptional -pieces bring even more. Slugs, or ordinary baroques, are sold all the -way from six dollars an ounce to ten cents per grain. Good wing-pearls -can be bought at one to five cents per grain; small wings and -rejections are sold by the ounce. - -Perfectly round fresh-water pearls of good quality and even skin are -rare and prices are advancing steadily. Good buttons have advanced -fully twenty-five per cent. in the last year. Fine fancies such -as were found at one time in the Sugar River, Wisconsin, since the -fisheries there have been exhausted, are scarce and high. - -The low prices paid by button manufacturers for mussel shells for the -mother-of-pearl in them during the past year, has been one of the chief -factors in reducing the quantity of pearls found and the consequent -increase of price. It seldom pays the fisher to gather mussels for -pearls only; it is the steady returns from the sale of the shells which -ensures an adequate reward for his labors. Shells that once brought -twenty dollars per ton fell during the early part of 1905 to a third of -that amount and later went as low as two dollars and a half. They are -now going up again. - -Many pearls are seriously injured by the practice of fishers who rely -upon the sale of the shells for their returns, of throwing the mussels -into vats of hot water to open them. The pearls released from the -shells fall to the bottom and getting too near the hot iron are killed, -which means that the luster is partially or wholly destroyed. - -Dredging is now quite common and is doing much to deplete the -mussel-beds of the west. When one bed is completely divested of shells, -the clammer moves on to another and repeats the process, so that the -supply of fresh-water pearls is coming to depend on the constant -discovery of new mussel-beds. Unless legislation regulates the industry -the American supply will soon cease. - -The cheapest fresh-water pearls in the market to-day are the finest. -The pearlers along the streams of the west and south will no longer -part with the pearls they find to the speculators at the old time -prices. In fact they generally want much more than they are worth and -often get more than the speculator can afford to pay to ensure a profit -when he comes to sell them in the business centres. - -But these fishers know little of the merits and value of the finer -qualities. They do not yet realize the great difference in value -which accrues as the pearl exceeds the average of luster, color, or -perfection, consequently the speculator can often buy a very fine pearl -for little more than he would have to pay for an ordinary pearl and -though he knows that the piece is worth much more than he has paid, and -tries to get as nearly what it is worth as he can, both his judgment -and disposition to sell are affected by the low price he has paid and -the chances are that he too in turn will sell it at much less than its -relative value as compared with the ordinary market price of poor or -medium quality goods. - -[Illustration: THE MARCHIONESS OF LONDONDERRY] - -This condition will gradually change. As in the past the fisher learned -more and more of the market value of ordinary pearls, so also he will -learn to know the price of exceptional pieces and to know them when he -has them. Even now, speculators hold fine large pearls at high prices -because of the ready sale for them in Europe. - -It is difficult to compare the price of pearls in ancient times -with that of to-day. We make much finer and closer assortments and -gradations of quality and the business now is on a more distinctly -commercial basis. People generally are better informed and more -critical; they are not influenced by wonder, sentiment, superstition -and the "Arabian Nights" atmosphere, as much as formerly. - -The Orient is not as strange and far away as it was. In the old times, -jewellers could and undoubtedly did take advantage of the awe with -which things from the mysterious East were regarded, and of the general -ignorance, to obtain large sums for very ordinary if not inferior -gems. Even in these days, many are influenced more by the source from -whence they come than by a critical knowledge of the gems they buy. -Some, who would not buy the most beautiful fresh-water pearl, will -pay an exorbitant price for one poorer and less valuable because it -is oriental. La Pellegrina in the hands of an obscure dealer would be -passed unnoticed by many who would be enraptured by a more ordinary gem -from a jeweller or person of renown. - -It is presumable therefore that prejudice was more influential when -ignorance prevailed to a greater extent than now. John Spruce of -Edinburgh in 1705 complained that he could not sell a necklace or -pendant of fine Scotch pearls in Scotland. He says "the generality seek -for oriental pearls because farther fetched," and continues: "At this -very day I can show some of our own Scots pearls as fine, more hard -and transparent than any oriental. It is true that the oriental can be -easier matched, because they are all of a yellow water, yet foreigners -covet Scots pearls." - -The price in those days was regulated by general appearance and loosely -with regard to weight, rather than by definite assortment and the exact -system of reckoning by the multiple of the weight as now, for he says, -"If a Scotch pearl be of a fine transparent color and perfectly round -and of any great bigness, it may be worth 15 to 50 rix dollars, yea I -have given 100 rix dollars (about $82.00 U. S.) for one." - -In 1862, Scotch pearls sold for about seventy-five cents to ten or -twelve dollars each, an extraordinary piece bringing occasionally -as much as twenty-five dollars, but after they were brought to the -favorable notice of persons of distinction and it was known that Queen -Victoria had bought one for one hundred and ten dollars, the price of -them quadrupled. In the time of Charles II. of England an Irish pearl -weighing 144 grains was valued at two hundred dollars. In London -during the early part of the nineteenth century, pearls from Panama of -good size and quality brought about four dollars per grain. - -About 1865, fine oriental pearls were sold in London for $1.25 to $1.50 -per grain in sizes up to three grains. Over that the price increased -gradually with the size so that five grainers were worth about $2.50 -per grain; ten grainers, $5.50 per grain; twenty grainers $13.00 per -grain and thirty grainers about $17.00 per grain. If their fine grade -equalled ours, there has been a remarkable advance in the last forty -years, as fine oriental round pearls of thirty grains to-day, are worth -in the United States $240.00 per grain flat. - -Up to this time and after, prices were quoted very generally by the -carat. Later, the method of reckoning by the square or multiple became -more general, and the price went to about two dollars per carat, in -London, or fifty cents per grain base for ordinary sizes, the larger -ones being valued by the piece according to the individual rarity and -particular qualities, as before. At the Navigator's islands in 1858, -fine round pearls of one to two grains were valued at about fifty -cents per grain, the price increasing until those of twenty grains -were considered worth twenty dollars per grain. Second class pearls -under one grain, averaging half a grain, were sold for about five cents -a grain. The same grade about nine grains average, were worth about -sixty-five cents per grain. - -A third and fourth grade brought about twenty-five and fifty per -cent. less respectively. These prices, compared with those of London, -indicate that fine, large, round pearls commanded better prices then in -the East than they did in Europe. Seed pearls sold at Tahiti for ten to -fifteen dollars per pound. The island of Labuan, a British possession -in the East Indian archipelago, shipped pearls to Singapore in the -sixties at an average price of ten to fifteen cents per grain. In 1871, -35 ounces of pearls shipped from Guayaquil were valued at $100.00 per -ounce. - -As in former times, at many places where the fishing is done by -independent naked divers, especially among the remote islands of the -South Sea, there is no grading of pearls or definite ideas of value. -The natives dispose of their pearls, as they are able, to traders, -often for a very small price. It is so to-day at many points in the -Sulu archipelago from Mindanao to the Tawi Tawi islands. The smaller -established fisheries of the seas east of China assort roughly and sell -in bulk to buyers from neighboring trading centers. - -The output of the large fisheries is practically controlled by the -great merchants of neighboring cities who know the methods and -intricacies peculiar to the localities. For instance, the pearls of -Ceylon go to Madras, and Bombay handles the bulk of those from the -Arabian coast and the Red Sea. Lower California pearls are marketed -chiefly at La Paz. Those from Venezuela are shipped principally to -Paris and definite figures cannot be obtained. A few are brought to the -United States direct from Venezuela, chiefly by Syrians who barter for -them with the independent divers. These traders have no knowledge of -market rates for assorted goods but sell them in mixed lots for as much -as they can get. - -The price of pearls of the first grade, in Ceylon in 1904, weighing -four grains and upwards each, was about $5.00 per grain. At Macassar, -prices for the irregular shaped pearls of the Dutch Indies ranged from -twenty-five cents to $1.25 per grain base according to quality. - -At the Ceylon fisheries, two-thirds of the oysters taken have been the -government's share. These were auctioned off daily. The prices varied -considerably, not only from fishing to fishing, but daily during the -season. If the oysters sold one day, yielded well, prices went up and -vice versa. In 1860, at the beginning of the Tinnevelly fishery, they -realized Rs 15. ($7.50) per thousand and rose later to Rs 40. ($20.00). -In 1861 on the contrary they sold in the early part of the season for -$35.00 to $40.00 and fell to $20.00, at one time touching $8.50. - -In 1871, the Tuticorin catch brought a little over $40.00 per thousand -average. The average price paid in 1858 at the Ceylon fisheries was -a little less than ten dollars, and as the pearl yield was good, the -speculators made enormous profits. In consequence, the average of 1859 -went up to $22.50, the oysters bringing at one time during the season -as much as $42.00; 1860 realized an average of $66.00, the highest -price paid during the season being $90.00. - -The fishery of 1863 though it realized more for the government on -account of the large catch, brought an average of $33.50 per thousand -only. In 1874 the oysters brought about $40.00 per thousand. Of late -years the average has been less, ranging from $12.00 to $14.00 though -at times double that price has been paid. - -The pearls found in the oysters came quickly into the hands of Hindu -merchants who assorted them and shipped a large part to Europe at -prices much less than those which rule in the United States, though -they usually made a good profit over cost. With the leasing of the -Ceylon fisheries much of this speculative business will undoubtedly be -eliminated and the pearls marketed at more regular prices. - -At fisheries where mother-of-pearl is the chief factor of the industry, -it is difficult to get statistics of the number or value of the pearls -found, but in a general way India governs the market. Prices in other -sections adjust themselves to Madras and Bombay with such modifications -as quality and place would naturally make. - -Mother-of-pearl shell varies in price from $250.00 to $500.00 per -ton for Mexican to $700.00 to $800.00 per ton for the white shell of -Australia and the South Sea. - - - - -IMITATION AND DOCTORED PEARLS - - -In common with all other precious things, pearls have been long -imitated. The early method of making imitation or "mock-pearls" as they -were called, was to cut them out of the mother-of-pearl and polish -them. Another crude way was to make solid beads of glass containing -various ingredients which gave them a slight similarity to the nacreous -luster of the pearl. Beads of gypsum or alabaster were soaked in oil -and coated with wax. The scales of the bleak fish dissolved in liquid -ammonia or vinegar, was also used for covering beads, the solution -imparting a somewhat pearly appearance. - -To coat one thousand ounces of glass beads, a French manufacturer used -three ounces of fish-scales, one ounce white wax, one ounce pulverized -alabaster and half an ounce fine parchment glue. Another made beads of -opal glass which he covered with several layers of isinglass; over -this was laid another coating of a mixture of spirits of turpentine and -copal, and a fat oil to exclude moisture from the isinglass, following -it with a thin layer of tinted enamel to give resemblance to the orient -of the pearl. - -Some claimed that the best artificial pearls were made from pulverized -pearls. Seed pearls or valueless baroques were ground to a fine powder, -soaked in lemon-juice or vinegar and mixed with gum tragacanth. The -paste after being shaped and partially dried, was then enclosed in a -loaf and baked in an oven. The luster was obtained by a final coating -of fish-scale solution. A lighter and better imitation was made by -blowing hollow glass beads. The inside surface was covered with a -preparation from the fish-scales, after which the bead was filled with -wax. This method continues in use to-day. - -The fish-scale solution used is a guanine, the mucus which lubricates -the scales of the bleak fish (alburnus lucidus). The white scales of -the fish are carefully scraped into a horse-hair sieve over a shallow -tub of fresh water. The first water is thrown away. The scales are -then washed and pressed. The mucus sinks to the bottom and is gathered -as an oily mass, very brilliant and bluish-white. This is packed with -ammonia in tin boxes and sealed for shipment. It takes about 20,000 -fish to make one pound of the mucus. - -A cheap imitation pearl is made of opal glass, a bluish-white milky -appearing material, to which a pearly effect is given by treating it -with fluoric acid. Imitation black pearls are made from hematite, but -as they require careful finishing to hide the metallic luster and are -much heavier than pearls, they are seldom used. - -The Chinese and Japanese have been much more ingenious in their methods -and have long produced, with enforced aid from the animal, imitations -which are in part real pearl. The former insert in the Chinese -pearl-mussel (anodonta herculea) small figures of Buddha upon which the -fish proceeds to deposit its nacre. When they are coated, which occurs -in from one to two or three years, the pearly figures are extracted and -sold to the devout. - -The Japanese do more. They attempt to produce a marketable gem and -have so far succeeded that a considerable number have been sold of late -in the United States and in many cases the public buy them not knowing -that they are an artificial production. The base upon which the nacre -is deposited appears to be composed of a substance resembling porcelain -shaped like a low dome hollowed out on the under side and having a hole -in the centre of the cavity. - -As there is no nacre on the under side, it must, when the button is -placed in the mussel, be thereby protected from the action of the fish -except at the edges where the nacreous deposit probably joins it to the -shell but in such a manner that it can be easily detached. The pearl -covered button is then fitted to a piece of polished mother-of-pearl of -the same exterior size and shape and the two are neatly joined, forming -a double low domed piece of pearl on one side, and mother-of-pearl on -the other. These Japanese pearls as they are called, when mounted in -a setting constructed to hide the under side, have the appearance of -imperfect spheres of natural pearl. - -The beds where the culture of these artificial pearls is carried on, -are situated in the Bay of Ago, a few miles south of the Temple of Ise, -in central Japan on the Pacific side. It is a quiet piece of water, -in a coast broken by numerous inlets and coves. A little north of the -centre of the bay is a small island called Tadoko where the necessary -buildings and the men connected with the industry are. Around the -island and near it, about 1,000 acres of sea bottom are leased and used -for the pearl oyster cultivation. The water is about five to seven -fathoms deep. - -The oyster used is the one common to the waters of Japan, the Avicula -martensii Dunker. In May and June, stones weighing six to eight pounds -are scattered over the bottom of the sheltered shallows which run up -into the land, where the spat is collected. The breeding season is in -July to August and in the latter month very tiny shells attached to the -stones by the byssus may be seen already. - -The number increases as the season advances until in November, in order -to protect the young fish from the approaching winter cold, the stones -lying in very shallow water are removed with the adhering oysters to -deeper water—over six feet. After three years the oysters are taken -out and the nuclei of the culture pearl inserted. This done, they are -spread over the sea bottom, about one to every square foot and left -undisturbed for four years. They are then taken out and opened and -both the culture pearls and whatever natural pearls there may be, are -harvested. At present, upwards of a quarter of a million oysters are -treated annually. - -Experiments are being made constantly, in the United States and Europe, -to improve upon the hollow glass bead lined with fish-scale but so far -without success. The finest of these imitate the natural pearl very -well and if finely mounted similar to the genuine, will deceive many -while worn. Closer observation will reveal the glassy shine of the -surface and it will be found under the loup to contain numerous small -holes. The specific gravity is also less. - -One finds occasionally in lots, a mock-pearl which has been cut and -polished from the mother-of-pearl, but imitations of this character -are scarce and find no place in the market. The few made are found -usually in parcels of fresh-water pearls and are put there by -unscrupulous dealers, as also are hematite balls and even buckshot, to -be sold with the lot by weight as genuine pearls. - -Since the price of pearls has advanced so rapidly, much ingenuity has -been shown in the improvement of poor pearls. Button pearls grown to -the shell are broken out and the under or flat side carefully scraped -and smoothed to hide the irregular lines of juncture between the pearl -and the shell. Protuberances on the surface of round pearls are scraped -off and the broken skin edges smoothed down so as to be unnoticeable to -the naked eye. - -In a like manner chalky rings and spots are toned down. Surface cracks -are filled by soaking the pearls in a solution and if the pearl has -been pierced, interior cracks can also be rendered unobservable. A -serious objection to pierced pearls arises from the ease with which -interior defects can be doctored where the skin is pierced and a -boring made through the nacreous layers. Not only are cracks made to -disappear, but coloring matter can be introduced between the skins. A -white pearl of very poor color can by such means be changed temporarily -into a black pearl which will command a fancy price. This illegitimate -doctoring of pearls, whereby defects are hidden and a fictitious -appearance of quality imparted to last long enough to make sales -at exorbitant prices, should not be confounded with the legitimate -improvement of pearls which is now growing to be an industry of some -importance. Experts are now able by careful manipulation to restore to -some extent the luster which has been lost by wear or age. - -Formerly this was done by skinning the pearl, _i.e. _, removing the -outer skin by peeling it carefully off with the edge of a sharp knife, -an unsatisfactory method at best, as the under skin may not be good and -if all the outer skin is not taken off, the broken edges of the layers -composing the skin, mar the luster and color when the pearl is worn. -Few also succeed in removing a skin without scratching the new one -disclosed by its removal. - -Pearls having a decidedly bad outer skin with a good one under it, -can only be materially improved by removing the bad skin, but owing -to the liability of finding equally bad imperfections underneath, -or irregularities which would necessitate the removal of several -skins with a consequent loss of size and weight, pearls with minor -imperfections or lack of luster are now slowly rubbed between the -fingers, the abrasion being assisted by various substances which differ -with the judgment and experience of the operator, the preparation being -in all cases kept secret by the expert using it. Many fine pearls which -have lost their pristine luster are now considerably improved by this -method, and without the dangers involved and the necessary loss of -weight, consequent on peeling. - -Large numbers of poor or imperfect pearls are scraped or otherwise -doctored by the traders and speculators at the fisheries. These men -acquire such pearls at a slight cost, and by various methods fix them -so that by mixing them in lots with good pearls, they often make large -profits. They also mix in many cracked pearls. This is done more often -at Margarita and the other Venezuelan fisheries where the proportion -of cracked pearls is greater than in the Indian and South Sea fisheries. - -The skins of a pearl may also be removed by the application of weak -acids, but this method requires careful and expert handling or the acid -will act irregularly and leave the surface, if improved in luster, -uneven and pitted. - -Few important fresh-water baroques and irregular pearls leave the west -without receiving the attention of the speculators through whose hands -they pass, and the scraping is often very roughly done. Rough and -discolored projections are broken or filed off and then scraped over -with a knife edge. While fresh, the broken skin edges left thus will -often pass unnoticed by a careless buyer, but they become discolored -and dead later. Unless one buys of a dealer in whom implicit confidence -may be placed, not alone for honesty but for his knowledge of pearls, -it is better to examine all pearls under a glass before purchasing. - -As many persons both in the trade and out of it, are not sufficiently -familiar with pearls to be quite sure of their ability to detect the -genuine from fine imitations, the following points of difference -will be of service. All imitation pearls made of some solid material -are heavier than the genuine and lack the pearly characteristics -of the fine imitations even. If made of solid glass without acid -finish, they are shiny and too poor to require a second consideration, -if acid finished they have a "ground-glass" appearance which is -unmistakable. If made of other material of a vitreous nature, they -are heavier than pearls, dull in luster or without luster, dark in -color and unmistakably lacking in pearly characteristics. The only -dangerous imitations are the Japan culture pearls and the hollow, glass -bead-pearls. The former may always be recognized by the mother-of-pearl -back, the latter by various signs. - -All these hollow glass beads, have one or two holes. They are coated -on the inside with fish-scale solution and filled with wax. Some are -treated with acid or sand-blasted to tone down the shiny, glassy -appearing surface, and to hide the blow-holes in the glass. The effect -is quite pearly, but the color is somewhat darker and they show some -iridescence. Without the surface treatment they are more shiny and -under the loup one will discover the small blow-holes peculiar to -surfaces which have been molten. - -The rims of the holes have a smooth, rounded, congealed appearance, -whereas holes in pearls have a rough, square, chalky edge. On looking -diagonally into the hole of a glass bead, the glass will appear as a -dark ring against the wax filling, and where there are two holes, one -will almost invariably have a ring in the glass, a short distance from -and around it. The surface over the ring is smooth, though it looks as -if it were ridged; the ring is in the glass, not on it. - -These hollow-blown glass pearls are lighter than the real pearls -also. There is one never failing test however which discovers even -the best of these most dangerous imitations. Drop a small spot of ink -from the point of a pen upon one, and hold it between the eye and the -light, when two spots will appear, the one nearest to the eye being a -reflection from the inner wall of the glass resting against the wax, -of the actual ink spot on the surface. The duplicate spot will be -lighter in color than the original. On a real pearl there would be no -such reflection, nor would it appear on a solid bead imitation, but -as before stated, the weight of the latter betrays them, as they are -heavier than the real, nor do they look as pearly, and on holding them -between the eye and light they do not show the translucency at the edge -of the circumference peculiar in a more or less degree, to the gem. - - - - -FACTS AND FANCIES - - -In ancient days there was a belief in the east that at the full of the -moon the pearl-oyster rose to the surface of the sea and opened its -shell to receive the falling dew-drops. These congealing, hardened -into pearls. Similarly, the natives of India believed that Buddha in -certain months showered upon the earth, dew-drops from heaven, which -the oyster, floating on the waters to breathe, received and held until -they hardened and became pearls. These poetical imaginations of the -Orientals were carried west with the pearls. Poets embodied them in -verse. Prose writers, losing the poetry of the fable, trimmed them to -the bare statements of impossible facts. An English writer early in the -eighteenth century speaking of the mussels in the streams of northern -England said that "gaping eagerly and sucking in their dewy streams -they did conceive and bring forth a great plenty of pearls." - -Later writers also attributed the origin of pearls to the reception -of raindrops from heaven by the oyster, and one gravely asserted that -the fishermen always found more pearls after a season of heavy rains. -He did not state that the oysters rose to the surface of the sea to -receive the raindrops, neither did he explain how these drops from -heaven passed through the brine to the oyster inviolate. Pliny was more -definite; he stated that the quality of the pearls varied with that of -the dew from which they were formed and were clear or turbid as it was. -The pearl would be pale-colored if the weather was cloudy when the dew -fell into the shell, and large if the dew was plentiful. Thunder during -the reception of the drop resulted in a hollow pearl and if lightning -caused the shell to close suddenly the pearl would be small. - -The people of Java and Borneo had a belief which should have been yet -more difficult to acquire. They asserted that the pearls themselves -breed and increase in number if placed in cotton. Clusters of twinned -pearls were said to be produced thus, and it is related that some had -the audacity to sell breeding pearls claiming to distinguish the male -from the female. This fable also travelled west and was received by -the credulous. M. S. Lovell in his "Edible Mollusks" says, "A Spanish -lady informed a friend of mine that if seed-pearls were shut up in -cotton-wool they would increase either in size or in number." - -To this day the ancient superstition, or belief, is believed not only -by sea-board Malays, but by Europeans, and there are those who claim -to own breeding pearls and to have bred from them. The pearls are -placed in a box with a layer of cotton-seed and a few grains of rice, -under and over them. The box is then closed and in a year, if one -account given is a fair statement of average results, one may look for -a four-fold increase, though the children will not be as large as the -parents. Some of them may be as large as a pin head. The rice will look -crumbly and worm-eaten. - -Another breeder of pearls says that the breeding pearls themselves -grow in size and if the box has been kept undisturbed, there will be -found with them at the end of the year others of various sizes, some -almost microscopic. A year later these would be larger. It is also -said that when a pearl is about to breed, a small black speck makes -its appearance on the surface, and that during the period of breeding -the pearl changes its shape from a sphere to an irregular ovoid, and -develops layers of scales on the surface visible to the naked eye. - -After a time, the breeding pearls change their orient to a dirty white, -the scales having peeled off. In all cases the rice looks as though -some beetle had taken a circular bite out of the end of each kernel. -Somehow a perusal of the accounts of the remarkable results, leaves -the reader with a conglomerate impression of transformed rice and -imagination. - -Nevertheless, the breeding of pearls in cotton-wool or cotton-seed with -rice, is asserted and believed, and the methods by which the wonder is -accomplished may be had with great circumstance and some variations -from those who have experimented. No greater evidence exists of the -child-like faith of people in the old times than the incredible stories -about precious stones which were current in those days. - -It is equally wonderful that although it took centuries to disprove -them, they received credence for more centuries after they were shown -to be impossible and one hears those same delightful fairy stories -about angel's tears, drops of dew from heaven, raindrops, etc., -seriously quoted in this matter-of-fact land to-day, often by people -who after a moment's thought would become conscious of their fallacy. - -But romance abhors reason, and though oysters cannot rise to the -surface of the sea, nor raindrops pass immaculate through the ocean -to the gaping mollusks, nor the downpour of one season increase the -yield at once of things which are the growth of years, there will long -remain some who will refuse the dictum of the biologist, that unless -the dews of heaven and the tears of angels carry much lime in solution, -the calcareous surroundings of the oyster's bed must have more to do -with the genesis of the pearl than anything dropped into the ocean by -the clouds above it, and will still cling to fancy in the face of fact. -Meantime the priests of Buddha exact charity oysters from the fishers -of their faith, that the god thus propitiated may cause the oysters to -yield more pearls. - -A question often raised, and which by its periodical revival seems -to be a favorite with newspapers and magazines, as well as, to the -general public, is, "Do pearls live and die?" It originated probably in -observations of certain changes that occasionally take place in pearls -which could be readily construed by a speculative or imaginative mind -to mean death. Sometimes with pearls the brilliancy of youth fades and -passes and the clear skin of early days takes on the hue of age. - -If now a ready pen waited on fancy to state the facts it would -establish an imaginative theory for centuries, for like gossip, a thing -once printed in a book will long pass on unquestioned and be quoted -or re-stated many times. There are pearls which for certain qualities -invite as a descriptive term the word live. There are others which by -comparison appear, and are described, as dead. Then there are others -that lose by untoward circumstances the live qualities they once -possessed and without dying become dead pearls. The calcite carbonate -crystals of which they are formed dissolve in acids and are affected to -a certain extent by the acidity of the excretions of the human skin, -sufficiently in some cases to destroy, or at any rate dim, their luster. - -Gases in the atmosphere, sudden changes in temperature, heat, and -various other influences operate more or less in the same direction. -The chemical changes thus produced might with poetic license be called -the death of the pearl and in a sense the term would be true were the -whole pearl involved, but as a rule these misfortunes affect the outer -skin of the pearl only, so if that dies death is but skin deep, a live -pearl remaining beneath it. - -As life and death means the segregation of particles into a compact -individuality and their final dissolution, pearls like all other things -in the restless economy of nature live and die, but the loss of some -of its native charms by the gem is not more a sign of death than the -rougher cuticle of a weather beaten sailor with which exposure has -replaced the smooth skin of the boy. - -Nevertheless the idea of death coming to the pearl fascinates and -enterprising writers succeed in frequently placing very interesting -and readable articles before the public which incite the wonderment -of the reader and perpetuate the impression that this beloved gem is -some sort of a living creature subject to human vicissitudes. Lately -a story appeared in current publications which told how the pearls of -a lady's necklace sickened and lost their beauty. Much distressed she -carried them to the expert dealer of whom she bought them who gravely -advised her to let her maid wear them whereupon, they recovered from -the illness and their lustrous beauty was restored. - -Twentieth century versions of fables older than this era are common; -shrewd traders and writers use them, nor are they always careful to -attach the fable to the particular gem to which, by right of ancient -usage, it belongs. The magical loss of color in the presence of -impending danger to its wearer is the ruby's prerogative, but, though -pearls may lose their charms by exposure to heat, gas and rough usage, -the wily orientals of remote or later ages provided no traditional -recovery more wonderful than the prosaic method of feeding them to -fowls and cutting them out of the gizzard an hour or two later. - -The pearl is generally considered to be the emblem of innocence and -purity. A pretty fashion in vogue among parents who can afford it, is -of giving a pearl to each of their daughters on their birthdays. These -are carefully matched and strung so that the string grows to a necklace -for maturer years. - -Along with the emblematic idea and the fanciful notion of their origin, -there comes to us from the old days a superstition concerning pearls -which probably grew out of the statement that they were the congealed -tears of heaven. It was supposed that they brought tears to their -possessors. The idea originated probably about a thousand years ago in -western Europe. It did not exist in Rome during the time of the Cæsars -for the pearl was then the sign of power and affluence and was coveted -by men and women alike and it remains a most popular gem in Italy -to-day. - -This absurdity has been kept alive by stories of prominent persons in -whose experience occurrences seemed to confirm the claim. The Queen -of Henry IV. of France dreamt that her diamonds were turned to pearls -the night previous to her husband's assassination by Ravaillac. The -consort of James IV. of Scotland dreamt of pearls three nights in -succession before the disastrous battle of Flodden Field in which he -lost his life. These and similar stories which appeal to a love of the -mysterious and wonderful have been perpetuated by writers of books, so -that even to-day there are women who coveting pearls still fear to own -them. - -But to be out of the fashion is more dreadful to women than tears, -so it has come to pass that with the increasing vogue of the pearl, -less is heard of the superstition and it is dying, not of age or the -contempt of knowledge, but by the potency of fashion. - -A story already referred to in these pages, that has been current -for over two thousand years during which time it has been mentioned -by almost every writer about pearls, deserves, for its antiquity and -absurdity, consideration here. It is of Cleopatra and the pearl worth -upwards of three hundred thousand dollars she is said to have dissolved -in wine to drink in costly fashion to her lover. This was, of course, -impossible. She may, with the help of the wine have swallowed it like -a pill or, as Sir Thomas Gresham did later, have ground it to powder -and mixed it with the wine she drank, but to dissolve a pearl of great -size as one of this value would be, was a conjurer's feat. - -The lime of which a pearl is chiefly composed will dissolve in acid, -but the gem although softened, would remain a pulpy mass held by the -organic matter interwoven throughout the strata of calcium carbonate. -Whatever she really did, or in what form she swallowed the pearl, if -she did so, Cleopatra and her pearl are better known to-day to the -general public than either of her Roman lovers, and they will probably -be handed down through many generations yet to come. - -To exaggerate is a common tendency. Dealers usually place inordinately -high figures on exceptional gems which they do for several reasons: -the great price excites wonder and interest; it makes a large profit -possible; it permits considerable reduction to a shrewd buyer; and it -pleases the person who finally purchases it, for if the sale is made -public the first asking price is usually given as the value of the -jewel, and sometimes even that is exceeded. The buyer prefers to have -it so because it increases the importance of his possession in the -public mind and paves the way for a good price if he too at any time -should wish to sell. - -One reads constantly in the daily papers of sales where the prices -given are enormously beyond the sums actually paid, for the public like -big figures. Reporters know this and do not fail to supply the demand. -For instance: in an eastern city of the United States, a man while at -a lunch counter found a pearl in the oyster he was eating. He took it -at once to a jeweller of his acquaintance who handed it to a New York -pearl-dealer present and asked him to value it. - -The pearl was large and round but, like all such formations in the -edible oyster, quite devoid of the nacre which constitutes a true -pearl. The dealer so informed them, adding casually, "If it were a true -pearl it would be worth several thousand dollars." An evening paper -that day had a half column story about it with, "A pearl worth five -thousand dollars found in an oyster at a lunch-counter," in black -head-lines, and the morning papers of the following day enlarged the -story by adding fanciful details. - -Undoubtedly in the old days of license when immense fortunes were -made not only in trade but by piratical wars, large prices were paid -by fortune's favorites for pearls but it is extremely probable that -report, bruited from mouth to mouth, exaggerated even more than the -printed fables of our times do. It is doubtful if the pearls of ancient -chronicles were as fine, judged by the standards of to-day, as we -imagine or that all of them were as large as reported. The public were -more ignorant about them than now and also more credulous and these -invite exaggeration. - -Very large pearls which for perfection of shape, luster and freedom -from flaws are beyond criticism, are the most rare of all gems. The -conditions under which a pearl grows, makes large size, without the -development of irregularities in the form and imperfections in the -skin, almost impossible; and as they all grow in the same way, by the -same process, out of the same sources of supply and subject to the same -limitations, we find big and little, fine and ordinary, in about the -same proportions as they occurred thousands of years ago; the fish that -made them then makes them now, in the same kind of a narrow workshop -and within the bounds of a life whose duration has not changed. - -Of very ancient historic pearls, the only one of which we have reliable -and expert knowledge, is that of the Shah of Persia seen by Tavernier. -This and La Peregrina are supposed to be still in existence. Of the -very large pearls generally mentioned by writers, three undoubtedly -exist, viz., La Pellegrina, the Beresford Hope and one of medium -quality in the Austrian Crown weighing about twelve hundred grains. - -It is probable that very many pearls have been found, which if -generally known would have become celebrated, but of those chronicled, -most have passed out of public knowledge. It is probable that some of -those about which much has been written were not as beautiful as others -which have escaped notoriety. The writer's habit of drawing upon the -past to illustrate a subject, has narrowed the literature of pearls -to reiterated records of a few great pearls which one by one have been -brought to public notice during the past centuries. - -Exact and reliable statements about gems are a modern innovation. In -the old times unverified report was the only evidence the general -public had of them. Crown jewellers, not always quite reliable, -would make public some statements in general terms about the jewels -of a reigning house. Occasionally, as in the case of France, the -state had the crown jewels inventoried so that some fairly definite -knowledge could be had of them. Infrequently a traveller published -his observations, made under more or less favorable circumstances, -of the jewels of some oriental prince. Chief of these was Tavernier, -the French jeweller. He not only had expert knowledge of gems but was -able by recommendations of the French court, to gain such access to -the jewels of eastern princes and dealers that he could make critical -examinations of them. - -For various reasons it is extremely difficult also in these days to -obtain accurate knowledge of extraordinary gems. Dealers for business -reasons are chary of information, nor will they make such pieces -common by allowing many to see and handle them. The buyer is equally -averse to publicity, so that exact knowledge does not pass far beyond -the dealer and his customer as a rule. - -The finest pearl known is that in the Museum of Zosima, in Moscow, -called La Pellegrina. It is perfectly round and so lustrous that it -appears to be transparent. It weighs about 112 grains and was bought of -the captain of an East India ship at Leghorn. - -The largest known pearl to-day is in the Beresford Hope collection -shown at the South Kensington Museum, London. It is two inches long and -its circumference is four and a half inches. It weighs three ounces -(1818 grains). - -[Illustration: COUNTESS TORBY] - -Tavernier saw a pearl in 1663 belonging to the Shah of Persia which -was valued at 3200 tomans or about $320,000 of our money. It was very -perfect, pear-shaped, and nearly three inches long. It is believed to -have come from the ancient fishery at Catifa in Arabia. Even this great -sum was exceeded by Pliny in his estimate of the pearl Cleopatra is -said to have swallowed. He placed the value of that at $375,000. As -the Shah's pearl was about three inches long, Cleopatra's must have -been large enough to reflect on the story connected with it. - -It is said Julius Cæsar presented a pearl valued at an equivalent of -nearly $250,000 to Servilla the sister of Cato of Utica and mother of -Marcus Junius Brutus. The pearl taken from the ear-drop of Caecilia -Metella by Clodius to dissolve and drink in vinegar was valued at -$40,000. - -A large pear-shaped pearl weighing one thousand grains was found at the -island of Margarita off the Colombian coast and given to Philip II. of -Spain. Some reports say it was obtained in 1579; others give the date -as 1560 and say it was presented to the monarch by Don Diego de Temes. -It was valued then at something over $30,000, but Freco, the king's -jeweller, said it might be worth twice to twenty times as much for such -a gem was priceless. It was later known among the crown jewels as La -Peregrina. Prior to this, a companion of Magellan reported having seen -two pearls as large as hen's eggs in the possession of the Rajah of -Borneo. - -The pearl which Sir Thomas Gresham drank in his wine to Elizabeth of -England is said to have been worth seventy-five thousand dollars. It -was reported some years ago that the Queen of the Gambiers owned a -pearl of extraordinary luster, as large as a pigeon's egg. There is a -story that in 1779 a pearl weighing 2312 grains which cost in India -$22,500, was offered for sale in St. Petersburg. It was called the -sleeping lion because of its shape and must have been therefore a -baroque. - -The republic of Venice presented a pearl to Soliman The Magnificent, -Sultan of Turkey, which was valued at $80,000, and Pope Leo X. bought -one of a Venetian jeweller for $70,000. These sums make the prices -of to-day seem insignificant and it is very probable that many of -the pearls which brought such large amounts would not pass criticism -now. Perhaps one reason for the scarcity of large pearls among those -taken from the fisheries in this age is that many of them are classed -as baroques or are not sufficiently fine and perfect to attract -attention. They pass therefore among those considered unworthy of -notice. - -A brown pearl valued at $25,000 was exhibited by Marchisini of Florence -at the Maritime International Exhibition at Naples in 1871. Among the -Dudley pearls exhibited at the London Exhibition of 1872 was a necklace -of exceptionally fine pearls valued at $150,000. The late Czar of -Russia spent twenty-five years in collecting sufficient perfect Virgin -pearls to form a necklace for his wife. The Countess Henckel owns a -necklace of pearls which for value and associations is unrivalled. -It is composed of three strands, each at one time being a separate -and historical necklace. One was the famous necklace belonging to the -Empress Eugénie which has been valued at £20,000; one known as "the -necklace of the Virgin of Atokha," formerly owned by a member of the -Spanish nobility, the third belonged to the ex-Queen of Naples. For -value this is exceeded by a single strand necklace of large pearls -lately bought by a western millionaire of the United States. It is -composed of thirty-seven pearls ranging from eighteen to fifty-two and -three-quarter grains each, the latter being the largest central pearl. -The combined weight of the pearls is 979-3/4 grains and the value is -given at $400,000. - -A very beautiful and nearly perfect pear-shaped pearl was found on -the north-east coast of Australia in the seventies. It weighed 159 -grains. There is a pearl about the size of a pigeon's egg in the -French crown jewels, valued at $8,000. Many fine pearls, especially -black or colored, have been found on the Mexican coast during the last -twenty-five years, among them a black pearl of 162 grains and another -of 108 grains, a white pear-shape weighing 176 grains, an oval of -128 grains, and three weighing 300 grains, 180 grains and 372 grains -respectively, the first two being found in the same year. - -In the World's Fair in Paris, 1889, seven black pearls from this -district, valued at $22,000 were exhibited. These and others are -described in "Gems and Precious Stones" by Kunz. No fresh-water pearl -has attained an equal notoriety with the Queen pearl found at Notch -Brook near Paterson, New Jersey, in 1857. It weighed 93 grains and was -sold to the Empress Eugénie. - -Another round pearl of 400 grains, ruined by boiling, had it been -properly extracted from the mussel, would probably have been the -finest and most notable pearl of this age, though another as large as -a pigeon's egg, dropped from the mollusk and lost when the shell was -opened, might have rivalled it. The finder was wading in a stream in -Ohio, feeling for the projecting edges of the mussels with his feet, -and opening them as he brought them to the surface, as was custom -there. This, however, may have been like the fish that got away. - - - - -PEARLS IN LITERATURE - - -In all countries where woman has been enthroned in the respect as well -as the affections of man, the pearl has been inseparably connected -with her in his mind as a peculiarly fitting accompaniment to feminine -loveliness. In the romantic dreams of youth, which hide betimes -the harsh realism of life under a golden haze of imagery; where -belted knights and fair ladies live and move unfettered, and all the -impossible delights of sweet desire free from untoward consequences are -reasonable; where invincible swords have no thought of the horrors of -carnage, and unimpeded love is without cold calculation or following of -sorrow, pearls everywhere shimmer. - -And when in his exalted moods man paints the shadow picture of the -goddess of his life, he finds one gem alone befitting with which to -deck her, namely, the pearl. This has come to pass probably because -the ideal qualities of woman and the sea-gem are alike, purity and -modesty. The beauty of the most lustrous pearl is unobtrusive and its -quality is virginal. In our visions of the spectral past, the shades of -the consorts of the mighty all wear them. - -Pearls hang pendent from the ears of Egypt's voluptuous queens, -and Rome's proud matrons. Pearls clasp the dainty flesh of Moslem -houris and rest in the soft folds of draperies that cling about those -daughters of the Orient, the common mortals of their day might not -look upon. Great pearls hang festooned and pendent round the necks of -lightly draped Dianas of the warm south lands, and coiled about the -brown arms of the daughters of the chiefs in far-off islands of the -South Seas. - -Upon reclining figures in the ancient palaces of Persia and Arab tents: -wherever the proud women of the conquering occident move in stately -measure across the high terraces of noble placement: in all dreams -of fair women and brave men, are swords and pearls. And this is so -because in all the ages, women of high position have loved pearls and -writers have told it. In our old world so far, neither earth nor sea -has yielded ought else so fit to lie in the bosom of woman, or to -symbolize her character and beauty, as the chaste and dainty pearl. - -This high atmosphere of precious supremacy and reverence, which -surrounds the gem now as it has for more than twenty centuries, is -a legacy of Rome. The east loved pearls as beautiful and precious -trinkets; while Rome gave to them imperial honors and drew around them -the mystic circle of patrician favor. And since that day, in every land -where an aristocracy existed or came into existence, pearls have been -the familiars of the exclusive. - -This natural fitness of the gem for refined associations is recognized -by Emerson in his "Friendship." He says: - - Thou foolish Hafiz! Say! do churls - Know the worth of Oman's pearls? - Give the gem which dims the moon - To the noblest, or to none. - -It is a late echo of the scriptural saying, "Cast not your pearls -before swine." No modern poet shows more knowledge of the nature, or a -more just appreciation of the delicate beauty of the gem than Emerson. -In his "May Day," speaking of the tardiness of the spring, he writes: -"Slow grows the palm, too slow the pearl." - -Evidently he knew of the slow process by which the successive coats of -filmy nacre increase the size of the growing gem. Likewise a couplet -in "Nature" betrays the poet's observation of the iridescent nature of -the colors in mother-of-pearl, and in the gem occasionally when those -fleeting tints are added to the beauty of its luster; the lines are a -dainty illustration: - - Illusions like the tints of pearl, - Or changing colors of the sky. - -Some of the great poets, notably Tennyson, apparently confuse the -gem with its mother-of-pearl, or refer to the latter only when they -speak of pearl. In his "Recollections of the Arabian Nights," however, -Tennyson in describing one of his beauties evidently refers to the gem: - - And a brow of pearl - Tressed with redolent ebony. - -Writing of the mermaid, the lines are more suggestive of the shell -nacre: - - Combing her hair - Under the sea, - In a golden curl - With a comb of pearl. - -Again in a sonnet, he evidently refers to mother-of-pearl when he says: - - All night through archways of the bridgèd pearl, - And portals of pure silver, walks the moon. - -This indiscriminate use of the gem's name to appropriate its pearly -characteristics is a common poetic license. In Ben Jonson's "Hymn to -Diana," he bids her, - - Lay thy bow of pearl apart. - -Sometimes metaphor is worse mixed, as when Milton in "Paradise Lost" -describes the waters above the firmament about the gate of Heaven thus: - - And underneath a bright sea flowed - Of jasper, or of liquid pearl. - -In this poem of gorgeous description, the author makes several -allusions to the gem and some of them, especially those in his word -paintings of scenes in Eden, are poetically beautiful and true. One -delightful to the eye of the mind, - - How from that sapphire fount the crispèd brooks - Rolling on orient pearls and sands of gold, - -and another in the description of morning in Eden, equally beautiful -though it takes more license: - - Now Morn, her rosy steps in th' eastern clime - Advancing, sow'd the earth with orient pearl. - -In his "Epitaph on the Marchioness of Winchester," a couplet shows that -he was familiar with the superstition of sorrow connected with them: - - And those pearls of dew she wears, - Proove to be presaging tears. - -Herrick also associated pearls and tears though more happily as in -"Corinna's Maying." - - Besides, the childhood of the day has kept, - Against you come, some orient pearls unwept. - -The same poet makes charming reference to pearls in his poem entitled: -"To Daffodils." - - Or as the pearls of morning dew - Ne'er to be found again. - -Shakespeare made frequent reference to the gem, sometimes to illustrate -the magnificence of wealth and station but more frequently in -connection with dew and tears. Oberon says: - - And that same dew, which some time on the buds - Was wont to swell like round and orient pearls. - -King Richard III. when he argues with Queen Elizabeth for her daughter's -hand in marriage, promises with smooth and brazen villainy to so offset -the wrongs he had done her, that: - - The liquid drops of tears that you have shed - Shall come again, transformed to orient pearls. - -In "King John" Elinor speaking to Constance of Arthur, says, "Draw -those heaven moving pearls from his poor eyes;" and in "King Lear," one -of the gentlemen, speaking of the Queen of France when she received the -news he carried, describes her mood thus: - - Those happy smilets, - That played on her ripe lip, seemed not to know - What guests were in her eyes, which parted thence, - As pearls from diamonds dropp'd. - -In "Midsummer Night's Dream," Lysander says to Helen: - - To-morrow night, when Phœbe doth behold - Her silver visage in the wat'ry glass, - Decking with liquid pearl the bladed grass. - -Among his recognitions of pearls as a sign of the luxury of wealth and -high position, he makes a lord say, in the "Taming of the Shrew," - - Or wilt thou ride? Thy horses shall be trapp'd - Their harness studded all with gold and pearl. - -And in "King Henry V," the King while deploring the sorrows incident to -kingship, says: - - 'Tis not - The intertissued robe of gold and pearl - That beats upon the high shore of this world. - -These two quotations indicate that the Roman custom of decorating -robes and even the harness of horses with pearls was followed in -Shakespeare's day by the nobles. - -A line suggestive of the high-esteem in which the pearl was held in -his day, and often quoted, occurs in Othello's grand but heart-broken -self-denunciation just before he stabs himself: - - Of one, whose hand - Like the base Indian, threw a pearl away, - Richer than all his tribe. - -It is evident also that stories were current then of the western -Indian's ignorant prodigality in the disposition of things common to -him but very precious among more enlightened people. - -In "King Richard III," Duke Clarence sees in his dream of drowning, -"Wedges of gold, great anchors, heaps of pearl." - -Several times the great dramatist puts the gem in somewhat grewsome -setting. In "A Sea Dirge" however, the bare horror of the idea which -grins at one in similar connections, is transformed by the poetry in -which it is draped: - - These are pearls that were his eyes: - Nothing of him that doth fade, - But doth suffer a sea-change - Into something rich and strange. - -A favorite use of the sea-gem by the lighter poets is to adorn their -images of physical beauty. In "Don Juan," Byron, describing one of the -Turk's houris in the harem, says: - - Was slumbering with soft breath, - And lips apart, which show'd the pearls beneath, - -and another poet writes similarly: - - Those cherries fairly do enclose - Of orient pearls a double row. - -Shelley confines his references to pearls almost entirely to -descriptions of Nature dew-bedecked, as in the "Revolt of Islam," - - I sate with Cythna; drooping briony, pearled - With dew from the mild streamlet's shattered wave, - -and another in "Prometheus Unbound" where the chorus of spirits sing: - - Nor aught save where some cloud of dew, - Hangs each a pearl in the pale flowers - Of the green laurel blown anew. - -In "Arethusa" he uses them to enhance the idea of regal magnificence in -these lines: - - Where the Ocean Powers - Sit on their pearlèd thrones. - -The poets rarely refer to the gem as a symbol of spiritual attributes -though it is peculiarly adapted by its natural qualities to illustrate -purity, innocence, and other qualities of the human soul: nor is it -often connected with religious ideas. Among the few, Andrew Marvell in -his "Song of the Emigrants in Burmuda," avails himself of it somewhat -prosaically thus, - - He cast (of which we rather boast) - The Gospel's pearl upon our coast. - -One of the most poetically beautiful references ever made to the -Ocean's modest jewel occurs in the "The Rosary" by Robert Cameron -Rogers. - - The hours I spend with thee, dear heart, - Are as a string of pearls to me; - I count them over every one apart, - My rosary. - Each hour a pearl, each pearl a prayer, - To still a heart in absence wrung; - I tell each bead unto the end, and there - A cross is hung. - -No poet has made more frequent allusion to pearls than Thomas Moore. His -poems give evidence that he had read much of them in ancient writings -and was alive to their poetic value. In his description of Ireland in -"Fairest! Put on Awhile," the lines— - - Lakes, where the pearl lies hid, - And caves, where the gem is sleeping, - -were founded on the statements of Nennius, a British writer of the IXth -century, concerning Irish pearls. In passing, it is worthy of notice -that Nennius recorded also that the princes of Ireland hung them behind -their ears; a fashion similar to that of Persian and Athenian youth -many centuries earlier. From Cardanus, Moore learned of the ancient -fable that pearls were improved by leaving them awhile with doves, and -utilizes the fancy in "A Dream of Antiquity" thus: - - As pearls, we're told, that fondling doves - Have played with, wear a smoother whiteness. - -An early reference to the gem is found in his "Odes of Anacreon" No. -XXII: - - Or even those envious pearls that show - So faintly round that neck of snow— - -If this ode was really written by Anacreon, that poet must have been -more familiar with pearls than some later Grecian writers. A similar -idea quite as beautifully expressed occurs in "The Loves of the Angels." - - Then too the pearl from out its shell - Unsightly, in the sunless sea, - (As 'twere a spirit, forced to dwell - In form unlovely) was set free, - And round the neck of woman threw - A light it lent and borrowed too. - -Unlike most of the poets, Moore does not describe the sparkling -dew-drop as pearly and his references to tears of pearls include the -idea of metamorphosis, as in "The Light of the Haram." - - And precious their tears as that rain from the sky, - Which turns into pearls as it falls in the sea. - -These lines embody the ancient Hindu superstition which is also -apparent in his "Lines to—:" - - Put off the fatal zone you wear, - The shining pearls around it - Are tears, that fell from Virtue there, - The hour when Love unbound it. - -In his adoration of female beauty, he often holds the lustrous gem as a -foil to the exceeding charms of woman, or to lift her to higher esteem -by holding her, for preciousness, above the gem. Beyond all other -things most lovely, only woman was lovelier yet. In "To weave a Garland -for the Rose," he writes: - - Where is the pearl whose orient lustre - Would not, beside thee, look less bright? - -And in one of the "Odes to Nea," he expresses the jealous regard of -love thus: - - If I were yonder conch of gold - And thou the pearl within it placed, - I would not let an eye behold - The sacred gem my arms embraced. - -Of the threads in which the woof of "The Genius of Harmony" is woven, -there is one that sings thus to the passing of the shuttle: - - To the small rill, that weeps along - Murmuring o'er beds of pearl. - -Betraying as he did so frequently in his poems, such a high regard for -the pearl, it is somewhat curious that the gem was used descriptively -in connection with himself. N. P. Willis, describing Thomas Moore as he -met him at Lady Blessington's said of him, "His forehead shines with -the lustre and smooth polish of a pearl." - -Schiller takes the gem from the warm touch of human sentiment and -builds it into a grand conception, poetical but untrue to Nature. In -common with other poets, he credits the pearl with a play of color -seldom found even to a limited degree though it does occur in the -mother-of-pearl. In "Parables and Riddles," he describes the rainbow -thus: - - A bridge of pearls its fabric weaves, - A gray sea arching proudly over. - -In "The Celebrated Woman" he alludes twice to pearls; once when the -husband, bemoaning the passage of his choice vintages down the throats -of unappreciative celebrities, realizes that the only reward from his -spouse for his endurance of it is, "sour looks—deep sighs." Because he -has no stomach for her notables and their wit, she regrets— - - That such a pearl should fall to swine— - -Later on the husband refers satirically to the meeting of "learned Dons -and folks of fashion" at their resorts, where he says: - - All sorts of Fame sit cheek-by-jowl, - Pearls in that string—the Table d'Hote. - -Few later writers have set the pearl in as wide a range of ideas or in -language as beautiful as Edmund Spenser. The tears of Stella in "The -Mourning Muse of Thestylis" are more precious and gem-like than those -in any lines which have followed until now. In these lines they are -priceless jewels royally set. - - And from those two bright starres to him sometime so deere, - Her heart sent drops of pearle, which fell in foyson downe - Twixt lilly and the rose. - -As a means to wake imagination to the physical charms of woman his use -of the gem is equally happy and graceful, for there is always a soul in -the flesh of his beauty as when he depicts the charms of a fair one in -one of his "Sonnets." - - But fairest she, when so she doth display - The gate with pearles and rubyes richly dight; - Through which her words so wise do make their way - To bear the message of her gentle spright. - -In another place he expresses the worship of his love in this fashion: - - For loe, my love doth in her selfe containe - All this worlds riches that may farre be found; - If Pearles, her teeth be Pearles, both pure and round. - -Several of his poems show the fashion of pearls in his day as for -instance where he describes the Scarlet Lady in "The Faerie Queene" as— - - A goodly Lady clad in scarlet red, - Purfled with gold and pearle of rich assay. - -and Hymen in "Epithalamion"— - - Her long loose yellow locks lyke golden wyre, - Sprinckled with perle. - -There is a passing breath of spice-laden gales and the wonder magic of -ships in far-off seas, carrying to perils and adventure men seeking -the treasures of strange lands, while he tells in Virgil's Gnat of the -shepherd's content: - - Ne ought the whelky pearles esteemeth hee, - Which are from Indian seas brought far away. - -Poets are reminded not only of the teeth and neck of beauty by the -luster of the pearl but of the forehead also. Whittier like Tennyson -gives to woman a brow of pearl. In "Memories" the girl has— - - Eyes glad with smiles, and brow of pearl, - -and in "Stanzas," he places the beauty of flesh above that of the -dainty jewel thus: - - O'er a forehead more pure than the Parian stone— - Shaming the light of those Orient pearls - Which bind o'er its whiteness thy soft wreathing curls. - -Similarly Heinrich Heine in Longfellow's translation of "The Sea hath -its Pearls" says: - - And fairer than pearls and stars - Flashes and beams my love. - -Probably in no poem is the pearl referred to so frequently or with -so wide significance as in Whittier's "The Vaudois Teacher." The -missionary in his guise of peddler having obtained an audience with the -fair chatelaine, while extolling his wares, says: - - And my pearls are pure as thy own fair neck, with whose radiant - light they vie. - -Naturally, this wisdom of the serpent with which his innocence was -garnished brought favorable response: - - And the lady smiled on the worn old man through the dark and - clustering curls, - Which veiled her brow as she bent to view his silks and glittering - pearls. - -After she had bought of his trinkets, the old teacher carefully -introduces the covered object of his visit. - - Oh, lady fair, I have yet a gem which a purer lustre flings, - Than the diamond flash of the jewelled crown on the lofty brow - of Kings, - A wonderful pearl of exceeding price, whose virtue shall not decay. - -This statement at once arouses a keen interest, for in those days great -gems came from unexpected sources and by unlikely hands and coming -seldom, excited desire to an extent unknown in these abundant times. -Glancing at the mirrored pearls in her own hair the lady says: - - Bring forth thy pearl of exceeding worth, thou traveller gray - and old— - And name the price of thy precious gem, and my page shall count - thy gold. - -Here is the golden opportunity of the zealot. From its place of -concealment beneath the tempting wares in his pack he takes a shabby -little book and gives it to her saying: - - Here, lady fair, is the pearl of price, may it proove as such - to thee, - Nay—keep thy gold—I ask it not; for the Word of God is free! - -Nor does the religious mind of Whittier fail to remember the gates of -pearl, for in "Ego" he speaks of - - The pearl gates of the Better Land. - -Carlyle makes reference to the gem in a line greater in conception -and more poetic than most of those which occur in the rhymes of the -poets—"She died in beauty, like a pearl dropped from some diadem." - -In Ruffini's "Dr. Antonio," man and woman are set in marriage as a -foil and complement of each other though the metaphor shows some -misunderstanding of the qualities of gems, for black diamonds are not -as fiery as others. The lines are: - - The fiery black diamond casting lustre over the Oriental pearl: the - Oriental pearl in return lending softness to the black diamond. - -Dryden does not forget pearls when he caparisons the royal mighty and -in "Palamon and Arcite" fitly thus describes Emetrius, King of Inde: - - His surcoat o'er his arms was cloth of Thrace, - Adorned with pearls all orient, round and great. - -It is remarkable that so many poets have seen in the pearl a simile -for raindrops and dew. Among them, Browning in the song from "Pippa -Passes," sees— - - The hill-side's dew-pearled. - -At its best, the pearl is not luminous, neither does it flash nor -sparkle: the quality of it is softly lustrous as of light that -smolders; but transferring by imagery the mist-white texture of -dew when it is spread over leaf and grass blade, to the transparent -dew-drop, poets see in the sparkling globule, which in the sun is of -diamantine brilliancy, a simile of the pearl. - -In "By the Fireside" however, Browning creates a rain of pearls, a -truer figure than pearly raindrops: - - Break the rosary in a pearly rain, - And gather what we let fall. - -The metaphors of Lowell are more true to the nature of the pearl and -its characteristics than those of many poets. One, seldom used though -most appropriate, occurs in "The First Snow Fall." - - And the poorest twig on the elm-tree - Was ridged inch deep with pearl. - -Another instance of combined truth and poetry may be found in "An -Invitation": - - A cloud Byzantium newly born, - With flickering spires and dome of pearl. - -And in "Pictures from Appledore" the same poet in the embodiment of a -delightful idea in words says of the moon: - - Rather to call it the canoe - Hollowed out of a single pearl. - -In these illustrations, imagination is true to nature on either hand, -for the beady ridges of the half melted or frozen snow on the tree -twigs, the soft luster of a white cloud dome and the pale round moon, -alike are characterized by beauties which are pearly. In his more -involved metaphor the same nice avoidance of incongruity is noticeable. -Though raindrops are not pearly, the white fringe of a shore-driven -wave is, which he notes in "Sea-Weed": - - For the same wave that rims the Carib shore - With momentary brede of pearl and gold. - -There is a hint of Cleopatra and Sir Thomas Gresham in his lines "To H. -W. L." - - Let them drink molten pearls nor dream the cost; - -and in the lines from "Memoria Positum" there is an understanding of -the processes by which the gem grows: - - This death hath far choicer ends - Than slowly to impearl in hearts of friends; - -and in the poetic fancy in "A Familiar Epistle to a Friend"— - - Old sorrows crystallized into pearls. - -Nor does he omit the time-honored custom of poets to place the gem -among the chief jewels of the great and in the mouth of beauty, for -in "The Singing Leaves" he makes the King's eldest daughter ask of her -royal father when he journeys: - - O, bring me pearls and diamonds great, - -and in "A Fable for Critics" he says: - - Your goddess of freedom, a tight, buxom girl, - With lips like a cherry and teeth like a pearl. - -Bryant does not often allude to pearls, but in two instances, both in -"The Flood of Years," they appear in beautiful setting. In the first: - - A beam like that of moonlight turns the spray - To glistening pearls. - -Later on, describing the ocean of the past, he sees— - - Dim glimmerings of lost jewels, far within - The sleeping waters, diamond, sardonyx, - Ruby and topaz, pearl and chrysolite. - -The general use of pearls in the barbaric splendor of the great in -the days of Rome and Egypt and Persia, appears in Tasso's "Jerusalem -Delivered." In the wizard's dwelling: - - Nor failed there urns of crystal, pearl, and gold, - -and, - - High on the Soldan's helm, in scales of pearl - A rampant dragon grinn'd malignant things; - -and also, - - The Pastors of the flocks - Have on their sacerdotal albs, which pass - In front divided o'er their golden frocks, - Clasp'd with aigraffes of pearl. - -In the review of the oriental hordes, Armida's car is thus described, - - Her car, that glorious as Aurora's roll'd, - With rubies, pearls, and hyacinths glisten'd clear. - -Among those who passed the Egyptian prince, were: - - The Islanders with fleecy curls, - Whose homes are compassed by th' Arabian waves; - By whom those shells which breed the Persian pearls - Are dived and fish'd for, in their green sea caves. - -The name of the gem is used in rare fashion in picturing the enchanted -wood through which Rinaldo wanders: - - Impearl'd with manna was each fresh leaf nigh. - -And twice does the sweat of the human face become pearly in the poet's -imagination: once when Armida watches Rinaldo sleeping: - - The living heat-dews that impearl'd his face, - She with her veil wiped tenderly away. - -In the second instance, speaking of Armida, the poet says: - - She dies - Of the sweet passion, and the heat that pearls, - Yet more her ardent aspect beautifies. - -Thomson sees pearls only in the dew-impearled earth, and one must -admit, after looking upon the liquid globules hanging in rows from the -spreading twigs of trees before the morning sun has found them in their -shaded quarters, that the pendent spheres are suggestive, and that the -poet's eye needs but little assistance from imagination to see in them -the soft round gems of the ocean. - -In all ages, prose and fiction have treated of pearls as a form of -exceeding preciousness and a chief evidence of high station and -barbaric splendor. The lute of poetry has held few additional strings. -Modern writers have added little to the imaginations of the ancients. -All the changes made by successive poets have been rung on the tears, -dew-drops, and beauty's teeth, handed down from long ago. - -The wide ranges of the pearl's modest worth, exalted purity, and -singular beauty, yet remain to illustrate the thoughts of future -genius. Imagination has not yet brooded often over the humble and -distorted creatures, whose gnarled and twisted forms, lying among their -myriad shapely brethren are evidence of a precious sacrifice of self -to leave a heritage of beauty; nor dreamed of the silent acres under -turbulent waters where the gem, one day to adorn the neck of beauty -or the diadem of royalty, is reared. What play for imagination lies -between the birth of this creation of one of the humblest of Earth's -creatures, and the high placement to which it rises as soon as it is -discovered. - -There are deserted wastes of sand and water under torrid skies, -populated almost momentarily with teeming multitudes whose jargon -fills the former silences with a world wide medley of tongues. As in -a dream, the tremulous air is stirred by the struggling movement of -naked slaves, turbanned orientals, men from all lands of the occident, -the moving throng weaving constantly new patterns from the variegated -colors and fantastic costumes of living threads. And everywhere, -beneath the prosaic motion of labor and trading, is the quiver of hope, -the excitement of the gambler; the poetry of human passions, unseen, -but felt. - -There are in unfrequented seas, where some lonely atoll draws its -circle round a still lagoon, treasures greater than its cargo and the -stately ship sailing heedless by. So like the undiscovered pearls of -the ocean's bed, the universe holds an exhaustless store of thoughts -and truths for those who come after the discoverers of this age. -Thought runs in grooves and the grooves outlast many generations; -scarcely in a cycle does one look over the ridge and find a species -foreign to the rut. - -Within the walls which the past builds for the present it is more easy -to adopt than to bring forth, and so the ancient metaphors, age after -age, are with some changes of raiment thrown back upon the world again. -But in this new era of acquisition, while this sea-gem is again lifted -to the serene heights of most exalted favor, perhaps it will not only -shine upon the persons of the fair, but adorn, in simile and metaphor -as beautiful as the old, the pages of romance and poetry. - - - - -GLOSSARY - - - ABALONE.—Name given on the California coast and in the United States - to the Haliotis. - - BALL-PEARL.—Name given to round pearls by pearlers at the inland - fisheries of the United States. - - BAROQUE.—A pearly formation of irregular shape. - - BASE.—A basic price, subject to the square of the pearl's weight. - - BASKETS.—Brass sieves used in India for separating pearls of different - sizes. - - BLACK-SHELL.—Pearl oyster shells of which the nacreous lining has a - black-edge. - - BLISTER.—A piece of the mother-of-pearl lining of a pearl-oyster - shell, raised above the surface like a blister. - - BLUEBACKS.—Shell of a variety of Haliotis. - - BLUE-PEARLS.—Dark, slaty blue-white pearls, principally from the - Mexican coast. - - BOMBAY PEARLS.—Fine pearls from the Arabian and Red Seas, so named - because marketed through that city. - - BUTTON PEARLS.—Shaped like a dome, high or low, rising from a plane - and called "high buttons," "buttons" or "low buttons," accordingly. - - CLAMMER.—One who fishes for mussels by dredging for the shells - principally. - - DEAD PEARLS.—Pearls with a chalky or waxy skin having little or no - luster. - - DRESS.—Diving apparatus consisting of a one piece dress from the neck - down, corselet, helmet, air-pipes and life-line. - - DROP-PEARL.—Ovoid, or obovoid, not necessarily of perfect shape. - - DRILLED PEARLS.—Pearls with one hole for setting on peg, or quite - through the centre for stringing. Chinese drill two or three small - holes half way between circumference and bottom, for holding-wires. - - EGG PEARLS.—Ovoid: shaped like an egg. - - FLAT.—In connection with price quotation means, price per grain - regardless of size. - - FRESH-WATER PEARLS.—Pearls taken from inland streams. - - GREEN EARS.—Shell of Haliotis having green mother-of-pearl lining. - - HALF PEARLS.—Round pearls sawed in half. - - HELMET.—Diving head-gear. - - LINGAHS.—Pearl oyster shells from the Arabian Sea and others of - similar size and quality. - - MADRAS PEARLS.—Fine white pearls from the Ceylon fisheries, so called - because marketed principally in that city. - - MANUL.—Loose or soft sand sea bottom (Ceylon). - - MULTIPLE.—Price of pearls subject to the multiple of weight. - - MUSSEL-EGG.—Name given to pearls by Tennesseans. - - NACRE.—The substance of which pearls and the lining of pearl-shells - consists. - - NAKED DIVING.—Diving without any appliances. - - ORIENT.—As applied to pearls, the luster of the skin. - - ORIENTAL PEARLS.—Generally, pearls from salt water; specifically, - pearls from the Indian Seas. - - OUNCE PEARLS.—Poor grades sold by the ounce. - - PAAR.—Ceylon name for rock or hard bottom oyster-bed. - - PEARLER.—One who fishes for mussels for the pearls. - - PEAR-SHAPE.—Shaped like a pear; obovoid. - - PEELER.—A pearl with an imperfect skin, the removal of which would - improve the pearl. - - RED-EARS.—Abalone shell with pearly red interior. - - ROSE-PEARLS.—Pink, iridescent, fresh-water baroques. - - SEED-PEARLS.—Very small round pearls. - - SLUGS.—Nacreous excrescences from the Unio. - - SKIN.—As applied to pearls, the outer layer of nacre. - - SQUARE.—Method of reckoning the cost of a pearl of any size at a lot - price, by the square of price given, with the grain as a unit. - - STRAWBERRY-PEARLS.—Large, pink, iridescent and lustrous baroques, - fairly regular in shape, with the appearance of being thickly sanded - under the nacre. - - SWEET-WATER PEARLS.—Pearls from fresh-water. - - TRUE-PEARLS.—Pearls formed of nacre as distinguished from similar - formations which are not nacreous. - - TWINNED-PEARLS.—Pearls enveloped together in one or more layers of - nacre. - - WHITE-SHELL.—Pearl-oyster shells with nacre white to the edge. - - YELLOW-SHELL.—Pearl-oyster shells with yellowish nacre. - - - - -GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS -OF PEARLS AND SHELLS -FROM THE VARIOUS FISHERIES - - - ARABIAN SEA.—Pearls have fine orient, but the color inclines to - yellow. - - Shells are larger than those of Ceylon but of little value for - mother-of-pearl: iridescent, black-edge m. of p.; known as Lingahs. - - AROE.—Pearls usually good orient; many of irregular shape. - - Shells are of medium size, black-edge and iridescent. - - AUCKLAND.—Pearls white, but not remarkable for luster. - - Shells, medium size, black-edge m. of p. - - AUSTRALIA.—Pearls of Australia generally are of good color, but not as - lustrous as those of other sections. - - Shells usually large and heavy and the nacre is white. - - BANDAS.—Pearls good. - - Shells are small but heavy and good; black to greenish edge nacre. - - CEYLON.—Pearls average finest in the world for orient and color. - - Shells, small and valueless for m. of p. - - COSTA RICA.—Pearls good average. - - Shells, medium size, greenish yellow edge. - - EGYPTIAN (RED SEA).—Pearls good but run yellow. - - Shells, medium size and nacre has greenish edge. - - FIJI.—Practically the same as the Bandas. - - GAMBIER.—Pearls good, many fancy colors. - - Shells, large, fine nacre with very black edge. - - HAITI.—Pearls fine, shells good. - - MANILLA.—(Includes Batjan, Bima, Ceram, Salawatti, Sooloo, etc.) - Pearls, good color and orient. - - Shells, large, good, yellow edge nacre. - - MERGUIAN ARCHIPELAGO.—Pearls and shells similar to the Manillas. - - MEXICO AND PANAMA.—Pearls fair; blacks, grays and fancy colors often - fine. - - Shells, medium size: nacre has greenish edge. - - SOUTH SEA ISLANDS.—Pearls usually fine. - - Shells generally large, heavy and fine black edge m. of p. - - VENEZUELA.—Pearls, good luster and color—many fine baroques. - - Shells: small, beautifully iridescent, but valueless. - - -PEARLS. - - Hardness, 3.5-4 Sp. Gr., 1.59-1.62 - - -COMPOSITION. - - Carbonate of Lime 91.72 - Organic matter 5.94 - Water 2.34 - - - - -INDEX - - - A - - Abalone, 92, 170, 199, 244. - - Acapulco, 203. - - Advance of price, 277. - - Aelonians, 93. - - Alexander, 50. - - Ancient fisheries, 212. - - Angel's tears, 315. - - Anselm, Archbishop of Canterbury, 49. - - Aquila Jewels, 85. - - Arabian Sea, 49, 51, 201. - - Aragonite, 167. - - Aripo, 219. - - Arkansas, discovery of pearls in, 259. - - Aroo Islands, 199, 202. - - Aryans, 64. - - Atokha, Virgin of, 329. - - Auris Marina, 246. - - Aurora Shells, 246. - - Australia, 201, 249. - - Avicula fucata, 127. - squamulosa, 127, 239. - - - B - - Bagdad, 213. - - Bahamas, 95. - - Bahrein, 212. - - Ball pearl, 44. - - Banda Islands, 202. - - Baroques, 82, 91, 155, 161. - - Base price, 276. - - Baskets, 228. - - Batjan, 200. - - Bazaruto Islands, 200, 233. - - Beira, 233. - - Beresford Hope pearl, 324, 326. - - Black-Shell, 144. - - Blister, 92. - - Blue-point, 268. - - Bochart, 57. - - Bones, pearls called, 50, 61. - - Boss, 140. - - Breastplate, Jewish High Priest's, 56, 61. - - Breeding of pearls, 312. - - Brown pearls, 329. - - Bull-head, 266. - - Butterfly, 268. - - Byssus, 243. - - - C - - Cacique, 76. - - Calcospherules, 154. - - Caligula, 52. - - Campeche, Gulf of, 241. - - Cape San Lucas, 242. - - Cariaco, Gulf of, 238. - - Castiglione necklace, 84. - - Catifa, 326. - - Celebrated Pearls, 324. - - Ceram, 200. - - Cestodes, 173. - - Chank, 15, 98. - - Charles V., 47. - - Charlotte Bay, 249. - - Cheval paar, 221. - - Chilaw pearl banks, 219. - - Chiriqui, 237. - - Chunam, 231. - - Clammers, 262, 282. - - Clam pearls, 97. - - Cleopatra's pearl, 52, 320, 326. - - Clinch River, 260, 263. - - Clione, 154. - - Clodius, 52, 327. - - Coatzacoalcos, 241. - - Coche, 238. - - Colombia, 236, 241. - - Color of pearls, 101. - - Columbus, 46. - - Conch, 16, 94. - - Conchiolin, 133. - - Cortez, 46, 242. - - Cracked pearls, 119, 301. - - Crotalia, 53, 80. - - Cubagua, 46, 238. - - Culture pearls, 299. - - - D - - Dahlak, 212. - - Dasyus, 64. - - Death of Pearls, 316. - - Deer-horn, 267. - - De Soto, 46, 47, 76. - - Devadatta, 98. - - Dew-drop origin of P., 311. - - Diamonds, 44, 56, 70. - - Diving, Dress, 178, 188, 192. - Naked, 178. - - Dredging, 282. - - Dress, 189. - - Dudley pearls, 329. - - Dutch Indies, 200, 232. - - - E - - Ear of Venus, 93. - - Ear-shell, 93, 245. - - Ecuador, 203, 237. - - Edward VII., 82. - - Elenchi, 80. - - Elizabeth, Queen, 48. - - El Tirano, 237. - - Exmouth Gulf, 249. - - - F - - Facts and Fancies, 311. - - Farsan, 212. - - Fiji Islands, 202. - - File-fish, 174. - - Fisheries, Arabian Sea, 212. - Ancient, 201, 255. - Australian, 194, 202, 249. - - Fisheries, British, 255. - Campeche, gulf of, 241. - Ceylon, 201, 215, 289. - Colombia, 237, 241. - Dutch Indies, 232. - Ecuador, 237. - English, 242. - German East Africa, 234. - Haiti, 248. - Indian, 214. - Irish, 255. - La Paz, 242. - Lower California, 242. - Madras, 215. - Merguian archipelago, 201, 234. - Mexican, 242. - New Caledonia, 234. - Nicaragua, 236. - Omagh, 256. - Panama, 237. - Persian Gulf, 212. - Philippines, 248. - Portuguese East Africa, 233. - Red Sea, 211. - Scotch, 256. - So. African, 257. - Venezuela, 237, 239. - - Fishing, Ceylon gov't notification, 221. - Depth of, 225, 232. - Mexican, Season of, 243. - U. S. mussel, 258. - Polynesian, 183. - primitive method, 179. - time under water, 225. - Tongarewa Islands, 186. - with dress, 188. - prices realized, 227, 289. - - Flodden Field, 320. - - Fluter mussel, 260. - - Francis I., 48. - - Fresh-water pearls, 90. - - - G - - Gambier, 199, 203, 328. - - Genesis of Pearls, 127. - - Gilbert, Bishop of Limerick, 49 - - Goajira, 239. - - Government Notification, 221. - - Gresham, Sir Thomas, 48, 321. - - Guatemala, 242. - - Guayaquil, 237, 287. - - Gulf of California, 203. - Campeche, 204, 241. - - Gwaai River, 257. - - - H - - Habitat of oysters and mussels, 199. - - Haiti, 205, 248. - - Haliotis, 16, 93, 206, 244. - cracherodii, 247. - iris, 246. - mida, 246. - rufescens, 247. - splendens, 247. - tuberculata, 245. - - Heel-splitter, 268. - - - I - - Ichiaha, 76. - - Illinois, discovery of pearls, 259. - - Imitation pearls, 295. - - Imperfections, 111. - - Incas, 44, 46, 76. - - Inhambane, 200. - - Interference, 130. - - Iridescence, 130. - - - J - - Jamboneau, 235. - - James IV., 320. - - Japan, 202. - - Jolo, 248. - - Julius Cæsar, 52, 81, 256, 327. - - - K - - Kalanchu, 231. - - Katar, 212. - - Kshattriya, 27, 64. - - - L - - Lampsilis anodontoides, 267. - fallaciosus, 267. - ligamentinus, 267. - rectus, 267. - - La Pellegrina, 324, 326. - - La Paz, 242. - - La Peregrina, 324, 327. - - Largest Pearl, 326. - - Lesbos, 50. - - Lingah, 201, 212. - - Lohia, 211. - - Lollia Pollena, 52. - - Loreto, 242. - - Louis XIII., 49. - - Lower California, 242. - - - M - - Macanao, 238. - - Macassar, 233. - - Madura, 215. - - Mafia, 206, 234. - - Malabar, 63, 179. - - Manaar, 216. - - Manchadi, 231. - - Manduck, 179. - - Mantle, 132. - - Maracaibo, 239. - - Margarita, 238. - - Maria Theresa, 49. - - Marichchikaddi, 221. - - Mary Queen of Scots, 48. - - Massawa, 211. - - Mathilde, Princess, 84. - - Maturity of Pearl Oysters, 205. - - Mazatlan, 242. - - Meleagrina, 90, 127. - - Merguian Archipelago, 200, 234. - - Methods of Fishing, 177. - - Mindanao, 248. - - Montezuma, 46. - - Moros, 182. - - Mother-paar, 219. - - Mounds, Indian, 40, 45, 76, 257. - - Mucket, 266. - - Mud-blisters, 92. - - Multiple, 276. - - Mussel, 90, 257. - - Mussel-egg, 43, 116. - - Mussel Anodonta herculea, 297. - blue-point, 268. - bull-head, 266. - butterfly, 268. - deer-horn, 267. - fluter, 260. - Hatchet-back, 268. - heel-splitter, 268. - Lake, 260. - margaritifera, 255. - mucket, 266. - nigger-head, 266. - painter's, 255. - pearl, 255. - red, 234. - swollen-river, 255. - sand-shell, 267. - warty-back, 266. - wash-board, 260. - - Mutton-fish, 245. - - Mytilene, 50. - - - N - - Nassau pearls, 96. - - Nautillus, 16. - - New Caledonia, 172, 202, 234. - - New Guinea, 202. - - Nicaragua, 204. - - Nigger-head, 136, 266. - - Nomenclature, 56. - - Notch Brook pearl, 258, 330. - - Nuclei of pearls, 153, 174, 272. - - - O - - Oahu, 206. - - Ohio pearls, 258. - - Old Testament reference, 56. - - Omagh, 49, 256. - - Oriental pearls, 89. - - Origin of pearls (fables), 311. - - Ormer, 93, 246. - - - P - - Painter's mussel, 255. - - Panama, 203. - - Paraguana, 239. - - Parasites, 174. - - Pearls, Abalone, 92, 156. - assortment of, 228. - baroque, 155, 161, 279. - black, 97, 105. - blister, 92. - blue, 104, 278. - Bombay, 213. - button, 155, 160. - clam, 97, 156. - colors of, 101. - conch, 94, 156. - cracked, 119. - culture, 298. - fancy, 105, 202. - free, 154. - fresh-water, 89, 90, 279. - hammered, 120. - hinge, 91. - imitation, 295. - Japan, 298. - Madras, 102, 215, 277. - Nassau, 96. - oriental, 89. - Panama, 104, 204. - pear-shape, 80, 161. - rose, 91. - seed, 231. - Shah of Persia, 326. - slugs, 280. - soft, 116. - strawberry, 91. - true, 89. - twinned, 159. - wing, 91, 280. - - Pearl-Oysters, 199. - - Pearlers, 262, 282. - - Peelers, 115, 248, 302. - - Peeling pearls, 115, 302. - - Periya paar, 220. - - Persian Gulf, 50, 201. - - Perthshire Tay pearls, 256. - - Peru, 46, 204. - - Philip II., 241. - - Pinna, 16, 206, 235. - - Plagiola securis, 268. - - Pleurobena aesopus, 266. - - Pliny, 52, 54, 66. - - Polynesians, 183. - - Pope Leo X. pearl, 328. - - Price of pearls, 275. - - Punta de Santa Cristoval, 243. - - - Q - - Quadrula ebena, 266. - pustulosa, 266. - undulata, 268. - - Queen pearl, 330. - - - R - - Rana of Dholpur, 78. - - Ravaillac, 320. - - Red Current, 253. - - Red Sea, 51, 200. - - Rhodesia, Southern, 206. - - Rio, Hacha, 237. - - Roman fashions, 80, 342. - - Rose pearls, 91, 266. - - - S - - Sandalchin, 57. - - Sandaztros, 57. - - Sand-shells, 267. - - San Juan del Norte, 236. - - Season for mussel fishing, 270. - - Seed pearls, 231. - - Shankar, 15, 31. - - Shangani River, 257. - - Shankhásura, 98. - - Sharks Bay, 249. - - Shark-charmer, 224. - - Shell Australian, 145, 202. - black, 144, 199, 202. - bullock, 204, 236. - distorted, 172, 252. - Egyptian, 200. - grayish, 145, 200. - greenish, 145, 211. - Lingah, 212. - - Shell Mexican, 204. - Panama, 204, 236. - Port Darwin, 249. - price of, 235, 251, 270, 290. - red-ears, 206. - Sydney, 249. - Tuamotu, 170, 200. - Unio, 136, 200, 211. - Venezuelan, 200. - West Australian, 249. - white, 145, 171. - yellow, 145, 200. - young, 205. - - Shoulder of mutton, 235. - - Sir Thomas Gresham, 48, 328. - - Sleeping Lion, 328. - - Slugs, 280. - - Soliman Pearl, 328. - - Sophie, Queen, 84. - - Southern Rhodesia, 206, 257. - - Spat, 169. - - Spawning time, 271. - - Spice Islands, 202. - - Spiritu Santo, 46. - - Spruce, John, 284. - - Strawberry-pearls, 91, 266. - - Strombus gigas, 94, 206. - - Sugar River, 264. - - Sulu Islands, 202, 248. - - Superstitions, 181, 311. - - Suran, 253. - - Sweet-water pearls, 90, 279. - - Swollen River mussel, 255. - - Symphynota complanata, 268. - - - T - - Tahiti, 203. - - Tampa Bay, 46. - - Targum, 57. - - Tavernier, 49, 325. - - Tiburon, 242. - - Tinnevalli, 215. - - Tongarewa Islands, 186. - - Travancore, 25, 98. - - Tremellius, 57. - - Tritigonia verrucosa, 267. - - True pearls, 89. - - Tuamotu Archipelago, 200, 203. - - Turbinella Scolymus, 98. - - Turtle-backs, 92. - - Tuticorin, 215. - - - U - - Umbo, 139. - - Unio, 90, 127, 136, 206. - - Unit of weight, 276. - - - V - - Variation in weight of P., 241. - - Varieties, 89. - - Venezuela, 96, 237. - - Venus ear-shell, 16, 93, 245. - - Venus Genetrix, 81. - - Veragua, 237. - - Vishnu, 15, 98. - - - W - - Warty-back, 266. - - Weight of mussel shells, 269. - meat, 269. - - Westphalia Queen necklace, 84. - - White bones, 50, 61. - - White shell, 145, 199. - - Wisconsin pearls, 259. - - - X - - X Rays, 231. - - - Y - - Yellow shells, 200. - - - Z - - Zanzibar, 200, 234. - - -Transcriber's Notes - -Page 113: changed pear-shape to pear-shaped (pear-shaped pearls) -Page 322: changed aquaintance to acquaintance -Page 341: changed villany to villainy -Page 349: changed Throgh to Through - - - - -*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE PEARL, ITS STORY, CHARM, VALUE *** - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the -United States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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