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diff --git a/old/63519-0.txt b/old/63519-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index a55a3e7..0000000 --- a/old/63519-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,1376 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Fossil Forests of the Yellowstone National -Park, by Frank Hall Knowlton - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license - - -Title: Fossil Forests of the Yellowstone National Park - -Author: Frank Hall Knowlton - -Release Date: October 21, 2020 [EBook #63519] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FOSSIL FORESTS OF THE *** - - - - -Produced by Stephen Hutcheson and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was -produced from images generously made available by The -Internet Archive/American Libraries.) - - - - - - - UNITED STATES - DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR - HUBERT WORK, SECRETARY - - NATIONAL PARK SERVICE - STEPHEN T. MATHER, DIRECTOR - - - - - FOSSIL FORESTS OF THE YELLOWSTONE NATIONAL PARK - - - UNITED STATES - GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE - WASHINGTON - 1928 - -88781°—28——2 - - THE NATIONAL PARKS AT A GLANCE. - - [Number, 19; total area, 11,817 square miles.] - - National parks Location. Area in Distinctive characteristics. - in order of square - creation. miles. - - Hot Springs Middle 1½ 46 hot springs possessing - 1832 Arkansas. curative properties—Many hotels - and boarding houses—20 - bath-houses under public - control. - Yellowstone Northwestern 3,348 More geysers than in all rest - 1872 Wyoming. of world together—Boiling - springs—Mud volcanoes—Petrified - forests—Grand Canyon of the - Yellowstone, remarkable for - gorgeous coloring—Large - lakes—Many large streams and - waterfalls—Vast wilderness, - greatest wild bird and animal - preserve in world—Exceptional - trout fishing. - Sequoia Middle 604 The Big Tree National - 1890 eastern Park—Scores of sequoia trees 20 - California. to 30 feet in diameter, - thousands over 10 feet in - diameter—Towering mountain - ranges—Mount Whitney, highest - peak in continental United - States—Startling - precipices—Cave of considerable - size. - Yosemite Middle 1,125 Valley of world-famed - 1890 eastern beauty—Lofty cliffs—Romantic - California. vistas—Many waterfalls of - extraordinary height—3 groves - of big trees—High - Sierra—Waterwheel falls—Good - trout fishing. - General Grant Middle 4 Created to preserve the - 1890 eastern celebrated General Grant Tree, - California. 35 feet in diameter—6 miles - from Sequoia National Park. - Mount Rainier West central 325 Largest accessible single peak - 1890 Washington. glacier system—28 glaciers, - some of large size—48 square - miles of glacier, 50 to 500 - feet thick—Wonderful sub-alpine - wild-flower fields. - Crater Lake Southwestern 249 Lake of extraordinary blue in - 1902 Oregon. crater of extinct volcano—Sides - 1,000 feet high—Interesting - lava formations—Fine fishing. - Wind Cave South Dakota. 17 Cavern having many miles of - 1903 galleries and numerous chambers - containing peculiar formations. - Platt Southern 1⅓ Many sulphur and other springs - 1901 Oklahoma. possessing medicinal value. - Sullys Hill North Dakota. 1⅕ Small park with woods, streams, - 1904 and a lake—Is an important - wild-animal preserve. - Mesa Verde Southwestern 77 Most notable and best preserved - 1906 Colorado. prehistoric cliff dwellings in - United States, if not in the - world. - Glacier Northwestern 1,534 Rugged mountain region of - 1910 Montana. unsurpassed Alpine - character—250 glacier-fed lakes - of romantic beauty—60 small - glaciers—Precipices thousands - of feet deep—Almost sensational - scenery of marked - individuality—Fine trout - fishing. - Rocky Mountain North middle 378 Heart of the Rockies—Snowy - 1915 Colorado. range, peaks 11,000 to 14,250 - feet altitude—Remarkable - records of glacial period. - Hawaii Hawaii. 242 Three separate areas—Kilauea - 1916 and Mauna Loa on Hawaii, - Haleakala on Maui. - Lassen Volcanic Northern 124 Only active volcano in United - 1916 California. States proper—Lassen Peak, - 10,465 feet—Cinder Cone, 6,879 - feet—Hot springs—Mud geysers. - Mount McKinley South 2,645 Highest mountain in North - 1917 central America—Rises higher above - Alaska. surrounding country than any - other mountain in the world. - Grand Canyon North 1,009 The greatest example of erosion - 1919 central and the most sublime spectacle - Arizona. in the world. - Lafayette Maine coast. 12 The group of granite mountains - 1919 upon Mount Desert Island. - Zion Southwestern 120 Magnificent gorge (Zion - 1919 Utah. Canyon), depth from 1,500 to - 2,500 feet, with precipitous - walls—Of great beauty and - scenic interest. - - - - - THE FOSSIL FORESTS OF THE YELLOWSTONE NATIONAL PARK. - - - By F. H. Knowlton, - _United States Geological Survey._ - - - - - INTRODUCTION. - - -Isolated pieces of fossil wood are of comparatively common and -widespread occurrence, especially in the more recent geological deposits -of the West. Not infrequently scattered logs, stumps, and roots of -petrified or lignitized trees are brought to light, but only -exceptionally are they so massed and aggregated as to be worthy of the -designation of fossil forests. Examples of such are the celebrated -fossil forests of relatively late geological age near Cairo, Egypt, the -huge prostrate trunks in the Napa Valley near Calistoga, Cal., and the -geologically much older and far more extensive forests now widely known -as the Petrified Forest National Monument in Apache County, Ariz. But in -many respects the most remarkable fossil forests known are those now to -be described in the Yellowstone National Park. In the forests first -mentioned the trunks and logs were all prostrated before fossilization, -and it is perhaps not quite correct to designate such aggregations as -veritable fossil forests, though they usually are so called. In the -fossil forests of Arizona, for example, which are scattered over many -square miles of what is now almost desert, all the trunks show evidence -of having been transported from a distance before they were turned to -stone. Most of them are not even in the position in which they were -originally entombed, but have been eroded from slightly higher horizons -and have rolled in the greatest profusion to lower levels. As one views -these Arizona forests from a little distance, with their hundreds, even -thousands, of segments of logs, it is difficult to realize that they are -really turned to stone and are now exhumed from the earth. The -appearance they present (see fig. 1) is not unlike a “log drive” that -has been stranded by the receding waters and left until the bark had -disappeared and many logs had fallen into partial decay. Trunks of many -sizes and lengths are now mingled and scattered about in the wildest -profusion, and the surface of the ground is carpeted with fragments of -wood that have been splintered and broken from them. In the Yellowstone -National Park, however, most of the trees were entombed in the upright -position in which they grew, by the outpouring of various volcanic -materials, and as the softer rock surrounding them is gradually worn -away they are left standing erect on the steep hillsides, just as they -stood when they were living: in fact, it is difficult at a little -distance to distinguish some of these fossil trunks from the -lichen-covered stumps of kindred living species. Such an aggregation of -fossil trunks is therefore well entitled to be called a true fossil -forest. It should not be supposed, however, that these trees still -retain their limbs and smaller branches, for the mass of volcanic -material falling on them stripped them down to bare, upright trunks. - - [Illustration: Fig. 1.—Fossil Logs in Petrified Forest National - Monument, Apache County, Arizona.] - - [Illustration: Fig. 2.—Upright fossil trunk in Gallatin Mountains, - Montana. - Courtesy of E. C. Alderson.] - -The fossil forests of the Yellowstone National Park cover an extensive -area in the northern portion of the park, being especially abundant -along the west side of Lamar River for about 20 miles above its junction -with the Yellowstone. Here the land rises rather abruptly to a height of -approximately 2,000 feet above the valley floor. It is known locally as -Specimen Ridge, and forms an approach to Amethyst Mountain. There is -also a small fossil forest containing a number of standing trunks near -Tower Falls, and near the eastern border of the park along Lamar River -in the vicinity of Cache, Calfee, and Miller Creeks, there are many more -or less isolated trunks and stumps of fossil trees, but so far as known -none of these are equal in interest to the fossil forest on the slopes -of Specimen Ridge. - - [Illustration: Fig. 3.—Upright trunk and “hoodoo” in Gallatin - Mountains, Montana. - Courtesy of E. C. Alderson.] - -The fossil forests are reached over a road from the Mammoth Hot Springs, -or from Camp Roosevelt near Tower Falls, and they are in their way quite -as wonderful and worthy of attention as many of the other features for -which the Yellowstone National Park is so justly celebrated. - -Recently another extensive fossil forest has been found on the divide -between the Gallatin and Yellowstone Rivers in the Gallatin Range of -mountains, in Park and Gallatin Counties, Mont. This forest, which lies -just outside the boundary of the Yellowstone National Park, is said to -cover 35,000 acres and to contain some wonderfully well preserved -upright trunks, many of them very large, equaling or perhaps even -surpassing in size some of those within the limits of the park. Two of -the best preserved of these trunks are shown in figures 2 and 3, which -are here reproduced by the kindness of Mr. E. C. Alderson, of Bozeman, -Mont. - -In the beds of the streams and gulches coming down into the Lamar River -from Specimen Ridge and the fossil forests one may observe numerous -pieces of fossil wood, which may be traced for a long distance down the -Lamar and Yellowstone Rivers. The farther these pieces of wood have been -transported downstream, the more they have been worn and rounded, until -ultimately they become smooth, rounded “pebbles” of the stream bed. The -pieces of wood become more numerous and fresher in appearance upstream -toward the bluffs, until at the foot of the cliffs in some places there -are hundreds, perhaps thousands of tons that have but recently fallen -from the walls above. One traversing the valley of the Lamar River may -see at many places numerous upright fossil trunks in the faces of nearly -vertical walls. These trunks are not all at a particular level but occur -at irregular heights: in fact a section cut down through these 2,000 -feet of beds would disclose a succession of fossil forests (see fig. 4). -That is to say, after the first forest grew and was entombed, there was -a time without volcanic outburst—a period long enough to permit a second -forest to grow above the first. This in turn was covered by volcanic -material and preserved, to be followed again by a period of quiet, and -these more or less regular alternations of volcanism and forest growth -continued throughout the time the beds were in process of formation. - - - - - GEOLOGIC RELATIONS. - - -While these fossil forests were growing and being entombed, much of the -area now within the limits of the park, as well as large adjacent areas, -was the scene of tremendous geologic activities. After the Cretaceous -period (see diagram p. 28), there was a time of great volcanic activity, -which appears to have lasted until perhaps the beginning of the glacial -epoch. There were many active volcanoes just west, north, and west of -the park, and some in the park itself. From these volcanoes vast -quantities of material were poured out, building up in places whole -mountain ranges. Thus the major portion of the great Absaroka Range, -just east of the park, as it appears to-day, was built up of volcanic -material. - - [Illustration: Fig. 4.—Ideal section through 2,000 feet of beds of - Specimen Ridge, showing succession of buried forest. After Holmes.] - -Mr. Arnold Hague gives the following graphic account of this and -adjacent areas: - - From one end to the other the Absarokas present a high, imposing - plateau, with elevations ranging from 10,000 to over 12,000 feet above - sea level. The entire mass is made up almost exclusively of Tertiary - igneous rocks. * * * Degradation of the mass has taken place on a - grand scale. Vast quantities of volcanic ejectmenta have been removed - from the summit, but no reliable data exist by which the amount can be - estimated even approximately. All the higher portions have been - sculptured by glacial ice. Enormous amphitheaters have been carved out - of the loose agglomerates, and peaks, pinnacles, and relics of great - table-lands testify in some measure to the forces of erosion. The - plateau is scored by a complete network of deep valleys and gorges, - which dissect it in every direction, and lay bare the structure of the - vast volcanic pile.[1] - -Within the park there is evidence of similar volcanic activity, and it -is clear that the basin between the encircling ranges was filled to its -present elevation by volcanic flows, which formed the present park -plateau. The area within which the fossil forests are now found was -apparently in the beginning an irregular but relatively flat basin, on -the floor of which after a time there grew the first forest. Then there -came from some of the volcanoes, probably those to the north, an -outpouring of ashes, mud flows, and other material which entirely buried -the forest, but so gradually that the trees were simply submerged by the -incoming material, few of them being prostrated. On the raised floor of -the basin, after a time, the next forest came into existence, only to be -in turn engulfed as the first had been, and so on through the period -represented by the 2,000 feet or more of similar beds. The series of -entombed forests affords a means of making at least a rough estimate of -the time required for the upbuilding of what is now Specimen Ridge and -its extensions. (See p. 27.) - -During the time this 2,000 feet of material was being accumulated, and -since then to the present day, there has been relatively little warping -of the earth’s crust at this point; that is, the beds were then, and -still are, practically horizontal, so that the fossil forests, as they -are being gradually uncovered, still stand upright. - -When the volcanic activities had finally ceased, the ever-working -disintegrating forces of nature began to tear and wear down this -accumulated material, eroding the beds on a grand scale. Deep canyons -and gulches have been trenched, and vast quantities of the softer -materials have been carried away by the streams and again deposited on -lower levels or transported to great and unknown distances. - -As the material in which the fossil forests are now entombed consist of -ashes, mud flows, breccia, and the like, not all the beds are of the -same texture end hardness, so that erosion has acted unevenly on them -and has produced many peculiar rock forms. The grotesque so-called -“hoodoos” have been carved out in this manner. The fossil trunks, being -usually harder than the surrounding matrix in which they are embedded, -have more firmly resisted erosion and now project to different heights -above the general level. In exposed beds that are nearly or quite -horizontal, disintegration has acted at nearly equal pace on the trunks -and on the matrix, so that the trunks are nearly or quite on a level -with the surrounding surface. On steep hillsides, however, from which -all loose material is easily and quickly removed, some of the fossil -trunks stand up to a height of 20 or 30 feet. If the beds had been -tilted at a considerable angle, these trunks could project from the -surface for only a short distance before their weight would break them -off, showing again the remarkably stable conditions that have continued -since the trunks were covered up. - - - - - AMETHYST MOUNTAIN. - - -The fossil forest that was first brought to scientific attention is on -the northern slope of Amethyst Mountain, opposite the mouth of Soda -Butte Creek, 12 miles southeast of Camp Roosevelt. The following -account, by Dr. William H. Holmes, the discoverer of these fossil -forests, shows the impression first made by them: - - As we ride up the trail that meanders the smooth river bottom [Lamar - River] we have but to turn our attention to the cliffs on the right - hand to discover a multitude of the bleached trunks of the ancient - forests. In the steeper middle portion of the mountain face, rows of - upright trunks stand out on the ledges like the columns of a ruined - temple. On the more gentle slopes farther down, but where it is still - too steep to support vegetation, save a few pines, the petrified - trunks fairly cover the surface, and were at first supposed by us to - be shattered remains of a recent forest.[2] - -These trunks may easily be seen from the road along the Lamar River, -about a mile away. They stand upright—as Holmes has said, like the -pillars of some ruined temple—and a closer view shows that there is a -succession of these forests, one above another. In the foothills and -several hundred feet above the valley there is a perpendicular wall of -volcanic breccia, which in some places attains a height of nearly 100 -feet. The fossil trunks may be seen in this wall in many places, all of -them standing upright, in the position in which they grew. Some of these -trunks, which are 2 to 4 feet in diameter and 20 to 40 feet high, are so -far weathered out of the rock as to appear just ready to fall: others -are only slightly exposed: niches mark the places from which others have -already fallen: and the foot of the cliff is piled high with fragments -of various sizes. - -Above this cliff fossil trunks appear in great numbers and in regular -succession. As they are all perfectly silicified, they are more -resistant than the surrounding matrix and consequently stand above it. -Most of them are only a few inches above the surface, but occasionally -one rises as high as 5 or 6 feet. The largest trunk observed in the park -is found in this locality. It is a little over 10 feet in diameter, a -measurement that includes a part of the bark. It is very much broken -down, especially in the interior, probably having been so disintegrated -before it was fossilized. It projects about 6 feet above the surface. - -At many places about Amethyst Mountain there are numerous fragments of -fossil wood and many hollow trunks. The material in which they had been -embedded has been eroded away, and they lie around in somewhat the same -attitudes that are shown by all the trunks in the Arizona fossil -forests, but there is little doubt that they were originally erect and -have simply fallen by their own weight because of the removal of the -material around them. - -Many of the trunks here, as well as elsewhere in the park, had decayed -in the center before they were fossilized, and some of the hollow -interiors are filled with clusters and rosettes of beautiful crystals of -amethyst, which doubtless suggested the name given to the adjacent -mountain. Much of this finely preserved wood, as well as the trunks -containing the crystals of amethyst, was broken up and carried away by -collectors of minerals and curiosities before the Government control in -the park was made sufficiently rigid to insure proper protection. - - - - - SPECIMEN RIDGE. - - -In many respects the most remarkable of the fossil forests is on the -northwest end of Specimen Ridge, about a mile southeast of Junction -Butte and about opposite the mouth of Slough Creek. So far as known, -this forest was first brought to scientific attention by Mr. E. C. -Alderson, of Bozeman, Mont., and the writer, who discovered it in -August, 1887. It is found on the higher part of the ridge, and covers -several acres. The trees are exposed at various heights on the very -steep hillsides, and one remarkable feature of the forest is that most -of them project well above the surface. - -One of the largest and best preserved trees stands at the very summit of -the slope (see title page). This trunk, which is that of a giant -redwood, is 26½ feet in circumference without the bark and about 12 feet -in height. The portion of this huge trunk preserved is the base, and it -exhibits to a considerable degree the swelling or buttressing so well -known in the living redwood. The roots, which are as large as the trunks -of ordinary trees, are now embedded in solid rock. - - [Illustration: Fig. 5.—Upright trunks in Specimen Ridge fossil - forest.] - -On the steep hillside a short distance below the big tree just mentioned -are the two trunks shown in figure 5. They are about 2 feet in diameter -and 25 feet high, and stand some 20 feet apart, and we may imagine them -to have formed the doorposts of the “ancient temple” of which Holmes -speaks. Both these trunks are without the bark. On the left of the -figure is one of the huge irregular masses of rock that has been carved -out by erosion. - - [Illustration: Fig. 6.—Trunk of fossil pine showing bark. Specimen - Ridge fossil forest.] - -In figure 6 is shown another trunk about 3 feet in diameter and nearly -30 feet high. In several places along the trunk the thick bark may be -noted. This tree is a pine, as are the two last described, and slightly -below and behind it are two living pine trees, which are about the size -it must have been when living. Another trunk, some 12 feet in height, is -shown in figure 7, and in figure 8 there may be noted a standing trunk -and above it another that has recently fallen. - - [Illustration: Fig. 7.—Trunk showing bark. Specimen Ridge fossil - forest.] - - [Illustration: Fig. 8.—Upright and prostrate trunks, Specimen Ridge - fossil forest.] - -The height attained by the trees of this fossil forest can not be -ascertained with certainty, since the tallest trunk now standing is only -about 30 feet high, but every one observed is obviously broken off, and -does not show even the presence of limbs. Perhaps the nearest approach -to a measure of the height is afforded by a trunk (shown in fig. 10) -that happened to have been prostrated before fossilization. This trunk, -which is 4 feet in diameter, is exposed for a length of about 40 feet, -and as it shows no apparent diminution in size within this distance it -is safe to assume that the tree could hardly have been less than 100 -feet high and very probably may have been higher. This trunk is -wonderfully preserved. As may be seen from the illustration, it has -broken up by splitting along the grain of the wood into great numbers of -little pieces, which closely resemble pieces of “kindling wood” split -from a clear-grained block. In fact, at a distance of a few yards it -would be impossible to distinguish this fossil “kindling wood” from that -split from a living tree. - - [Illustration: Fig. 10.—Prostrate trunk of fossil redwood, Specimen - Ridge fossil forest.] - -The large redwood trunk already mentioned (title-page) as being nearly -10 feet in diameter may be compared with its living relative of the -Pacific coast in order to calculate its probable height. The living -redwood is usually 10 to 15 feet in diameter and ranges in height from -200 to 310 feet, and as the two are so very closely related there is no -reason to suppose that the fossil trunk was of less height, but by a -moderate estimate it may be accredited with a minimum height of 200 -feet. - - [Illustration: MAP OF YELLOWSTONE NATIONAL PARK - Norris O Denotes Ranger Station - ←Direction of Travel - Distances given are between main points by road - NOTE THE MILE-POST SIGNS] - - - - - TOWER FALLS. - - -The most accessible fossil forest, marked "Petrified Trees" on the map, -is west of the Tower Falls Ranger Station and Camp Roosevelt on the road -from the Grand Canyon to Mammoth Hot Springs, by way of Mount Washburn. -It is on the middle slope of a hill that rises about 1,000 feet above -the little valley and may be reached by a branch road from the main loop -road. As the traveler approaches the forest he will observe a number of -trunks standing upright among the stumps and trunks of living trees, and -so much resembling them that a near view is necessary to convince him -that they are really fossil trunks. Only two rise to a considerable -height above the surface. The larger one is about 15 feet high and 13 -feet in circumference (fig. 11): the other is a little smaller. As the -roots are not exposed, it is impossible to determine the position of the -part in view or the original diameter of the trees, as the bark is -nowhere preserved. - - [Illustration: Fig. 11.—Fossil trunk near Tower Falls. - Photograph by F. J. Haynes.] - -Above these standing trunks lie many others, which the disintegrating -forces of nature break up into small fragments and keep at about the -same level as that of their surrounding matrix. Some of these trunks -rise only a few inches from the surface: others are nearly covered by -shifting débris. Their diameter ranges from 1 to 14 feet, and they are -so perfectly preserved that the rings of growth can easily be counted. -The internal structure is also in most trunks nearly as perfect as when -the trees were living. - - - - - CACHE CREEK. - - -The forest that is next in size to the one a mile southeast of Junction -Butte is on Cache Creek, about 7 miles above its mouth. It is on the -south bank of the creek and covers several acres. The trunks are -scattered from bottom to top of the slopes through a height of probably -800 feet. Most of the trunks are upright, but only a few project more -than 2 or 3 feet above the surface. The largest one observed was 6 feet -in height and 4 feet in diameter. Most of these trunks appear to the -naked eye to be conifers, but a number are obviously dicotyledons—that -is, they were deciduous-leaved trees. The conifers, however, were the -predominant element in this as in the other fossil forests. - -The slopes of the Thunderer, the mountain so prominently in view from -Soda Butte on the south, also bear numerous fossil trunks. Most of them -are upright, but only a very few project more than 2 feet above the -surface. No remarkably large trunks were observed at this locality, the -average diameter being perhaps less than 2 feet. - - - - - OTHER LOCALITIES. - - -Mount Norris, which is hardly to be separated from the Thunderer, also -bears a small fossil forest. The trees are of about the same size and -character as those in the larger mountain. Fossil forests of greater or -less extent, composed mainly of upright trunks, are exposed also on -Baronett Peak, Bison Peak, Abiathar Peak, Crescent Hill, and Miller -Creek. In fact, there is hardly a square mile of the area of the -northeastern portion of the park that is without its fossil forest, -scattered trunks, or erratic fragments. - -The vast area east of the Yellowstone Lake and the region still farther -east, beyond the limits of the park, have not been thoroughly explored, -but enough is known to make it certain that these areas contain more or -less fossil wood. The stream beds in these areas in many places contain -fragments of fossil wood, which indicates that trunks of trees must be -near at hand. - - - - - THE PROCESS OF FOSSILIZATION. - - -The manner in which these forests were fossilized may next be -considered. Though the whole history of the process is not fully -understood, it was undoubtedly dependent on or at least greatly -facilitated by the presence of volcanic and hydrothermal activity, which -was doubtless then, as it is to some extent now, a marked feature of the -park region. At least a hint of the probable process is afforded by the -action now going on in the hot spring areas. Many of those areas are -closely surrounded by forests, and unless the action of the springs is -very violent the trees may be growing only a short distance away. -Occasionally a hot spring may break out near the edge of a forest, the -first effect being, of course, to kill the trees. In a few years, by the -action of the ordinary processes of decay, a tree so killed may have -lost its bark and most of its smaller branches. The hot water which -constantly or intermittently surrounds the tree contains a considerable -amount of silica in solution, and as this hot silica-charged water is -drawn up into the wood by capillarity the silica may be deposited in the -cells of the wood after the water cools or evaporates. The first result -will be a more or less complete cast of the interior of the cells and -vessels of the wood. This much of the process has actually been -observed, but as decay is more rapid than silicification, the wood -crumbles to dust before petrifaction is complete. If the trunk could be -surrounded by ashes or mud and thus protected from atmospheric action, -it might in time be completely turned to stone. - -The fossil forests are surrounded by a matrix that is known as an acidic -lava—that is, a siliceous lava—which contains abundant silica in -solution. The first part of the process of silicification may well have -been that above described as taking place in the hot spring areas at the -present day—that is, the silica would be deposited in all the cells and -vessels of the wood, making an accurate cast of all open spaces. Then, -while the slow process of decay went on, as each particle of organic -matter was removed its place was taken by the silica, until, finally, -all the wood substance had disappeared and its place atom by atom had -been taken by silica. - -By this or a similar process the wood has been preserved or fossilized -with remarkable fidelity: in fact, thin sections or slices of the fossil -wood may be studied under the higher powers of the microscope with -almost or quite as much completeness and satisfaction as if they were -sections cut from a piece of living wood. Each cell and vessel, with its -characteristic pits and markings, is preserved exactly as it grew. Some -of the wood, however, was evidently more or less decayed before it was -fossilized, or else decay worked faster than replacement, so that in -some fragments the structure is not so clearly preserved. Many of the -trunks were subjected to pressure before replacement was complete, and -this has crushed or distorted the cells. On the whole, however, the wood -is exceptionally well preserved, as may be seen in figures 12, 13, 14, -and 15. These are all magnified 100 diameters and were photographed -directly from the thin sections—that is, they are photomicrographs—and -have not been retouched in any manner. Figure 12 shows a transverse -section of the wood of the large redwood trunk that has been so often -mentioned (see title page). The section is cut through one of the growth -rings, which consists of 12 or 15 rows of very thick-walled cells. The -large, regular thin-walled cells, which begin abruptly above the growth -ring, belong to the spring wood—that is, the wood first formed after -growth starts in spring, when the supply of nourishment is abundant. If -there is sufficient moisture and all conditions are favorable this -vigorous growth of wood cells may continue without interruption until -the approach of cold or dry weather, but not infrequently there may be a -brief shortage of moisture, and this is reflected in the formation of a -few rows of thicker-walled cells. Such a condition may be observed in -the present specimen, in which a slight, partial ring may be seen at -some distance above the main ring. - - [Illustration: Fig. 12.—Thin section of wood of fossil redwood - (Sequoia magnifica), showing growth ring. Section transverse. - Magnified 100 diameters.] - - [Illustration: Fig. 13.—Thin section of wood of fossil pine - (Pityoxylon amethystinum), showing growth ring and resin tube. - Section transverse. Magnified 100 diameters.] - - [Illustration: Fig. 14.—Thin section of wood of fossil pine - (Pityoxylon aldersoni), showing medullary rays and resin tube. - Section tangential. Magnified 100 diameters.] - - [Illustration: Fig. 15.—Thin section of wood of fossil laurel - (Laurinoxylon pulchrum), showing wood cells, tubes, and rays. - Section longitudinal. Magnified 100 diameters.] - -The very perfect preservation of the wood of one of the pines -(_Pityoxylon amethystinum_) is shown in figure 13, a view of a section -cut through a part of a growth ring and into the spring and summer wood, -the rings in this species being so broad that it is impossible to show a -complete one. The opening near the bottom of the figure shows one of the -large resin ducts, which, in the living wood, is filled with the “pitch” -that so readily exudes when a branch is cut or broken. A longitudinal -section of the other species of pine (_Pityoxylon aldersoni_) is shown -in figure 14. The many little rows of superimposed cells in the midst of -the long wood cells are the cut-off ends of what are known as medullary -rays—that is, the little plates of cells that connect pith and bark. One -of the resin cells cut in the long direction is shown near the center of -the figure; the contents are much darker than that of the wood cells. - -The very great difference between the sections of coniferous wood just -described and the wood of a deciduous tree is brought out in figure 15, -which is a longitudinal section of a laurel (_Laurinoxylon pulchrum_). -In this the wood cells are relatively much smaller and shorter, and the -medullary rays are in several irregular rows. The large dotted duct near -the middle of the figure is a feature not present in coniferous trees. - - - - - SPECIES REPRESENTED. - - -An enumeration of the kinds of trees that are represented by the woods -in the fossil forests of the Yellowstone National Park will naturally be -demanded. A superficial or macroscopic examination of these trunks would -not permit a close decision as to the kind of wood: in fact, it would -hardly be possible to do more than separate them by this means into -coniferous and dicotyledonous trees. But by studying thin sections under -the microscope it is possible to distinguish the different kinds with -reasonable accuracy. As the result of such study the following species -have been detected: - - Magnificent redwood (Sequoia magnifica). - Alderson’s pine (Pityoxylon aldersoni). - Amethyst pine (Pityoxylon amethystinum). - Laurel (Laurinoxylon pulchrum). - Aromatic bay (Perseoxylon aromaticum), - Hayden’s sycamore (Plantaninium haydeni). - Knowlton’s sycamore (Plantaninium knowltoni). - Felix’s buckthorn (Rhamnacinium radiatum). - Lamar oak (Quercinium lamarense). - Knowlton’s oak (Quercinium knowltoni). - -Although only three kinds of coniferous trees have thus far been found -in the fossil forests of the park, fully 95 per cent of all the trunks -belong to these three species. The preponderance of conifers is probably -due to the facts that they were presumably more abundant in the -beginning, and that, in general, coniferous wood decays less rapidly -than that of most of deciduous-leaved trees. But the conditions were so -favorable for preserving any wood that it is perhaps strange that not -more trunks of deciduous-leaved trees have been found there. As it is, -however, a greater number are known from the park than from any other -region. Thus, the Arizona fossil forests embraced only two species of -deciduous-leaved trees: the Calistoga (California) wood only one -species, and the forest at Cairo, Egypt, only four species. - -The 10 species of trees represented in the fossil forests of the park -are by no means the only fossil plants that have been found. The -fine-grained ashes and volcanic mud in which the forests were entombed -contain also great numbers of impressions of plants, many of them very -perfectly preserved. Most of these are impressions of foliage, such as -fronds and leaves, but they include also roots, stems, branches, -fruiting organs, and even what is believed to be the petals of a large -magnolia flower. About 150 different kinds of fossil plants have been -found in the park, 80 in the same beds with the forests, and most of the -others in slightly higher and younger beds. The list embraces 10 ferns, -among them a fine chain fern (Woodwardia), several aspleniums, and a -beautiful little climbing fern (Lygodium). The horse-tails (Equisetum) -are represented by 4 species. The conifers include no less than 6 -species of pines (Pinus), a yew (Taxodium), and 2 sequoias. These have -been identified either from the foliage or the cones, and it is more -than likely that some of the specimens may represent organs that -belonged to trees represented by the fossil trunks, but as they have -never been found connected they have been described separately. The -monocotyledons, or plants with parallel-veined leaves, are represented -by only a few forms, such as a single large grass (Phragmites), a few -sedges (Cyperacites), a smilax, and a curious broad-leaved banana-like -plant (Musophyllum). The dicotyledons, or deciduous-leaved plants, make -up the bulk of the flora and include walnuts (Juglans), hickory nuts -(Hicoria), bay berries (Myrica), poplars (Populus), willows (Salix), -birches (Betula), hazel nuts (Corylus), beech nuts (Fagus), chestnuts -(Castanea), oaks (Quercus), elms (Ulmus), figs (Ficus), breadfruits -(Artocarpus), magnolias (Magnolia), laurels (Laurus), bays (Persea), -cinnamons (Cinnamomum), sycamores (Plantanus), acacias (Acacia), sumachs -(Rhus), bittersweet (Celastrus), maples (Acer), soap berries (Sapindus), -buckthorns (Rhammus), grapes (Cissus), basswood (Tilia), aralias -(Aralia), dogwoods (Cornus), persimmons (Diospyros), ash (Fraxinus), and -a number of others without vernacular names. - - - - - COMPARISON WITH LIVING FORESTS. - - -A brief comparison of the fossil forests with the forests now living in -the Yellowstone National Park may be of some interest. The present -forests are prevailingly coniferous, the most abundant and widely -distributed tree being the lodgepole pine (_Pinus murrayana_), which -forms dense forests over much of the plateau region. It is distinguished -by having the leaves in clusters of two. It is a tree with a slender -trunk, usually 70 or 80 feet high, though in exceptionally favorable -localities it may reach a height of 150 feet. Its diameter rarely -exceeds 2 or 3 feet. The areas ravaged by forest fires are usually -reforested by this pine alone, and the young trees come up so close -together as to form thickets that can scarcely be penetrated. - -There are two other pines in the park, both white pines, allied to the -common white pine of the Eastern States, and like it both have the -leaves in clusters of 5. One, known as the Rocky Mountain white pine -(_Pinus flexilis_) is a small tree, only 40 or 50 feet in height, and -usually grows singly or in small groves. The other, called the Western -white pine (_Pinus albicaulis_), is still smaller, being usually 20 to -30 feet high, and has a short trunk some 2 to 4 feet in diameter. It -grows on high slopes and exposed ridges. - -Perhaps next in abundance to the lodgepole pine is the white or -Engelmann spruce (_Picea engelmanni_), a tall, handsome tree with -disagreeable smelling foliage. Another rather abundant tree is the -Douglas spruce, or red fir (_Pseudotsuga mucronata_), which, where best -developed on the Pacific coast, attains a height of 200 feet, though in -the drier interior it is rarely over 80 or 100 feet high. There are also -two species of fir, the white fir (_Abies grandis_) and the Balsam fir -(_Abies lasiocarpa_), and a single juniper (_Juniperus communis -siberica_), which is often scarcely more than a shrub. - -The deciduous-leaved trees are almost a negligible element in the -present park flora, being confined to an occasional cottonwood (_Populus -angustifolia_) at the lower elevations, along the Yellowstone River, and -small groves of the quaking aspen (_Populus tremuloides_). Along the -streams and in wet places there are many species of willow (Salix) and -several alders (Alnus), and in mountain bogs and valleys there is a -small birch (_Betula glandulosa_). There are, of course, many small -shrubs, such as gooseberries, currants, and roses. - - - - - AGE OF THE FOSSIL FORESTS. - - -The question is often asked, How old are the fossil forests? It is, of -course, impossible to fix their age exactly in years, though it is easy -enough to place them in the geologic time scale. The stratified rocks -that make up the crust of the earth, from the oldest we know to the most -recent, have been divided by geologists into a number of major divisions -or systems, each—except perhaps the oldest—containing the remains of -certain kinds of plants and animals. The accompanying diagram (fig. 16), -shows these major time divisions, arranged in their proper sequence from -the lowest to the highest. The star (*) in this geologic time scale -indicates the age of the rocks in which the fossil forests were -entombed. It shows that they were buried during the Tertiary period. -This period is divided into four epochs, the oldest called Eocene, -having been succeeded in turn by the Oligocene, the Miocene, and the -Pliocene, which just precedes the Pleistocene or glacial epoch. The -forests of the Yellowstone National Park are found in the Miocene series -of the Tertiary. As compared with the eons of geologic time that -preceded it the Miocene is relatively very recent, though, if the -various estimates of the age of the earth that have been made by -geologists are anywhere near correct it may well have been a million -years ago. It must be remembered, however, that this estimate involves -more or less speculation based on a number of factors which may or may -not have been correctly interpreted. - -A study of the fossil trees themselves gives at least a rough -approximation as to the length of time it may have taken to accumulate -the beds in which they are now buried. As already mentioned, there is a -succession of forests, one above another, through a thickness of 2,000 -feet of strata. The unit of the measure of the time is the time taken by -each forest to grow. Pine trees of the types represented in the fossil -trunks require 200 or 300 years to reach maturity, and redwoods may -require from 500 to 1,000 years. Twelve or more of these forest levels -have been found. By multiplying this number by the minimum age of the -trees (200 years) we shall have 2,400 years, and by multiplying it by -the maximum age of the redwood (1,000 years) we shall have 12,000 years -as the possible time during which these forests flourished. It is -possible that the truth lies somewhere between these extremes. - - Fig. 16.—Geologic divisions. - Era. Period. Epoch. - - Cenozoic. Quaternary. Recent. - Pleistocene - (glacial). - *Tertiary. Pliocene. - *Miocene. - Oligocene. - Eocene. - Mesozoic. Cretaceous. - Jurassic. - Triassic. - Paleozoic. Carboniferous. - Devonian. - Silurian. - Ordovician. - Proterozoic. Cambrian. - Algonkian. - Archean. - - - - - CLIMATE DURING THE LIFE OF THE FOSSIL TREES. - - -A final word may be added regarding the probable climate of the region -during the lifetime of these fossil forests. It is obvious that the -present flora of the Yellowstone National Park has comparatively little -relation to the Tertiary flora and can not be considered the descendant -of it. It is also clear that the climatic conditions must have greatly -changed since Tertiary time. The Tertiary flora appears to have come -from the south, but the present flora is evidently of more northern -origin. The climate during Tertiary time, as indicated by the -vegetation, was temperate or warm-temperate, not unlike that of Virginia -or the Carolinas at the present time, and the presence of numerous -species of figs, a supposed bread-fruit tree, cinnamons, bays, and other -southern plants indicates that it may have been almost subtropical. -However, the conditions that were favorable to this seemingly -subtropical growth may have been different from the conditions now -necessary for the growth of similar vegetation. It may be that these -supposed subtropical plants were at that time so constituted as to grow -in a temperate land, and that they may have become tropical in recent -times. Following this general line of thought it may be said that -although the Tertiary vegetation of the Yellowstone National Park would -now be regarded as indicating a temperate or even warmer climate, the -actual climate may not have been subtropical. It is certain, however, -that the conditions were very different from those now prevailing in the -park. - - - - - PUBLICATIONS ON YELLOWSTONE NATIONAL PARK. - - - DISTRIBUTED FREE BY THE NATIONAL PARK SERVICE. - -The following publication may be obtained free on written application to -the Director of the National Park Service: - -Circular of General Information, Yellowstone National Park (issued - yearly). This pamphlet contains general information of interest to - the tourist. - - - SOLD BY THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS.[3] - -The following publications may be obtained from the Superintendent of -Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C., at the prices -given. Remittances should be made by money order or in cash: - -National Park Portfolio, by Robert Sterling Yard. 270 pages, including - 310 illustrations. Bound securely in cloth, $1. - - Contains nine chapters, each descriptive of a national park and one - larger chapter devoted to other national parks and monuments. - -Geological History of Yellowstone National Park, by Arnold Hague, 22 - pages, including 10 illustrations, 10 cents. - - This pamphlet contains a general résumé of the geologic forces that - have been active in the Yellowstone National Park. - -Geysers of the Yellowstone National Park, by Walter Harvey Weed, 32 - pages, including 23 illustrations, 10 cents. - - In this pamphlet is a description of the forces which have produced - the geysers, and the geysers of the Yellowstone are compared with - those in Iceland and New Zealand. - -Fossil Forests of the Yellowstone National Park, by F. H. Knowlton, 30 - pages, including 15 illustrations, 10 cents. (This publication.) - - This pamphlet contains descriptions of the fossil forests of the - Yellowstone National Park and an account of their origin. - -Fishes of the Yellowstone National Park, by W. C. Kendall (Bureau of - Fisheries Document 818.) 28 pages, including 17 illustrations, 5 - cents. - - Contains descriptions of the species and lists of streams where found. - - - MAP.[3] - -A topographic map of the park may be purchased from the Director of the -Geological Survey, Washington, D. C., at the price given. Remittances -should be made by cash or money order. - -Map of Yellowstone National Park. size 28½ by 32 inches; scale, 2 miles - to the inch. Price, 25 cents. - - The roads, trails, and names are put in black, the streams and lakes - in blue, and the relief is indicated by brown contour lines. - - - - - FOOTNOTES - - -[1]Hague, Arnold, Early Tertiary Volcanoes of the Absaroka Range: Geol. - Soc. Wash., Presidential Address, 1899, p. 4. - -[2]Holmes, W. H., Twelfth Ann. Rept. U. S. Geol. and Geogr. Surv. Terr., - 1878 (1883) p. 48. - -[3]May be purchased by personal application at the information office in - the park, at Mammoth Hot Springs, but that office can not fill mail - orders. - - - - - Transcriber’s Notes - - -—Silently corrected a few typos. - -—Retained publication information from the printed edition: this eBook - is public-domain in the country of publication. - -—In the text versions only, text in italics is delimited by - _underscores_. - - - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Fossil Forests of the Yellowstone -National Park, by Frank Hall Knowlton - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FOSSIL FORESTS OF THE *** - -***** This file should be named 63519-0.txt or 63519-0.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/6/3/5/1/63519/ - -Produced by Stephen Hutcheson and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was -produced from images generously made available by The -Internet Archive/American Libraries.) - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions -will be renamed. - -Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no -one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation -(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without -permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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