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diff --git a/old/63456-0.txt b/old/63456-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index f6cd7f6..0000000 --- a/old/63456-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,4216 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Andreas Vesalius the Reformer of Anatomy, by -James Moores Ball - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: Andreas Vesalius the Reformer of Anatomy - -Author: James Moores Ball - -Release Date: October 14, 2020 [EBook #63456] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ANDREAS VESALIUS--REFORMER OF ANATOMY *** - - - - -Produced by deaurider, Stephen Hutcheson, and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - - [Illustration: _And. Vesalius_] - - - - - ANDREAS - VESALIUS - THE - Reformer of Anatomy - - - BY - JAMES MOORES BALL, M. D. - - [Illustration: Ornamental block] - - SAINT LOUIS - MEDICAL SCIENCE PRESS - MDCCCCX - - Copyrighted, 1910 - By James Moores Ball - _All rights reserved_ - - TO THE MEMORY - OF THOSE ILLUSTRIOUS MEN - WHO - OFTEN UNDER ADVERSE CIRCUMSTANCES - AND - SOMETIMES IN DANGER OF DEATH - SUCCEEDED IN UNRAVELLING THE MYSTERIES - OF THE STRUCTURE OF THE HUMAN BODY, - TO THE FATHERS OF ANATOMY - AND - TO THE ARTIST-ANATOMISTS - THIS BOOK - IS DEDICATED - - [Illustration: Ornamental block] - - - - - PREFACE - - - [Illustration: Illuminated capital] - -In the annals of the medical profession the name of Andreas Vesalius of -Brussels holds a place second to none. Every physician has heard of him, -yet few know the details of his life, the circumstances under which his -labors were carried out, the extent of those labors, or their -far-reaching influence upon the progress of anatomy, physiology and -surgery. Comparatively few physicians have seen his works; and fewer -still have read them. The reformation which he inaugurated in anatomy, -and incidentally in other branches of medical science, has left only a -dim impress upon the minds of the busy, science-loving physicians of the -nineteenth and twentieth centuries. That so little should be known about -him is not surprising, since his writings were in Latin and were -published prior to the middle of the sixteenth century. His books, which -at one time were in the hands of all the scientific physicians of -Europe, are now rarely encountered beyond the walls of the great medical -libraries of the world. They are among the _incunabula_ of the medical -literature. That English-speaking physicians know little of Vesalian -literature is due to the fact that no extensive biography of the great -anatomist has appeared in our language. Most of the Vesalian literature -which has been written by English and American authors has been in the -form of brief articles for the medical press; these oftentimes have been -incorrect and unillustrated. Perhaps the best example of this class is -the article by Mr. Henry Morley which appeared originally in _Fraser’s -Magazine_, in 1853, and later was published in his _Clement Marot and -Other Studies_, in 1871. The chief data for Vesalius’s biography are to -be found in his own writings, in the archives of the Universities in -which he taught, and in the controversial literature of the period. -Extensive as are these sources they leave much to be desired. A vast -mass of Vesalian literature was printed, chiefly in the Latin language, -during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Much of it is based on -insufficient evidence or on national prejudice. The Germans, the French, -the Dutch and the Italians have all taken a turn at it. In modern times -the monumental work of Roth, _Andreas Vesalius Bruxellensis_, Berlin, -1892, has served to epitomize this literature and to make clear many -points which formerly were not understood. I have taken Roth’s book as a -basis for this monograph, without using the voluminous references which -are found in the work of this thorough historian. - -The man who overthrew the authority of Galen; revolutionized the -teaching of the structure of the human body; started anatomical, -physiological, and surgical investigation in the right channels; first -correctly illustrated his dissections; destroyed ancient dogmas, and -made many new discoveries—this man, Andreas Vesalius of Brussels, -deserves the name which Morley has given him, “the Luther of Anatomy.” - -At long intervals a bright particular star appears in the intellectual -horizon, endowed with genius of such a superlative order as seemingly to -comprise within itself the whole domain of an entire science. These men -do not belong to any particular epoch in the development of the human -mind. They are the eternal symbols of progress, and their history is the -history of the science which they profess. Such men were Bacon, Galileo, -Descartes, Newton, Lavoisier, and Bichat; and such also was Andreas -Vesalius the anatomist. Young, enthusiastic, courageous and diligent, -Vesalius dared to contradict the authority of Galen, corrected the -anatomical mistakes of thirteen centuries and before his thirtieth year -published the most accurate, complete, and best illustrated treatise on -anatomy that the world had ever seen. His industry, the success which -crowned his efforts, the jealousies which his discoveries aroused in the -breasts of his contemporaries, the honors which were conferred upon him -by Charles the Fifth and Philip the Second, his pilgrimage to the Holy -Land, and his tragic death—these are events which deserve to be -chronicled by an abler pen than mine. - -The year 1543 marks the date of a revolution which was won, not by force -of arms but by the scalpel of an anatomist and the hand of an artist. -The whole of human anatomy, as a study involving correct descriptions of -the component parts of the body and accurate delineations thereof, may -be said to have been founded by Andreas Vesalius and Jan Stephan van -Calcar. As light pouring into a prism attracts little notice until it -emerges in iridescent hues, so it was with anatomy: after passing -through the brain of Vesalius it bore rich fruit which has been gathered -by many hands. To turn from the writings of Galen, Mondino, Hundt, -Peyligk, Phryesen, and Berengario da Carpi to the beauties of Vesalius’s -_De Humani Corporis Fabrica_ is like passing from darkness into -sunlight. To both anatomists and artists this book was a revelation. For -more than a century after its appearance the anatomists of Europe did -little more than make additions to, and compose commentaries upon the -conjoint triumph of Vesalius and van Calcar. For more than two centuries -the osteologic and myologic figures of the _Fabrica_ formed the basis of -all treatises on Art-Anatomy. - - JAMES MOORES BALL. - - Saint Louis, - MDCCCCX. - - [Illustration: Ornamental block] - - [Illustration: Ornamental block] - - - - - TABLE OF CONTENTS - - - PAGE - INTRODUCTION 1-16 - The Study of Medical History—The General Renaissance—The - Anatomical Renaissance. - ANATOMY IN ANCIENT TIMES 17-28 - Anatomy in Egypt and in Greece—Hippocrates and the - Asclepiadae—Alcmaeon, Empedocles and Aristotle—Early Roman - Medicine—The Alexandrian University—Herophilus and - Erasistratus—Claudius Galenus—The School of - Salernum—Frederick II. - MONDINO, THE RESTORER OF ANATOMY 29-36 - Life of Mondino—He restores the Study of Practical Anatomy—His - Book on Anatomy. - MONDINO’S SUCCESSORS 37-51 - Gabriel de Zerbi—John Peyligk—Magnus Hundt—Laurentius - Phryesen—Alexander Achillinus—Berengario da Carpi—John - Dryander—Charles Estienne. - VESALIUS’S EARLY LIFE 52-55 - Origin of the Vesalius Family—Early Life of the - Anatomist—Vesalius enters the University of Louvain. - SOJOURN IN PARIS 56-69 - Vesalius goes to Paris to study Medicine—Celebrated Parisian - Physicians of the Sixteenth Century—Jacobus - Sylvius—Joannes Guinterius—Jean Fernel—Philosophy of - Pierre de la Rameé—State of Anatomy at this Period. - VESALIUS RETURNS TO LOUVAIN 70-72 - Vesalius returns to Louvain—He conducts a Course in - Anatomy—Secures a Skeleton. - PROFESSOR OF ANATOMY IN PADUA 73-80 - Vesalius goes to Venice, thence to Padua—Receives the Degree - of Doctor of Medicine—He is appointed Professor of - Anatomy—His method of Teaching—Lectures also in Bologna. - FIRST CONTRIBUTION TO ANATOMY 81-83 - Vesalius issues a Series of Anatomical Plates under the title - “Tabulae Anatomicae”—His Plates are extensively pirated. - PUBLICATION OF THE FABRICA 84-94 - The Manuscript and Illustrations for the Fabrica are - transported to Basel—Joannes Oporinus, the noted Printer - and Greek Scholar—Publication of the Fabrica—Beauty of the - Illustrations—Who was the unnamed Artist?—The Plates were - erroneously ascribed to Titian—Christoforo Coriolano—Jan - Stephan van Calcar—Popularity of the Illustrations among - Artists and Anatomists. - PUBLICATION OF THE EPITOME 95-97 - Publication of the Epitome—Reasons for its - Publication—Character of the Work. - CONTENTS OF THE FABRICA 99-113 - General Plan of the Book—A brief Review of its Contents—The - First Book, on Osteology—Vesalius’s Contributions to the - Anatomy of the Bones—The Second Book, on Ligaments and - Muscles—Excellence of this Part of the “Fabrica”—The Third - Book, on the Veins and Arteries—The Fourth Book, on the - Nerves—The Fifth Book, on the Organs of Nutrition—The - Sixth Book, on the Heart—Vesalius’s Idea of the - Circulation—Quotation from his Book—The Seventh Book, on - the Brain and the Organs of Sense—Conclusion. - CONTEMPORARY ANATOMISTS 114-125 - The publication of the Fabrica is followed by great activity - among Anatomists—Bartholomeus Eustachius—Realdus - Columbus—Gabriel Fallopius—John Philip Ingrassias. - COMMENTATORS AND PLAGIARISTS 126-129 - Plagiarism in Medicine—William Cowper and Bidloo’s - Plates—Pirated editions of the “Tabulae Anatomicae”—Thomas - Geminus’s editions of the “Fabrica”—The Microcosmographia - of Helkiah Crooke—John Banister’s Book—Juan Valverde di - Hamusco’s work on Anatomy—Best editions of the “Fabrica”. - THE COURT PHYSICIAN 130-132 - Vesalius is appointed Archiatrus to Charles the Fifth—He - follows the Emperor in his Journeys—Abdication of - Charles—Vesalius is appointed Archiatrus to Philip the - Second. - PILGRIMAGE AND DEATH 133-136 - Vesalius leaves Madrid—He visits Venice, then goes to Cyprus, - and passes on to Jerusalem—Reason for the Pilgrimage—Death - of Vesalius. - - [Illustration: Ornamental block] - - [Illustration: Ornamental block] - - - - - LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS - - - Andreas Vesalius—from the “Epitome”, 1543 Frontispiece - PAGE - Andreas Vesalius—van Kalker p.; I. Troijen s.—from an old - copperplate engraving XVIII. - Initial Letter—from the “Fabrica”, 1543 16 - Hippocrates 17 - Aristotle 19 - Alexander the Great 20 - Ptolemy Soter 21 - Galen 24 - Mondino’s Diagram of the Heart 31 - Anatomical Demonstration in 1493 33 - Title-page of Mondino’s Anatomy by Melerstat 34 - Colophon of the Anatomy of Mondino 36 - Anatomical Plate by Ricardus Hela, 1493 38 - Peyligk’s Diagram of the Heart, 1499 39 - Anatomical Figure from Magnus Hundt, 1501 40 - Anatomical Figure from Laurentius Phryesen, 1518 41 - Alexander Achillinus 42 - Dissection by Berengario, 1535 43 - Skeleton by Berengario, 1523 44 - Muscles by Berengario, 1521 45 - Muscles by Berengario, 1521 46 - Dryander 47 - Anatomical Figure by Estienne, 1545 48 - Skeleton by Estienne, 1545 49 - Skull by Dryander, 1541 51 - The Old University of Louvain 54 - Sylvius 57 - Winter of Andernach 62 - Jean Fernel 64 - Ramus 66 - Vivisection of a Pig—from the “Fabrica”, 1543 69 - Instruments used in Dissection—from the “Fabrica”, 1543 74 - Initial Letter—from the “Fabrica”, 1543 80 - View of the City of Basel in the Sixteenth Century 83 - Joannes Oporinus 85 - Mark of Oporinus—from the “Fabrica”, 1543 86 - Jan Stephan van Calcar—from Sandrart’s “Teutsche Academie”, 1685 88 - Second Vesalian Plate of the Muscles—from the “Fabrica”, 1543 90 - Ninth Vesalian Plate of the Muscles—from the “Fabrica”, 1543 92 - A Human Skull resting on the Skull of a Dog—from the “Fabrica”, - 1543 94 - Title-page of Vesalius’s “Epitome”, 1543 96 - Skeleton by Vesalius—from the “Fabrica”, 1543 98 - Fifth Vesalian Plate of the Muscles—from the “Fabrica”, 1543 100 - Deep Muscles of the Back by Vesalius—from the “Fabrica”, 1543 102 - Part of the First Text-page of the “Fabrica”, 1543 103 - Plate of the Arterial Tree by Vesalius—from the “Fabrica”, 1543 104 - Dissection of the Abdomen by Vesalius—from the “Fabrica”, 1543 106 - Dissection of the Heart by Vesalius—from the “Fabrica”, 1543 107 - Initial Letter—from the “Fabrica”, 1543 113 - Brain and Nerves by Eustachius 116 - Muscles by Eustachius 117 - Title-page of Columbus’s Anatomy 120 - Gabriel Fallopius 122 - Ingrassias 125 - Charles the Fifth 131 - Philip the Second 133 - - [Illustration: Ornamental block] - - [Illustration: _I. van Kalker p. I. Troÿen s._ - ANDREAS VESALIUS - (From an old copperplate engraving)] - - [Illustration: Ornamental block] - - - - - INTRODUCTION - - - [Illustration: Illuminated capital] - -The intelligent student of medical history has at his command an -unfailing source of pleasure. To learn the successive steps by which -Medicine has advanced from a priest-ridden and secret art practiced with -mysterious rites in the Greek temples, passing through the schools of -Greek philosophy into the light of publicity, is his privilege. To hunt -through musty and worm-eaten volumes for facts regarding the great -physicians of antiquity is his delight; and to communicate the knowledge -thus obtained to others, who have not the time or the facilities for -such research, is his duty. In every period are events and incidents of -interest, but to the Middle Ages a peculiar fascination attaches; for it -was during this period that Europe, emerging from an intellectual -darkness of ten centuries’ duration, awoke to the Renaissance, and -Medicine, as ever has been the case, kept pace with the general advance -of knowledge. - -The present book deals with the life of a master whose work was an -essential factor in the evolution of the Anatomical Renaissance. In -order to understand the New Birth of Anatomy it is necessary to know -something of the scope and influence of the General Renaissance. - - -The General Renaissance - -This, the Revival of Learning, includes an indefinite time in European -history. The seeds of the new movement were planted in the Middle Ages, -but they bore no fruit until the time had arrived for an apparently -“spontaneous outburst of intelligence”. Definitions of the Renaissance -will vary with the point of view. Artists and sculptors will say it was -a revolution which was created by the recovery of ancient statues; -littérateurs and philosophers look upon it as a radical change due to -the discovery of the writings of the classical authors; astronomers and -physicists will cite the names of Copernicus, Galileo, and Torricelli; -geographers will point to the discovery of a New Continent; historians -will name the extinction of feudalism and the capture of Constantinople -by the Turks; inventors will recall the changed conditions of warfare -brought about by gunpowder, the multiplication of books by the invention -of printing, and the advent of new methods of engraving; and anatomists -will sound the praises of Leonardo da Vinci and of Andreas Vesalius. All -will agree that the Renaissance meant Revolution—revolution in thought, -in conduct, in creed, and in conditions of existence. To no one fact can -the Renaissance be attributed; nor can its scope be limited to any one -field of human endeavor. The Renaissance was, and is, and will continue -to be, as long as the race progresses. - -The new movement began in Italy and grew rapidly. When, toward the end -of the sixteenth century, the lamp of learning began to get dim in -Italy, it was relighted by the nations of northern Europe—the Germans, -the Hollanders, and the English—and by them was transferred to us. The -Revival consisted largely in the recovery of the buried writings of the -ancient Greek and Roman authors, together with comments on what they had -written, and the production of books which were modeled after their -works. But it was broader than this. It included all branches of -learning, although more progress was made in some lines than in others. - -Italy, a country divided into numerous small States, and so-called -Republics, offered great opportunities for individual development and -became famous in those paths in which individualism has gained its -greatest triumphs. Thus in literature, in law, in medicine, in painting -and in sculpture, the Italians were preëminent. In architecture and in -the drama they reached no such heights as were attained by the French, -the Germans and the English. It was in the northwest part of Italy, in -the province of Tuscany, that the Renaissance gained its greatest -victories. Among the earliest of the leaders of the New Learning was the -Florentine poet, Dante Alighieri (1265-1321). “To Dante”, says Symonds, -“in a truer sense than to any other poet, belongs the double glory of -immortalising in verse the centuries behind him, while he inaugurated -the new age”. His _Vita Nuova_ (New Life) and _Divina Commedia_ (Divine -Comedy) are essentially modern in thought, but ancient in the manner in -which the thought is expressed. - -Petrarch may be said to fairly open the new era. Like Dante, he was a -Florentine. He was the apostle of Humanism, that system of philosophy -which regarded man “as a rational being apart from theological -determinations” and perceived that “classic literature alone displayed -human nature in the plenitude of intellectual and moral freedom”. To a -revolt against the despotism of the Church, it added the attempt to -unify all that had been taught and done by man. Petrarch was a poet, a -lawyer, an orator, a priest, and a philosopher. He lived between the -years 1304-1374. He was a great traveler, and visited the leading -continental cities in order to converse with learned men. Petrarch -delighted in the study of Cicero, in collecting manuscripts, and in -accumulating coins and inscriptions for historic purposes. He advocated -public libraries and preached the duty of preserving ancient monuments. -He opposed the physicians and astrologers of his day, and ridiculed the -followers of Averröes. - -Boccaccio, who has been called the Father of Italian Prose, and is most -widely known as the author of the _Decameron_, did not spend all of his -time in describing the escapades of the knights and ladies of old. -Influenced potently by Petrarch, Boccaccio regretted the years he had -wasted in law and trade, when he should have been reading the classics. -Late in life he began the study of Greek that he might read the _Iliad_ -and the _Odyssey_. What he lacked in genuine scholarship he made up in -industry. He continued the work begun by Petrarch of hunting for lost -manuscripts of the ancient Greek and Roman authors. Many of these -precious documents were stored in the conventual libraries, where, too -often, they were either wantonly destroyed or were mutilated, the words -of the author being erased from the parchment to make way for new -prayers. Boccaccio tells of a visit which he made to the Benedictine -Monastery of Monte Cassino near the city of Salernum. He wished to see -the books and found them in a room without door or key. Many of them -were mutilated. On making inquiry as to the cause, the monks answered -that they had sold some of the sheets, having first erased the original -words, replacing them with psalters. The margins of the old pages were -made into charms and were sold to women. - -It was owing to the unselfish labors of such men as Petrarch and -Boccaccio that the works of Livy, Cicero, Quintilian, Terence, and -others of the ancient authors, were preserved. In this enterprise they -were encouraged by the rulers. Thus Cosimo de’ Medici in Florence, -Alfonso the Magnanimous in Naples, and Nicholas V. in Rome, to say -nothing of the despots of the smaller cities, rivaled one another in -their zeal in unearthing and multiplying the manuscripts of the ancient -writers. They spared neither time nor money to increase their store of -manuscript books. They surrounded themselves with learned men who lived -in high esteem, and who were supported by salaries paid by the State or -by private pensions. - -The fifteenth century, which was one of the most remarkable epochs in -history, was rich in accomplishment. Almost all of the great events -which have influenced European commercial and intellectual development -can be traced to that period. The invention of printing, the discovery -of America, the fall of the Roman Empire in the East, the birth of the -Reformation, and the rise of art in Italy, all belong to this wonderful -century. In this period, when almost every city in Italy was a new -Athens, the Italian poets, historians, and artists vied with the eminent -men of the ancient world in carrying the lamp of learning. The Italian -cities—Florence, Bologna, Milan, Venice, Rome and Ferrara—fought with -one another, not for the spoils of the battlefield but for the victories -of science and of art; not so much for the profits of commerce as for -the wealth of genius and of learning. The intellectual development which -occurred in northern Italy under the rule of the house of Medici, and -particularly under the auspices of Lorenzo the Magnificent, forms one of -the most interesting periods in European history. - -It is impossible in the present work to trace the steps by which the -exquisite taste of the ancients in works of art was revived in modern -times. Nevertheless, a few words may be devoted to this subject. While -much must be credited to those Greek artists who had left their country -and had settled in the Italian peninsula, it must be conceded that many -of the works of art of the native Italians were not the less -meritorious. The same circumstances which favored the revival of -letters, operated to further the cause of art; and the same individuals, -who were interested in the preservation of the manuscripts of the older -authors, also busied themselves with the collection of ancient statues, -paintings, gems and tapestry. The freedom of the Italian Republics -permitted the minds of men to expand to full fruition; and the -encouragement which was given by its rulers to artists, sculptors and -artisans, made the city of Florence, in the fifteenth century, a not -less renowned centre of culture than Athens had been in ancient times. - -The revival of art dates from the time of Cimabue (1240-1300) and Giotto -(1276-1336). The former is known as the Father of Modern Painters; the -latter constructed the Campanile at Florence. To Giovanni Cimabue, scion -of a noble Florentine family, is usually given the credit of being the -restorer of art in Italy. He is thought to have been the first painter -to throw expression into the human countenance. His work, if judged by -present standards, would be called crude, rude and incomplete. Much of -the fame of this painter is to be attributed to his being the first -person whom Vasari chronicled in his _Lives of the Painters_. For more -than a century after the time of Cimabue and Giotto, painters displayed -only a smattering of anatomical knowledge. - -Early in the fifteenth century two Flemish artists, Hubert van Eyck -(1365-1426) and his brother John (1385-1441), in their polyptych of the -Adoration of the Lamb, boldly struck out along new lines and committed -the unheard-of deed of painting nude figures. Italy, however, was the -real birthplace of Art-Anatomy. While the Flemings and others of the -North painted everything that they saw, including the nude, the Italians -were the first men of the Renaissance who thought of painting the nude -figure before draping it. Leo Battista Alberti (1404-1472), in his works -on painting, insists that the bony skeleton must first be drawn and then -clothed with its muscles and flesh. This was an important step in -advance, since it shows that the Florentine artists were progressing -towards realism and were breaking away from the symbolism of the early -Christian painters and mosaic-workers. The new movement in art found a -worthy champion in Antonio Pollaiuolo (1432-1498). In his knowledge of -the anatomy of the human figure he surpassed all of the artists of his -day; and as a result of his labors he may justly be named the founder of -the scientific study of the nude. His knowledge of anatomy was so -accurate, and so extensive, that it could have been gained only in the -dissecting room. - -Under the patronage of Lorenzo de’ Medici and the guiding mind of -Pollaiuolo, there occurred a revival of pseudo-paganism in Art. The old -Church subjects were largely neglected; mythological subjects again -became the fashion; draperies were either modified or were laid aside; -and the scientific study of anatomy, both as regards the nude figure and -the dissection of the individual parts, became the necessary training of -the student. Of all the masters of this period, the palm for excellence -in drawing the naked figure must be awarded to Luca Signorelli -(1442-1524), from whose work Michael Angelo is known to have profited. - -The alliance between skilled anatomists and master artists was of -reciprocal benefit. The anatomical studies which were made conjointly by -Leonardo da Vinci and the celebrated teacher of anatomy, Marc Antonio -della Torre, were lost to the world by the untimely death of the latter, -before he had finished a magnificent treatise on human anatomy. -Leonardo’s anatomical sketches, if they had been published during his -lifetime, would have revolutionized anatomy both as regards discoveries -in the body and the teaching of the structure of man. These masterpieces -of anatomical illustration long remained hidden from the world; they -were published only in the year 1902. Even now their cost is so great -that only a few wealthy libraries can possess them. Leonardo’s long -unpublished drawings show him to have been a most accurate anatomist. At -the same time, he constantly kept in view the aim of fine art, which, in -so far as practical anatomy is concerned, needs a knowledge of only the -bones and the muscles. - -Nor was Leonardo the only artist who made dissections. Raffaello Santi, -Michael Angelo, Bartholomaus Torre, Luigi Cardi or Civoli, Jan Stephan -van Calcar, Giuseppe Ribera, Arnold Myntens, and Pietro da Cortona -studied practical anatomy. Rubens’s long-lost sketch-book[1], which was -published one hundred and thirty-three years after his death, shows with -what care he had studied human anatomy. Albrecht Dürer’s _Treatise on -the Proportions of the Human Body_ is also worthy of mention. - -In the number and fame of her Universities, Italy showed supremacy. At -the end of the fifteenth century she could boast of sixteen seats of -learning, a number equal to that of the combined institutions of -Britain, France, Germany, Hungary, Bohemia and Bavaria. - -This digression has led us away from the Humanists. Their list is a long -one. Among them were Poggio Bracciolini, who discovered the manuscript -of the _Institutions_ of Quintilian and the writings of Vitruvius; -Poliziano, the first poet of the fifteenth century, and the translator -of the works of Hippocrates and Galen; Pontanus, whose _De Stellis_ and -_Urania_ were much admired by Italian scholars; Sannazzaro, whose epic -on the birth of Christ cost him twenty years of labor; Vida, whose -_Christiad_ and other poems were much admired; and Fracastoro, whose -_Syphilis_ was hailed as a divine poem. - -From the viewpoint of the medical historian an important event occurred -in the year 1443, when Thomas of Sarzana, later known as Pope Nicholas -V., discovered a manuscript copy of the _De Medicina_ of Aulus Cornelius -Celsus. This classic, which had been lost for many centuries, was one of -the first medical books to pass through the press. It gave physicians an -insight into Hippocratic medicine without the disadvantage of an -imperfect translation. Physicians took an active part in the -Renaissance. Thus Nicholas Leonicenus, of Ferrara, translated the -_Aphorisms_ of Hippocrates and the _Natural History_ of Pliny; and -Winter of Andernach did similar labor for the writings of Galen, -Alexander, and Paulus Aegineta. Their efforts seem insignificant in -comparison with those of Anutius Foesius, a humble practitioner of Metz, -who spent forty years of his life in preparing a complete Greek edition -of the works of Hippocrates. The New Learning was brought to England by -two physicians, Thomas Linacre and John Kaye (Caius). - -Some of the Humanists were printers. The history of printing in Italy -naturally forms a part of the history of the Renaissance. In 1462, -Maintz was pillaged by Adolph of Nassau and its printers were scattered -over Europe. Two of them wandered into Italy, living in a village in the -Sabine mountains, where, in October, 1465, the first book was printed -from an Italian press. It was a Latin edition of Lactantius. Six years -later a press was established in Florence. In 1478, Mondino’s -_Anathomia_ was printed in Pavia. It has been estimated that before the -first year of the sixteenth century, five thousand books had been -printed in Italy. In those days the editions were small, 265 copies -being considered one edition. An immense amount of labor was required to -get out a new edition. First, the manuscripts of the ancient author had -to be collected, compared and corrected, this work being done by learned -men who resided in the home of the publisher. The corrections were made -without the aid of dictionaries, grammars, or book-helps of any kind. -The proof was read aloud to the assembled scholars and the final -corrections were added. In time, Venice came to be the most noted of the -Italian cities in the publishing business, owing chiefly to the family -of Aldo. This family of printers became famous for finely printed Greek -and Latin books, which are still called Aldine editions. Nine years -after the printing of the first book in Italy, the art was practiced in -England by Caxton. - -Humanism in Italy began to decline toward the close of the fifteenth -century. Long before this time it had degenerated into Paganism. The -scholars influenced all life, customs and thought. Although the nation -remained Catholic, it was such only in name. Everyone bowed before the -shrine of classical literature. Even in the christening of children the -Christian name was sacrificed to paganism. The saints were forgotten, -and the names most frequently chosen were those from heathen mythology. -The polite authors described scenes, events and actions in their -writings in terms which long since have been banished from good society. -A spade was called by its true name. Bembo, the secretary of Leo X., -could write a hymn to Saint Stephen or a monologue for Priapus with -equal ease and elegance. The amours of the high and the low were -flaunted in print. The nation degenerated into an intellectual and -sensual state which involved even the Popes. Scholars and rich men alike -vied with one another in returning to those pursuits, habits, and -methods of thought which had ruled ancient Rome in her most corrupt -days. - -Such a condition could not exist forever. The turning-point came in -1527, when Charles the Fifth, engaging in war with Pope Clement VII., -captured and sacked the city of Rome. After that event everything was -changed. Not only had the scholars lost their influence, but many of -them had lost their lives. Valeriano, who returned to Rome after the -siege, pathetically exclaims: “Good God! when first I began to enquire -for the philosophers, orators, poets and professors of Greek and Latin -literature, whose names were written on my tablets, how great, how -horrible a tragedy was offered to me! Of all those lettered men whom I -had hoped to see, how many had perished miserably, carried off by the -most cruel of all fates, overwhelmed by undeserved calamities; some dead -of plague, some brought to a slow end by penury in exile, others -slaughtered by a foeman’s sword, others worn out by daily tortures; -some, again, and these of all the most unhappy, driven by anguish to -self-murder”. Such was the end of the men who made the Italian -Renaissance. The Spaniards, the Inquisition, and the changed policy of -the Church prevented a second revival of Humanism. - -While the sack of Rome marks the end of the Humanists, the Revival in -Medicine continued to grow in vigor and extent. Many of the greatest -discoveries in anatomy were made, and most of the important books on -this subject were written, in the middle and latter part of the -sixteenth century. Italian history is rich in contradictions. While -peace, ease and comfort are generally considered to be necessary to the -development of science and culture, Italy offers the strange spectacle -of the steady increase in medical knowledge in spite of wars and alarms. -The Inquisition, which had been introduced from Spain in 1224, was given -a new and horrible impetus when, in 1540, Paul III. appointed six -cardinals to add to its tortures. One of them, Caraffa, became Pope Paul -IV. in 1555, and four years later originated the _Index Expurgatorius_. -Torn by civil and foreign wars, and terrorized by the Inquisition, which -was not abolished until late in the eighteenth century, Italy gradually -lost her commercial and intellectual supremacy. That she should have -accomplished so much under such unfavorable circumstances, is now a -matter of wonderment. - -The origin of the Renaissance in Italy was due to many causes. The early -Roman civilization was not entirely blotted out by the invasion of the -barbarians of the North. And in the matter of language the Italians -possessed an advantage, since the transition from Latin to Italian was -easier than from Latin to Spanish, French, English or German. The -fertility of the country; the mildness of the climate; the division into -semi-independent states; the infusion of new northern blood into the -veins of the Italians; the removal of the papal court to Avignon in -1309; and the gradual rise of a powerful middle class, whose members -included the devotees of the professions of law and medicine, were -factors which determined that Italy, rather than France or Spain, should -be the field for the Revival of Letters. - -To Italy, then, belongs the glory of having been the first to free -herself from the trammels of ancient scholasticism and the fetters of -mediaeval theology. She abandoned the wordy dialectics and metaphysical -gymnastics of the philosophers of old. In place of mortification, -penance and solitary confinement in cloistered monasteries and convents, -she began to have a proper conception of the dignity of man and his -relation to nature. - -Italy, in the time of her freedom, received the torch of learning from -Greece; Italy revived its brilliancy, and, when her time of adversity -and ruin arrived, she passed it on to the nations of Northern Europe. -They in turn have transferred it to America, to Australia, to India, and -to the uttermost parts of the earth. - - -The Anatomical Renaissance - -Italy in the sixteenth century was the fount from which issued a -ceaseless stream of anatomical discoveries. The ancient and illustrious -Universities of Bologna, Pavia, Padua, Pisa and Rome, eclipsed the -schools of Paris and Montpellier, of Toulouse and Salamanca; and the -Italian peninsula, which, in early mediaeval times, had gloried in the -skill of the physicians of Salernum, a second time became the medical -centre of Europe. Vesalius and his pupil, Fallopius, taught at Padua; -the ancient fame of Bologna was supported by Arantius and Varolius; -Vidius, returned from establishing the anatomical school at Paris, -taught at Pisa; Eustachius was at Rome, Ingrassias lectured at Naples, -and the fame of the New Anatomy spread throughout the world. The Italian -cities were filled with students from foreign lands. Padua had more than -one thousand new students every year, salaries were paid to her one -hundred professors, and medicine was looked upon as a noble profession. - -While the Italians were the leaders in progress, the Germans were still -lecturing on Galen and Avicenna, the English had done almost nothing, -and the Collége de France was not established until 1530. - -Legalized by imperial authority and sanctioned by the Church, dissection -was no longer regarded as a crime. A bull by Pope Boniface VIII., issued -in the year 1300, forbidding the evisceration of the dead and the -boiling of their bodies to secure the bones for consecrated ground, as -was done by the Crusaders, was wrongly interpreted as forbidding -anatomical dissection. Two centuries later the Popes, standing in the -vanguard of science, permitted dissections to be made in all the Italian -medical schools, and paved the way for the Anatomical Renaissance. - -Great things were done in the sixteenth century. Under the scalpel and -pen of Vesalius, anatomy was revolutionized. Surgery was guided into new -paths by Ambroise Paré; and obstetrics, thanks to the labors of -Eucharius Rhodion and Jacques Guillemeau, began to assume its legitimate -place among the medical sciences. Servetus, visionary and argumentative, -correctly described the pulmonary circulation in a theological work -which was burned with its author. Eustachius, Columbus and Fallopius -widened the path which had been blazed by Vesalius. Arantius, -Caesalpinus and Fabricius added materially to anatomical science. The -labors of all these great masters prepared the way for the greatest -event occurring in the seventeenth century, namely, William Harvey’s -discovery of the circulatory movement of the blood. - - [Illustration: INITIAL LETTER BY VESALIUS - (From the “Fabrica”, 1543)] - - - - - CHAPTER FIRST - Anatomy in Ancient Times - - - [Illustration: Illuminated capital] - -Egypt and Greece were the sources of the medical learning of the ancient -world. Although the Egyptians and early Greeks possessed a certain -amount of anatomical knowledge, which was gained in the one instance by -the practice of embalming and in the other by an examination of the -bones, no real progress could be made because of the laws, customs and -prejudices of those ancient peoples. Thus we find the Egyptians stoning -the operator who opened the abdomen in order that the body might be -embalmed; and the Greeks inflicted the death penalty on those of their -generals who, after a battle, neglected to bury or burn the remains of -the slain. - - [Illustration: HIPPOCRATES] - -In the time of Hippocrates, whose life extended approximately over the -period between 460-377 B.C., Greek medicine emerged from the domination -of the Asclepiadae, or priests of Aesculapius, who had followed it as an -hereditary and secret art. Prior to this time in the numerous Asclepia, -or Temples of Aesculapius, votive offerings had been accepted, some of -which were of anatomical interest. Thus the Temple at Athens received a -silver heart and gold eyes. Pausanias states that Hippocrates gave to -the Temple of Apollo, at Delphos, a skeleton which was made of brass. -Possibly, as Moehsen[2] believes, this was a metallic figure -representing a man who was much emaciated by the ravages of disease. In -the Hippocratic writings, some of which are undoubtedly spurious, are -few references to the opening of a dead body; and these examinations -concern the investigation of the thorax and abdomen in order to -determine the cause of death. While the Greek physicians knew little of -the human muscles, of the nervous system and of the organs of sense, -they were well acquainted with the anatomy of the bones. Their -dissections were held upon the lower animals. - -It is impossible to determine whether or not the Greek physicians of the -Hippocratic period dissected the human body. “It has long been a matter -of debate”, says John Bell[3], “whether the ancients were, or were not, -acquainted with anatomy, and the subject, with its various bearings, has -been much and keenly agitated by the learned. If anatomy had been much -known to the ancients, their knowledge would not have remained a subject -of speculation. We should have had evidence of it in their works; but, -on the contrary, we find Hippocrates spending his time in idle -prognostics, and dissecting apes, to discover the seat of the bile.” - -Galen[4] states that the ancient physicians did not write works on -anatomy; that such treatises were at that time unnecessary, because the -Asclepiadae—to which family Hippocrates belonged—secretly instructed -their young men in this subject; and that opportunities were given for -such study in the temples of Aesculapius. - - [Illustration: ARISTOTLE] - -The first systematic dissections seem to have been made by the -Pythagorean philosopher Alcmaeon, who lived in the sixth century B. C., -but it is uncertain whether he dissected brutes or men. The cochlea of -the ear and the amnios of the foetus were named by Empedocles of -Agrigentum, in the fifth century B. C. The nerves were first -distinguished from the tendons by Aristotle, (384-322 B. C.), the most -celebrated zoötomist of antiquity, who has been called the Father of -Comparative Anatomy. For twenty centuries his views of natural phenomena -were held in high esteem. - -For a long period the early inhabitants of Rome were practically without -physicians. During severe epidemics they had recourse to oracles, to the -health deities of the Greeks, and to their native gods. As early as the -fifth century B. C., during a pestilence, a temple was erected to Apollo -as Healer. The worship of Aesculapius was introduced into Rome in the -year 291 B. C. Livy relates that the god of medicine in the guise of a -serpent was transported from Epidaurus, in Greece, to the Isle of the -Tiber where a temple was built in his honor. - -The Romans, like the Greeks, were accustomed to leave votive offerings, -or donaria, in their temples. Such gifts included surgical instruments, -pharmaceutical appliances, painted tablets representing miraculous -cures, and great numbers of images of various parts of the human frame -shaped in metal, stone or terra-cotta. Among the remains of Roman -anatomical art is the marble figure which was unearthed in the villa of -Antonius Musa, the favorite physician of the Emperor Augustus. It is a -human torso; the front of the chest and abdomen has been removed so as -to expose the viscera. The heart is placed vertically in the middle of -the thorax, thus corresponding to the position of this organ as -described by Galen who made his dissections on apes. It is a human -thorax with simian contents. The figure is supposed to have been -constructed for the purposes of a teacher of anatomy. - - [Illustration: ALEXANDER THE GREAT] - -It was in the famous Alexandrian University that human anatomy was first -studied systematically and legally. - -Alexander the Great, after the fall of Tyre (332 B. C.) and the siege of -Gaza, ordered his fleet to sail up the Nile as far as Memphis while he -proceeded overland with the army. It was probably on this march, while -viewing the pyramids and other marvelous works of the ancient Egyptians, -that he conceived the grand idea of founding a city upon the banks of -the Nile, which should be a model of architectural beauty, a centre of -intellectual life and a lasting monument of his own greatness and -magnificence. The foundation of Alexandria was laid by the warrior whose -name it bears; but the credit of instituting the Library belongs to one -of his lieutenants, Ptolemy Soter. - - [Illustration: PTOLEMY SOTER] - -The new city which for centuries was the intellectual and commercial -storehouse of Europe, Africa and India, was of oblong form. Lake -Mareotis washed its walls on the south, while the Mediterranean bathed -its ramparts on the north. Provided with broad streets, it was adorned -with magnificent houses, temples and public buildings. At the centre of -the city was the Mausoleum in which was deposited the body of Alexander, -embalmed after the manner of the Egyptians. Alexandria was divided into -three parts: the _Regio Judaeorum_ or Jews’ quarter, in the northwest; -the _Rhacotis_, or Egyptian section, on the west, containing the -Serapeum with a large part of the Library; and on the north, the -_Bruchaeum_, or Greek portion, containing the greater part of the -Library, the Museum, the Temple of the Caesars and the Court of Justice. -The population was cosmopolitan in character; the statues of the Greek -gods stood by the side of those of Osiris and of Isis; the Jews forgot -their language and spoke Greek; and under the Ptolemies, who were of -Greek descent, Alexandria became a centre of intellectual life and -culture. - -To the medical historian the most interesting feature of Alexandria was -the Museum or University. Here were assembled the intellectual giants of -the earth: Archimedes and Hero, the philosophers; Apelles, the painter; -Hipparchus and Ptolemy, the astronomers; Euclid, the geometer; -Eratosthenes and Strabo, the geographers; Manetho, the historian; -Aristophanes, the rhetorician; Theocritus and Callimichus, the poets; -and Erasistratus and Herophilus, the anatomists, all of whom labored in -quiet upon the peaceful banks of the Nile. The early Christian church -drew from “the divine school at Alexandria” such eminent teachers as -Origen and Athanasius. Here were a chemical laboratory, a botanical and -zoölogical garden, an astronomical observatory, a great library, and a -room for the dissection of the dead. - -In the Alexandrian school of medicine Erasistratus and Herophilus taught -the science of organization from actual dissections. The generosity of -the Ptolemies not only furnished them with an abundance of dead -material, but condemned malefactors were used for human vivisection. -Celsus[5] states that the Alexandrian anatomists obtained criminals, -“for dissection alive, and contemplated, even while they breathed, those -parts which nature had before concealed.” - -Herophilus made many anatomical discoveries. He traced the delicate -arachnoid membrane into the ventricles of the brain, which he held to be -the seat of the soul; and first described that junction of the six -cerebral sinuses opposite the occipital protuberance, which to this day -is called the _torcular Herophili_. He saw the lacteals, but knew not -their use, and regarded the nerves as organs of sensation arising from -the brain; he described the different tunics of the eye, giving them -names which are still retained; and first named the duodenum and -discovered the epididymis. He attributed the pulsation of arteries to -the action of the heart; the paralysis of muscles to an affection of the -nerves; and first named the furrow in the fourth cerebral ventricle, -calling it _calamus scriptorius_. - -Erasistratus gave names to the auricles of the heart; declared that the -veins were blood-vessels; and the arteries, from being found empty after -death, were air-vessels. He believed that the purpose of respiration was -to fill the arteries with air; the air distended the arteries, made them -beat, and in this manner the pulse was produced. When once the air -gained entrance to the left ventricle, it became the vital spirits. The -function of the veins was to carry blood to the extremities. He is said -to have had a vague idea of the division of nerves into nerves of -sensation and of motion; to the former he assigned an origin in the -membranes of the brain, while the latter proceeded from the cerebral -substance itself. He recognized the use of the trachea as the tube which -conveys air to the lungs. A catheter, the first invented, which was -figured in ancient surgical works, bore the name of the catheter of -Erasistratus. He gravely tells us, as the result of his anatomical -studies, that the soul is located in the membranes of the brain. - -The practice of human dissection did not long exist in the city of its -origin, and after the second century was unknown. Then science underwent -a retrogression; observations and experiments were replaced by useless -discussions and subtle theories. The decline of the Alexandrian -University was due to a series of disasters which began with the Roman -domination and reached their climax with the capture of the city by the -Arabs. - - [Illustration: GALEN] - -Claudius Galenus, the celebrated Roman physician whose writings were for -centuries accepted as authority and whose reputation was second only to -that of Hippocrates, was obliged to base his anatomical treatises -largely upon the dissection of the lower animals. He advised his pupils -to visit Alexandria, where he had studied, in order that they might -examine the human skeleton. He complained that the physicians of his -time—in the reign of Marcus Aurelius—had entirely neglected anatomical -knowledge and had degenerated into mere sophists. He appreciated the -importance of anatomy, particularly to a surgeon who is called upon to -treat wounds and injuries. Hence he has endeavored in the four books, -_De Anatomicis Administrationibus_, to cover this part of anatomy as -exhaustively as possible. - -Galen’s voluminous writings form a precious monument of ancient -medicine. The works of the Alexandrian anatomists having been destroyed, -we know of their labors chiefly from what Galen has said of them. His -treatises show a remarkable familiarity with practical anatomy, although -his dissections were made upon the lower animals. Galen’s knowledge of -osteology was extensive. He described the bones of the skull, the -cranial sutures, and the essential features of the malar, maxillary, -ethmoid and sphenoid bones. He divided the vertebrae into cervical, -dorsal and lumbar classes. He knew that both arteries and veins were -blood-carrying vessels; he described the valves of the heart, and -recognized this organ as the source of pulsation. He erroneously taught -that the interventricular septum presents foramina through which the two -kinds of blood become mixed. - -In myology Galen made numerous advances. “Previous to his -investigations”, says Fisher[6] “much confusion existed as to what -constituted a single muscle; he adopted the general rule of considering -each bundle of fibers that terminates in an independent tendon to be one -muscle. He was the first to describe and give names to the platysma -myoides, the sterno- and thyro-hyoides, and the popliteal. He described -the six muscles of the eye, two muscles of the eyelids, and four pairs -of muscles of the lower jaw—the temporal to raise, the masseter to draw -to one side, and two depressors, corresponding to the digastric and -internal pterygoid muscles. He described also the brachialis anticus, -the biceps flexor cubiti, the sphincter and levator ani, and the -straight and oblique muscles of the abdomen. In short, he described the -greater portion of the muscles of the body, his treatise differing -chiefly from a modern one in the minute account of these organs and in -the omission of some of the smaller muscles.” Galen studied the brain -and named the corpus callosum, the septum lucidum, the corpora -quadrigemina and the fornix; but erroneously stated that the nerves of -sensation arise from the brain, and those of motion from the spinal -cord. He denied the decussation of the optic nerves. He described the -pneumogastric and sympathetic nerves; seven pairs of cerebral and thirty -pairs of spinal nerves; and claimed the discovery of the ganglia of the -nervous system. He located the seat of the soul in the brain, which also -is the source of the rational mind; the heart to him was the source of -courage and of anger, and the liver was the seat of desire. Many of -Galen’s anatomical statements show that he derived his knowledge from -comparative dissections. - -The Galenic era was followed by that long period of ignorance, of -slumber and of inaction which is justly known as the Dark Ages. While a -few Greek and Arab writers, who came after Galen, contributed to the -literature of medicine and surgery, they did nothing for anatomy. After -the end of the fifth century even the works of Galen were forgotten. At -this period, when medicine was chiefly in the hands of the Jews, the -Arabs and the bigoted clergy, nothing was done for science or for art. -The whole influence of Christianity was exerted against the schools of -philosophy. Illustrious apostles of the Church pronounced anathemas -against the reading of the ancient classics;[7] and eminent -ecclesiastics regarded disease as a divine penalty or as an invaluable -aid to saintly advancement. Art and anatomy were practically forgotten. -Their Renaissance occurred almost simultaneously. - -During the period from the seventh to the fourteenth centuries the -school of Salernum was for medicine what Bologna became for law and -Paris for philosophy. Here, for eight hundred years, medicine was taught -to thousands of students and the impress of the profession was so potent -that the city called itself _Civitas Hippocratica_, and thus its seals -were stamped. Here medical diplomas were first issued to waiting -students who took a sacred oath to serve the poor without pay. Here with -a book in his hand, a ring on his finger and a laurel wreath on his -head, the candidate was kissed by each professor and was told to start -upon his way. Here women were professors and vied with men in spreading -the doctrines of our art. - -For a period of several hundred years anatomy was taught at Salernum -from dissections made upon pigs. Copho, one of the Salernian professors -of the early part of the twelfth century, wrote a treatise, _Anatomia -Porci_, which gives minute directions regarding the manner in which the -animal is to be dissected. Another anatomical work of later date, -written by a member of the Salernian faculty, is entitled _Demonstratio -Anatomica_; it also deals only with comparative anatomy. In the -thirteenth century (A. D. 1231) Frederick II., Emperor of Germany and -King of the Two Sicilies, and the author of a treatise which contained a -complete anatomy of the falcon, decreed that a human body should be -anatomized at Salernum at least once in five years. Physicians and -surgeons of the kingdom were required to be present at the dissection. -So far as is known, no record has been kept of these demonstrations. -Creditable as was this anatomic decree, the great Hohenstaufen in other -respects was not free from the errors of his age. A firm believer in -_Medicina Astrologica_, he did not decide upon any undertaking until the -stars had been consulted. - -It was not alone at Salernum that dissection was legalized in the -thirteenth century. A document of the year 1308, of the Maggiore -Consiglio of Venice, shows that a medical college located in that city -was authorized to dissect a body once a year. This, and other isolated -examples, indicate that the time was approaching when anatomy should be -taught from human dissections. The credit of reinaugurating the teaching -of this useful department of science belongs to Mondino dei Luzzi of -Bologna. - - [Illustration: Ornamental block] - - - - - CHAPTER SECOND - Mondino, the Restorer of Anatomy - - - [Illustration: Illuminated capital] - -In the year 1315, in the old Italian city of Bologna, an event occurred -which marks an important epoch in the history of medicine. A wondering -crowd of medical students witnessed the dissection of a human -cadaver—one of the few procedures of the kind that had occurred since -the fall of the Alexandrian University. Acting under royal authority -Mondino, a man far in advance of the age, placed the body of a female -upon a table where for many centuries before only the cadavera of apes, -of swine and of dogs had been studied. - -Mondino, known also as Mundinus, Mundini, Raimondino, or Mondino dei -Luzzi, was descended from a prominent Italian family. Little is known of -his life. The year of his birth is disputed; probably 1276 was near the -time. He was graduated in medicine in 1290 and in 1306 he became a -professor in the University of Bologna, holding his chair with credit -until his death in 1326. Like that of the illustrious Homer, Mondino’s -nativity has been claimed by several rival cities. Guy de Chauliac, -writing in 1363, states that Mondino was a Bolognese: _Mundinus -Bononiensis_ is Chauliac’s expression. - -Mondino’s method of teaching anatomy is known from Chauliac’s -testimony:—“Mundinus of Bologna, wrote on anatomy, and my master, -Bertruccius, demonstrated it many times in this manner:—The body having -been placed on a table, he would make from it four readings; in the -first the digestive organs were treated, because more prone to rapid -decomposition; in the second, the organs of respiration; in the third, -the organs of circulation; in the fourth the extremities were treated.” -The innovation so auspiciously begun was not continued, and after the -death of Mondino human dissections were made only at long intervals. The -few instances in which, in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, the -ecclesiastical and civil authorities granted the right to make -dissections only prove the contention, that the practical study of human -anatomy did not gain recognition until the sixteenth century. - -When Mondino began his dissections the epoch of Saracen learning had -ended, but the influence of Arab medicine exerted by the writings of -Albucasis, Avicenna and Rhazes had not declined. The Arabian physicians -had accomplished little for anatomy. In this line the influence of Galen -was still potent, and was rarely questioned until the publication of the -_Fabrica_ of Vesalius in 1543. During a long period the little treatise -of Mondino held full sway in the mediaeval schools. Medicine was taught -in the University of Bologna, which as early as the twelfth century was -celebrated for its departments of literature and of law. These studies -were free of the difficulties which beset medicine. The prejudice -against dissection was so great that for nearly a century after his -death few men dared to repeat the acts of Mondino. - -In 1316 Mondino issued his book which remained in manuscript form for -more than one hundred and fifty years, the first printed edition bearing -the date 1478. Small and imperfect as it was, it marks an era in the -history of science. By command of the authorities this book was read in -all the Italian Universities. The work of Mondino contained no new -facts; it was compiled largely from the writings of Galen and of -Avicenna. The descriptions, to use the words of Turner, “are corrupted -by the barbarous leaven of the Arabian schools, and his Latin is defaced -by the exotic nomenclature of Ibn-Sina and Al-Rasi”. Mondino divided the -body into three cavities, of which the upper contains the animal -members, the lower the natural members, and the middle the spiritual -members. Many of his names are borrowed from the Arab writers. Thus, he -calls the peritoneum _siphac_, the omentum _zyrbi_, and the mesentery -_eucharus_. His description of the heart is much nearer accuracy than -would be expected. He resorted to vivisection, and tells us that when -the recurrent nerves of the larynx are cut the animal’s voice is lost. -In his book we find the rudiments of phrenology. He states that the -brain is divided into compartments, each of which holds one of the -faculties of the intellect. - - [Illustration: MONDINO’S DIAGRAM OF THE HEART, 1513] - -Mondino did not himself make the dissections which are credited to him. -According to an ancient custom which lasted until the time of Vesalius, -the actual cutting was done by a barber who wielded a knife as large as -a cleaver. The professor of anatomy sat upon an elevated seat and -discoursed concerning the parts, while a demonstrator, who also did not -soil his fingers, pointed to the different structures with a staff. -Originally Mondino’s book contained no figures; when the art of wood -engraving was introduced in the latter part of the fifteenth century, a -few rude woodcuts appeared which represent Mondino and his method of -teaching. In the _Fasciculus Medicinae_ of Joannes de Ketham, published -at Venice in 1493, Mondino’s book is printed with an illustration -showing a demonstration in anatomy. - -According to Mondino the heart is placed in the centre of the body. The -valves he considers “wonderful works of nature”. He describes a right, -left and middle ventricle. The right ventricle has thinner walls than -the left, because it contains blood; the left one contains the vital -spirit, which passes through the arteries to the body; and the middle -ventricle consists of many small cavities “broader on the right side -than on the left, to the end that the blood, which comes to the left -ventricle from the right, be refined, because its refinement is the -preparation for the generation of vital spirit, which should be -continually formed”. Mondino describes five bones of the head, separated -by three sutures—coronal, sagittal and occipital. The brain has two -membranes: dura and pia. There are three cerebral ventricles—anterior, -posterior and middle—and in these he locates the various intellectual -qualities. He describes the cerebral nerves: olfactory, optic, motor -oculi, facial, vagus, trigeminal, auditory and hypoglossal. He calls the -innominate bone _os femoris_: the femur, _canna coxae_; the humerus, _os -adjutori_; while the bones of both leg and forearm are named _focilia_ -major and minus. - - [Illustration: ANATOMICAL DEMONSTRATION IN 1493 - (Joannes de Ketham)] - - [Illustration: TITLE-PAGE OF MONDINO’S ANATOMY BY MELERSTAT - (Printed before 1500)] - -Like many anatomists who succeeded him, Mondino mingled surgical ideas -with his anatomical statements. A break in the _siphac_ causes hernia -and a swelling in the _mirach_. He treated ascites by puncture and -evacuation, making a valve-like opening. Wounds of the large intestines -must be sutured; if the wound be in the small intestines he advises that -“you should have large ants, and, making them bite the conjoined lips of -the wound, decapitate them instantly, and continue until the lips remain -in apposition and then reduce the gut as before”. He gives an -explanation of the length and convolution of the intestines; “for if it -were not convoluted the animals would have to be continuously ingesting -food and continuously defecating, which would impede engagement in the -higher occupations”. Digestion is aided by black bile from the spleen -and by red bile from the liver. The kidneys he regards as glands in -which urine is extracted from the blood. The renal veins expand and form -a fine membrane like a sieve through which the urine is filtered but -blood cannot pass. He mentions renal calculi: if small they pass through -the ureter; if large they are incurable except by incision, and this is -to be avoided. The uterus and breasts are connected by veins, hence the -sympathy between these organs. Inguinal hernia is to be operated upon; -the spermatic cord and testicle may or may not be dissected out, or the -hernia may be treated by the application of a caustic. An incision in -the neck of the bladder will heal, because this part is muscular; but a -cut in the body of the organ will not heal. He describes the operation -for stone:—The patient being in proper position, the stone is conducted -to the neck of the bladder by the finger in the rectum; an incision is -made and the stone is pulled out with an instrument called -_trajectorium_. - -Mondino’s book passed through not less than twenty-three editions -between the years 1478-1580. The only manuscript extant is in the -National Library at Paris. - -The first printed edition of the _Anathomia Mundini_, Pavia, 1478, is a -folio of twenty-two leaves. The Strassburg edition, 1513, is a small -octavo volume of forty leaves. It contains a diagram of the heart and an -astrological figure, a cadaver with the thorax and abdomen opened, -surrounded by the signs of the zodiac. Such was the volume which for -more than two hundred years was supposed to contain all that was to be -said of human anatomy! - - [Illustration: COLOPHON OF THE ANATOMY OF MONDINO, 1513] - -So numerous are the abbreviations in Mondino’s book, so barbarous is his -style, that the making of a translation is a difficult task. His reasons -for writing are these:—“A work upon any science or art—as saith Galen—is -issued for three reasons; _First_, that one may help his friends. -_Second_, that he may exercise his best mental powers. _Third_, that he -may be saved from the oblivion incident to old age”. - - - - - CHAPTER THIRD - Mondino’s Successors - - - [Illustration: Illuminated capital] - -For two hundred years anatomists used Mondino’s book as a text for their -lectures and for the same period anatomical writers did little more than -comment upon this treatise. The new art of wood engraving was turned to -anatomical use and crude illustrations of the various parts of the body -were put into circulation. Some of these pictures were in the form of -_Fliegende Blätter_, or flying leaves. A set of anatomical plates of -this type was issued by a certain Ricardus Hela, a physician of Paris, -as early as the year 1493. They were printed at Nuremberg. Their -character may be judged by the accompanying illustration of the osseous -system. - - -Gabriel de Zerbi - -One of Mondino’s commentators was Gabriel de Zerbi (1468-1505), of -Verona, who taught medicine, logic and philosophy in the Universities of -Padua, Bologna and Rome. His book, _Anatomia Corporis Humani_, appeared -at Venice in 1502. Zerbi imitated Mondino in style, abbreviations and -language. The work, however, contains some original observations -regarding the Fallopian tubes, the puncta lachrymalia and the lachrymal -gland. From the fact that Zerbi describes two lachrymal glands in each -orbit, it is known that many of his dissections were made upon brutes. - - [Illustration: ANATOMICAL PLATE BY RICARDUS HELA, 1493] - -Zerbi’s reputation, which extended to all parts of Europe, was the cause -of his death. The Venetians received from Constantinople the request for -a skillful physician who should treat one of the principal Seigniors of -Turkey. The Republic turned its eyes to Zerbi who went to -Constantinople, apparently cured the Seignior, and, loaded with -presents, started on the return voyage for Venice, Unfortunately the -patient suddenly died after a debauch. The infuriated Turks overtook the -ship on which Zerbi and his son were passengers and carried them back to -Constantinople, where both the anatomist and his son were quartered -alive. - - [Illustration: PEYLIGK’S DIAGRAM OF THE HEART, 1499] - - -John Peyligk - -Among the German anatomists of this period was John Peyligk, a Leipsic -jurist, whose _Philosophiae Naturalis Compendium_, printed at Leipsic in -1499, contains crude anatomical illustrations. - - -Magnus Hundt - -Far more important was the _Antropologium_ of Magnus Hundt (1449-1519), -of Magdeburg, which appeared at Leipsic in 1501. It contains four large -and several small woodcuts which are among the earliest of anatomical -illustrations. One of these shows the trachea on the right side of the -neck, passing downward to the lungs; on the left side the oesophagus is -represented. In the thorax are seen the lungs and the heart, the latter -resembling the figure of this organ as presented on old playing cards. -The pericardium has been opened, and the stomach and intestines are -crudely figured. The diaphragm is absent. - - [Illustration: ANATOMICAL FIGURE FROM MAGNUS HUNDT, 1501] - - -Laurentius Phryesen - -Early in the sixteenth century a Holland physician, Laurentius Phryesen -(_Phries_, _Friesen_), residing in the German city of Colmar and later -at Metz, wrote a popular book on medicine, _Spiegel der Artzny_, which -was published at Strassburg in 1518. It contains two anatomical -illustrations cut in wood, dated 1517, and supposedly made after the -drawings of Waechtlin, a pupil of the Elder Holbein. These pictures tell -their own story; they show a marked improvement over the figures which -Hundt published in 1501. The other anatomical plate in Phryesen’s book -is devoted to the skeleton. - - [Illustration: ANATOMICAL FIGURE FROM LAURENTIUS PHRYESEN, 1518] - - -Alexander Achillinus - -The Italian physician Alexander Achillinus (1463-1525), professor of -philosophy and medicine in Bologna, is deserving of mention for his -anatomical knowledge. Zealously devoted to the Arab medical authors, -Achillinus made numerous discoveries which are set forth in his general -anatomy, _De Humani Corporis Anatomica_, Venice, 1516; and in a -commentary upon Mondino’s book, _In Mundini Anatomiam Annotationes_, -Venice, 1522. He discovered the duct of the sublingual gland, usually -credited to Wharton; two of the auditory ossicles, the malleus and -incus; the labyrinth; the vermiform appendix; the caecum and ileo-caecal -valve; and the patheticus nerve. Portal credits him with a better -knowledge of the bones and of the brain than was possessed by his -predecessors. - - [Illustration: ALEXANDER ACHILLINUS] - - -Berengario da Carpi - - [Illustration: DISSECTION BY BERENGARIO, 1535] - -Giacomo Berengario, Jacobus Berengarius Carpensis, also known as Carpus, -was born in the small town of Carpi, in the Duchy of Modena, in the year -1470. His father, who was a surgeon, directed his studies, and for a -time he was placed under the instruction of the learned Aldus Manutius. -Graduating in medicine from the University of Bologna, Berengario became -noted for his skill in surgery and anatomy. He taught these branches in -Pavia, and was a member of the Bologna faculty from 1502 to 1527. Then -he practiced for a time in Rome, where he amassed a fortune by the -treatment of the victims of syphilis. The last twenty years of his life -were spent in Ferrara, where he died in 1550. Berengario was one of the -restorers of anatomy. His first dissection is said to have been made in -the house of Albert Pion, Seigneur de Carpi. This demonstration was -given publicly upon the body of a pig. Soon the anatomist turned his -attention to human subjects, of which it is said that more than a -hundred passed beneath his scalpel. - -Berengario’s later years are said by Brambilla to have been made -miserable by the machinations of the agents of the Inquisition, who -objected to some of his opinions regarding the organs of generation. He -was unjustly accused of dissecting living men—an accusation which arose -from his statement that the surgeon should observe the anatomy of the -living body whenever it was opened by wounds or accidents. - - [Illustration: SKELETON BY BERENGARIO, 1523] - -Berengario determined to improve Mondino’s book by making corrections in -the text, and by adding suitable illustrations. No illustrations were to -be found in the early editions of Mondino, and those which were added by -later editors of the work were untrue to nature. To Berengario must be -given the credit of furnishing some of the first anatomical -illustrations that were published, and that were made from actual human -dissections. These appeared in his “Commentaries of Carpus upon the -Anatomy of Mundinus”, (_Carpi Commentaria super_ _Anatomia Mundini_), -which was published at Bologna in 1521. The volume contains twenty-one -plates which were cut in wood. They have been credited to the celebrated -artist, Hugo da Carpi. While the drawing is somewhat coarse, the -illustrations are true to nature and show a distinct advance over -preceding pictures of this class. Berengario states that his plates will -be of value not only to physicians and surgeons but also to artists (_et -istae figurae etiam juvant pictores in lineandis membris_). Some of his -figures are schematic; for example, those showing the abdominal muscles. -So much better are his illustrations than those of his predecessors that -it may fairly be claimed that Berengario was the first author to produce -an illustrated anatomy. - - [Illustration: MUSCLES BY BERENGARIO, 1521] - -Berengario also wrote a “Short Introduction to the Anatomy of the Human -Body”, _Isagogae Breves in Anatomiam Humani Corporis_; and a work on -Fracture of the Skull. - -He was the first anatomist who described the basilar part of the -occipital bone, the sphenoidal sinus and the tympanic membrane. -Meryon[8] credits him with the “first correct description of the great -omentum (gastrocolic) and transverse mesocolon; of the caecal appendix -vermiformis, of the valvulae conniventes of the intestines; of the -relative proportions of the thorax and pelvis in man and woman; of the -flexor-brevis-pollicis; of the vesiculae seminales; of the separate -cartilages of the larynx; of the membranous pellicle in front of the -retina (attributed to Albinus); of the tricuspid valve, between the -right auricle and ventricle of the heart; of the semilunar valves at the -commencement of the pulmonary artery; of the inosculation between the -epigastric and mammary arteries, and an imperfect account of the cochlea -of the ear”. He was the first of the mediaeval anatomists to deviate -from the Galenic teaching in regard to the structure of the heart. He -diplomatically states that in the human subject the foramina in the -cardiac septum are seen only with great difficulty (_sed in homine cum -maxima difficultate videnter_). - - [Illustration: MUSCLES BY BERENGARIO, 1521] - - -John Dryander - -John Dryander, a German physician, whose true name was Eichmann, called -himself Dryander in accordance with the custom of adopting names derived -from the Latin or Greek languages. He was born about the year 1500 in -the Wetterau in Hesse. After obtaining proficiency in mathematics and -astronomy, he went to Paris where he studied medicine for several years. -Returning to Germany, he engaged in the study of practical anatomy and -became a professor in Marburg, in which city he died in the year 1560. -He is said to have conducted the first dissections that were made in -Marburg, where he taught anatomy for twenty-four years, or from 1536 to -1560. - - [Illustration: DRYANDER] - -Dryander, although he was a partisan of Mondino and da Carpi, and was a -fierce and sometimes an unfair opponent of Vesalius, deserves to be -regarded as one of the restorers of anatomy. He made several -observations upon the distinction between the cortical and the medullary -portions of the brain; and was one of the earliest practical anatomists -of the sixteenth century to furnish anatomical illustrations. He made -important astronomical observations and was the inventor of several -useful instruments. He was the author of three medical works of which -two were upon anatomy. His _Anatomia Mundini_, which was published at -Marburg in 1541, contains forty-six plates, many of which have been -copied from Berengario’s work. - - [Illustration: ANATOMICAL FIGURE BY ESTIENNE, 1545] - - -Charles Estienne - - [Illustration: SKELETON BY ESTIENNE, 1545 - (Reduced one-half)] - -Charles Estienne, better known by the name of _Carolus Stephanus_, was a -French anatomist whose work is worthy of remembrance. Born in the early -part of the sixteenth century, he was given an excellent education. He -belonged to a noted Huguenot family of scholars and printers who have -made the Estienne name famous. Robert Estienne, the brother of Charles, -became the victim of religious persecution; he was obliged to flee to -save his life, and for a time the publishing business was conducted by -Charles Estienne. The latter also suffered for his faith; he was thrown -into a dungeon, where he died in the year 1564. Charles Estienne wrote -numerous books on literature, history, forestry and botany. His -anatomical treatise, _De Dissectione Partium Corporis Humani_, appeared -at Paris in 1545 with sixty-two full page plates which combine -anatomical clearness, beauty of form, and artistic representation. A -French translation of Estienne’s Anatomy was published in 1546. This -work was printed as far as the middle of the third book as early as the -year 1539: some of the plates are dated as early as 1530. The -illustrations have been excellently cut in wood; many of them show the -entire body, with much ornamentation, so that the proper anatomical part -seems small and irrelevant. Some of the plates show the subject in -picturesque and even loathsome attitudes. The text of this work is -especially valuable for the history of anatomical discovery. Although he -was an ardent Galenist, Estienne made numerous original observations in -anatomy. He described the synovial glands, a discovery which has been -credited to Clopton Havers. Estienne was the first anatomist to discover -the canal in the spinal cord; he described the capsule of the liver, a -tissue which bears Glisson’s name; and differentiated the eight pair -from the sympathetic nerves. He was the first anatomist to see and -describe the valves in the veins, which he called _apophyses venarum_— -discovery which has been claimed for Jacobus Sylvius, Cannanus, Amatus -and Fabricius. - -The question of priority in the discovery of the valves of the veins -gave rise to much controversy. It is reasonable to assume that these -structures were noticed independently by all of the anatomists whose -names are mentioned above. - - [Illustration: SKULL BY DRYANDER, 1541] - - - - - CHAPTER FOURTH - Vesalius’s Early Life - - - [Illustration: Illuminated capital] - -Andreas Vesalius, or Wesalius as the family name was inscribed prior to -the year 1537, was born in Brussels on the last day of the year 1514. -From astrological observations made by Jerome Cardan we learn that this -event occurred about six o’clock in the morning, and under favorable -stellar auspices. The placenta and caul, to which popular belief -ascribed remarkable powers, were carefully preserved by the mother. - -The Vesalius family originally was named Witing, (_Witting_, _Wytinck_, -_Wytings_, according to various authorities) and adopted the name -Wesalius from the town of Wesel, (_Wesele_, _Vesel_), in the Duchy of -Cleves, which the family claimed as their native place. The three -weasels (_Flemish_—“Wesel”), found in the Vesalian coat of arms, testify -to this origin. - -It may be said with truth that medical learning ran in the blood of the -Vesalius family. Andreas’s great-great-grandfather, Peter Wesalius, -wrote a treatise on some of the works of Avicenna and at great cost -restored the manuscripts of several medical authors. Peter’s son, John -Wesalius, held the responsible position of physician to Mary of -Burgundy, the first wife of Maximilian the First; in his old age John -taught medicine in the University of Louvain. From that time the -Vesalius family was closely associated with the Austro-Burgundian -dynasty. Eberhard, son of John Wesalius, served as physician to Mary of -Burgundy; he died before attaining his thirty-sixth year, and was long -survived by his father. Eberhard, who was the grandfather of Andreas, -wrote commentaries upon the books of Rhazes and on the _Aphorisms_ of -Hippocrates. He was also noted as a mathematician. Eberhard’s son -Andreas, the father of the anatomist, was apothecary to Charles the -Fifth and to Margaret of Austria. He accompanied the great Emperor upon -his numerous journeys and military expeditions. In 1538 he presented -Andreas’s first anatomical plates to the Emperor, and thus opened the -way to the court to his son. The father remained in the imperial service -until the day of his death, which occurred in 1546. Andreas’s mother, -Isabella Crabbe, exercised a great influence upon the youth whom she -believed to be destined to accomplish great things. She it was who -preserved the manuscripts and books of the Vesalian ancestors. Isabella -happily lived long enough to see the _Fabrica_, to witness the -intellectual triumph of her son, and to know of his activity at the -Spanish court. - - [Illustration: THE OLD UNIVERSITY OF LOUVAIN - (Erected early in the Fourteenth Century. The New Building dates - from 1680)] - -Little is known of the youth of Vesalius. The traditions of his -ancestors, their accomplishments in the field of letters and in -medicine, and their loyalty to their sovereigns, were themes which his -mother must have recounted with pleasure. At an early age Andreas was -sent to the neighboring city of Louvain, whose University, founded in -the year 1424, in the early part of the sixteenth century eclipsed many -institutions of greater age, and in the number of its students ranked -second only to the University of Paris. The theologians of Louvain were -noted for their orthodox Catholicism; from the very first days of -religious controversy they had battled strongly against the rising tide -of the Reformation. Her professors of jurisprudence and of philosophy -were men of eminent talents. Within the University were four literary -schools which were named _Paedagogium Castri_, _Porci_, _Lilii_, and -_Falconis_, from their insignia:—a fort, a pig, a lily, and a falcon. -Here also was the _Collegium trilingue Buslidianum_, which was founded -by Hieronymus Busleiden (+1517) for teaching the Greek, Hebrew and Latin -languages. Vesalius selected the _Paedagogium Castri_ which he fondly -mentions in laudatory terms in his _Fabrica_. Here, and in the -Busleidinian College, he obtained that thorough knowledge of ancient -languages which, in later years, astonished his hearers and served him -well in numerous literary controversies. The names of Vesalius’s -teachers are unknown, although Adam[9] states that John Winter of -Andernach was his professor of Greek. Vesalius speaks scornfully of one -of his teachers, a theologian, who, in trying to explain Aristotle’s _De -Anima_, used a picture of the _Margarita Philosophica_ to show the -structure of the brain. Among Vesalius’s school companions were -Gisbertus Carbo, to whom the anatomist presented the first skeleton -which he articulated (_Fabrica_, 1543, page 162); and the younger -Granvella, who later was Chancellor to Charles the Fifth. - -At an early age Vesalius possessed a desire to study the structure of -the human body. His powers of observation were precociously developed. -When a boy, learning to swim by the aid of bladders filled with air, he -noted the elasticity of these organs, and he referred to the incident in -his _Fabrica_ (1543, page 518). When little more than a child, he tired -of dialectics and tried to learn anatomy from the scholastic writings of -Albertus Magnus and of Michael Scotus. He soon discovered that the true -road to anatomical science led, not through books but through the actual -handling of the dead tissues. He began the practical study of anatomy by -dissecting the bodies of mice, moles, rats, dogs and cats.[10] - - - - - CHAPTER FIFTH - Sojourn in Paris - - - [Illustration: Illuminated capital] - -One thought was uppermost in the mind of Vesalius, and that was to -follow the profession of his ancestors, just as in ancient Greece the -sons of the Asclepiadae naturally adopted the vocation of their fathers. -Andreas possessed an excellent preliminary education and was especially -proficient in the Greek and Latin languages; he also knew something of -Hebrew and much of Arabic. It was in the year 1533 that the young -Belgian travelled to Paris for the purpose of obtaining a medical -education. At that time the French capital was the Mecca of the medical -world—Paris, that city where classical medicine first secured support -(_ubi primum medicinam prospere renasci vidimus_)[11]. In Paris, under -the leadership of Budaeus, Humanism had enjoyed a rapid growth; and here -Petrus Brissotus, after gaining the doctor’s cap in the year 1514, -produced a revolution by delivering his lectures from the books of Galen -in place of the treatises of Averröes and of Avicenna. At his own -expense Brissotus published Leonicenus’s translation of Galen’s _Ars -Curativa_, in order that his pupils might not be misled by the incorrect -text of the Arab authors. It will be recalled that, long before this -time, classical Greek and Latin medical literature had passed through -the distorting crucible of Saracenic translations. At this period -medical science, purified from Arabic dross, was taught in a splendid -manner in Paris by such eminent professors as Jacobus Sylvius, Jean -Fernel, and Winter of Andernach. At their feet sat young men from the -remotest parts of Europe. - -The most popular of the Paris teachers was Jacobus Sylvius, or Jacques -Dubois, whose Latinized name is perpetuated in anatomical nomenclature. -He was born at Louville, near Amiens, in 1478. In his early years he was -noted for his scholarly attainments in the Greek, Latin and Hebrew -languages and was the author of a French grammar. His anatomical -knowledge was gained under Jean Tagault, a famous Parisian practitioner -and surgical author. - - [Illustration: SYLVIUS] - -Sylvius was noted for his industry, for his eloquence, and above all for -his avarice. It was the inordinate desire for money which led him to -abandon philology for medicine. While studying under Tagault he began a -course of medical lectures, explanatory of the works of Hippocrates and -Galen, with such success that the Faculty of the University of Paris -protested on the score that Sylvius was not a graduate. He then went to -Montpellier, whose medical professors had long held a high position, -where, according to Astruc, he received the doctor’s cap at the end of -November, 1529. He was then above fifty years of age. Armed with this -degree, he returned to Paris and immediately entered the lists as an -independent medical teacher, but was again halted by the Faculty who -ruled that he must first receive the Bachelor’s degree. This he gained -on June 28, 1531. Sylvius then resumed his lectures with such success -that his classes in the Collége de Tréguier numbered from four to five -hundred, while Fernel, who was a professor in the Collége de -Cornouailles, lectured to almost empty benches. In 1550, Henry the -Second named Sylvius Professor of Medicine, as the successor of Vidus -Vidius, in the recently established Collége de France. Sylvius died -January 13, 1555, and was interred in the paupers’ cemetery as he had -wished. - -Sylvius was not only an eloquent lecturer but he was also a -demonstrative teacher. He was the first professor in France who taught -anatomy from the human cadaver. In his lectures on botany he used a -collection of plants to elucidate the subject. His chief fault was a -blind reverence for ancient authors. He regarded Galen’s writings as -gospel; if the cadaver presented structures unlike Galen’s description, -the fault was not in the book but in the dead body, or, perchance, human -structure had changed since Galen’s time! In one of his early books[12], -Sylvius declared that Galen’s anatomy was infallible; that Galen’s -treatise, _De Usu Partium_, was divine; and that further progress was -impossible! - -The character of Sylvius was contemptible. He was a man of vast learning -and at the same time was rough, coarse and brutal. His avarice led him -to endure the cold winters of Paris without the benefit of a fire; in -severe weather he would play at football, or engage in other violent -exercise in his room, to save the cost of fuel. Once, and once only, did -his friends find him hilarious; they wondered and asked the cause. -Sylvius said he was happy because he had dismissed his “three beasts, -his mule, his cat and his maid”. He was notoriously rigid in exacting -his fees from students, and on one occasion he threatened to stop his -lectures until two delinquents should pay their dues. Although he was -supposed to have amassed great wealth, little of it was found after his -death, and these sums were secreted in secluded places. In 1616, when -his former residence in the _rue Saint-Jacques_ was demolished, numerous -gold pieces were found. His reputation for miserliness followed him -beyond the grave, as witness his epitaph: - - _Sylbius hic situs est, gratis qui nil dedit unquàm,_ - _Mortuus et gratis quod legis ista dolet._ - - “Sylvius lies here, who never gave anything for nothing: - Being dead, he even grieves that you read these lines for nothing.” - -In controversies he was violent and vindictive—a pastmaster in the use -of bitter language. Jealous of the fame of other anatomists, he was -particularly enraged when, in later years, he was opposed by Vesalius. -Sylvius spoke of him not as Vesalius, but as _Vesanus_, a madman, who -poisoned Europe by his impiety and clouded knowledge by his blunders. -Such was the man who, in the mid-part of the sixteenth century, filled -the position of highest honor in the Medical Faculty of the Collége de -France[13]. - -Sylvius rendered valuable service in naming the muscles which, prior to -his time, were designated by numbers. These, says Northcote[14] “were -differently applied by almost every author; so that it was the -description, and not the name, that must lead one to know what part was -meant by such authors; and this required a previous thorough knowledge -of anatomy”. He is the first writer who mentions colored injections and -is supposed to have discovered this useful adjunct of anatomical study. -He was the first anatomist who published satisfactory descriptions of -the pterygoid and clinoid processes of the sphenoid bone, and of the os -unguis. He gave a good account of the sphenoidal sinus in the adult but -denied its existence in the child, as had been affirmed by -Fallopius[15]. Sylvius also wrote intelligently concerning the vertebrae -but incorrectly described the sternum. His observation concerning the -valves in the veins gave rise to much discussion; the honor of priority -in the discovery, however, belongs to other anatomists—Estienne and -Cannanus. His discoveries in cerebral anatomy have caused his name to be -attached to the _aqueduct_, the _fissure_ and the _artery of Sylvius_. - -The manner in which Sylvius conducted his anatomical course is known to -us by his own writings, by the testimony of Moreau[16], and by that of -Vesalius[17]. Thus the course for the year 1535 began with the reading, -by Sylvius, of Galen’s treatise _De Usu Partium_. When the middle of the -first book was reached, Sylvius remarked that the subject was too -difficult for his students to understand and that he would not plague -his class with it. He then jumped to the fourth book, read all to the -tenth book, discussed a part of the tenth and omitting the eleventh, -twelfth and thirteenth, he took up the fourteenth and the remaining -three books. Thus he omitted all that Galen had said concerning the -extremities. A second Galenic work which Sylvius used was the -anatomico-physiologic treatise, _De Musculorum Motu_. Not infrequently -the professor was unable to demonstrate in dissection the parts on which -he had lectured. Thus, on one occasion, the students succeeded in -finding the pulmonary and aortic valves which Sylvius had failed to find -on the preceding day. - - -Joannes Guinterius of Andernach - -Another famous member of the Paris Faculty of this period, and a man -whose life-story reads like a romance, was Joannes Guinterius, the -beggar of Deventer. Guinterius (Gonthier, Guinther, Guinter, Winter, or -Winther), who is often called John Winter of Andernach, from the name of -the town in which he was born, lived between the years 1487-1574, and -rose to eminence in both the literary and the medical worlds. Born of -humble parents, he was sent at an early age to the University of -Utrecht. Leaving this institution because of his poverty, he went to -Deventer where he was reduced to the necessity of begging in the -streets. He drifted to the University of Marburg, and here displayed -such brilliant talents that he soon obtained employment as a teacher in -the small town of Goslar, in Brunswick. His growing reputation for -learning led to his appointment to the chair of Greek in the noted -University of Louvain. - - [Illustration: WINTER OF ANDERNACH] - -Desiring to study medicine, Guinterius went to Paris in 1525; he -received the Bachelor’s degree in 1528, and the full medical title two -years later. He passed a brilliant examination which won for him the -commendation of the most eminent professors. Remaining in Paris, he -engaged in practice and in teaching, and rapidly rose to eminence. In -addition to conducting courses in anatomy, he translated into Latin the -writings of the most noted Greek medical authors of antiquity—the books -of Galen, of Oribasius, of Paul of Aegina, of Caelius Aurelianus, and of -Alexander of Tralles—all of which were held in high esteem in the -sixteenth century. His fame reached far beyond the boundaries of France. -Christian III., the enlightened king of Denmark, who was noted for his -love of literature, sought to attach him to the Danish court, but the -honor was refused. Having become a convert to the religious views of -Luther, Guinterius found that his life was in danger; he left Paris and -resided for a time in Metz. He soon removed to Strassburg, where he was -received with distinguished honors and was appointed to a professorship -in the University. Owing to the activity of his enemies, his position -became insecure; accordingly, he resigned his chair and spent a -considerable time in travelling throughout Germany and Italy. In the -year 1562, Ferdinand I., in appreciation of the great merits of -Guinterius, raised him to the highest distinction by placing him among -the nobles of the land; and thus the beggar of Deventer became a -nobleman of Strassburg. His life ended October 4, 1574. - -Like Sylvius, Guinterius was a teacher of men who became greater than -himself—Vesalius, Servetus and Rondelet sat upon his benches. Like -Sylvius, he placed his faith in Galen and failed to grasp the great -truth that anatomical science is based, not on the writings of the -Fathers but on dissection of the dead body. - - -Jean Fernel - - [Illustration: JEAN FERNEL] - -The third bright star of the Paris constellation was Jean Fernel -(1485-1558), of Amiens, who was regarded as the ablest physiologist of -his time and was physician-in-ordinary to Henry the Second. Fernel -dipped deeply into philosophy, geometry and mathematics. Before entering -the medical profession he issued three books on mathematic and geometric -subjects. He received the medical degree in 1530, but continued his -study of mathematics with such ardor that he was almost ruined -financially. On the advice of his friends he entered upon the practice -of medicine in Paris and met with remarkable success. He was skilled in -anatomy and surgery and accompanied his sovereign upon numerous military -expeditions. His medical writings are contained in many volumes and -concern a variety of subjects, such as physiology, therapeutics, -surgery, pathology, the treatment of fevers and the venereal diseases. - -Fernel’s medical views were powerfully influenced by the teachings of an -unfortunate French philosopher, Pierre de la Rameé, or Ramus, who, like -many other Protestants, lost his life on Saint Bartholomew’s Night. -Brutally assassinated, his body was dragged through the streets of Paris -and then was thrown into the Seine; but his system of philosophy -survived and exercised a potent influence until it was eclipsed by the -doctrines of Descartes. - -Ramus, who was an uncompromising opponent of the Aristotelian -philosophy, pointed out the defects and suggested the reforms in the -system of University education. He compared the teaching of medicine -with that of theology, much to the disparagement of the latter:—“The -reason”, said he, “why medicine is better taught, and the lectures are -better attended than in theology is, that those who teach it know it, -and practice it, and their disputations are chiefly on the books of -Hippocrates and Galen; whilst the theologians observe a strict reticence -on questions of the Old Testament, which they read in Hebrew, as well as -of the New, which they read in Greek, but display their learning in -subtle questions respecting the pagan philosophy of Plato and -Aristotle”.[18] Ramus endeavored to withdraw the minds of both -physicians and medical students from the authoritative dogmas of the -ancient physicians and to substitute therefor the intelligent study of -Nature. The practical trend of his mind is shown in his suggestion that -institutions should be arranged for clinical teaching. - - [Illustration: RAMUS] - -Just as Ramus had become an Eclectic in philosophy, so Fernel sought the -best from various sources and different medical systems. Like Ramus, he -cast off the yoke which authority had placed upon him; and proposed -carefully planned principles which should lead to the discovery of -truth. Like Ramus, Fernel presented his views in a clear style and in -better order than was to be found in the writings of his predecessors. -Like Ramus, he adopted the good and rejected the bad, regardless of -whether it had been said by Aristotle, or by Galen, or by Hippocrates. -Fernel was a reformer who stood for freedom of thought, which, up to his -time, had suffered from the despotism of the scholastics. Although many -of Fernel’s physiologic and pathologic ideas seem ridiculous when viewed -in the light of modern knowledge, yet he deserves praise for daring to -oppose ancient dogmas, and for pointing the road to progress. In breadth -of view, Fernel was far superior to Sylvius and Guinterius. - -The anatomical teaching in Paris in the early part of the sixteenth -century was far from satisfactory. There was too much lecturing and -theorizing from Galen’s texts, and too little of actual dissection. -Vesalius, who was not backward in his criticisms, says that the -dissections were made by ignorant barbers, and during the whole time -that he was in Paris he never saw Guinterius use a knife upon a cadaver. -Only at rare intervals was a human body brought into the amphitheatre, -and then the dissection lasted less than three days. It comprised only a -superficial study of the intestines and abdominal muscles; no other -muscles were studied. The bones, veins, arteries and nerves were almost -wholly ignored. The great lights of the Paris profession were totally -unfit to give to the young Belgian what was his heart’s desire. They -were ignorant and knew it not. It is not surprising that, on more than -one occasion, Vesalius brushed the ignorant prosectors aside, took the -knife into his own hands, and carried out the dissection in a systematic -manner. His zeal and learning won the admiration of Guinterius who spoke -of Vesalius and Servetus in loving terms;—“first Andreas Vesalius, a -young man, by Hercules! of singular zeal in the study of anatomy; and -second, Michael Villanovanus (Servetus), deeply imbued with learning of -every kind, and behind none in his knowledge of the Galenic doctrine. -With the aid of these two, I have examined the muscles, veins, arteries -and nerves of the whole body, and demonstrated them to the -students”.[19] - -Vesalius must have had many blue days in Paris—days when he longed to -have a free hand in dissection. A weaker character than his would have -fitted peacefully into the established order of things, but not of such -stuff was Andreas made. The difficulties which beset his path only -stimulated him to work the harder; he firmly resolved to devote his -energy, his talents and his life to anatomical study and teaching. He -decided to secure the opportunity to dissect the human body and to rival -the ancient Alexandrian professors who taught the subject. “Never”, he -says, “would I have been able to accomplish my purpose in Paris, if I -had not taken the work into my own hands”. The Book of Nature which -Sylvius lauded, but kept his pupils from studying, was now opened by -Vesalius. He dissected numerous dogs and studied the only part of human -anatomy that was available, namely, the bones. In his search for -materials for a skeleton he haunted the Cemetery of the Innocents. On -one occasion, when he went to Montfauçon, the place where the bodies of -executed criminals were deposited and bones were plentiful, Vesalius and -his fellow-student were attacked by fierce dogs. For a time the young -anatomist was in danger of leaving his own bones to the hungry -scavengers. By such dangers he gained what the Paris professors could -not supply. He became a master of the osseous system, so much so that, -when blindfolded, he was able to name and describe any part of the -skeleton which was placed in his hands. His talents were recognized by -both professors and students; and at the third anatomy which he attended -in Paris he was requested to take charge of the dissection. To the -satisfaction of the students, as well as to the astonishment of the -barbers, he made an elaborate dissection of the abdominal organs and of -the muscles of the arm. - - [Illustration: VIVISECTION OF A PIG - (From the “Fabrica”, 1543)] - - - - - CHAPTER SIXTH - Vesalius Returns to Louvain - - - [Illustration: Illuminated capital] - -In the latter part of the year 1536, owing to the outbreak of the third -Franco-German war, Vesalius returned to the University of Louvain. -During this period he secured a human skeleton by secret means. -Accompanied by his faithful friend, Regnier Gemma, known as a -mathematician as well as a physician, Vesalius visited the gallows -outside the walls of Louvain in order to search for bones. Here he found -a skeleton which was held together simply by the ligaments and still -possessed the origins and insertions of the muscles. Morley states that -the body was that of “a noted robber, who, since he deserved more than -ordinary hanging, had been chained to the top of a high stake and -roasted alive. He had been roasted by a slow fire made of straw, that -was kept burning at some distance below his feet. In that way there had -been a dish cooked for the fowls of heaven, which was regarded by them -as a special dainty. The sweet flesh of the delicately roasted thief -they had preferred to any other; his bones, therefore, had been -elaborately picked and there was left suspended on the stake a skeleton -dissected out and cleaned by many beaks with rare precision. The -dazzling skeleton, complete and clean, was lifted up on high before the -eyes of the anatomist, who had been striving hitherto to piece together -such a thing out of the bones of many people, gathered as occasion -offered”. - -Such a prize could not be lost. With Gemma’s assistance Vesalius climbed -the gallows and secured the skeleton which he secretly conveyed to his -home. The treasure, however, was not complete; one finger, a patella and -a foot were missing. To this extent was Vesalius the owner of a human -skeleton. In supplying the missing parts Vesalius was obliged to incur -new dangers. He stole out of the city in the nighttime, climbed the -gallows unaided, searched through the mass of decaying bodies, and, -having found the coveted bones, he stole into the city by another gate. -These secret expeditions, however, soon became unnecessary, for the -Burgomaster of Louvain generously furnished an abundance of material for -Vesalius’s students. - -It was at this period—late in the year 1536 or early in 1537—that -Vesalius conducted the first public anatomy that had been held in -Louvain in eighteen years. He performed the dissection and lectured at -the same time, which was an innovation. Some remarks he made concerning -the seat of the soul caused him to be critised by the theologians. A -further cause for suspicion was his association with such firm -Protestants as Guinterius and Sturm of Paris; and his friendly relations -with the publisher Rescius, and the physician Velsius. Fortunately the -suspicion of heresy did not lead to any formal charges, but the affair -seems to have rankled in his memory and some years later, in his -_Fabrica_, he sought to clear his name of even the appearance of heresy. - -Vesalius began his career as an author by issuing a paraphrase, or free -translation, of the ninth book of the _Almansor_ of the celebrated -Rhazes[20]. This book, _liber ad Almansorem_, or work dedicated to the -Caliph Al-Mansûr, was written by a learned Arab physician who lived -between the years 860-932. The _Almansor_ consists of ten books and was -designed by the author for a complete body or compendium of Physic. The -first book treats of anatomy and physiology; the second, of -temperaments; the third, of food and simple medicines; the fourth, of -means for preserving health; the fifth, of skin diseases and cosmetics; -the sixth, of diet; the seventh, of surgery; the eighth, of poisons; the -ninth, of treatment of all parts of the body; the tenth, or last book, -deals with the treatment of fevers. The ninth book, which Vesalius -translated from the barbarous version into a readable form, was so -highly prized in mediaeval times that it was read publicly in the -schools and was commentated by learned professors for more than a -hundred years. By this publication Vesalius furnished a valuable -contribution to medical literature. The numerous marginal and -interlinear notes, which he supplied, show his intimate acquaintance -with classical literature as well as with materia medica. Vesalius -emphasizes the fact that the book of Rhazes contains many remedies which -were unknown to the Greeks. The value of his edition was increased by -the presence of original drawings of the plants mentioned in the text. - - - - - CHAPTER SEVENTH - Professor of Anatomy in Padua - - - [Illustration: Illuminated capital] - -Shortly after the publication of his _Paraphrasis in nonum librum -Rhazae_, Vesalius journeyed into Italy. It was in the year 1537 that he -entered the prosperous and enlightened city of Venice. Here the study of -anatomy not only was not tabooed, but was encouraged, particularly by -the Theatin monks who devoted themselves to the care of the sick. At the -head of this order stood two remarkable men: J. Peter Caraffa, who later -ascended the papal throne as Paul IV.; and Ignatius Loyola, the founder -of the Jesuits. It is a strange circumstance that two strong characters -so dissimilar as were Vesalius and Loyola should meet as co-workers in -the same field. The one was filled with a thirst for anatomical -knowledge, and was dreaming of the day when his _opus magnum_ should -revolutionize an important science; the other was enthused with visions -of the world-wide acceptance of the doctrines of Catholicism. They met -again, in 1543—the year which marks two important events, namely, the -publication of the _Fabrica_, and the full recognition of the Jesuits by -the Pope. - -In Venice the young anatomist entered into various lines of activity. He -experimented with a new remedy, the China root, and besought his -acquaintances to observe its effects in cases of pleurisy. He solicited -anatomical material and possibly may have conducted a public -demonstration in anatomy, although this is uncertain. He practiced minor -surgery; he leeched and opened veins, particularly the popliteal vein -which the barbers of that day did not venture to touch. In Venice he -fortunately met his countryman, Jan Stephan van Calcar, who was soon to -furnish the drawings for Vesalius’s first anatomical plates. - - [Illustration: INSTRUMENTS USED IN DISSECTION - (From the “Fabrica”, 1543)] - -In order to gain all the rights and privileges of a full-fledged -physician, Vesalius settled in Padua. On the 6th day of December, 1537, -shortly after having received his degree as Doctor of Medicine, Andreas -Vesalius of Brussels was appointed Professor of Surgery with the right -to teach Anatomy in the famous University of Padua. This, says Fisher, -“was the first purely anatomical chair ever instituted”. - -From his own writings and from the manuscript notes of his loyal -student, Vitus Tritonius, a fairly good idea of Vesalius’s teaching can -be given. The first act of the young Paduan professor was to improve the -course in anatomy. Here, as he had done previously at Louvain, Vesalius -discharged the entire duties of the professorship. He acted as lecturer, -demonstrator and dissector. Dissatisfied with the ignorant barbers, he -ignored them and employed his students as assistants. He resorted to all -possible means to obtain anatomical material, much of which was secured -by stealth. - -The aula in which Vesalius conducted his course was built of wood and -was capable of holding five hundred persons. In the centre of the room -was a table under which was a receptacle containing bones and joints. An -articulated skeleton was placed in an upright position at one end of the -table. In this elegantly appointed room, before an audience of -distinguished laymen and students, the instruction in anatomy was given. -The course was a strenuous one, occupying practically the entire day for -a period of three weeks, and comprising not only human but also much -comparative anatomy. The vivisection of dogs, pigs, and rarely of cats, -was a regular part of the course. Drawings were used to elucidate the -relations between the skeleton and the soft parts; and frequently -Vesalius marked the outlines of the joints upon the skin of the subject. -He also marked the cranial sutures with ink. His anatomical charts were -the work of his own hand; at times he drew the pictures in the presence -of his audience. His dissections were made with extreme neatness and -dexterity. He used but few instruments and these were of the simplest -kind: knives of different shapes, hooks, cannula, catheter, sounds, -bristles, hammer, saw, needles, thread and a sponge. Forceps and -injection apparatus were not used; he rarely used scissors. Much of the -actual separation of tissues was done by the aid of the finger-nails. A -vivisection board completed the list _de instrumentis quae anatomes -studioso debent esse ad manum_. - -Let us now follow one Vesalius’s public courses in anatomy. It is the -month of December, in the year 1537. The report has spread that the -young Belgian professor will begin his course. Long before the hour set -for the lecture, every available seat has been taken and many persons -are standing. An audience comprising the professors of the University, -the students of medicine, officials of the city of Padua, and learned -persons of all ranks, including members of the clergy, numbering more -than five hundred persons, has assembled to do honor to the professor of -anatomy. - -Vesalius comes into the arena and walks to the table which is closely -surrounded by his auditors. He wastes no time; after a few preliminary -remarks on the importance of anatomy and the methods of acquiring a -knowledge of this science, he launches into the practical demonstration. -After rapidly pointing out the divisions of the body, and demonstrating -the skin, joints, cartilages, ligaments, glands, fat and muscles, he -passes to the more complex parts, all of which are shown upon the -skinned body of a dog or of a lamb, in order to conserve the human -material. Now the human cadaver is placed on the table; all eyes are -turned upon it, for such a demonstration occurs only at long intervals. -Vesalius speaks first of the difference in the structure of joints at -different ages and in different sexes, illustrating his remarks by means -of drawings and by an abundant supply of bones of man and of the lower -animals. - -Now comes the dissection. This is made rapidly and in regular order. Its -course depends upon the amount of material at hand; if the professor -resorts to two bodies, as in the year 1538, the demonstration is handled -in grand style. Vesalius uses the first body for a comprehensive -examination of the muscles, ligaments and viscera; whilst the second -cadaver is devoted to the relations of the veins, arteries, nerves and -viscera. The text of the _Fabrica_ is written according to this plan of -public dissection. - -At times Vesalius attempted to teach the whole of anatomy on one -cadaver. In this event, osteology was followed by the dissection of the -abdominal muscles layer by layer, the demonstration closing with an -examination of the entire contents of the abdomen. The pelvic organs -were reached by incision and separation of the symphysis pubis. If the -cadaver was that of a female, the dissection began with the mammary -glands and then passed to the inferior venter. In pregnancy the foetal -membranes were removed intact, and were placed in a vessel filled with -water. The foetus was opened and its anastomosing vessels were found. -For demonstrating the cotyledons, the uterus of a sheep or goat was -used. After the thorax had been raised by means of a log or brick, -Vesalius passed to the face and the anterior part of the neck, freely -exposing the muscles on one side and the vessels and nerves on the -other. Then followed the unilateral preparation of the muscles of the -shoulder and back, then those of the mouth, which were approached by -means of division of the lower jaw; and, finally, the pharynx and the -larynx were exposed. The rectus anticus muscle was next brought into -view, whereupon Vesalius detached the head from the vertebral column. -Decapitation was followed by an examination of the cranium; the -skull-cap was sawed and the brain was dissected in its natural position. -Then came the examination of the eye, which Vesalius dissected in two -ways: either by a complete section, or layer by layer from without -inwards. - -The ear and the cavities of the frontal and sphenoidal bones were next -opened, provided these bones were not needed for the setting up of a -skeleton. Finally he took up the extremities, demonstrating the muscles -of an arm and a leg on one side, and the nerves and vessels on the -other. The anatomy lesson ended with the introduction of numerous -vivisections. - -Vesalius could not entirely escape disputations, but he gave to them a -close anatomic basis. Theoretical physiology was repugnant to him; for -him physiology was not speculation but the sequel of anatomic research. -If he at times gave free reign to his views, he indicated them as mere -theories. He did not ignore pathologic conditions, but he handled them -as briefly as possible. Fearing to tire his audience with too much -variety, he confined his students closely to the structure of the human -body. - -The merit of Vesalius’s public dissections, and the impression which -they made upon his auditors, can be appreciated only by comparison with -similar demonstrations made by his predecessors. The large and -enlightened audience remained day by day for a period of three or four -weeks. He says not a word about the physical and mental strain incident -to such a strenuous course, in which his entire time was employed. The -courses brought great financial profit to the professor. - -On two occasions, probably in the years 1539 and 1540, Vesalius was -called from Padua to Bologna to conduct public dissections. This was a -great honor, for Bologna was the city in which Mondino had revived the -practical teaching of anatomy. These courses were conducted by Vesalius -in a wooden building erected for that particular purpose. Here, as in -Padua, the professor acted as demonstrator and lecturer, remaining in -this ancient city for a period of several weeks. On the first occasion -he was supplied with three human bodies and was enabled to handle the -subject in grand style. At the first séance he engaged with the -celebrated Professor Matthaeus Curtius, whose acquaintance he had made -in 1538 while on a vacation trip, in a deep study of the question of -venesection. Before a large and select assembly he demonstrated in all -three bodies that Galen’s description of the vena azygos was incorrect. -On the second convocation Vesalius seems to have disposed of more -bodies. He reviewed Galen’s work on the joints, and by numerous -specimens, which were prepared by the students, he demonstrated the -difference in the ancient knowledge of the skeleton. On this occasion he -undertook the complete dissection of an ape and presented its skeleton, -as well as that of a man, to Professor John Andreas Albius, who held the -chair of Hippocratic medicine in Bologna. - -Little is known of the way in which Vesalius taught surgery. The first -year he was in Padua, he began with Avicenna’s treatise on tumors. -According to the fragmentary notes in the college book of his ardent -pupil, Vitus Tritonius, Vesalius compared Avicenna’s teachings with the -classical works of Hippocrates, Galen, Paul of Aegina, and Aetius, -explaining and correcting them. - - [Illustration: INITIAL LETTER BY VESALIUS - (From the “Fabrica”, 1543)] - - - - - CHAPTER EIGHTH - First Contribution to Anatomy - - - [Illustration: Illuminated capital] - -Like all great teachers, Vesalius was ever mindful of the interests of -his students. Soon after accepting the chair of Anatomy in Padua, he -articulated a human skeleton for use in his class room. His next work -was the preparation of a set of anatomical plates, _Tabulae Anatomicae_, -which were intended to pave the way to anatomy for beginners. For the -further benefit of his class, he edited an edition of Guinterius’s -_Institutionuin Anatomicarum_, which was issued in April, 1538. - - -Tabulae Anatomicae - -The _Tabulae Anatomicae_ were in the form of _Fliegende Blätter_, or -loose leaves, and consisted of six plates which are now among the rarest -of medical works. They bore the following title: - - _Tabulae Anatomicae. Imprimebat Venetiis B(ernardinus). - Vitalis Venetus sumptibus Joannis Stephani - Calcarensis Prostrant verò in officina - D. Bernardini. a. 1538._ - -In the preface Vesalius says that no one can learn either botany or -anatomy from figures alone, but illustrations are a valuable means -toward the imparting of knowledge. In publishing these plates he hopes -to benefit those persons who had attended his public dissections. Not a -line in these pictures is unnatural; all has been reproduced just as he -had shown in his demonstrations. He gives due credit to van Calcar, the -artist who made the drawings of the three skeletons. The other pictures -were made by the author himself. - -The _Tabulae Anatomicae_ were arranged in the following order:— - - I.—The Portal System and the Organs of Generation; - II.—The Venae Cavae and Chief Veins; - III.—The Great Artery—Arteria Magna—and the Heart; - IV.—The Skeleton in its Anterior View; - V.—The Skeleton in its Side View; - VI.—The Skeleton in its Posterior View. - -The plates are of large dimensions, measuring over sixteen inches in -length, and were cut in wood. Like those in the _Fabrica_, they were -made in Italy. Owing to their transient use by medical students, the -_Tabulae_ were soon destroyed, although unauthorized editions were -printed in several cities. The book was dedicated to Narcissus of -Parthenope (Narciso Verdunno, or Vertuneo) who, in 1520, was first -physician to the crown of Naples, and later, in 1524, was physician and -councilor to Charles the Fifth. It is noteworthy that three of these -plates deal with the skeleton, a subject to which Vesalius had given -much attention. The absence of a plate showing the nervous system is -also to be noted. Vesalius had such a plate prepared, and it appeared in -a pirated edition of the _Tabulae_ which was published at Cologne in -1539. The large size of these plates, their fidelity to nature, and the -skill with which they were cut in wood, were features which showed to -the world that a real master of anatomy had been born. The original -drawings were made by Jan Stephan van Calcar, who probably also was the -engraver. - -Only two copies of the _Tabulae Anatomicae_ are known. A fine edition of -these plates, reproduced by photography, was privately issued in 1874 by -Sir William Stirling-Maxwell, the talented author of the _Annals of the -Artists of Spain_. - - [Illustration: VIEW OF THE CITY OF BASEL IN THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY] - - - - - CHAPTER NINTH - Publication of the Fabrica - - - [Illustration: Illuminated capital] - -On the first day of August, 1542, after three years of strenuous labor, -Vesalius completed the _Fabrica_, and twelve days later he wrote the -last word of the _Epitome_. The blocks for the _Fabrica_, and also those -for the _Epitome_, were made in Italy. In the summer of 1542 they were -conveyed to Basel by a merchant named Danoni and were safely delivered -to the printer, Oporinus. They were accompanied by a long Latin letter, -written by Vesalius to his friend, “Joannes Oporinus, professor of Greek -letters in Basel”. He begs Oporinus to take the greatest care that the -printed illustrations shall correspond with the proofs which accompany -the blocks. “Every detail must be distinctly visible, so that each cut -shall have the effect of a picture”. Early in the following year -Vesalius went to Basel to superintend the printing of his books. While -there, he conducted a demonstration in anatomy—the first which had -occurred in that city since 1531—and presented the articulated skeleton -of the subject to the University. Part of this skeleton exists today. It -is thought to be the oldest anatomical preparation in existence. - - -The Fabrica - -The heart of Vesalius must have filled with joy when he saw the final -page of his book turned from the press. The treatise which founded -modern anatomy bears this title:— - - _Andreae Desalii Brurellensis, Scholae medicorum - Patabinae professoris, de humani corporis - fabrica Libri septem. Basileae._ - MDXLIII - -A fortune was lavished upon the illustration and publication of this -grand work. To use the words of Fisher, “it was and is a glorious book, -a rare and precious monument of genius, industry and liberality”. It -abounds with curious initial letters bearing quaint and interesting -anatomical conceits, each one teaching its lesson. One of these, reduced -in size, introduces the present chapter; and it was this letter that -Vesalius used in his opening sentence: _Os caeterarum hominis partium -est durissimum & ardissimum, maximaque terrestre & frigidum, & sensus -denique praeter solos dentes expers._ - - [Illustration: JOANNES OPORINUS] - -The first edition of the _Fabrica_ is a folio volume with magnificent -illustrations on wood, all carefully printed by Joannes Oporinus -(1507-1568) of Basel. - -The title-page is a beautiful engraving which represents Vesalius at -work dissecting a female subject. He is surrounded by interested -spectators who crowd the amphitheatre. The abdomen of the subject is -opened. Vesalius has raised his left hand; his right hand grasps a small -rod which rests on the viscera. The great teacher is talking to his -pupils. Placed at the head of the dissecting table is an upright -skeleton which grasps a long staff with its right hand. In the audience -are many persons of different rank. To the left a naked man is climbing -a pillar, while to the right, and below, a dog is being brought into the -arena. To the left, and below, is a monkey which appears to enjoy the -demonstration. Above, in the architecture, we see the monogram of the -publisher, Oporinus; in the centre, on a shield, are the three weasels -of the Vesalius family, and below, is a shield which bears the -privilegium. This old engraving is one of the most spirited and -elaborate to be found in the whole range of medical literature. In the -1725 edition, for which Jan Wandelaar made copperplate reproductions of -the original figures, the title-page is altered:—the monogram of -Oporinus is absent and the architecture is slightly changed. - - [Illustration: MARK OF OPORINUS] - -Who was the unnamed artist? It is noteworthy that Vesalius does not -state who drew the illustrations, or who cut them in wood, for his -_Fabrica_. He only states that this book has cost him a monstrous amount -of labor in the preparation of the dissections, and in the directing of -the eye, the hand, and the intelligence of the artist. He complains -bitterly of the obstinacy of the artist, who, at times so tormented him -that he—Vesalius—considered himself more unfortunate than the criminal -whose body had been dissected[21]. It was probably owing to this -unpleasant experience that Vesalius omitted the artist’s name. The great -anatomist speaks regretfully of the large sums which he was obliged to -pay, in order to induce skilled artists to undertake this class of work. -He states that they were much more interested in painting Venus and The -Graces than in drawing pictures of skinned and foul smelling bodies. -Moehsen[22] assumes that Vesalius had Titian in mind when he penned -these thoughts, but this is questionable. It is not surprising that -eminent artists should have disliked anatomical drawing, at a time when -antiseptic injections and preserving fluids were not known. Foul odors -had no terrors for the great Belgian, who haunted cemeteries for -anatomical material and often kept parts of cadavers in his bedchamber -for weeks at a time. - -For a period of two centuries the Vesalian pictures were ascribed to -Titian, but on insufficient grounds. The famous Venetian painter was -over sixty years of age at the time of the publication of the _Fabrica_; -his services were much in demand, and he was signally honored by the -Spanish emperor, Charles the Fifth. His powers remained undiminished -until shortly before his death, which occurred in 1576. He had the -ability to make the Vesalian illustrations, but it is doubtful if he had -the time. Although Titian may have taken an interest in these anatomical -plates, it is not now believed that he drew them. - - [Illustration: JAN STEPHAN VAN CALCAR] - -The Vesalian pictures have been attributed to Christoforo Coriolano; but -he could not have been the artist, since his earliest work dates from -1568. He is known to have furnished the drawings for Jerome -Mercurialis’s _De Arte Gymnastica_, and for Vasari’s _Lives of the -Painters_. Roth is of the opinion that Vesalius himself made most of the -illustrations; but such a view would credit the comparatively short and -busy life of the great anatomist with too much accomplishment. - -I conclude that the illustrations for the _Fabrica_, like the osseous -figures in the _Tabulae Anatomicae_, which Vesalius issued in 1538, were -made by Jan Stephan van Calcar (+1546), the favorite pupil of Titian. -Sandrart[23] states that van Calcar made the drawings for the _Fabrica_; -that he went to Venice in 1536 or 1537; that he studied under Titian; -and that his paintings were of such merit that they were often mistaken -for those of Titian, Raphael, and Rubens. - -Van Calcar was a Fleming, a native of Kalcker in the Duchy of Cleves. -The date of his birth is not known. His death occurred at Naples in -1546. He was highly esteemed by Vesalius who speaks of him as ranking -“with the divine and happy wits of Italy”. The anatomical plates which -Vesalius issued in 1538 were made, he states, by van Calcar:—_sumptibus -Joannis Stephani Calcarensis_. These plates, which appeared in the form -of pictorial broad sheets, or _Fliegende Blätter_, may be likened to the -Herald who goes in advance to announce the coming of the King. They were -engraved on wood, and, like their companion pictures in the _Fabrica_, -they were unprecedented in magnitude and in minuteness. - - [Illustration: SECOND VESALIAN PLATE OF THE MUSCLES - (From the “Fabrica”, 1543. Reduced one-half)] - -The Vesalian plates vary greatly in merit. The most satisfactory ones -are those depicting the undissected body and the bones and muscles. The -artist was not at his best in drawing the nervous system, although it is -claimed that Vesalius had prepared his neurologic specimens with great -care. For the use of artists, the best plates are the three skeletons -and the four entire myologic figures in the _Fabrica_. The first -myologic figure, showing a man who has been divested of all skin, fat, -and superficial fascia, presents the muscles of the anterior portion of -the body beautifully delineated. Vesalius took much pride in this plate, -and directed the attention of artists to it. The second plate, which is -constructed along similar lines, shows the body in its lateral aspect. -The head is thrown slightly backward, the right hand pointing to the -earth and the left raised towards the horizon, and the whole attitude of -the subject calls to mind the position which an orator would assume when -addressing an audience. The third myologic plate is similar to the first -one, but the muscles of the face are exhibited to better advantage and -the aponeuroses, absent in the first plate, are here present. The fourth -plate, which is the ninth in Vesalius’s work (_nona musculorum tabula_), -presents the muscles of the posterior part of the body. The other -myologic figures show the deeper muscles, layer by layer, and are of -value to an artist who wishes to study the effect of their action upon -the superficial parts of the body. Hence many of these figures have been -reproduced in works on art-anatomy. The artist who studies these plates -should remember that the figures in question are divested of skin, fat, -and superficial veins—all of which must be supplied, in order to avoid -giving too great prominence to the muscles. The two naked figures -contained in the _Epitome_ are properly clothed in skin and are of great -artistic merit. They also are to be seen in numerous works on -art-anatomy. Thus, in one of the earliest books on anatomy for the use -of artists (_Abrégé d’anatomie accommodé aux arts de peinture et de -sculpture._ Paris, 1667, 1668), Rogers de Piles and François Tortebat -have used the three skeletons and seven myologic figures taken from the -_Fabrica_ and the _Epitome_. In the preface of his book, de Piles says -that he does not think it is possible to produce better figures than -those found in the works of Vesalius. That he was not alone in this -opinion is shown by the fact that many other artists, who have composed -treatises on art-anatomy, have drawn freely from the Vesalian -storehouse. An Italian, Giacomo Moro, in his anatomy for the use of -artists, (_Anatomia ridotta ad uso de’ pittori e scultore._ Venice -1679), reproduced nineteen of Vesalius’s figures in copperplate. - - [Illustration: NINTH VESALIAN PLATE, OF THE MUSCLES - (From the “Fabrica”, 1543. Reduced one-half)] - -The popularity of Vesalius’s anatomical figures among painters was due, -not only to the intrinsic worth of these illustrations, but also to the -erroneous belief that the original drawings were the work of Titian. -This opinion found expression on the title-pages of several works on -art-anatomy. For example, in 1706, Moschenbauer, of Augsburg, issued a -folio volume illustrated with Vesalian figures cut in wood, with this -title:—_Andreae Vesalii, Bruxellensis, des ersten besten Anatomici, -Zergliederung des menschlichen Körpers auf Mahlerey, and Bildhauer-Kunst -gerichtet, die Figuren von Titian gezeichnet_. An anonymous book, -_Notomia di Titanio_, appeared in Italy about the year 1670. - -The Vesalian figures of the skeleton were also issued in single sheets -with moralistic verses appended. Moehsen cites one of these with the -inscription printed in French: - - “De cet objet affreux tu parois rebutté, - Est c’est ce que dans peu cependant tu dois étre: - Apprens, mortel, a te connoître - Ce miroir est le seul, ou tu n’est point flatté”. - -Another legend reminds the reader that he is only dust, and to dust he -must return:—“_Vous estes poudre, & vous retournéres en poudre_”. - - [Illustration: A HUMAN SKULL RESTING ON THE SKULL OF A DOG - (From the “Fabrica”, 1543)] - - - - - CHAPTER TENTH - Publication of the Epitome - - - [Illustration: Illuminated capital] - -Upon the thirteenth day of August, 1542, Vesalius finished the _Epitome_ -of his great book. The text and illustrations for it were forwarded to -Basel by the same merchant who conveyed the manuscript and drawings of -the _Fabrica_. The title of the lesser work is as follows:— - - _Andreae Vesalii Bruxellensis, Scholae medicorum - Patavinae professoris, suorum de Humani corporis - fabrica librorum Epitome. Basil., et officina - Joannis Oporini, Anno, 1543, mense Junio._ - -This work is extremely rare. It belonged to the class of _Fliegende -Blätter_ and was issued unbound. Perfect copies of it are rarely found. -The first twelve sheets are printed on both sides; the two last leaves -are printed on one side only, in order that they might be cut out and -pasted together to show two complete figures. Hence these sheets are -often lacking. The _Epitome_ appeared in the same year and in the same -month as the _Fabrica_, but the latter work was printed first. - -The _Epitome_ is dedicated to Philip, the son of Charles the Fifth, who, -after his father’s abdication, was known as Philip the Second of Spain. -The title-page is printed from the same plate as the larger work; and -Vesalius’s portrait also is present. From the fact that the dedication -bears the inscription: _Patavii, idibus Augusti 1542_, the erroneous -opinion arose that this work preceded the _Fabrica_. - - [Illustration: TITLE-PAGE OF VESALIUS’S “EPITOME”, 1543] - -Among the illustrations found in the _Epitome_ are seven that are not in -the large book; namely, five myologic plates, and the figure of a naked -man and one of a woman. The myologic figures in the _Epitome_ differ -from those in the _Fabrica_ in this respect: the muscles are drawn in -their natural position, group, and order, so that the surgeon, in -treating wounds and in performing operations, may have the correct -relations of the parts in mind. Also, the one side of the figure differs -from the other: the one showing the superficial muscles, while the other -exhibits the deeper musculature. The muscles in the _Fabrica_, with the -exception of four complete myologic figures, are represented as they -appear in anatomical demonstrations, particular attention being given to -their origins and insertions. For the purpose of the artist, the best -figures are the three skeletons and the four complete myologic figures -which are found in the _Fabrica_. - -Two beautiful copies of the _Epitome_, printed on vellum, are in -existence. One is in the British Museum and is thought to be the copy -which was owned by the celebrated Dr. Richard Mead; the other one is in -the possession of the University of Louvain. - -Vesalius speaks modestly of the _Epitome_, which he regards as an index -or appendix of the _Fabrica_, and is for the use of beginners in -anatomy. - - [Illustration: SKELETON BY VESALIUS - (From the “Fabrica”, 1543. Reduced one-half)] - - - - - CHAPTER ELEVENTH - Contents of the Fabrica - - - [Illustration: Illuminated capital] - -The reputation of Vesalius rests securely upon the _Fabrica_. This grand -book, which is dedicated to Charles the Fifth, consists of six hundred -and fifty-nine folio pages of text; thirty-four pages of index, disposed -in three columns to the page; six pages of preface; and two pages of a -letter which is addressed to “Joannes Oporinus, the renowned professor -of Greek letters in Basel”. The work is printed in excellent style. The -printed page measures 8 by 12½ inches, including the marginal notes. -There are fifty-seven lines to a page, averaging twelve words to a line, -or approximately seven hundred words to a page. This was written, amid -many duties and distractions, in the short period of three years. It is -truly a monument of diligence. - -The text of the _Fabrica_ is clear and concise; it describes what has to -be described and does it well. The errors which Vesalius rectified, and -the improvements which he made in anatomy, are so numerous that -references can be made to only a few of them. His anatomical writings -are of such bulk that they cannot be reviewed adequately within the -limits of the present chapter. As regards the _Fabrica_, we may say, -with Richardson, that “The dissections and the plates are the book”. - - [Illustration: FIFTH VESALIAN PLATE OF THE MUSCLES - (From the “Fabrica”, 1543. Reduced one-half)] - -The _Fabrica_ contains the rudiments of anthropology as well as the -first illustrations of comparative anatomy. Vesalius portrays a human -skull resting upon the skull of a dog. He also shows a simian and a -canine sacrum and coccyx, to prove his contention that Galen’s anatomy -was derived from dissection of the lower animals. The _Fabrica_ is more -than an anatomy. Throughout the work physiology goes hand in hand with -the anatomical description. The use and function of each part of the -body is given in short, clear sentences. - -The _Fabrica_ is built upon a practical plan. It treats of anatomy in a -logical manner and is composed of seven books, which deal with the -following subjects: (1)—Bones and Cartilages; (2)—Ligaments and Muscles; -(3)—Veins and Arteries; (4)—Nerves; (5)—Organs of Nutrition and -Generation; (6)—Heart and Lungs; and (7)—Brain and Organs of Sense. - - -The First Book - -Vesalius devotes one hundred and sixty-eight pages to the bones and -cartilages, treating these structures with a thoroughness that amazed -his contemporaries. He was the first author who correctly described the -osseous system as a whole. In numerous instances Vesalius places himself -in direct opposition to the opinions of Galen. He denied the existence -of the intermaxillary bone in adults, and showed that the inferior -maxilla does not consist of two pieces, as has been asserted by Galen. -The seven bones of the sternum were reduced to three by Vesalius. He -denied Galen’s statement that the bones of the symphysis pubis separate -during parturition. He was the first anatomist to give an accurate -description of the sphenoid bone. A small aperture at the root of the -pterygoid process of the sphenoid bone is called _foramen Vesalii_. -Vesalius proved the existence of marrow in the bones of the hand, which -had been denied by Galen. In all respects, he wrote more intelligently -of the bones than any anatomist who had preceded him. - - [Illustration: DEEP MUSCLES OF THE BACK BY VESALIUS - (From the “Fabrica”, 1543. Reduced one-half)] - - [Illustration: PART OF THE FIRST TEXT-PAGE OF THE “FABRICA”] - - -The Second Book - -Vesalius devotes one hundred and eighty-eight pages to a description of -the ligaments and the muscles. This part of his treatise, while it -contains a few errors and does not reach the high plane of the first -book, is superior to any work of its kind that had preceded it. Vesalius -was the first writer to describe the internal pterygoid muscle. He -denied the existence of a general muscle of the skin, and stated that -the intercostal muscles merely separate the ribs without expanding or -contracting the thorax. He held the view that nerves and muscles do not -stand in any relation of proportionate strength to one another, large -nerves often being distributed to small muscles. He also held that the -tendons are similar in structure to the ligaments. - - [Illustration: PLATE OF THE ARTERIAL TREE BY VESALIUS - (From the “Fabrica”, 1543. Reduced one-half)] - -Vesalius’s plates of the superficial muscles are among the most -beautiful that have ever appeared. They have been copied in practically -all later treatises on anatomy, and have been used extensively by -art-anatomists. His plates of the deeper muscles, while naturally not so -pleasing to the eye, are wonderfully near accuracy. The different -muscles are drawn to show function as well as structure. - - -The Third Book - -The third part of the _Fabrica_, comprising sixty pages, is devoted to -the veins and arteries. Vesalius begins with the definition of a vein, -and describes the structure of these vessels in general. The term -“artery” is treated in like manner. He introduces several small -illustrations which serve to elucidate this part of the text. His first -large plate in this section is devoted to the venae portae. This is -followed by a full-page picture of the entire venous system. The -arterial system is fully described and elaborately illustrated. To these -is added another plate, in which both arteries and veins are represented -in their natural order. In other plates he shows the special -circulations—cerebral, portal, and pulmonary. - - [Illustration: DISSECTION OF THE ABDOMEN BY VESALIUS - (From the “Fabrica”, 1543)] - -Vesalius described the valve which guards the foramen ovale in the -foetus, and also noticed the valve-like fold which guards the entrance -of each hepatic vein into the inferior vena cava. He also gave an -admirable description of the vena azygos. Blinded by the ancient theory -of the movement of the blood—a sort of flux and reflux in the veins, he -overlooked the function of the venous valves. He described them as -eminences, or projections, or accidental rugosities, which in no way -interfere with the flux and reflux of the blood. - - [Illustration: DISSECTION OF THE HEART BY VESALIUS - (From the “Fabrica”, 1543)] - - -The Fourth Book - -Vesalius devotes forty pages to the cerebral and spinal nerves. The -anatomy of the brain is treated in the seventh book. His representations -of the nerves are very creditable. He mentions eleven pairs of cranial -nerves: the olfactory, the optic, the motores oculorum, the trifacial, -the abducens, the portio dura, the portio mollis, the glosso-pharyngeal, -the pneumogastric, and the spinal accessory. - -His account of the brain—contained in the seventh book—is elaborately -minute considering the time when it was written. His illustrations and -description of this organ surpass those of scores of later authors. -Vesalius fully describes the position of the brain; the membranes which -cover it; the cavities, or ventricles, within it; the divisions of -cerebrum, cerebellum, and medulla; the anatomy of the base, and the -origins of the cerebral nerves. These structures are illustrated from -different points of view. - - -The Fifth Book - -The fifth book, comprising more than one hundred pages, is devoted to -the organs of nutrition. Here we find an admirable account of the -peritoneum, the mesentery, the omentum, the stomach and intestines, the -liver, the spleen, and the genito-urinary tract—all of which structures -are described and fully illustrated. In this book Vesalius also -describes the foetus in utero. - - -The Sixth Book - -In less than fifty pages Vesalius describes the contents of the thorax. -He writes intelligently of the membrane lining the thorax, and then -gives an account of the arteria aspera, as the trachea was formerly -named. Passing on to the lungs, he next takes up the anatomy of the -heart. He describes its position, form, and structure in better terms -than had been done by preceding anatomists. The auricles, ventricles, -and valves are carefully examined. His illustrations of both lungs and -heart are excellent. - -In the 1543 edition of the _Fabrica_, Vesalius adopts the erroneous view -of Galen that openings exist in the septum of the heart. In the second -edition of his book, published in 1555, he says that influenced by the -views of Galen, he believed that the blood passes from the right to the -left ventricle of the heart, through the septum, by means of the pores. -Vesalius immediately adds that the septum of the heart is as dense and -compact as the rest of this organ, and that not the smallest quantity of -blood passes through the septum. - -His account of this subject is best given in his own words:—“In -recounting as above the structure of the heart, and the use of its -different parts, I have followed in the main the doctrines of Galen; not -that I regard them in all particulars as consonant with the truth, but -because, in attributing new functions and uses to a number of parts, I -am still distrustful of myself, and not long ago should hardly have -ventured to differ from that Prince of Physicians by so much as a -finger’s breadth. As for the dividing wall, or septum, between the -ventricles forming the right side of the left cavity, the student of -anatomy should consider carefully that it is equally thick, compact, and -dense, with all the rest of the cardiac substance enclosing the left -ventricle. And accordingly, notwithstanding what I have said about the -pits in this situation, and at the same time not forgetting the -absorption by the portal vein from the stomach and intestines, I still -do not see how even the smallest quantity of blood can be transfused, -through the substance of the septum, from the right ventricle to the -left”. - -Vesalius and other anatomists knew of the hepatic circulation, or at -least believed in some communication between the portal and hepatic -veins:—“The branches of this vein”—vena cava—“distributed through the -body of the liver, come in contact with those of the portal vein; and -the extreme ramifications of these veins inosculate with each other, and -in many places appear to unite and be continuous”. - -Vesalius knew that in several particulars the accepted physiology of the -vascular system was wrong. If he could have lived a few years longer, it -is possible that he might have solved the great problem which was made -clear by William Harvey. In the light of our present knowledge some of -Vesalius’s words are suggestive: - -“When these matters are taken into account, many things at once present -themselves in regard to the arterial system, which deserve careful -consideration; especially the fact that there is hardly a single vein -going to the stomach, the intestines, or even the spleen, without its -accompanying artery, and that nearly every member of the portal system -has a companion artery associated with it in its course. Again, the -arteries going to the kidneys are of such size that they can by no means -be affirmed to serve merely for regulating the heat of these organs; and -still less can we assert that so many arteries are distributed to the -stomach, intestines and spleen for that purpose alone. And there is, -furthermore, the fact, which we must for many reasons admit, that there -is through the arteries and veins a mutual flux and reflux of materials, -and that within these vessels the weight and gravitation of their -contents has no effect”. - - -The Seventh Book. - -In the seventh book, consisting of less than sixty pages, Vesalius fully -describes the anatomy of the brain, of the cranial nerves, and of the -organs of sense. His description of the eye is not as near accuracy as -might be expected. He places the crystalline lens in the centre of the -globe. His description of the organ of vision was only slightly better -than that which was given by Galen. Vesalius showed, however, that the -optic nerve is not a hollow tube, and that it does not enter the eyeball -exactly in the antero-posterior axis. - - -Conclusion - -Considering the time in which he lived, Vesalius was remarkably free -from errors. Although to him the arteries were carriers of vital -spirits, the veins were the true blood vessels, and, according to the -first edition of his great book, the septum of the heart was filled with -foramina; yet, we must say with Baas, “these are all mere shadows -necessary to the brilliancy of the picture”. - -Vesalius was more than an anatomist. As a practical physician he had the -highest reputation among his contemporaries. He was an accomplished -scholar and was thoroughly conversant with the weaknesses of human -nature, as is evident from many satirical touches in his writings. -Although his great work contains many errors that a tyro of the present -day would laugh at, it laid the foundations of our knowledge. Vesalius -overthrew the idol of authority in anatomy and taught us to look at -Nature with our own eyes. - -Portal[24] has paid a splendid tribute to Vesalius. “Vesalius”, he says, -“appears to me one of the greatest men who ever existed. Let the -astronomers vaunt their Copernicus, the natural philosophers their -Galileo and Torricelli, the mathematicians their Pascal, the geographers -their Columbus, I shall always place Vesalius above all their heroes. -The first study of man is man. Vesalius has this noble object in view, -and has admirably attained it; he has made on himself and his fellows -such discoveries as Columbus could make only by travelling to the -extremity of the world. The discoveries of Vesalius are of direct -importance to man; by acquiring fresh knowledge of his own structure, -man seems to enlarge his existence; while discoveries in geography or -astronomy affect him but in a very indirect manner”. - -Like Harvey, Vesalius was obliged to defend his writings from fierce -attacks. The most desperate of his opponents was his old master, Jacobus -Sylvius, who was so wedded to the Galenic teachings that he asserted -that since Galen’s time the thigh bones had changed their shape. He -spoke of Vesalius as a “madman, Vesanus, whose pestilential breath -poisons Europe”. Ponderous discussions were carried on between the -friends and opponents of the great anatomist. The complete overthrow of -the Galenists resulted. - -If Vesalius had remained professor of anatomy in Padua, instead of being -appointed physician to Charles the Fifth, at Madrid, in 1544, it is -probable that the circulation of the blood would have been discovered by -him. - -In recent years attempts have been made to show that it was not -Vesalius, but Leonardo da Vinci, who was the founder of modern anatomy. -A considerable amount of controversial literature has accumulated on -this subject. For our purpose it may suffice to quote the conclusions of -McMurrich[25]:—“Leonardo was the first to create a new anatomy, but he -created it for himself alone; Vesalius demonstrated a new anatomy to the -world. It was the publication of Vesalius’s _Fabrica_ that -revolutionized anatomy, while Leonardo’s drawings were lying -unpublished, at first the cherished possessions of his favorite pupil -Melzi, later in the Ambrosian Library in Milan, and still later -forgotten in the Royal Library at Windsor. We must credit Leonardo as -being the forerunner of the new anatomy, but Vesalius must be recognized -as its founder”. - - [Illustration: INITIAL LETTER BY VESALIUS - (From the “Fabrica”, 1543)] - - - - - CHAPTER TWELFTH - Contemporary Anatomists - - - [Illustration: Illuminated capital] - -Shortly after the publication of the _Fabrica_, great activity was -manifested in anatomic research, and numerous opponents and critics of -Vesalius appeared in the arena of science. The criticism of such men as -Jacobus Sylvius and John Dryander, while it was of a violent type, was -of much less importance than was that of Eustachius, Columbus and -Fallopius. Vesalius was not without his partisans, of whom Ingrassias -and Cannanus are worthy of mention. - - -Bartholomeus Eustachius - -Eustachius was born at San Severino, a small city near Salernum, about -the year 1520. He studied anatomy in Rome and made remarkable progress -in this science. In the year 1562, as he informs us in his _Opuscula -Anatomica_, he was professor of medicine in the Collegio della Sapienza -at Rome. Like many other men of genius, Eustachius died in poverty. In -August, 1574, having been called by the illness of Cardinal Rovere to -Fossombrone, Eustachius died upon the journey. - -To Eustachius posterity is indebted for a series of splendid copperplate -engravings which were designed to illustrate the anatomy of the human -body. These plates, the handiwork of Eustachius, and the first -anatomical illustrations wrought in copper, were completed in 1552, only -nine years after the first impression of the book of Vesalius. -Unfortunately for himself, and worse for medical science, Eustachius was -unable to publish them. If this magnificent atlas of anatomy could have -been published when completed, the anatomical discoveries of the -eighteenth century would have come two hundred years earlier. -Unfortunately the entire text of the work is lost. For one hundred and -thirty-eight years the Eustachian plates remained either in the family -of Pinus, an intimate friend of the anatomist, or were buried in the -Papal Library at Rome. When discovered they were presented by Pope -Clement XI. to his physician, Lancisi, who published them with notes of -his own, at Rome, in 1714. In 1740 they were issued under the direction -of Cajetan Petrioli. Four years later the edition by Albinus appeared, -which was republished in 1761. The anatomical writings of Eustachius -were published during his lifetime, in 1564. It is upon his _Tabulae -Anatomicae_ that the fame of this wonderful man is founded. If this work -had been published in 1552, Eustachius would have divided with Vesalius -the honor of founding human anatomy. The victim of circumstances, his -name has been overshadowed by that of Vesalius, to whom in some respects -he was superior. Deprived during life of his merited honors, Eustachius -has been awarded a goodly share of posthumous fame. - - [Illustration: BRAIN AND NERVES BY EUSTACHIUS - (Reduced one-half)] - - [Illustration: MUSCLES BY EUSTACHIUS - (Reduced one-half)] - -Eustachius was the first anatomist to describe, with any degree of -accuracy, the tube which bears his name. We can truly say he discovered -it, since Alcmaeon dissected only the lower animals, and was not an -accurate observer, as his view that goats breathe through the ears, -amply testifies. Eustachius discovered the tensor tympani and stapedius -muscles, the modiolus and membranous cochlea, and the stapes. The honor -of the discovery of the stapes is claimed for no less than five renowned -anatomists, namely, Fallopius, Ingrassias, Columbus, Colladus, and -Eustachius. It is unnecessary to discuss this disputed claim to -priority. The truth seems to be that the stapes was discovered by both -Ingrassias and Eustachius, each independently of the other. In 1546 -Ingrassias publicly demonstrated the little bone of the ear in his -lectures at Naples. Fallopius, after learning from an eyewitness that -Ingrassias had actually discovered and named the ossicle, relinquished -his claim to the discovery. Columbus and Colladus filed their -information at too late a date. Eustachius, as previously stated, -finished his anatomical plates in 1552. His seventh plate shows, among -other subjects, the auditory ossicles—malleus, incus and stapes—and -tensor tympani muscle. These objects are delineated as taken from a -human subject, and also from a dog. - -Eustachius discovered the origin of the optic nerves, and the sixth -cerebral nerves. He gives excellent pictures of the corpora olivaria and -corpora pyramidalia; of the stylo-hyoid muscle; of the deep muscles of -the neck and throat; of the suprarenal capsules, and of the thoracic -duct. He also described the ciliary muscle. Eustachius was the first -anatomist who accurately studied the teeth and the phenomena of the -first and second dentition. In his researches he employed magnifying -glasses, maceration, exsiccation, and various methods of injection. - - -Realdus Columbus - -The first anatomical treatise containing an account of the lesser, or -pulmonary circulation, was the monumental work, _De Re Anatomica, libri -xv._, written by Realdus Columbus and sumptuously published at Venice in -the year 1559. This, however, was not the first printed account of the -lesser circulation. Six years prior to the publication of the book of -Columbus, the unfortunate Servetus, in a theological treatise, described -correctly the course of the blood in its transit through the lungs. -Tried for heresy, Servetus was burned, together with all obtainable -copies of his book. Although it had been printed, the work was -suppressed; hence it follows that Columbus was the first to publish the -great discovery. Of the life of this anatomist we know but little. Born -at Cremona, a small Milanese village, the year of his birth is unknown. -He died in 1559, while his book was being printed. A few copies were -finished before his demise, since a copy belonging to the late Dr. -George Jackson Fisher, of Sing Sing, N.Y., contains the author’s own -dedication to Pope Paul IV., while in other exemplars, the dedication -has been written by the two sons of Columbus, and is addressed to “_Pio -IIII., Pont. Max_”. This prelate, on the death of Paul IV., on August -18, 1559, became the head of the Church. - -Some writers have held that the discovery of the lesser circulation was -not made by Columbus independently of Servetus, but that a copy of the -book of Servetus had drifted into Italy and had been read by Columbus. -There is no direct evidence to support this view. When Vesalius was -called to Madrid as physician to Charles the Fifth, Columbus, in 1544, -succeeded him in the University of Padua; two years later he filled the -anatomical chair at Pisa, and in 1546, Pope Paul IV. called him to Rome. -Here he spent the later years of his life, engaged in teaching anatomy -and in writing his book. For forty years Columbus pursued his anatomical -studies, and in that period he dissected an unusually large number of -bodies. Fourteen subjects passed under his scalpel in a single year. - - [Illustration: TITLE-PAGE OF COLUMBUS’S ANATOMY - (Reduced one-half)] - -Columbus frequently made experiments upon living animals. He was the -first to use dogs for such purposes, preferring them to swine. Book -XIIII. of the work of Columbus is upon the subject of vivisection, _De -viva sectione_. In this he tells us how to employ living dogs in -demonstrating the movements of the heart and brain, the action of the -lungs, etc. Columbus was the first anatomist who demonstrated -experimentally that the blood passes from the lungs into the pulmonary -veins. “When the heart dilates”, says Columbus, “it draws natural blood -from the vena cava into the right ventricle, and prepared blood from the -pulmonary vein into the left; the valves being so disposed that they -collapse and permit its ingress; but when the heart contracts, they -become tense, and close the apertures, so that nothing can return by the -way it came. The valves of the aorta and pulmonary artery opening, on -the contrary, at the same moment, give passage to the spirituous blood -for distribution to the body at large, and to the natural blood for -transference to the lungs”. - -Like Servetus, Columbus held to the idea of “spiritus”. Harvey was the -first physiologist who recognized the circulation as purely a movement -of blood. All before him assumed the existence of a mixture of air and -blood. Columbus, pupil and prosector of Vesalius, like his great master, -denied the existence of foramina in the cardiac septum. - - -Gabriel Fallopius - - [Illustration: GABRIEL FALLOPIUS] - -Gabriel Fallopius (1523-1562), of Modena, was a noted Italian anatomist. -In his twenty-fifth year he was made professor of anatomy at Pisa. -Although the span of his life was short, he will be remembered always as -the discoverer of the tubes which bear his name. According to Fisher, -Fallopius “described the ear more minutely than had ever before been -done. He discovered the little canal along which the facial nerve passes -after leaving the auditory; it is still called the _aquaeductus -Fallopii_. He demonstrated the fact of the communication of the mastoid -cells with the cavity of the tympanum; and also described the fenestrae -rotunda and ovalis. In the treatment of diseases of the ear, he used an -aural speculum, and employed sulphuric acid for the removal of polypi -from the meatus. In some of his supposed discoveries he had long been -anticipated; for example, the tubes which bear his name were known and -accurately described by Herophilus, over three hundred years before the -Christian era, and also by Rufus of Ephesus, of whom Galen speaks as the -best anatomist of the second century. Rufus refers to two varicose and -tortuous vessels passing from the testes (as the ovaries were called) to -the cavity of the uterus. Fallopius, however, gave a full account of -their course, position, size and structure. He cut into them and found -them hollow, gave them the name of tubae seminales, and posterity -attached his name to them, and in time came to a better comprehension of -their true function. This is not the only instance in the history of -anatomical discovery where the name of a person, not its discoverer, has -been given to an organ. Allusion has been made to Fallopius as a -botanist; a genus of plants, _Fallopia_, has been named in honor of -him”. - -Fallopius was appointed professor of anatomy at Pisa, in the year 1548; -and later, at the instance of the Grand Duke of Tuscany, Cosimo I., he -received a professorship at Padua, as successor to Vesalius. Besides the -chair of anatomy and surgery and of botany, he also held the office of -superintendent of the new botanic garden in that city. Fallopius -remained in Padua to the day of his death, which occurred in 1562. He -was very properly succeeded by his favorite pupil, Fabricius ab -Aquapendente, who had been for some time previously his anatomical -demonstrator. His collected works, as published in Venice, 1606, embrace -twenty-four treatises distributed in three folio volumes. Only one of -his works was published during his lifetime, namely, his _Observationes -Anatomicae_, Venice, 1561, which is considered one of his most valuable -books, containing, as it does, most of his discoveries and his -animadversions on the works of other anatomists. - -This was written as a supplement to the anatomy of Vesalius, for it -follows the same order, passes upon the same subjects, corrects the -inaccuracies of the Vesalian treatise, and supplies what is wanting. -Throughout the work Fallopius treats Vesalius with great respect, and -never mentions him without an honorable title. Vesalius wrote an answer -to this work, entitled, _Observationum Fallopii examen_, in which he -acknowledges the courtesy of Fallopius, but, as argument progresses, -appears to be out of temper. - -After the death of Fallopius it was thought that no successor except -Vesalius could be found competent to fill his place. Accordingly -Vesalius was chosen. The news of his appointment reached him while he -was returning from a pilgrimage to Jerusalem. Unfortunately he was -shipwrecked and perished, otherwise history would have afforded an -example of the master filling the chair of the pupil. - - -John Philip Ingrassias - -Ingrassias, who lived between the years 1510-1580, was a graduate of the -celebrated Paduan School. He described minutely the anatomy of the ear, -including the tympanum, fenestrae rotunda and ovalis, the cochlea, the -semi-circular canals, and the tensor tympani muscle. His admiring pupils -caused his portrait to be painted and placed in the Neapolitan School, -with this inscription:—“To Philip Ingrassias, of Sicily, who, by his -lectures, restored the science of true Medicine and Anatomy in Naples, -his pupils have suspended this portrait as a mark of grateful -remembrance”. Ingrassias was a voluminous writer, his chief work being a -treatise on osteology, which was published twenty-three years after his -death. When the plague depopulated Palermo, in 1575, his devotion was -such as to earn for him the title of the Sicilian Hippocrates. Few men -have been more earnest workers in medical science. If his fame as an -anatomist has not equalled that of others, the cause is to be sought in -the multiplicity of competitors, not in lack of zeal and ability. - - [Illustration: INGRASSIAS] - - - - - CHAPTER THIRTEENTH - Commentators and Plagiarists - - - [Illustration: Illuminated capital] - -Medical history furnishes numerous examples of literary theft. In many -instances an entire set of anatomical plates has been pirated by -unscrupulous publishers. In a few cases both text and plates have been -appropriated by medical authors. The most notorious example of this form -of theft was furnished by William Cowper (1666-1709), an English surgeon -and anatomist, who, having secured three hundred copies of Bidloo’s set -of one hundred and five anatomical plates, in 1697 issued the work[26] -as his own. Cowper added a few original illustrations to the book. - -Vesalius suffered severely at the hands of the plagiarists. Pirated -editions of the _Tabulae Anatomicae_ were printed in several cities, -chiefly in Germany. As regards the _Fabrica_, we may say that it has -been the fountain from which many anatomical writers have derived -practically all of their illustrations and much of their text. - -The fame of the _Fabrica_ soon spread throughout Europe. It was -published in Germany, in Holland and in England. An epitome of its -contents was issued in Latin, in 1545, by Thomas Geminus, or Gemini, -under the title:—_Compendiosa totius Anatomiae delineatio, aere exaratum -per Thomam. Geminum._ It contained forty of the Vesalian plates, cut in -copper, and was the first book issued in England in which the roller -printing process was employed. It was dedicated to Henry the Eighth, and -was embellished with “one of the earliest and most curious of all extant -engraved title-pages”. - -In 1553, Geminus issued a second edition, in which the text was -translated into English. This edition was dedicated to Edward the Sixth, -with a commendatory note, “To the gentill readers and Surgeons of -Englande”. Six years later the third English edition appeared, which was -inscribed to Queen Elizabeth. It contains the first published portrait -of the Queen. She is shown upon the engraved title-page, and, strange to -say, above her is another queenly figure, with a pen in her right hand, -a wreath on her left, her foot resting on the globe, and styled -_Victoria_. - -Another English work on anatomy, which is filled with poor imitations of -Vesalius’s illustrations, is the _Microcosmographia_ of Helkiah Crooke, -or Crocus, who was “Professor in Anatomy and Chirurgery”. Its chief -value rests in an elaborately engraved title-page, a part of which shows -Crooke giving a demonstration in anatomy in the presence of the -“Worshipfull Company of Barber-Chirurgeons”, in London, early in the -seventeenth century. - -John Banister of Nottingham, in 1578, borrowed a few Vesalian woodcuts -for use in _The Historie of Man, sucked from the sappe of the most -approved Anatomists and published for the Utilitie of all Godly -Chirurgians within this Realme_. - -Most of the host of translators, epitomizers, commentators and imitators -of Vesalius have passed into oblivion. A few of these persons have -possessed enough of individuality to deserve recognition. - -Juan Valverde di Hamusco, a Spaniard who was born about the year 1500, -studied anatomy at Padua and later at Rome. His book, _Historia de la -Composicion del Cuerpo Humano_, was published at Rome in 1556. It -contains forty-two copperplates and an engraved title-page. Although the -author says he has used only the Vesalian plates, his work contains -several plates which are not to be found in Vesalius’s writings. For -example, Valverde shows a _muskelmann_ with his skin held in his right -hand, the left grasping a dagger which may have been used in the -skinning process. Other original drawings show the abdomen and -intestines, a pregnant woman with the abdomen opened, and illustrations -of the superficial veins. - -Valverde was physician to Cardinal Juan de Toledo, Archbishop of -Santiago, to whom the work is dedicated. The illustrations were drawn by -Gaspar Becerra and were engraved by Nicholas Beatrizet. Valverde’s book -went through several editions. It forms a landmark in the medical -history of Spain—a country which, for many years, was behind other -states of Europe in matters of science. - -To name the list of anatomical writers who have derived their artistic -inspiration from the _Fabrica_ would require much more space than is at -our disposal. It must suffice to say, that, for a period of two -centuries, nearly all treatises on anatomy contained illustrations which -were taken from the writings of Vesalius. With few exceptions, these -reproductions were little better than caricatures of the original -figures. - -Of the numerous editions of the _Fabrica_ there are three which are -highly prized, namely, the first one, 1543; the second, issued in 1555, -containing eight hundred and twenty-four pages, with many changes in the -text; and the 1725 edition of the collected writings of Vesalius. The -last named is a huge volume which was published at Leyden under the -supervision of Boerhaave and Albinus, with the illustrations cut in -copper by Jan Wandelaar[27]. - -It contains the _Fabrica_, the _Epitome_, the _Epistola de Radicis -Chynae_, various anatomical treatises of a controversial character, and -the _Chirurgia Magna_ which has been wrongly attributed to Vesalius. -Morley says of this book:—“After his death a great work on surgery -appeared, in seven books, signed with his name, and commonly included -among his writings. There is reason, however, to believe that his name -was stolen to give value to the book, which was compiled and published -by a Venetian, Prosper Bogarucci, a literary crow, who fed himself upon -the dead man’s reputation”. - - [Illustration: Ornamental block] - - - - - CHAPTER FOURTEENTH - The Court Physician - - - [Illustration: Illuminated capital] - -Vesalius, having finished the _Fabrica_, intended to write a work on the -practice of medicine which should be based on pathology. He makes -mention of this in the preface of the _Fabrica_, and in numerous places -in the body of the book he describes the pathologic appearances which he -found in dissection. - -Returning to Padua after a year’s absence, he found that the University -for which he had strenuously labored was a very hotbed of opposition. -His former pupil and friend, Realdus Columbus, who was now lecturing on -anatomy at Padua, had turned against him. How deeply Vesalius was -wounded by the man whom he had made, can be appreciated only by those -who have been placed in similar circumstances. The controversy between -Columbus and Vesalius was of a bitter and personal character. - -On all sides the views of Vesalius were attacked, and the defenders of -Galen joined hands with men like Columbus in an effort to besmirch the -great anatomist. Disgusted with such treatment, Vesalius, early in 1544, -went to Pisa. Here he conducted a course in anatomy. Leaving Pisa, he -went to Bologna where he made some special dissections upon two bodies. -About this time he declined a chair in the University of Pisa which was -tendered to him by direction of Cosimo de’ Medici. Tired of the -apparently useless effort to make men see the truth, sick of disputes -and arguments, persecuted by members of his own profession, in a fit of -passion Vesalius threw his manuscripts into the fire and ended his -career as a scientist. “Thus”, says Morley, “he destroyed a huge volume -of annotations upon Galen; a whole book of Medical Formulae; many -original notes upon drugs; the copy of Galen from which he lectured, -covered with marginal notes of new observations that had occurred to him -while demonstrating; and the paraphrase of the books of Rhazes, in which -the knowledge of the Arabians was collated with that of the Greeks and -others”. - - [Illustration: CHARLES THE FIFTH] - -While in this frame of mind it is not surprising that he should have -accepted the appointment of Archiatrus to Charles the Fifth of Spain. - -The great Emperor was now at the zenith of his fame. His kingdom, which -reached from South America to the Zuyder Zee, was well under control, -but the monarch already contemplated the abdication of the throne in -favor of his son Philip, who is known in history as Philip the Second. - -Vesalius left Italy and took up his residence at Madrid. He was now in -his thirtieth year. As Archiatrus he accompanied the Emperor in the -fourth French war, in which he gained his first experience as a military -surgeon. He also acted as physician to Charles and to the members of the -imperial household. The war ended in September 1544. In January, 1545, -Charles went to Brussels, and remained in the Netherlands for many -months. Vesalius was now in his native country, and in April, 1546, he -visited the graves of his ancestors at Nymwegen and Wesel. In the same -year he published a new edition of his treatise on the China root. - -On the twenty-fifth day of October, 1555, amid a scene of pomp and -splendor, in the presence of the assembled representatives of the -Netherlands, Charles formally surrendered to his son all his -territories, jurisdiction and authority in the Low-Countries. This was -the first of a series of acts by which the Emperor gradually -relinquished the reins of power, in order to spend his remaining days in -a cloister. Philip thus became the heir to a vast dominion. Vesalius was -continued in office as Archiatrus by the new Emperor. From both Charles -and Philip, Vesalius received many marks of honor. It was he who rescued -Charles from what was thought to be a mortal disease. At a later date, -when Philip’s unfortunate son, Don Carlos, received a severe injury to -the head, and after the treatment of the Spanish physicians had failed, -it was Vesalius who saved his life by an operation. These cures, and the -accurate prediction of the death-day of Maximilian d’Egmont, placed the -fame of Vesalius at high tide. - - - - - CHAPTER FIFTEENTH - Pilgrimage and Death - - - [Illustration: Illuminated capital] - -Suddenly, early in the year 1564, for a reason which has never been -explained satisfactorily, Vesalius left Madrid. Apparently he was at the -height of success. He was famous as a physician and surgeon; he was a -favorite at the Spanish court; he had amassed a fortune; and seemingly -he was destined to pass his remaining days under the most favorable -surroundings. As occurs to all great men, he had excited the jealous -animosity of many of the members of his profession. The efforts of the -Madrid physicians to ignore the talents of one whom they regarded as a -foreigner, long since had reacted to the advantage of the Archiatrus. - - [Illustration: PHILIP THE SECOND] - -During the twenty years that he had filled the post of Archiatrus, the -scalpel of Vesalius was rusting: but the controversy concerning the -infallibility of Galen was still raging. The violent criticisms of -Sylvius upon the _Fabrica_ had been silenced by death, but others took -up the cause of Galen where Sylvius had left it. But the passing years -had brought a new coterie of professors, who, like Fallopius at Padua; -Rondelet at Montpellier; Massa at Venice; and Fuchs at Tübingen, were -boldly teaching many things that were contrary to Galen. - -Life at the Spanish court was not favorable to the study of science. -“The hand of the Church”, says Foster[28], “was heavy on the land; the -dagger of the Inquisition was stabbing at all mental life, and its torch -was a sterilizing flame sweeping over all intellectual activity. The -pursuit of natural knowledge had become a crime, and to search with the -scalpel into the secrets of the body of man was accounted sacrilege. It -was for a life in priest-ridden, ignorant, superstitious Madrid that -Vesalius had forsaken the freedom of the Venetian Republic and the -bright academic circles of Padua; in Madrid, where, as he himself has -said, ‘he could not lay his hand on so much as a dried skull, much less -have the chance of making a dissection’. Moreover, he must have felt the -loss of Charles, who, whatever his faults, recognized the worth of -intellectual efforts, and in many ways had shown his sympathy with -Vesalius’s love of knowledge. Such sympathy could not be looked for in -the narrow and bigoted Philip”. - -About this time Vesalius received a copy of the _Observationes -Anatomicae_ of his pupil Fallopius, who, having learned all that his -master had taught of anatomy, continued his studies with great skill and -industry. Such a book, coming at an opportune time, must have seemed -like a voice calling the Archiatrus back to the intellectual life, -bringing to his mind’s eye the recollection of his happy days in Italy. - -Vesalius travelled to Venice by way of Perpignan. While in Venice he -visited the printer, Francesco Sanese, and discussed the publication of -a new book which should contain his reply to Fallopius. In a short time -he started for Cyprus in company with Jacobo Malatesta, the commander of -the Venetian forces in that island. Thence he passed to Jerusalem on a -pilgrimage to the Holy Land. Vesalius never returned from that journey. -Information of his death reached Brussels towards the end of that -year—1564. - -What was the reason for this pilgrimage? Various alleged authorities -have given different versions, many of which are evidently fictitious. -The most reasonable account, which emanates from Spanish-French sources, -dates from a letter written January 1, 1565, to the physician Caspar -Peucer by Hubert Languer, or Hubertus Languetus, the Huguenot friend of -Philip Sidney, which says:—“They say that Vesalius is dead. Doubtless -you have heard that he went to Jerusalem. That journey had, as they tell -us from Spain, an odd reason. Vesalius, believing a young Spanish -nobleman whom he had attended to be dead, obtained leave of the parents -to open the body for the sake of inquiring into the cause of the -illness, which he had not rightly comprehended. This was granted; but he -had no sooner made an incision into the body than he perceived the -symptoms of life, and opening the breast, saw the heart beat. The -parents coming afterwards to the knowledge of this, were not satisfied -with prosecuting him for murder, but accused him to the Inquisition of -impiety, in hopes that he would be punished with greater rigor by the -judges of that tribunal than by those of the common law. But the King of -Spain interposed, and saved him on condition that by way of atoning for -the error he should undertake a pilgrimage to the Holy Land”. - -The pilgrimage was made, the Holy Sepulcher was visited, and the weary -wanderer had started for Padua to take the chair which was made vacant -by the death of Fallopius. A violent storm swept the Ionian Sea. -Vesalius’s ship was wrecked upon the island of Zakynthos, where, on the -fifteenth day of October, 1564, the Archiatrus died of exhaustion. - -Such was the miserable end of Andreas Vesalius of Brussels, a man, who, -before he had attained his thirtieth year, had become the greatest -anatomist that the world has ever seen. - - [Illustration: Ornamental block] - - - - - FOOTNOTES - - -[1]Théorie de la figure humaine. Paris, 1773. - -[2]Moehsen: Verzeichnis einer Sammlung von Bildnissen. Berlin, 1771; - page 59. - -[3]Bell: Observations on Italy. Edinburgh, 1825; page 257. - -[4]Galen: De Anatomicis Adininistrationibus. Lib. II. - -[5]Celsus: De Medicina. Lib. I. - -[6]Fisher: Claudius Galenus. Annals of Anatomy and Surgery, Vol. IV., - page 216. - -[7]Saint Basil, in his maturer years, deeply regretted that he had - studied classical literature in his youth. Jerome regarded the - reading of the writings of antiquity as a terrible crime. Gregory - the Great declared a knowledge of grammar even for a layman to be - indelicate.—Fort: Medical Economy during the Middle Ages. N. Y., - 1883; pages 102, 103. - -[8]Meryon: History of Medicine. London, 1861; vol. I, page 479. - -[9]Adam; Vitae Germanorum Medicorum. Haidelbergae, 1620: page 224. - -[10]Zwinger: Theatrum Vitae Humanae. Basileae, 1571. - -[11]Vesalius: Fabrica, 1543, preface. - -[12]Sylvius: Ordo et Ordinis Ratio in Legendis Hippocratis et Galeni - Libris, 1539. - -[13]The Collége Royal de France was founded by Francis the First. This - enlightened patron of the sciences and arts recognized the merits of - scientific men and rewarded them with his money and his friendship. - He established the Collége de France with twelve richly-endowed - professorships, one of which was devoted to medicine. The lectures - were free to all who desired to attend. The first incumbent of the - chair of medicine was Vidus Vidius, Guido Guidi, of Florence, who - filled this position from 1542 to 1548. Such success followed his - labors that, on his return to Italy, his experience in Paris was the - subject of this witticism: _Vidus venit, Vidius vidit, Vidus vicit_. - -[14]Northcote: History of Anatomy. London, 1772; page 56. - -[15]Portal: Histoire de l’Anatomie et de la Chirurgie. Paris, 1770; vol. - I, page 365. - -[16]Moreau: Vita Sylvii, in Sylvii Opera Medica. Geneva, 1635. - -[17]Vesalius: De radice Chinae epistola, 1546; pages 151, 152. - -[18]Archives Curieuses de l’Histoire de France. - -[19]Guinterius: Anatomicarum Institutionum, 1539. - -[20]Paraphrasis in nonum librum Rhazae medici Arabis clariss. ad Regem - Almansorem, de singularum corporis partium affectuum curatione, - autore Andrea Wesalio Bruxellensi Medicinae candidato. Lovanii ex - officina Rutgeri Resii. mense Februar. 1537. - -[21]Radicis Chinae usus, Andrea Vesalio autore. Lugd., 1547; page 278. - -[22]Moehsen: Verzeichnis einer Sammlung von Bildnissen. Berlin, 1771; - page 82. - -[23]Sandrart: Teutsche Academie. Nürnberg, 1685: vol. II., page 243. - -[24]Portal: Histoire de l’anatomie et de la chirurgie. Paris, 1770; vol. - I., page 399. - -[25]McMurrich: Medical Library and Historical Journal, December, 1906. - -[26]Cowper: The Anatomy of Human Bodies. Oxford, 1697. - -[27]Andreae Vesalii Opera Omnia Anatomica et Chirurgica in duos tomos - distributa cura Hermanni Boerhaave et Bernhardi Siegfried Albini. - Lugduni Batavorum, 1725. - -[28]Foster: Lectures on the History of Physiology. Cambridge, 1901, page - 17. - - - - - INDEX - - - [Illustration: Ornamental block] - - - - - INDEX - - - A - Abrégé d’anatomie 93 - Achillinus, Alexander 42 - Adam, M. 55 - Adolph of Nassau 11 - Aegina, Paul of 63, 80 - Aesculapius 17 - Aetius 80 - Alberti, Leo Battista 7 - Albertus Magnus 55 - Albius, John Andreas 80 - Albinus, B. S. 46, 115, 129 - Albucasis 30 - Alcmaeon 19, 115 - Aldo 11 - Aldus Manutius 43 - Alexander of Tralles 63 - Alexander the Great 20 - Alexandria 20, 22 - Alexandrian Anatomists 22, 23 - Alexandrian Library 23 - Alexandrian University 22, 29 - Alfonso the Magnificent 5 - Almansor, the 72 - Al-Rasi 31 - Amatus 51 - Ambrosian Library 113 - Anatomy in Ancient Times 17-28 - Anathomia Mundini 11, 35, 48 - Anatomia Corporis Humani 37 - Anatomia ridotta 93 - Anatomia Porci 27 - Anatomical Renaissance 14 - Andernach, John Winter of 61 - Antonius Musa 20 - Antropologium of Magnus Hundt 39 - Apelles 22 - Aphorisms of Hippocrates 53 - Apollo 19 - Apophyses venarum 51 - Aquaeductus Fallopii 122 - Aqueduct of Sylvius 60 - Arabs 27, 30, 56 - Arantius 15, 16 - Archimedes 22 - Archiatrus 131, 132, 135, 136 - Aristophanes 22 - Aristotle 19, 55, 65, 66, 67 - Ars Curativa of Galen 56 - Art-Anatomy 7, 91 - Artery of Sylvius 60 - Asclepiadae 17, 19, 56 - Astruc 57 - Athanasius 22 - Augustus 20 - Aurelius, Marcus 24 - Averröes 4, 56 - Avicenna 15, 31, 56, 80 - - - B - Banister, John 127 - Basel, view of 83 - Beatrizet, Nicholas 128 - Becerra, Caspar 128 - Bell, John 18 - Bembo 12 - Benedictine Monastery 5 - Berengario da Carpi 43-46 - Bertruccius 29 - Boccaccio 4, 5 - Bogarucci, Prosper 129 - Boerhaave 129 - Bologna 6, 15, 27, 29, 30, 37, 43, 130 - Boniface VIII 15 - Bracciolini, Poggio 10 - Brambilla 44 - Brissotus, Petrus 56 - Bruchaeum 21 - Budaeus 56 - Busleiden, Hieronymus 54 - - - C - Caelius Aurelianus 63 - Caesalpinus 16 - Caius 10 - Cajetan Petrioli 115 - Calamus scriptorius 23 - Callimichus 22 - Calcar, Jan Stephan van 9, 74, 82, 83, 89 - Canna coxae 34 - Cannanus 51, 60 - Caraffa 13, 73 - Carbo, Gisbertus 55 - Cardan, Jerome 52 - Cardi, Luigi 9 - Carpi, Seigneur de 43 - Carpus 43-46 - Carolus Stephanus 48 - Caxton 11 - Celsus, Aulus Cornelius 10, 22 - Charles the Fifth 53, 55, 82, 87, 95, 112, 119, 131 - Chauliac, Guy de 29 - China root 73, 87, 132 - Christian III 63 - Cicero 4, 5 - Cimabue 7 - Civitas Hippocratica 27 - Clement VII 12 - Clement XI 115 - Colladus 117, 118 - Collegium trilingue 54 - Collége de Tréguier 58 - Collége de Cornouailles 58 - Collége de France 15, 58, 60 - Columbus 16, 114, 117, 118-121, 130 - Copernicus 2 - Copho 27 - Coriolano, Christoforo 88 - Cortona, Pietro da 9 - Cosimo de’ Medici 5, 131 - Cosimo I 123 - Cowper, William 126 - Crabbe, Isabella 53 - Crooke, Helkiah 127 - Crusaders 15 - Curtius, Matthaeus 79 - - - D - da Carpi, Berengario 43-46, 47 - da Carpi, Hugo 45 - Danoni 84 - Dante, Alighieri 3 - Dark Ages, Anatomy in the 26 - da Vinci, Leonardo 2, 8, 9, 113 - de Ketham, Joannes 32, 33 - Della Torre, Marc Antonio 8 - Descartes 65 - Deventer, the Beggar of 61, 64 - de Zerbi, Gabriel 37, 39 - Donaria of Anatomical Interest 20 - Don Carlos 132 - Dryander, John 46-48, 51, 114 - Dubois, Jacques 57 - Dürer, Albrecht 9 - - - E - Eclectic Philosophy 66 - Egyptian Anatomy 17 - Eichmann 47 - Elizabeth, Queen 127 - Empedocles of Agrigentum 19 - Epidaurus 20 - Epitome, the 84, 91, 93, 95-97, 129 - Erasistratus 22, 23, 24 - Eratosthenes 22 - Estienne, Charles 48-51, 60 - Estienne, Robert 50 - Eucharus 31 - Eucharius Rhodion 16 - Euclid 22 - Eustachius, Bartholomeus 15, 16, 114-118 - Eyck, Hubert and John van 7 - - - F - Fabrica, the 30, 54, 55, 71, 82, 84, 94, 126, 128, 129, 130, 133 - contents of 93-113 - Fabricius ab Aquapendente 16, 51 - Fallopia 123 - Fallopius, Gabriel 16, 114, 117, 118, 121-124, 134, 135 - Ferdinand I 63 - Fernel, Jean 57, 58, 64-67 - Fisher, G. J. 25, 119, 121 - Fliegende Blätter 37, 89, 95 - Foesius, Anutius 10 - Foramen Vesalii 103 - Fort, George F. 27 - Fracastoro 10 - Francis the First 60 - Frederick II 28 - Friesen 40 - - - G - Gabriel de Zerbi 37, 39 - Galen 10, 15, 19, 20, 24-26, 30, 36, 56, 57, 58, 61, 63, 64, 66, 67, - 68, 79, 80, 101, 103, 109, 111, 112, 123, 130, 131, 133, 134 - Galileo 2, 112 - Geminus, Thomas 126, 127 - Gemma, Regnier 70, 71 - Giacomo Berengario 43-46 - Giacomo Moro 93 - Giotto 7 - Giuseppe Ribera 9 - Glisson 51 - Granvella 55 - Greece, Anatomy in 17, 18, 20 - Gregory the Great 27 - Guido Guidi 60 - Guillemeau, Jacques 16 - Guinterius, Joannes 61-64, 67, 68, 71, 81 - - - H - Hamusco, Juan Valverde di 128 - Harvey, William 16, 110, 112, 121 - Havers, Clopton 50 - Hela, Ricardus 37, 38 - Henry the Second 65 - Hero 22 - Herophilus 22, 23, 122 - Historie of Man 127 - Hippocrates 10, 17, 18, 19, 24, 57, 66, 67, 80, 125 - Holbein, the Elder 41 - Homer 29 - Hubert van Eyck 7 - Hugo da Carpi 45 - Humanists and Humanism 4, 9, 10, 11, 13, 56 - Hundt, Magnus 39-40, 42 - - - I - Ignatius Loyola 73 - Index Expurgatorius 13 - Ingrassias, John Philip 15, 117, 118, 124, 125 - Inquisition 13, 44, 136 - Isagogae Breves 45 - Institutionum Anatomicarum 81 - Italy and the Renaissance 2-14 - - - J - Jan Stephan van Calcar 9, 74, 82, 83, 89 - Jan Wandelaar 86, 129 - Jerome 27 - Jerome Mercurialis 88 - Jesuits 73 - Joannes de Ketham 32, 33 - - - K - Kalcker 89 - Ketham, Joannes de 32, 33 - - - L - Lactantius 11 - Lancisi 115 - Languer, Hubert 135 - Laurentius Phryesen 40, 41 - Leonardo da Vinci 2, 8, 9, 113 - Leonicenus, Nicholas 10, 56 - Linacre, Thomas 10 - Livy 5, 20 - Lorenzo de’ Medici 8 - Louvain, University of 53, 54, 71, 75 - Loyola, Ignatius 73 - Luca Signorelli 8 - Luigi Cardi 9 - Luther 63 - Luzzi, Mondino dei 29 - - - M - Maggiore Consiglio of Venice 28 - Magnus, Albertus 55 - Malatesta, Jacobo 135 - Manetho 22 - Marc Antonio della Torre 8 - Margarita Philosophica 55 - Massa 134 - Maximilian d’Egmont 132 - Mead, Dr. Richard 97 - Medicina Astrologica 28 - Melzi 113 - Mercurialis, Jerome 88 - Meryon, Edward 45 - Michael Angelo 8, 9 - Mirach 34 - Moehsen, J. C. W. 18, 87 - Mondino dei Luzzi 29-36 - Mondino’s Anathomia 11, 35 - Mondino’s Successors 37-51 - Monte Cassino 5 - Moreau 61 - Morley, Henry 70, 129, 131 - Moro, Giacomo 93 - Moschenbauer 93 - Musa, Antonius 20 - Museum, Alexandrian 22 - Myntens, Arnold 9 - - - Mc - McMurrich 113 - - - N - Narcissus of Parthenope 82 - Nicholas V 5, 10 - Northcote, W. 60 - - - O - Oporinus, Joannes 84, 85, 86, 95, 99 - Oribasius 63 - Origen 22 - Osiris 22 - - - P - Padua, University of 15, 74, 75, 76, 79, 80, 81, 112, 123, 136 - Vesalius’s Sojourn in 56-69 - Paedagogium Castri 54 - Paganism 11, 12 - Paraphrase of Rhazes 72, 131 - Paré, Ambroise 16 - Paris, Anatomical teaching at 56, 69 - Parthenope, Narcissus of 82 - Pascal 112 - Paulus Aegineta 10, 63, 80 - Pausanias 18 - Petrarch 3, 4, 5 - Peucer, Caspar 135 - Peyligk, John 39 - Philip the Second 95, 131, 132, 134 - Phryesen, Laurentius 40, 41, 42 - Pierre de la Rameé 65, 66, 67 - Pietro da Cortona 9 - Piles, Rogers de 93 - Pinus 115 - Pion, Albert 43 - Poggio Bracciolini 9 - Pollaiuolo, Antonio 8 - Poliziano 10 - Pontanus 10 - Pope Boniface VIII 15 - Pope Clement VII 12 - Pope Clement XI 115 - Pope Leo X 12 - Pope Nicholas V 10 - Pope Paul III 13 - Pope Paul IV 13, 119 - Pope Pius IIII 119 - Portal 60, 112 - Ptolemies, the 22 - - - Q - Quintilian 5 - - - R - Raffaello Santi 9 - Raimondino 28 - Ramus 65, 66, 67 - Regio Judaeorum 21 - Renaissance, the Anatomical 14-16 - Renaissance, the General 1-14 - Rescius 71 - Rhacotis 21 - Rhazes 31, 53, 72, 73 - Rhodion, Eucharius 16 - Ribera, Giuseppe 9 - Richardson, B. W. 99 - Rogers de Piles 93 - Rome, Anatomy in 19, 20 - Rubens 9 - Rufus of Ephesus 122, 123 - - - S - Saint Basil 27 - Saint Stephen 12 - Salernum 5, 27, 28 - Sandrart 89 - Sannazzaro 10 - Santi, Raffaello 9 - Scotus, Michael 55 - Servetus 64, 68, 118, 119, 121 - Sicilian Hippocrates 125 - Sidney, Philip 135 - Signorelli, Luca 8 - Siphac 34 - Spiegel der Artzny 41 - Stephanas, Carolus 48-51 - Stirling-Maxwell, Sir William 83 - Sturm 71 - Sylvius, Jacobus 57-61, 67, 68, 112, 113 - Symonds, J. A. 3 - - - T - Tabulae Anatomicae 81, 83, 126 - Tagault, Jean 57 - Temples of Aesculapius 18 - Terence 5 - Theatin Monks 73 - Theocritus 22 - Thomas of Sarzana 10 - Titian 87, 88, 89, 93 - Torcular Herophili 23 - Torre, Marc Antonio della 8 - Torricelli 2, 112 - Tortebat, François 93 - Trajectorium 35 - Tralles, Alexander of 63 - Tritonius, Vitus 75, 80 - - - V - Valeriano 12 - Valverde, Juan di Hamusco 128 - van Eyck, Hubert and John 7 - Varolius 15 - Vasari 88 - Velsius 71 - Venice 6, 11, 37, 73, 89, 93, 118, 123, 135 - Venice, Maggiore Consiglio of 28 - Verdunno, Narciso 82 - Vesalius, birth of 52 - death of 136 - education of 53-55, 56, 67, 68 - Vesanus 59, 112 - Vida 10 - Vidius, Vidus 15, 60 - Villanovanus, Michael 68 - Vinci, Leonardo da 2, 8, 9, 113 - Vitruvius 10 - Vitus Tritonius 75, 80 - - - W - Waechtlin 41 - Wandelaar, Jan 86, 129 - Wesalius Family 52, 53 - Wharton 42 - Winter of Andernach 61-64 - - - Z - Zakynthos, island of 136 - Zerbi, Gabriel de 37, 39 - Zyrbi 31 - - [Illustration: Ornamental block] - - - - - Transcriber’s Notes - - -—Silently corrected a few typos. - -—Retained publication information from the printed edition: this eBook - is public-domain in the country of publication. - -—In the text versions only, text in italics is delimited by - _underscores_. - - - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Andreas Vesalius the Reformer of -Anatomy, by James Moores Ball - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ANDREAS VESALIUS--REFORMER OF ANATOMY *** - -***** This file should be named 63456-0.txt or 63456-0.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/6/3/4/5/63456/ - -Produced by deaurider, Stephen Hutcheson, and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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