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If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: Eight Lectures on India - -Author: Halford John Mackinder - -Release Date: October 9, 2020 [EBook #63420] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK EIGHT LECTURES ON INDIA *** - - - - -Produced by The Online Distributed Proofreading Team at -https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images -generously made available by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - - - THE VISUAL INSTRUCTION COMMITTEE - OF THE COLONIAL OFFICE. - - - ------- - - EIGHT LECTURES ON INDIA. - - ------- - - - - PREPARED FOR THE COMMITTEE - - BY - - H. J. MACKINDER, - - Lately Director of the London School of Economics and Political - Science: Author of “Britain and the British Seas.” - - - ------- - - With Lantern Illustrations. - - ------- - - - ONE SHILLING NET. - - - - WATERLOW & SONS LIMITED, PRINTERS, LONDON WALL. - - --- - - 1910. - - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - - -480 Slides, 60 for each Lecture, have been prepared in connection with -this book, and are sold on behalf of the Committee by Messrs. Newton & -Co., 3, Fleet Street, London, E.C., from whom the books of lectures can -also be obtained. The complete set of 480 Slides, in eight padded boxes, -may be had for £50, or the Slides to accompany the several Lectures will -be sold for Six Guineas each Lecture. Single Slides will not be sold. -The series consists for the most part of views taken by Mr. A. Hugh -Fisher, the artist who went to India for the purpose on behalf of the -Committee. Some of them are photographs coloured by hand from sketches -in colour prepared by Mr. Fisher, and some are colour photographs by the -Sanger Shepherd process reproducing Mr. Fisher’s own sketches. There are -also many maps in colour prepared by the Diagram Company. - - - -------------- - - - The slides of this series are copyright. - - - - - ------------------------------------ - - ENTERED AT STATIONERS HALL. - - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - - - THE VISUAL INSTRUCTION COMMITTEE. - - APPOINTED BY THE SECRETARY OF STATE FOR THE COLONIES. - - - ---------------------------- - - -THE RIGHT HONOURABLE THE EARL OF MEATH, K.P., Chairman. - -THE RIGHT HONOURABLE SIR CECIL CLEMENTI SMITH, G.C.M.G. - -SIR JOHN STRUTHERS, K.C.B., LL.D., Secretary to the Scotch Education - Department. - -SIR PHILIP HUTCHINS, K.C.S.I., late Member of the Council of the - Secretary of State for India. - -SIR CHARLES LUCAS, K.C.M.G., C.B., of the Colonial Office. - -SIR CHARLES HOLROYD, Director of the National Gallery. - -H. F. HEATH, Ph.D., Director of Special Inquiries and Reports, Board of - Education. - -H. J. MACKINDER, M.P., late Director of the London School of Economics - and Political Science. - -W. H. MERCER, C.M.G., Crown Agent for the Colonies. - -R. D. ROBERTS, D.Sc., Secretary of the Gilchrist Educational Trust. - -PROFESSOR MICHAEL E. SADLER, LL.D., Professor of Education in the - University of Manchester. - - - - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - - - THE - VISUAL INSTRUCTION COMMITTEE - OF THE COLONIAL OFFICE. - - - ------- - -The component parts of the British Empire are so remote and so different -from one another, that it is evident the Empire can only be held -together by sympathy and understanding, based on widely diffused -knowledge of its geography, history, resources, climates, and races. It -is obvious that if this knowledge is to be effective it must be imparted -to the coming generation. In other words it must be taught in the -Schools of the Empire. - -In the Autumn of 1902, a Committee was appointed by the Secretary of -State for the Colonies to consider on what system such teaching might -best be developed. The Committee came to the conclusion that children in -any part of the Empire would never understand what the other parts were -like unless by some adequate means of visual instruction; and, further, -that as far as possible the teaching should be on the same lines in all -parts of the Empire. It was decided to make a beginning by an experiment -on a small scale, and for this purpose to invite the three Eastern -Colonies of Ceylon, the Straits Settlements, and Hong Kong to bear the -expense of a small book of Lantern Lectures on the United Kingdom for -use in the Schools in those Colonies. Other parts of the Empire were -afterwards invited to have editions which would be suited to their own -special requirements prepared at their own expense, and up to the -present date editions have been issued for the Eastern Colonies, for the -West Indies, for West Africa, for Mauritius, and for India. Editions are -now in preparation for Canada and for South Africa. - -The Committee, however, have always had in mind the preparation of -illustrated lectures on the Colonies and India as well as on the United -Kingdom. Their experience convinced them that if this part of the work -were to be done as well as it could be done, it was advisable to have -the illustrations prepared on a uniform system by a highly skilled -artist or artists specially commissioned for the purpose. They were so -fortunate as to interest in their work Her Majesty the Queen (then Her -Royal Highness the Princess of Wales), and through her powerful and -gracious support, and that of Lady Dudley and a Committee of ladies who -were good enough to collect a sum of nearly £4,000 for the purpose, they -have been able to make a beginning of a work which will take some years -to complete. The Committee desire to record their warm gratitude to Her -Majesty, to Lady Dudley, and to the Committee of ladies for making this -part of the undertaking possible. - -The lectures contained in the present little volume are the first -instalment of the work undertaken in connection with the Queen’s Fund. -The Committee’s artist, Mr. A. Hugh Fisher, has travelled through India -collecting material for the illustrative lantern slides. His sketches -and photographs have been reproduced partly by the ordinary process in -black and white, and partly by the Sanger Shepherd method in colour -photography. Some of the slides have been coloured by hand after Mr. -Fisher’s instructions. A series of maps has also been included, in order -that the lessons of the lectures may be driven home. - -The text of the lectures has been prepared at the request of the -Committee by Mr. H. J. Mackinder, who has based his work on information -placed at his disposal from many sources. The Committee believe that he -has succeeded in presenting in their relative importance and proportion -all the chief facts essential to the popular understanding of His -Majesty’s Indian Dominions. It is, of course, obvious that no account -confined within the narrow limits of the present lectures, of so wide -and varied an Empire as that of India, can give a completely accurate -picture of all the many important facts and questions that are referred -to; but in order to reduce to a minimum the chance of giving misleading -impressions, Mr. Mackinder has had the advantage of suggestions from -several eminent authorities on the subject, and in this connection the -Committee desire especially to thank Sir Walter Lawrence, Sir William -Lee-Warner, Sir Theodore Morison, Sir Thomas Holdich, Sir William -Bisset, Sir Philip Hutchins, Mr. G. W. Forrest, C.I.E., and others. - - MEATH, - Chairman of the Visual - Instruction Committee - - LONDON, - - August, 1910. - - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - Publications of the Visual Instruction Committee, issued on - behalf of the Committee by Messrs. Waterlow & Sons Ltd. - - -=A.= Seven Lectures on the United Kingdom, - - By Mr. H. J. MACKINDER. - In the following Editions:— - - - =1. Eastern Colonies Edition, Sept., 1905.= - - In use in Ceylon, the Straits Settlements, and Hong Kong. - - - =2. Mauritius Edition, June, 1906.= - - In use in Mauritius. - - - =3. West African Edition, Sept., 1906.= - - In use in Sierra Leone, the Gold Coast, and Southern Nigeria. - - - =4. West India Edition, Sept., 1906.= - - In use in Trinidad, British Guiana, and Jamaica. - - - =5. Indian Edition, March, 1907.= - - In use in the following Provinces:—Madras, Bombay, Bengal, the - United Provinces, the Punjab, Burma, Eastern Bengal and - Assam, the Central Provinces, the North West Frontier - Province, and British Baluchistan. - - - =6. Indian Edition for use in the United Kingdom, Jan., 1909.= Price - One Shilling net. - - =Canadian and South African Editions are being prepared by - direction of the Governments of the Dominion of Canada and of South - Africa.= - - -=B.=—Eight Lectures on India. August, 1910. - - By Mr. H. J. MACKINDER. - - Price One Shilling net. - - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - - - CONTENTS. - - - --- - - - PAGE. - - LECTURE I. —Madras—the Hindu Religion 1 - - LECTURE II. —Burma—the Buddhist Religion 19 - - LECTURE III. —Bengal—the Monsoons 35 - - LECTURE IV. —The United Provinces—the 51 - Mutiny - - LECTURE V. —Bombay—the Marathas 66 - - LECTURE VI. —Rajputana—the Feudatory 82 - States - - LECTURE VII. —Delhi-the Muhammadan Religion 95 - - LECTURE —The Northwest Frontier—the 114 - VIII. Sikhs - - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - - - NOTE.—It is considered undesirable to overload this book - with footnotes, and, therefore, this general acknowledgment - is made of the indebtedness of the writer to various - standard authors of whose works use has been made and - quotations from which have in some cases been given. - - - - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - - - LECTURE I. - - - --- - - =MADRAS.= - - --- - - THE HINDU RELIGION. - - -India is an empire within an empire. There are four hundred million -people in the British Empire, and of these three hundred million are in -India. Though it is known by a single short name, India must not be -compared with countries such as France and Germany. As regards both area -and population it is the equal of half Europe, that half which includes -all the countries except Russia. It is a land of many languages, some of -them spoken by as many people as speak German or French. It is a land of -several religions, differing more deeply than the sects of Europe It is, -in short, a world in itself, of ancient civilisation, yet as the result -of a wonderful modern history there is to-day peace from end to end of -it, for though the systems of government are very different in different -parts, yet everywhere the rulers, whether British officials or native -princes, acknowledge the sovereignty or the suzerainty of His Imperial -Majesty King George the Fifth. - - -[Sidenote: 1. -Map of Journey, London to Colombo.] India lies one quarter way round the -globe, or ninety degrees eastward from Britain. It is placed wholly in -warmer latitudes than Europe, for the northernmost point of India is -almost precisely in the latitude of the southernmost point of Europe. It -occupies the same latitudes as the great western wing of Africa. If -lifted bodily northward and placed upon the map of Europe, it would -extend from Gibraltar, past Spain, France, and Britain to a point beyond -the Shetland Isles. - -The British Empire in India was won, organised, and defended in the days -before steam. Access to it was possible only by sailing ship round the -Cape of Good Hope, by an ocean path, that is to say, more than ten -thousand miles long. The voyage took several months. To-day the British -official, and soldier, and merchant go from London to Bombay, and the -Indian student comes from Bombay to London in a fortnight. As we see on -the map, the route is by rail to Dover, across the Straits of Dover, and -by rail again through France to Marseilles. There the traveller joins -the steamer which has carried a cargo, probably of cottons and -machinery, through the Bay of Biscay. From Marseilles the track is -through the two Straits of Bonifacio and Messina to the entry of the -Suez Canal at Port Said. Here the mails are put on board, which have -come through the Italian peninsula to Brindisi, and thence by rapid -steamer. Thus it is only from Port Said through the Canal and the Red -Sea to Aden that the vessel carries her complete burden—mails and -passengers, and cargo. The redistribution commences at Aden. Our steamer -happens to be bound, not for Bombay, but for Colombo and Australia, and -the Indian mails and passengers are transferred at Aden to a local -steamer, which crosses to Bombay. - -From London to Colombo and Bombay is the naval high street of the -British Empire. At Gibraltar, Malta, and Aden, where the waterways -narrow and enemies might obstruct, are British garrisons and naval -stations. Even the Suez Canal is partly owned by the British Government. -A generation ago shares in that great undertaking were purchased by the -United Kingdom for four million pounds sterling. To-day the British -shares in the Canal are valued at more than thirty millions sterling, -and each year a profit of more than a million pounds is paid into the -British Exchequer. There is a garrison of British troops also in Egypt. - -Colombo is one of the chief centres of communication in the world. Some -day, when the Dominions beyond the seas have grown to be as rich and as -populous as Britain herself, the way through the Mediterranean, to-day -all important, will be reckoned as one of several equal threads of -imperial power. Other great streams of traffic, India-bound, will then -converge upon Colombo from the Cape in the southwest, from Australia in -the southeast, and by way of Singapore from Canada in the east. - - -[Sidenote: 2. -Map of the Indian Seas.] Colombo is, however, not in the technical sense -Indian. It is the chief city of the beautiful island of Ceylon, which is -about as large as Ireland. The Governor of Ceylon writes his despatches -home not to the Secretary of State for India but to the Secretary of -State for the Colonies, for Ceylon is a Crown Colony, not a Province of -the Indian Empire. We will, therefore, leave Ceylon to be studied at -some other opportunity, and will take the steamer which in a night -crosses the Gulf of Manar to Tuticorin, on the Indian coast opposite. - -As we lie in our bunks that night, while the ship ploughs the water in -the dark, let us realize to what point on the vast surface of the globe -we have travelled. A hundred miles away to east of us are the mountains -of Ceylon, rising some eight thousand feet above the level of the ocean. -A hundred miles to west is Cape Comorin, the southernmost point of -India, lying eight degrees north of the Equator. Let us not be deceived -by the apparent smallness of space on the maps which we use—those eight -degrees are nearly equivalent to the length of Great Britain. - -From Cape Comorin two coasts diverge, the one known as the Malabar Coast -northwestward for a thousand miles, the other known as the Coromandel -Coast northward and then northeastward for a like distance. The surf of -the Arabian Sea beats on the Malabar Coast, that of the Bay of Bengal on -the Coromandel Coast. Both the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal open -broadly southward to the Indian Ocean, for the great Indian Peninsula -narrows between them to a sharp point at Cape Comorin. - - -[Sidenote: 3. -Map of Southern India.] The interior of the Indian Peninsula is for the -most part a low plateau, known as the Deccan, whose western margin forms -a steep brink overlooking the Malabar Coast. From the top of this brink, -called the Western Ghats, the surface of the plateau falls gently -eastward to a second lower brink, which bears the name of Eastern Ghats. -Between the Eastern Ghats, however, and the Coromandel Coast there is a -broad belt of low-lying plain, the Carnatic. Thus India presents a lofty -front to the ship approaching from the west, but a featureless plain -along the Bay of Bengal, where the trees of the coastline appear to rise -out of a water-horizon when seen from a short distance seaward. - - -[Sidenote: 4. -Approaching Tuticorin.] We wake at the dawn of the equatorial day which -comes almost suddenly at six in the morning. There is bustle on board, -for the launch is alongside which is to carry us ashore. The ship is -riding in a yellow, turbid sea, and the land is distant some miles to -the west, a low dark line along the horizon. At one point are white -buildings, which gleam in the increasing light. We cross the broad -shoal, and gradually the detail of the coast separates into a rich -vegetation of trees, and a city whose most prominent object is a cotton -factory with tall chimneys—strange reminder at the very threshold of our -journey that we are entering a land which is in process of economic -change. The United Kingdom underwent such a change a century ago, when -spinning and weaving were removed from the cottage to the steam-driven -factory. - - -[Sidenote: 5. -Nearer approach to Tuticorin.] India is a land of cotton. The very name -calico is derived from Calicut, a town on the Malabar Coast, which was a -centre of trade when Europeans first came over the ocean. Lancashire now -sends cotton fabrics to India, and the Lancashire power-looms compete -seriously with the finer work of the hand looms of India. But India -manufactures great quantities of her own coarser cottons, and such a -mill as this at Tuticorin is doing more than Lancashire to change the -occupations of the Indian people. The beautiful silks, however, worn by -the better-to-do women of India are still manufactured by hand loom. - - -[Sidenote: 6. -Landing at Tuticorin.] [Sidenote: 7. -The Bazaar, Tuticorin.] [Sidenote: 8. -Spinning Mill at Tuticorin.] [Sidenote: 9. -Ducks at Tuticorin.] We land. Dark gesticulating figures surround us, -scantily clad in white cotton. The morning sun casts long shadows, but -there is a throng of people, for the work of India is done in the cool -of the morning. The express train to Madras is waiting, but we have a -short time for that first stroll, which leaves so deep an impression on -the traveller setting foot in a new land. Tuticorin is a remote -provincial city, a Dover or a Calais, on the passage from Ceylon. Here -is a picture of its little bazaar with dark people in flowing white -robes; there is a country cart in the street—ox-drawn. Next we have a -nearer view of the spinning mill with a half-naked workman in the -foreground. Under the shade of these leafy trees is a flock of ducks for -sale. At every turn we see something characteristic, and must ask -questions. - - -[Sidenote: Repeat Map No. 3.] We leave Tuticorin and travel for a -hundred miles across the plain. It is a barren-looking country and dry, -though at certain seasons there is plentiful rain, and crops enough are -produced to maintain a fairly dense population. Far down on the western -horizon, as we journey northward, are the mountains of the Malabar -Coast, for in this extremity of India the Western and Eastern Ghats have -come together and there is no plateau between them. The mountains rise -from the western sea and from the eastern plain into a ridge along the -west coast whose summits are about as high as the summits of Ceylon, -that is to say some 8,000 feet. A group of small hills, isolated on the -plain, marks the position of Madura, a hundred miles from Tuticorin. -Madura is the seat of one of the finest temples in the land. - - -[Sidenote: 10. -Plan of a South Indian Temple.] A Hindu temple in Southern India usually -consists of a square building rising through several stories which grow -gradually smaller. It is thus pyramidal in form, and is adorned with -tiers of thronged sculpture. Within is a cell containing the image. The -temple itself is surrounded by square and walled enclosures, one without -the other; the great gateways through the successive walls are the chief -glories of southern architecture. Though often larger than the central -shrine, they are not unlike it in general appearance, but rectangular in -plan, not square. They rise story above story to a summit ridge and are -rich with thousands of sculptured figures. These great gateways are -known as gopuras. In the courtyards enclosed between the successive -walls are the homes of the priests, and usually a large water tank and a -hall of a thousand columns. Some of these temples are very wealthy -foundations. - - -[Sidenote: 11. -The Tank of the Golden Lilies, The Temple, Madura.] [Sidenote: 12. -The Temple, Madura.] [Sidenote: 13. -A Gopura at Madura.] Here we have the tank of the Golden Lilies in the -Temple of Madura, surrounded by a colonnade, with gopuras rising from -beyond; and here another view in the same temple, and here a gopura -photographed from near. - - -Hinduism is in its essence a spiritual religion. Western thought -instinctively takes for granted the reality of outward things. Eastern -thought instinctively takes for granted the reality of the “soul” or -inward life. In the cosmology of the West there are two worlds, the -natural and the supernatural; in the East the soul is the only real -existence. The world-soul, or soul of Universal Nature, is God, and this -Divine Soul is the supreme and fundamental reality; by comparison with -it all outward things are shadows. Eternity is a vital aspect of -reality. The present existence of the soul is not more certain than its -pre-existence and its future existence. The present life is always brief -and fleeting, but the past began and the future will end in eternity. -Issuing from the Universal Soul and passing through æons of what may be -called prenatal existence, the soul at last becomes individualised and -enters on a career of conscious activity. Far from being dependent on -the body, the soul takes to itself the outward form which it needs and -deserves, and the body dies when it is deprived of the vitalising -presence that animated it. The destiny of the soul is determined by its -origin. It issued from the Universal Soul, and into the Universal Soul, -its source, it must eventually be re-absorbed, though it may pass -through innumerable lives on its way to the goal of spiritual maturity. -“As it nears the goal the chains of individuality relax their hold upon -it; and at last, with the final extinction of egoism, with the final -triumph of selflessness, with the expansion of consciousness till it has -become all-embracing—the sense of separateness entirely ceases, and the -soul finds its true self, or, in other words, becomes fully and clearly -conscious of its oneness with the living whole.” Such, in a few words, -is the inner faith of the East. - -The religious books of India are written in Sanskrit, the tongue of -Aryan conquerors who came into India across the northwestern mountains -nearly two thousand years before Christ. The Aryans brought with them -the worship of the powers of nature, the “devas,” or bright ones. From -the Rig-Veda, or collection of hymns to various gods, which were -composed for the worship of the Aryans during the earliest centuries of -their dwelling in India, we learn something about these deities. Some -were simply forces of nature, such as Father Heaven, Mother Earth, the -Dawn Goddess, the Sun God, and the Wind God. With other deities new -trains of ideas became connected that tended to obscure their original -character. The Fire God, for instance, personified the fire of sacrifice -and domestic use, the atmospheric fire of lightning, and sometimes even -the sun. Thus he became the priest, mediating between man and the gods. -Similarly Varuna, who at first apparently typified the open sky, whose -eye is the sun, subsequently grew into a mighty guardian of the laws of -nature and morality. This earliest age of Hinduism, the age to which the -Rig-Veda belongs, is known as the Vedic Age, and the gods of this age -were worshipped with sacrifice. In the Vedic period Aryan society -probably divided itself into the soldier-yeoman and the priest. The -soldier and yeoman, desirous of winning the goodwill and active -assistance of the gods of the sky and earth, would hire the priest, who -thus came to be regarded as the master of the rites which cajole or -constrain the invisible powers. As the Aryans extended their sway over -India, the influence of the Brahmans or priests increased, and in their -hands religion underwent a profound change. Personal worship gave way to -ecclesiastical ritualism. The idea of sacrifice as a means of compelling -the gods grew to an enormous degree, and the welfare of the world was -imagined to depend upon ritual, the key to which was in the hands of the -Brahmans. - -There was, however, another side to this religious development. Even in -the Vedic Age, while the popular mind was imagining a deity in every -startling natural phenomenon, there were thinkers who discovered behind -all the “devas,” or gods, the one Supreme Power, the Creator, Ruler, and -Preserver of all things, the Divine Soul of which we spoke just now. -This Supreme Power, who became known as Brahma, is not only the real -self of the whole Universe, but also, as we have seen, the real self of -each individual soul. The one Supreme Power could, however, only be -discovered after a severe moral and intellectual discipline, and those -who had not yet discovered it were allowed to worship lower gods. In one -of the Hindu Scriptures the Supreme Lord is represented as saying: “Even -those who worship idols worship me.” No one can have any conception of -Hinduism unless he realises that throughout it there runs a wide -distinction between the popular faith and the philosophical faith which -underlies it. This distinction continues to this day. Countless gods are -still worshipped in India, but the few still hold and always have held -that all gods to whom worship is offered are but names or masks of the -Supreme Lord of the Universe. - -The two principal gods of Modern Hinduism are Vishnu, the Preserver, and -Siva, the Destroyer and Recreator; but they are worshipped under many -different attributes. These two gods came into prominence after the -Vedic Age, and their cults have passed through many phases; but a large -number of Hindus still belong to sects which are called by their names. -The sect to which a Hindu belongs is indicated by a coloured mark, -erroneously described as a caste mark, made on the forehead. Brahma, -Vishnu, and Siva are sometimes regarded as three persons of a Trinity. - -Animals are still sacrificed in certain parts of India, and in honour of -certain gods, but the doctrine of the transmigration of souls, and the -teaching of various religious reformers, of whom Buddha is best known, -has tended in the direction of humanity to all creatures; and the great -majority of Hindus are unwilling to take life, and abstain from animal -food. The cow is to all Hindus an object of veneration. - -An elaborate mythology is connected with the Hindu religion, and the -incidents of this mythology form the basis of Hindu sacred art, -especially of the rich sculpture of the temples. Siva rides Nandi the -Bull, and Vishnu rides Garuda the Eagle. Vishnu in some of his avatars, -or incarnations, takes the form of a fish or of a man-lion, or for vast -numbers of his followers he becomes Rama, the hero of the epic poem the -Ramayana, or he is Krishna—another hero-God. Siva has a wife Kali, who -is terrible, though at other times she is Parvati, the goddess of -beauty; and Siva has sons, of whom one is Ganesh, with a fat human body -and an elephant’s head. - - -[Sidenote: 14. -A Marriage Procession, Trichinopoly.] [Sidenote: 15. -A Group of Brahmans.] Religion goes deep into the life of the Indian. It -governs all his social relations. Here is a street at Trichinopoly, a -hundred miles north of Madura. There happens to be the spire of a -Christian church in the background. In the foreground is a temple -elephant, heading a marriage procession. In white paint on the -elephant’s head is the sect mark of the contracting parties. The Hindu -community is divided not only in sects but also into castes, which are -sternly separated, so that a man may not marry into another caste, or -even eat with those of a lower caste. The tradition is that originally -there were four castes; first the Brahmans, or priestly stock; then the -Kshattriyas, or soldiers, the royal stock; third, the Vaishiyas, or -merchants; and fourth, the Sudras, or artisans, labourers and -agriculturists. But all these castes became sub-divided, and there are -now more castes than callings. - - -[Sidenote: 16. -Processional Car, Trichinopoly.] A curious characteristic of Hinduism is -the mixture of the squalid and crude with the grandeur of an -architecture which in some respects is unsurpassed in the world. Not -merely are the maimed and the beggars importunate in the temple -passages, as in the church entries of Roman Catholic countries, but in -every vacant corner of the outer courts of the temples are established -little tradesmen. The properties of religious ceremony are often -decrepit and tawdry. Here, for instance, we have a wooden processional -car, rough roofed, awaiting the annual ceremony amid the live-stock of -the yard. These warm-natured Southern people have the child’s power of -making believe, and can worship the doll even when battered out of all -recognition. They easily let loose the imagination and give devotion to -the spirit embodied in a shapeless stone as sincerely as to that in the -most finished allegorical sculpture. - - -[Sidenote: 17. -Arch of Welcome to Prince of Wales, Trichinopoly.] It is this sense of -the spiritual and the allegorical in all things that makes the Indian so -ready for loyal devotion to the person of the ruler. Here at -Trichinopoly we have a triumphal gateway erected in honour of the visit -to India of the Prince and Princess of Wales, which still bears the -words “Glorious Welcome to our Future Emperor.” The Prince and Princess -are now the Emperor and Empress. With us the gateway would have been -demolished when it had served its immediate purpose. Here it remains, as -does the memory of the visit. Ceremony rises in India to the rank of an -historical event. - - -[Sidenote: 18. -The Main Bazaar Street, Trichinopoly.] [Sidenote: 19. -The Tank and the Rock, Trichinopoly.] [Sidenote: 20. -The Same—another view.] [Sidenote: 21. -The Rock temple, Trichinopoly.] In the distance through the archway is -the Rock of Trichinopoly which we approach nearer by the main bazaar of -the town, and then, nearer still, we come to the tank which lies beneath -the Rock. Amid the water is a pagoda or shrine. In the foot of the Rock -itself there is excavated a temple. Such rock temples are frequent in -India, perhaps because rock is less costly to carve where it lies -undisturbed than it is to quarry and to remove and to build and to -carve. - - -[Sidenote: 22. -Trichinopoly, looking east from the top of the Rock.] [Sidenote: 23. -Trichinopoly, looking south from the top of the Rock.] [Sidenote: 24. -The Bull Nandi, Tanjore.] [Sidenote: 25. -The Fort, Tanjore.] [Sidenote: 26. -The Temple, Tanjore.] [Sidenote: 27. -Police drilling on the Maidan, Tanjore.] - -Here we have views from the summit of the Trichinopoly Rock, looking -eastward over the city, and then southward over the roof of the great -temple to the tank and the Christian Church. Bishop Heber died at -Trichinopoly. In each aspect we see the unbroken plain which surrounds -the City. Do you notice the Bull Nandi as an ornament along the edge of -the roof of the temple? Here we have him again carved from a great block -of granite at Tanjore, a place not far from Trichinopoly. Other scenes -at Tanjore follow. One shows us the wall of the Fort with the moat -outside, and the gopura of the Great Temple. Another is a vista within -the temple walls, and gives some idea of the great spaces which the -larger temples occupy. Then suddenly we become conscious of one of the -sharp contrasts which characterise the India of to-day. These are Police -drilling on the Maidan, or public place of Tanjore, and away on the -horizon are the semaphores of the railway. - - -In the plain of the Carnatic, which surrounds Madura, Trichinopoly, and -Tanjore, we are not merely in the midst of the Hindu religion and caste -system, but we are also near scenes rendered memorable by the struggle -for India, a hundred and fifty years ago, between the French and the -English. Two trading companies, the one seated in London and the other -in Paris, obtained leave from the local princes to establish trading -posts on the Coromandel Coast. They presently fortified these posts and -became ambitious rivals. - - -[Sidenote: Repeat Map No. 3.] At this time there was a disputed -succession in the Carnatic State, and the English supported one aspirant -for the throne of the Nawab, the French another. The Nawab of the -English party was besieged in the Fort of Trichinopoly by the French and -their Nawab. To effect a diversion, a young Captain, Robert Clive, in -the British company’s service, seized the Fort of Arcot, a hundred miles -to the north, and by a prolonged heroic resistance to the siege which -gathered round him, succeeded in relieving the pressure on Trichinopoly. -That Captain Clive became Lord Clive, Baron of Plassey, the founder of -the British Empire in India. He went out as a writer or clerk in the -service of the East India Company, and rose to be Governor of Bengal. - -It must be remembered, however, that in the time of Clive, no less than -to-day, the number of the British in India was surprisingly small. As we -saw just now, the Police, a great force, are not British but Indian, and -the Indian army, though with British officers, is twice as numerous as -the British garrison. The British have organised the peace and unity of -India, rather than conquered it in the ordinary sense. - -The life of the white man in India is governed by the seasons. Here in -the south the temperature is at all times high, though the heat is never -so great as in the hot season of northern India. On the other hand there -is no cool season comparable with that of the north. In most parts of -India, however, there are five cool months, October, November, December, -January, and February. March, April, and May are the hot season. The -remaining four months constitute the rainy season, when the temperature -is moderated by the presence of cloud, but the moisture is trying to the -European constitution. - - -[Sidenote: 28. -The Nilgiris, near Ootacamund.] In all parts of India the white -population seeks periodical relief by a visit to the hills. Here in the -south the favourite hill station is Ootacamund, in the Nilgiri Hills. It -is scattered over a wide space, with the bungalows in separate compounds -or enclosures. - - -[Sidenote: 29. -Ootacamund, The Bazaar.] [Sidenote: 30. -Ootacamund, General View.] [Sidenote: 31. -Ootacamund.] [Sidenote: Repeat Map No. 3.] “Ooty,” as it is familiarly -called, stands some seven thousand feet above the sea in the midst of a -country of rolling downs rising yet another thousand feet. This lofty -district forms the southern point of the Deccan plateau where the -Eastern and Western Ghats draw together. A deep passage, twenty miles -broad, known as the gap of Coimbatore or of Palghat, lies through the -Ghats, immediately south of the Nilgiri Hills, from the eastern plain to -the Malabar Coast. Other hills, equally high, lie southward of the gap -and extend to Cape Comorin. We saw these last hills to our left hand as -we travelled northward from Tuticorin to Madura. - - -[Sidenote: 32. -On the Railway to Ootacamund.] [Sidenote: 33. -The Same.] [Sidenote: 34. -The Same.] [Sidenote: 35. -The Same.] The railway from the east coast goes through the Gap of -Coimbatore to the Malabar cities of Cochin and Calicut, and from this -railway a mountain line has been constructed up into the Nilgiri -heights. We have here a succession of striking views on this mountain -line. It is a rack and pinion railway, up which the train is worked on -the central rail. - - -[Sidenote: 36. -The Drug in the Nilgiri Hills.] There are magnificent landscapes at the -edge of the Nilgiris, where the mountains descend abruptly to the -plains. This view was taken from a point called Lady Canning’s seat. It -shows the Drug, from the top of which prisoners of war used to be -thrown, in the days of the tyranny of Hyder Ali and Tippu Sultan, the -Mohammedan sovereigns of Mysore, of whom we shall hear more presently. - - -[Sidenote: 37. -Tea Plantation, Nilgiri Hills.] [Sidenote: 38. -The Same.] [Sidenote: 39. -Hill Tribe, Nilgiri Hills.] [Sidenote: 40. -Toda People, near Ootacamund.] The vegetation of the heights is -naturally different from that of the lowlands, and the cultivation of -the Nilgiris is chiefly tea and cinchona, from the latter of which crops -quinine is prepared. Amid the great forests of the slopes large game is -numerous, such as sambur, or Indian elk, and tiger. Here also tribes of -savage peoples have survived through all the centuries of history -practically untouched by the civilization of the plains. One of these -tribes, the smallest but the most interesting, are the Todas, who number -less than a thousand, but have their own strange, unwritten language. - - -[Sidenote: Repeat Map No. 3.] [Sidenote: 41. -Madras from the Sea.] [Sidenote: 42. -The High Court, Madras.] [Sidenote: 43. -St. Mary’s Church, Madras.] [Sidenote: 44. -The Law College, Madras.] [Sidenote: 45. -Y.M.C.A. Building, Madras.] Northward of the group of temple cities, and -eastward of the Nilgiris and of the plateau country of Mysore, on the -low coastal plain is the great city of Madras, four hundred miles from -our landing place at Tuticorin. Like the other seaports of modern India, -Madras has grown from the smallest beginning within the European period. -Its nucleus was Fort St. George, built to shelter the office and -warehouse of the East India Company, in the time when Charles I. was -king of England. To-day Madras has half a million people, and -magnificent buildings in the European style. We have here a view looking -northeastward over a corner of Fort St. George, and across the public -grounds, to the High Court of Justice, whose lofty tower serves the -purpose of a lighthouse for ships approaching the port. To the right of -the High Court in the distance are the buildings round the harbour. Next -we have St. Mary’s Church, standing within Fort St. George, the oldest -British church in India, though the present structure was erected to -replace an earlier church. And here we have the Law College, which -stands beside the High Court, and close to it the building of the Young -Men’s Christian Association. There are many Christians in southern India -among the natives, indeed more than in any other part of the Indian -Empire, although even here they are but a small minority. One Christian -community on the Malabar coast is of the Nestorian sect, who came to -India many centuries before the sea route was opened round the Cape. - - -[Sidenote: 46. -Madras Bank.] [Sidenote: 47. -The People’s Park, Madras.] [Sidenote: 48. -Banyan Tree.] [Sidenote: 49. -The Same.] Madras has a Corporation much after the European plan, and is -a clean, well drained city with many public amenities. Here, for -instance, is the electric tramway in front of the Madras Bank. Here we -have a view in the People’s Park, with a group of sambur within an -enclosure. One of the most remarkable and typical of ornamental trees in -India is the banyan, with drooping branches, whose suckers take root -when reach the ground, giving the effect of a grove, though in fact but -a single tree. - - -[Sidenote: 50. -Banyan Avenue.] Here is a banyan tree seen from without and from within, -and here a banyan avenue at Madras. - - -[Sidenote: 51. -Grain Sellers, Madras.] [Sidenote: 52. -Men ploughing, Madras.] [Sidenote: 53. -Covered Bullock Cart, Madras.] Before leaving Madras, let us look at -three scenes of native life. Here are grain sellers, and here, outside -the city, are men ploughing. Here we see the typical covered bullock -cart. - - -[Sidenote: 54. -Map of India, distinguishing Madras, Mysore, Cochin, and Travancore.] -[Sidenote: 55. -Coffee Planters, Coorg.] Lastly, let us consider the map, and learn what -part of India is ruled from Madras and Ootacamund. We have in the first -place, coloured red, the territory of the Presidency of Madras, which is -ruled directly by the Governor and his Council. In purple are shown the -important native state of Mysore, separated from both coasts by British -territory, and the two little native states of Travancore and Cochin -along the Malabar Coast southward to Cape Comorin. Mysore is directly -under the general supervision of the Government of India, but Travancore -and Cochin are under that of the Government of Madras. Beside Mysore is -the diminutive territory of Coorg, no larger than the County of Essex, -in England. But Coorg has a certain importance for the growth of coffee. -Here we have a group of native coffee planters. - - -[Sidenote: Repeat Map No. 3.] Then we look again at the map in which the -lowlands were shown green and the uplands brown. We see the plain from -Tuticorin to Madras city. We see the southern end of the Deccan plateau, -with the state of Mysore upon it, and the Nilgiri hills at its -extremity. We have the lowland passage of Coimbatore, to which we -referred in describing Ootacamund, and south of this afresh the hills -extending to Cape Comorin. The native states of Cochin and Travancore -are on the westward descent from these southernmost hills. Note again -how the railways take advantage of the lowland passages, especially the -line from Madras leading westward to the Malabar Coast. - -The Cauvery flowing eastward over the plateau is the most considerable -river of Southern India. As it descends the Eastern Ghats it makes great -falls, and these have been harnessed, as the phrase is, and made to -supply power which is carried electrically for nearly a hundred miles to -the Kolar goldfield, within the Mysore boundary. The engineer who -superintended the construction of this work was a French Canadian -officer of the Royal Engineers—interesting evidence of the increasing -solidarity of the British Empire. - -Bangalore is the chief military station of southern India. It is -connected by rail with Madras, but is situated on the plateau within -Mysore. From Bangalore the line runs on to Seringapatam on the Cauvery, -and to Mysore city beyond. These were the seats of the Muhammadan -Sultans, Hyder Ali and Tippu, father and son, who, a generation later -than the time when Clive fought at Arcot, held Madras in terror from -their highland fastness. The threat to the British position in India was -a real one. Hyder Ali leagued himself with the French, with whom we were -then at war, but he was defeated under the great Governor-General, -Warren Hastings. Tippu, Hyder’s son, was also an ally of the French. He -lived into the time of Napoleon, and made his chief attack on British -power when the French were in Egypt, but he was defeated and killed. -Colonel Wellesley, afterwards Duke of Wellington, first rose to notice -in this campaign. He was appointed to command “the troops above the -Ghats.” After the death of Tippu, the civil administration of Mysore was -also assigned to Wellesley, and splendid work he did as civil -administrator. - - -[Sidenote: 56. -Southern India, showing rainfall of S.W. Monsoon.] [Sidenote: 57. -Pykara Falls, Nilgiri Hills.] [Sidenote: 58. -Gairsoppa Falls.] A third map shows you the rainfall which is brought by -the west winds of the summer time to the Malabar Coast. These winds -strike the Western Ghats and the Nilgiri hills and drench them with -superabundant moisture, so that they are thickly forested. At this -season magnificent waterfalls leap down the westward ravines and feed -torrents which rush in short valleys to the ocean. One of the grandest -falls in the world is at Gairsoppa, in the northwestern corner of the -state of Mysore. - - -[Sidenote: 59. -Southern India, showing rainfall of N.E. Monsoon.] [Sidenote: 60. -Southern India, showing density of Population.] A fourth map indicates -the rainfall on the east coast brought by the Northeast Monsoon of the -winter season. Finally, a fifth map shows that the population is densest -down on the lowlands precisely in those regions, on the east coast and -on the west, which are best supplied with moisture. Throughout India the -supply of water for agricultural purposes is the key to the prosperity -of the country, for everywhere there is heat enough for luxuriant -vegetation. It is only drought which is in places the cause of -sterility. With all its vast population there are none the less great -spaces in India very sparsely peopled. Once more let us remember that -India is rather a continent than merely a country. - - - -------------- - - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - - - LECTURE II. - - - --- - - =BURMA.= - - --- - - THE BUDDHIST RELIGION. - - -[Sidenote: 1. -Map of India, distinguishing Burma.] In the last lecture we visited -Madras, the southernmost and oldest province of the Indian Empire. In -this lecture we will cross the Bay of Bengal from Madras to Burma, the -easternmost and newest of the provinces, if we except a recent -sub-division of an older unit. Politically, Burma is a part of India, -for it is ruled by the Viceroy, and commercially it is coming every day -into closer relation with the remainder of India. In most other -respects, however, Burma is rather the first land of the Far East than -the last of India, the Middle East. In race and language probably, in -religion and social customs certainly, it is nearer to China than to -India. Geographically, however, though placed in the Indo-Chinese -peninsula beyond the Bay of Bengal, Burma is in relation with the Indian -world, for it has a great navigable river which drains into the Indian -Ocean, and not into the Pacific as do the rivers of Siam and Annam, the -remaining countries of the southeastward promontory of Asia. - - -[Sidenote: 2. -The Shore, Madras.] [Sidenote: 3. -In Madras Harbour.] We embark from Madras on the steamer which is to -carry us to Rangoon. Formerly it was necessary to go out to the vessel -through the surf in specially constructed boats, for all the Coromandel -Coast is shoal, and there is not a single natural harbour. Often the -surf is very rough. Now, however, a harbour has been made at Madras. Two -piers have been built out into the sea at right angles to the shore. -They may be seen in the distance in this view. At their extremities they -bend inward towards one another, so as to enclose a quadrangular space -within which the steamers lie. None the less there are times when the -mighty waves sweep through the open mouth, rendering the harbour unsafe, -so that the shipping must stand out to sea. There have been many -terrible disasters in the cyclones which from time to time strike the -east coast of India. When the Madras harbour was half completed the -works were overwhelmed by a storm and the undertaking had to be -recommenced. - - -[Sidenote: 4. -Coolies on Steamer.] Our vessel carries nearly two thousand coolies, -natives of Madras, going to Burma to work in the rice mills or on the -wharves, for Burma is a thinly peopled land. It has great natural -resources, which are being rapidly developed by British capital. The -coolies take passage as deck passengers for a few rupees, and each on -landing at Rangoon has to undergo a searching medical examination, -because the Plague is often carried from Madras to Burma. The disease -manifests itself first by swollen glands, especially under the arms. The -contagion, caused by a minute organism, is conveyed by rats. This -terrible sickness is one of the worst scourges of modern India. It first -broke out in Bombay in August, 1896. Since that date there have been -three years in each of which a million deaths were due to it. As time -goes on the mortality will probably decrease, for the first onslaught of -a new disease is generally deadly. We must beware, however, of -exaggerating its significance. There are three hundred million people in -the Indian Empire, and the death rate by plague, even at its maximum, is -therefore not very high. It is, indeed, low as compared with the death -rate by malarial fever. - - -[Sidenote: 5. -Chinese Junk in the Rangoon River.] After a probably rough passage, we -approach the low-lying shore of the great delta of the Irawaddy river, -and enter that branch of it which is known as the Rangoon river. A stray -Chinese junk reminds us of the fact that we are entering Indo-China, and -of the trade relations of Burma with Singapore and the regions of the -Far East. Burmese rice is sent to China, the Malay States, India, East -Africa, and Europe. Rangoon depends for her commerce mainly on the rice -harvest. In recent years, famines in India have been mitigated by rice -exported from Rangoon. - - -[Sidenote: 6. -Map of Burma.] As we steam up the river for some miles inland, let us -consider, with the help of a map, the main features of the geography of -the land which we are about to visit. In this map is shown nearly the -whole of the great southeastward peninsula of Asia. The areas which are -coloured green are lowland, those which are yellow are upland, and the -brown signifies highland and mountain. A ridge of highland, broken only -at two or three points, runs southward through the centre of the map, -separating Burma and the river basins of the Indian Ocean from Siam and -the river basins of the Pacific Ocean. This great divide of the drainage -is continued beyond the southern edge of the map through the Malay -Peninsula for some distance. It ends near Singapore in the southernmost -point of Asia, only one degree north of the Equator. - - -In Burma, parallel with the dividing range, are three other ridges, -striking southward side by side. These separate three valleys, through -which flow severally the Salween, Sittang, and Irawaddy rivers. The -valley of the Salween, as the yellow and brown colours upon the map -indicate, is less deeply trenched between its bounding ranges than are -the other two valleys. As we should therefore expect, the Salween river -has a steeply descending course broken by rapids, and is of small value -for navigation. At its mouth is the port of Moulmein. The valley of the -Sittang, which is a short river, prolongs the upper valley of the -Irawaddy, which latter river makes a great westward bend at Mandalay, -and passes by a transverse passage right through one of the parallel -mountain ridges. Beyond this passage it bends southward again, accepting -the direction of its tributary, the Chindwin river. The great port of -Rangoon is placed on a tidal channel at the eastern edge of the Irawaddy -delta. The railway from Rangoon to Mandalay runs through the Sittang -valley and does not follow the Irawaddy. There is navigation, however, -by the Irawaddy past Pagan and Mandalay northward to Bhamo, which is -close to the Chinese frontier. The coastal plain of Burma is known as -Arakan where it runs northward from the Irawaddy delta, and as -Tenasserim where it runs southward from that delta along a coast beset -with an archipelago of beautiful islands. The delta itself bears the -name of Pegu, or Lower Burma; while the region round Mandalay is Upper -Burma. - - -[Sidenote: 7. -Plan of Rangoon.] We are in the Rangoon river. A tall, pointed pagoda -appears on a hill to the right, and presently, as the channel bends to -the west, we approach the busy commercial front of Rangoon city, -surmounted by the golden spire of the great Shwe Dagon Pagoda. - - -[Sidenote: 8. -Shwe Dagon Pagoda, from across the Royal Lakes.] [Sidenote: 9. -The Shwe Dagon Pagoda, Rangoon.] [Sidenote: 10. -Images of the Sitting Buddha.] [Sidenote: 11. -Earning Merit at the Shwe Dagon Pagoda.] Rangoon, apart from its chief -Pagoda, is a modern city. Fifty years ago it was a village. To-day it -has a quarter of a million people. A wharf-fronted road, the Strand, -follows the shore of the main river for several miles. Up the Pegu -tributary to the east for several other miles are many rice mills with -tall chimneys throwing out black smoke. The harbour is busy with -shipping. There are great timber yards, and there are oil mills, for the -products of Burma are, first and foremost, rice, and then timber, -especially great logs of teak—harder than oak, and then petroleum. Back -from the Strand is a well kept town, with broad streets at right angles, -though as yet there are few really impressive buildings to compare with -the public buildings of Madras. There is a beautiful group of lakes, the -Royal Lakes, set in wooded public grounds, and across these is the -finest view of the Shwe Dagon Pagoda, like a great hand-bell placed on a -low hill. This pagoda is said to be the most frequented in the Buddhist -world, for it has as relics eight hairs of Gautama, the founder of the -Buddhist religion. It began some two thousand years ago as a small -village fane. In successive ages the original structure has been encased -afresh and afresh, until as the result of work done in the days of Queen -Elizabeth, the great pagoda was completed which is now the glory of -Rangoon. It rises to a height of nearly 400 feet, and is solid, there -being no chamber within. The brickwork of which it is built makes a -series of steps or ledges, so that it would be possible to climb for -some distance up the spire. The whole is plated with gold-leaf, and the -gilding is constantly renewed by pious devotees, who thus earn merit. -The word “Shwe” in the name of this pagoda signifies golden. On the -summit is a “hti,” or umbrella, of exquisite workmanship and material. -It is said to have cost sixty thousand pounds. In the vane are 5,000 -gems—diamonds, rubies, and emeralds. The base of the pagoda is -surrounded first by shrines of varying sizes, and then by a flagged -courtyard, which again is fringed with canopies and halls opening -towards the pagoda, with many carved screens and arches, and innumerable -shrines and altars, and images of Gautama. Flights of steps roofed over -with teak descend from the courtyard, and one of the lower entries is -guarded by great grotesque figures, partly lion and partly griffin, made -of plastered bricks. We see one of them in this view. Then we have two -very interesting pictures: the one represents three images of the -Sitting Buddha from one of the shrines on the flagged courtyard at the -foot of the Shwe Dagon Pagoda, and the other shows a pilgrim “earning -merit” by putting gold leaf on to the pagoda itself. - - -[Sidenote: 12. -The Sule Pagoda, Rangoon.] There is another considerable pagoda in the -city, the Sule Pagoda. We have it here, with a corner of a building -adjacent of European architecture, the Municipal Offices. Observe the -watering of the streets by hand labour. - - -[Sidenote: 13. -A Typical Burman.] [Sidenote: 14. -Burmese Gambling, Rangoon.] The Burmese are a short, sturdy people, -merry and happy, and akin rather to the Japanese in temperament than to -the people of the Indian Peninsula. The features of their faces are -obviously Mongolian. They have the oblique eyes of the Chinaman. Here is -a typical Burman with a rose coloured wrap round his head. The Burmese -women, whose praises have been sung through the world, are dainty and, -according to a more or less Chinese standard, not infrequently -beautiful. They love to clothe themselves in silks of brilliant and -delicate hue. Excessive industry is certainly not a failing of the race, -yet there are no poor. We have here a group of Burmese gamblers at -Rangoon. The theatres play all night and the spectators go home by -daylight. The “pwe,” or show, consists invariably of three parts—a -prince, a princess, and a clown; it may be compared with our traditional -harlequinade. Both Indians and Chinese are migrating to Burma in great -numbers, but agricultural work is still chiefly in native hands. - - -[Sidenote: 15. -Elephants lifting Teak.] [Sidenote: 16. -Elephants Pushing Teak.] [Sidenote: 17. -Tusker Elephant.] [Sidenote: 18. -Tusker Elephant lifting Teak.] [Sidenote: 19. -The Same.] One of the most curious and typical sights of Rangoon is that -of elephants manipulating the great logs of teak wood in the timber -yards. The logs are cut in the forests of the north of Burma, and are -floated for hundreds of miles down the Irawaddy in large rafts, until -they are stranded at a creek near Rangoon, called Pazundaung. Elephants -are then employed for the purpose of moving and piling up the logs. The -male elephant is very powerful and has strong tusks, on which he carries -the logs, preventing them from falling with his trunk, but the female -elephants are not so strong, and do not as a rule lift the logs off the -ground, but merely drag them, or push them with the head. We have here -two cow elephants, the one forty years old and the other seventy. We -have them here again, one of them at the command of her rider pushing -the logs forward with her head. In the next scene is a male elephant -with tusks. He is fifty years old, and we realise his power in the next -two views, where we see him poising on his tusks a great tree trunk. -These huge animals are fed entirely on a grass which grows along the -banks of the Irawaddy not far from Rangoon. Machinery is now taking the -place of elephants in the timber yards, and Rangoon is, therefore, -likely to lose one of its most interesting sights. - - -[Sidenote: 20. -A Rice Mill, Rangoon.] [Sidenote: 21. -The Same.] While we are on the river front let us glance also at a rice -mill, where a process equivalent to thrashing is carried out, the grain -being separated from the husk. The black smoke is from the paddy husks -used to supply the motive power of the mill. Paddy, or unthrashed rice, -is mostly brought to Rangoon by water, though more than a million and a -half tons now come annually by rail. After the milling process is -complete, the rice is packed into bags for shipment all over the world. - - -[Sidenote: 22. -A Burmese Railway Train.] We will take train and run by the Burmese -Sittang Railway over the broad levels of the delta, passing through -fields from which the paddy has recently been cut. Only the ears are -lopped off, and the straw is burnt as it stands. The Burmans are mostly -yeomen, each owning his cattle and doing his own work in the field. -Beyond Pegu we follow the Sittang River, with hill ranges low on the -eastern and western horizons, until we come to Mandalay, once capital of -the independent kingdom of Upper Burma. This kingdom was annexed to -India in 1885 at the conclusion of the third Burmese war. Mandalay is -the last of three capitals a few miles apart, which at different times -in the past century have been the seat of the Burmese kings. Amarapura, -a few miles to the south, was the earliest, and Ava, a few miles to the -west, was the capital from 1822 to 1837. - - -[Sidenote: 23. -The 450 Pagodas from Mandalay Hill.] At Mandalay we are again on the -banks of the Irawaddy. There is a hill in the northern suburbs several -hundred feet in height, from which we may look over the city. The houses -are so buried in foliage that, seen from the height, the place appears -almost like a wood of green trees. The square Dufferin Fort, with walled -and moated boundary, and sides more than a mile in length, is -distinguishable in the centre, but for the rest there is none of the -ordinary panorama of a European city. One striking feature, however, -lies at our feet, a little to one side. It is a square group of 450 -white pagodas, with a more considerable gilded pagoda in the centre. -Beside each of these pagodas there stands a large stone, and on these -stones are inscribed quotations from the sacred books of the Buddhists. -In the distance to the southeast are the hills inhabited by the Shan -tribes. - - -[Sidenote: 24. -The Moat, Fort Dufferin.] [Sidenote: 25. -King Thebaw’s Palace.] [Sidenote: 26. -The Aindaw Temple, Mandalay.] [Sidenote: 27. -Maker of Temple Htis, Mandalay.] The Dufferin Fort was built around the -Palace of King Thebaw, the last of the Burmese dynasty. It is enclosed -by a square of red walls pierced by three gates on each side, each gate -bearing a pointed pagoda-like super-structure. Without there is a broad -moat, a hundred yards wide, with lotus plants, floating in it like water -lilies. This moat is crossed by five wooden bridges. Inside the walls is -the King’s Palace, of which we have here the spire, surmounted by a -“hti” finial. This spire is called by the Burmese the “Centre of the -Universe,” since it is in the centre of Mandalay, which they claim as in -the centre of the world. A “hti” we may observe again at the summit of -the great Aindaw Temple in the south of Mandalay, and here we have one -before it has left the home of its maker. - - -[Sidenote: 28. -The Queen’s Palace.] [Sidenote: 29. -The Verandah of King Thebaw’s Palace.] [Sidenote: 30. -Entrance to the Arakan temple, Mandalay.] We return to the Fort, and to -the palaces within it. This is the Queen’s Palace, a very beautiful -building of gilded teak, exquisitely carved, and here is the verandah -where King Thebaw in 1885 surrendered to the British generals. He was -taken away to India, and there he still lives under surveillance on the -Malabar Coast. Here we have the entrance to the Arakan Temple, specially -venerated by Buddhists, for it contains a great image of Gautama, over -twelve feet high, made of brass. Pilgrims gain merit by placing gold -leaf upon this figure. This is the building which Kipling spoke of as -the Moulmein Pagoda; it is not, however, a pagoda, which is a solid -spire, but a temple. - - -[Sidenote: 31. -Sappers and Miners, Fort Dufferin.] [Sidenote: 32. -Crossing the Moat, Fort Dufferin.] [Sidenote: 33. -A Garrison Family.] Burma has been gradually annexed to India as the -result of three successive wars. The first ended in 1826, and then the -low-lying coastal strips known by the names of Tenasserim and Arakan -were taken, and also the great valley of the Brahmaputra, known as -Assam. In 1852 the country of Pegu, or Lower Burma, comprising the delta -of the Irawaddy, was annexed, but Upper Burma round Mandalay remained -independent. The last king of Mandalay was Thebaw, a notorious tyrant, -guilty of the most horrible atrocities. Being anxious to maintain his -independence, he intrigued with the French in the lands of Tonkin and -Annam to the east of Burma, and as a result brought upon himself the -conquest of his country in the time when Lord Dufferin was Viceroy of -India. It took fully ten years to reduce Burma to order, for the land -was infested with dacoits or robbers, as it is still in some of the -remoter districts. Every village in those days was defended by a -palisade. Here we have two views of a party of troops in Fort Dufferin, -with the King’s Palace in the background, and then a family scene in the -married quarters of the garrison. The Burman does not make a good -soldier, for he has very little sense of discipline. Even the police of -the province are for the most part Gurkhas, Sikhs, and Punjabi -Musulmans. - - -[Sidenote: 34. -The Bazaar, Mandalay.] [Sidenote: 35. -The Flower and Seed Market, Mandalay Bazaar.] The Bazaar or market of -Mandalay, as in every other Indian city, is the centre of public life. -Externally it is of little interest, having been constructed since the -conquest, but internally it is an epitome of the varied peoples who have -thronged of late into the growing centres of Burmese trade. Here is a -scene in the fruit market; but it is the silk market which delights the -Burmese lady, who will be seen there accompanied by her maid, making -purchases and enjoying the touch of more than she buys, as in similar -places in Europe. The most striking contrast which is presented by Burma -to one accustomed to Indian life is the freedom of the women, who move -about unveiled. In Burma, under the Buddhist religion, we have neither -seclusion of women nor the distinctions of caste. The city of Mandalay -has a population of about 190,000, so that it is now smaller than the -upstart Rangoon. - - -[Sidenote: 36. -Ferryshaw Siding, near Mandalay.] [Sidenote: 37. -Mora.] [Sidenote: 38. -Katha.] Let us make a voyage up the Irawaddy to the border of the -Chinese Empire. This is a river scene a short way above Mandalay, with a -group of white pagodas conspicuous on the bank, and here is a village -scene. There follows a view at Katha, a large straggling village on the -Irawaddy, remarkable for its many pagodas, most of them ruined. The -majority of the Burmese pagodas are thus dilapidated for the reason that -there is considered to be no merit in merely restoring an existing -Buddhist shrine. The wealthy devotee prefers therefore to erect a new -pagoda. The Shwe Dagon is an exception, for it contains sacred relics. - - -[Sidenote: 39. -Raft on the Irawaddy.] [Sidenote: 40. -On the Irawaddy.] [Sidenote: 41. -In the defile between Katha and Bhamo.] [Sidenote: 42. -The Same.] [Sidenote: 43. -Burmese Children.] [Sidenote: 44. -Cart with solid Wheels.] [Sidenote: 45. -Lacquer Workers.] Here we have a raft of bamboos and teak logs floating -down the river, and then a typical river craft with a great oar for a -rudder. Our steamer must progress with care, measuring the depths with -bamboo poles at either bow. None the less, navigation extends for more -than nine hundred miles from the sea. From Mandalay to Katha the bank of -the river is in most places low and sandy, but between Katha and Bhamo -there are striking defiles, where the ground rises with wooded fronts -from the water’s edge. There is population along the banks the whole -way, as is evidenced by the pagodas amid the vegetation. Here are three -little Burmese villagers, and then a rustic cart with solid wheels, and -here a picture showing the process of the famous lacquer work of Burma. -A “shell” is first made of very thin and finely plaited bamboo, and this -is covered with a pigment which, when dry, is softened on a primitive -lathe. Then red lacquer is put on by hand, and the bowl is dried in the -sun. When dry it is buried for some days in order that it may harden. -Finally it is engraved, and often inlaid with gold. - - -[Sidenote: 46. -Bhamo from the Irawaddy.] [Sidenote: 47. -China Street, Bhamo.] [Sidenote: 48. -Kachin Women, Bhamo.] [Sidenote: 49. -Houses at Bhamo.] We approach Bhamo, at the head of the Irawaddy -navigation, lying low along the bank of the river, twenty miles from the -Chinese frontier. There are naturally many Chinese at Bhamo. This is -China Street. Here, on the other hand, is a group of Kachin women, -heavy-faced, in picturesque costume. The Kachins are the hill tribes of -the northern frontier of Burma, as the Shans are of the eastern frontier -and the Chins of the western. Until quite recently the Kachins often -raided the caravans passing from Bhamo to China. They are now becoming -civilised under British rule. The Burmese people proper, of ancient -civilisation, are a relatively small population confined to the valley -and the delta. Here we see a row of houses at Bhamo, raised high upon -piles. The change which has come over Burma since the British occupation -may be appreciated from the fact that twenty years ago it was no -uncommon sight on the voyage up from Katha to Bhamo to see along the -river banks, and on rafts floating down the river, the dead bodies of -Kachins who had been tortured to death under the terrible rule of the -kings of Mandalay. - - -[Sidenote: 50. -The Gokteik Gorge and Bridge.] [Sidenote: 51. -Native House, Hsipaw.] [Sidenote: 52. -The Bazaar, Hsipaw.] From Mandalay a railway runs eastward into the Shan -country. At one point this line crosses a gorge by a steel bridge, -nearly half a mile long and over 800 feet above the water of the stream. -The bridge is so light in design that its great size and real solidity -are difficult to grasp. Beyond this bridge we come to the chief place of -the Shans, Hsipaw. Here are a couple of scenes in Hsipaw, the one of a -Shan house, the other of a Shan market. - - -[Sidenote: 53. -Pagan.] [Sidenote: 54. -The Ananda Temple, Pagan.] [Sidenote: 55. -The Ananda Temple, nearer view of the west side.] [Sidenote: 56. -Buddha Image at Pagan.] To realise the antiquity and the splendour of -early Burmese civilisation, we must descend the Irawaddy below Mandalay -to a place called Pagan. There, for some ten miles beside the river, and -for three miles back from its bank, are the ruins of a great capital -which flourished about the time of the Norman Conquest of England. From -the centre of the ruined city it is impossible to point in any direction -in which a pagoda or a temple is not visible. We have here a general -view of the remains, and then the Ananda Temple, seen in the midst of a -bank of vegetation, from which at various points rise other smaller red -and white ruins. The Ananda Temple was built more than eight hundred -years ago by the Thatons, the original inhabitants of the country, who -were overcome by the invading Burmans. Some thirty thousand of these -Thatons were brought to Pagan as slaves, and set to build the pagodas -and temples, just as during the captivity in Egypt the Israelites were -employed in building the pyramids. Here is the Ananda Temple close at -hand, white and glittering in the sunshine, as though built of sugar. If -we enter the great portal—there are three other portals similar, for the -plan of the building is that of a cross—we find facing us a huge image -of the Buddha, over ten yards in height. - -Buddhism was developed from Hinduism. It originated as a revolt from the -excessive ritualism of the Brahmans. We have seen that Hinduism became -an all-embracing system of religious ritual and social organisation, but -that alongside, as it were, of this process there was evolved a -philosophical system based upon two theories: the belief in a Universal -Soul as the centre of reality, and the belief in the ultimate identity -of the Individual and the Universal Soul. In the sixth century before -Christ India was seething and fermenting with spiritual thought. A great -teacher was called for, and such a one was given to the world in -Gautama, the Buddha, that is to say, the Enlightened or Awakened One. - -Gautama was born on the frontiers of Nepal at the foot of the great -Himalaya range about the year 557 before Christ. He was the only son of -a chief or king. At the age of eighteen he was married to the daughter -of the chief of a neighbouring clan, and a son was born to him. But the -yearnings of a reformer were stirring within Gautama, and he could not -rest. So one night in secret he left his wife and infant and went out -into the world a wanderer in search of “that inward illumination on -‘great matters,’ which was the cherished dream of every thinker in that -memorable era.” He followed to no purpose the paths of metaphysical -speculation, of mental discipline, and of ascetic rigour, and at last on -one eventful night, as he sat under the Bodhi Tree at Gaya, in Behar, -“he reaped the fruit of his long spiritual effort, the truth of things -being of a sudden so clearly revealed to him that from henceforth he -never swerved for a moment from devotion to his creed and to the mission -that it imposed upon him.” - -The truth which Buddha discovered and preached to humanity was that the -salvation of man lay not in sacrifices and ceremonial, nor in penances, -but in spiritual effort and a holy life, in charity, forgiveness, and -love. The sages of Hinduism had taught as a doctrine for the few that -the Universal Soul is the only reality, and is therefore the real self -of every man. Buddha gave to the world a system by which the truth of -this doctrine could be realised in the life of an ordinary man. - -The four-fold truth on which Buddha’s whole scheme hinges may be -expressed as follows:—Life on earth is full of suffering; suffering is -generated by desire; the extinction of desire involves the extinction of -suffering; the extinction of desire, and therefore of suffering, is the -outcome of a righteous life. But how is desire with the suffering which -it generates to be extinguished? The answer of Buddhism is that the -eightfold path which leads to the extinction of suffering is by “Right -Belief, Right Thought, Right Speech, Right Action, Right Effort, Right -Means of Livelihood, Right Remembrance and Self-discipline, Right -Concentration of Thought.” In Buddha’s system, as he himself gave it to -the world, doctrines and beliefs are of secondary importance. Fully -alive to the truth that “what we do, besides being the outward and -visible sign of our inward and spiritual state, reacts naturally and -necessarily on what we are, and so moulds our character and controls our -destiny,” he formulated for his followers a simple system of moral -rules, obedience to which would set them on the path which leads to -salvation. On this path there are successive stages, and each of these -stages is marked by the breaking of some of the fetters which bind man -to earth and to self, and when all the fetters are at last broken then -the Holy One, as he is now called, has reached his goal. In other words, -he has attained to that state which Buddhists call Nirvana, a state of -“perfect knowledge, perfect love, perfect peace, and therefore of -perfect bliss.” - -The Buddhist system emphasises the importance of education and -discipline. All over Burma there are schools conducted by Buddhist -monastic orders at which instruction is gratuitously given to boys in -the vernacular of the country, and one rarely finds a native of Burma -who cannot read and write his own language. It is also part of the -religious discipline of every Burman boy that he should become a novice -in a monastic order and live for a time the life of a monk. The aim of -this training is to teach obedience and self-control, and thus in these -days of change, when strange and disintegrating influences are at work -in the East, the Burman retains, to a certain extent at all events, his -simplicity and his kindly faith. To appreciate the influence of Buddhism -in Burma let us remember that a Buddhist priest is supported entirely by -gifts in kind, and never touches a coin. - -For some centuries Buddhism made great progress in India, the land of -its birth; but in the end Hinduism re-asserted itself, and to-day there -are very few Buddhists in India proper, though in Burma nearly all the -people are of that faith. This is the chief cause of the difference in -almost every respect between Burma and India. In the Ananda Temple, as -we have seen, there are four images of Buddha, for it is the tradition -of the religion that before Gautama there were in former ages of the -world three other teachers who reached enlightenment and were therefore -called Buddha. - - -[Sidenote: 57. -The Wilderness of Bricks, Pagan.] [Sidenote: 58. -Gadawpalin Temple, Pagan.] [Sidenote: 59. -Vultures on a ruined Temple at Pagan.] [Sidenote: 60. -Cactus at Pagan.] [Sidenote: Repeat Map No. 6.] Here, still at Pagan, is -the so-called Wilderness of Bricks, with the Ananda Temple in the -distance to the right. Then we have the entry to one of the other -temples, and then yet another Pagan ruin with vultures on the summit. -Finally we have a scene of tall cactus growth, also at Pagan, for this -city stands in what is known as the Dry Belt of Burma. The map shows us -that two ranges of mountains extend northward, respectively to east and -west of the Irawaddy valley. The winds of summer and autumn blow from -the southwest, from the sea, bringing moisture which falls in heavy -rains on the west sides of the mountains and over the delta. At Rangoon -there is an annual rainfall of over one hundred inches, or more than -three times the rainfall of London. To the east of the western range, -however, as we leave the delta on our journey up the river, there is a -low-lying district near Pagan, which is screened from the sea winds by -the continuous mountain ridge, and here the rainfall is small, as little -as twenty inches in the year, but the climate is hot and evaporation is -rapid. In this district, therefore, cactus is the typical vegetation, -but elsewhere in Burma are rich crops or the most luxuriant forests of -leafy trees. These forests supply the teak wood, which is floated down -the river. They are full of game, and the haunt of poisonous snakes. -Wild peacocks come from the woods to feed on the rice when it is ripe, -and tigers are not unknown in the villages. Only a few years ago a tiger -was shot on one of the ledges of the Shwe Dagon Pagoda in the midst of -Rangoon. - -Notwithstanding the age of some of its temples and pagodas, Burma is in -the main a new country, in which Nature is still masterful. It is the -largest of the provinces under the Government of India, but all told it -contains but ten million people—Burmese, Chinese, Hindus, and the Hill -Tribes. - - - -------------- - - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - - - LECTURE III. - - - --- - - =BENGAL.= - - --- - - THE MONSOONS. - - -[Sidenote: 1. -Map of Bengal.] From Burma we take steamer again and cross the sea to -Bengal, the Metropolitan Province of India. The heart of Bengal is one -of the largest deltas in the world, a great plain of moist silt brought -down by the rivers Ganges and Brahmaputra from the Himalaya mountains. -But along the borders of the Province, and especially to the west, much -hill country is included. - -The map shows to the north the high tableland of Tibet, edged by the -Himalaya range, whose southern slopes descend steeply, but with many -foot hills, to the level, low-lying plains of the two great river -valleys. Eastward of Bengal there is a ridge, rising to heights of more -than six thousand feet, densely forested, which separates the Irawaddy -valley of Burma from the plains of India. This ridge throws out a spur -westward, which near its end rises a little into the Garo hills. The -deeply trenched narrow valley of the Brahmaputra, known as the Assam -Valley, lies between the Garo hills and the Himalayas. Away in the west -of Bengal is another hill spur, bearing the name of Rajmahal, which -forms the northeastern point of the plateau of Southern India. The -Ganges flows through the plain bounded southward by this plateau and -northward by the Himalayas. A broad lowland gateway is left between the -Garo and the Rajmahal hills, and through this, on either hand, the -Brahmaputra and Ganges rivers turn southward and converge gradually -until they join to form the vast Megna estuary. The country which lies -west of the Megna is the Ganges delta, traversed by many minor channels -which branch from the right bank of the river before it enters the -Megna. East of the Megna is another deltaic land whose silt is derived -in the main from the Garo hills. It is said that the highest rainfall in -the world occurs in these hills, when the monsoon sweeps northward from -the Bay of Bengal and blows against their southern face. The rainfall on -a single day in the rainy season is often as great as the whole annual -rainfall of London. Little wonder that there is abundance of silt for -the formation of the fertile plains below. - -The approach to the coast, as may be concluded from this geographical -description, presents little of interest. As you enter the Hooghly -river, the westernmost of the deltaic channels, you see broad grey mud -banks, with here and there a palm tree. From time to time, as the ship -passes some more solid ground, there are villages of thatched huts -surrounded by banana plantations with tall broad green leaves. - - -[Sidenote: 2. -Approaching Calcutta.] [Sidenote: 3. -Coolie Emigrant Ship on the Hooghly.] [Sidenote: 4. -The Hooghly at Calcutta, showing the High Court.] [Sidenote: 5. -The Same.] Calcutta, the chief port and capital of India, is placed no -less than eighty miles up the Hooghly, on the eastern bank. As we -approach it we pass mills and factories with tall chimneys throwing out -black smoke. A steamer crosses us, outward bound, carrying, as we are -told, coolies going to work in South Africa; for the basin of the -Ganges, unlike Burma, is one of the most densely peopled lands in the -world, and sends forth annually some thousand emigrants. At last we find -ourselves amid a throng of shipping, and our steamer ties up to a buoy -in the turbid river, with the great city of Calcutta on the eastern -bank, and the large industrial town of Howrah on the western bank, and -not a hill in sight round all the horizon, only the great dome of the -Post Office rising white in the sunshine. - - -[Sidenote: 6. -Plan of Calcutta.] [Sidenote: 7. -Palm Avenue, Calcutta Botanical Gardens.] Let us examine the plan of -this mighty city with more than a million inhabitants, second in the -Empire in population, and one of the twelve largest towns in the world. -The Hooghly flows southward. On its eastern bank stands Fort William, a -fortress which with its outworks occupies a space of nearly a thousand -acres. Around, to the north, the east, and the south of the fort, is a -wide green plain, the Maidan, separating the fort from the city. From -north to south the Maidan extends for some two miles, and it is about a -mile broad from east to west. In its southern end is the racecourse, -where are held at Christmas time the races, the principal social event -of Calcutta life. To the east of the Maidan is the European quarter, -with its hotels, and clubs, and private houses. To the north, in a -garden, is Government House, the residence of the Viceroy of India. -Beside Government House, and also facing the Maidan, are the High Court -of Justice and the Town Hall. Behind Government House is Dalhousie -Square, occupied by a green, in the centre of which is a large tank. -Facing this square is the Bengal Government Secretariat, between which -and the river are the Post Office and the Customs House. Away to the -north is the great native city. One bridge only connects Calcutta with -the industrial town of Howrah, where are jute mills and great -engineering works. In Howrah also is the terminus of the East Indian -Railway. A hundred years ago Howrah was but a small village; to-day it -contains some 160,000 people. Finally to the south of Howrah on the west -bank of the river are the celebrated Botanical Gardens, containing many -great palms, and most notable of all a banyan tree whose circumference -measures nearly a thousand feet. North of Calcutta, and on the east bank -of the Hooghly, is Barrackpur, with the country house of the Viceroy of -India. There is a military cantonment at Barrackpur, and also a garrison -in Fort William. - - -[Sidenote: 8. -The Howrah Bridge, Calcutta.] [Sidenote: 9. -Scene from the Howrah Bridge.] Nothing impresses the stranger in -Calcutta more than the density of life in this populous city, the focus -of a great and fertile province. At no spot is it more evident than on -the Howrah Bridge, where from morning to night a close throng crosses -and re-crosses. From the approach to the bridge we look down on a crowd -bathing in the muddy but sacred water. Cheek by jowl with the busy -commercial traffic of the bridge, we have here the religion of the East. -Purified by the bath, and clothed again, the bather sits in the crowd -while for a few pies, or say a farthing, his sect mark is painted afresh -on his forehead. - - -[Sidenote: 10. -Calcutta from Howrah across the Hooghly.] The buildings of Calcutta are -worthy of the capital rank of the city, but they are of European design, -for Calcutta is a modern city. Fort William was so named from King -William III., in whose reign, little more than two centuries ago, Job -Charnock, a factor or commercial representative of the East India -Company, bought the little village Kalikata, probably so named from a -local shrine of the goddess Kali. There he built, on the site of the -present Customs House, the first Fort William. Within ten years the -population had grown to some ten thousand, and it has never ceased -growing to this day, although at one time, in the middle of the -eighteenth century, there was an episode in the history of the place -which for a time somewhat checked its advance. Suraj-ud-Daulah, the -Nawab of Bengal, quarrelled with the English at Fort William, and -finally attacked them. Most of them escaped down the river, but a -hundred and forty-six were taken prisoners when Fort William fell, and -were confined for a night in a small cell measuring 22 feet by 14 feet, -and some 18 feet high. It was at the end of the hot season, and only -twenty-three of the prisoners came out alive the next morning. This -tragedy is known in history as the Black Hole of Calcutta. Soon -afterwards Colonel Clive, the same Clive who as a Captain defended Arcot -in the south of India, arrived with reinforcements and recaptured -Calcutta. Fort William was rebuilt on a larger scale, and in a position -a little south of the original site. - -Suraj-ud-Daulah quarrelled with the East India Company again, and Clive -led an army against him into the north of Bengal, and defeated him and -his French allies in the famous battle of Plassey. The British force -amounted to only three thousand men, of whom but two hundred were -English, whereas the Nawab had an army of nearly forty thousand. In 1765 -the whole of Bengal was annexed by the East India Company, and from 1772 -was ruled from Calcutta. Suraj-ud-Daulah’s capital had been at a place -called Murshidabad, a hundred miles to the north of Calcutta. - - -[Sidenote: 11. -Black Hole Monument, Calcutta.] [Sidenote: 12. -The Marble Pavement, Black Hole, Calcutta.] Here, at the corner of -Dalhousie Square, is the Black Hole Monument, erected by Lord Curzon -when Viceroy of India, in the year 1902, upon the site of the original -monument which was set up by one of the twenty-three survivors; and here -is a marble pavement marking the exact position of the Black Hole. - - -[Sidenote: 13. -Bengal Government Office, Calcutta.] [Sidenote: 14. -The High Court, Calcutta.] [Sidenote: 15. -Eastern Gateway, Government House, Calcutta.] [Sidenote: 16. -Government House, Calcutta.] [Sidenote: 17. -The Same.] [Sidenote: 18. -Imperial Museum, Calcutta.] We have next the great red brick building in -Dalhousie Square known as the Bengal Secretariat. Not far away are the -public offices of the Government of India, but most of the staff are -removed to Simla in the hills during the hot and rainy seasons. Here, -facing the Maidan, is the frontage of the Supreme Court of Justice, with -a fine tower nearly two hundred feet high, which we saw just now from -the Hooghly. Next is the eastern gateway to the grounds of Government -House, and here is Government House itself, with the Union Jack flying -above it, and Indian sentries on guard. It was built a little more than -a hundred years ago, and contains the throne of Tippu Sultan, the tyrant -of Mysore, of whom we heard in the first lecture. Opposite Government -House, on the Maidan, is the Jubilee Statue of Victoria, the -Queen-Empress of India, which was unveiled in the year 1902. Here we -have a more distant view of Government House, as seen from the Maidan, -with a statue of one of the Viceroys in the foreground. Next, in -Chowringhee road, is the Imperial Museum, a fine building with a -valuable Gallery of Antiquities. - - -[Sidenote: 19. -Musulmans at Prayer in the Maidan.] [Sidenote: 20. -Ochterlony Monument, Calcutta.] [Sidenote: 21. -Calcutta from the Ochterlony Monument.] [Sidenote: 22. -Race Course, Calcutta.] [Sidenote: 23. -St. Paul’s Cathedral, Calcutta.] [Sidenote: 24. -Tiretta Bazaar Street, Calcutta.] Let us walk round the Maidan, and note -the curiously mingled life upon it. Here, for instance, are Musulmans at -prayer, an impressive sight that may be witnessed every evening. Here we -are at the foot of the Ochterlony monument, a column erected in honour -of Sir David Ochterlony, a successful general in the wars with Nepal. -From the top of it we have a fine view over the city. Notice Government -House and the High Court. At the other end of the Maidan is the -racecourse and polo ground, to which we have already referred, and here -amid the trees in the southeastern corner, beside the tank, is the spire -of the English Cathedral. Here, in contrast, is a view in the native -city. The streets are with a few exceptions very narrow, as in most -southern cities where the sunshine is dreaded and where shade is -essential to comfort. - - -[Sidenote: 25. -Jute Mills, Howrah.] [Sidenote: 26. -A Workshop in Iron Foundry at Howrah.] [Sidenote: 27. -The same, Plate Girders.] [Sidenote: 28. -Workpeople bathing at Howrah.] Now we cross to Howrah, to the great jute -mills, where the jute fibre grown up country is spun and woven in -competition with the jute manufacture of Dundee. In these mills you will -find that the machinery bears the names of Dundee and Leeds makers, for -the industry is relatively new in India, and has not yet reached the -stage of manufacturing its own machinery. Next we pass into the -engineering works of Messrs. Burn and Co., where some five thousand -natives and some sixty Europeans are employed in the steel industry. -Here are plate girders made in these works for railway bridge building, -and here in this same industrial town of Howrah are people bathing after -work in the jute mills. - -Let us recount the essence of what we have seen—the Hooghly channel from -the ocean, bearing inward the European ships; the Shrine of the Goddess -Kali; the Fort which protected the factory of the East India Company; -the Monument of the Black Hole; Government House and the Secretariat, -whence the vast empire is ruled; the Cathedral and the Racecourse of the -white rulers; the Courts of Justice, which, more than any military -power, betoken the essence of British rule in India; the Native City -with its narrow ways and crowded life drawn from the surrounding -agricultural plain; the Howrah Bridge with the steel and jute mills -beyond, which imply a vast incoming change in the economic life of this -eastern land; and the Botanic Gardens with their wealth of vegetation -typifying the ultimate resources of India—the tropical sunshine and the -torrential rains. - - -[Sidenote: Repeat Map No. 1.] Now let us run northward by the East -Bengal Railway for some three hundred miles to Darjeeling, the hill -station of Calcutta, as Ootacamund is the hill station of Madras. We -traverse the dead level of the plain with its thickly set villages and -tropical vegetation. There are some seven hundred and fifty thousand -villages in India, and these village communities are the real India, for -only about ten per cent. of the total population is contained in the -cities. Yet Bengal in its present limits, which exclude Eastern Bengal, -has a population of more than fifty millions, on an area slightly -smaller than that of the United Kingdom. Now the total population of the -United Kingdom is only some forty-four millions, and of these forty-four -millions fully one-third inhabit some forty large cities. Britain is -therefore mainly industrial, whereas India is mainly agricultural, -nine-tenths of all the people in India being supported by occupations -connected with agriculture. From such statistics some idea may be gained -of the density of the agricultural population of Bengal, a Province with -one great city only, as greatness of cities is measured in our British -Islands. - -The rule of these village-dotted plains is the main daily business of -the Indian Government. A great Province like Bengal is divided into -Districts, each of them about as large as the English county of -Lincolnshire or a little larger. On the average each of them contains -from half a million to a million and a half of population. There are -some 250 of such Districts in British India, that is to say in that -greater part of India which is administered directly by British -officials. In each District there is a chief executive officer, styled -the Collector or Deputy Commissioner. He is the head of the District -administration, and he is also the principal Magistrate in the District. -Under the Collector there is a staff of Executive Officers, British and -Indian, of whom the chief are the Assistant Collector, the Deputy -Collector, the Superintendent of Police, the Engineer, and the Civil -Surgeon. The Collector is so called because in the days of the old East -India Company his main function was to collect revenue. In his other -capacity of Magistrate, he is the head of the Magisterial Courts of the -District. The laws which he and his assistants administer are made by -the Viceroy in Council, and in a subordinate way by the -Lieutenant-Governors and their Councils in the various Provinces. The -Collector does not decide civil suits. These, as well as all serious -criminal cases, come before Civil Judges of different grades, who are -independent of the Collector. - -Therefore we find in India that essential division of the Legislature, -Judicature, and Executive which is the chief security of freedom in all -British communities. Subject to the law and to the instructions of the -superior Provincial Officers, the District Collector is, however, -supreme, except in the Civil Courts of his District. He it is who alone -for the vast majority of the Indian population represents the Raj or -Rule of the King-Emperor. Between the Collectors and the -Lieutenant-Governors are intermediate controlling officers known as -Commissioners, who superintend Divisions or groups of several Districts. - -The Higher Civil Service of India, recruited by competitive examination -in England, consists of some twelve hundred officials—the Commissioners, -the Collectors of the Districts, and some of the Assistant Collectors. -The seniors of the Civil Service man the Provincial and Supreme -Governments of India. Only the Governor-General and the Governors of -Madras and Bombay are selected from outside the Indian Civil Service and -sent out from Britain. - -The Collector is constantly touring his District, in order that he may -know it from personal investigation. A good Collector may become very -popular, and may do much to make his District prosperous. It is a great -position which may thus be held by young Englishmen of, say, thirty -years of age. They are rulers of a million people at an age when their -brothers of the professional classes at home are struggling to establish -themselves as young barristers or doctors or clergymen. - -It must not be thought, however, that the Government of India, either in -its Legislative, Judicial, or Executive capacities, is wholly British, -and alien from the subject population. The Legislative Councils of the -Governor-General and also of the Lieutenant-Governors in the Provinces -contain elected Indian representatives, both Hindu and Musulman. The -provincial Councils have, in fact, non-official majorities. Only in the -Council of the Governor-General is there an official majority. Many of -the Judges even of the High Courts are Indian, either Hindu or Musulman. -In the Executive some of the Collectors of Districts are Indian, and -also the great majority of the assistant officials, who in the aggregate -are an immense number. - - -[Sidenote: 29. -Darjeeling Railway, Chinbatti Loop.] [Sidenote: 30. -Darjeeling Railway, Loop No. 4.] [Sidenote: 31. -Darjeeling.] As we think over these things we are continuing our journey -northward. We must change from train to steamer as we cross the Ganges. -The passage of the river occupies about twenty minutes from one -low-lying bank to the other. Then, as we traverse the endless rice -fields with their clumps of graceful bamboo, the hills become visible -across the northern horizon. We run into a belt of jungle, and change to -the mountain railway, which carries us up the steep hill front with many -a turn and twist. There is tall forest on the lower slopes, of teak and -other great trees, hung thickly with creepers. Presently the wood -becomes smaller, and we enter the tea plantations with their trim rows -of green bushes. Far below us, at the foot of the steep forest, spreads -to the southern horizon the vast cultivated plain. Trees of the fir -tribe now take the place of leafy trees, and we rise to the ridge top on -which is placed Darjeeling, a settlement of detached villas in compounds -or enclosures, hanging on the steep hill slopes. Darjeeling is about -seven thousand feet above sea level, on a ridge overlooking northward -the gorge of the Rungeet River. - - -[Sidenote: 32. -Kinchinjunga, from Darjeeling.] [Sidenote: 33. -The Himalaya.] [Sidenote: 34. -Mount Everest.] In the early morning, if we are fortunate in the weather -and rise before the sun, we may see from Darjeeling, over the valley to -north of the hill ridge on which we stand, and over successive ridge -tops beyond, the mighty snow range of the Himalayas, fifty miles away, -with the peak of Kinchinjunga, more than five miles high, dominating the -landscape. Behind it, a little to the west, and visible from Tiger Hill -near Darjeeling, though not from Darjeeling itself, is Mount Everest, -the highest mountain in the world, five and half miles high. The -glittering wall of white mountains, visible across the vast chasm and -bare granite summits in the foreground, seems to hang in the sky as -though belonging to another world. The broad distance, and the sudden -leap to supreme height, give to this scene a mysterious and almost -visionary grandeur. It is, however, only occasionally that the -culminating peaks can be seen, for they are often veiled in cloud. - - -[Sidenote: 35. -Tibetan Woman.] [Sidenote: 36. -Nepali Ladies.] The people of Sikkim in the hills beyond Darjeeling are -Highlanders of Mongolian stock and not Indian. They are of Buddhist -religion like the Burmans, and not Hindu or Musulman like the -inhabitants of India. They are small, sturdy folk, with oblique cut -eyes, and a Chinese expression, and they have the easy-going humorous -character of the Burmans, though not the delicacy and civilization of -those inhabitants of the sunny lowland. They and the kindred and -neighbour Tibetans rarely wash, and the women anoint their faces with a -mixture of pigs’ blood, which gives them a dark and mottled appearance. -Here we have in colour a portrait of a Tibetan woman, and then a group -of Nepali ladies, with various head ornaments. - - -[Sidenote: 37. -Political Map of India, distinguishing Bengal, Eastern Bengal and Assam, -Nepal, and Bhutan.] It is an interesting fact that these hill people -should belong to the race which spreads over the vast Chinese Empire. -That race here advances to the last hill brinks which overlook the -Indian lowland. The political map of this portion of India illustrates a -parallel fact. While the plains are administered directly by British -officials, the mountain slopes descending to them are ruled by native -princes whose territories form a strip along the northern boundary of -India. North of Assam and Bengal we have in succession from east to -west, in the belt of hill country, the lands of Bhutan, Sikkim, and -Nepal. From Nepal are recruited the Gurkha Regiments of the Indian army, -the Gurkhas being a race of these same hill men, of small stature and -sturdy agility, of Hindu religion, but of more or less Mongolian stock, -and therefore intermediate between the Tibetans and the Hindus. - - -[Sidenote: 38. -The Bazaar, Darjeeling.] [Sidenote: 39. -The same—Nepali Vegetable Sellers.] [Sidenote: 40. -Man carrying Fodder, Darjeeling.] [Sidenote: 41. -Sikkim Peasants.] [Sidenote: 42. -Native Loom, Darjeeling.] [Sidenote: 43. -Village in Sikkim.] [Sidenote: 44. -The same.] Here we have a typical market scene in Darjeeling. Notice the -women doing coolie work. Next are vegetable sellers in the Darjeeling -Bazaar, and here is a man carrying fodder. The man with his back turned -is a Lepcha of Sikkim. Then we have a group of Sikkim peasants drinking -the native beer, made from marwa, a kind of millet. They draw it up -through straws from cups made of bamboo. Next we see a native working a -hand loom, and then a village in Sikkim. Here in the same village we see -a woman carrying baggage. - - -[Sidenote: 45. -Lama Monastery, near Darjeeling.] [Sidenote: 46. -The same—Devil Dancers.] [Sidenote: 47. -The same—interior.] [Sidenote: 48. -The Amban Dance, Darjeeling.] [Sidenote: 49. -The same—another view.] Near Darjeeling there is a small Buddhist -monastery, a two-storey building of which we have here a view. Notice -the semi-circle of tall poles, with linen flags, on which prayers are -inscribed. By the entrance are a number of prayer-wheels fastened to the -wall. Outside the monastery are men wearing the costumes of devil -dancers, such as are used in Buddhist religious ceremonies of these -parts. There are long trumpets placed against the door post. Let us -glance for a moment within this monastery, and see the hideous wooden -masks, and the silk dresses of the priestly dancers. Two scenes follow, -from Darjeeling itself, of an elaborate dance by Tibetan peasants called -the Amban dance. The lions and dragons are each made of two men, whose -bodies are hung with white yak hair and tails. They have grotesque -heads, with enormous eyes and gaping mouths, from which hang large -scarlet tongues. So we obtain some idea of the stage of barbarism in -which the hill tribes remain. - - -[Sidenote: 50. -North Bengal Mounted Rifles, Lebong.] [Sidenote: 51. -The same—Sword Pegging.] [Sidenote: 52. -Coolies at Darjeeling.] In contrast with these scenes are now two slides -illustrating the volunteer service of the white tea planters. Of these -the second shows tent-pegging on the Lebong parade ground, above the -Rungeet river. This form of tent-pegging is with a sword, and not with -the more usual lance. Here is a scene showing Darjeeling coolies -returned from work in the tea gardens. - - -[Sidenote: 53. -The Rungeet Gorge.] [Sidenote: 54. -The same.] [Sidenote: 55. -The Rungeet Bridge, Sikkim.] [Sidenote: 56. -A Himalayan Glacier.] [Sidenote: 57. -Glacier-fed Torrent in the Himalaya.] [Sidenote: 58. -Cane Bridge in the Himalaya.] Finally we have two views in the gorge of -the Rungeet river, between Darjeeling and Sikkim, with precipitous -sides, and then a glimpse of the Rungeet bridge. The Rungeet drains from -the hills of Darjeeling, and from the snow mountains beyond, into a -tributary of the Ganges. Several hundred such torrents burst in long -succession through deep portals in the Himalayan foot hills and feed the -great rivers of the plain, the Brahmaputra and the Ganges. They are -perennial rivers, for they originate in the melting of the glaciers, and -the Himalayan glaciers cover a vast area, being fed by the monsoon -snows. Nearly all the agricultural wealth of Northern India owes its -origin to the summer monsoon. - - -[Sidenote: 59. -Map of the Himalayan River System.] To understand the fundamental -conditions governing the Indian climate let us examine the two -concluding maps of this lecture. On the first of them all the country -with an elevation of more than fifteen hundred feet is coloured with a -dark brown, and that with a lower elevation is coloured a light brown. A -great angle of the Indian lowland is seen to project northward into the -Asiatic upland. For fifteen hundred miles the Himalaya limits the -lowland with a gracefully curving mountain edge, and from this edge -there flow the series of tributaries which gather to the rivers Indus, -Ganges, and Brahmaputra. Beyond, to the south, are seen in dark brown -the higher portions of the Deccan plateau. - - -[Sidenote: 60. -Map of South-West Monsoon.] Now compare with this the succeeding map, -which shows the winds of the summer time and the average rainfall. The -winds sweep in from the southwest, but as they cross Bengal they bend so -as to blow from the south and then from the southeast. The dark arrow -with the broken shaft striking northwestward through the heart of India -represents the usual track of the storms which prevail in the Central -Provinces during the summer season, producing the havoc along the Madras -coast and northward, of which we spoke in the second lecture. The -maximum rainfall, it will be seen, occurs in three regions—first on the -west face of the Western Ghats, and on the west face of the mountains of -Ceylon; secondly in the east of the Indian Peninsula near the track of -the storm centres; and thirdly along the south face of the Garo hills -and of the Himalayas north of Bengal, and on the west face of the -various mountain ranges of Burma. In other words, in the first and third -cases the rain is due to the winds striking the mountain ranges, and is -great only on the windward faces of those ranges. In the second case the -rainfall is mainly the result of the storms. On the other hand, there is -drought at this season under the lee of the mountains of Ceylon and of -the Western Ghats, and again in a comparatively small belt, near Pagan, -along the Irawaddy river, between the western and the eastern ridges of -Burma. Tibet, which is under the lee of the Himalayas, and northwestern -India, which is out of the track of the southwest winds, are wide -deserts. This map explains the exceptional fertility and density of -population of the Province of Bengal. - - -[Sidenote: Repeat Map No. 1.] India is so vast a country, and so varied, -that no traveller can hope to visit all parts of it. On our journey from -Calcutta to Darjeeling, we have left the province of Assam away to the -east of us. Assam is a through road nowhither, for high and difficult -mountains close the eastern end of its great valley. Moreover, though it -has vast natural resources, Assam is a country which throughout history -has lain for the most part outside Indian civilisation, and, even -to-day, has but a sparse population and a relatively small commercial -development. Let us, then, just remember in passing that this remote -province of India has a geography which, though simple, is built on a -very grand scale. - -The San-po river rises high on the plateau of Tibet northward of -Lucknow. For more than 700 miles it flows eastward over the plateau in -rear of the Himalayan peaks; then it turns sharply southward and -descends steeply through a deep gorge little known, for it is tenanted -by hostile tribes. Where it emerges from the mountains the river has a -level not a thousand feet above the sea, and here, turning westward, it -forms the Brahmaputra—that is to say, the Son of Brahma, the Creator. -The Brahmaputra flows for 450 miles westward through the valley of -Assam, deeply trenched between the snowy wall of the Himalayas on the -one hand and the forested mountains of the Burmese border and the Khasia -and Garo hills on the other hand. The river “rolls down the valley in a -vast sheet of water,” depositing banks of silt at the smallest -obstruction, “so that islands form and re-form in constant succession. -Broad channels break away and rejoin the main river after wide -divergences, which are subjected to no control. The swamps on either -hand are flooded in the rainy season, till the lower reaches of the -valley are one vast shining sea, from which the hills slope up on either -side.” The traffic on the river is maintained chiefly by exports of tea -and timber, with imports of rice for the labourers on the tea estates. -Some day, when great sums of money are available for capital -expenditure, the Brahmaputra will be controlled, and Assam will become -the seat of teeming production and a dense population. The Indian Empire -contains some 300 million people; but, as we learn, it also contains -some of the chief virgin resources of the world. - - - -------------- - - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - - - LECTURE IV. - - - --- - - =THE UNITED PROVINCES.= - - --- - - THE MUTINY. - - -[Sidenote: 1. -Map of India, distinguishing the United Provinces.] Northwestward from -Bengal, over the great plain of the Ganges, we enter the next region of -India. The United Provinces of Agra and Oudh have an area almost equal -to that of Great Britain, and a population as dense. When we go from -Bengal to the United Provinces, it is as though we were crossing from -one to another of the great continental States of Europe, say from -Germany into France. - - -[Sidenote: 2. -Map of the United Provinces.] The Himalayan mountains lie to the north; -the hills of Central India to the south. The plain between them, raised -only a little above the sea, is two hundred miles across, measured from -the foot hills of the Himalayas to the first rise of the Central Indian -hills. Two great rivers, the Ganges and the Jumna, emerge from Himalayan -valleys, and traverse the plain southward, and presently southeastward, -leaving between them a tongue of land, known in Hindustani as the Doab, -or two waters. Mesopotamia, between the rivers Euphrates and Tigris in -the Nearer East, signifies the same in the Greek language. The Jumna -joins the Ganges near the southern limit of the plain, and in the angle -of the confluence is the large city of Allahabad, the capital and seat -of the Lieutenant-Governor of the United Provinces. Other great -tributaries flow to the Ganges from more eastern parts of the Himalayas, -and bending southeastward join the main river one after another. - -Five considerable cities focus the great population of the United -Provinces—Allahabad, already mentioned, Cawnpore, Lucknow, Agra, and -Benares. A hundred miles above Allahabad, on the right or south bank of -the Ganges, is the city of Cawnpore, and on the opposite or northern -bank extends the old Kingdom of Oudh, with Lucknow for its capital, -situated some forty miles northeast of Cawnpore. Agra, which gives its -name to all that part of the United Provinces which did not formerly -belong to Oudh, is situated on the right or south bank of the Jumna, a -hundred and fifty miles west of Lucknow. Eighty miles below Allahabad, -on the north bank of the Ganges, is Benares, the most sacred city of the -Hindus. All these distances between the cities of Agra, Cawnpore, -Lucknow, Allahabad, and Benares, lie over the dead level of the plain, -dusty, and like a desert in the dry season, but green and fertile after -the rains. Scattered over the plain are innumerable villages, in which -dwell nineteen out of twenty of the inhabitants of the joint Provinces. -Lucknow is the largest of the cities, yet it has only a quarter of a -million inhabitants. - -The United Provinces are the heart of India, the typical Indian land, -safe from invasion from the north by reason of the Himalayan barrier and -the desert plateau of Tibet; relatively inaccessible from the ocean, and -not conquered by Britain until long after Bengal had become a Province -of the East India Company; relatively safe also from northwestern -invasion. Its people remain dominantly Hindu in their religion and -customs, whereas the great province of the Punjab further northwestward -has a majority of Musulmans. Southward is the plateau of Central India, -comparatively thinly peopled. - -The language of the United Provinces, and of considerable districts to -west, south, and east of them, is Hindi, the most direct derivative of -the ancient Sanskrit tongue, whose use was contemporary with that of -Latin and Greek. All three of these ancient tongues, as well as Old -Persian, belong to the family of the Indo-European languages. Sanskrit -was brought into India by a conquering people from the northwest. Hindi -is now spoken by a hundred million people in all the northern centre of -India. It is the language not only of the United Provinces but also of -the western part of Bengal which is known as Behar, of that part of the -Punjab which surrounds Delhi, and of a wide district in Central India -ruled by the great Maratha chiefs, Sindhia and Holkar. Other tongues of -similar origin are spoken in the regions around—Bengali in Bengal, -Marathi and Gujrati in the lands which lie east and north of Bombay, and -Punjabi in the Punjab. We must think of these various Indian languages -as differing from one another much as French and Spanish and Italian -differ, which are all derived from a common Latin source. The Hindi -language was picked up by the Musulman conquerors of India, and by -adding to it words of their own Persian speech they formed Urdu, the -language of the camp. This is the language of educated Musulmans all -over India to this day. Under the name of Hindustani it has become a -sort of _lingua franca_ throughout India, and is used by Europeans when -talking to their servants. - -Away to the south, beyond the limit of the Sanskrit tongues, in the -province of Madras and neighbouring areas, are talked languages wholly -alien from Sanskrit, and differing from Hindi, Bengali, Marathi, -Gujrati, and Punjabi, much as the Turkish and Hungarian languages differ -from the group of allied Indo-European tongues spoken in Western Europe. -These southern Indian tongues are known as Dravidian. The most important -of them are Telugu, spoken by twenty millions, and Tamil, spoken by some -fifteen millions. The Hindu religion, however, is held by the great -majority both of the Dravidian south and of the Indo-European north and -centre. - -If there be one part of India which we may think of as the shrine of -shrines in a land where religion rules all life, it is to be found in a -triangle of cities just contained within the map before us. There on the -Ganges we see Benares and Patna, and some fifty miles south of Patna the -smaller town of Gaya. Benares from prehistoric times has been the focus -of Hinduism. Patna was the capital of the chief Gangetic kingdom more -than two thousand years ago, when the Greek ambassador Megasthenes, -first of the Westerns, travelled thus far into the East. Gaya was the -spot where Buddha, seeking to reform Hinduism some six hundred years -before Christ, obtained enlightenment, and then migrated to teach at -Benares, or rather at Sarnath, now in ruin, some three or four miles -north of the present Benares. The peoples of all the vast Indian and -Chinese world, from Karachi to Pekin and Tokyo, look to this little -group of cities as the centre of holiness, whether they be followers of -Brahma or of Buddha. - - -[Sidenote: 3. -Buddhist Tope at Sarnath.] [Sidenote: 4. -Sculptures at Sarnath.] [Sidenote: 5. -Lion-capital at Sarnath.] Old Benares, whose ruins are now known as -Sarnath, was a few miles north of the existing city. We have here one of -the Buddhist topes of Sarnath, which was the spot to which Buddha -removed after he had received enlightenment at Gaya. Here he and his -disciples began to teach. We have another view at Sarnath, showing some -of the ancient sculptures, and a gigantic lion-capital recently -excavated. Its size can be appreciated by noticing the man behind. - - -[Sidenote: 6. -Plan of Benares.] [Sidenote: 7. -View across the Ganges to the Southern Shore.] [Sidenote: 8. -Panchganga Ghat, Benares.] [Sidenote: 9. -The Same—another view.] [Sidenote: 10. -Palace of the Raja of Bhinga, Benares.] [Sidenote: 11. -The Same—another view.] Benares extends for four miles along the -northern bank of the Ganges. This bank is here higher than the southern, -and descends to the river edge with a steep brink. Down this brink are -many flights of steps, known as “ghats,” which we may translate by the -word “approaches.” We have already heard the word “ghat” applied to the -steep mountain-high brinks of the southern plateau of India, where the -upper ground breaks away to the shore of the Arabian Sea on the one -hand, and to the low-lying plain of the Carnatic on the other. The city -of Benares is situated on the plateau top above the ghats, and for four -miles the river front is crowned with palaces and temples, built of a -yellow sandstone. The opposite, the southern, shore lies low and without -buildings. Here is a view looking southward across the river from the -brink edge; it shows the low and non-sacred southern shore. Here are two -views of the brink itself, faced and crowned with buildings of yellow -sandstone. There follow two views of the palace of the Raja of Bhinga, -and in both we see the ghat steps descending to the water’s edge. - - -[Sidenote: 12. -Dasashwamedh Ghat, Benares.] [Sidenote: 13. -Manikarnika Ghat, Benares.] The population of Benares numbers some two -hundred thousand, of whom the great majority are of the Hindu faith, and -no fewer than thirty thousand are Brahmans, the priestly caste. It is -said that more than a million pilgrims visit the city every year. In the -early morning they descend the ghats to bathe in the river and to drink -the sacred water. Here we have the scene at one of these ghats, with the -conical towers of a temple, and the great sun umbrellas. Another scene -of a similar character follows at another ghat, the most sacred in -Benares. - - -[Sidenote: 14. -Burning Ghat, Benares.] [Sidenote: 15. -Another Burning Ghat, Benares.] Some of the ghats are used for the -burning of dead bodies. Wrapped in a white shroud, the corpse is dipped -into the river, then laid on a pile of faggots, and other faggots are -built around, and a light is set to the pile. The ashes are thrown into -the river. These rites are performed by the nearest relatives. We have -here the body of a woman of the poorer classes nearly consumed, and the -few relatives looking on. Here preparations are in progress for another -cremation. The corpse may be seen, with its feet in the water, resting -aslant at the foot of the ghat. The bodies of the higher castes are -burnt at the Raja Ghat on costly fires of sandal-wood. At night, from -the water, the city, with its thousands of lights and the tall flames at -the Burning Ghats, is deeply impressive. - - -[Sidenote: 16. -The Observatory, Benares.] [Sidenote: 17. -The Samrat Yantra in the Observatory.] [Sidenote: 18. -Eclipse Festival, Benares.] Perhaps the most interesting of all the -buildings at Benares is the Observatory, a lofty structure placed on the -river brink and commanding a wide view. Within are instruments of stone -on a great scale for the observation of the movements of the heavenly -bodies. This is the Samrat Yantra, used for observing the declination -and right ascension of the stars. Astronomy plays no inconsiderable part -in the rites of Benares. The pilgrimages are thronged at the time of -eclipse of the sun, and there are certain ghats of special resort during -the occurrence of eclipses. - - -[Sidenote: 19. -Roof of Golden Temple, Benares.] [Sidenote: 20 Vishnagi Temple, -Benares.] [Sidenote: 21. -Aurangzeb’s Mosque, Benares.] [Sidenote: 22. -The Same—another view.] Set a little back from the river front in a -small square is the chief temple of the Hindus. Europeans are not -permitted to go within, but only to peep through a hole in the wall, and -also from an upper balcony of a neighbouring house to look down upon the -gilded roof. Beside this temple there is another, half of which is in -ruin, and the remainder has been converted to the purpose of a Musulman -mosque. The old part is of yellow-grey sandstone, tawny with age, but -the mosque has been white-washed and shines brightly in the sunlight. We -have here a view of this temple-mosque, and then there follow two views, -showing the tall minarets of Aurangzeb’s Mosque, built on the site of -another Hindu temple which he destroyed. For two centuries until the -advent of British power the rulers of this Hindu land were of the -Musulman faith, conquerors from the northwest. The Musulmans destroyed -many of the ancient Hindu temples of Benares, so that most of the -buildings of the city are comparatively modern. - - -[Sidenote: 23. -A Fakir, Benares.] [Sidenote: 24. -Snake Charmers, Benares.] As in a Christian country, such a resort of -pilgrims brings together men from far distant and different lands, and -we have at Benares an epitome of all Hindu India. In the narrow -deep-shaded streets, and the sordid and tawdry purlieus of the temples -may be seen many a typical scene of Eastern life. Here, for instance, -close to Aurangzeb’s Mosque, is a Fakir or religious enthusiast, to whom -the alms of the faithful are due. He rests on this bed of spikes day and -night. Such Fakirs get much alms, which they are supposed by the envious -to bury underground. We have another characteristic scene here, two -snake charmers on one of the ghats, with a fine assortment of -reptiles—cobra, python, and other snakes, as well as scorpions. There is -always a ready crowd for them, as for jugglers of curious skill. - - -[Sidenote: 25. -Bullock Cart, Benares.] [Sidenote: 26. -A Camel, Benares.] [Sidenote: 27. -A Bridegroom, Benares.] The traffic in the streets is of the most -various kind. Here is an ox waggon, with cumbrous wooden wheels, laden -with rough stone for road making, and here a tall camel bringing in -tobacco from some outlying village. This is a bridegroom of the highest, -the Brahman caste, mounted on a white horse, and clothed in a golden -dress shot with pink. He is probably on his way to pay a ceremonial -call. - - -[Sidenote: 28. -Prince of Wales Hospital, Benares.] [Sidenote: 29. -Queen’s College, Benares.] [Sidenote: 30. -Central Hindu College, Benares.] Further inland, near the railway -station, is grouped the European quarter, with a Christian church, the -post office, the regimental barracks of the cantonment, missionary -colleges, villas of officials, and a few fine public buildings of recent -date. Here for instance, with a bullock cart passing it, and another -vehicle behind with a sun-hood, is the Prince of Wales Hospital. Here is -Queen’s College, where a modern education is given to some five hundred -students, and here finally is the Central Hindu College, opened in 1899, -“for the education of Hindu youth in their ancestral faith and in true -loyalty and patriotism.” This college contains about two hundred and -fifty students. - - -[Sidenote: 31. -Army Factory, Cawnpore—Native Cutters at work.] We now leave Benares, -noticing the great railway bridge over the Ganges, and travel by rail -over the grey monotony of the plains, varied by patches of cultivation, -herds of long-eared goats, long-legged pigs, large black vultures, and -here and there a string of camels. So we come to Cawnpore, the -Manchester of India. Cawnpore is the chief inland manufacturing city of -India, a great contrast in all its ways with Benares. Western capital, -Western ideas, and Western organisation are at work on a large scale. -There are mills and factories for the spinning and weaving of wool, -mostly Indian wool, but some Australian brought by way of Calcutta. One -of these mills seen by our artist had on hand at the time of his visit -an order for eleven thousand coats, and had just finished thirty-three -thousand for the police of the great native state of Hyderabad. This is -the mill in question. The cutters are shearing coats from a great piece -of khaki, on which the patterns to be cut have been chalked. Both the -spinning of the yarn and the weaving of khaki cloth have been -accomplished by native labour and British machinery at Cawnpore. Khaki -signifies the colour of khak, or dust. - - -[Sidenote: 32. -The Same—the Raw Hide Shed.] [Sidenote: 33. -The Same—unloading Bark.] [Sidenote: 34. -The Same—the Boot Shop.] [Sidenote: 35. -Well in Messrs. Cooper Allen’s Model Village, Cawnpore.] [Sidenote: 36. -Native Potters.] [Sidenote: 37. -The Same.] Here is a leather factory for making Government boots and -army equipment. This view shows the raw hides, mostly buffalo, gathered -by rail from all parts of India. The hides on the weighing machine have -been dried. This is bark being unloaded from the train for use in the -tannery. Then we see the boot shop itself, thronged with workmen. These -workmen are mostly Musulmans. As will be seen, the boots are hand-sewn. -One large firm, employing daily some three thousand five hundred hands, -has built a model village, of which we have here the well, the central -feature of every Indian village, whether of the new and garden type, or -of the old and traditional. What a contrast must all this be to the -inhabitants of the country districts, where village tradesmen still -follow their traditional crafts! Here, for example, are two views in a -pottery near Benares. The potters turn the wheel with their feet. Most -Hindu workmen use their feet a good deal, and of course the typical -squatting attitude makes it easier for them to do so. - - -Consider the revolution in all the social life of India, which is -involved in the steady displacement of these village-made wares by the -cheaper machine-made products of Cawnpore and other factory centres. -There is a change beginning throughout the length and breadth of this -vast land, not wholly unlike that which took place in Britain under the -name of the Industrial Revolution a century and a half ago. As higher -and more skilled industries are introduced, it seems likely ultimately -to result in a migration of workers from the villages to the cities, in -the growth of the size of the cities, and in the greater monotony of -life in the rustic villages. No doubt there will be some inevitable -suffering, especially on the part of those workers who cannot adapt -themselves to the new conditions. In the main, however, the factory -operatives have thus far been peasant proprietors who forsake their -villages only for a time. - - -[Sidenote: 38. -The Rumi Gate, Lucknow.] [Sidenote: 39. -The Same—from within.] [Sidenote: 40. -The Imambara, Lucknow.] [Sidenote: 41. -The Same—the Great Hall.] Lucknow is a city of modern temples and -palaces, many of them stucco buildings of debased architecture, which -appear beautiful only by moonlight and when artificially illuminated. We -have here the Rumi Gateway, and here the same gateway from within. Then -we have the Imambara, built under Asaf-ud-daulah, who also built the -Residency, as a relief work in a great famine in 1784. The most striking -feature is the successful construction of an enormous roof of coarse -concrete without ribs, beams, pillars, or visible support of any kind, -except that from the four surrounding walls. Here is the great hall, -beneath this roof. It is about a hundred and sixty feet long, fifty feet -wide, and some fifty feet high. On the floor is the tomb of -Asaf-ud-daulah, a slab of plain masonry surrounded by silver, and -covered with a canopy. The tomb is not in line with the sides of the -hall, but is a little askew in order that it be oriented in accordance -with the direction of Mecca. Near by can be seen a huge tazia, which is -carried through the streets on the Musulman anniversary of the Moharam. - - -[Sidenote: 42. -In the Chauk Bazaar, Lucknow.] [Sidenote: 43. -The Same.] [Sidenote: 44. -A Musulman Woman in a Burka.] [Sidenote: 45. -The Jama Masjid, Lucknow.] [Sidenote: 46. -The Husainabad Imambara, Lucknow.] [Sidenote: 47. -Karbala of Diana-ud-daula, Lucknow.] [Sidenote: 48. -The Kasmain, Lucknow.] Next we have two views in the Bazaar of Lucknow, -which forms one of the six wards of the city. In the bazaar are to be -found jewellers and silversmiths, together with brassworkers and -woodcarvers. Then we come to a very characteristic Indian scene, a -Musulman woman wearing a burka, that is to say, a veil with eye-slits. -All Musulman women of a higher class are veiled when they leave the -privacy of their houses, in accordance with the general feeling of -Islam, alike in Europe, Africa, and Asia. Here we see the Jama Masjid, a -three-domed mosque, with decorations painted in blue and purple upon its -walls. Within it is a curious ledge used by the Shiahs, one of the two -great sects of the Musulmans, for resting their foreheads at prayer -time. From the platform of this mosque, we have a view of one of the -largest Muhammadan buildings of the city, the Husainabad Imambara, built -in 1837, by Muhammad Ali Shah, as a burial place for himself and his -mother. It is almost entirely of painted stucco. Beyond its tallest -minaret can be seen in the distance the red brick Clock-Tower of the -city. Here we see the Karbala or burying place of Diana-ud-daula, of red -sandstone, with a gilded cupola, and close by is the Kasmain, whose -architecture is copied from that of a sacred place in Bagdad. - - -[Sidenote: 49. -The Chhattar Manzil, Lucknow.] [Sidenote: 50. -Women planting Tobacco Plants, Lucknow.] Next we see the Chhattar -Manzil, once the Palace of the Kings of Oudh, now transformed into the -United Service Club. Finally, in contrast, is a scene near the -Residency, showing women planting out young tobacco plants, with an -irrigation well in the background. Notice the oxen pulling at the rope -with a skin attached, which draws up the water. - - -Already the busy hive of industry at Cawnpore plays no mean part in the -economy of the Indian Empire, but for British ears Cawnpore and Lucknow -have a historical and deeper interest. These two cities were the focus -of those events in the tragic year 1857, which we speak of as the Indian -Mutiny. At that time British India was still ruled by the East India -Company, an Association founded at the close of Queen Elizabeth’s reign. -The British East India Company had at first purely mercantile aims, but, -as we have already heard in these lectures, was soon involved in native -intrigues and wars owing to the rivalry of the competing French Company. -Robert Clive went out to India as a writer or clerk in the employ of -“John Company,” as it was called, but he exchanged the pen for the -sword, and by his defence of Arcot brought about the defeat of the -French party in the Carnatic, and the supremacy of the British Company -in that state. So he established the Madras Province around Fort Saint -George on the southeastern coast. The great Colonel Clive, who -recaptured Calcutta and won the Province of Bengal by the decisive -victory at Plassey, was the same soldier grown a little older in the -service of the same great Company. - -By successive stages in the next two or three generations the East India -Company was deprived of its trading monopolies. At the time of the -Mutiny it was in fact merely the Government of India, and was controlled -even in this function by the British Government. The Company maintained -a large army of sepoys or native soldiers, officered by Europeans, and -also a small force that was wholly British. In the years immediately -preceding the Mutiny, great changes had been made in India. In one way -or another several native governments had been overthrown, and among -these was the Kingdom of Oudh, whose capital was at Lucknow, which was -annexed because of its misrule. There was hence much unrest among some -of the Indian peoples, and the spirit of discontent spread to the native -army of Bengal, mostly recruited from Oudh. Then an unfortunate incident -occurred. A new form of cartridge was supplied to the troops, the end of -which had to be bitten off before the old fashioned gun of those times -could be loaded. Rumour got about that beef grease or pigs’ fat had been -employed in the manufacture of these cartridges. Now the Hindus regard -oxen as sacred, and the Musulmans look on the pig as unclean. The Hindus -use oxen as draught animals for their ploughs and their carts, but to -kill them or to eat their flesh is sinful. So it was that the agitators -were able to play on the superstitions and prejudices of the ignorant -soldiers. The mutinous troops murdered many of their white officers, and -gradually gathered into three armies, which attacked the small loyal -native forces and the white men and women who had collected at Delhi, -Cawnpore, and Lucknow. Of the fall of Delhi and its re-capture by the -British we will speak later when we come to describe in the seventh -lecture the northern part of India. Assistance came to that place, not -from Calcutta and the sea, but from the great newly acquired Province of -the Punjab, which remained loyal. Cawnpore and Lucknow lay, however, far -to the southeast of Delhi, and were inaccessible from that direction. -Sir Henry Lawrence was in command at Lucknow, and General Wheeler at -Cawnpore. In each case the native city was abandoned, and the small -loyal native force and white refugees were gathered into an area more -possible of defence. General Havelock led the first army of relief from -Calcutta and Allahabad towards Cawnpore, but before he arrived, the -little garrison, trusting to treacherous promises, had surrendered. They -marched down to the river to take boat for Allahabad, and there most of -them were slain—men, women, and children. A few were imprisoned at -Cawnpore and were massacred a fortnight later. - - -[Sidenote: 51. -Massacre Ghat, Cawnpore.] [Sidenote: 52. -The Same—another View.] We have here the ghat, now known as Massacre -Ghat, by which the English went down to the fatal shore, and here -another and wider view of the same scene. The road that leads down to -the ghat is shaded by some fine trees, behind which were hidden on the -27th June, 1857, the mutineers who carried out the massacre. In the -distance can be seen the red brick piers of the Oudh and Rohilkund -Railway bridge, built of course since the Mutiny. - -Retribution soon came to the mutineers. General Havelock marched from -Allahabad with some two thousand men, and in a fierce battle defeated -the rebels under Nana Sahib, and entered Cawnpore. He then tried to -carry relief across the forty miles of plain northeastward to Lucknow. -Twice he failed, and was forced back, but at last he effected his entry -to that city, with a force so weak, however, that it was impossible to -keep open his communications, and the reinforced garrison at Lucknow was -subjected to a renewal of the siege. At last Sir Colin Campbell, -afterwards Lord Clyde, arrived with an army sent out from Britain. We -must remember that in those days there was no Suez Canal, and -communication with India was round the Cape of Good Hope. Fortunately an -expedition was on its way to China when the Mutiny broke out, and this -force was diverted to Calcutta, and supplied the first relief, which was -led, as we have seen, by General Havelock. - - -[Sidenote: 53. -The Residency, Lucknow.] [Sidenote: 54. -The Tower of the Residency.] [Sidenote: 55. -The Baillie Gate, Lucknow.] [Sidenote: 56. -The Ammunition Mosque in the Residency.] [Sidenote: 57. -The Monument outside the Residency.] The defence at Lucknow centered in -the Residency, the official home that is to say of the British Resident -at the court of the recently dethroned King of Oudh. The Residency is -now in ruins, as we see in the three slides which follow. Here is a view -taken from the direction of the Baillie Gate, and here is the Tower. -Here is the Baillie Gate itself, the scene of the most furious attacks -on the British position. The old man whom we note with his hat off and a -medal on his breast is the guardian of the place, a veteran of the -Mutiny, who as a boy took part in the defence of Lucknow. These Mutiny -veterans have now become but a very small band. Here in the Residency is -another ruin, the mosque in which the ammunition was kept during the -siege, and here is the Monument to the loyal native soldiers. It bears -the following inscription:—“To the memory of the native officers and -sepoys who died near this spot nobly performing their duty.” This -monument was erected in 1875 by Lord Northbrook, Viceroy and -Governor-General of India, and serves to remind us that the Indians who -fell in defence of our flag outnumbered the British. The Tower of the -Residency can be seen in the background. - - -[Sidenote: 58. -All Souls Memorial Church, Cawnpore.] [Sidenote: 59. -The Well Memorial, Cawnpore.] At Cawnpore, also, there are sad memorials -of massacre and defeat, not of ultimate victory as at Lucknow. We have -here All Souls Memorial church, containing monuments to those who fell -near by. The low evergreen hedge seen in the picture marks the line of -General Wheeler’s unfortunately chosen entrenchments. Here, at the east -end of the city, in the beautiful Memorial Gardens, over the well into -which the dead bodies were cast after the second massacre, is a figure -of the Angel of the Resurrection, sculptured by Marochetti in white -marble. In each hand is a palm, the emblem of peace. Around the circle -of the well is the following inscription:— - - “Sacred to the perpetual memory of the great company of - Christian people, chiefly women and children, who near this spot - were cruelly murdered by the followers of the rebel Nana Dhundu - Pant of Bithur, and cast, the dying with the dead, into the well - below, on the 15th day of July, 1857.” - - -[Sidenote: 60. -The Queen’s Statue, Cawnpore.] Finally, we look at the bronze monument -of the Queen-Empress Victoria, whose direct government displaced that of -the East India Company after the quelling of the Mutiny in 1858. Hindu -gardeners are at work in the foreground. No Briton can visit Lucknow and -Cawnpore without being moved. We may well be proud of the heroic deeds -of those of our race who in 1857 suffered and fought and died to save -the British Raj in India. - - - -------------- - - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - - - LECTURE V. - - - --- - - =BOMBAY.= - - --- - - THE MARATHAS. - - -[Sidenote: 1. -Map of Indian Railway System.] Two new facts have of recent years -altered all the relations of India with the outer world, and have -vitally changed the conditions of internal government as compared with -those prevailing at the time of the Mutiny. The first of these facts was -the opening of the Suez Canal, and the second was the construction, and -as regards main lines the virtual completion of the Indian Railway -System. Formerly shipping came round the Cape of Good Hope, and it was -as easy to steer a course for Calcutta as for Bombay. To-day only bulky -cargo is taken from Suez and Aden round the southern point of India -through the Bay of Bengal to Calcutta. The fast mail boats run to -Bombay, and thence the railways diverge northward, northeastward, and -southeastward to all the frontiers of the Empire. Only the Burmese -railways remain for the present a detached system. But in regard to -tonnage of traffic Calcutta is still the first port of India, for the -country which lies in rear of it in Bengal and the United Provinces -contains a very large population. - -From Bombay inland runs the Great Indian Peninsula Railway, or as it is -known everywhere in India, the G.I.P. This line branches a short -distance from the coast, striking on the one hand southeastward in the -direction of Madras, and on the other hand northeastward in the -direction of Allahabad. A second great railway system, the East Indian, -begins at Howrah on the shore of the Hooghly opposite to Calcutta, and -thence crossing the low Rajmahal spur of the central hills descends to -the bank of the Ganges at Patna, from which point it follows the river -to Allahabad, and there branches, one line continuing northwestward to -Delhi and beyond, the other striking southwestward through the hills to -Jubbulpore, where it meets the northeastward branch of the G.I.P. Each -week, four hours after the arrival of the mail steamer at Bombay, three -express trains leave the Victoria Station of that city. One of them is -bound southeastward for Madras. The second runs northeastward over the -G.I.P. and East Indian lines, by way of Jubbulpore and Allahabad, to the -Howrah Station at Calcutta. The third also runs northeastward by the -G.I.P. line, but diverges northward from the Calcutta route to Agra and -Delhi. When the Government of India is at Simla, the last mentioned -train continues northward beyond Delhi to the foot of the mountains. The -time taken to Madras is 26 hours, to Calcutta 36 hours, and to Delhi 27 -hours. - -Access to the great plains at the foot of the Himalayas was formerly by -the navigation of the Ganges and of its tributaries. Then the Grand -Trunk road was constructed from Calcutta northwestward through the -Gangetic plain to the northwest of India. It was by this road that -relief was brought during the Mutiny to the besieged garrisons of -Cawnpore and Lucknow. Finally, the East Indian Railway was built from -Bengal to the Punjab through the whole length of the densely peopled -belt which is enriched by the monsoon rains of the Himalayas. - -Recently a more direct line from Bombay to Calcutta, which does not pass -through Allahabad, has been constructed through Nagpur, the capital of -the Central Provinces of India. This runs, however, through a hilly -country, much forested and relatively thinly peopled. There are now two -daily mails between Calcutta and Bombay, the one running via Nagpur and -the other _viâ_ Allahabad. - - -[Sidenote: 2. -Indian Railway Station.] We have here an Indian train standing at a -platform. Note the screens constructed to give shade in the heat of the -day. - - -[Sidenote: 3. -Bhor Ghat Reversing Station.] [Sidenote: 4. -The Same.] The two branches of the Great Indian Peninsula Railway -approach one another at an angle from Allahabad and the northeast and -from Madras and the southeast. They descend the steep mountain face -which edges the Deccan plateau by two passes, the Bhor Ghat and the Thal -Ghat. The lines are constructed downward, with remarkable skill of -engineering, by loops, and in places by blind ends on which the trains -are reversed. Here are two views of the Bhor Ghat Reversing Station, the -first taken from below, and the second from above. The Junction of the -two lines is in the narrow coastal plain at the foot of the descent. -Thence the rails are carried by a bridge over a sea strait into Sashti -Island, and by a second bridge over a second strait into Bombay Island, -and so to the great Victoria Terminus in the midst of the city. - - -[Sidenote: 5. -Map of Bombay District.] The island of Bombay is about twelve miles long -from north to south. The harbour, set with hilly islets, lies between -Bombay and the mainland, the entry being from the south round the long -Colaba Point. Westward of Colaba is Back Bay, formed by the Malabar -Point, on whose end, extended as it were to meet Europe, is the -residence of the Governor of the great Province of Bombay. - - -[Sidenote: 6. -Plan of Bombay City.] [Sidenote: 7. -Bombay, from top of Rajabaie Tower, looking South.] [Sidenote: 8. -The Same, looking Southeast.] [Sidenote: 9. -The Same, looking Northeast.] [Sidenote: 10. -The Same, looking Northwest.] [Sidenote: Repeat Map No. 1.] The most -conspicuous feature of the now magnificent city is a range of public -buildings, running north and south about mid-way between the harbour and -Back Bay. East of these buildings is the oldest quarter of the city, -known as the Fort. Westward, on the shore of Back Bay, is a broad -expanse of garden. The native town lies to the north, and beyond it is -Byculla, where are the mills and factories, and to the east of Byculla -on the harbour front is the dockyard of the Peninsular and Oriental -Steam Navigation Company. How fine a city is Bombay may be realised from -the top of the great tower of the University, some two hundred and fifty -feet high, the most conspicuous building in the place. It is the central -feature of the range of public buildings just referred to. We have here -in succession from south and southeast to northeast and northwest, four -views from the top of this tower. The first is to the south, and shows -the Union Jack flying from the Secretariat of the Government of Bombay, -and the entry to the harbour beyond. The edge of the garden belt towards -Back Bay is seen along the right hand edge of the view. In the -southeastward view we have the shipping and the islands of the harbour, -and the Government Dockyard with its long jetty. Notice the island fort -guarding the channel. In the northeastward view we look towards the -native city, and see the factories smoking in the distance. It will be -seen that there are practically no chimneys on the nearer buildings, and -no smoke in the air. Finally from our tower top we turn northwestward, -and look across the head of Back Bay towards Malabar Point. The building -on the shore of the Bay is the office of the Bombay and Baroda Railway, -which runs northward along the coast into a densely peopled lowland -round the head of the Gulf of Cambay. Away in the distance on that -Malabar Promontory, but not visible in this view, are the Towers of -Silence, where the Parsis dispose of their dead. - - -[Sidenote: 11. -Group of Parsis.] [Sidenote: 12. -Parsi Tower of Silence.] The Parsis (_i.e._ Persians) are a community, -chiefly of merchants, who came to Bombay in the Middle Ages, flying from -Persia when the Musulmans conquered that land. They hold the ancient -faith of Persia, and are commonly described as Fire Worshippers. They -regard the elements fire, water, and earth as sacred, and therefore -refuse to pollute them with the decay of dead bodies. They build round -towers, known as Towers of Silence, and these they place in large -grounds equivalent to our cemeteries. Each tower is hollow and exposed -to the sky within. There on stone ledges the dead bodies are laid, and -the vultures pick the flesh from the bones. The ash of the bones is -washed by the rain into a central pit at the bottom of the hollow tower, -where it slowly accumulates, so that, in accordance with one of the -tenets of their faith, the Parsis, rich and poor, meet in death. The -Parsis of Bombay are a wealthy and enterprising community, who do no -small part of the commerce of the city. One of their number recently sat -in the House of Commons at Westminster as the representative of a London -constituency. They have no caste prejudices like the Hindus, and no -seclusion of women like the Musulmans, so that their ways of life are -nearer to those of Europeans. - - -[Sidenote: 13. -The Rajabaie Tower, Bombay University.] [Sidenote: 14. -The Same, more distant view.] [Sidenote: 15. -P. & O. Offices, Bombay.] [Sidenote: 16. -Carmac Bund, Bombay.] [Sidenote: 17. -Victoria Terminus, G.I.P., Bombay.] [Sidenote: 18. -The Same: another view.] [Sidenote: 19. -Municipal Buildings, Bombay.] [Sidenote: 20. -Esplanade Road, Bombay.] [Sidenote: 21. -Fountain in Esplanade Road, Bombay.] [Sidenote: 22. -Statue of Queen Victoria.] Now let us walk through the city, and realise -its grandeur. Here we are down by the western façade of the University. -The great tower rises above us from which we just now obtained our -views. That tower is called the Rajabaie Tower, in memory of the mother -of the founder of the building. This is a rather more distant picture of -the same building. We have next the offices of the P. and O. Company, -and then a wharfside with steamers about to start for Goa, the old -Portuguese capital midway along the west coast of India southward of -Bombay. Here we have the great Victoria Terminus of the G.I.P. Railway, -with a central dome and an elaborately carved façade. Bombay claims that -it is the finest railway station in the world. This is another view of -the same building, with bullocks passing in front of it. Here are the -Municipal Buildings with another fine dome. They are a combination of -gothic with oriental architecture, and were opened about fifteen years -ago. Notice the electric tramway wires above. Then we see another fine -street, the Esplanade Road. The National Bank is to the left, and -further along is the Bombay Club. Here is a fountain in the Esplanade -Road, with a bullock passing in front of it, and here is the Statue of -the Queen-Empress Victoria, unveiled in 1872. On the canopy are the rose -of England and the lotus of India. - -Bombay has a population only a little smaller than that of Calcutta, -and, like Calcutta and Madras, it is a new city, as time goes in the -Immemorial East. The island on which it stands was presented to King -Charles II. as part of the dower of his Portuguese Queen, and in order -to enable the British the better to co-operate with the Portuguese in -resisting the aggressions and encroachments of the Dutch. When handed -over by the Portuguese, there was but a small settlement on the island. -In 1668, however, Bombay was ceded to the East India Company, and the -Company transferred thither the centre of its trade on the west coast of -India, which had up to that time been at Surat, a hundred miles north of -Bombay. Gradually the commerce of the port increased, although for a -long time it was far outdistanced by Calcutta, whose great riverway -extends, as we have seen, through densely peopled plains for a thousand -miles inland. Eastward of Bombay, on the other hand, is the mountain -face of the Western Ghats, barring easy access to the interior. The -greatness of Bombay came only with the opening of the Suez Canal and of -the railway lines up the Bhor and Thal Ghats, northeastward and -southeastward into India. - - -[Sidenote: 23. -Exterior of Caves of Elephanta.] [Sidenote: 24. -Caves of Elephanta.] [Sidenote: 25. -The Same, showing the Trimurti.] [Sidenote: 26. -Villagers of Elephanta.] In Bombay Harbour there is a small island, -about six miles from the city, which is called Elephanta. It contains -carved rock temples whose antiquity contrasts strangely with the modern -city close by. We have here the entry to these temple caves, and here a -view within. This is another picture, showing a three-faced image. The -carving is some twenty feet high, and represents Brahma the Creator, -Siva the Destroyer, and Vishnu the Preserver. The nature of these gods -was described in the first of these lectures. Here we have a little -group of the villagers of Elephanta. The village has some seven hundred -inhabitants. It is known as Elephanta because there was formerly -conspicuous among the rock carvings of the temple a great elephant, -which, however, decayed and fell some fifty years ago. The native name -of the island means “the town of excavations.” - - -[Sidenote: 27. -Map of Bombay Presidency, Nizam’s Territory, and Maratha Country.] -[Sidenote: 28. -The Satara Hills, Maratha Country.] [Sidenote: 29. -Native Plough, Maratha Country.] Now let us journey inland, up the -Ghats, through their thick forests, and if it be the rainy season, past -rushing waterfalls, until surmounting the brink top we come out on to -the plain of the tableland, and into the relative drought of the upper -climate. This is the Maratha country, and here we have a typical view of -the open landscape which it presents. The hills in the distance are the -Satara hills, extending west and east through the heart of India. Here -is another view in this same Maratha Country. It shows a native plough -at work, and in the background one of the table-topped mountains, which -are studded over the surface of the generally level plateau, not unlike -the kopjes of South Africa. These steep-sided isolated mountain blocks -have often served as strongholds in warfare, and many of them are noted -in connection with the Maratha wars, waged in this part of India a -little more than a century ago under the lead of Sir Arthur Wellesley, -afterwards the great Duke of Wellington. At the foot of the mountain may -just be seen one of the Towers of Silence of the Parsis. - - -[Sidenote: 30. -Maratha Soldier.] [Sidenote: 31. -Map of the Maratha Dominions at their greatest extent.] The Marathas are -a people of Hindu religion and Marathi language, which is akin, as we -learned in the last lecture, to the Hindi of the United Provinces. Some -four generations ago they raided most of India from their home on this -high plateau of the Western Deccan, and the troops of the East India -Company had to wage three successive wars with them. Had it not been for -the British victory, there can be little doubt that the Marathas would -have established an Empire in India. Their homeland round the city of -Poona now forms the main portion of the Province of Bombay, but Maratha -princes still rule large conquered countries as feudatories of the -King-Emperor. This map shows us the dominion of the Marathas at its -greatest extent, near the end of the eighteenth century, when they were -the dominant warlike race of India. Their original home was not far from -Poona. As they spread, five principal officers of court and state took -the place of the dynasty of the Rajas, which became decrepit. These were -the Peshwa, the Gaikwar, Sindhia, Holkar, and the Bhonsla. These five -great chiefs conquered far and wide through all the heart of India. -Sindhia’s dominions extended northward to Delhi, and Bhonsla’s eastward -to Orissa on the east coast. The Peshwa was on the plateau round Poona. -Holkar was seated at Indore between the Peshwa and Sindhia, and the -Gaikwar at Baroda, in the fertile lowland round the head of the gulf of -Cambay. At times there was rivalry and war between them, but with the -exception of the Peshwa they were united by French intrigue in the time -of Napoleon, with the result that we had to fight between the years 1803 -and 1805 the most widespread war which we have ever fought in India. Our -generals were Lake and Wellesley. The most brilliant victory was that of -Assaye, in the plateau country just north of Poona. There, with three -thousand troops, Wellesley defeated Sindhia’s army of twenty thousand -men, organised by French officers, and captured an artillery of a -hundred guns. Peace was made with the conquered Marathas about the time -when Trafalgar was fought, and it was stipulated that they were for the -future to allow no European influence in their States except the -British. There was a subsequent Maratha war, but the great war just -referred to was the most serious crisis through which the British rule -in India has had to pass, perhaps not even excepting the Mutiny of 1857. - -The Marathas are of Hindu religion, but the caste system is not with -them carried to the extreme that prevails among other Hindus. They -present, in fact, the nearest approach to a national caste. As we shall -learn presently, Sindhia, Holkar, and the Gaikwar still rule great -territories as Feudatory Princes, but Nagpur, the Bhonsla’s capital, is -now the chief town of the Central Provinces of British India, and Poona, -the capital of the Peshwa, is the seat of the Bombay Government during -part of the year. - - -[Sidenote: 32. -Political Map of Bombay Province and Central India.] In contrast with -the last map, showing the extent of the former Maratha Dominions, we -have here a map of the central parts of India as they are to-day, with -the Province of Bombay ruled directly by the British Government marked -in red, and also the Central Provinces under direct British rule from -Nagpur, but in addition it will be seen that in blue colour there are -two patches of territory northeastward of Bombay, which bear the -inscription Central India, a term to be carefully distinguished from the -Central Provinces. - - -[Sidenote: 33. -Scene near Hyderabad.] [Sidenote: 34. -Street Scene, in Hyderabad.] [Sidenote: 35. -The Nizam’s Palace, Hyderabad.] Central India consists of Native -Feudatory States, which acknowledge the British suzerainty, but are -immediately ruled by their own Maharajas, of whom the two most important -are the Maratha princes Holkar at Indore, and Sindhia at Gwalior. There -is another larger patch of blue, southeastward of Bombay. This is the -State of Hyderabad, ruled under British suzerainty by the Nizam. This -great prince is however no Maratha, but a Musulman. His people for the -most part speak the Dravidian language Telugu, and are Hindu by -religion. Thus we see that none of these large states, each as important -as one of the smaller European kingdoms, has for its ruler a man of the -same race as the people. Sindhia and Holkar are Marathas ruling Hindi -populations; the Nizam is a Musulman ruling Telugu-speaking Hindus. The -Gaikwar of Baroda, it may be added, who governs a small but very rich -and populous territory, is a Maratha ruling a Gujrati population. We -have here a typical landscape in the Nizam’s territory, and see that it -is not very different from the Maratha landscapes. It is on the same -open Deccan plateau. This is a scene in Hyderabad itself, showing a -procession of elephants, and then we see the Nizam’s Palace. - - -[Sidenote: 36. -Golkonda Fort.] Next we have a view of Golkonda Fort, placed on one of -the usual flat-topped hills, and defended on one side by a large sheet -of water. Golkonda is in the neighbourhood of Hyderabad, the capital of -the Nizam’s dominions. Its name has become proverbial as indicative of -immense wealth. Formerly it was the great Indian centre of diamond -cutting and polishing, or in other words the Amsterdam of India. The -diamonds were not found in the immediate neighbourhood, but in the -extreme southeastern corner of the Nizam’s territory. - - -[Sidenote: 37. -The Same, nearer view.] [Sidenote: 38. -A Bastion at the top of Golkonda Fort.] [Sidenote: 39. -View from Golkonda Fort, looking Northeast.] [Sidenote: 40. -Hindu Temple, Golkonda Fort.] [Sidenote: 41. -Musulman Mosque, Golkonda Fort.] Here is a nearer view of Golkonda Fort, -and here a view over the plain, from the bastion at the top of the Fort, -from which can be seen the Tombs of the Kings about half a mile away. -These kings belonged to a great Musulman dynasty which ruled here during -the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, until it was overthrown by -Aurangzeb. Next we have, near the summit of the Fort, the ruins of a -Hindu temple, and close by, shown in the following slide, the remains of -a Muhammadan mosque. The Fort, therefore, in its ruins, records the -essential history of the country, first the Hindu civilization, and then -two successive Musulman conquests. - - -[Sidenote: 42. -Mahbub College, Secunderabad.] [Sidenote: 43. -Ploughing at Agricultural School at Aurangabad.] [Sidenote: 44. -A Queen’s Boy at the same School.] Some of these Feudatory Native States -do not lag far behind the territories directly ruled by British -officials. Western civilization is permeating all India under the -British suzerainty. At Secunderabad and Aurangabad, places in the -Nizam’s Dominions, are, for instance, Agricultural and Industrial -Schools. Here is a group of students at the Mahbub College, -Secunderabad, and here a view taken at the Agricultural School at -Aurangabad, which shows some of the students ploughing. One of the -gentlemen in the foreground is the Director of Public Instruction in the -Nizam’s State, and by his side is the Superintendent of the School. Then -we see an orphan student, a “Queen’s boy.” He will probably settle down -in a year or two’s time, very likely marrying one of the “Queen’s -girls.” With a portion of his scholarship saved up for him, he will -purchase the necessary bullocks and plough. He came to the college from -the Victoria Memorial Orphanage, where each child is trained in his own -religion. - - -[Sidenote: 45. -Kinkob Loom, Secunderabad.] [Sidenote: 46. -Carpenters at Aurangabad.] In the midst, however, of this rapid advance -we still find the older methods. Here at Secunderabad is a Kinkob loom -of the old pattern. Kinkob work is made of gold and silver thread. The -boy sitting above is controlling the threads, and helps to make the -pattern by raising or lowering them in the warp. The boy sitting below -in the well is working the shuttles. This is a street scene in -Aurangabad showing natives of the carpenter caste sawing timber. - - -[Sidenote: 47. -The Tomb of the Saint, Roza.] [Sidenote: 48. -Roza Fair.] [Sidenote: 49. -The Same.] [Sidenote: 50. -Daulatabad, from the Road to Roza.] Another aspect of life in the Deccan -of India is shown in the next slide, where round the tomb of a saint at -a place called Roza is gathered the camp of a fair. A saint of great -renown among the Musulmans was buried here in the fourteenth century, -and deposited within the shrine are some hairs alleged to be from -Muhammad’s beard. There follow two slides showing the usual amusements -of the fair, in the latter of which we see a merry-go-round not at all -unlike those typical of the country fairs of England. Next we have a -view taken on the road from Roza, and in the distance can be seen the -hill fort of Daulatabad, built in the thirteenth century on a great -isolated mass of granite about five hundred feet high. In this fort was -imprisoned and died the last King of Golkonda, and it became the -favourite summer resort of his Mogul conqueror, Aurangzeb. - - -[Sidenote: Repeat Map No. 27.] The upland which fills most of the centre -of India and bears in its midst the Nizam’s Dominions is in most parts -of no great fertility. Over large areas it is fitted rather for the -pasture of horses and cattle than for the plough. Agriculture is -naturally best in the river valleys, but there is one large district -lying on the plateau top east of Bombay, and on the hill tops about the -Narbada valley east of Baroda, which is of a most singular fertility. -The usually granitic and schistose rocks of the plateau have here been -overlaid by great sheets of basaltic lava. Detached portions of these -lava beds form the table tops of the hills in the country rendered -famous by Wellesley’s Maratha campaigns. The lava disintegrates into a -tenacious black soil, which does not fall into dust during the dry -season, but cracks into great blocks, which remain moist. As the dry -season advances these blocks shrink, and the cracks grow broader, so -that finally it is dangerous for a horse to gallop over the plain lest -its hoof should be caught in one of these openings of the ground. - - -This remarkable earth is known as the Black Cotton Soil. The cotton -seeds are sown after the rains, and as the young plant grows a clod of -earth forms round its roots, which is separated from the next similar -clod by cracks. Wheat is grown on this soil in the same manner, being -sown after the rainy season and reaped in the beginning of the hot -season, so that from beginning to end the crop is produced without -exposure to rain, being drawn up by the brilliant sunshine and fed at -the root by the moisture preserved in the heavy soil. - - -Thus in the part of India which lies immediately east, northeast, and -north of Bombay the lowlands and the uplands are alike fertile—the -lowlands round Ahmadabad and Baroda and in the valleys of the Narbada -and Tapti Rivers because of their alluvial soil, and the uplands round -Poona and Indore because they are clothed with the volcanic cotton soil. - - -Just within the northwestern corner of the Nizam’s territory are the -famous rock temples of Ellora, perhaps the most magnificent of their -kind in the world. The sculpture is of Brahman, Buddhist, and Jain -dates, the monuments of various religions being thus as it were imposed -upon one another. - -[Sidenote: 51. -Entry to Jain Caves, Ellora.] [Sidenote: 52. -Jain Caves, Ellora.] [Sidenote: 53. -The Juggernath Temple, Jain Caves, Ellora.] [Sidenote: 54. -The Same.] [Sidenote: 55. -The Kailas Caves, Ellora.] [Sidenote: 56. -The Same.] [Sidenote: 57. -Buddhist Temple, Ellora Caves.] [Sidenote: 58. -The Carpenter Cave, Ellora.] This is the entry to the Jain part of the -Ellora caves, and this is the interior of one of the Jain caves, story -above story. The niches are full of statues, many of them in perfect -condition. Here we have two views of the magnificent Juggernath Temple. -Next, in the dim light, we realize something of the internal structure -of the Brahman section of the caves. Notice the two men whose height -enables you to judge of the scale. These are among the finest of all the -monuments of antiquity in India. Here is a view taken on the floor of -the Buddhist Temple, with large figures of Buddha seated on a throne, -and there follows a view in another cave showing the beautifully carved -roof. It will be seen then that in these Ellora caves several religions -have contributed, the Jain no less than the Buddhist and the Hindu. - -The Jains rose in the time of Buddha, five hundred years before Christ. -That was a time of religious stir in India, which resulted in various -revolts against the Brahmanical system. The Jain tenets are not unlike -those of the Buddhists. They believe in the universal soul, and in the -transmigration of souls, so that a man’s soul may pass into an animal. -Their regard for animal life, for this reason so general in India, is -carried to an extreme. The Jains were strongest in Western India, and -they are still present there, although now in a very small minority. -They probably total to-day not more than a million and a half, and are -perhaps most numerous at Ahmadabad. Of their great temples at Mount Abu -we shall hear presently. - - -[Sidenote: 59. -The Mecca Gate, Aurangabad.] [Sidenote: 60. -The Mausoleum of Rubia-ud-Daurani.] In order to complete the range of -the architectures of India, there follow two specimens of the Muhammadan -buildings of the state of Hyderabad. First we see the Mecca Gate at -Aurangabad, with the Mecca Bridge underneath it, and then we have the -Mausoleum of Rubia-ud-Daurani, the wife of Aurangzeb. The door of the -gateway is of brass and all the domes are of marble. The building has -recently been restored by the Government of the Nizam, and is now -probably second only to the Taj Mahal at Agra among the Muhammadan -buildings of India. - - -[Sidenote: Repeat Map No. 32.] Finally, we must note that a portion of -the Bombay Presidency lies far away to the northwest, detached from the -remainder. This is the province of Sind, for the most part a desert -area, but containing the delta of the river Indus, which is a second -Egypt in fertility, for there the alluvium brought down by the great -river from the distant Himalaya mountains is deposited, and water is -available by irrigation from the same distant source. Curiously, Sind -resembles Egypt in its human settlements. At the head of the delta where -the distributaries divide, and therefore at the lowest convenient -crossing place of the river, is situated the city of Hyderabad, -corresponding to Cairo, and on the sea front westward of the deltaic -mouths is Karachi, corresponding to Alexandria. - - -[Sidenote: Repeat Map No. 27.] Sind was conquered by Sir Charles Napier -in 1843. The Sindi population is for the most part Musulman, and engaged -in agriculture, but the significance of Sind has altered since it was -first added to the directly ruled British territories. At first -communication with the Punjab was relatively difficult, for the Indus is -not navigated with the same ease as is the Ganges. In the days before -railways it was therefore natural that the new province should be -administered from Bombay by means of sea communications. To-day, -however, with the construction of the North Western Railway from Karachi -up the river Indus, the commercial relations of Sind have come to be -with the Punjab, of which Karachi is now the great port, although it is -still subordinate to Bombay for purposes of government. - -It is interesting and significant to observe that the coastline of all -India is now under direct British rule, except for the little States of -Cochin and Travancore, in the far south, near Cape Comorin, and the -peninsula of Kathiawar and the island of Cutch, which are divided among -a multitude of petty chieftains subordinate to the Government of Bombay. -Thus the larger Native States, being isolated from the sea, there is -little fear of foreign intrigue in India such as we had to contend with -during the French wars. There are a few diminutive scraps of territory -belonging to the French and Portuguese Governments, but these are too -insignificant to break the general rule, and moreover they are engirt -landward by directly ruled British territory. The largest of them is at -Goa, on the west coast, south of Bombay, the last remnant of the great -Portuguese dominion in the Indies. - - - -------------- - - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - - - LECTURE VI. - - - --- - - =RAJPUTANA.= - - --- - - THE FEUDATORY STATES. - - -[Sidenote: 1. -Map of India, Distinguishing Rajputana.] In the centre of northwestern -India is a group of large native States known as Rajputana, of the -greatest historical interest. These States are inhabited by ancient -Hindu Aryan tribes, collectively known as Rajputs, which literally means -“of princely descent.” They represent the purest and most ancient Indian -stock, and here, almost alone of the larger native States, the Chiefs -belong to the same race as their people. Rajputana suffered much from -the Musulmans, but was never completely conquered by them, a fact in -part due to the physical character of the country. - - -[Sidenote: 2. -Map of Northwestern India.] Through the centre of Rajputana, diagonally -from the southwest northeastward, there runs the range of the Aravalli -hills for a distance of fully three hundred miles, its northern -extremity being the Ridge at Delhi on the Jumna River. At the southern -end of the Aravallis, but separated from the main range by a hollow, is -the isolated Mount Abu, the highest point in Rajputana, standing up -conspicuously above the surrounding plains to a height of some five -thousand feet. The top is a rugged plateau measuring fourteen miles by -four. On this little upland, are the signs both of the antiquity and -modernity of Rajputana—on the one hand, the world-famed ruins of Jain -temples, and on the other, round the beautiful Gem Lake, the residences -of the Agent of the Governor-General and his staff, who maintain the -suzerainty of the King-Emperor in Rajputana. East of the Aravalli hills, -in the basin of the Chambal tributary of the Jumna-Ganges, is the more -fertile part of Rajputana, with the cities of Jaipur, Ajmer, Udaipur, -and the old fortress of Chitor. Beyond the Chambal River itself, but -within its basin, may be seen on the map the positions of Indore and -Gwalior, the seats of the Maratha princes Holkar and Sindhia. Indore and -Gwalior, however, belong to the Central Indian Agency and not to -Rajputana. West of the Aravalli hills is the great Indian Desert, -prolonged seaward by the salt and partly tidal marsh known as the Rann -of Cutch. In oases of this desert are some of the smaller Rajput -capitals, notably Bikaner. Beyond the desert flows the great Indus -river, through a dry although not wholly desert land, in the midst of -which, from Hyderabad to the sea, is the delta of Sind, as was said in -the last lecture, a second Egypt, fertile and thickly peopled. South of -Mount Abu, where the rivers descend from the end of the Aravalli hills -to the Gulf of Cambay is another fertile lowland, with the beautiful -city of Ahmadabad in the centre of it, but this city is in British -territory, being in the Province of Bombay, and therefore outside the -Tributary States of Rajputana. Ajmer, beside the Aravalli hills, is in -an island of directly ruled British territory completely surrounded by -Feudatory Rajputana. - -It would be difficult to exaggerate the importance to India of the -existence of the great Indian Desert of Rajputana. The ocean to the -southeast and the southwest of the Peninsula was an ample protection -against overseas invasion until the Europeans rounded the Cape of Good -Hope. The vast length of the Himalaya, backed by the desert plateau of -Tibet, was an equal defence on a third side. Only to the northwest does -India lie relatively open to the incursions of the warlike peoples of -Western and Central Asia. It is precisely in that direction, as a great -barrier extending northeastward from the Rann of Cutch, that we find the -Indian Desert, and in rear of the Desert the minor bulwark constituted -by the Aravalli range. Only between the northeastern extremity of the -desert and the foot of the Himalayas below Simla is there an easy -gateway into India. No river traverses this gateway, which is on the -divide between the systems of the Indus and the Jumna-Ganges. Delhi -stands on the west bank of the Jumna at the northern extremity of the -Aravallis, just where the invading forces from the northwest came -through to the navigable waters of the Jumna, which flow southeastward -through Hindustan to Bengal. - -Aided by such powerful natural conditions, the Rajputs have ever been -the defenders of India. Unable to prevent the entry of invaders by the -direct way to Delhi, they have maintained themselves on the southern -flank of the advance, and to-day their princely families proudly trace -their lineage back in unbroken descent from ancestors before the -Christian era. In the gateway itself, between the desert and the -Himalayas, beyond the limits of Rajputana, dwell another people of -warlike disposition, the famous Sikhs. Here are still preserved as -Feudatory States the Sikh Principalities of Patiala, Nabha, and Jhind. - - -[Sidenote: 3. -Jama Masjid, Ahmadabad.] [Sidenote: 4. -Rani Sipri’s Tomb, Ahmadabad.] [Sidenote: 5. -Mohafiz Khan’s Mosque, Ahmadabad.] [Sidenote: 6. -Hathi Singh’s Temple, Ahmadabad.] Let us first visit Ahmadabad, in the -midst of the fertile lowland at the head of the Gulf of Cambay. The -territories of this part of the Bombay Presidency are much mixed with -those of the Gaikwar of Baroda, so that the map of the plains round the -two cities of Ahmadabad and Baroda almost resembles that part of -Scotland which is labelled Ross and Cromarty. Ahmadabad was once the -most important Mohammedan city of Western India, and contains many fine -architectural monuments, surpassed only by those of the great Mogul -capitals, Delhi and Agra. It is reached from Bombay by the Bombay and -Baroda Railway along the coast northward. We have here the Jama Masjid -or Great Mosque of the city, still one of the most beautiful in India, -though it was damaged by an earthquake about a century ago. Then we have -another fine building, Rani Sipri’s Tomb. There follows a view of -Mohafiz Khan’s Mosque, whose fine minarets remind one of the Citadel at -Cairo. Finally, just outside Ahmadabad, is the comparatively modern -Temple of Hathi Singh, built of white marble in the Jain style, with -many domes. - - -[Sidenote: 7. -The Lake, Mount Abu.] From Ahmadabad the Baroda Railway is continued -northward and westward across the southern end of the Rajput Desert to -Hyderabad, in Sind, but we will go on our journey by the narrow gauge -railway through Rajputana to Mount Abu, which rises like an island of -granite from amid the sandy desert. Here is the Gem Lake on the summit -of the mountain, a most beautiful sheet of water, set with rocky islets -and overhung with great masses of rock, with the Residency or house of -the representative of the British Government on its shore, for Mount Abu -is the centre from which Rajputana is controlled, as far as is -necessary, by the advice of the Viceroy. It is, as we have already said, -about 5,000 feet or a mile above the sea level, and the climate is -therefore suitable for a hill station. It is used as a sanatorium for -British troops and as a hot season resort. - - -[Sidenote: 8. -The Dilwarra Temples, Mount Abu.] [Sidenote: 9. -The Same, nearer view.] [Sidenote: 10. -Door of the Adinat, Mount Abu.] [Sidenote: 11. -Sava Munda, Mount Abu.] [Sidenote: 12. -The Same, another view.] [Sidenote: 13. -Paras Wanath Temple, Mount Abu.] Mount Abu is famous for its Dilwarra -temples, probably the most ancient of the Jain temples of India. We -heard of the Jains at the close of the last lecture. This is a distant -view of the Dilwarra temples among the palm trees. We see that the -surface of the plateau is very rugged. Here is a nearer view of the -temples, and here a doorway of the most ancient of them, built probably -about the time of the Norman Conquest of England. Next we have two views -of another temple, erected some two hundred years later. The carving of -the small domes and vaults is most delicate, and stands almost -unrivalled even in India, a land essentially of painstaking labour in -small details. Finally, we have a view of yet another temple, said to -have been built by the workmen in their spare time during the erection -of the greater temples we have just seen. In spite of the dilapidation -of many centuries, and of unskilled restoration in places, these ruins -are still extremely beautiful amid the rugged scenery of the Mount. The -British Station on Mount Abu was attacked during the Mutiny, but the -attack was beaten off. - - -[Sidenote: 14. -Sir Pratab Singh.] [Sidenote: 15. -Dolat Singh.] [Sidenote: 16. -Himat Singh.] One of the most progressive of the Rajput States, and the -oldest, is Jodhpur, whose Prime Minister was, until lately, the -distinguished officer Sir Pratab Singh, now Maharaja of his own little -State of Idar, in the plain at the foot of Mount Abu. We have his -portrait here, and those of his son and grandson. - - -[Sidenote: 17. -H.H. The Maharana of Udaipur.] [Sidenote: 18. -The Palace, Udaipur.] [Sidenote: 19. -The Same.] [Sidenote: 20. -Udaipur, from the Jag Mandar.] [Sidenote: 21. -Jag Mandar, Udaipur.] [Sidenote: 22. -Jag Newas, Udaipur.] Udaipur is the capital of another of the greater -Rajput States, Mewar, which was founded in the Roman times of European -chronology. This is a portrait of the Maharana of Udaipur, who is the -highest in esteem of all the Rajput princes. Udaipur is one of the most -beautiful cities in India, with its palaces and ghats reflected in the -clear waters of a lake. Here are two views of the palace of the -Maharana, built of granite and marble, rising to a hundred feet above -the surface of the lake. Here we have the city seen across the lake, and -then there follow two views showing the temples and terraces by the -water’s edge. - - -[Sidenote: 23. -The Ganesh Gate, Chitor.] [Sidenote: 24. -The Tower of Victory, Chitor.] East of Udaipur city, but in the same -State, is the rock fortress of Chitor, anciently the capital, a most -conspicuous object, standing high and isolated above the surrounding -country. The slopes of the hill are covered with a thick jungle, and the -summit is crowned with ruins of palaces and temples. The road which -leads up to the top is about a mile in length, and on it at intervals -are seven gateways. We have here a view of one of them, the Ganesh Gate. -This roadway was the scene of a terrible struggle in the middle of the -16th century, when the invading Musulmans under Akbar attacked the -Rajput stronghold. The citadel was at length taken, but the Rajputs sold -their freedom dearly, nearly ten thousand of them falling in the battle. -The old city of Chitor is now decayed and reduced to a mere village, but -it still contains interesting ruins, notably the two Jain Towers of -Victory and Fame. The Tower of Fame is the older, built in the time of -our King Alfred. This is a view of the Tower of Victory, built in the -early 15th century. It has nine stories. A stairway in the centre leads -to the top. The dome has recently been restored, having been wrecked by -lightning. - - -[Sidenote: 25. -The Durga, Ajmer.] [Sidenote: 26. -The Same, The Tomb of Chisti.] [Sidenote: 27. -The Arhai-Din-Ka-Jhompra, Ajmer.] [Sidenote: 28. -The Lake, Ajmer.] [Sidenote: 29. -The Durga Bazaar, Ajmer.] [Sidenote: 30. -Mayo College, Ajmer.] Ajmer, now under direct British rule, is another -ancient and beautiful spot, set in a hollow among low hills, and -surrounded by a wall. It was the scene of many struggles between the -Musulmans and the Rajputs, and was finally taken by Akbar in the middle -of the 16th century. One of the principal buildings is the Durga, -venerated both by Hindus and by Musulmans. We have here a view of the -courtyard of the Durga. Notice to the right hand the huge metal cauldron -set in stone. It is used for the cooking of rice given in charity, which -is divided between poor pilgrims and the attendants at the shrine. Here -is the Tomb of Chisti in the Durga. Next is a Muhammadan Mosque, called -the Arhai-Din-Ka-Jhompra, which, tradition says, was built with divine -assistance in two and a half days. Then we have a view of the lake at -Ajmer. On the bank are a number of marble pavilions. This is one of -them. Close by, on a small hill overlooking the lake, is the house of -the Chief Commissioner of Ajmer, and Agent to the Governor-General for -Rajputana. Here we have a street in Ajmer. And here is the Mayo College, -for the education of the sons of the Rajput chiefs, an institution of -the greatest importance, as it were the loyal Eton of India, for the -Rajput Maharajas have the deepest instinct of personal loyalty to the -Suzerain Lord, a result at once of their feudal pride, their religion, -and their intelligence as rulers. The College was opened in 1875, and -contains about a hundred students. The main building, seen in this view, -is of white marble. - - -[Sidenote: 31. -Chand Pol Gate, Jaipur.] [Sidenote: 32. -A Street in Jaipur.] [Sidenote: 33. -Chand Pol Bazaar, Jaipur.] [Sidenote: 34. -A Wool Cart, Jaipur.] Next we visit Jaipur, a walled city surrounded by -rocky hills crowned with forts, the capital and residence of the -Maharaja of Jaipur State, the best governed of all the Rajput States. -This is one of the entrance gates, and through the archway may be seen -the crenellated wall of the city, with thatched huts built against it. -Here is a street within the city, with a fort-crowned rock visible at -the end of it, and here is the Bazaar. Jaipur has a modern aspect, for -it is a busy and prosperous commercial centre. Here is a wool cart in -the city. The streets are broad—perhaps the broadest in the world—and -cross one another at right angles, and at night are well lighted with -gas. - - -[Sidenote: 35. -The Samrat Yantra, Jaipur Observatory.] One of the most interesting of -the old Indian observatories, with great stone instruments, even larger -than those of Benares, is in this city. It was constructed at the -beginning of the 18th century, and has recently been restored by the -progressive Maharaja. This is the great Samrat Yantra, or sundial, the -largest in the world. The gnomon is 75 feet in height. Notice how small -in comparison is the keeper of the observatory, who may be seen standing -just outside the line of the shadow on the circumference of the dial. In -the distance, above some dwelling houses, is visible the clock-tower of -the Maharaja’s palace, the time of which is regulated by this sundial. - - -[Sidenote: 36. -The Palace Gardens, Jaipur—Crocodiles.] [Sidenote: 37. -The Same, Tomb of a pet dog.] [Sidenote: 38. -Flamingoes at Jaipur.] [Sidenote: 39. -Sita Ranji Temple, Jaipur.] The palace stands amid beautiful gardens. We -have here a tank in these gardens showing the Maharaja’s crocodiles, and -here is the tomb among the trees of one of the late Maharaja’s pet dogs. -Outside the city walls are fine public gardens, covering some forty -acres, containing an aviary and menagerie. Here is a group of -flamingoes, caught in the neighbourhood. Finally, we have one of the -temples in the city, built of red sandstone and finely carved. - - -[Sidenote: 40. -The Lake and Palace, Amber.] [Sidenote: 41. -Shish Mahal, Amber.] [Sidenote: 42. -The Palace, Alwar.] [Sidenote: 43. -The Same from above.] A few miles from Jaipur is Amber, the ancient -capital of Jaipur State, but now abandoned and in ruins. Here we have a -view of the old Palace and the Lake, and here one of the many fine -buildings, the Shish Mahal. Next we see the Palace at Alwar, a -comparatively modern city, the present capital of the State of Alwar, -and then we have a view over the palace looking down from the hill -above. - - -[Sidenote: 44. -City Gate, Bikaner.] [Sidenote: 45. -Jain Temple, Bhandashar, Bikaner.] [Sidenote: 46. -Bikaner from the Jain Temple.] [Sidenote: 47. -Street in Bikaner.] [Sidenote: 48. -Grain Sellers, Bikaner.] [Sidenote: 49. -Bikaner Fort.] Now we visit Bikaner, in an oasis of the northwestern -desert. This is the city gate, with a level railway crossing in front. -Notice the camel waiting for the passing of the train, and the -water-carriers. Here of course water is a valuable commodity. The -district of which Bikaner is the centre suffers frequently from famine -owing to drought. Then we have a Jain temple crowning a rocky mound, and -from the terrace of this temple we obtain a view over the city, with its -flat roofs and desert spaces. There follows a view in one of the narrow -streets, showing the carved front of a house belonging to one of the -richer Jains of the city. Finally we have a typical group of grain -sellers in front of the Customs House, and a view of the Fort. - - -[Sidenote: 50. -H.H. The Raja of Nabha and his ministers.] [Sidenote: 51. -H.H. The Raja of Nabha.] [Sidenote: 52. -The Palace of the Crown Prince of Nabha.] [Sidenote: 53. -Sirdar Fateh Singh.] [Sidenote: 54. -Sikhs at Nabha.] [Sidenote: 55. -An Akali at Nabha.] [Sidenote: 56. -The Chief Justice of Nabha.] [Sidenote: 57. -Sirdar Bisham Singh.] On our way northeastward we will next visit the -city of Nabha, though it is the centre of a Sikh and not of a Rajput -State. Here is the Raja of Nabha surrounded by his Council of Ministers, -and here his portrait. Then we have in the distance the palace of the -Crown Prince of Nabha, seen from the roof of Elgin House, the home of -the British Resident. Next there follow a series of portraits. The first -is of a young princeling. The second is of a group of Sikhs; in front is -a priest, and to the right, in black, an Akali, or warrior-monk. There -follows another slide showing one of these Akalis in ancient fighting -costume. Then we have, by way of contrast, the very up to date Chief -Justice of Nabha, but notice in the background sentry duty economically -performed by a pasteboard soldier! Here is a typical Sikh face, that of -the Vakil to the Political Agent at the British Residency. - - -[Sidenote: Repeat Map No. 2.] Finally, we will cross the Chambal river -and, leaving Rajputana, will enter Central India, and visit the two -cities of Gwalior and Indore, the capitals of the Maratha Princes -Sindhia and Holkar. Gwalior lies a little south of Delhi and Agra. The -city is dominated by an isolated rock fort, flat-topped and steep-sided, -more than three hundred feet in height. There is but a single road up, -and along this road are six successive gates, arranged as at the fort of -Chitor in Rajputana. Sindhia captured Gwalior rather more than a hundred -years ago. When the Indian Mutiny broke out his people, being of Hindi -race, of the same kin therefore as the people of Agra and Oudh, revolted -and joined the mutineers, but Sindhia and his Maratha officers remained -loyal and escaped to British protection. - - -[Sidenote: 58. -The Fort, Gwalior.] Gwalior was the scene of the last episodes in the -Indian Mutiny. Driven from Delhi and from around Cawnpore and Lucknow, -the mutineers marched in 1858 against Sindhia, who met them in battle, -but was defeated. Then General Sir Hugh Rose followed them up in what is -known as the Central Indian campaign, and defeated them at Gwalior. The -fort of Gwalior itself was taken by a remarkable feat of daring. Two -British subalterns with a blacksmith and an outpost force picked the -locks of the first five gateways up the road entry before they were -discovered. They stormed the last gate, one of them being killed. So -Gwalior Fort was taken, and for a generation was garrisoned by British -troops, but about twenty years ago it was restored to the Maharaja -Sindhia. - - -[Sidenote: 59. -Holkar’s Palace, Indore.] Indore lies in the land of Malwa, a -considerable distance south of Gwalior and on high ground about the -sources of the Chambal river. The Governor-General’s Agent for Central -India has his residence here by treaty, and close at hand is now the -army cantonment of Mhow. At the time of the Mutiny some of Holkar’s -infantry attacked the Residency, and as the Resident, Sir Henry Durand, -had only twenty men to defend it, he was compelled to retreat with some -women and children. But it was soon recovered and nothing very serious -ensued in this part of India. - -The Rajputana Agency is as large as the whole British Isles, but it -contains only about ten million people, since a great part of it is -desert. The Central Indian Agency is about as large as England and -Scotland without Wales. It has a population only a little smaller than -that of Rajputana. We may measure the significance of the more important -chiefs in these two Agencies by the fact that Sindhia rules a country -little less, either in area or population, than the Kingdom of Scotland. - -The Native States of India, of which we have seen a series of examples, -occupy about a third of the area of the whole country, and contain about -one-fifth of the population. They represent in their present secure -position a new phase of Anglo-Indian policy. The Indian Mutiny closed a -period characterised by successive great annexations to the territory -directly ruled by Britain. Since the Mutiny there has been no -acquisition of directly ruled provinces, except in Burma. Therein the -policy of the Empire differs markedly from that of the old East India -Company. The King-Emperor now guarantees the privileges and separate -modes of rule in the Feudatory States. As a result, there are no more -loyal supporters of the British Raj than these great native chiefs, who -in recent years have raised an army of Imperial Service Troops, to -reinforce the Indian and British armies for the defence of the Empire -and the maintenance of internal order. - - -[Sidenote: 60. -Political Map of India.] Let us cast our eye over the map and enumerate -the principal divisions of India. Under direct British rule are in the -south Madras and in the east Burma. Then in succession through the plain -at the foot of the Himalayas are Eastern Bengal and Assam; Bengal; the -United Provinces of Agra and Oudh; and the Punjab. In the east centre -round Nagpur are the Central Provinces, and in the west is the -Presidency of Bombay, with the detached territory of Sind on the lower -Indus. On the Northwestern Frontier are British Baluchistan and the -Northwest Frontier Province, while in the midst of Rajputana is the -little district of Ajmer, and away in the south amid the forests of the -Western Ghats the little district of Coorg. Ceylon, as was said in the -first lecture, though British, is not a part of India, but a separate -Crown Colony. All these Provinces are directly administered by the -British Civil Service. - -Now consider the Feudatory States. In the far south, from Cape Comorin -along the west coast, we have the two little countries of Travancore and -Cochin, ruled by Hindu Maharajas. They are far removed from all the -greater problems of Indian Government, remote homes of the caste system -in its most stringent form, and also, curiously, of a most ancient form -of Christianity introduced long centuries ago from Nestorian sources in -Western Asia. Then, north of the Nilgiri hills and the hill station of -Ootacamund, is the State of Mysore, high on the plateau, completely -surrounded by British territory of the Provinces of Madras, Bombay, and -Coorg. The Maharaja here is a Hindu in religion, and the people are -chiefly Hindu. Northward again, and still on the Deccan plateau, is the -largest and most important native State of India, ruled from Hyderabad -by the Nizam, a Musulman, who administers a country largely of Hindu -religion. Then we have the two great groups of States, whose relations -with the Empire are conducted by the Agencies of Central India and -Rajputana. The most important of the Central Indian chiefs are Holkar -and Sindhia, Marathas in a Hindi-speaking country, though in faith -Hindus like their subjects. In Rajputana are the Rajput States of which -we have spoken in this lecture. - -It will be observed that, with the small exceptions of Travancore and -Cochin, all the States thus far enumerated lie inland and are surrounded -by British territory directly administered. The remaining native states -form a fringe along the northern and northwestern borders. To the -northeast amid the foot hills of the Himalayas are in succession, from -east to west, Bhutan, Sikkim, and Nepal. Of these, Nepal stands outside -the Indian Protectorate in a special relation of independent alliance -with the British Government. In the far north is the state of Kashmir, -whose centre is a beautiful valley, with a lake in its midst, deeply -sunk amid the Himalayan ranges proper. A part of the foot hills on the -one hand and a length of the Tibetan Indus on the other hand are also -included within the territory ruled by the Maharaja of Kashmir. To the -northwest are the Pathan and Baluchi hill tribes in relation with the -North West Frontier Province and British Baluchistan. - -Such a survey as that which we have thus rapidly made gives perhaps the -best idea of the complexity and vastness of the Indian Political System. -The Indian Empire is in fact not a country but, as the inhabitants of -the United States say of their own land, a sub-continent, and as regards -everything but mere area the expression is far more true of India than -of the United States, for in the United States a single race and a -single religion are dominant, but in India a long history lives to this -day in the most striking social contrasts, presenting all manner of -problems which it will take generations to solve. - - - -------------- - - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - - - LECTURE VII. - - - --- - - =DELHI.= - - --- - - THE MUHAMMADAN RELIGION. - - - LIST OF THE MOGUL EMPERORS FROM - HUMAYUN TO AURANGZEB. - - HUMAYUN 1530-1540 - 1555-1556 - AKBAR 1556-1605 - JEHANGIR 1605-1627 - SHAH JAHAN 1627-1658 - AURANGZEB 1658-1707 - - ---------------------------- - -[Sidenote: 1. -Map of Northern India.] Once more we look at the map of Northern India. -We realise the great mountain wall of the Himalayas, four and five miles -high, curving through fifteen hundred miles along the northeast frontier -of the Indian lowland. Behind the Himalayas is the Tibetan plateau, -three miles in average elevation. Northwestward of India there is -another plateau, but a lower one than Tibet, and the mountain ranges -which divide it from the Indian plain are lower than the Himalayas. -Observe the great series of streams which emerge from the Himalayas, and -gather on the one hand into the Indus River, flowing southwestward, and -on the other hand into the Ganges, flowing southeastward. See the -position of the Indian desert and the Aravalli Hills, and note the exact -spot where stands the city of Delhi. - - -[Sidenote: 2. -Map of the neighborhood of Delhi.] We turn now to a map on a larger -scale of the region round Delhi. We see the Himalaya mountains, the -Aravalli hills, and the Indian Desert. We see the streams of the Indus -and Ganges systems turning away from one another, and we see Simla, the -summer capital of India, high on a spur of the Himalayas, above the -divide between the Indus and the Ganges tributaries. Just north of Simla -is the valley of the Sutlej, tributary to the Indus, and where the -Sutlej issues from the mountains we note the off-take of a great system -of irrigation canals. It is true that the lowland northwestward of Delhi -is not quite desert. Nevertheless it has but a sparse rainfall, and the -result of the construction of the irrigation canals derived from the -Himalayan waters is that great colonies have been established in this -region, and wheat is grown on thousands of square miles that were -formerly waste. India has a great population, but with modern methods of -water supply, and more advanced methods of cultivation, there is still -ample room for settlement within its boundaries. We see on the map that -there are other irrigation canals derived from the Ganges where it -emerges from the mountains at Hardwar, and from the Jumna. - -Delhi is the Musulman capital of India. What Benares and Patna and Gaya -were and are to the Brahman and Buddhist civilisations native to India, -what Calcutta and Madras and Bombay and Karachi are to the English from -over the seas, that are Delhi and Agra to the Musulmans entering India -from the northwest. The Musulmans were not the first to come this way -into India. The oldest of the sacred books of the Hindus tell of a -people who came from the northwest and apparently founded the Hindu -religion, accepting no doubt some of the religious beliefs of the -earlier, the Dravidian, population. From these Aryan invaders, speaking -Sanskrit, have been derived the languages of the peoples of Northern -India. Southeastward, southward, and southwestward from Delhi as far as -the centre of India, there spread the Hindi, Bengali, and Marathi -languages, as evidence of the effective conquest made by those remote -invaders entering through the Delhi passage between the desert and the -mountains. So far, however, as their language was concerned, they failed -to establish themselves in the Dravidian south. Long afterwards, but -still some three hundred years before the Christian era, the Greeks -under Alexander the Great traversed Persia and Turkestan and came over -the Hindu Kush, the mountain backbone of what is now Afghanistan, down -into the plains of the Punjab. Alexander advanced across the rivers of -the Punjab, tributary to the Indus, apparently as far as the Sutlej, and -then turned southward and followed the Indus to its mouth. Part of his -troops returned through the Persian Gulf on board the fleet, and part he -led back with great loss along the barren northern shore of the Arabian -Sea. Alexander and the Greeks came therefore to the very threshold of -India, and then turned aside towards the sea, leaving the desert of -Rajputana between them and the great prize of the conqueror. - -In the seventh century of the Christian era there arose in Arabia the -prophet Muhammad, who in his youth had been influenced both by Christian -and Hebrew teaching. He preached to the Arabs that there was but one -God, and that Muhammad was his prophet. - -Muhammad, “The Praised,” was born in Mecca, about the year 570. He -belonged to one of the ruling families of the tribe of Arabs who held -Mecca and the surrounding country, but his father died before he was -born, and his mother when he was only six months old. From his earliest -youth Muhammad was addicted to solitude and musing. In his wanderings he -visited Syria, and in a Nestorian convent there learned many of the -Hebrew and Christian ideas which he subsequently incorporated into his -teaching. In his twenty-fifth year he married Khadija, a widow of noble -birth and considerable wealth. This marriage placed him in a position of -independence, for he had previously been very poor. - -When Muhammad was forty years old there came to him a Divine Call, -bidding him teach his people to abandon their idols, to worship God, and -to accept him as God’s Prophet. At first Muhammad met with the most -bitter opposition, and in the year 622 A.D. he had to flee from Mecca to -a city called Yathreb, which received him and made him its chief -magistrate. Ever since that event this city has been called -Medinat-un-Nabi, the City of the Prophet; or, shortly, Medina. The -flight of Muhammad from Mecca is called the Hegira, and it is from this -event that the Muhammadan calendar dates. In the year 630 A.D. Mecca was -conquered, and shortly after this all Arabia submitted to the claims of -the prophet. - -After Muhammad’s death the Arabs set forth to conquer the world and to -convert it to Islam. They subdued Egypt and Syria and the plain of the -Euphrates. They marched to the gates of Constantinople, and through -Northern Africa to the Strait of Gibraltar, and beyond Gibraltar through -Spain into France, there to suffer a great defeat at the hands of the -Christian Franks, which saved the remainder of Christendom. All this was -accomplished in little more than a hundred years from the Hegira. - -But the Musulmans did not wage war only against Christendom. Their -armies advanced from the Euphrates up on to the Persian plateau and down -into the lowlands of Turkestan in the heart of Asia, and over the Hindu -Kush into Afghanistan, and then down into the plain of the River Indus. -Already in the seventh century there had been Musulman incursions into -India overseas, by way of Sind. In the eleventh century after Christ the -Musulmans entered Gangetic India, and took Delhi. They founded there a -Muhammadan realm, which presently extended through most of Northern -India. - - -[Sidenote: 3. -The Mogul Empire at its greatest extent.] Five hundred years later a -second Musulman invasion, more effective than the first, came into India -by way of Delhi. The Moguls or Mongols of Central Asia had been -converted to Islam, and in the time of our King Henry the Eighth they -refounded the Musulman power at Delhi. For a hundred and fifty years, -from the time of our Queen Elizabeth to that of our Queen Anne, the -series of Mogul Emperors, from Humayun to Aurangzeb, ruled in splendid -state practically the whole of India. This map shows the greatest spread -of the Mogul Empire. Agra, a hundred miles down the Jumna from Delhi, -became a subsidiary capital to Delhi, and in these two cities we have -to-day the supreme examples of Muhammadan architectural art. - -The Musulman, it must be remembered, came as an alien to India. He is no -polytheist or pantheist, but a believer in the one God, and that a -spiritual God, so that he holds it wrong to make any graven image, -whether of man or of animal. Islam is the name which the followers of -the prophet gave to their religion: it means primarily submission, and -so peace, greeting, safety, and salvation, and in its ethical sense it -signifies striving after righteousness. Islam is in its essence pure -Theism coupled with some definite rules of conduct. Belief in a future -life and accountability for human action in another existence are two of -the principal doctrines of the Islamic creed. Every Musulman is his own -priest, and, in theory at any rate, no divisions of race or colour are -recognised among the followers of the Prophet. Musulmans are forbidden -to take alcohol. The gospel of Islam is the Koran—The Book—in which are -embodied the teachings and precepts of the Arabian Prophet. The Koran -incorporates, as we have already seen, much that was drawn both from -Hebrew and Christian teaching. - -More than sixty millions of the Indian population hold the faith of -Islam. They are scattered all over the land, usually in a minority, -although that minority, as we have already learned, is frequently -powerful, for it gives ruling chiefs to many districts which are -dominantly Hindu. In two parts only of India are the Musulmans in a -majority, namely, in the far east, beyond the mouths of the Ganges in -the newly formed Province of Eastern Bengal and Assam, and in the Indus -Basin from the neighbourhood of Delhi through the Punjab into Sind. For -this reason, and also because of its physical character—lying low -beneath the uplands of Afghanistan, and separated from the greater part -of India by the breadth of the desert—we may think of the Indus Valley -as being an ante-chamber to India proper. In this ante-chamber, and in -the Delhi passage, between the desert and the mountains, for more than -nine hundred years the Musulmans have predominated. - -When the decay of the Mogul Empire began in the time of our Queen Anne, -the chief local representatives of the Imperial Rule, such as the Nizam -of Hyderabad, and the Nawabs of Bengal and Oudh, assumed an independent -position. It was with these new dynasties that the East India Company -came into conflict in the days of General Clive, and thus we may regard -the British Empire in India as having been built up from the fragments -into which the Mogul Empire broke. In one region, however, the Western -Deccan, the Hindus re-asserted themselves, and there was a rival bid for -Empire, as we have already learned, on the part of the Marathas. It was -the work of General Wellesley, afterwards Duke of Wellington, to defeat -the Marathas. In the north also, in the Punjab, there was a -recrudescence of the Hindu race, due to the new sect of the Sikhs, who -set up a power with which at a later time the British Raj came into -conflict. But this was not until after Delhi, the very seat of the Mogul -throne, had been taken. - - -[Sidenote: Repeat Map No. 2.] [Sidenote: 4. -Simla, Viceregal Lodge—distant view.] [Sidenote: 5. -Simla, Bazaar and Town Hall.] We are now prepared for the fact shown in -this map, that the tract northwestward of Delhi, in the gateway between -the desert and the mountains, is sown over with battle fields—ancient -battlefields near Delhi, where the incoming Musulmans overthrew the -Indian resistance, and modern battlefields near the Sutlej, where -advancing British power inflicted defeat upon the Sikhs after severe -contests. It is by no accident that Simla, the residence during more -than half the year of the British Viceroy, is placed on the Himalayan -heights above this natural seat of Empire and of struggle for Empire. - -In the Mutiny of 1857 the Sikhs of the Punjab, and of the still -continuing Tributary States of Nabha and Patiala, mentioned in the last -lecture, remained loyal to the British rule, although they had been -conquered in the terrible battles on the Sutlej less than ten years -before. In no small measure this was due to the extraordinary influence -wielded over them by Sir John Lawrence, afterwards Lord Lawrence, the -brother of that Sir Henry Lawrence who defended the Residency of -Lucknow. As a result of the Sikh loyalty some of the British forces in -the Punjab were free to march to the re-capture of Delhi. Thus the -Indian Mutiny was overcome from two bases, on the one hand at Lucknow -and Cawnpore by an army from the sea and Calcutta, and on the other hand -at Delhi by an army advancing from the Punjab over the track beaten by -so many conquerors in previous ages. Let us visit Delhi and see its -defences, its mosques, the palaces of its Emperors, and the memorials of -the Mutiny. Then we will go to Agra to see other splendid monuments of -the Musulman dynasty. After that we will turn to Hardwar, at the point -where the sacred Ganges bursts from its Himalayan valley on to the -plain. Hardwar is a pilgrimage centre of the Hindus, second in sanctity -only to Benares itself. - - -[Sidenote: 6. -The Kashmir Gate, Delhi.] East of Delhi, running almost due southward, -is the river Jumna, crossed by the great bridge of the East Indian -Railway, which carries the main line from Delhi through the United -Provinces and Bengal to Calcutta. West of the city is the last spur of -the Aravalli hills, the famous Ridge of Delhi, striking northeastward. -The city lies between the Ridge and the Jumna. It may be divided into -three parts. To the north is the European quarter. In the centre is -Shahjahanabad, or modern Delhi, entered from the north by the Kashmir -Gate. Between Shahjahanabad and the river is the Fort. The Jama Masjid -(Great Mosque) stands in the centre of Shahjahanabad, and the Kalan -Masjid (Black Mosque) is about half a mile further south. Passing out of -the modern city southward by the Delhi Gate we enter Firozabad, or -ancient Delhi, the capital of the earlier Mogul rulers. Further still to -the south are even more ancient ruins. - - -[Sidenote: 7. -Jama Masjid, Delhi.] [Sidenote: 8. -View from halfway up a Minaret, Jama Masjid.] [Sidenote: 9. -View from top of Minaret, looking south.] [Sidenote: 10. -The Same, looking northeast.] [Sidenote: 11. -Kalan Masjid, Delhi.] Let us begin our sight-seeing in the centre of the -modern city, at the Jama Masjid, a great building of marble and -sandstone. Its principal treasures are a hair of Muhammad, and some of -his handwriting. Here is a view of the mosque from the balcony of a -neighbouring house. Let us go up one of the minarets and look over the -city. This is a view taken from a little gallery half way up. To the -left is seen part of the large central dome of the mosque, and to the -right the top of one of the columns which rise on either side of the -main archway. Beyond, far below, can be seen part of the city. Next we -have a view, due southward, from the top of the minaret. The Kalan -Masjid is just visible in the foreground, but a smoke haze obscures the -more distant part of the town. We turn round and look northeastward over -the Fort. Notice on the ground the shadow of the other minaret of the -mosque. In the distance can be seen the Jumna, and crossing it the great -bridge of the East Indian Railway. Here we have a closer view of the -Kalan Masjid, or Black Mosque, built in the original style of the -mosques of Arabia with many small solid domes, unadorned by carving. It -has a sombre appearance. We see in front one of these domes, and behind -it the tops of two others. - - -[Sidenote: 12. -The Lahore Gate, Delhi Fort.] [Sidenote: 13. -The Delhi Gate, Delhi Fort.] [Sidenote: 14. -The Pearl Mosque, Delhi Fort.] [Sidenote: 15. -The Hall of Public Audience, Delhi Fort.] [Sidenote: 16. -The Orpheus Panel.] The chief glory of Delhi is, however, the Fort, and -the group of palace buildings within its precincts. It is approached -through the Lahore Gate, of which we have here a view. This gate is in -the middle of the west side of the Fort. Along the east side flows the -River Jumna. In the southern face there is another great gateway, the -Delhi Gate, with a grey stone elephant on either side of the entry. -Within the Fort, is the Moti Masjid, or Pearl Mosque, built by -Aurangzeb, of white and grey marble. The finest of the buildings of the -Fort is, however, the great Hall of Public Audience, the Diwan-i-Am. -There is a raised recess, in the wall of this hall, where formerly stood -the famous Peacock Throne of Aurangzeb, made of solid gold inlaid with -diamonds, rubies, and emeralds, and backed by two peacocks set thick -with gems. This throne was carried off when the Persians under Nadir -Shah sacked the city in 1739, and massacred most of its inhabitants. -Above the entry to the recess of the Peacock Throne are a number of -panels about nine inches high and six inches broad, made of inlaid -stones. Here is a photograph of one of them. Some of these panels were -injured, but, thanks to Lord Curzon, an expert artist from Florence has -recently restored them and made new ones in the spirit of the earlier to -fill the vacant spaces. - - -[Sidenote: 17. -The Hall of Private Audience, Delhi Fort.] We pass next to the innermost -court of the Fort-palace, the Hall of Private Audience, the -Diwan-i-Khas, ninety feet long and seventy feet broad, built of white -marble with many inlaid flowers of jewels. Beneath the cornice runs the -famous inscription: “If there is a Paradise upon earth it is this, it is -this.” Here we see one of the graceful arches, and beyond in the -distance the towers of the Pearl Mosque, already described. - - -[Sidenote: 18. -Mausoleum of Humayun, Delhi.] To see old Delhi we must drive from the -modern city either by the Delhi Gate in the south wall of the Fort or by -the Ajmer Gate in the southeast corner of the city wall, past great -dome-topped temples, most of them in ruins, until a few miles out, not -far from the trunk road leading from Delhi to Agra, we come to the -Mausoleum of Humayun, of which we have here a view. The design, as will -be realised presently, is very similar to that of the Taj Mahal at Agra, -but the Mausoleum is the older building. Notice the terraced platform on -which it stands. It is built of red sandstone and marble. Beneath the -platform, and approached by a long dark passage, is the vault where -Humayun is buried. Around the Mausoleum are a number of old ruins, and -the debris and cactus remind one of Pagan in Burma, which we saw in the -second lecture. - - -[Sidenote: 19. -The Kutab Minar and Iron Pillar, Delhi.] We resume our drive, past -ruined tombs and walls, and at last, about eleven miles south of Delhi, -we come to the buildings of the Kutab Minar, where are some of the few -remains of the Hindu period now visible in the neighbourhood, though the -mass of the work is of Muhammadan date. The Kutab was begun at the end -of the 12th century, on the site of an ancient Hindu temple destroyed by -the Musulmans. The famous Iron Pillar stands in front of the mosque. It -is one of the most remarkable of all the antiquities of India, for it -consists of a solid mass of wrought iron, weighing probably more than -six tons, and measuring some 24 feet in height, with an average diameter -of a little over a foot. At the base is an inscription in Sanskrit, from -which it appears that its probable date is the fourth century, A.D. This -inscription runs thus: “As long as I stand so long shall the Hindu -kingdom endure.” The Kutab mosque is the Moslem reply to this. The -wrought iron of the Pillar has an almost bluish colour when seen against -the warm sunlit red sandstone of the great Kutab Tower. In this -photograph a man has climbed to the top of the Pillar, and stands there -as though a statue, giving us the scale of the monument. - - -[Sidenote: 20. -The Lat of Asoka, the Ridge, Delhi.] Now let us visit the district to -north of the modern city, of deep interest in connection with the -Mutiny. On the Ridge top, between the Flagstaff Tower towards its -northeastern end and the Mutiny Memorial further south, is another -curious pillar, this one of stone, called the Lat of Asoka. At its base -is the following modern inscription: - -“This pillar was originally erected at Meerut in the third century B.C. -by King Asoka. It was removed thence, and set up in the Koshuk Shikar -Palace by the Emperor Firuz Shah in A.D. 1356, but was thrown down and -broken into five pieces by the explosion of a powder magazine A.D. -1713-1719. It was restored and set up in this place by the British -Government A.D. 1867.” - - -[Sidenote: 21. -The Flagstaff Tower, the Ridge, Delhi.] We will walk past the various -memorials of the Mutiny struggle. Here is the Flagstaff Tower, in which -were gathered at the outbreak of danger the women and children of the -British garrison anxiously looking for relief from Meerut. But the -relief did not come, and Delhi was stormed and captured by the -mutineers. The refugees in the Flagstaff Tower were compelled to fly for -their lives to Karnal, on the road to the Punjab, where gradually -British troops and loyal natives were assembled. The British returned to -the Ridge, and for two months the siege of the city was pressed, but -unsuccessfully. A brigade and a siege train then arrived from the -Punjab, commanded by General Nicholson. The struggle continued for yet -another month. Our troops were not in sufficient force to surround and -starve the city, and it was therefore necessary to bombard and storm the -defences. Slowly the British won their way into the town, though with -terrible loss. General Nicholson was himself wounded in one of the -assaults, and died a week later. At last, on the 20th September, the -Fort was taken, and next day the rebel King of Delhi was captured at -Humayun’s Tomb, and was exiled to Rangoon. Two of his sons were shot in -front of the Delhi Gate. The terrible nature of this siege may be -realised from the fact that of the ten thousand British and loyal native -troops who took part in it nearly four thousand were killed and wounded. -Here is the statue of General Nicholson in the park named after him, -just south of the cemetery, outside the Kashmir Gate, where he is -buried. On the Ridge itself is the Mutiny Memorial, unfortunately not a -very beautiful building. - - -[Sidenote: 22. -General Nicholson’s Statue, Delhi.] [Sidenote: 23. -The Mutiny Memorial, the Ridge, Delhi.] - - -[Sidenote: 24. -Horse Fair, Delhi.] [Sidenote: 25. -Dariba Street, Delhi.] Finally, we have two scenes of native life at -Delhi. The first is a horse fair outside the Kashmir Gate, and the -second a street view. - -Let us travel to Agra, which stands on the right bank of the Jumna, -about a hundred miles southeast of Delhi. The Jumna flows from north to -south until beside Agra Fort, and then turns sharply eastward. About a -mile and a half further on, on the same right bank, now the south side -of the river, there stands the Taj Mahal, the most celebrated of all -Muhammadan tombs. The building of Agra Fort was commenced by the Emperor -Akbar in the middle of the 16th century, and was completed by Shah -Jahan, the father of Aurangzeb, in the 17th century. It was this Shah -Jahan who built the Palace within the Fort and also the Taj. - - -[Sidenote: 26. -The Pearl Mosque, Agra Fort.] The Fort and the buildings which it -contains rise by the side of the river and dominate the plain beyond it. -Here within the Fort we have a view of the marble interior of the Moti -Masjid, or Pearl Mosque, built by Shah Jahan in the middle of the 17th -century. The floor is divided by inlaid lines of black and yellow marble -into some six hundred separate divisions, called Masalas, used by the -Musulmans for prayer. In the centre is a large marble tank. The effect -produced on entering this mosque is profound. Outside, the city may be -quivering in a haze of heat, but here the cool and soft light, and an -entire absence of any discordant features in the architecture, combine -to give a sense of rest and peace. Many Europeans have remarked that -this mosque is a rendering in stone of the text “My house shall be -called the house of prayer.” - - -[Sidenote: 27. -Jehangir’s Throne, Agra Fort.] [Sidenote: 28. -The Jessamine Tower, Agra Fort.] [Sidenote: 29. -The Seat of the Jester, Agra Fort.] Let us go out on to the open space -by the wall, and look over the moat which divides the main buildings of -the Fort from the outer rampart by the river. Across the water the Taj -Mahal can just be seen beyond the bend of the river. In front of us is -Jehangir’s throne, set up in the time of Akbar. It consists of a single -great slab of black marble. Close by, is the Jessamine Tower. Here we -have another view in which we see the Throne from the back and a corner -of the Jessamine Tower. Notice the lower slab opposite, which is called -the Seat of the Jester. The effect of its presence is by contrast to -enhance the beauty of Jehangir’s Throne itself. Between the wall in the -foreground and the outer ramparts by the river there is a drop of some -sixty feet, and in this ditch fights between lions and elephants used to -be held in the days of the Mogul Emperors. - - -[Sidenote: 30. -Jama Masjid, Agra.] Just outside the Fort, facing the west or Delhi -Gate, is the Jama Masjid, of which we have here a view. We see the -courtyard and one of the entries. The peculiarity of this mosque lies in -the structure of the three great domes. They are without necks. We can -just see the tops of two of them. They are built of red sandstone, and -the encircling bands are of white marble. - - -[Sidenote: 31. -Taj Mahal, Agra.] [Sidenote: 32. -The Taj Gardens.] [Sidenote: 33. -The Same, by moonlight.] We will now visit the Taj Mahal. It was built, -chiefly of marble inlaid with precious stones, by Shah Jahan as a tomb -for his queen. Here we have a view of the Taj taken from without the -entrance gateway. Then we pass through the gateway and enter the Taj -Gardens. The watercourse in the centre is of marble, and along each side -is a row of cypresses. The original cypresses had grown to such a height -that the view of the Taj was becoming obstructed. They were therefore -removed, and those which we see in the picture were planted by Lord -Curzon, when he was Viceroy. The Taj is perhaps most beautiful in the -light of the setting sun, or by moonlight. We have here a photograph -made from a painting of the Taj by moonlight. - - -[Sidenote: 34. -The Bazaar, Agra.] [Sidenote: 35. -Agra College.] [Sidenote: 36. -Agra Jail—Wool spinning.] [Sidenote: 37. -Agra Jail—Carpet making.] We will drive back through the native city. -This is a typical scene in the Bazaar. Notice the Kotwal, or Chief of -the Police, in the centre of the crowd. He is an Afghan, standing well -over six feet in height and finely proportioned. On the awning over one -of the shops an advertisement obtrudes, showing that even the native -quarters of the cities of India are being permeated with European -methods. Here is Agra College, endowed about a century ago by the then -Maharaja of Gwalior. There are about a thousand students. Close by is -the Jail. In this picture we see some of the prisoners spinning wool, -and in the next they are making carpets. - - -The next series of pictures relates to the great Muhammadan anniversary -of the Moharam, and in order to understand them it is necessary to say a -few words regarding the history of Islam and the contending sects which -have emerged from that history. Muhammad died in the year 632. He left -no son; but one of his daughters, Fatima, was married to a cousin whose -name was Ali. Abu Bakr, who had been a great friend and supporter of -Muhammad, was elected Caliph or Vice-Regent of the Prophet. Abu Bakr -died in 634, and was succeeded by Omar, who conquered Persia and Syria. -To him Jerusalem capitulated. Omar was murdered in the same year, and -was succeeded by Osman, who was killed in 656. Then Ali, the cousin and -son-in-law of Muhammad, was elected to the Caliphate. Ali was murdered -in 661, and Hasan, his son, was elected Caliph in his place, but was -induced to resign in favour of a Caliph of another family. Husain, the -second son of Ali, never acknowledged the title of the Caliph who had -superseded his brother Hasan, and when the Musulmans of Mesopotamia -invited him to overthrow the usurping Caliph he felt it his duty to -respond to their appeal. Accompanied by his family and a few retainers -he left for Mesopotamia. On the way, at a place called Karbala, on the -west bank of the Euphrates, they were overtaken by the Caliph’s army, -and after a heroic struggle lasting several days were all slaughtered, -save the women and a sickly child called Ali, who died soon afterwards. -Thus ended the Republic of Islam. Up to this time the office of Caliph -had been elective and the government essentially democratic. The seat of -government was now moved from Medina to Damascus. - -In the middle of the eighth century of the Christian era a great -revolution took place in Western Asia. The revolt was headed by a -descendant of Abbas, an uncle of the Prophet, and the outcome of it was -that the Abbassides, or members of the family of Abbas, established -themselves as Caliphs, and ruled at Bagdad from the year 756 to the year -1258. When Bagdad was destroyed by the Mongols a member of the -Abbassides family escaped to Cairo, where he was recognised as Caliph by -the Sultan of Egypt. The eighth Caliph in succession from this man -renounced the Caliphate in favour of Sultan Salim, the great Ottoman -conqueror, and it is on this renunciation that the title of the Sultan -of Turkey to the spiritual headship of Islam is based. - -It will be seen from this short statement of the history that a great -change took place in Islam when Husain, the descendant of the Caliph Ali -and of Fatima, the Prophet’s daughter, was slain at Karbala, on the -Euphrates. From that tragedy dates the chief division of Islam. The -Shiah sect traces its foundation to the Caliph Ali and the immediate -descendants of the Prophet, who are regarded as the rightful exponents -of his teaching. Some twenty millions of the Indian Musulmans are -Shiahs, and Shiahism is also the State religion of Persia. There are a -large number of Shiahs also in other parts of the Muhammadan world, but -nowhere, except in Persia, a majority. The Shiahs are advocates of -Apostolic descent and lineal succession to the Caliphate. - -The other of the two great divisions of the Musulmans are the Sunnis, -who advocate the principle of election to the Caliphate. Almost all the -Sunnis acknowledge the spiritual headship of the Sultan of Turkey, who -is, of course, repudiated by the Shiahs. At the present time nearly 50 -millions of the Musulmans of India are Sunnis, and there are Sunni -Musulmans in China, Tartary, Afghanistan, Asiatic and European Turkey, -Arabia, Egypt, Northern and Central Africa, Bosnia, Herzegovina, Russia, -Ceylon, and the Malay Archipelago. - - -[Sidenote: 38. -Moharam Time at Agra.] [Sidenote: 39. -The Same.] [Sidenote: 40. -The Same.] [Sidenote: 41. -The Same.] [Sidenote: 42. -The Same.] [Sidenote: 43. -Shiahs burying Tazias.] We are now in a position to understand the -significance of the anniversary of the Karbala. Annually there is held -in the Muhammadan month Moharam a festival in memory of the death of -Husain. The scenes of the battle are reproduced, and the tazia or tomb -of Husain is carried in procession amidst cries of “Hasan, Husain!” -Properly, this is a Shiah festival only, but in India both the Sunnis -and Shiahs take part in it. Here are photographs representing the -festival. The tazias are pagoda-like structures, made of a variety of -materials. They are carried in long procession through the town, and -finally the little biers—representative of the biers of Hasan and -Husain—contained inside the tazias are buried at the Karbala, outside -the city. We have first a street view in Agra showing the crowd at -Moharam time. In the distance is Agra Fort. Next we have three views of -the procession of the tazias, and then a view of the Karbala beyond the -city, where the biers from the tazias are buried. The Shiahs, however, -do not bury their tazias in the Karbala, but on the banks of the Jumna. -Here we see them in the early morning conducting the ceremony with most -solemn ritual. - - -[Sidenote: 44. -Fields of Wheat and Barley.] [Sidenote: 45. -The Public Audience Hall, Fatehpur Sikri.] [Sidenote: 46. -The Great Capital, Fatehpur Sikri.] [Sidenote: 47. -Gate of Victory, Fatehpur Sikri.] Let us drive out from Agra -southwestward on the road to Fatehpur Sikri, the city erected by the -Emperor Akbar, but abandoned by his successors in favour of Agra. On the -way, we note fields of wheat and barley, separated by an irrigation -channel. We pass villages amid mango trees, and occasional ruins, and -arrive at Fatehpur Sikri. There we enter the great quadrangle and the -Public Audience Hall of the Palace, built of red sandstone. It was in -this hall that Akbar used to sit on certain days to see personally -anyone who had grievances to lay before him. Notice in the quadrangle -the stone pierced with a hole which is fixed in the ground. Criminals -were put to death by being trampled upon by an elephant, and to that -ring the elephant was tied. We pass on to the Private Audience Hall of -Akbar, the Diwan-i-Khas. Note the huge capital of the column in the -centre. Tradition says that Akbar used to sit on the top of this -capital. Finally, here is the magnificent Gate of Victory. - - -[Sidenote: 48. -Mausoleum of Akbar, Sikandra.] [Sidenote: 49. -The Same—a Marble Inscription.] [Sidenote: 50. -The Same—the Cloisters.] We leave Fatehpur Sikri, and drive back, past -many other tombs, in the direction of the Cantonment at Agra until we -come to the burial place of Akbar at Sikandra. This is the gateway of -the great Mausoleum. Notice the cut marble inscriptions down the sides -of the arch. They are quotations from the Koran. Here is a clearer -photograph of a part of these inscriptions, and here we have the marble -court above the tomb of Akbar. Round the Cloisters are verses -celebrating his greatness. “Think not that the sky will be so kind as -Akbar was,” is the tenor of one of them. - - -[Sidenote: 51. -Hariki Piri, Hardwar.] [Sidenote: 52. -Sarwan Nath Temple, Hardwar.] [Sidenote: 53. -The Same, from above.] [Sidenote: 54. -Camels at Hardwar.] - - -Finally we will travel away to Hardwar, some two hundred miles due north -of Agra. It is on the Ganges, at the point where the river leaves the -last foot hills of the Himalayas and enters the plain. Hardwar is a -great centre of Hindu pilgrimage for the purpose of ablution in the -sacred waters. At the annual fair are gathered hundreds of thousands of -worshippers. So great has been the crush of people endeavouring to bathe -that on occasion many have been trampled upon and drowned. The great day -at Hardwar is towards the end of March, when the Hindu year begins, and -when, according to tradition, the Ganges river first appeared from its -source in the mountains. There was a town of Hardwar more than a -thousand years ago, but its ancient buildings have disappeared. Here we -have a view of the famous Bathing Ghat, a comparatively small flight of -steps, where the river is considered to be specially sacred. The water -is purer than at Benares in the plain. It flows swiftly and is as clear -as crystal. Near by we have a temple, the Sarwan Nath, with great stone -elephants, and here is a second view of the same temple seen from a -neighbouring roof. Notice the Trisul, or bronze trident, the typical -weapon of Siva, the Destroyer. - - -[Sidenote: 55. -Sacred Cow at Hardwar.] Here is a string of camels at Hardwar, and then -a sacred cow—especially sacred because deformed, for a freak of nature -is miraculous. - - -[Sidenote: 56. -The Road to Mussoorie.] [Sidenote: 57. -The Same, Coolies carrying Baggage.] [Sidenote: 58. -The Same, a Tree across the Road.] [Sidenote: 59. -Mussoorie.] [Sidenote: 60. -The Himalayas from Mussoorie.] Not far northward of Hardwar, among the -foot hills of the Himalayas, is Mussoorie, a hill station supplementary -to Simla. Mussoorie is about a mile above sea level. We have two views -taken on the steep mountain road up to it; the second shows coolies -carrying baggage. In the next view we realise something of the -difficulties of travel in these hill districts of much rainfall, for the -road is blocked by the fall of a great tree. Here we have a view of -Mussoorie itself, and then the landscape from Mussoorie looking towards -the Himalayan ranges to the north. Close by, but lower down, is Dehra -Dun, the headquarters of the Gurkha Rifles, enlisted from Nepal, and -also of the Imperial Cadet Corps, a small training force consisting -wholly of the sons of ruling chiefs. We shall hear of the Gurkhas again -in connection with the defences of India, which will be the subject of -the next and concluding lecture of this Course. - - - -------------- - - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - - - LECTURE VIII. - - - --- - - =THE NORTHWEST FRONTIER.= - - --- - - THE SIKHS. - -In the British Empire there is but one land frontier on which warlike -preparation must ever be ready. It is the Northwest Frontier of India. -True that there is another boundary, even longer, drawn across the -American Continent, but there, fortunately, only customs houses are -necessary and an occasional police guard. The Northwest Frontier of -India, on the other hand, lies through a region whose inhabitants have -been recruited throughout the ages by invading warlike races. Except for -the Gurkha mountaineers of Nepal, the best soldiers of the Indian Army -are derived from the northwest, from the Rajputs, the Sikhs, the Punjabi -Musulmans, the Dogra mountaineers north of the Punjab, and the Pathan -mountaineers west of the Punjab. The provinces along the frontier, and -the Afghan land immediately beyond it, are the one region in all India -from which, under some ambitious lead, the attempt might be made to -establish a fresh imperial rule by the overthrow of the British Raj. It -would not be the freedom of India which would ensue, but an oriental -despotism and race domination from the northwest. Such is the teaching -of history, and such the obvious fate of the less warlike peoples of -India, should the power of Britain be broken either by warfare on the -spot, or by the defeat of our navy. Beyond the northwest frontier, -moreover, at a greater or less distance are the continental Powers of -Europe. - - -[Sidenote: 1. -Political Map of Northwest India.] The Indian army and the Indian -strategical railways are therefore organized with special reference to -the belt of territory, extending from northeast to southwest, which lies -beyond the Indian desert and is traversed from end to end by the Indus -River. This frontier belt divides naturally into two parts. Inland we -have the Punjab, where the rivers, emerging from their mountain valleys, -gradually close together through the plain to form the single stream of -the lower Indus; seaward we have Sind, where the Indus divides into -distributaries forming a delta. Sind, as already stated, is a part of -the Bombay Province, with which it is connected by sea from the Port of -Karachi. Of late a railway has been constructed from Ahmadabad in the -main territory of Bombay, across the southern end of the Desert, to -Hyderabad at the head of the Indus delta. The Punjab is a separate -Province with its own Lieutenant-Governor resident at Lahore. It was -conquered from the Sikhs by a British army based on Delhi, and therefore -ultimately on Calcutta. - - -[Sidenote: 2. -Map of Lower Asia.] To understand the significance of the Northwest -Frontier of India we must look far beyond the immediate boundaries of -the Empire. We have here a map of Lower Asia. Upon it we see a broad -tract of upland which, commencing in Asia Minor, extends through Armenia -and Persia to include Baluchistan and Afghanistan. There is thus one -continuous belt of plateau stretching from Europe to the boundary of -India. The eastern end of this belt, that is to say, Persia, -Afghanistan, and Baluchistan, is known as Iran. On all sides save the -northwest and the northeast, the Iranian plateau descends abruptly to -lowlands or to the sea. Southward and southwestward lie the Arabian Sea -and the Persian Gulf, and the long lowland which is traversed by the -rivers Euphrates and Tigris. Northward, to the east of the Caspian Sea, -is the broad lowland of Turkestan, traversed by the Rivers Oxus and -Jaxartes, draining into the Sea of Aral. Eastward is the plain of the -Indus. The defence of India from invasion depends in the first place on -the maintenance of British sea power in the Persian Gulf and along the -south coast of Baluchistan, and in the second place on our refusal to -allow the establishment of alien bases of power on the Iranian plateau, -especially on those parts of it which lie towards the south and east. - - -[Sidenote: 3. -Map of the Northwest Frontier.] In the next map we have on a larger -scale the detail of that part of Iran which lies nearest to India. Here -we see, west of the Punjab, a great triangular mass of mountain ridges -which splay out westward and southward from the northeast. These ridges -and the intervening valleys constitute Afghanistan. Flowing from the -Afghan valleys we have on the one hand the Kabul river, which descends -eastward to the Indus, and, on the other hand, the greater river -Helmund, which flows southwestward into the depressed basin of Seistan, -where it divides into many channels, forming as it were an inland delta -from which the waters are evaporated by the hot air, for there is no -opening to the sea. The valley of the Kabul river on the one hand, and -the oasis of Seistan on the other, might in the hands of an enemy become -bases wherein to prepare the invasion of India. Therefore, without -annexing this intricate and difficult upland, we have declared it to be -the policy of Britain to exclude from Afghanistan and from Seistan all -foreign power. - -Further examination of the map will show that there are two lines, and -only two, along which an invasion of India might be conducted. On the -one hand, the mountains become very narrow just north of the head of the -Kabul River. There in fact a single though lofty ridge, the Hindu Kush, -is all that separates the basin of the Oxus from that of the Indus. As -we see from the map, low ground is very near on the two sides of the -Hindu Kush. The way into India over the passes of the Hindu Kush is -known as the Khyber route, from the name of the last defile by which the -track descends into the Indian Plain. - -If we now look some five hundred miles to the southwest of Kabul, we see -that the Afghan mountains come suddenly to an end, and that a pathway -leads round their fringe from Herat to the Indus Basin, passing along -the border of Seistan. From Herat to beyond Kandahar, this way lies over -an upland plain and is easy, but the last part of the journey is through -a mountainous district down to the lowland of the Indus. This is the -Bolan route, so called from the last gorge towards India. It will be -noticed that the Bolan route debouches upon the Indus opposite to the -great Indian Desert. Therefore it is that the Khyber route has been the -more frequented. It leads directly between the desert and the mountain -foot, upon the inner gateway of India at Delhi. - -We conquered the Punjab from the Sikhs, but for many centuries it had -been ruled by the Musulmans. In the break up of the Mogul Empire -invaders had come, during the eighteenth century, from Persia and from -Afghanistan, who carried devastation even as far as Delhi. Thus it was -that with relative ease the Sikhs as contemporaries of the Marathas -established a dominion in the helpless Punjab. They extended their rule -also into the mountains of Kashmir, north of Lahore. - -Let us commence our survey of the northwest at Dehra Dun, which is -placed in a mountain valley among the foot hills of the Himalayas, not -far from the hill station of Mussoorie, of which we heard in the last -lecture. Then from Dehra Dun we will travel two hundred miles -northwestward, crossing the Beas, one of the five rivers of the Punjab, -to Amritsar, the holy city of the Sikhs. Fifty miles west of Amritsar, -on the Ravi, another of the Indus tributaries, is Lahore, the -traditional capital of the Punjab. From Lahore onward we traverse -irrigated strips of fertile ground, with sandy plains intervening, with -a scanty herbage for a few camels. Then follows a broken and more -desolate country in the north of the Punjab. So we come to the Indus -itself, and beyond this, nearly three hundred miles from Lahore, to the -military station of Peshawar, the last Indian city on the great track -leading northwestward from Calcutta, through Allahabad and Delhi. Not -far from Peshawar is the Khyber Pass. - -The Khyber is protected by its own hill tribes. We have enlisted them on -the side of law and order by enrolling them into military forces, just -as the Scottish Highlanders were enrolled in the British army in the -18th century. - -Then leaving Peshawar we will visit Quetta, some five hundred miles -southwestward, and see there the second great centre of British force on -the Frontier. It has been established to command the Bolan route to -Kandahar and Herat. The whole army in India is organised with reference -to these two points, Peshawar and Quetta, or in other words, the Khyber -and the Bolan. There are many other passes in the frontier mountains, -but they offer merely loopways from the two main routes. - - -[Sidenote: 4. -12th Bengal Infantry.] [Sidenote: 5. -Bombay Mountain Battery.] [Sidenote: 6. -Heavy Battery in Elephant Draught.] The Indian forces are now grouped -into a Northern and a Southern army. The Northern army is distributed -southeastward from Peshawar past Delhi and Allahabad to Calcutta, so -that all the forces along that long line may be regarded as supporting -the brigades on the Khyber front. The Southern army is similarly posted -for the reinforcement of Quetta. It is distributed in the Bombay -Presidency and immediately around. The conditions of the defence of -India have of course been vitally changed by the construction of the -Northwestern Railway from the port of Karachi through the Indus basin, -with its two branches towards the Bolan and the Khyber. To-day that -defence could be conducted over the seas directly from Britain through -Karachi, so that the desert of Rajputana would lie between the defending -forces and the main community of India within. - - -[Sidenote: 7. -18th P. W. Tiwana Horse.] [Sidenote: 8. -Gurkha Rifles: Physical Drill.] [Sidenote: 9. -The Same—Bayonet Practice.] [Sidenote: 10. -32nd Mountain Battery, Advancing Down Hill.] [Sidenote: 11. -The Same—Retiring Up Hill.] [Sidenote: 12. -Battery in Action.] As we start for Dehra Dun let us stop for a moment -on the ridge at Delhi to see a squadron of the 18th Prince of Wales’s -Tiwana Horse, recruited partly from among the Sikhs and partly from the -Musulmans. Then at Dehra Dun we have the Gurkha Rifles. We see them at -physical drill and then at bayonet practice. At the same place we visit -a battery of Mountain Artillery, for Dehra Dun is in the Terai, at the -foot of the Himalayas. Mountain batteries are much utilised in -operations over the broken and hilly country towards the Northwest -Frontier. The men are Punjabis; and it will be noticed that the guns are -carried by mules. Here we see the battery advancing down hill, and here -we see it retiring up hill. Then we have a mountain gun in action. - -From Dehra Dun we proceed to Amritsar, the chief centre of the Sikh -religion, which resulted from a reformation of Hinduism in the middle of -the fifteenth century. It is therefore modern indeed as compared with -the parent religion itself. The Sikhs abandoned idolatry, and also -distinctions of caste. The word Sikh means “disciple.” In their origin a -religious sect, the Sikhs developed into a powerful military -commonwealth, which rose to great position in the Punjab and surrounding -lands as the Mogul strength decayed at Delhi. The Sikhs only succumbed -to the British after two wars, fought in 1846 and 1849, which were among -the severest in the whole history of British India. Yet they remained -loyal during the Mutiny. - - -[Sidenote: 13. -The Causeway and the Golden Temple, Amritsar.] [Sidenote: 14. -The Golden Temple, Amritsar.] [Sidenote: 15. -The Akal Bungah, Amritsar.] The Emperor Akbar granted to the Sikhs a -site for their capital by the shore of a sacred tank, and this capital, -Amritsar, has now grown to be a city of over 150,000 inhabitants, the -third most wealthy and populous of the Punjab. It is surpassed only by -Delhi and Lahore, and Delhi has been included in the Punjab only in -recent times, and for convenience of administration. In this view we see -the famous Golden Temple, built in the centre of the sacred tank. The -bridge across the water leading to the entry is of marble. The doors of -the gateway are of silver without, and on the inner side of wood inlaid -with ivory. The lower part of the walls of the temple itself are of -white marble inlaid with jaspar and mother-of-pearl, but the upper part -is plated with gilded copper. In the middle of the temple, under a -canopy, is the Grant Sahib, the sacred book of the Sikhs, covered with a -cloth of gold. Here we have another view of the Golden Temple seen -across the tank, and behind it is the Clock Tower. Opposite the chief -entry to the temple is a square surrounded by public buildings, of which -the most important is the Akal Bungah, wherein are performed the -ceremonies of initiation and investiture of the Sikhs. - - -[Sidenote: 16. -School of Sikh and Hindu Children.] [Sidenote: 17. -Street Scene, Amritsar.] [Sidenote: 18. -Street Conjurer, Amritsar.] A few scenes follow showing phases of life -at Amritsar. Here we see a part of the tesselated pavement which -surrounds the sacred tank, and a school of Hindu and Sikh children. Next -is a street scene showing the gateway leading to another sacred tank, -and here is a conjurer with a cobra entwined about his neck. Amritsar -has to-day become an important manufacturing city. From raw materials -brought by the Khyber route, from the central Asian markets, are here -manufactured shawls of the famous Kashmir design, and also fine silks, -embroideries, carpets, carvings, and metal work of various kinds. - - -[Sidenote: 19. -Lahore, from roof of Shish Mahal.] [Sidenote: 20. -West Gate, Jama Masjid, Lahore.] Let us now go on to Lahore, the ancient -and the modern capital of the Punjab. Here is a view taken from the roof -of the Shish Mahal, or Palace of Mirrors, in the Fort of Lahore, looking -towards the southwest, over the Jama Masjid, towards the River Ravi, on -whose left bank the city stands. Next is seen the fine west gate of the -Jama Masjid, a mosque built by the Emperor Aurangzeb, which contains -relics of Muhammad. - - -[Sidenote: 21. -Zamzamah, Lahore.] [Sidenote: 22. -Sarai, Lahore.] [Sidenote: 23. -The Same, showing Wazir Khan’s House.] [Sidenote: 24. -Old Houses, Lahore.] Do you remember “Kim” in Rudyard Kipling’s book? We -have in this view the Zamzamah, the old gun under the tree on which Kim -sat in the first chapter. Astride on its muzzle is an urchin, just like -what Kim must have been. Here is the Sarai, a quadrangle about sixty -yards square, with round arched verandahs on all sides. Note the well in -the centre. Next is the actual house where Wazir Khan, Kipling’s Mahbub -Ali, used to sleep. Beyond may be seen horses brought for sale. The -Sarai belongs to-day to the Maharaja of Kashmir, who obtains a revenue -from the fees paid by the horsedealers using it. Near by we have a busy -street scene, showing old houses belonging to Hindu merchants. - - -[Sidenote: 25. -The Court of Justice, Lahore.] [Sidenote: 26. -Mayo School of Art, Lahore.] [Sidenote: 27. -The same—Wood-working.] [Sidenote: 28. -The Same—Metal-working.] [Sidenote: 29. -Statuette of Buddha.] At Lahore there are a number of really handsome -modern buildings. We have in this view the Court of Justice, situated in -the chief street, the Mall. Next is the fine building of the Lahore -School of Art, showing students sketching out of doors, and then a -number of Punjabis in the wood-working room of the school. Here is the -metal-working department. At the back of the room some senior students -are finishing a large lamp in hammered brass-work, which was afterwards -exhibited in London. The Lahore Museum, a corner of which we saw just -now in the view of the “Kim” gun, is another fine building, containing -among other curiosities a statuette of Buddha after his forty-nine days’ -fast, excavated at Sikri near Peshawar. This statuette, some three feet -high and two feet broad, is one of the finest examples of ancient -sculpture found in India. It is carved with extreme delicacy and -refinement, and is supposed to date back to about the first century of -the Christian era. - - -[Sidenote: 30. -Bridge of Boats over the Ravi, near Lahore.] [Sidenote: 31. -Jehangir’s tomb.] We will drive out from Lahore to the west of the city -on the high road to Peshawar. We pass the Musulman cemetery and the -Hindu burning ground, and then reach the banks of the Ravi. A bridge of -boats crosses the river a little below the railway bridge. Here we turn -aside from the Peshawar road and reach Shahdara, where is the tomb of -the Emperor Jehangir. In this picture we have a close view of part of -it, showing the inlaid marble. Near by is the ruined tomb of Jehangir’s -wife, Nur Jehan. It was probably never finished, and has been neglected. - - -[Sidenote: 32. -Edwardes Gate, Peshawar.] [Sidenote: 33. -Kissa Kahani, Peshawar.] [Sidenote: 34. -Police Station, Peshawar.] [Sidenote: 35. -Silk Market, Peshawar.] [Sidenote: 36. -In the Silk Market, Peshawar.] From Lahore we travel by the Northwestern -Railway to Peshawar, a distance of nearly three hundred miles. Peshawar, -as we have already learned, is the most important garrison city on the -Northwest Frontier, and the capital of the recently created Northwest -Frontier Province. It has about a hundred thousand inhabitants, chiefly -Musulmans. Here we see the Edwardes Gate, with its fine pointed arch, -and passing through it we enter the Kissa Kahani, the Lombard Street of -Peshawar. The Edwardes Gate may be seen from within at the end of the -street. Here is the Kotwali, or Police Station, and just within the -gateway of the Kotwali is the Silk Market. Peshawar is a most important -commercial centre on the great road from Samarkand and Bokhara in -Central Asia, through Kabul and the Khyber, to Lahore and Delhi. In the -bazaar we find representatives of many Asiatic races. Here we see skeins -of Chinese silk, red and white and yellow, hung out in the sun to dry -after being dyed. Near by are the stalls of bankers and money-changers, -which are sometimes raided by the wild tribesmen visiting Peshawar from -the neighbourhood of the Khyber Pass. - - -[Sidenote: 37. -Ghor Khatri, Peshawar.] [Sidenote: 38. -Peshawar from the Ghor Khatri, looking north.] [Sidenote: 39. -The Same, looking west.] In the northeastern corner of Peshawar is the -famous Ghor Khatri, which stands on a piece of rising ground commanding -a fine view over the whole city. Here is a part of the building, with a -bullock cart in front. The Ghor Khatri was successively a Buddhist -Monastery and a Hindu temple, and is now used as municipal offices and -as the official residence of the agents of the Ameer of Afghanistan when -they visit Peshawar. We climb to the roof and look upon the city -beneath. A second view is in the direction of Jamrud and the Khyber. - - -[Sidenote: 40. -Gymnastic Class, Government High School, Peshawar.] [Sidenote: 41. -Lowest Class, same School.] Here in Peshawar, on the very border of -British rule, it is interesting to see the progress of western -education. This is the Government High School. A class is in the -playground under gymnastic instruction. The boys are mostly Musulmans, -though a few Hindus may be distinguished by their caps in the place of -turbans. This is the lowest class of the school, and is being taught -reading and writing by a native master. Notice that the boys’ shoes have -been taken off. - - -[Sidenote: 42. -Jamrud.] [Sidenote: 43. -Khyber Rifles drilling.] [Sidenote: 44. -Khyber Rifles marching.] [Sidenote: 45. -Zakka Khel Afridis.] [Sidenote: 46. -The Sarai, Jamrud.] [Sidenote: 47. -Caravan, near Jamrud.] [Sidenote: 48. -Ali Masjid.] [Sidenote: 49. -Ali Masjid, nearer view.] [Sidenote: 50. -A Subadar, 59th Sind Rifles.] Jamrud, at the immediate entrance to the -Khyber, lies some nine miles west of Peshawar. Here is a distant view of -it from the Peshawar road. To the right can just be seen the Fort, and -to the left Jamrud Village. Next we see a company of the Khyber Rifles, -photographed at Jamrud, and here the same company marching. By way of -striking contrast, are a group of the Zakka Khel Afridis in their native -dress. They are the raw material from which the Khyber Riflemen are -made. Typical wild tribesmen of the hills, they have been enlisted in -the British Army to keep them out of mischief, and also to assist in -repelling raids by their fellow-tribesmen, who continue to dwell amid -the hill fastnesses of the region. The Afridis, of whom the Zakka Khel -is a clan, seem perfectly well content, provided that there is fighting, -which they love for its own sake. Here we see the Sarai at Jamrud, where -all caravans going into India or returning to Central Asia halt for the -night. The men in this picture are mostly Kabulis, with long-haired -Bactrian camels from Central Asia, stronger and finer than the Indian -species. These camels are laden with tea, sugar, and general supplies. -Outside Jamrud we see a caravan of Indian camels taking stores back to -Peshawar after operations in the Khyber against the hill tribes. Beyond -Jamrud the road enters the Khyber, with the sweeping curve seen in this -view. The Fort of Ali Masjid, nearly three thousand feet above sea -level, crowns a steeply sloping hill on the crest of the path between -Jamrud and Landi Kotal, where begins the descent into Afghanistan. Here -is a nearer view, with the tents of an expeditionary force at the foot -of the Fort. It shows the continuation of the way in the direction of -Landi Kotal. Notice how steep are the cliffs and how narrow the Pass at -this point. Beneath the Fort, in the face of the hill, are seen caves in -which dwell during the winter months the wild clan known as the Kuchi -Khel. Finally, we have a portrait, painted in the camp at Ali Masjid, of -Nasar Khan, a Subadar, or native officer, of the 59th Sind Rifles. - -We now leave the Khyber region and, following the Indus for some six -hundred miles, we travel southward through a land which was not very -long ago a desert. To-day, as the result of a great investment of -British capital, irrigation works have changed the whole aspect of the -country. The provinces of the Punjab and Sind have hitherto been -regarded as significant chiefly in relation to the defence of the -Northwest Frontier of India. They have now no less importance when -considered in their economic development. The plain of the Indus has -become one of the chief wheatfields of the British Empire, for wheat is -the principal crop in the Punjab, in parts of Sind, and outside the -basin of the Indus itself, in the districts of the United Provinces -which lie about Agra. The wheat production of India on an average of -years is five times as great as that of the United Kingdom, and about -half as great as that of the United States. In one recent year at least, -the export of wheat from India to the United Kingdom has exceeded that -from the United States to the United Kingdom. - -The brown waste of the plains of the Punjab becomes after the winter -rains a waving sea of green wheat extending over thousands of square -miles. Cultivation now spreads far beyond the area within which the -rainfall alone suffices. The lower Punjab and the central strip of Sind -have been converted into a second Egypt. Though the navigation of the -Indus is naturally inferior to that of the Ganges, yet communication has -been maintained by boat from the Punjab to the sea from Greek times -downward. The Indus flotilla of steamboats has, however, suffered -fatally from the competition of the Northwestern Railway, and the wheat -exported from Karachi is now almost wholly rail-borne. - - -[Sidenote: 51. -The Lansdowne Bridge.] [Sidenote: 52. -The Same.] [Sidenote: 53. -Khwaja Khizir Island.] Running southward through the fertile strip, not -very far from the left or western bank of the river, the railway leaves -the Punjab and enters Sind. At Rohri, one of the hottest places in all -India in the summer time, a line branches northwestward to Quetta and -Chaman, on the frontier of Afghanistan. Sukkur stands opposite to Rohri -on the right bank of the river, and the Lansdowne Railway Bridge between -these two towns is perhaps the most remarkable bridge in India. It was -built between 1887 and 1889, and about three thousand tons of steel and -iron were employed in its construction. It is eight hundred and forty -feet in length, with two magnificent spans. We see in this slide a view -of the Rohri end of it, taken from Suttian, an old nunnery founded for -women who preferred seclusion rather than the funeral pyre. The Hindu -custom was to burn the wife or wives with the husband’s body, until the -British Government intervened to prevent the practice. One end of the -town of Rohri, with its tall grey wattle and daub buildings, can be seen -under the bridge. A train is upon the bridge, and in front are some Pala -fishers, sailing on metal chatties into which they put the fish as they -catch them. This is another view of the bridge seen from Rohri itself. -We are here in the very heart of the rainless region. During twelve -years there have only been six showers at Rohri! A great engineering -scheme is now under consideration for damming the Indus near this point -so as to raise the level of the water in the upper reaches of the river. -In this manner the irrigation canals would be fed not only in time of -flood, as at present, but in the dry season as well. Near Rohri, in the -middle of the Indus channel, is Khwaja Khizir Island, on which stands an -ancient Hindu temple. In the foreground of the picture near the water’s -edge are Sindi boatmen mending their sails. - - -From Sukkur, passing through Shikarpur and Jacobabad, the railway -traverses the desert to the foot of the hills, and then ascends to -Quetta either by the Mashkaf—the actual line of the Bolan having been -abandoned—or by a longer loop line, the Harnai, which runs to the Peshin -valley. The latter is the usual way. By the Mashkaf route the line is -carried over a boulder-strewn plain about half a mile broad in the -bottom of a gorge with steeply rising heights on either side. Here and -there the strip of lower ground is trenched and split by deep canyons. -At first the line follows the Mashkaf river, and the gradients are not -very severe, but once Hirok, at the source of the Bolan river is passed, -a gradient of one in twenty-five begins, and two powerful engines are -required to drag the train up. The steep bounding ridges now close in on -either side with cliffs rising almost perpendicularly to several hundred -feet. Occasional block-houses high up amid the crags defend the Pass. - - -[Sidenote: 54. -The Chappar Rift.] [Sidenote: 55. -The Same.] The gradients of the Harnai route are not quite so steep as -those of the Mashkaf. Should either way be blocked or carried away by -landslips or floods the other would be available. The Harnai line passes -through the Chappar Rift, a precipitous gorge in a great mass of -limestone. In this view we are approaching the Rift from Mangi, and then -we have a view looking back from the middle of the Rift. As will be -seen, the railway runs across high bridges and through tunnels in the -mountain masses. - - -[Sidenote: 56. -Native Bazaar, Quetta.] Quetta occupies a very important strategical -position, about a mile above sea level, in the midst of a small plain -surrounded by great mountain ridges rising to a height of two miles and -more. Irrigation works have been constructed in the Quetta plain, which -is now an oasis among desert mountains, and has a population of some -thirty thousand, including many Afghans. The Agent General for British -Baluchistan resides there. The town, with its outposts, is of course -very strongly fortified, commanding as it does the railways leading -southeastward to the Indus, and the Khojak Pass leading northwestward to -Chaman and Kandahar. Here we have a scene in the native bazaar, with -Hindus performing a festival dance. - - -[Sidenote: 57. -Street in Chaman.] From Quetta the railway is carried northwestward, -through the Khojak tunnel, for another hundred and twenty miles to -Chaman on the frontier, where is a British outpost. Here is a street in -Chaman, with two old Pathans. Chaman is at present the terminus of the -railway. The material is, however, kept ready for its continuation, in -case of need, to Kandahar, in Afghanistan, seventy miles further. From -Kandahar through Herat to the rail-head of the Russian Trans-Caspian -Railway is some four hundred miles. By this route, did circumstances -allow, a connection might be made, giving through railway communication -between Europe and India. - - -[Sidenote: 58. -The Proclamation of the Queen-Empress at the Delhi Durbar, 1st Jan., -1877.] At this last outpost of British Power we complete our journey -through the great Indian Empire. It was with no intention of Empire that -a few London merchants formed themselves into an East India Company in -the days of Queen Elizabeth. It was with no great force of white -soldiers that the conquest was in after centuries effected, but by the -organisation of Indian strength in a time of disorder, due to the -downfall of the Mogul Empire at Delhi. Province was added to province -under the British Raj of no set design and ambition, but for defensive -reasons under the threat of French or Maratha or Sikh rivalry. In the -great Mutiny the system of power and administration, thus upbuilt almost -casually, was tested, and it survived the test, but with a fundamental -change. The East India Company was dissolved, and the British Government -made itself directly responsible for peace and order in the Indian -Continent. The proclamation by which Queen Victoria assumed the rule of -India solemnly promised that in the administration of the country due -regard should be paid to the ancient rights, usages, and customs of -India. The change which was made in 1858, after the Mutiny, was -completed in 1877, when at a great durbar of the princes of India, held -at Delhi, Queen Victoria was proclaimed Empress of India. - - -[Sidenote: 59. -The Same.] The British Raj in India is an organisation unparalleled in -history, for the Roman Empire consisted of provinces grouped round the -Imperial City, but Britain is a quarter of the globe removed from India. -Our power ultimately rests on our command of the seas and on the justice -of our administration. When either of these fail, the British position -in India will crumble. Within our duty of justice is included the -generous but firmly-directed readjustment of the methods of Indian -government, so as to adapt them to the now changing conditions of -oriental society. - - -[Sidenote: 60. -The Same.] The responsibility for India is, indeed, a great one. It is -idle to ask whether our forefathers should have assumed it. We could not -withdraw now without throwing India into disorder, and causing untold -suffering among three hundred million of our fellow human beings. Yet -the administration of such an Empire calls for virtues in our race -certainly not less than those needed for our own self-government. Above -all, we require knowledge of India, and sympathy with the points of view -begotten of oriental history. - - - --------------------- - - - LIST OF VICEROYS OF INDIA SINCE THE TRANSFER - OF THE ADMINISTRATION FROM THE EAST INDIA - COMPANY TO THE CROWN IN 1858. - - VISCOUNT CANNING, to 1862 - March, - - EARL OF ELGIN, 1862-3 - - SIR JOHN LAWRENCE, 1864-9 - - EARL OF MAYO, 1869-72 - - LORD NORTHBROOK, 1872-6 - - LORD LYTTON, 1876-80 - - MARQUESS OF RIPON, 1880-84 - - EARL OF DUFFERIN, 1884-88 - - MARQUESS OF LANSDOWNE, 1888-94 - - EARL OF ELGIN, 1894-99 - - LORD CURZON OF KEDLESTON, 1899-1905 - - EARL OF MINTO, 1905-1910 - - LORD HARDINGE, 1910 - - - --------------------- - - -NOTE (I).—Many of the artistic and other objects mentioned in the -preceding pages can be better appreciated after a visit to the Indian -Museum at South Kensington. - -NOTE (II).—The thanks of the Committee are due for a few of the slides -to Colonel Frederick Firebrace, R.E., Managing Director of the Great -Indian Peninsula Railway Company, and to Mr. A. L. Hetherington, of the -Board of Education. - - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - - - ● Transcriber’s Notes: - ○ Additional line spacing has been added before paragraphs with side - notes to make more room for the them. - ○ Missing or obscured punctuation was silently corrected. - ○ Typographical errors were silently corrected. - ○ Inconsistent spelling and hyphenation were made consistent only - when a predominant form was found in this book. - ○ Text that was in italics is enclosed by underscores (_italics_); - text that was bold by “equal” signs (=bold=). - - - - - - - -End of Project Gutenberg's Eight Lectures on India, by Halford John Mackinder - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK EIGHT LECTURES ON INDIA *** - -***** This file should be named 63420-0.txt or 63420-0.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/6/3/4/2/63420/ - -Produced by The Online Distributed Proofreading Team at -https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images -generously made available by The Internet Archive) - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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