diff options
Diffstat (limited to 'old/63322-0.txt')
| -rw-r--r-- | old/63322-0.txt | 2455 |
1 files changed, 0 insertions, 2455 deletions
diff --git a/old/63322-0.txt b/old/63322-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 3cbedc2..0000000 --- a/old/63322-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,2455 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Philosophy of Earthquakes, Natural and -Religious, by William Stukeley - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license - - -Title: The Philosophy of Earthquakes, Natural and Religious - or, An Inquiry into Their Cause, and Their Purpose - -Author: William Stukeley - -Release Date: September 27, 2020 [EBook #63322] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE PHILOSOPHY *** - - - - -Produced by Tim Lindell, T Cosmas and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was -produced from images generously made available by The -Internet Archive) - - - - - - - - - -Transcriber Note: Text emphasis is denoted as _Italics_. - - - - - THE - - PHILOSOPHY - - OF - - EARTHQUAKES, - - Natural and Religious. - - OR - - An Inquiry into their Cause, and their - Purpose. - - _O Vita philosophia dux, virtutum indagatrix, expultrixque vitii!_ - - Cicero. - - By _WILLIAM STUKELEY_, M.D. Rector - of St. _George_'s, _Queen-Square_: Fellow of the - College of Physicians and Royal Society: - - The SECOND EDITION. - To which is added, PART II. on the same Subject. - - _LONDON_: - Printed for C. Corbet over-against St. _Dunstan_'s - Church, _Fleetstreet_. - - MDCCL. - - - - -To the Reader. - - -_The substance of the philosophical part of this discourse was -delivered at twice to the Royal Society, on_ March 15, _and_ 22: _The -theological, in my own church. I could not refuse the solicitation of my -friends, hearers in both places, to print it. I wish my intention, in -the compliance, may any ways prove successful; to show, how vain, and -unmeaning, are all our philosophical inquiries, when destitute of their -true view; to lead us into the more engaging paths of religion. That, -from speculation of material causes, we may become adepts in that wisdom -which is from above. Otherwise, like_ Epicurus, _and the ancient heathen -philosophers, we barter away our immortal part, for a curiosity, that -amuses us to no good purpose. Mean are these objects of our senses to be -accounted, in comparison of our spiritual natures, to which our principal -regard is due! For we must rightly say with_ Job: Lo, these are parts of -God's ways, but how little a portion is heard of him? and the thunder of -his power, who can understand? - -[Illustration] - - - - - TO - - _Martin Folkes_, Esq; LL.D. - - President of the Royal Society. - - - _March 26, 1750._ - -When so great and unusual a _phenomenon_, as an earthquake, and that -repeated, happens among us; it will naturally excite a serious reflection -in everyone that is capable of thinking. And we cannot help considering -it, both in a philosophical and a religious view. Any mind will take the -alarm when we perceive a motion that affects the earth, that bears the -whole city of _London_, and some miles round it. And at the same time -while it gives us so sensible a shake, so gently sets us down again; -without damage to any buildings, and without a life lost. - -'Tis hard to say, which is the greater wonder. But alas in the works -of nature, there are no degrees of great, and little; comparisons are -incompatible. We indeed are more affected with what seems great in our -own apprehensions: I would rather say, what is rare and unusual. An -omnipotent power admits of no distinctions. And when prodigious effects -are produc'd from causes imperceptible, it rightly claims our most serious -attention, as well as wonder. Nor need we lose sight of the theological -purpose of these amazing alarms; whilst we endeavor to find out the -philosophy of them. - -Among all the appearances of nature, which are the subject of the -inquiries of the Royal Society, none more deserves the regard of a -contemplative mind. And among the very numerous accounts received there, -from all quarters, being only Observations upon the manner of it, and -its extent: I judg'd, it became us to inquire into the _cause_ of so -extraordinary a motion: of which we could not form a proper idea; had we -not repeatedly seen, and felt it. - -The moderns have not improv'd upon the opinions of the ancients, in -this matter; any further than by the fancied analogy of some chymical -experiments. But these chymical experiments, and all sorts of explosions -by gun-powder, and the like, are to me a very unsatisfactory solution -they are merely artificial compositions, which can have nothing similar -in the bowels of the earth, and they produce their effects by violence, -by rending and tearing, by a _solutio continui_. This is indeed too -often the case of earthquakes, but _that_ is a partial degree, not -at all equivalent to the compass of the shock; and is very far from -being the constant concomitant of an earthquake. Quite the contrary. -Innumerable such happen, when there is no breach of the surface; and of -these three or four which we have now felt, nothing of it has appear'd. -But the immensity of the vibration of the earth which shook every house -in _London_, with impunity, and for twenty miles round, can never, in -my apprehension, be owing to so unbridled a cause, as any subterraneous -vapours, fermentations, rarefactions, and the like; the vulgar solution. -Nor does the kind of motion, which I discern in an earthquake, in any sort -agree with what we should expect from explosions. - -In order then to proceed with some degree of certainty, in our inquiry -after the cause of earthquakes, it will be useful, in the first place, -to set in one view, the general appearances remarkable therein; the most -usual concomitants: As we can collect them from our own observation, or -from the relations and writings of others. - - -Circumstances. - -I. That earthquakes always happen in calm seasons, in warm, dry, sultry -weather; or after a dry, frosty air. - -II. That they are felt at sea, as well as land, even in the main ocean; -and at that time, the sea is calm. - -III. That earthquakes differ very much in magnitude. Some shake a very -large tract of country, at the same instant of time; nay, sometime extend -to very many countries, separated by mountains, seas, lakes, the ocean. - -IV. That earthquakes differ very much in the quantity, of their vibratory -motion: Whence in some, tho' largely extended, they are innocuous; in -others, both small and great, they lay all in ruin and destruction. - -V. That a hollow, thundering, unusual noise accompanies them, or rather -seems to preceed the shock; which rolls in the air like the noise of -cannon. - -VI. That they are felt more sensibly in the upper story of houses than in -the lower. - -VII. That the shock is more violent upon more solid buildings, churches, -castles, and stone-houses, than upon those of slighter materials. - -VIII. That many people find themselves sick at stomach, with headake, and -pains in their joints, and the like, which sometime lasts for the day -after, or longer. - -IX. That earthquakes generally happen to great towns, and cities, and more -particularly to those that are situate on the sea. - -X. That earthquakes do not cause any damage to springs and fountains; but -the water in wells becomes foul for a short time. - -XI. That they are more frequent in the neighboring countries of a vulcano. - -This last circumstance, in my opinion, has led all inquirers in this -question, out of the true path; therefore I propose in the ensuing paper. - -I. To shew what it is not; the insufficiency of the vulgar opinion, of -subterraneous fires and vapours. - -II. To shew what it is in reality, as it appears to me. - -III. I shall conclude with the moral use we ought to make of these -prodigies of nature. - -I. The struggles of subterraneous winds and fires, that should heave -up the ground like animal convulsions, seem to me impossible: Their -powers, and manner of acting (if such there be) is quite incapable of -producing the appearance of an earthquake. That these should operate -instantaneously, in one minute, thro' a circle of 30 or 40 miles diameter, -or more, I could not conceive. Nor that there should be any possible, much -less ready passage thro' the solid earth, for such nimble agents, as every -one is apt to imagine that speak of this appearance; without sufficiently -reflecting on the insuperable difficulties in that _hypothesis_. - -We cannot pretend to deny that there may be such vapours, and -fermentations, inflammable substances, and actual fires, in the bowels of -the earth; and that there may be some caverns under-ground, as well as we -find some few above ground: such as _Pool_'s-_Hole_, _The Devil_'s-_Arse -in the Peak_ of _Derbyshire_, and _Okey-Hole_ in _Somersetshire_. -These, I believe, to have been so from the creation, never were made by -earthquakes. We know, there are hot springs running continually: There -are some vulcano's frequently belching out flames and smoke, and to these -perhaps some earthquakes may be owing, tho' not according to the vulgar -notion; as we shall see, by and by. - -But these matters are very rare, much rarer than earthquakes, both as to -time and place. _Vesuvius_ in _Italy_, and in that part of it abounding -with mines of sulphur: _Ætna_ in _Sicily_, and _Heckla_ in _Iceland_; -these are all we know of, in the old world. In the _Andes_ mountains of -_America_, there are some. The scarcity of these appears to me a strong -argument against the common deductions made therefrom, as to their being -the cause of earthquakes. - -Nor can I enter into the sentiments of those that hold the cavernous -state of the earth, so as to contribute to the forming an earthquake by -vapours running from place to place under ground. How many thousand acres -of coal-mines do they daily work in _England_, and have done for ages? I -have been myself 2 or 300 feet deep in a solid rock of native salt: I have -walked a mile lengthwise directly into the earth, and descending all the -way, in the proportion of one yard in five, 'till we came under the bed of -the very ocean, where ships were sailing over our heads. This was at Sir -_James Lowther_'s coal-pit, at _Whitehaven_. We were at this time deeper -under ground by the perpendicular, than any part of the ocean, between -_England_ and _Ireland_. - -We never hear, from the many hundreds of thousands of workmen in this -kind, at _Newcastle_, _Nottinghamshire_, _Yorkshire_, _Derbyshire_, -_Staffordshire_, _Somersetshire_, and _Wales_: from the infinite numbers -of workmen in the mines of lead, tin, and the like, of the cavernous -state of the earth, so as to give any colour for this _hypothesis_ of -earthquakes. The earth is generally of solid rock; in which there must be -now, and then, some clefts, and vacuities, small in compass, as naturally -so many heterogeneous _strata_ of the earth consolidate together. But -there can be no imagination of vapours breaking through, uniting, -traversing so suddenly, a large space of earth, so as to produce those -earthquakes, we have seen, and felt; much less such as we read of. The -workmen in all sorts of mines confess by their hard labor, that the earth -is not cavernous; nor are there mines of sulphur, nitre, and the like -inflammable materials in _England_. Or if there were, could they burn, -and cause convulsions of the earth, without proper cavities, pipes, and -conveyances of air; as vulcano's, and coal-pits, when set on fire. But -even from these coal-pits, when fired, do we ever find any thing like -an earthquake produced. Nor do we find earthquakes frequent in those -countries, that abound with coal-mines, as certainly would be the case, -if that _hypothesis_ was just. How easy would it be, on the slightest -occasion for earthquakes to happen in the countries abounding with -coal-mines, which are so full of artificial cavities communicating with -one another, for many miles together: The very thing supposed, by those -who hold the old opinion, of vapours traversing the earth for that purpose. - -In the coal-pits, some small natural cavities now and then are found; -which when opened, send forth a pestiferous vapor and a fire-damp which -runs for a long time together. And tho' there are many substances that -may generate air, within the bowels of the earth; yet these matters are -infinitely unable to produce an earthquake: Never would have force to open -a passage for themselves thro' the solid rock, of perhaps many hundred -feet in thickness. Nor did we observe in these last earthquakes any fire, -vapour, smoke, or smell, any kind of eruption, in the least; as must -certainly have been, in so great a struggle of the superfice, as affected -a circle of so large a diameter. Were there such, we could scarce hope any -otherwise, than that they would be too sensibly felt; to the destruction -of many thousands, by their pestiferous qualities. - -Indeed this consideration alone, of the extent of that surface, is -sufficient to overthrow any supposition, of earthquakes being chiefly -owing to subterraneous vapours: They cannot momentarily fly under so large -a tract of ground, if they were near the outward shell of the earth. They -could not do it without breaking ground, and discovering themselves to -the sight, or smell; and that for a long time after. It cannot possibly -be imagin'd, they could have so immense a force, as to lift up the city -of _London_, and never be perceived by our organs, and outward senses. We -have frequent accounts of a little fire-ball bursting in the air, at a -distance; yet it instantly propagates a sulphureous smell around. - -If the movement of a superficies of 30 miles diameter was owing to fumes, -and vapours; we ought reasonably to find some great discharges of them, -belching out smoke and fire, for a long time after, like vulcano's, -and coal-pits fir'd. The operation of the shock ought to be of hours -continuance, not instantaneous; and the evaporation of so vast a quantity -of matter, must darken the whole region of the air for a long time -after; or require a long time, if gradually it discharges itself. We see -how immense a volume of smoke is produc'd by a very small quantity of -gun-powder; and no vapour could be so subtle, that produc'd such effects, -and not be very obvious to our senses. - -Even in vulcano's, it is the opinion of the learned _Italian_ philosopher -_Borelli_, and of other great naturalists, that they are kindled first -from the surface, where there is a possibility of ventilation from the -air. They imagine, it begins at the top of the mountains; not by any -fancied fermentation of the _pyrites_ and sulphureous vapours arising from -subterraneous caverns, in the lower parts of mountains. - -There is another consideration, which utterly overthrows these -suppositions, of earthquakes being caused by anything under-ground; and -that is a due consideration of springs, and fountains perpetually flowing; -and that from the creation of the world to this day. If we would form any -tolerable idea of their nature, we must needs conceive, that God Almighty -has laid their pipes, and canals in the earth, from a great depth, even to -the surface; like as he has planted the veins, arteries, and glands in an -animal body. And likewise that they are more and more ramify'd, as they -nearer approach the outward shell of the earth; just so our veins, and -arteries, as they come nearer the skin. - -The workmen in coal-mines, and those of metals, minerals, and -stone-quarries, never fail to meet with springs, and currents of water, -every where. Often they ruin, and divert springs another way, only by -digging into the earth for foxes, and the like. Whenever they dig for -wells, in any kind of earth, they commonly find springs. The colliers, -and workers of mines, are oblig'd to drain the waters off with very great -expence. - -These are circumstances not favorable to subterraneous fires being in the -earth in abundance; much less to their being the cause of earthquakes. -And further, we cannot possibly think of earthquakes doing their work -that way, without absolutely ruining the whole system of springs, and -fountains, throughout the whole country, where they pass. But all this is -quite contrary to fact; even where an earthquake has been repeatedly. For -an instance from home. - -On _Wednesday, April_ 6, 1580, about six in the evening, just such another -earthquake was felt in _London_ and around it, as these two we have seen. -Another exactly similar 1692. In all these four, no houses thrown down, no -springs disturb'd thereby, no sensible eruptions nor smells. - -These considerations I apply only to this little inconsiderable space, -of a circle 30 miles diameter; as with us. But what is that to the -earthquakes we read of in history? In the year of our Lord 17, no less -than thirteen great and noble cities in _Asia minor_, were destroyed in -one night. _Tacitus_, _Pliny_, and many other authors mention it. The fact -is so notorious, that some persons here present, have seen a vast block of -white marble now standing near _Naples_; being the pedestal of a coloss -statue of _Tiberius_ the emperor; having carv'd on it the _genius's_, or -pictures of all those cities, with their names. The accurate _Bulifon_ and -others have wrote treatises upon it. These cities were rebuilt by that -emperor. But without going so far, we may see another evidence of it, a -coin of that emperor struck upon the occasion, with this inscription, - - CIVITATIBUS ASIAE RESTITUTIS. - -I have one of them, in large brass, which was found at _Colchester_. - -The compass of this earthquake may be reckon'd to take up 300 miles -diameter, as a circle. Now, we cannot conceive, how any subterraneous -vapour can produce such an effect, as instantaneously to demolish all -these cities; and that such an accident should never happen after. -That the whole country of _Asia minor_ should not at the same time be -destroy'd, its mountains be renversed, its fountains, springs, and rivers -broken up and ruin'd for ever. Instead whereof we find nothing suffered, -but those cities; no kind of alteration in the surface of the country; -it remains the same as it were in the beginning of time. In 1586 an -earthquake in _Peru_, that extended 900 miles. - -From these considerations, I cannot persuade myself, to enter into the -opinion of vapours, and eruptions being the cause sought for; and, after -we have treated the argument in a superficial view, we must go a little -deeper. - -If we would consider things like philosophers, let us propose to ourselves -this problem: Where is the power to be plac'd, that is requir'd to move a -surface of earth 30 miles in diameter? - -To answer this, consult the ingineers, and those that make mines in the -sieges of towns; they will acquaint us, that the effect of mines is -produced in form of an inverted cone. And that a diameter of 30 miles, in -the base, will require an _axis_ of 15 or 20 miles to operate upon that -base, so as to shake it, at least. Now the vapours, or whatever power we -propose to operate, according to the foregoing requisite, in order to form -the appearance of an earthquake, must be 15 or 20 miles deep in the earth. -But what mind can conceive, that any natural power is able to move an -inverted cone of solid earth, whose base is 30 miles diameter, whose axis -20? or was it possible; would not the whole texture of that body of earth -be quite disturb'd and shatter'd, especially in regard to its springs and -fountains? but nothing like this is ever found to be the consequence of an -earthquake, tho' fatal to cities. - -Apply this reasoning to the earthquake of _Asia minor_, and this vigorous -principle at the _apex_ of the cone must lie, at least, 200 Miles deep in -the ground. Enough to show the absurdity of any moving power plac'd under -the Earth! A cone of 300 miles diameter at base, 200 miles _axis_: I dare -be bold to say, that all the gun-powder made since its invention, if put -together and fired, would not be able to move it; how much less pent up -vapours? what must we say of a circle of 900 miles diameter? - -But, could that be admitted as possible, would any one be persuaded, -that such a subterraneous tumult, of so vast an extent, will be no ways -injurious to the internal system of springs and fountains, and that this -shall often be repeated without the least damage? We may as well imagine, -that we can stab a man 100 times and never touch vein or artery. - -Since I gave in my two papers to the Royal Society, a letter of Mr. -_Flamsted_'s has been printed, which abundantly confirms my sentiments. -The whole drift of it is, to show how invalid is the vulgar idea -conceiv'd, of earthquakes arising from subterraneous vapours and -eruptions: That the earth itself is not moved to any depth, and that the -shock must arise from the atmosphere. The circumstances which he has -judiciously collected, are extremely agreeable to mine; many of them the -very same, strongly confirming my _hypothesis_: And had that great man -known the properties of electricity, which we are now masters of, he would -have prevented me in this affair. - -"Considering (says he) what variety of substances, sand, gravel, stones, -rock, minerals, clay, and mold, our earth is compounded of, and how little -nitre, or explosive matter, a large quantity thereof will afford; I cannot -think, where we can find matter enough to move so vast a bulk of earth, -as all the South parts of _England_, all the _Netherlands_, with part -of _Germany_, all _France_, and perhaps _Italy_, (which were shock'd at -once the 8th of _September_ last 1692;) or part of _Asia_, and near all -_Europe_, which trembled together the same day, 91 years before. - -"But, allowing there may have been sufficient matter prepared for these -purposes, I can hardly think, there are continued cavities, at any -reasonable depth, all under _Europe_, wherein an explosion being made, -might shake the whole at once, and yet make no clefts, or separations, -in those parts where the minerals and mountainous rocks part from the -light mold and clay. If an hundred barrels of gun-powder could be fixed -in some cave, a thousand yards under ground; allowing the force of the -explosion sufficient to raise all the weight of earth incumbent on the -cavern; it would certainly break the loose mold from any large solid rock -we may conceive adjacent, and leave at least some clefts behind it. But we -seldom or never hear of such clefts, made in such places, when earthquakes -happen." - -Again, he writes thus: "I cannot apprehend, (if all earthquakes must -be made by explosions in subterraneous caverns) why sometimes a large -country, or whole continent, should be thereby shook all at once; why -there should be no eruptions in the neighbourhood?" - -From all circumstances consider'd, he concludes, that the abstruse, -effective cause of them comes from the air; and that a calm is necessary -before an earthquake. And these two particulars are likewise Dr. _Hales_'s -positions: "The earth-lightning, as he calls it, is first kindled on the -surface, and not at great depths, as has been thought; whose explosion is -the immediate cause of an earthquake. He says, long, dry, hot seasons, -are usually the preparatory forerunners of earthquakes." From all these -considerations I conclude; earthquakes are not caus'd by subterraneous -vapors. - -II. We are to inquire, what is the cause of earthquakes. - -In an age when electricity has been so much our entertainment, and our -amazement; when we are become so well acquainted with its stupendous -powers and properties, its velocity, and instantaneous operation through -any given distance; when we see, upon a touch, or an approach, between -a non-electric and an electrified body, what a wonderful vibration is -produc'd! what a snap it gives! how an innocuous flame breaks forth! -how violent a shock! Is it to be wonder'd at, that hither we turn our -thoughts, for the solution of the prodigious appearance of an earthquake? - -Here is at once an assemblage of all those properties and circumstances -which we so often see in courses of electricity. Electricity may be call'd -a sort of soul to matter, thought to be an ethereal fire pervading all -things; and acting instantaneously, where, and as far as it is excited. -'Tis every body's observation, that there never was a winter, like the -last past, in any one's memory, so extremely remarkable for warmth and -driness, abounding with thunder and lightning, very uncommon in winter; -coruscations in the air frequent, justly thought electrical by all -philosophers; particularly, twice we had the extraordinary appearance of -that called _aurora australis_, with colours altogether unusual; and this -just before the first earthquake: All the while the wind constantly south -and south-west, and that without rain, which is unusual with these winds. - -This state of the atmosphere had continued five months before the first -earthquake. Is it not hence reasonable to conclude, that the earth, -especially in our region, must be brought into an unusual state of -electricity; into that vibratory condition wherein electricity consists; -and, consequently, nothing was wanting but the approach of a non-electric -body, to produce that snap, and that shock, which we call an earthquake; a -vibration of the superficies of the earth. - -That the earth was in that vibratory and electric state we have further -reason to conclude, from the very extraordinary forwardness of all the -vegetable world with us. Every one knows, that, at the end of _February_, -all sorts of garden-stuff, trees, fruits, and flowers, were as forward -as in other years, by the middle of _April_. Conformable to which, -experiments abundantly show, that electrifying of plants quickens their -growth, equally as in animals it quickens the pulse. Nor will the unusual -driness and warmth of the weather solely account for such a precipitate -vegetation: because a necessary supply of rain was wanting, as in the -natural Spring-season. - -A very long dry frost will produce the same electrical state of the earth, -as it equally favours electrical experiments. Thus, _March_ 27, 1076, -a frost from the 1st of _November_ to the middle of _April_, a general -earthquake in _England_ succeeded. _Matt. Paris._ That of _Oxford_, 17th -of _September_ 1683, was after a frost. _Jan._ 4, 1680, An earthquake in -_Somersetshire_: The air was very calm; a frosty night. - -Mr. _Flamsted_ concurs with us, in our first position, That earthquakes -always happen in _calm_ seasons. He adds, "That _Keckerman_, a learned -author, who wrote on the subject, affirms, and backs it from the authority -of _Aristotle_ and _Pliny_." - -The 8th of _September_ 1601 was a very calm day but cloudy: And the -_Smyrna_ merchants observe the earthquakes there happen in calm, still -weather. The remarkable clearness and calmness of the morning was observed -in that of _Oxford_ 17th of _September_ 1683, and the air continued -so for five or six days after: Therefore we may infer, that it is not -impossible, what has been abundantly related, that some foreigners -from _Italy_ here in _England_, some from the _West-Indies_ (in both -which countries earthquakes are more frequent than with us) did seem to -apprehend our first earthquakes from the apparent temper of the weather; -and observations of this kind are as old as _Aristotle_. It is observed -in _Jamaica_, when the air is extraordinary calm, an earthquake is always -apprehended. - -We had lately read at the Royal Society, a very curious discourse, from -Mr. _Franklin_ of _Philadelphia_, concerning thundergusts, lightning, -the northern lights, and meteors. All which he rightly solves from the -doctrine of electricity. For, if a cloud raised from the sea, which is -a non-electric, happens to touch a cloud raised from exhalations of the -land, when electrified, it must immediately cause thunder and lightning. -The electrical fire flowing from the touch of perhaps a thousand miles -compass of clouds, makes that appearance, which we call lightning. The -snap which we hear in our electrical experiments, when re-echoed from -cloud to cloud, the extent of the firmament, makes that affrightning sound -of thunder. - -From the same principle I infer, that, if a non-electric cloud discharges -its contents upon any part of the earth, when in a high electrified state, -an earthquake must necessarily ensue. The ship made upon the contact of -many miles compass of solid earth is that horrible uncouth noise, which -we hear upon an earthquake; and the shock is the earthquake itself. - -In the relation received from _Portsmouth_, and the _Isle of Wight_, -concerning the last shock there, on the 18th of _March_, the writer -observes, the Day was warm and serene; but, upon a gentle shower falling -in the evening, the earthquake came. Here we have reason to apprehend the -electrified state of the earth, and the touch of the non-electric: which -caused the earthquake. - -The learned Dr. _Childrey_ observes, treating on this subject, that -earthquakes happen upon rain; a sudden shower of rain in the time of a -great drought. - -'Tis objected, that, if this was the case, nothing would be more frequent -than earthquakes; but these two circumstances concurring, a shower and -dry weather, must not necessarily cause it, any more than touching a -tube before it is electrified causes a snap. The earth must be in a -proper electrified state to produce it; and electricity has its fits; is -remitted, intended, ceased and recommenced. It has its bounds. All causes -must concur. And now, with us, all necessary causes did so apparently. -Tho' a shower of rain falling upon the earth when electrified, may cause -an earthquake, yet too much rain before, will prevent that state of -electricity, necessary. - -The day before the catastrophe of _Port-Royal_, the weather was remarkably -serene and clear. In that most dreadful earthquake, 1692, of _Sicily_, -where 54 cities and towns, beside a great number of villages were -destroy'd; but especially the whole city of _Catania_: It was preceded by -a most agreeable, serene and warm season, which was the more observable on -account of its being unusual at that time of the year. - -I have been inform'd, that in the morning of both earthquakes last past -with us, the air was serene and calm; on the morning before that 8th -of _February_, the air was observ'd to be remarkably calm; and that a -little before, a black cloud appear'd over great part of the horizon. Dr. -_Hales_, in his relation, says, the Centinels in _St. James's Park_, and -others who were abroad in the morning of the last earthquake, observ'd a -large black cloud, and some coruscations, just before the shock, and that -it was very calm weather: And that, in the history of earthquakes, they -generally begin in calm weather, with a black cloud. - -This observation precludes the suspicion of earthquakes arising from -tumults and commotions in the upper, or under region of the air. The -remarkable clearness of the air before earthquakes, observ'd by all, shows -evidently how free it is from vapours and the like. - -Agreeable to our _fifth_ position, Mr. _Flamsted_ writes, "A hollow noise -in the air always precedes an earthquake, so near that it rather seems to -accompany them. He refers us to _Philosophical Transactions_, N^o 151. p. -311. The noise was heard by many that liv'd in the out-streets, and alleys -of _London_, remote from the noise and tumult of the greater streets." - -This he speaks of that felt in _London_ 1692; but now the whole city heard -the noise, on both these earthquakes of ours. - -The gardener, who gave a relation to the Royal Society of what he observed -in the _Temple_-garden, took notice, that first he heard the most dreadful -noise imaginable, which he thought to be a great discharge of ship-guns, -on the river: and that the noise rolled from the water-side towards -_Temple-bar_, rather before the nodding of the houses. - -The gentleman who observed it about _Hartingfordbury_, says, the noise -preceded the shock. And this is a common observation, which at once both -strengthens our opinion of electricity, and confutes that of subterraneous -vapours; for, in the latter case, the concussion must precede the noise. - -Agreeable to out _second_ position, Mr. _Flamsted_ writes, "That -earthquakes are felt at sea, equally as on land. Our merchants say, -that, tho' the water in the bay of _Smyrna_ lies level and smooth as -a pond; yet ships riding there feel the shocks very sensibly, but in a -very different manner from the houses at land: For they heave not, but -tremble; their masts shiver, as if they would fall to pieces and their -guns start in their carriages, though the surface of the sea lies all the -time calm and unmoved." In Dr. _Hook_'s _Philosophical Collections_, N^o -6. p. 185. we are told, "That a ship felt a shock in the main ocean; that -the passengers, who had been asleep in their cabins, came upon deck in a -fright, fearing the ship had struck upon some rock; but, on heaving the -lead, found themselves out of soundings." - -All this is extremely agreeable to our assumption. The water receives the -electrical touch, and vibratory intestine motion of its parts, as well as -land. And the impression may be made solely on the writer a non-electric, -by the touch of an electric fire-ball, or the like; and that seems to have -been often the care. The proper vibratory motion is impress'd on the water -without ruffling its surface; and so communicated to all the parts of the -ship, gives the sense of a shock to the bottom, the shivering to the mast, -and the rest of the symptoms: which sufficiently proclaim the cause of it -to be an electrical impression upon the water. The president mentioned -a relation of a waterman, that felt it in his boat upon the river; he -thought it like a great thump at the bottom of the boat. And so the ships -at sea fancy, they strike upon a rock. - -This makes us apprehend, the reason of the fishes leaping up out of -the canal in _Southwark_, of which we had an account. So in that of -_Oxford_, 1683, one fishing in the _Charwell_ felt his boat tremble under -him, and the lesser fishes seem'd affrighted by an unusual skipping. -That electricity is the cause sought for, seems deducible from this -consideration. Several writers on earthquakes assimilate these vibrations -of the earth to those of a musical string. Experiments have shown, that -fishes in water may be killed by the particular tone of a musical string; -and 'tis known, that electricity will kill animals. They assuredly felt -the vibratory motion in the water, which they were absolutely strangers -to before. No doubt it made them sick; as those of weak nerves on land. -And this circumstance alone precludes any suspicion of subterraneous fires -under the ocean. Or, if we were to admit of it, would the boiling of the -water exhibit any appearance, like what we are speaking of, either to the -water, or to the ship? - -Mr. _Flamsted_ likewise concurs in our _eighth_ position, "That many -people found themselves suddenly sick at stomach, and their heads dizzy -and light; so that those that had formerly fits of apoplexies, dreaded -their return; particularly, one gentleman, a surgeon, feeling himself so -affected, and fearing a return of his apoplexy, resolved to be let blood, -without suspecting the earthquake." - -After these two shocks which we felt, many people had pains in their -joints and back, as after electrifying; many had sickness, headakes, -hysteric and nervous disorders, and colicks, for the whole day after, and -some much longer, especially people of weak nerves, weak constitutions; -some women miscarry'd upon it; to some it has prov'd fatal. - -To this we must attribute, that relation we had, of the dog lying asleep -before the fire; but upon the earthquake, he suddenly rose up, run about -the room, whining, and endeavouring to get out. - -Any solid matter is capable of being put into a state or electricity, -such as iron guns; and the more so, by reason of their solidity. And in -proportion to it, is the greatness of the snap, and of the shock; and -a kind of lambent flame issues from the point of contact; and likewise -somewhat of a sulphureous smell: So that if both flame and smell were -discernible in an earthquake; 'tis to be found, without going to the -bowels of the earth. - -Dr. _Hales_ mentions, that solid bodies are the best conductors of aereal -lightning; whence oaks are rent, and iron melted. And in our earthquakes -in _London_, the loudest noise was heard near such large stone buildings, -as churches, with lofty steeples. From the top of these we must apprehend, -that the electrical explosion goes off into the open air; as in our -experiments, from the point of swords, and the like. - -The electrical shock is proportionate to the solid electrified, agreeable -to our _seventh_ position. This fully accounts for earthquakes in general, -and for many in particular. What can be imagin'd greater than a shock of -the body of the earth? 'Tis greater, or less in proportion to the state of -electrification. And now we can account for several appearances. In the -first earthquake, the Lord Chancellor, Masters in Chancery, and several -Judges, were sitting in _Westminster-Hall_, with their backs to the wall -of the upper-end, which is of a vast thickness. They all relate the -severity of the shock, from the wall seeming to push towards them with -great violence. - -And thus in the earthquake of 1692, _Deal_ castle is one of them built -by _Henry_ VIII. the walls are of immense thickness, and strength; yet -they shook so sensibly, that the people living in it, expected it was -falling on their heads. And this is the case in all earthquakes: the more -substantial the building, the more violent is the shock: exactly the mode -of electrical vibration. And this Dr. _Hales_ takes notice of and others; -that an earthquake shatters rocks of marble, more easily than the _strata_ -of sand, earth, or gravel. In the earthquake here of 1692, a great cliff -fell down near _Dover_; and part of _Saltwood_-castle wall. - -'Tis from hence we account for that observation, that when we electrify -any person; upon a touch, the pain and blow of the shock is felt at the -joints, the wrist, elbow, and shoulder, for instance, more than in the -intermediate parts; because _there_ is the greatest quantity of solid. - -At the same time, that the force of electricity in solids, is as the -quantity of matter: we see most evidently, by innumerable experiments, -that water is equally assistant in strengthening, and conveying the force -of electricity; and _that_ in proportion too to its quantity. And hence -is to be deduc'd the reason of my observation; that the most frequent and -dreadful earthquakes have fallen upon maritime places. And I find the same -is taken notice of in some degree, by _Acosta_, by _Dolittle_, who wrote -on that in 1692, and others. - -In the dreadful catastrophe at _Port-Royal_ then, 'tis notorious, that its -violence was chiefly near the sea. So _Lima_ could not suffer without its -port of _Callao_. Even in those so lately felt by us, they were sensibly -more violent towards the river, than farther from it. - -In that earthquake which was felt in _England_, in the year 1692, (which -was very much like these with us) there were no houses thrown down, nor -persons kill'd: but it reach'd more particularly _Sheerness_, _Sandwich_, -_Deal_, _Dover_, _Portsmouth_, and the maritime parts of _Holland_, -_Flanders_, and _Normandy_. - -In this that happened on _Sunday_ the 18th of _March_ last, at _Bath_; -it was felt particularly and strongly at _Portsmouth_, seven miles -above and below it, on the sea-side; all round the isle of _Wight_, -at _Southampton_, the sea-coast of _Selsey_, south of _Chichester_, -_Arundel_, and the whole coast of _Sussex_, without going up the land; and -across the sea to the islands of _Jersey_ and _Guernsey_. - -On _Monday_ night, the 2d of this instant _April_, 1750, at ten o'clock, -at _Leverpool_, a shock of an earthquake. And felt in several other places -in the neighbourhood; but particularly at _Chester_, and _Warington_. - -If we look into ancient history, we find 197 years before Christ, an -earthquake shook terribly the isle of _Rhodes_, damag'd many cities: and -some quite swallow'd up. - -Seventeen years before Christ, many cities in the isle of _Cyprus_ -destroy'd. - -Six years before Christ, the isle of _Coos_ vehemently afflicted. - -During the _Peloponnesian_ war among the _Greeks_, the isle of _Delos_ -shaken, and the most beautiful temple of _Apollo_ thrown down. - -Soon after, the city of _Lacedæmon_ totally destroy'd. - -_A. D._ 79. Three cities in _Cyprus_ overthrown. - -_A. D._ 82. The city of _Smyrna_ ruined. - -In the time of _Valens_ the emperor, a terrible earthquake in _Crete_, -whereby 100 cities were destroy'd. - -_Feb._ 13, 1247, An earthquake, chiefly felt in the _Thames_. _Matt. -Paris._ - -_May_, 1382, A general earthquake, which did much mischief; the _Friday_ -following one less; the _Saturday_ following, one felt mostly by water. -_Henry de Knyhton._ _Holinshed._ - -_A. D._ 1456, In the city of _Naples_, 40,000 people lost. - -_Constantinople_ has often suffer'd; particularly in 1509, 13,000 people -overwhelm'd. - -1531, At _Lisbon_, 1400 houses thrown down; as many shatter'd. - -_April_, 1690, The _Leeward-Islands_, _Montserat_, _Nevis_, and _Antigua_: -At _Martinico_, and the _French_ islands, at St. _Lucia_, &c. a violent -earthquake. - -_Dec._ 8, 1703, An earthquake at _Hull_, a perfect calm. - -1702, At _Stroution_, in _Argyleshire_, which extended all along the west -coast of _Great-Britain_; but to no breadth on land. - -_Oct._ 25, 1734, At _Havant_, in _Sussex_, considerable, the air perfectly -calm. - -But instances enough, to show what I aim'd at, that maritime places are -most subject; which is a strong argument in favour of electricity; when -both the solid of the earth, and the quantity of the water concur, to make -the shock; exactly as in electrical experiments; when the bottle of water -is held in the hand. - -Thus when our mind is discharged of the prejudices of former notions, we -discern, that every appearance favours the principle we go upon. That, -agreeable to Mr. _Flamsted_, subterraneous explosions, could they pervade, -and traverse the earth at pleasure, must at last burst, and disperse -every thing in their way. Yet 'tis not possible for us to imagine, such -a kind of vibration should follow, either by sea or land, as that we are -treating of. But electricity compleatly answers it. This accounts for -that superficial movement of the earth, that universal instantaneous -shock, which made every house in _London_ to tremble, none to fall: That -quivering, tremulous, horizontal vibration, highly different from any -motion we must conceive, to be produc'd from subterraneous evaporations. -Hence authors tell us, _Dec._ 30, 1739, describing an earthquake in the -west-riding of _Yorkshire_: It seem'd as if the earth mov'd backward and -forward horizontally; a quivering, with reciprocal vibrations. - -Mr. _Flamsted_ rightly accounts the motion of earthquakes to be -undulatory; and by being continued, causes a like motion to a great -distance. As when you strike a long stretch'd string of wire at one end, -the motion is immediately continued to the other. So far he entered into -the nature of electricity. - -Tho' he be in the right, thinking the cause comes from the air, yet what -follows, contradicts his own hypothesis. For if a calm be necessary before -an earthquake; then 'tis not produc'd by any turbulence in the air. Nor -can we imagine that any aerial commotion, tho' it may shake windows, -chimneys, and the like, shall reach 500 miles distance, split the solid -earth, destroy whole cities, and cause those dire desolations we hear of. - -Mr. _Flamsted_ mentions a circumstance, that the earthquake here in 1692, -was not felt in the north of _England_, nor in all _Scotland_: for rain -fell that day in both. We may very readily conceive, the earth there was -not in an electrified state; and the rain would sufficiently prevent it. -We hence understand, how the southern regions should be more subject to -them, than our northern; where the warmth, and driness of the air, so -necessary to electricity, is more frequent than with us. - -From electric vibration only can we account for our _tenth_ position, of -springs, and fountains being no ways damag'd by earthquakes: The motion -goes no deeper into the earth, than the force and quantity of the shock -reaches; which generally is not far; yet it proceeds lower down when the -ready passage of a well offers, and _there_ affects the water contained in -it; puts it into an intestine vibration, as to foul it, and raise mud from -the bottom. - -It may seem difficult to conceive, how a large portion of the earth's -surface should be thus capable of electrification. This difficulty -is lessened by reflecting on the nature of electricity, and of the -electrical, ethereal fluid pervading all things: how it is excited by the -little motion of a small revolving glass globe. By this we electrify the -most solid bodies, to the greatest distance, and with a velocity equal to -that of lightning. - -Dr. _Hales_ observes, that the usual explosion of the cannon on great -days, in St. _James_'s-_Park_, is observ'd to electrify the glass, in the -windows of the Treasury. - -We must conceive, that when the electric shock is communicated to one part -of the earth, it extends itself proportionably to the force of the shock, -and to the quantity of electrified surface; and to the quality of the -matter more or less susceptible of it, more or less apt to propagate it. - -Set 1000 men in a row; let every one communicate with those next him by -an iron-wire held in their hands: on an electrical shock they all feel -it alike, at the same instant; and this gives us a very good idea of the -earthquake. - -When the earth is broken up in any large degree, 'tis by the sea-side; -where sometimes on a bold shore, whole streets tumble into the sea, or -into the gaping earth, now falling toward the sea. Sometimes on a flat and -sandy shore, whole streets are rolled along the level into the sea. - -I am not sensible of any real objection against our _hypothesis_, but -this, being the _eleventh_ of my positions, or circumstances. It seems -true, that earthquakes are more frequent in _Italy_, near _Vesuvius_, -and by _Ætna_, in _Sicily_. And the cause seems apparently owing to -these vulcano's. At first sight, every one would think so, but not from -the true reason. This has given the great prejudice to the judgments -of the curious, even at this day. But consider the matter impartially, -and it will appear, so far from being a strong argument in favour of -subterraneous eruptions, that it ought to be esteem'd a convincing proof -to the contrary, and most cogent in favour of my principle. In strictest -logic, there is no inference to be made from particulars to generals. -Quite the contrary. We have but these two or three vulcano's on one -quarter of the globe, and two of them toward the warmer climate of it; -whereas earthquakes are innumerable, especially in those of a warmer -clime. That there are no vulcano's, no discharges of fire and smoke for a -continuance, and abundance, after earthquakes; no suspicion of it either -from sight or smell, as we know by innumerable examples, as well as in -our own country, and experience: is demonstration, that this is not the -cause. If the vulcano's were the real cause of earthquakes, we ought -assuredly to expect, that in the countries thereabouts, the earthquakes -ought to be far more extensive than those in other countries, where are -no vulcano's; but this is altogether contrary to experience. For, as the -celebrated naturalist _Buffon_ observes, such are not extensive, as are -near _Ætna_ and _Vesuvius_. He further adds: _Histoire naturelle_, tom. -I. p. 508. speaking, among many others, of a _vulcano_ in the island of -_Ternate_, he remarks, "That this burning gulph is less agitated when -the air is calm, and the season mild, than in storms and hurricanes;" -and says, "This confirms what I have said in my foregoing discourse, and -seems evidently to prove, that the fire which makes _vulcano's_ comes not -from the bottom of mountains, but from the tops, or at least from a very -little depth; and that the hearth (or floor) of the fire is not far from -the summit of the _vulcano's_; for, if this was not the case, great winds -could not contribute to their conflagration." And this, in general, is a -corroborative proof of my whole hypothesis. For there can be no great fire -in the earth, where there is no great conveyance of air. - -We have one vulcano in the cold region of _Iceland_, and there is -sometimes an earthquake there; but, in the countries of that northern -latitude, and those of lesser, 'tis obvious in all history, that -earthquakes are less frequent than in the more southern. Therefore 'tis -easy, and very natural to conclude, from all considerations weighed -together, that these vulcano's help to put the earth about them, into that -vibratory state and condition of electricity, which is the requisite in my -_hypothesis_, and by that means only, promote a frequency of earthquakes -there. - -I have only one circumstance to add, which may seem not inconsiderable; -probably perceived by many, tho' not taken notice of. For a whole week -before the first earthquake, the partition wainscot of my house (between -the forward and backward rooms) made an odd kind of tremulous, crackling -noise continually, as if the wainscot would split; or as if some damage -was apprehended to the house. This was observ'd by the family, with a good -deal of concern. _That_ in the chamber crackled more than that below. -We never perceiv'd it before, nor since; and apparently, it shows the -vibratory state of the surface of the earth, at that time. - -But whether our conjectures upon this important subject be well founded -or no, it certainly becomes a christian philosopher, whilst he is -investigating material causes, to look up, and regard the moral use of -them. For in reality, every thing, the whole world, was ultimately for -that purpose made. When we see such a kind of spirituality impress'd on -mere matter, as this amazing property of electricity, it should kindle in -us a high ambition of asserting, and exerting the infinitely superior -value, and powers, and excellency of the spiritual part of us, destin'd -to an immortal duration. And of all the great and public calamities, -which affect us mortals, earthquakes claim the first title to the name -of warnings and judgments. None so proper to threaten, or to execute -vengeance upon a guilty people. Nor has any other, those annexed terrors, -so much of the unusual, the unavoidable, the sudden and the horrible -apprehension of being crush'd to death, or buried alive. And when in our -own sight, these rare and extraordinary _phænomena_ appear, it cannot but -be a lesson to us, to do our duty toward that great Being, who, by a drop -of water, can produce effects so prodigious. - -That earthquakes proclaim themselves to mankind in this light, is further -deducible from this observation, the _ninth_ in our recapitulation of -circumstances; that they are peculiarly directed to great cities, and -maritime towns, those nurseries of wealth, luxury, and of all the evils -naturally flowing therefrom. It would be childish to rehearse from old -history, or modern, a proof of it. We have no other notices of them. Look -upon these two shocks we have here felt. We own that _Hampsted-heath_, and -_Finchley-forest_, and _Kennington-common_ were affected with it; yet it -is notorious, that _London_ was the center, the place to which the finger -of God was pointed. - -And this leads us in the _third_ place, to consider the moral use and -purpose of these _magnalia naturæ_, and prodigies of the agency of -material causes. For nothing sure, but an electrical shock, and that from -a divine hand, could have been so well adjusted, as twice, nay four times, -so sensibly to shake every house in _London_, and not throw one down. This -duty we will endeavour to execute, from the words of that great man, king -_David_. - -[Illustration] - - - - - PSALM xviii. 7. - - _Then the earth shook, and trembled; the foundations also of the - hills moved, and were shaken; because he was wroth._ - - -This Psalm is a triumphal song, which _David_ deliver'd publickly before -God, in thankful remembrance of the great mercies he had receiv'd; -being firmly established on his throne: and all his enemies, foreign or -domestick, subdued. - -He does not attribute this happy situation of his affairs to his own -prudence and courage; but, like a consummate politician, absolutely to -the mediation of the divine providence. He draws up a most grand and -magnificent description of the advent of the deity, such as words never -before expressed. All the heathen pictures of the appearance of their -gods, are cold and lame, compar'd to this; which is deservedly so much -admir'd by all criticks that have any taste for religion, as well as -language. - -This verse, in our text, is the first movement in the scene, which was to -represent the appearance of _Jehovah_, without whose interposition _David_ -hoped for nothing fortunate. After describing all the pomp of light, -and darkness, celestial; hailstones, thunder, lightning, and the like -instances of majesty and terror, in the skies; he still keeps his eye on -the ground, and concludes with the earthquake, where he began. - -_Then the channels of waters were seen; and the foundations of the earth -were discovered; at thy rebuke, O Lord; at the blast of the breath of thy -nostrils._ - -Our holy psalmist, at other times, has exhibited the same images, in -different coloring; as a great master varies his works, to strike out all -the beauties. - -Psal. lxviii. 7. _O God, when thou wentest forth before thy people; when -thou didst march thro' the wilderness; the earth shook, the heavens also -dropped, at the presence of God. Even Sinai itself was moved, at the -presence of God; the God of Israel._ - -By this he means, the giving the law. _Exod._ xix. 8. _And mount Sinai -was altogether on a smoke; because the Lord descended on it in fire: and -the smoke ascended as the smoke of a furnace, and the whole mount quaked -greatly._ - -Again, Psal. cxiv. when he is describing the passage over the _Red-sea_, -and that over _Jordan_; he brings in the machinery of earthquakes, to -testify the divine presence. - -_When Israel went out of Egypt, and the house of Jacob from among a -strange people; the sea saw it and fled. Jordan was driven back._ - -_The mountains skipped like rams: and the little hills like young sheep._ - -Then he asks the question, _What ailed thee, O thou sea, that thou -fleddest? and thou Jordan, that thou wast driven back?_ - -_Ye mountains that ye skipped like rams, and ye little hills like young -sheep?_ - -He answers: _Tremble thou earth at the presence of the Lord: at the -presence of the God of Jacob._ - -He fails not to attribute these marvellous appearances, to their true -cause. Tho' he knew full well, that the God of nature administred the -ordinary course of the earth by second causes; yet he could not be so -blind but to perceive, when the waves of the ocean retreated; when the -waters of _Jordan_ divided; when mount _Sinai_ was all in fire, smoke, -lightning and thunder, with the trumpet of God sounding, and the whole -mountain shaking: he could not but perceive the presence of the author of -nature, in these extraordinary appearances. - -But every where in sacred scripture earthquakes are particularly singled -out, above all other natural _phænomena_, as having more of the majesty -and terrific pomp, to denote an immediate operation of God's hand; to -excite our fear, and shew his anger, as in our text, _because he was -wroth_. In imitation of the sacred writers, the heathen poets, both -_greek_ and _latin_, express the anger of their _Jupiter_ by an earthquake: - - _Terrificam capitis concussit terque quaterque - Cæsariem; cum qua terram, mare, sidera, movit._ - - Ovid. - -The moving meteors in the free air, lightning, coruscations, -fire-balls, tempests, thunders, or the dreaded comets, tho' frightful -enough; yet people that do not think to any purpose, hope, as they are at -a distance, to escape their effects. But when the terror comes home to -us, to our feet; when the earth moves on which we stand; what heart is -not moved? When our houses _shake_ over our ears, the greatest courage is -_shaken_. - -It is true, an earthquake causes an universal dread among all sorts of -people; even the philosopher immersed in speculation of second causes, -quakes; as well as the pious, whose fear proceeds from solid piety: a due -sense of the _anger_ of the almighty Being. - -We saw how the late earthquakes affrighted every one; but, as to the -generality, it was but for a moment. When they found themselves safe, and -alive; thoughtless they ran to their business, or their diversion: and -this not only the first, but the second time. And I am apprehensive, were -another, and another to come, they would only be less regarded than the -preceding. As the _Israelites_, to whom miracles became familiar; as the -_Jews_, in our Saviour's time, demanding of him to show them a sign from -heaven, in the midst of the constant scene of miracles innumerable. - -But 'tis my present business to call you to a due and serious reflexion, -on these extraordinary events; by considering, - -I. What the written word of God, the holy scriptures, informs us, -concerning the ultimate purpose of earthquakes. - -II. What we can learn from profane history. - -III. To conclude with our text, that they are strictly and properly divine -judgments; _because he was wroth_. - -Ever since the earth began, earthquakes have been look'd on as -extraordinary appearances, among the prodigies of nature, and executioners -of divine justice. In the case of _Korah_, _the earth opened her mouth and -swallowed them up; and their houses, and all the men that pertained unto -them; and all their goods_. - -In the miraculous victory obtain'd by _Jonathan_, and his armor-bearer, -over the army of the _Philistines_, I. _Sam._ xiv. There was a panic -terror infus'd into the _Philistines_, and an _earthquake_: it is call'd -_a very great trembling of God_. What the heathen attributed to _Pan_, an -imaginary deity of their own making: the _Hebrews_ rightly refer'd to the -true cause, the first, and supreme. - -In the new testament, at our Saviour's death, there was a great -earthquake, which was altogether miraculous; as much as the eclipse of the -sun then. The elements might well sympathize with the God of nature. _The -sun was darkened, the vail of the temple was rent in twain; the earth did -quake, the rocks rent._ - -Again, at his resurrection, _Matt._ xxviii. 2. _There was a great -earthquake. The angel of the Lord descended from heaven, and rolled back -the stone from the door, and sat upon it._ - -_And for fear of him the keepers did shake, and became as dead men._ - -_Matt._ xxvii. 54. _When the centurion, and they that were with him, -watching Jesus, saw the earthquake, they feared greatly._ See the -consequence of it in one place; and thus in another: - -_Acts_ iv. 31. _The Apostles_, in the infant church, _when praying, the -place was shaken, where they were assembled together: and they were all -filled with the Holy Ghost_. The heathen centurion _feared_ upon the -earthquake: The christians praying, were _filled with the Holy Ghost_. - -_Acts_ xvi. 26. When _Paul_ and _Silas_ were in prison. _At mid-night when -they pray'd, and sang hymns to God, suddenly there was a great earthquake; -so that the foundations of the prison were shaken. And immediately all the -doors were opened, and every one's bands were loosed._ - -Observe the consequence it had upon the gaoler; _He called for a light, -and sprang in, and came trembling, and fell down before Paul and Silas, -and said, Sirs, what must I do to be saved?_ - -The gaol trembled; and the gaoler trembled, as is observed by a writer on -this head, an earthquake could _soften_ his _hard_ heart, and _open_ what -he had _lock'd_. It awaken'd him out of his spiritual slumber, as well as -his natural sleep, and made his conscience, as well as the foundations of -the prison, to quake. A bad conscience is _as a troubled sea, that cannot -rest, but casteth up mire, and clay_. The gaoler perceiv'd the celestial -warning, and made a proper use of it. - -There are many circumstances in the nature of earthquakes, which render -them peculiarly proper to be the instruments in God's hand, to give -warning to a people, to amend their ways. - -The _suddenness_ is one. We saw, not long ago, what an effect was produced -by a solar eclipse, tho' it was expected long before. We had the -prediction, and calculations about it in all our almanacs; yet there was -an universal seriousness that followed it. All that morning, we could walk -the street, without hearing an oath, and the churches were full, in time -of prayer. But the _suddenness_ of an earthquake that comes at an instant, -unthought of, without warning, that seems to bring unavoidable death along -with it; is able to touch an adamantin heart. To see death stalking o'er a -great city, ready to sweep us all away, in an instantaneous ruin, without -a single moment to recollect our thoughts; this is fear without remedy; -this is far beyond battle and pestilence. The lightning and thunderbolt, -_the arrow that flieth by day_, may suddenly take off an object or two, -and leave no space for repentance: but what horror can equal that, when -above a million of people are liable to be buried, in one common grave! - -Another consideration that inhances the dread of earthquakes, is the -_unavoidableness_ of the calamity. Famine, and war, and rebellion, and -pestilence we may run from, the disease among the cattle, and locusts, and -the like stripes of angry heaven, we may have some chance to escape: but -no means, no precaution, no remedy, no prudence can screen us, from so -universal a desolation as this: 'tis as the presence of God. Whither then -can we go to hide ourselves? Must we call upon the rocks and mountains, -to cover, and shelter us from the divine wrath! _And they shall go into -the holes of the rocks, and into the caves of the earth, for fear of the_ -Lord, _and for the glory of his majesty; when he ariseth to shake terribly -the earth_. Alas, those are the very instruments he employs for our -destruction; to be our tombstones! - -This _unusual_ kind of death too, strikes us with horror; to be buried -alive. The earth, the common mother of us all, and the common grave; to -eat up her offspring alive; crouds all the images of amazement together, -that can enter into the heart of man. - -The greater the terror accompanying earthquakes, the greater a blessing -is our deliverance from the danger of it! What can equal God's power and -judgment but his mercy? Consider the wonderful consequence; that the whole -city of _London_ should so sensibly be shaken, and yet no one inhabited -house to fall; nor one person kill'd. Amazing instance of power, and -goodness, in our preservation! And this not only once, but the second time -also; tho' evidently stronger was the concussion. So strong that almost -every person was throughly persuaded, that some part, at least, of their -houses, was falling down. Can we help admiring, that judgment should be -so temper'd with mercy! Do we look only at the second causes with our -unbelievers; and sport away the divine presence, as if it was an ordinary -occurrence of every day? They want to see a miracle. Nought can affect -them, but a direct, supernatural agency. - -I answer, behold a visible, and notorious miracle; plainly obvious, and -before all their senses. For can there be a greater miracle, can any thing -be more directly the finger of God than this, which we ourselves saw with -our eyes; that befell the whole city of _London_. - -We know the nature of the building of _London_ houses; which sometimes -fall of themselves, without shaking. Wonderful then is it to be thought, -and a miracle indeed, that every house in this vast city, should twice be -agitated, and rocked to and fro; and not one fall, nor one person receive -any damage. - -In vain will the philosophers seek for a solution of this problem, in -natural causes only. By their chymical experiments, they make some little -mimic imitations of tremors and fumes, and explosions. So by gun-powder, -we ape the regal voice of thunder. But where is the discretionary act of -mercy, and benignity, that separates between the vengeful and kind? These -second causes act according to their material nature, like the roaring -waves of the ocean, that flow in, and overwhelm every thing, where a -breach is made. They can observe no distinction between the lands of a -righteous man, and of a sinner: they cannot stop at the breach, and gather -themselves on an heap, and not enter in at all, as the waters of _Jordan_ -did. - -But in the case before us, the hand of the Lord, that stayed the flowing -of the waters, that quelled the raging of the sea, and its proud waves; -sets bounds to the trembling of the earth. Hither shall its vibrations go, -and no further. When alas, if it went but one inch further (in comparison) -a total ruin must unavoidably follow. - -Consider this particular, when apply'd to all the buildings in this -immense city: and wonder and adore, that almighty providence, which -overlook'd us, and prescrib'd the limits; so narrow, so precise; which -sav'd us from universal havoc! - -II. Did we escape; how much happier are we, than the millions that have -perished by the like calamity? _Josephus_ the famous _Jewish_ historian -records, that about 29 years before our Saviour's birth, there happened -such an earthquake in the country of _Judea_, that 30,000 men perished. - -In the fifth year of the reign of _Tiberius_, so dreadful an earthquake -happened in _Asia minor_, that no less than 13 cities were destroy'd in -one night; many of them great, and Royal: _Sardis_ in particular, said to -be second to _Babylon_. - -In _A. D._ 66. Another earthquake happen'd there, which destroy'd -_Laodicea_, _Hierapolis_, and _Colossus_. - -_A. D._ 79. Three cities in _Cyprus_ were overthrown. - -_A. D._ 114. The city of _Antioch_ suffered extremely; whilst the emperor -_Trajan_ was in it. And in the 7th year of that emperor, nine several -cities were destroy'd in _Asia_, _Greece_, and _Calabria_. - -To come nearer home, and our own times: In 1169, _Catania_ in _Sicily_ was -destroyed, and 15,000 people killed. - -1692, The whole city destroy'd and 18000 Inhabitants. - -1456, At _Naples_ 40,000 perished by an earthquake. - -1531, In the city of _Lisbon_, 1400 houses were overthrown there, besides -many damaged. - -We know the miserable and deplorable catastrophe of _Port-Royal_, -in _Jamaica_; which fell out in our own days. My blood shudders at -the relation of it. And not many months ago, the populous _Lima_ in -_America_, was wholly swallowed up. - -Have we not reason then to fear, for ourselves? 'Tis true, we have -hitherto escaped. But can we tell how soon God shall let loose the -avenging power of another; which may come, for ought we know, while we are -speaking of it. And if it must come, happy may it be for us, that it finds -us in this place, and so doing. - -III. And this brings us, to consider the uses of these admonitions; and to -show, that they are the effects of the divine anger. _For the earth shook -and trembled_, says the holy psalmist, _the foundation of the hills moved -and were shaken; because he was wroth_. - -And here we cannot possibly have a stronger and more convincing evidence, -of these convulsions of nature, being the immediate finger of God, than -this single consideration. Let us but reflect on what has been said, in -short; that these visitations only happen to great and populous cities, to -great and eminent ports, and maritime _emporiums_ flourishing in trade, -riches, and luxury. - -We hear not of barren desarts, uninhabited wildernesses, wide heaths, and -downs, rocky cliffs, and beaches of the sea, to be the usual subject of -earthquakes: but of towns and cities. Not so much of little villages, but -of those immense collections of people. God does not give his warnings -to birds, and beasts of the forest; to flocks of sheep; that punctually -execute the respective offices he has enjoined them: but to us, the lords -of the creation; to whom he has given reason, sense, and faculties, to -reflect, and judge of things, of our own actions, as well as his; of _his_ -doings, toward the children of men. - -We observed before, a plain and notorious proof of God's hand in these -judgments; that he cou'd move a whole city without throwing down a house. -And this is most assuredly a second proof; that he visits _only_ great -cities, with these judgments. And we must conclude this to be as strong an -argument of a divine interposition in these affairs, as any mathematical -demonstration. - -Some free-thinkers, or free-livers, when they find, they cannot set aside -this reasoning, shelter themselves, with the history of God's converse -with _Abraham_; about the cities of _Sodom_ and _Gomorrha_; assuring -themselves, there is no danger. For tho' they can't pretend to be the -meritorious people; yet they think God's mercy will be as signal to us, as -heretofore: and that we have among us, at least ten righteous persons, to -save the rest. - -But vain are such hopes: God will say to them, as heretofore to the -_Jews_: _If I bring my great judgments upon the earth, as I live saith the -Lord, tho'_ Noah, Daniel, _and_ Job _were there; they should save neither -sons, nor daughters, but their own souls only_. - -God can, if he pleases, by very extraordinary means, preserve such as -he thinks fit. But in general judgments, the righteous must undergo one -common fate, with the wicked. God's mercy will be shown to them after this -life, to make the superabundant amends. - -But this is a solid lesson to us, of the necessity of a future life. We -may as well banish God out of the earth, as to deny his attributes of -power, and goodness, and justice, and the like. And these will insure us -of a future state; when an exact return will be made, for our behaviour in -this; otherwise we might justly expostulate, as _Abraham_ did, _Will not -the judge of all the earth do right?_ - -Good men, who have endeavour'd to do their duty, may say, _God is our -refuge and strength, a very present help in trouble. Therefore will not we -fear, tho' the earth be remov'd; tho' the mountains be carried into the -midst of the sea; tho' the waters thereof roar, and be troubled; tho' the -mountains shake with the swelling thereof._ - -_Come behold the works of the Lord; what desolations he hath made on the -earth._ - -In the mean time, let us not think on running _away_ from the danger, so -much as on mending our _ways_; perfecting the christian life; reforming -the abominable crimes, so justly chargeable on great and maritime cities; -overflowing with riches, pride, and luxury, with vanity, pleasure, and -profaneness; with gaming, immorality, infidelity; and especially with the -notorious crime of sabbath-breaking, which is the foundation of all, and -comprehends all others; for it prevents people from amending of any. If -they fail of their duty towards God, in making their regular approaches -to his temple; no wonder they are guilty of all crimes; regard neither -God nor man. If they fail of coming, where they may hope for the kindly -influences of God's holy Spirit; we need not wonder at their egregious -wickedness: they become absolutely irreclaimable. - -But of you, my beloved brethren, here assembled, I hope better things. -You shun the degenerate corruptions of this evil age; you are not of the -number of those that frequent our public meetings of folly, from the -morning rendezvouzes to the mid-night assemblies; and _that_ protracted to -the morning light again. As if we ought to banish all serious thoughts of -our immortal interests; and _that_ in the sacred season of lent; destin'd -by the church, for this very serious purpose. - -Let us think, how this warning happen'd to us, in the time of lent; when -they were revelling in their places of entertainment, both morning and -evening, as if no such thing had been; and this on the very days; as -if they confronted, and dar'd almighty vengeance. Much of a parallel -case with that of the famous city of _Herculaneum_, which is now the -entertainment of the curious. First it was miserably shatter'd by an -earthquake; whilst the people were at their diversions in the theatre; -where all assembled perished. This was in the first year of _Titus_ -the emperor: but such a partial judgment not mending their manners; 9 -years after, the whole city was destroy'd by a lake of liquid fire and -brimstone, from mount _Vesuvius_, just in the manner we now find it; 50 -foot deep in cinders, and ashes. - -_When thy judgments, O God, are abroad, the inhabitants of the earth will -learn righteousness._ - -_The Lord is the true God; he is the living God; the everlasting King: At -his wrath, the earth shall tremble, and the nations shall not be able to -abide his indignation_; says the prophet _Jeremiah_, x. 10. - -God give us grace, that instead of these short-liv'd, and unsatisfying -pleasures; instead of palaces and houses here, ornamented in a sumptuous -and elegant _taste_; which may perhaps be swept away, with their owners, -in a moment; we may aspire towards that heavenly city, which is above; -whose foundations are not laid with hands, eternal in the heavens, _&c._ - - - _FINIS._ - - - [Illustration] - - - * * * * * - - - - - THE - - PHILOSOPHY - - OF - - EARTHQUAKES, - - Natural and Religious. - - PART II. - - _Philosophi ipsius, qui de sua vi ac sapientia unus omnia pene - profitetur, est tamen quædam descriptio; ut is qui studeat - omnium rerum divinarum atque humanarum vim, naturam, - causasq; nosse: & omnem bene vivendi rationem tenere, & persequi; - nomine hoc appelletur._ - - Cicero de Oratore. - - By _WILLIAM STUKELEY_, M. D. Rector of St. _George_'s, _Queen-Square_: - Fellow of the College of Physicians and Royal Society: - - _LONDON_: - - Printed for C. Corbet over-against St. _Dunstan_'s - Church, _Fleetstreet_. - - MDCCL. - - - - -PREFACE. - - -_This discourse is but a necessary consequence of the preceding. The -whole no other than an essay, toward investigating the true nature of the -wonderful appearance of an earthquake. And something is done toward it, -if only by eradicating an old error. In attaining the proposed end, I -have endeavour'd to lay all the necessary circumstances together, which -to our great amazement we have seen, and felt. That they may not be as -soon forgotten, as they generally were, by the giddy multitude; equally -thoughtless of what they knew to be past, as childishly fearful of an -imaginary one, subsequent: for which there could not be the least ground -of apprehension. By sober persons it was, with great reason, thought a -judicial infatuation, and as much to be wonder'd at, as an earthquake -itself; a real panic. When a third part of this immense city ran out into -the fields for half a cold night; alarm'd with the silly prediction of a -distemper'd fellow!_ - -_Nothing could tempt one to commemorate the follies of our cotemporaries, -but the hope, it may be useful hereafter: and to show the true cause -of this senseless terror; the want of a true sense of religion; and an -universal degeneracy, and corruption of manners: begun by the great ones, -and now propagated thro' all degrees to the lowest: begun in this great -city; and now advancing apace to every great town in the kingdom._ - -_'Tis from the great ones alone, that we can hope for a reformation: -and_ that _by a strict observance of the sabbatical duty. Example, we -know, governs the actions of mankind_. That _must restore the practice, -and the influence of religion: which alone can prevent the dangers that -infest every corner of our streets; every road in the kingdom. We mistake -the point, and betray our ignorance in human nature, when we think, -acts of parliament, laws, and executions will do it. They are very weak -in comparison of the impressions of religion, and conscience: as all -philosophy both natural and religious, has hitherto thought, and known._ - - - - - TO - - _Martin Folkes_, Esq; LL. D. - - President of the Royal Society. - - -Since I had the honour to lay before the Society, in the spring, my -thoughts upon earthquakes: we have had many further opportunities of -reflecting upon that most awful, and hitherto unusual appearance. An -earthquake was felt at _Eastwell_ in _Kent_, on _monday march_ 12, and on -_sunday, march_ 18, at _Portsmouth_, the _Isle of Wight_, _Southampton_, -and along the coast of _Sussex_, the isles of _Guernsey_, _Jersey_. -_April_ 2, a smart earthquake at _Manchester_, _Liverpool_, _Taunton_, -_Bath_, _Flint_, _Lancaster_, _Wrexham_, reaching 40 miles north and -south: 70 miles east and west. Since then at _Rome_, _Naples_, _Leghorn_; -in the south of _France_, and at _Pau_ under the _Pyrenean_ mountains: -_Oporto_, at _S. Macaire_ in _Guienne_, _Messina_ in _Sicily_, _Munich_ in -_Bavaria_, &c. &c. so that the year 1750, may rather be called the year -of earthquakes, than of jubilee. For since _February_ last, when they -began with us at _London_; as far as I can learn, they have appear'd in -many parts of _Europe_, _Asia_, _Africa_, and _America_. And have likewise -revisited many counties in our own island, and at length, on the 30th of -last _september_ gave much the most extensive shock, we have seen here in -our days. - -It may be well expected, that these frequent visits, in themselves so very -extraordinary, to us so rare, and _that_ in one year, should keep up our -attention: and as to my own part, induce one to reflect, on what I before -offer'd concerning them; and be a sufficient apology for the present paper. - -We have been acquainted, by those who remember it, that in the earthquake -of nov. 1703, which happen'd in _Lincolnshire_, the weather was calm, -close, gloomy, warm, and dry; in a degree highly unusual, at that season. -And thus it has been with us, all the year. And from the numerous accounts -we have receiv'd at the Royal Society, in the beginning, and ending of the -year; where any mention is made of the weather; they all agree in the like -particular. Which is consentaneous to what I remark'd, as the constant -forerunner of earthquakes; and what prepares the earth's surface, for the -electrical stroke: which I asserted to be the cause of them. - -In _may_ last, we had a paper read at the Royal Society, concerning -the second earthquake felt by us at _London_, on the 8th of _march_. A -shepherd belonging to Mr. Secretary _Fox_ at _Kensington_ (the sky being -perfectly serene, and clear) was much surprised with a very extraordinary -noise in the air, rolling over his head, as of cannon close by. He -likewise thought, that it came from the north-west, and went to the -south-east: a motion quite contrary, to what must have been the case, if -it were really of cannon. This noise pass'd rushing by him; and instantly -he saw the ground (a dry, and solid spot) wave under him, like the face -of the river. The tall trees of the avenue, where he was, nodded their -tops very sensibly, and quiver'd like a shaken spear. The flock of sheep -immediately took fright, and ran all away together, as if dogs had pursued -them. A great rookery in the place, were equally alarm'd, and after an -universal clangor, flew away; no less than if chaced by hawks. - -I was likewise inform'd, that in the same earthquake, a great parcel of -hens, and chickens, kept at that time in _Gray's-inn-lane_, upon the -shock, ran to the roost, affrighted. And the like was observ'd of pigeons. -And in our last account of the earthquake from _Northampton_, 'tis -remarked, that the birds in cages put their heads under their wings, as -to hide themselves. - -_June_ 21, at the Royal Society, Mr. _Jackson_ potter at _Lambeth_, gave -an account of some boats, cobles and lighters in the river, at that time; -the people in them seem'd to feel, as if a porpoise, or some great fish -had heav'd and thump'd at the bottom of the vessels. This is sometimes the -case of ships at sea, when all is perfectly calm: which seems evidently -owing to an electrical impression on the water. - -In the evening-post of _june_ 23, we had a paragraph from _Venice_, that -a terrible earthquake had been felt lately in the little rocky isle of -_Cerigo_, in the _Mediterranean_, south of _Morea_. It threw down a great -number of houses; and above 2000 of the inhabitants were buried in the -ruins. - -Another earthquake about that time, happen'd in _Switzerland_; which split -a vast, rocky mountain; and an old castle wall of an immense thickness. - -All these circumstances, and many more confirmed me in my former opinion. -But since then, these wonderful movements have stalk'd round the globe: -and again been lately felt in our own island; happily for us, to the -terror only, of many thousand people: beside those concussions of this -sort that appear'd in the western parts, in the more early time of the -year. - -I receiv'd a letter from my friend _Maurice Johnson_, Esq; the founder, -and secretary of the Literary Society of _Spalding_; which has now -subsisted these 40 years. He acquaints me, that on _thursday_, 23d of -_August_ last, an earthquake was very sensibly felt there, about seven -o'clock in the morning; throughout the whole town and neighbourhood; -and many miles round: but that it chiefly spread itself northward, and -southward. He says, that for a fortnight before, the weather had been -serene, mild, and calm. And one evening, there was a deep red _aurora -australis_, covering the cope of heaven, very terrible to behold. -This same shock was felt at _Grantham_, _Stamford_, and _Milton_ by -_Peterborough_; and generally at all the intermediate places: and from -_Spalding_ it fled northward, along the sea shore, to _Boston_: thence up -_Boston_ river, to _Lincoln_. - -Since then, I had a letter from Mr. Alderman _Taylor_ of _Stamford_, -giving an account of another earthquake, that happen'd there, _september_ -30, at 36 minutes after twelve o'clock at noon. He describes it thus. -They were suddenly surprised with an uncommon noise in the air, like the -rolling of large carriages in the streets, for about 20 seconds. At the -same instant they felt a great shake, or snap, as he calls it; insomuch -that it sensibly shook a punch-bowl, which was in his parlour, and made -it ring. He says, it was perceiv'd of most of the people of _Stamford_, -who generally ran out of their houses. At _Oakham_ the chief town of -_Rutland_, the congregation ran out of the church whilst the preacher was -in the pulpit. All the towns round _Stamford_, were sensible of it: and at -_Peterborough_, down to _Wisbech_. - -Thus far the Alderman. But we have had many advices from all hands, at -the first, and second meetings of the Royal Society, for the winter -season; with further particulars relating to this great concussion. That -it was felt at the same time, at _Rugby_ in _Warwickshire_, and reach'd -to _Warwick_, at _Lutterworth_, in _Leicestershire_: at _Leicester_, and -round about. It extended itself to _Coventry_, _Derby_, _Nottingham_, -_Newark_; then came eastward to _Harborough_, _Towcester_, _Northampton_, -_Rowel_, _Kettering_, _Wellingborough_, _Oundle_, in _Northamptonshire_; -_Uppingham_, _Oakham_ in _Rutland_; _Stamford_, _Bourn_, _Grantham_, -_Spalding_, _Boston_, and to _Lincoln_ in _Lincolnshire_; _Holbech_, and -all _Holland_ in that county. _Peterborough_, _Wisbech_, in the isle of -_Ely_; together with all the intermediate, and adjacent places. Then it -passed over the whole breadth of _Ely_ fen: was felt at _Mildenhall_, and -reach'd to _Calford_ by _Bury_ in _Suffolk_, and the country thereabouts; -of which we had notice from lady _Cornwallis_. An extent from _Warwick_ -to _Bury_ of about 100 miles in length; and generally speaking, 40 miles -in breadth. And this vast space was pervaded by this amazing motion, as -far as we can get any satisfaction, in the same instant of time. They -describe it, that the houses totter'd, and seem'd to heave up, and down: -tho' it lasted but a few seconds. It was attended with a rushing noise, -as if the houses were falling, and people were universally so affrighted, -as to run out; imagining that their own, or their neighbours houses -were tumbling on their heads. In the villages around, the people being -generally at divine service, were much alarm'd: both with the noise, -which exceeded all the thunder they had ever heard, beyond compare: and -with the great shock accompanying; which was like somewhat, as they -imagin'd, that rush'd against the church-walls, and roof. Some thinking -the pillars crack'd, many that the beams of the roof were disjointed; -and all, that the whole was falling. And happy were they that could get -out first. Many people fancied, that nests of drawers, and cabinets, or -the like heavy things, were fallen down above stairs: or that chimnies -had broke thro' the roof of the house: or that some persons fell down -stairs: and the like. Some perceived the crackling of inward wainscots or -partitions: as Dr. _Mortimer_ and I, observ'd in our first and second -shocks at _London_. A few slates, tiles, and parts of chimneys fell from -some houses: pewter, china, glasses and brass from shelves. A clock bell, -chamber bell sometime struck: windows universally rattled, and the like -circumstances of tremor. - -In regard to circumstances, they were pretty similar throughout. Many -people sitting in their chairs relate, that they and their chairs were -several times sensibly lifted up and set down again. A stack of chimneys -were thrown down in _College-lane_; a place retaining the memory of a -sort of university once beginning at _Northampton_. The windows of houses -rattled throughout the whole town: but no mischief done: in general it was -frightful, and innocuous. - -They fancied there, the motion of it, as they expressed it, to be -eastward. In streets that run north and south, the houses on the east -side of the way, were most affected. And Dr. _Stonehouse_'s dwelling, -the strongest in the town, was most sensibly shaken. So it was likewise -observ'd, that churches were most subject to its violence. They thought -too, that the motion seem'd rather horizontal, or lateral, than upward. -Some counted the pulses distinctly, to the number of four: that the -second, and third pulses were stronger, than the first, and fourth. - -From all these various accounts, there was no sulphureous smell, or -eruption; no fissures in the ground perceived. Yet several people were -sick upon it: infinite numbers terribly affrighted, and as soon forgot -the impression of it; or talk'd of it in a merry strain; as commonly with -us at _London_. So little are the vulgar assessed, without something very -sensible; and so soon is the sense of it worn out! - -It was more evidently perceiv'd, by people standing; most, by those -that were sitting: least, by such as were walking: and in upper stories -of houses, more than in lower; or in cellars. Some coming down stairs, -were in danger of being thrown forwards. Several sitting in a chair, and -hearing the hollow, thundering noise, and thinking it was a coach passing -by; when they attempted to get up, to see what it was, they were thrown -back again in their chair. Some heard the wainscot crackle, Some sitting -in their chairs leaning forwards, were thrown down on their hands, and -knees. Some people heard the noise without feeling the shock: others felt -the shock without hearing the noise. Some in a standing posture, were -forc'd to lay hold on a table, to keep themselves from falling. - -It was particularly remarked (as before observ'd) that birds in cages -were sensibly affrighted; thrusting their heads under their wings. Mrs. -_Allicock_ of _Loddington_, _Northamptonshire_, a lady in child-bed, was -so affected, that it caused her death. Mrs. _Hardy_, another lady in the -same circumstance, and in the same county, likewise expired upon it, Some -people felt a sudden shortness of breath, that they were forc'd to go out -into the open air, it so affected the pulmonary nerves. Many were taken -with head-achs, and other sicknesses. - -These are, in general, the circumstances and observations made, at -the time of these earthquakes; when we recollect ourselves, after the -suddeness, and fright. Give me leave to make the following remarks -therefrom. - -1st. As far as we can possibly learn, where no one can be prepar'd, -at different places, by time keepers; this mighty concussion was felt -precisely at the same instant of time; being about half an hour after -twelve at noon. This, I presume, cannot be accounted for, by any natural -power, but by that of an electrical vibration; which, we know, acts -instantaneously. - -2dly, Let us reflect on the vast extent of this trembling, 100 miles in -length, 40 in breadth, which amounts to 4000 square miles in surface. That -this should be put into such an agitation, in one moment of time, is such -a prodigy; as we should never believe, or conceive, did we not know it -to be fact, from our own senses. But if we look for a solution of it, we -cannot think, any natural power is equal to it, but that of electricity; -which acknowledges no sensible transition of time; no bounds. - -3ly, We observe, the vulgar solution of subterraneous eruptions receives -no countenance, from all that was seen, or felt, during these earthquakes. -It would be very hard to imagine, how any such thing could so suddenly, -and instantaneously operate, thro' this vast space: and _that_ in so -similar, and tender a manner over the whole, thro' so great a variety, as -well as extent of country; as to do no mischief. A philosophical inquirer -in _Northamptonshire_ had his eye particularly on this point, takes -notice, there were not any fissures in the ground; any sulphureous smells, -or eruptions any where perceiv'd; so as to favour internal convulsions of -the earth. The reverend Mr. _Nixon_ of _Higham_, and Mr. _Smith_, in his -letter from _Peterborough_ take notice, that they could not learn, there -were any sort of eruptions out of the earth, any where: no smoke, vapor, -or smell: tho' they made sufficient inquiry about that circumstance, -according to particular direction. Yet we learn from a letter at -_Uppingham_ in _Rutland_, that a plaister floor became crack'd thereby. -These kind of floors are frequent in this country; what we call _stucco_ -in _London_: and it gives us a good notion of the undulatory vibration, -produc'd by an earthquake; which some have compar'd to that of a musical -string: others to that of a dog, or a horse shaking themselves, when they -come out of the water. This last comparison would have pleased some of the -ancients, who would needs fancy, that the globe of the earth was a great -animal. _Plato_, _Plutarch_, and others, had such kind of sentiments. -Whence one may imagine, that they would conceive an earthquake to be, as -when a horse shakes a part of his skin, upon a fly touching him. Some of -our correspondents express the motion of an earthquake to be like a boat -lifted up by one wave, let down by another. - -4ly, The former earthquake that happen'd at _Grantham_, _Spalding_, -_Stamford_, (which towns lie in a triangle) took up a space which may, in -gross, be accounted a circle of 30 miles diameter: the center of which is -that great morass, called _Deeping-fen_. This comprehends 15 miles of that -30, in diameter: and where probably, the electrical impression was first -made. Much the major part of _Deeping-fen_ is under water in the winter -time; underneath 'tis a perfect bog. Now it is very obvious, how little -favorable such ground is, for subterraneous fires. - -In the second earthquake, not only this country was affected again, -but likewise a much larger space of the same sort of fenny ground, -rather worse than the former: all _Donnington-fen_, _Deeping-fen_, -_Croyland-fen_, _Thorney-fen_, _Whitlesea-fen_, _Bedford_ level, and the -whole extent of _Ely-fen_, under various denominations. This country, -under the turf, abounds with subterraneous timber of all sorts; fir, oak, -and brush-wood: and stags horns. Now and then they find a quantity of -hazel nuts, crouded together on an heap. I have some of them. This is a -matter common to all boggy ground over the whole globe, Such things are -the ruins of the _antediluvian_ world, washed down from the high country -where they grew, were here lodg'd upon the subsiding of the waters, and -by time are o'ergrown with the present turf. They that seek for any other -solution of this affair, than the universal _Noachian_ deluge, want to -account for a general effect, by a partial cause: and shut their eyes, -both to the plain history of this matter; and to the infinite, notorious -demonstrations of it, from fossil appearances. - -5ly, All this country, tho' underneath 'tis a watry bog, yet thro' this -whole summer, and autumnal season (as they can have no natural springs -in such a level) the drought has been so great on the superficies, that -the inhabitants were oblig'd every day, to drive their cattle several -miles, for watering. The drought was greater, than has been known in the -memory of any one living. This shows how fit the dry surface was, for an -electrical vibration. And we learn from hence, this important particular, -that it reaches but very little below the earth's surface. - -Mr. _Johnson_, in another letter which he wrote to me concerning the -second earthquake observ'd at _Spalding_; says upon this occasion, he was -obliged to scour his canal, and deepen it: that they came to a white, -quicksand; which afforded to all the neighbourhood, excellent water in -plenty. - -In the gravelly soil of _London_; and where the two shocks were felt by -us, in the beginning of the year; we know, there is not a house in the -whole extent of this vast city, and all around it, but a spring of water -is ready, upon digging a well, Whence we have much reason to believe, that -the interior of the earth, is like a sponge soak'd in water. So that the -only dry part is the superficies, which is the object, and the subject -of that electric vibration; wherein, according to my sentiments, an -earthquake consists. - -This shews the mistake of the ancients, who fancying that earthquakes -proceeded from subterraneous eruptions, built their prodigious temple of -_Diana_ at _Ephesus_, upon a boggy ground, to prevent such a disaster, -The marshy part of _Lincolnshire_, being my native country, the adjacent -fen, together with that in the isle of _Ely_, I have been perfectly -acquainted with; from one end to the other, ever since I knew any thing. -This vast extent of fenny level, from near _Cambridge_ in the south, -to near _Horncastle_ in the north, is 70 miles in length. And when I -perceiv'd, that it was, in whole, or in part, shaken by both the last -earthquakes: I could not but see, that it was no less than a demonstration -against the old notion of their cause. - -6ly, Earthquakes are truly most violent, in a rocky country: because the -shock is proportionate to the solidity of the matter electrify'd. So -that rocks, cliffs, quarries, old castle walls, and strong buildings, -are most obnoxious to the concussion. The isle of _Cerigo_ was more -liable, and more rudely handled by the late earthquake; both because -it was an isle, and because it was rocky. So we must say of the late -earthquake in _Switzerland_, that split the mountain, and the old castle -wall. Whence Mr. _Johnson_ in his second letter, says, it cracked a very -strong brick-house in _Gosberton_ by _Spalding_. Dr. _Doderidge_ observes -from _Northampton_ that Dr. _Stonehouse_'s dwelling being a very strong -one, was most sensibly shaken. And throughout the whole compass of this -great earthquake, we find, both the noise, the shock, and the terror -was greatest at the churches, whose walls and bulk made more resistance -than houses. And generally speaking, the churches throughout this whole -extent have very fair, and large towers, and very many remarkable spires -all of good stone, which no doubt quiver'd very much at top, if we could -have discern'd it. This same vibration impressed on the water, meeting -with the solid of the bottom of ships, and lighters, gives that thump -felt thereon; just as in common electrifying, we feel the stroke upon the -joints of our limbs chiefly. Yet of the millions of ordinary houses, over -which it passed, not one fell. A consideration which sufficiently points -out to us, what sort of a motion this was not, what sort of a motion it -was, and whence deriv'd; not a convulsion of the bowels of the earth, -but an uniform vibration or undulation of its surface, aptly thought -like that of a musical string: or what we put a drinking glass into, by -rubbing one's finger over the edge; which yet brought to a certain pitch, -breaks the glass; undoubtedly an electric repulsion of parts. And from -this remarkable similarity in the appearance of earthquakes we gather an -invincible argument against the old opinion of their cause; for the tumult -of subterraneous eruptions can have no possible place herein. - -7ly, We find from all accounts, ancient and modern, that the weather -preceding these shocks, was mild, warm, dry, serene, clear, frosty: what -notoriously favours all our electrical experiments. This is particularly -observ'd by Mr. _Johnson_ and Mr. _Smith_, and other accounts. In the -extensive shock of _sunday march_ 18, along the _Sussex_ coast, they take -notice from _Portsmouth_, that the day was serene, warm, and dry, and -that a shower of rain fell immediately before the shock. Mr. _Bowman_ of -_Moulsey_ observ'd a shock there on _may_ 24 last, and says, the air was -perfectly serene, and clear. We very well know, that generally, all last -winter spring, summer, and autumn, have been most remarkably of this kind -of weather; more so, than has been observ'd in our memory; and have had -all those requisites, appearances, and preparations, that notoriously -cause electricity, that promote it, or that are the effects of it. - -8ly, We find the blood-red _australis aurora_ preceding at _Spalding_, -as with us at _London_. At the time of the earthquake at _Manchester_ -this year, it accompanied it. And this year has been more remarkable than -any for fire-balls, storms, wind, thunder, lightnings, and coruscations, -almost throughout all _England_. A large ball of fire, with a long -fiery tail on _july_ 22, that passed over great part of _England_ -northward. Another seen over _London_, passing from west to east, in -_october_. Coruscations were seen just before that extensive shock of -70 miles long felt from _Lancaster_ to _Wrexham_, on _april_ 2, last. -Fire-balls more than one were seen in _Rutland_, and _Lincolnshire_: and -particularly observ'd. And Mr. _Smith_ from _Peterborough_ writes, that -a fire-ball was seen the morning of the earthquake, in the upper part -of _Northamptonshire_. All these kind of meteors are rightly judg'd to -proceed from a state of electricity in the earth and atmosphere: and how -far they are actually concerned in causing earthquakes, time, and accurate -observation must inform us. - -9ly, Mr. _Johnson_ in both his letters to me, on the first and second -earthquakes, at _Spalding_, remarks particularly, of their effects being -mostly spread to the north and south, and especially felt on the sea -coast. We may observe, that such is the direction of _Spalding_ river, -which both conducts, and strengthens the electric vibration: conveying it -along the sea-shore thence, up to _Boston_ channel; and so up _Boston_ -river to _Lincoln_, as we discern, by casting our eye on a map. - -We observe further, that the main of this second earthquake display'd -its effects along, and between the two rivers, _Welland_ and _Avon_: -and _that_ from their very origins, down to their fall into the sea. It -likewise reach'd the river _Witham_, which directed the electric stream -that way too, to _Lincoln_. For which reason, as there meeting the same -coming from _Boston_, the shock was most sensibly felt. It reach'd -likewise to the _Trent_ at _Nottingham_, which convey'd it to _Newark_. - -The first electrical stroke seems to have been made on the high ground -above _Daventry_, in _Northamptonshire_; where the _Roman_ camps -are, made by _P. Ostorius_ the proprætor. From thence it descended -chiefly eastward, and along the river _Welland_, from _Harborough_ to -_Stamford_, _Spalding_, the sea: and along the river _Avon_, or _Nen_, to -_Northampton_, _Peterborough_, _Wisbech_ to the sea. It spread itself all -over the vast level of the isle of _Ely_; further'd by very many canals, -and rivers, natural, and artificial, made for drainage. It was still -conducted eastward up _Mildenhall_ river, in _Suffolk_, to _Bury_, and the -parts adjacent. All this affair duly consider'd, is a confirmation of the -doctrine I advanc'd on this subject. - -10ly, I apprehend, it was not the noise in the air, as of many cannon let -off at once, preceding the earthquake, that so much affrighted people, or -affected the sheep, the rookery at _Kensington_, the hen and chickens in -_Gray's-inn-lane_, the pigeons. It could not be barely the superficial -movement of the earth, that disturb'd them all at once. I judge it to be -the _effect_ of electricity, somewhat like what causes sea sickness; such -a sort of motion, as we are not accustomed to. So the earthquake affects -all those of weak nerves, or that have nervous complaints; obnoxious to -hysterics, colics, rheumatick pains in their joints; several women were -seized with violent head-achs, before both the shocks we felt in _London_. -It was this that gave the people a shortness of breath. Mr. _Smith_ from -_Peterborough_ speaks of a person that found himself very sick upon it. -This made the dog run whining about the room, seeking to get out: this -made the fishes leap up in the pond at _Southwark_; like as the experiment -of electrifying the fishes: it makes them sick. And this causes the birds -in cages to hide their heads under their wings, because they cannot fly -away. Which is commonly observ'd of them in _Italy_, and countries, where -earthquakes are more frequent. - -11ly, I observe, the shepherd at _Kensington_ thought the motion of the -earthquake, and the sound, was from the north-west to south-east; the like -Mr. _W. Smith_ from _Peterborough_. On the contrary, Mr. _Byfield_ the -scarlet dyer in _Southwark_, thought the noise came from the river below -bridge, and went toward _Westminster_; where it rattled so, that he did -not doubt, but that the abbey-church was beaten down. - -Dr. _Parsons_ took pains to find out the way of the motion of the -earthquake, from the different position of people's beds; but from the -contradictory answers given, he cou'd not obtain any satisfaction, as -to that point. All this, and what was observ'd from _Northampton_, of -the motion being thought by some, to be upward and downward; by others -rather horizontal, or lateral: the counting the pulses, and the like, only -points out to us the prodigious celerity, and the vibratory species of the -motion of an earthquake. But far, very far is this from being owing to the -tumultuous ebullition, the irregular hurry of subterraneous explosions. - -12ly, How the atmosphere, and earth, are put into that electric and -vibratory state, which prepares them to give, or receive the snap, and the -shock, which we call an earthquake; what it is, that immediately produces -it, we cannot say: any more than we can define, what is the cause of -magnetism, or of gravitation; or how muscular motion is perform'd, or a -thousand other secrets in nature. - -We seem to know, that the author of the world has disseminated ethereal -fire, thro' all matter, by which these great operations are brought about. -This is the subtil fluid of Sir _Isaac Newton_, pervading all things: -the occult fire diffused thro' the universe, according to _Marsilius -Ficinus_ the platonic philosopher, on the _Timeus_ of his master. All -the Platonists insist on an occult fire passing thro', and agitating all -substance, by its vigorous and expansive motion. - -Before them, _Hippocrates_ writes in the same sense, _I. de victûs -ratione_, that this fire moves all in all. This ethereal fire is one of -the four elements of the ancients. It lies latent, and dispersed thro' -all the other three, and quiescent: till collected into a quantity, that -over-balances the circumjacent; like the air crouded into a tempest: or -till it is excited, by any proper motion. - -This fire gives elasticity: and elasticity or vibration is the mother of -electricity. We don't so much wonder at phosphorus arising from animal -substances; for this fire is in water, and betrays itself to our senses, -in salt water. Many a time when I have passed the _Lincolnshire_ washes, -in the night time; the horse has seem'd to tread in liquid flames. The -same appearance is oft at the keel of a ship. Fire exists in water, says -_Pliny_, as well as in human bodies. _nat. hist._ II. 107. Loaf sugar -beaten in the dark is luminous. Many vegetables, as indian cane, and -rotten wood the like, as _Bartholin_ largely recites, _de luce hominum_ -c. 4. All electric bodies have this privilege: that is, they more easily -discover it. Amber, gum lac, naptha, bitumens, some precious stones. -My old friend Mr. _Stephen Gray_ the father and great propagator of -electricity, show'd me experiments therein, in the year 1705, then at -_Corpus Christi_ college in _Cambridge_. Afterward in the year 1719, he -show'd by experiments before the Royal Society, that paper, ribbands, -silk, sattin, cloth, shavings, linen, goldbeaters skin, and in short, -almost all kind of substances discover electrical sparks of fire in the -dark: especially when well warm'd before the fire, or in a cold, dry, -nitrous air, and in a room where there is no company. This same quality is -found _in vacuo_, as Dr. _Desaguliers_ show'd before the Royal Society, -_march_ 31, 1720. He took an exhausted glass globe, and caused it to be -turn'd round violently, in an engine: by rubbing the hand upon it, it was -illuminated within side, with purple streams. This gave foreigners the -idea of using a glass globe, in electrical experiments. - -The operation of the ethereal fire is various, nay, infinite, according -to its quantity, and degree of incitement, progress, hindrance, or -furtherance. One degree keeps water fluid, says the learned bishop of -_Cloyne_: another turns it into elastic air, and air itself seems nothing -else, but vapors, and exhalations render'd elastic, by this fire. - -This fame fire permeates, and dwells in all bodies; even diamond, -flint, and steel. Its particles attract with the greatest force, when -approximated. Again, when united, they fly asunder, with the greatest -force, and celerity; it resists nothing quiescent, but when put into -motion, it disdains all resistance. All this is according to the laws -prescrib'd by the sovereign architect. This is the life, and soul of -action, and reaction, in the universe. Thus has the great author provided -against the native sluggishness of matter! light, or fire in animals, is -what we call the animal spirits; and is the author of life, and motion. -But we know not the immediate mode of muscular motion; any more than how, -in inanimate matter, it causes the vibrations of an earthquake. - -Of this fire, the excellent _Manilius_ thus writes, who liv'd in the time -of _Augustus_. - - -_Astronom._ I. - - _Sunt autem cunctis permisti partibus ignes; - Qui gravidas habitant fabricantes fulmina nubes: - Et penetrant terras, Ætnamq; imitantur Olympo: - Et calidas reddunt ipsis in fontibus undas. - Ac silice in duro, viridiq; in cortice sedem - Inveniunt; cum silva sibi collisa crematur. - Ignibus usq; adeo natura est omnis abundans!_ - - -Which may thus be english'd. - - Fire universal nature traverses. - It makes the thunderbolt in tumid clouds: - In dire Vulcano's penetrates the earth: - And sends the boiling water from its springs. - In hardest flint, and softest wood it dwells: - Which by collision shows itself in flame. - With fire so pregnant is all nature found! - -13ly, The great question then with us, is how the surface of the earth -is put into that vibratory and electric state, by heat and driness? we -must needs acquit the internal of the earth from the charge of these -superficial concussions. How then is the ethereal fire crouded together, -or excited, so as to cause them; seeing in our ordinary electrical -experiments, we make use of friction? - -But that friction alone does not excite electricity, we know from the -obvious experiment of flint and steel, where the suddenness of the stroke, -and hardness of the matter does it. Another method of exciting it, is -the letting off a number of great guns, which so crouds the ethereal -fire together, as to electrify glass windows; observ'd by my friend the -reverend Dr. _Stephen Hales_. The _aurora borealis_, _australis_, all kind -of coruscations, meteors, lightning, thunder, fire-balls are the effects, -and may reciprocally be the cause of electricity; but how in particular -we know not. Come we to the animal world, we must needs assert, that all -motion voluntary, involuntary, generation, even life itself: all the -operations of the vegetable kingdom, and an infinity more of nature's -works, are owing to the activity of this electric fire, the very soul of -the material world. And in my opinion, 'tis this alone, that solves the -famous question, so much agitated with the writers in medicine, about the -heat of the blood. How these, how earthquakes are begun, propagated, we -are yet to seek. - -We may readily enough presume, that the contact between the electric, and -the non-electric, which gives the snap, and the shock, must come from -without, from the atmosphere. Perhaps by some meteor that crouds the -ethereal fire together: which then flies off with that immense force that -causes the earthquake. In the point of contact on the earth's surface, -the same thing is done, perhaps, another time, by a shower of rain. Our -thoughts upon this matter must needs be as immature, as they are novel. -But we may readily conclude, that tho' the original stroke comes from the -atmosphere, yet the atmosphere has no further concern in it: no aereal -power, or change therein, can propagate itself so instantaneously, over -so vast a surface, as 4000 miles square. Therefore the impetuous rushing -noise in the air, accompanying the shock, is the effect, and not the -cause. And all this is strongly confirm'd by this observation, that the -barometer and thermometer receiv'd no change upon the earthquakes. - -But surely, there is not a heart of flesh that is not affected with so -stupendous a concussion! let a man estimate his own power, with that which -causes an earthquake; and he will be persuaded, that somewhat more than -ordinary is intended by so rare and wonderful a motion. That great genius -_Hippocrates_, makes the whole of the animal œconomy to be administred, -by what we call nature. And nature alone, says he, suffices for all -things, to animals: she _knows_ herself, and what is necessary for them. -We must extend this thought to the inanimate world. And can we deny then, -that he here means a conscious and intelligent nature, that presides -over, and directs all things, moves the ethereal spirit or fire, that -moves all things: a divine necessity, but a voluntary agent, who gives -the commanding nod, to what we commonly call nature, the chief instrument -in the most important operations of the vast machine, as well as in the -ordinary ones, particularly the human one: administring the whole œconomy -(as he says) without noise, unseen, unfelt. And this leads us, - -14ly, Lastly, in regard to the spiritual use we ought to make of these -extraordinary _phænomena_, or of our inquiries about them, I shall first -observe, that we find abroad, several of these earthquakes this year have -been very fatal. In the last we read of, at _Philippopoli_ in _Thrace_, -the whole city was destroyed, above 4000 inhabitants killed. At home, -where above half a score separate concussions have been felt, there has -not been one house thrown down, one life lost. This ought to inspire us -with a very serious reflection about them; nor is it altogether unworthy -of our remark, that they began with us in _London_, in _february_ last: -and after visiting the circle of the globe, at present, end with us. - -2dly, We may observe, that if we did but read the works of _Hippocrates_, -_Plato_ and his followers; of _Tully_, _Galen_, and the like ethic writers -of antiquity; whilst we study, and try the affections of matter; we should -improve in philosophy, properly speaking: we should lift up our minds from -these earthly wonders, and discern the celestial admonitions, they present -to us. - -The original meaning of the word philosophy, was rightly apply'd to -moral wisdom. We who have advanc'd both the natural, and moral, should, -as the ancients did, join them both together. By this means, we gather, -the truth of the highest, and most excellent philosophy, to be found in -those volumes of first antiquity, which we call sacred: and which, 'tis -our peculiar, and inestimable happiness to possess. We should adore that -divine light, which they hold forth to us. Especially in a country, where -the principles of true religion are open, and undisguised: where the -establish'd profession of it is rational, noble and lovely: worthy of the -moral governor of the world; fit for him to enjoin: for us to practise, -with pleasure and effect. - -_november_ 7, 1750. - - W. Stukeley. - - Read at the Royal Society, _december_ 6. - - _FINIS._ - - - * * * * * - - -Transcriber Note - -Minor typos were corrected. A number of words are capitalized after a -comma which would usually be set as lower-case today but they were left as -is. Days of the week and month names were printed in lower-case. -Italicization as per the printed version. - - - - - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Philosophy of Earthquakes, Natural -and Religious, by William Stukeley - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE PHILOSOPHY *** - -***** This file should be named 63322-0.txt or 63322-0.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/6/3/3/2/63322/ - -Produced by Tim Lindell, T Cosmas and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was -produced from images generously made available by The -Internet Archive) - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions -will be renamed. - -Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no -one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation -(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without -permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, -set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to -copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to -protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. Project -Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you -charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission. If you -do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the -rules is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose -such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and -research. They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do -practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks. Redistribution is -subject to the trademark license, especially commercial -redistribution. - - - -*** START: FULL LICENSE *** - -THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE -PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK - -To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free -distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work -(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project -Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project -Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at -http://gutenberg.org/license). - - -Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works - -1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to -and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property -(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all -the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy -all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession. -If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the -terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or -entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8. - -1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be -used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who -agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few -things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works -even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See -paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement -and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic -works. See paragraph 1.E below. - -1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation" -or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the -collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an -individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are -located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from -copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative -works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg -are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project -Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by -freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of -this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with -the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by -keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project -Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others. - -1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern -what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in -a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check -the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement -before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or -creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project -Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning -the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United -States. - -1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: - -1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate -access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently -whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the -phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project -Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, -copied or distributed: - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license - -1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived -from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is -posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied -and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees -or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work -with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the -work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 -through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the -Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or -1.E.9. - -1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted -with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution -must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional -terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked -to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the -permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work. - -1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm -License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this -work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. - -1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this -electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without -prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with -active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project -Gutenberg-tm License. - -1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, -compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any -word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or -distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than -"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version -posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org), -you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a -copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon -request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other -form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm -License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. - -1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, -performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works -unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. - -1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing -access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided -that - -- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from - the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method - you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is - owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he - has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the - Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments - must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you - prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax - returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and - sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the - address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to - the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation." - -- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies - you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he - does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm - License. You must require such a user to return or - destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium - and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of - Project Gutenberg-tm works. - -- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any - money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the - electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days - of receipt of the work. - -- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free - distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. - -1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set -forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from -both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael -Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the -Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. - -1.F. - -1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable -effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread -public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm -collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic -works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain -"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or -corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual -property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a -computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by -your equipment. - -1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right -of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project -Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all -liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal -fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT -LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE -PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE -TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE -LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR -INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH -DAMAGE. - -1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a -defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can -receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a -written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you -received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with -your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with -the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a -refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity -providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to -receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy -is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further -opportunities to fix the problem. - -1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth -in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER -WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO -WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. - -1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied -warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. -If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the -law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be -interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by -the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any -provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions. - -1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the -trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone -providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance -with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, -promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works, -harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, -that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do -or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm -work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any -Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause. - - -Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm - -Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of -electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers -including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists -because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from -people in all walks of life. - -Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the -assistance they need, are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's -goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will -remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure -and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations. -To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation -and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 -and the Foundation web page at http://www.pglaf.org. - - -Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive -Foundation - -The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit -501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the -state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal -Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification -number is 64-6221541. Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at -http://pglaf.org/fundraising. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg -Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent -permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. - -The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S. -Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered -throughout numerous locations. Its business office is located at -809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email -business@pglaf.org. Email contact links and up to date contact -information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official -page at http://pglaf.org - -For additional contact information: - Dr. Gregory B. Newby - Chief Executive and Director - gbnewby@pglaf.org - - -Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg -Literary Archive Foundation - -Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide -spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of -increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be -freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest -array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations -($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt -status with the IRS. - -The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating -charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United -States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a -considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up -with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations -where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To -SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any -particular state visit http://pglaf.org - -While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we -have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition -against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who -approach us with offers to donate. - -International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make -any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from -outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. - -Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation -methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other -ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. -To donate, please visit: http://pglaf.org/donate - - -Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic -works. - -Professor Michael S. Hart is the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm -concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared -with anyone. For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project -Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support. - - -Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed -editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S. -unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily -keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. - - -Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: - - http://www.gutenberg.org - -This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, -including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to -subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. |